/IDemotrs of tbe /ilMiseum of Comparative Zoology
AT HARVARD COLLEGE
Vol. XLIV. No. 1.
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ZOOGEp(|l|^i:^I^Y
OF THE EAST INDIAN ISLL^N©^.
By THOMAS BARBOUR.
WITH EIGHT PLATES.
'•"w^S'
CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.:
IPrinteD for tbe /iDuseum.
November, 1912.
/ ,
V ",'*-,.-■•' ■'■'■' ■'*'• -'i'"
flDemoirs ot tbe /IDuseum of Comparative Zoology?
AT HARVARD COLLEGE.
Vol. XLIV. No. 1.
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ZOOGEOGRAPHY
OF THE EAST INDIAN ISLANDS.
By THOMAS BARBOUR.
WITH EIGHT PLATES.
CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A.:
Ipriuteo for tbe Museum.
November, 1912.
rA
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION "5
Narrative and Itinerary 5
Sumatra 11
Nias IG
Mentawei Islands IS
Engano 19
Java 21
Borneo 25
Lesser Sunda Islands 28
Celebes 32
Timor-Laut 34
Ambon 35
Ceram 3g
Mysol 40
Halmahera Group 42
Ke Islands 44
Aru Islands 47
New Guinea 49
Bismarck Archipelago 57
Solomon Islands 59
ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES 63
Amphibia 63
Sauria 79
Serpentes 97
Testudinata . . . . • 142
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION 145, 169
ZOOGEOGRAPHY 145
SUMMARY ; 165
POSTSCRIPT 167
PLATES.
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ZOOGEOGRAPHY
. OF THE EAST INDIAN ISLANDS'
INTRODUCTION.
During 1906-1907 I visited the East Indies. A short preliminary account
of the trip, with notices of some new species, was pubhshed in the Bulletin of
this Museum (Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 51, p. 313-325). The descriptions of other
new species based wholly or in part on the material collected have appeared in
the Proceedings of the Biological society of Washington, 190S, 21, p. 39-42,
189-190; 1910, 23, p. 89-90, p. 169-170; 1911, 24, p. 15-22. The present paper
deals more fully with the collections of reptiles and amphibians.
NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY.
It is hardly necessary to give more than a brief outline of the early part of
the voyage. Bombay was reached November 2, 1906, via Peninsula and Oriental
S. S. Co. ships from Brindisi, via Port Said and Aden. A short time was spent
in crossing India, visiting the hills about Darjeeling, the Teesta Valley, and the
Sunderbans of Lower Bengal. Rangoon was reached by the ship Bharala
belonging to the British India Steam Navigation Company. Visits to Mandalay
and Bhamo, at the head of navigation on the Irewady River, with short collecting
trips to one or two other localities, completed the work done in Burma. Another
ship of the same line was taken to Singapore via Penang.
In Singapore I was fortunate enough to find a Chinese boy, Ah Woo by
name, who became a most faithful servant and a very skilful collector. His
slight knowledge of EngUsh, added to a fluency in Malay, made him often helpful
as an interpreter, and even at times as a teacher. The Malay language as
spoken in the bazaars is not difficult, and a knowledge of sentence formation
once gained, proficiency in the language involves only the memorizing of a
vocabulary.
Work in the East Indies began with collecting for a few days about Batavia,
' Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard
College, under the direction of E. L. Mark. — No. 231.
G BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
whence we proceeded to Buitenzorg. Here I had the assistance of many in-
fluential persons, by whose aid several excellent Javanese helpers were got.
These men were especially useful from the fact that either they had been on the
Siboga expedition, or had otherwise acquired useful training. After arranging
for the collecting and preserving of Javan material, we proceeded by rail to
Sourabaya, and boarded there the S. S. Both of the Koninklijke Paketvaart
Maatschappi j . This small steamer was accustomed to make three trips a year
through the islands to New Guinea. It is impossible to express adequately my
feelings of obhgation for the kindness of the officials of the line and the officers
of the ship in forwarding our aims. To accommodate our needs the ship was
delayed and her regular itinerary changed, but with no word of complaint from
any source. The kindness of the chief agent of the Company in Batavia in
regard to the whole expense of the trip showed how widespread is the desire to
forward the scientific examination of the fauna of these colonies.
In some ports arrangements were made to leave a collector who was to be
picked up again on the return trip. In other cases it was possible to arrange
with the people to have them assemble material for purchase on our return.
In many cases the fact that the ship made calls at a number of near by ports
on the same island made it possible to see a large part of some of these various
localities. Most of the steaming was done at night, and there were but few days
on the voyage, which lasted more than two months, when it was impossible
for all hands to be at work ashore, generally with a very large and useful follow-
ing of local natives. This method of collecting would of course avail little in
an intensive study of the fauna of an island as regards a single group of animals,
but for the taking of reptiles and amphibians it works very well. Ten people
working together will, I think, take more in one day than a single person will
take in the same locality in ten days. On the island of Halmahera ten persons
worked at six localities for eleven days. On New Guinea stays of one to three
days were made at nine locaUties, as well as a couple of days each at Saonek on
the neighboring island of Waigiu, and at the island of Mapia between New Guinea
and the Carolines. Thus it was possible to do far more shore collecting than
would be possible for a naturalist attached to one of the regular vessels employed
in deep sea or other scientific research. Both Malays and Papuans can be
taught to collect, and do so eagerly; the pay in the case of the Papuans being
tobacco, brass wire cut into short lengths, and red cloth. A popular account
of the natives, etc., of the part of New Guinea visited has been published in the
National geographic magazine for July and August, 1908.
NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY 7
A list of the localities visited follows: —
Buleleng, Bali Island.
Ampenan, Lombok Island.
Makassar, Celebes Island.
Tifu, Burn Island.
LawTii, Obi Island.
Ambon or Amboina Island (town has same name).
Piru and Wahaai, Ceram Island.
Gane, Galela, Tobello, Ake-Selaka, Patani, and Weeda, on Halmahera
Island.
Ternate, on island of same name.
Saonek, Waigiu Island.
Manokwari and Humboldt's Bay, mainland of Papua.
Sorong, on a small island barely separated by a narrow strait from
Papua. The same may be said of the islands Roon and Djamna.
The other Papuan localities were Pom, Wool, and Ansus, on Jobi;
and Meosbundi, on Wiak; both islands lying in Geelvink Bay, New
Guinea. _
At the time this visit was made to Papua, conditions were quite different
from what they are even now. There were in all the vast region only three
posts, each with an Assistant Resident: — Merauke, in southwest New Guinea;
Fak Fak, in western New Guinea; and Manokwari, near Doreh on Geelvink
Bay. The three mission stations were in this latter region. At Sorong there
was a Posthouder, but I have heard that he has been withdrawn. Since this
voyage, however, a number of Dutch scientific parties have visited the country;
and with the recent increase in the number of voyages of the trading steamer
each year, the real primitive Papuan will in time disappear. British Papua,
for a long while ably administered, has now a considerable white population
of miners, planters, and traders. German New Guinea, or Kaiser Wilhehn's
Land, has, if nothing else, a full corps of officials of every sort. This latter region,
however, has proved a great disappointment as a colony, from every point of
view. Dutch New Guinea, lying nearer the equator than the rest of the island,
has a cfimate rather more unhealthy. It certainly has a vast area of low-lying
swampy land. As the white population grows, however, modern knowledge as
to the efficacy of drainage in combating malaria will undoubtedly make possible
fairly healthy towns along the coast. The English have shbwn what can be
8 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
(lone at Samarai in southeast Papua, once a deadly locality, now a comparatively
liveable town.
So far the commerce with the Dutch section has been only trading with the
natives, or a few resident Chinamen for Bird-of-Paradise skins, dammar gum,
and forest products, such as wild nutmegs, etc. The bird skins at the rate they
are being taken will in time become rare in the accessible regions. The fact that
adult males alone are wanted — the inconspicuous females going unharmed and
often unknown to the native hunters — accounts for the fact that the bird is
still abundant. Its raucous screams may probably still be heard from the porch
of the Residency at Manokwari. The Great Bird-of-Paradise {Paradisea apoda
Linne), found only in the Aru Islands, is already much diminished in number;
and even the nearly related species, (Paradisea jobiensis Rothschild), which is
confined to Jobi Island, is also rare, owing to the fact that its plumes are longer
and more silky than those of its more common congener, (Paradisea minor
Shaw) on the mainland of Papua. The many other species of the Paradiseidae,
especially those confined to the inland mountains, are only hunted in a desultory
way, and have suffered no diminution of numbers. It is to be hoped that there
may be some regulation of this traffic, perhaps a conservative hmit set, and only
a certain number of skins allowed to be bartered from each village. This would
work no injustice to the native, as he buys with his skins only what to him are
luxuries. It is probable that such measures would meet with great opposition
among the Dutch merchants at Ternate and Makassar. Until some other
reason arises for sending a ship to Papua — as, for instance, the starting of
ruljber plantations — these voyages can only be made to pay by the trade in
skins; but this alone now makes the voyage one of the most profitable of any
in the Indies.
After the retiun to Java from the \'oyage, some time was spent at Buitcn-
zorg in jiacking the collections, and also in making several short collecting trips
to various parts of the island. In this way Sindanglaia, Tjibodas, and other
near hy \illages were visited. At the last-named locality is situated the moun-
tain liranch of the Buitenzorg Botanical Gardens. Then Bandoung, Garut,
and Djokjakarta were visited, and short trips made in several directions from
each town. On the previous trip through the island en route to Sourabaya,
before sailing to Bali from that port, some collecting was done in east Java.
From Buitenzorg our collectors were sent for periods of several weeks each to
Sukabumi, Tjibodas, and to locaUties on the slopes of the volcano Salak. By
keeping separate these various collections made at different altitudes, we are
NARRATIVE AND ITINERARY. 9
able to throw a little light on the vertical distribution of some of the most promi-
nent components of the fauna, especially the reptiles and amphibians.
A word regarding the collections in some other branches of zoology. The
series of mammals was small, but contained a single specimen of high interest,
the type of a new genus of marsupials of the Peramelidae. It has been called
Suillomeles hispida Allen & Barbour (Proc. N. E. zool. club, 1909, 4, p. 43-46,
pi. 2-3). A number of other forms were new to the collections of the Museum.
Two specimens of Proechidna were added to material already in the Museum,
and others have been obtained since. As the Museum now contains skins,
specimens in spirits, and complete skeletons, it has an almost unrivalled collec-
tion of this interesting form, the anatomy of which is reported by Dr. G. M.
Allen (Memoirs M. C. Z., October, 1912, 40, p. 249-307, 2 plates).
Nothing of special interest is to be said regarding the small collection of
birds. Series of specimens of Paradtsea jobiensis, and of Semioptera halmaherae
were among the more interesting, in that they were previously um-epresented
in the Museum's collections.
The fishes are as yet unstudied. The collection, however, contains a few
cyprinoids from Lombok. Max Weber (Zool. ergeb., 1894, 3, p. 461) has shown
that this is one of the families of fresh-water fishes characteristic of continental
Asia which are also known to exist throughout the islands as far as Bali. The
discovery that a species of this family occurs in Lombok also, is of interest in
connection with the question as to the importance of the Lombok-Bali boundary
established l)y Wallace.
An account of the collection of Echinodermata has been written by Dr.
Hubert Lyman Clark (Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 51, p. 279-311). Miss Mary J.
Rathbun has also reported on the decapod Crustacea (Bull. M. C. Z., 1910, 52,
p. 305-317, pi. 1-6).
The insects are as yet incompletely sorted; the ethnologic objects are on
exhibition in the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology
in Cambridge.
In conclusion, my deepest thanks are due, first of all, to Messrs. Alan W.
Pim and Frank B. Sherring, of the Indian Civil Service, who aided most kindly'
and efficiently in making collections over a large part of the trip; to H. E. "Lieut.
Gen. van Heutz, late Governor-General of Dutch India; to the late Professor
M. Treub, Director of Agriculture; to Major P. A. Ouwens, of the Zoological
museum at Buitenzorg; to Dr. J. C. Koningsberger ; and to Dr. P. N. van
Kampen, also of the Department of Agriculture. All these gentlemen laid me
10 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
under the deepest obligation for a multitude of favors. Nor can I forget many
other friends: — Mr. G. A. Sedee of Ternate, and Mr. Duivenboden, of Ake-
Selaka, Halmahera, whose grandfather's schooner carried Wallace, the first
naturalist to live in New Guinea. Then to many officials of the Koninklijke
Paketvaart Maatschappij , whose constant help was invaluable, I here express
my appreciation.
In preparing his report, I have been much aided by Dr. Leonhard Stejne-
ger. Dr. G. A. Boulenger, Mr. Samuel Garman, and especially by Prof. E. L.
Mark; though it is only fair to say that they should in no wise be held re-
sponsible for any opinions which are expressed herein. It is a pleasure to
thank them for patient assistance.
Since writing the previous pages I have received for study a very extensive
addition to my Javan material. My friend, Mr. Owen Bryant, in company
with Mr. William Palmer, of the United States National Museum, spent
somewhat more than a year in western Java, accumulating a large quantity of
reptiles and amphibians. These I have been privileged to study, and to retain
a series of desired species where duplicates exist, thanks to the kindness of the
collector and to the authorities of the United States National Museum. Mr.
Bryant's material has made it possible to examine very large numbers of in-
dividuals from the same locaUties, since he spent much time in several of the
same places where I collected. I do not believe that it has ever been possible
previously to examine so large an amount of Javanese material from a limited
region, and with such full data. It is, however, unfortunate that the late
receipt of the collection has not made it possible for me to examine it quite as
critically as I should have wished to. Nevertheless, I have the data taken from
the scale-counts of each snake; and these, with the notes I already had, make
it possible to point out, probably mth considerable certainty, the exact local
average shown by many of the species, and in many cases to indicate the
strong probability, or even certainty, of the occurrence in Java of geographic
races of some of the continental species.
It is a pleasure to thank Mr. Bryant for making this collection, and also
Mr. Ward Shepard for assistance in making notes for me concerning it; and
especially, besides, to acknowledge the painstaking care which Mr. E. N. Fischer
has expended upon the plates.
Fortunately it has been possible to obtain from the collections of Mr. A. E.
Pratt and others some small series of examples which have been of the highest
interest. These are in most cases mentioned passim.
SUMATRA. 11
The collections of the Museum have, of course, been consulted freely, and
references have been made to a few of the indi\'iduals contained in them. It is
unfortunate that time does not permit the inclusion of notes on all the East
Indian specimens available for study here. Many of these were brought back
by the earlier American voyagers, and were sent by Louis Agassiz to Jan in
Milan for identification; others, still, came here in early exchanges from the
Paris museum, and were marked as types by A. Aug. Dumeril. Wliile not
holotypes in the sense in which the word type is commonly used now, they are
undoubtedly a part of the typical series of many of the species described by
Dumeril and Bibron in their Erpetologie general.
Sumatra.
The first island to be discussed, with direct regard to the relationships of
its reptiles and amphibians, is Sumatra. A few words regarding its physical
pecuUarities are worth while. The island lies nearer to the Malay Peninsula
than any other of the East Indies, the straits of Malacca in many places being
less than fifty miles wide. There is a tradition that the lands joined almost
within historic times. It is nearly one thousand miles long ; and varies in width
from between less than one hundred miles in the mountainous district of Atjeh
in the north, to about two hundred miles at the region opposite the lower end
of the Malay Peninsula. The main trend is from northwest to southeast, and
throughout its entire length extends a backbone moxmtain range, which runs
close to the western or Indian Ocean side of the island. This range, it is interest-
ing to notice, is almost exactly parallel to the mountainous backbone of the
Malay Peninsula, and to the series of mountainous islands which lie in the
Indian Ocean off the coast of Sumatra in a long series, beginning with Simalur
at the north and ending with Engafio towards the south. These may indicate
corrugations along which foldings of great extent have occurred, but there is no
direct evidence at hand on this point.
The configuration and foi-ni of the shore-Une and bays of the islands off
Sumatra, and of Sumatra itself, and more especially the suggestions which one
gets from the soundings shown on the chart, lead one to suppose that this has
been an area of general subsidence. It seems probable that the island of Simalur
was connected with Sumatra by way of the Banjak Archipelago; that Nias was
connected directly with Sumatra, quite independently of Simalur; and that the
Mentawei Islands were connected together, and with Sumatra, through the
12 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Batu group; makins it ajipear probable that in times past there were three
great peninsulas jutting out in three directions from Sumatra, northeastward,
eastward, and southeastward; and that, while the origins of these three penin-
sulas were very close together on the Sumatra shore, still they were not cross-
connected with one another. This will be emphasized again when we consider
the fauna of these various islands.
The same subsidence which broke up these peninsulas into islands probably
separated Sumatra from the mainland.
Werner has suggested that these islands have each different Sumatran species
upon them because they each lie opposite the particular ranges within Sumatra
for various species; and that their species have thus come to them from just that
part of Sumatra lying nearest them. This would suggest that Werner supposes
the islands to have received their species by "flotsam and jetsam" methods,
which I do not believe. The islands are \'ery incompletely known, and this
probably accounts for the discrepancies in the lists of species, which came by
the land connections suggested above.
There is good reason to believe, owing to the fact that all the rivers of large
size empty either into the straits of Malacca or into the southern part of the
China Sea between Sumatra and Borneo, that the island at the present time lies
nearer to the Peninsula, to the Riouw and Lingga Archipelagoes, and to the
island of Banka, than it did in the recent past. All of this eastern coast region
of Sumatra is composed of low, swampy alluvial lands, through which the rivers
flow, carrying down the detritus from the mountains in the form of silt, which
is constantly being deposited in the deltas of the rivers; and these deltas are
also being extended fast by the great fringing zone of mangrove vegetation which
lines the shore. The straits themselves are very shallow. This may be con-
sidered a recent re-approachment, which may serve to connect the lands again
in a short period of time.
The reptiles and amphibians of the island show a very close relationship
to those of the nearest mainland. Werner (Zool. jahrb. Syst., 1900, 13, p.
479-508, pi. 31-35) has arranged a complete Ust of the herpetologic fauna of the
island, which, however, has been considerably changed by the researches of the
last ten years. On pages 503-508 he presented some general conclusions regard-
ing the geographical distribution of Sumatran reptiles and amphibians in com-
parison with those of Ceylon, Borneo, Java, and Celebes. The work itself is
useful, but contains a considerable number of statements which may be justly
challenged. In the first place, in 1896 Werner (Verh. Ges. Wien, 1896, 46,
SUMATRA. 13
p. 13) reported Lygosoma chalcidcs (Linne) from Sumatra. He omitted this
form, however, on page 15 of his 1900 list. Then again on p. 499, 500 of the
latter list he records Gekko verticillatus [= gecko (Linne)] from Sumatra; while in
the same paper, on page 505, he remarks "Eine sehr interessante Erscheinung ist
die Vertretung gewisser Species Sumatras durch verwandte Species auf Java."
He places Gekko stentor as Sumatran, and G. verticillatus as Javan, though both
species occur on both islands. Calotes cristatellus is not in any way characteris-
tic of Sumatra, though it occurs in his list. C. jubatus, on the other hand, has
been found in Java, but not yet in Sumatra. There are records for Enhydris
■plumbea and E. enhydris (which he calls Hypsirhina) in both Java and Sumatra.
It is entirely possible that Werner has good reason to doubt the accuracy of
some of the records which have been published in the past; though I have a letter
from Dr. G. A. Boulenger, of the British museum, who tells me that he has
recently received specimens of Calotes cristatellus from both Java and Sumatra,
among other localities; and Flower, in his list of reptiles of the Malay Peninsula
(Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p. 603) records both G. stentor and G. verticillatus
from Java, where I also collected both species. On page 504 Werner includes
Typhlops braminus in his list of species which are known from Java and the
Malay Peninsula, but not from Sumatra, even though he has reported it himself,
from Sumatra only four pages earlier in the same paper. He remarks, besides,
that Rana tigerina (spelled tigrina) is absent from Sumatra, though it is included
by van Kampen in his excellent set of tables (Max Weber's Zool. ergeb., 1907,
4, 2). On page 504 we read, "Sumatra scheint . . . . mit Borneo niemals in
Zusammenhang gestanden, sondern seine Reptilien direct aus Malakka erhalten
zu haben." While I am very much inclined to believe that this statement is
correct, it is nevertheless somewhat difficult to reconcile with it the fact that we
know a number of species from either Sumatra and Borneo, or Sumatra, Java,
and Borneo, not including the Malay Peninsula.
We may proceed now to consider the composition of the fauna so far as
our present knowledge permits. Throughout this paper species of both true
sea-snakes and sea-turtles have been omitted. There are twelve species of fresh-
water turtles, none of them peculiar to the island, and all of them obviously
of direct derivation from the Malay Peninsula. The same may be said of the
three known species of crocodileans. It is interesting, however, to note that
Tomistojna schlegeli was not known from Sumatra until 1890, while still more
recently it has been added to the fauna of the Malay Peninsula. During the
last fifteen years it has been discovered there in a number of different rivers.
14 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Annandale has remarked, however, that it is so rare that, according to the Malay-
crocodile hunters, there is about one of these to 100 of Crocodilus porosus. It is
widespread through upper Sumatra.
The Uzards are fifty in number, of which eleven — about twenty per cent,
are peculiar to the island. Two genera, Phoxophrys and Lophocalotes, are
autogenous.
As having a bearing on the question of the direct relationship of Sumatra
with Borneo, the distributions of the following species are of interest :^
Spathoscalobotes mutilatus (Gthr.) occurs in Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.
Draco cornutus Gthr. comes from Sumatra, Borneo, and the Sulu Islands.
Gonyocephalus liogaster (Gthr.) has the same distribution.
Mabuya rudis Blgr. occurs in Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, as well as in
the Mentawei group of islands.
It must be confessed that but httle importance is to be given to two of
these singular ranges on account of the fact that members of the Gekkonidae
and Scincidae are, as is very well known, occasionally carried about accidentally.
There are one hundred and one species of snakes found on Sumatra, eleven
of which are not found elsewhere; and it is interesting to note that while these
form but about eleven per cent of the total number, or about half the percentage
of the lizards that are autocthonous, the number contains four genera peculiar
to the island. These are Anomolochilus, Iguanognathus, Anoplohydrus, and
Xenochrophis. Two species, not remarkably different from each other, are
interesting in that they represent a genus which has not been found in the Malay
Peninsula, while it is known from west Africa and south Cliina. The genus is
represented in Sumatra by Opisthotrophis rugosa (van Lidth de Jeude) ; and in
Borneo, by 0. typica (Mocquard). The monotypic genus Elapoides is confined
to Sumatra and Jawi. The species is E. fuscus Boie. Calamaria leucogaster
Bleeker apparently occurs only in Sumatra and Borneo; while C. sumatrana
Edeling, C. agamensis Bleeker, and C. melanota (Jan) , as well as Boiga nigriceps
(Gthr.), occur in Sumatra, Borneo, and Java.
Other' species have distributions which are of interest : — - Natrix conspicillata
(Gthr.); Dnjophis fasciolatus (Fischer), from Sumatra, Borneo, and the Natuna
Islands; Lycodon albofuscus (Dum. & Bibr.), from Sumatra, Nias, and Borneo;
Psammodynastes pidus (Gthr.), from Sumatra, Riouw, and Borneo; and Tri-
meresurus puniceus (Boie) from Sumatra, Natuna, Borneo, and Java.
It must be admitted that, while Sumatra is the least explored of the Greater
Sunda Islands, and while there undoubtedly remains a large number of species
SUMATRA. 15
yet to be discovered in the highland areas, still the Malay Peninsula has been
very carefully studied during the last few years, and it is strange that there
remains such a considerable number of species occurring in Sumatra and Borneo,
which are not yet known in Malacca.
Since Werner's paper appeared, van Kampen has published his complete
tables of distribution for the Amphibia throughout the Indian Archipelago, as
well as two other papers of importance, all showing what remarkable forms have
lain unknown for a long time on the islands. In 1905 van Kampen described
Dyscophina volzi (Zool. jahrb. Syst., 1905, 22, p. 708-10, pi. 26). This is a
representative of that small compact family, the Dyscophiidae, nearly all of
which occur in Madagascar; the first known exception was the genus Calluella,
which is Burmese. Van Kampen's form was described only a year after Boulen-
ger made known Colpoglossus brooksi, a new genus and species of the same
family from Borneo. These animals are difficult to find, owing to their burrowing
habits. The way in which they ha\-e remained long undiscovered in a locality
which has been well studied reminds one of the fact that the North American
discoglossoid Ascaphus truei of Stejneger is still known by the type alone; and
that the recently discovered Kaloula verrucosa Blgr., found only a few years ago
in Yunnan, has been found still more recently in the province of Shantung.
Of fifty species of ampliibians known from the island of Sumatra, seven,
or fourteen per cent, seem to be peculiar to it. Van Kampen reports both
Megalophrys montmia and M. nasuta from Sumatra, though in Werner's com-
parative fist, which we have spoken of before, the latter only is mentioned as
being Sumatran, the former being Javan. Werner also includes M. hasselti in
his list of species occm-ring in Java and Malacca, but not in Sumatra. Van
Kampen, on the other hand, has M. hasselti from several definite localities in
Sumatra, as well as in the Phihppines, Borneo, and Java.
There remains to be mentioned Werner's record of Rana novae-brittaniae
Werner, which has the very improbable distribution of Sumatra and the Bis-
marck Archipelago. It seems unlikely that this can be explained by suggesting
accidental transportation. Perhaps it is more likely to be a case of convergence,
where some similar form lias by chance grown so hke another as to be indis-
tinguishable; but a misplaced label often is to blame for this sort of anomaly.
Rana hosii Blgr. occurs on Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, but not in the Malay
Peninsula. Polypedates colletti (Blgr.) has the same distribution, likewise P.
oHlophus (Blgr.), except that the former occui's also in Natuna; these two
species do not, however, occur in Java.
16 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Two species of Nectes, N. pleurotaenia van Kampen, and N. werneri van
Kampen, are confined to Sumatra and Borneo.
To sum up, then, we may say that the portion of the fauna of Sumatra
under discussion shows nothing but a direct Malayan derivation, unless we
except Dyscophina, whose ancestors may have died out, or are as yet undis-
covered in Malacca. It has already been noted that those small islands which
lie in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Sumatra, whose fauna has been
derived directly from Sumatra, have not each of them the same common Su-
matran species; and Werner has remarked that this is probably due to the fact
that they have received their species by transportation from the nearest adja-
cent part of the larger island; and that one island may have received one typical
Sumatran species, and another island another, simply because these species were
confined to the particular parts of Sumatra which lay opposite the various
islands. This I hold to be improbable. He goes on to note how ridiculous it is
simply to record Sumatra without further data in keeping locality records of
species collected on the island; for he assumes, with excellent reason, that
probably many of the characteristic species are closely confined to certain areas
on the island. Concerning this we have as yet very hmited data; enough,
however, to prove that it is probable.
Van Kampen has remarked, in a paper on the ampliibians of Sumatra
. (Zool. jahrb. Syst., 1905, 22, p. 714-15), that there is no evidence whatever to
be drawn from the distribution of Amphibia to show that there has been a con-
nection between Java and farther India — through the Mentawei and N icobar
Islands — without connection with Sumatra. It may be remarked that the
reptiles also bear out this statement; furthermore, as will be shown in the re-
marks on Java, Sumatra seems to have pro^'ided that island with the larger share
of its Malayan forms — with the larger share of all its forms, in fact. There
may have been a bridge of short duration between Borneo and Sumatra by way
of the islands of Billeton and Banka, for it is to be noticed, that if the main
mountain chain of Borneo were projected towards the southwest, it would reach
and merge with the low mountains existing on these two islands, which lie
directly between Borneo and Siunatra. The evidence, however, so far as the
reptiles and amphibians go, is very far from being convincing.
NiAS.
Closely related to the problems connected with the herpetology of Sumatra,
are those of the islands lying near by in the Indian Ocean. We have data re-
NIAS. 17
garding the herpetology of three of these. They are Nias, Engano, and one of
the Mentawei Archipelago.
In 1885 J. G. Fischer reported on a small collection of reptiles and amphi-
bians from Nias (Abh. Naturw. ver. Hamburg, 1885, 9, 1, p. 3-9, 1 taf.). Four
years later E. Modigliani contributed a fuller list with a bibliography (Ann.
Mus. civ. Gen., 1889, ser. 2, 7, p. 113-124, tav. 1). Finally, van Lidth de Jeude
described a collection of sixteen reptiles, three of which were new to Nias, and
added a further bibliography (Notes Leyden mus., 1890, 12, p. 253-256). These
three papers between them cover fully our knowledge of the local cold-blooded
land vertebrates.
The island itself is not a large one, being only about seventy miles in greatest
length by from twenty to thirty miles wide. It is about fifty miles distant
from the nearest point of the Sumatran coast, and the charts show that it is
more or less mountainous throughout. The strait does not show any great
depth of water, though the soundings are few. These run from 20 to 47 fathoms,
while in one spot we find 50 {i- e. no bottom at fifty). North and south of the
island there are considerable depths of water, 376 fathoms just south between
Nias and the Batu Islands, and 335 fathoms to the north, near the Banjak group.
So it is very probable that the connection of this island with Sumatra has been
direct and not through other islands lying either to the north or south of it.
The reptiles and amphibians are purely Sumatran; there is one fresh-water
turtle. Fourteen Uzards occur, of which one, Aphaniotis acutirostris Modi-
gliani, is known only from Sumatra, Nias, and Mentawei; all of the others occur
elsewhere as well as in Sumatra. Snakes on Nias are more abundant in number
of species than either of the other groups of reptiles. There are no less than
thirty-two species recorded, all of which except two occur in Sumatra. Three
species are, so far as we know, confined to Sumatra and Nias. They are Oligodon
trilinealus (Dum. & Bibr.), Cala?naria stahlknechti Stoliczka, and Enhijdris
albomaculata (Dum. & Bibr.). The two species which occur in Nias and else-
where, but have not yet been found in Sumatra, are Calamaria lumhricoidea
Boie and Haplopeltura boa (Boie). These will probably be found in Sumatra
when we know the island more thoroughly. The former species is known from
Nias and Java; the latter from the Malay Peninsula, the Philippines, Nias,
Borneo, and Java.
Nine amphibians occur upon the island, among them the burrowing Ich-
thyophis glutinosus (Linne), Bufo claviger Peters, which is confined to Nias
and Sumatra, the small and delicate Microhyla achatina (Boie), and other species
18 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
certainly not transported fortuitously. The fact that there are no species
strictly peculiar to the island, and that these deUcate subterranean amphibians
are found upon it, proves conclusively that we can not consider Nias as an
oceanic island, but that it has derived its fauna directly from that part of Sumatra
which lies directly opposite to it — that is, between the equator and the second
parallel of north latitude — by a land bridge, and not, as has been suggested,
by accidental transport.
Mentawei Islands.
This group consists of the little-known island of Siberut in the north, and
southward, Sipora and North and South Pagi. These four islands are all hilly,
and are separated from Sumatra by deep water; one sounding of 835 fms.,
others of 640-350 fms., occurring on the charts published as Plate 7 of the atlas
of the Valdivia report. North of Siberut the water is very shallow. According
to the Dutch Hydrographic Bureau charts, a ridge extending to Tanahbala is
covered by from 6 to 26 fms. only; the Valdivia chart, however, shows one sound-
ing of 150 fms. Inside this ridge towards Sumatra there is a sounding of 417
fms., and outside, one of 206 fms. Tanahbala, Tanahmasa, and Pini Islands,
the largest of the Batu Archipelago, are low-lying, and are separated from each
other and from Sumatra by water only 12-26 fms. deep. An earlier connec-
tion, then, of the Mentawei Islands with one another is rendered highly
probable by the hydrographic data.
We know the herpetology of but one of these islands, Sipora (also called
Seremu). In 1894 Boulenger (Ann. Mus. civ. Gen., 1894, ser. 2, 14, p. 613-618)
reported on a collection made by the Italian naturahst Modigliani.
The same single fresh-water turtle which occurs on Nias is found also on
Sipora. The lizards are twelve in number; of these, two, Sphenomorphus
modigliani (Blgr.), and Leiolepisma vittigerum (Blgr.), have hitherto been found
only on this island. The fact that this island is perhaps more isolated from
Sumatra than is Nias may account for these two autogenous species of lizards,
while Nias has none. It is very possible, however, tliat they will ultimately be
foimd on Nias and Sumatra.
One Uzard, Gonatodes kandianus, has a most strange distribution. It is
found in India and Ceylon and in all the Sumatran coast islands as yet herpeto-
logically explored, — Nias, Sipora, Engano, — but it has not as yet been found
in Sumatra. This form may or may not exist in Sumatra; it probably does,
though as yet imknown.
ENGANO. 19
The snakes in this case do not outnumber the Uzards in multiplicity of species
as they do on Nias. This, again, is undouljtedly due simply to the fact that we
do not know the island thoroughly. There are eleven species known, none of
which are peculiar to the island, nor are any of them otherwise of particular
interest.
The amphibians, as with Nias, simply serve to emphasize the close Sumatran
affinity of the fauna. It is interesting to note the presence again of Ichthyophis
glutinosus. Four species of amphibians — namely, Polypedates appendiculatus,
P. pardalis, Calophrynus pundatus, and Nectophryne guentheri — are all known
from Sipora, but as yet none has been found in Sumatra. These forms are all
known either from the mainland, or from Borneo and the Philippines; and it is
almost certain that future investigation will show that they occur on Sumatra
as well. Van Kampen has pointed out that three of the Sumatran frogs, viz. —
Rana nicobariensis, R. labialis, and R. microdisca, were all known from small
islands about Sumatra before they were found on the great island itself. It is
remarkable that no Philautus (Ixalus) has been found on any of these islands
off the coast of Sumatra or upon Sumatra itself, for we should suppose from the
distribution of the genus that it would have been found there long ago. It is
hardly conceivable that it does not occur. Its absence from the islands off the
coast would surely seem to emphasize the fact that they have not served as a
bridge between the mainland and Java, as has been suggested by some writers.
It is most unfortunate that no data are as yet available regarding the faunae
of either Siberut or of the two Pagi Islands; and it is still more unfortunate that
there are not sufficient soundings to establish definitely the presence or absence
of a ridge connecting Mega with Engafio Island. Mega seems to lie on an
extension of the same great submarine hook of which the Mentawei Islands
are simply the parts remaining above the surface of the water.
Engano.
The single small island of Engano occupies the most isolated position of
any of the islets off the Sumatran coast, for it is distant over a hundred miles
from Mega, which may be considered the southernmost of the Mentawei group ;
the nearest point on the shore of Sumatra itself is distant about sixty miles.
The island would appear to be similar in its physical characteristics to the ones
which we have been discussing, though it is considerably smaller than Sipora,
and far less in size than Nias. It is about twenty miles in length by ten to
twelve in width. Unfortunately the soundings on the Dutch chart and on the
20 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
map published in the report of the Valdivia expedition are mostly in places
where they are of very little interest to us. Southeast of Engano there are two
soundings, one of 1,104, the other of 732 fms.; to the northwest a single sounding
of 637 fms. is given; and northward in the Indian Ocean a depth of 2,744 fms.
occurs. In a direct line between Engano and the mainland of Sumatra, and
between Engano and Mega, no soundings have been made.
We know of the herpetology of the island through the collection of Elio
Modigliani, which were reported upon in 1892 by Vinciguerra (Ann. Mus. civ.
Gen., ser. 2, 12, p. 517-526).
A single fresh-water turtle, Cyclemys ambonensis (Daudin), is known. This
is interesting, as in the other islands the single known fresh-water turtle is
Cyclemys dhor (Gray). Assuming that the identifications are correct, and that
there is only a single species on each island, this may prove to be an ultimate
clue to a different origin for the fauna of Engano from those of the other islands.
Of the lizards, Gymnodadylus marinoralus (Dum. & Bibr.) occurs in Sumatra
and Engano, as well as elsewhere, though it does not occur on either Nias or
Sipora. Lepidodactylus ceylonensis Blgr. has been found in Ceylon, Borneo, Java,
and Engafio. Draco rnodiglianii Vinciguerra is peculiar to the island. Siaphos
relictum (Vinciguerra) is known only from Sipora and Engano. Altogether
about nine species of lizards have been reported, less than from the other islands;
but whether this is because it has been less carefully studied, is a question which
only time will answer.
Among the snakes, Elaphe enganensis (Vinciguerra) is peculiar to the island,
and only two other species have been recorded — one the free-swimming Hurria
rhynchops (Schneider), the other the tree-snake, Psammodynasles pulverulentus
(Boie).
I find in van Kampen's records but two amphibians, Rayia macrodon Dum.
& Bibr., and R. nicobariensis (Stoliczka).
From the above it is evident that the facies of this fauna is quite distinct
from that of either Nias or Sipora. Whether this is due to a longer isolation,
or to our incomplete knowledge, it is impossible to say; and whether future
soundings will develop closer relationship with the southern Mentawei Islands
or with Sumatra itself, is a point of great interest. There is, of course, a possi-
bility that this island never has been connected with the mainland, though
the fauna, as we know it now, contains several species which it would be very
strange to find on an oceanic island. The mere fact of the existence of a deep
channel between Engano and Sumatra, would not, however, necessarily pre-
JAVA. 21
elude the possibility of a bridge having existed in the past between these two
islands. Many similar cases are known at the present time where a recent land
bridge has disappeared leaving a very deep channel. (Cf. Suess, Natural
science, 1893, 2, p. 180-187).
Java.
Although we have not had within recent years a complete list, based on a
large amount of material, giving us an up-to-date knowledge of the Javan
reptiles and amphibians, still we have a multitude of data from many sources,
so that we may say that Java is the most completely known of any one of the
East Indies. Since the earUest times, when Kuhl, Boie, Bleeker, Schlegel,
Edeling, and other Dutch naturalists began describing species, Java has at-
tracted a host of naturalists, even to the present time, largely on account of
its botanical gardens, the most beautiful and famous in the world. Many of
these naturalists have made collections, so that the region about Batavia and
Buitenzorg is the type locality for more East Indian species than any other.
This is the region whence came most of the forms described by Boie in Isis, 1827.
It is also one of the few islands where we have data regarding the vertical distribu-
tion of species, as well as the limits of their range within the island itself. In
spite of the fact that it supports an enormous population — about thirty-five
milUons of people — and that it is only about the size of the state of New York,
being about 550 miles long and from 60 to 120 miles wide, Java has considerable
areas of wooded lowland, quite uncultivated, and many of the mountain slopes
are covered with splendid forests of marvellous tropical luxuriance, so that,
contrary to what one might suppose, reptiles are very plentiful upon the island.
In the systematic account of collections we made there, notes are included which
have a bearing on local distribution, as well as something regarding relative
abundance.
With so considerable a literature, it would be strange if erroneous records
had not crept in; it is not strange, then, that in 1900 Werner wrote: "Was
Java anbelangt, so hat diese Insel im Vergleich zu Sumatra schon ganz deutliche
Anklange an die Fauna der Molukken und theilweise sogar Papuasiens aufzu-
weisen; Draco lineatus, Lophura amboinensis, Tiliqua gigas, Cornufer corrugatus
sind Beispiele hierfiir."
Now, the mere fact that none of these species occurs on the Lesser Sunda
Islands is sufficient to show that there is something wrong with the records.
In the first place, it had long been supposed that Draco lineatus occurred upon
22 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Celebes, but Boulenger (Proc. Zool. soc. Lond., 1897, p. 206) has shown that the
specimens referred to that species by Peters and Doria, Mtiller, and others, in
reaUty belong to Draco spilonotus Gthr., while the specimens that have Ijeen
referred to D. volans and D. maculatus should probably be referred to D. beccarii
Peters and Doria. The Javanese record for D. lineatus is also undoubtedly a case
of mistaken identity. Neither Dr. Stejneger nor I have been able to find the
authority for the occurrence of Hydrosaurus (Lophura) on Java. It certainly is
not known there either by the natives or resident Dutch natui'alists, for I remem-
ber well the interest which the unpacking of some of my specimens from the
Moluccas aroused in the natives about Buitenzorg and Batavia. The record
for Tiliqua gigas is based on a specimen in the Berlin museum examined by
Boulenger (Cat. hzards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 145), and said to have come from
Bantam. Of course, if this specimen ever came from Bantam, it was simply
one which had been brought there by some Malay prau trading from the Moluc-
cas. Years ago a considerable commerce went on in all sorts of live beasts,
which ultimately found their way to the Sunda Straits, where in years gone by
they were often bought and brought to Europe by the ships which at that time
stopped there regularly for wood, water, and fresh provisions. Live specimens
of this giant seine are often captured and sold. The record for Cornufer corru-
gatus in Java was wisely questioned by Boulenger (Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus.,
1882, p. 110). It is needless to add that the original report was never substan-
tiated. Recently van Kampen has shown that Hijla dolichopsis (Cope) turns
up occasionally in the Botanical Gardens, accidentally brought in with sj^eci-
mens from Papuasia. This disposes of the last of the Papuan species supposed
to occur in Java.
The fauna is purely Malayan, for the most part, probably wholly, derived
through Sumatra, the total number of species being much less than in Sumatra,
and curiously enough containing surprisingly few peculiar forms. The other
element in the biota, so well known and so often discussed, is the presence of
Malayan species which occur on the mainland, but not on either Sumatra
or Borneo. Van Kampen has remarked that the number of these species will
probably grow smaller, with which I concur; but there is a surprising number of
such species now, including some mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
Megalophrys hasselti, however, has been found on Sumatra recently, thus reduc-
ing this hst by one species.
Of these mainland forms, Crocodilus siamensis Schneider, a rare species
everywhere, has been reported from Siam, Cochin China, and Java. The last
JAVA. 23
record is based on an example in the Senckenburg museum at Frankfurt on the
Main. Werner (Zool. jahrb. Syst., 1900, 13, p. 504) does not doubt the accuracy
as to the locality in view of the rarity of this species on the mainland, and the
fact that we know so little of the estuarine fauna of all the islands. He empha-
sizes the fact that Tomistoma long existed undiscovered in both Sumatra and
Malay, and even suggests that the Malayan Gharial may exist in Java. I must
confess to a scepticism regarding the correctness of the data of the Frankfort
specimen. Werner may be correct, but if so, why is the crocodile not quite as
likely to occur in Sumatra, though as yet undiscovered? Geoclemys subtri-
juga (Schlegel and Miiller), the conspicuous and generally common Matrix pis-
cator (Schneider), the showy rat-snake Ptyas mucosas (Linne), so often common
about dwellings, and Dryophis xanlhozona Boie, ai'e all species known both from
Java and the mainland, and one would suppose that they would be among the
earliest to be discovered on Sumatra; but, so far as we now know, they do not
oceur there. Agkistrodon rhodostoma (Boie) has long been known from Java,
and for years it was included in the Siamese fauna on the basis of a single speci-
men, said to be from Siam, preserved in the British museum. Within the last
few years Messrs. Annandale and Robinson during their exploration of the Malay
Straits discovered that it was quite plentiful in certain localities in the Malay
Peninsula. (Cf. Boulenger in Fasciculi Malayensis, 1903, 1, p. 170-171.) It is
hardly less surprising that this conspicuous snake should have been so long
undiscovered in the Malay Peninsula than it would be if other species, equally
conspicuous, should perhaps be still undiscovered in Sumatra — this species
among them. The presence of Rhinoceros sundaicus, though comparable to that
of Agkistrodon, is even more difficult to explain. The Sumatran rhinoceros,
R. sumatranus, is well known, and occurs also on the mainland. It is difficult
to believe that of two species of rhinoceros existing in Sumatra, only one should
have been discovered up to now. Still this is probably the case, for we know as
yet very little definitely regarding the various Malayan species of rhinoceros (see
Flower, Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1900, p. 366-8). The cases of Tragulus Stan-
ley anus, Viverricula malaccensis, and Helictus orientalis, all of which have been
noted by van Kampen as having the same discontinuous distribution, may be
considered as instances where specimens from the different localities would not
be considered as identical species were plenty of modern material in hand for
comparison; besides, their close relatives may easily exist in the highlands of
Sumatra, which are as yet unexplored. Tragulus slanleyanus, I have been
recently informed by Mr. G. S. Miller Jr., is a species certainly confined to the
24 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Malay Peninsula or a near by island. The type is old, without definite locality
and it cannot as now restricted be identified certainly with any particular species.
One thing is certain, van Kampen was wrong in suggesting that the species
ever came from Java.
Java has but six fresh-water turtles, considerably fewer than either Borneo
or Sumatra.
There are thirty-one lizards known, but not a single one of these is of a genus
not found elsewhere. Two genera, however, have the same distribution as the
ophidian genus Elapoides. They are Harpesaurus, with one species each in
Java and Sumatra, — H. tricinctus (A. Dum.), and H. beccarii Doria, — and Den-
dragama, also with one species each in Java and Sumatra, namely, D. fruh-
storferi Boettger, and D. boulengeri Doria. The two Javan species seem to be
confined in their distribution to that part of Java lying nearest to Sumatra.
Whether this is significant or not, it is difficult to say, as this happens to be the
part of Java which we know better than any other.
Regarding Varanus nebulosus (Gray), Werner says: "fundort 'Java'
sicher, Belegexemplar in Wiener Hofmuseum." In spite of this certainty, it is
most probable that the locality of the specimen is incorrect, as it is known to be
a wide-ranging, not uncommon form over much of southeastern Asia. Only two
species besides the two spoken of above are peculiar to the island, in all only
about twelve per cent.
The snakes are sixty-five in number, of which seven or eight (about eleven
per cent) are peculiar to the island. As with the lizards, there is no autogenous
genus. It is important to note the presence of the genus Pseudoxeonodon, with
two peculiar species on the island, while no other congeneric form is known
throughout the whole archipelago. Oligodon bitorquatus Boie has been reported
from Ambon on the assumption that Rabdosoma amboinense Bleeker was a syn-
onym of this species. There is probably no doubt with regard to its being
identical; but, Hke so very many of Bleeker's records of locaUties for reptiles, it
was in all probability based upon a Javan specimen, which in some way or other
was credited to Ambon. This shuffling about of reptile localities was very
characteristic of Bleeker's herpetological work, and it is obviously unsafe to
place any reliance whatever upon them. It is quite impossible to conceive of a
species being confined to Java and Ambon.
Regarding the occurrence of Brachyorrhus albus (Linne) in Java, it is
probable that the case is similar to that of the preceding species. Schlegel
(Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 33-35) reports it as being excessively rare in Java,
BORNEO. 25
whence the early voyagers sent a few specimens. It has never been found there
since; and as Boie and Kuhl both collected in the best known part of the island,
that is about Batavia and Buitenzorg, it is almost certain that the specimens
which they sent home came from the Moluccas, probably either Ternate or
Ambon, and not from Java at all, else it would have been found there within
the last half century.
Of the amphibians, nine of the thirty-four species, or about twenty-seven
per cent, are peculiar. There is here also a genus Nyctixalus, with a single species
not found elsewhere. The presence of Philautus (Ixalus) itself, with two species
peculiar to the island, has been spoken of elsewhere in remarking their absence
from Sumatra and the Mentawei Islands. Rana grunniens Daud. has been re-
ported from Java and Ambon, another example of what happened in the days
when these were the only two localities frequently visited by naturalists, and
when collections were not kept separate as to locality with the care which is
considered requisite at the present time.
In conclusion, then, we may say that the entire herpetologic fauna of Java
is as purely Malayan as is that of Sumatra or of Borneo, and that evidence is
wanting at the present time which will help us to explain the presence of a large
and important series of species which are common to Java and the Malay
Peninsula, but are not found in either Borneo or Sumatra. Whether a land
connection did once exist, perhaps through Banka and Billeton, is a question
which can be settled, if at all, only by the careful study of the herpetology of
these two islands, which has not yet been made. It seems really more probable
that our incomplete knowledge of the fauna of Sumatra is to blame for this most
anomalous condition.
Borneo.
Borneo, larger than Sumatra, in fact the largest of all the East Indies
with the exception of New Guinea, has a reptilian fauna as truly Malayan as
any of the other islands, though the amphibians show some rather anomalous
conditions.
Robert Shelf ord in 1901 (Journ. Str. Br. roy. Asiat. soc, 1901, p. 43-68)
published a list of the reptiles known to occur upon Borneo, not including the
islands zoogeographically dependent from it, such as the Natuna and Palawan
groups of islands. In this Ust, which we may use about as it stands, he has
omitted the record of Macropisthodon rhodomelas (Boie), which Flower recorded
from Borneo (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p. 605) ; on the other hand, he has
26 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
recorded two species of tortoises, Orlitia borneensis Gray and Brookeia baileyi
(Bartlett), both of which together with Liemys inornata Blgr., must be con-
sidered as really representing only one species, Orlitia borneensis Gray.
His list shows a total of 212 species, of which sixty-four are peculiar to the
island; while the table which I have prepared (see p. 169-203) show 207 Bor-
nean species, of which sixty-five are peculiar to the island; so that, as will be
seen, our results are very close. The fact that only small changes have been
made necessary during the last decade would seem to indicate that our knowl-
edge of the fauna of Borneo is approaching completion.
In 1895 Robert Bartlett published a list of the reptiles of Borneo in the
Sarawak gazette, 25. This list I have been unable to consult, and sol have been
unable even to estimate the \'alidity of some of the species which he proposed;
e. g. his Lygosoma kinabaluensis I know only l)y name, and I am unable to dis-
cover anything regarding its identity, as Shelford, for one, omits all reference
to it.
To sum up these species in the same way as we have done for other islands,
we find fifteen fresh-water tortoises, none of which are peculiar to the island,
and two crocodileans, the wide-ranging C. porosus and Tomistoma schlegelii, of
which we have spoken before. The lizards are seventy-six in number, of which
thirty species, or forty per cent, are confined to Borneo. Lanthanotus restricted
to Borneo, as has been so satisfactorily pointed out by Boulenger, has its nearest
relatives in the two species of Heloderma occurring in southwestern United
States and Mexico. This form is probably fast dying out, as its relatives have
in the past died out o^'er most of the rest of the world; the species is now so
rare that we know of only two specimens, one in the museum at Kuching,
Sarawak, and the other, the original type, in Vienna.
It is very interesting to note in Borneo the presence of two species of Japa-
lura, one, /. ornata confined to Borneo itself, the other, J. nigrilabris, known
only from Borneo and the Natuna Islands. These are the only species of this
genus which occur amongst the East Indian Islands, though of course, as is well
known, there are other forms which are peculiar to Formosa, to the Riu Kiu
Islands, and Botel Tobago. On the mainland the genus has a range from the
Himalayas and eastern Bengal through Assam to west China. No species is
known from the Malay Peninsula.
Of the snakes there are 110 species, of which thirty-five species, or thirty
per cent, are not found elsewhere. The four genera, Hydrablabes, Lepturophis,
Oreocalamus, and Idiopholis occur nowhere else. Another genus, Agrophis,
BORNEO. 27
is of great interest in that it affords the only case in herpetology of species showing
close relationship between Borneo and Celebes. The genus is known from two
species only, one on each island. This impossible condition is, of course, only
explicable if we consider that the species must either occur elsewhere undiscovered
or else ha\'e previously been of wider range and died out everywhere except
upon these two islands. As both Borneo and Celebes share each a considerable
number of species with the Philiijpines, it may be that upon this common ground
Agrophis occurs, or may have occurred, in the past. Gonyophis margaritatus
is known from the Malay Peninsula and Borneo only, as is also the genus Aeluro-
scalabotes among lizards.
The amphibians are more unlike those which we know from the Malay Penin-
sula than are the reptiles. The number occurring on Borneo is very great.
Van Kampen in his tables gives seventy-eight species, a far greater number
than is known from any other island. The peculiar genera are Oreobatrachus
and Colpoglossus, the latter a monotjrpic genus of Dyscophidae, the former a
monotypic genus of Ranidae, confined as far as known to Mt. Kina Balu. Spec-
ies of Calophrynus and Nectophryne occur, both of these genera having widely
discontinuous distributions. It seems probable that when they are revised on
anatomical grounds, they will be found related, though probably perfectly
easily separated. It seems hardly possible for a genus to occur in Africa and
in the East Indies and still maintain its generic unity, when it has probably
slowly disappeared from the enormous region lying in between.
Borneo resembles the rest of the Greater Sunda Islands in the absence of
Hylidae ; but shares with New Guinea the engystomatid genus Chaperina, the
species C. fusca being recorded from both Borneo and Papua, but as yet undis-
covered on the islands that Ue between, though three other congeneric species
occur upon New Guinea itself. Van Kampen has published some notes of
interest on the probable dispersal in the past of the members of this family, and
especially regarding their astonishing abundance on New Guinea (cf. remarks
on van Kampen's papers under ''New Guinea"). The presence of Cornufer
on Mt. Kina Balu (C. baluensis) is of interest as being a close parallel to the dis-
tribution of Chaperina, except that Cornufer corrugatus has been recorded from
the Philippines.
Of the seventy-eight amphibians mentioned as occurring on the island,
thirty species, or twenty-nine per cent, are peculiar to Borneo. Before closing,
it may be of interest to mention the fact that Rana everetti occurs on Borneo,
Celebes, and the Philippines, thus having such a distribution as we might have
28 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
supposed the ophidian genus Agrophis had, while Rana baramica is confined to
Borneo and Banka.
There does not seem to be any reason to suppose that Borneo has been con-
nected with the Lesser Sunda chain as has Celebes. The Papuan element in the
fauna may well have been derived from the Moluccas through connections which
included some of the southern Philippines.
Lesser Sunda Islands.
In this group may be included the islands from Bali to Timor, or rather
such of them as we have data concerning. Collections have been reported on
from comparatively few of the islands; therefore the presence of many charac-
teristic forms on one island, and their absence on another near by, show at once
how very incomplete our knowledge still is of all these islands, except Timor,
which has been more or less studied and collected upon by both Dutch and
Portuguese naturalists for many years. The islands of which we know some-
thing, as to the herpetology, are Lombok, Flores, Ombaai (or Alor), Sumba, and
Timor; the islands of Savu, Semao, and Rotti, close to Timor, are also partially
known. The great island of Sumbawa is absolutely a terra incognita, as is also
the important island of Bali, of which we have only one or two records of common
wide-ranging species. The smaller islands of Adonare, Lomblen, Pandi, Kam-
bing, and Wetter, are herpetologically entirely unexplored.
With the exception of Timor, none of these islands shows any startling con-
ditions which would serve to separate it from the others zoologically. Their
fauna is almost exclusively Malayan, and there is no evidence whatever on the
herpetological side in support of the existence of what is known as Wallace's
Line between Bali and Lombok. There is a distinct Australasian tinge to
Timor. The Lesser Sunda Islands show species, sometimes known from one of
them, sometimes from another, which are common to both Java and Celebes,
but which are unknown on Borneo. What has been termed the Flores Bridge is
now one of the most satisfactorily established of all the land connections which
have been suggested in this area. It is evident that Celebes has received from
this Sunda group a very large portion of its herpetologic fauna; among some of
the species which may be mentioned as having utilized this Flores Bridge the fol-
lowing is typical — Rana microdisca is known from Sumatra, Java, Flores, and
Celebes. A large number of other species, which will be spoken of under the
note on Celebes, have without doubt used this same connection, for these species
have long been known both from Java and from Celebes, but owing to the fact
LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS. 29
that our knowledge of the fauna of these islands is very incomplete, have not
yet been found on any of the Lesser Sunda Islands.
The Sarasins have postulated a second bridge to account for such distribu-
tions as these, of which there are a considerable number. They propose a Java
Bridge, connecting Java and Celebes, as well as a Flores Bridge, extending from
Flores to Celebes.
That the Lesser Sunda Islands remained connected with one another after
their separation from Java and Celebes seems probable, because we find a con-
siderable number of species which are peculiar to the group and occur upon more
than one island.
Only two turtles are known from the area: — one, from Timor, distinctly
Malayan in its origin, is described as a subspecies of Amyda cartilaginea, but
it is probably specifically distinct, and may be known as A. newtoni Ferreira;
the other is Chelodina novae-guineae, which has been reported by van Lidth de
Jeude from Rotti, a small island almost a part of Timor.
Crocodilus porosus is the single crocodilean in the region ; so far we know it
is from Timor only, though there is no reason to suppose that it does not occur
upon the other islands.
Lizards are recorded from the various islands as follows: — from Bali, a
single species, the wide-ranging and common Cryptoblepharis boutonii; from
Lombok seven; from Flores, eleven; from Ombaai nine; from Timor eleven;
and from Sumba eight.
The following lizards are peculiar to tliis group of islands, and are not
confined to a single island: — Draco timorensis occurs on Timor and Ombaai,
adjacent islands; Sphenomorphus florensis occurs on Flores, Ombaai, and Timor,
three islands which form an almost continuous series; *S'. emigrans occurs on
Flores and Sumba, again a case of adjacent islands. Varanus timorensis, on
the other hand, has a widely discontinuous range; while originally described
from Timor, it has since been found in Queensland, but, so far as is known, does
not occur elsewhere.
The genus Gonyocephalus is absent from all these islands, though species
are known from both sides of the region, viz. from the Greater Sunda Islands,
and from New Guinea; this anomalous condition is probably to be explained
by the fact that the distribution took place through land bridges which include
some of the Philippines, where species also occur, so that the dispersal of this
genus had nothing to do with the region under discussion.
Of snakes, again, we know from Bali only a single, common wide-ranging
30 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
form, Hurria rhynchops, while from the other islands we have records as follows:
— from Lombok seven ; from Flores nine ; from Ombaai five ; from Timor
sixteen and from Sumba seven. Typhlops poJygrammicus has a distribution
similar to that of Varanus timorensis, except that it is recorded from various
parts of Australia instead of being confined to Queensland. Liasis fuscus, a
species of a Papuasian genus, occurs on Timor and also in British New Guinea
and Queensland; L. macloti is found upon Timor and the two small islands of
Sa\ai and Samao, Ijang near by. Python timorensis occurs on both Timor and
Flores. Naia naia, using the name in its broad sense, has been found in this
group on both Flores and Ombaai. The distribution of the genus Calamaria, so
far as it goes, resembles that of the saurian Gonyocephalus ; and although
members of the genus occur on Java on the one side, and in Celebes to the
north, not a single one has been reported from this group of islands. Here again
the genus is reported as existing on the Philippines. The genus Cylindrophis
has a somewhat peculiar distribution. The records which I have found are as
follows : — from Burma, Cochin China, Siam, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
Borneo, Java, Celebes, and Batjan, but on neither the Philippines nor any one
of the Lesser Sunda chain. A single peculiar species, however, occurs on Lom-
bok and another in Djampea; they are respectively C. opisthorhodus and C. iso-
lepis, so that the distribution is not in reality a discontinuous one after all.
So far as known, comparatively few forms are confined to a single island.
Thus, we know only two peculiar lizards on Flores; three on Timor and one on
Sumba. None has been described as peculiar to Bali, Lombok, or Ombaai.
Among snakes there is one strictly peculiar species each upon Lombok, Flores,
Timor, and Sumba.
Regarding the amphibians, I take van Kampen's records directly as they
stand; though he bases several of them, as he himself remarks, only upon
Bleeker's notoriously inaccurate reports. We find the following: — -upon Bali,
two species; upon Lombok, five; upon Flores, six, with one peculiar species;
upon Ombaai, two; Timor, three; and Sumba, three. Of peculiar interest is
the single species of Sphenophryne, S. monticola, which is confined to Lombok.
This distinctly Papuan genus occurs elsewhere, outside of New Guinea, only
upon Djampea and Celebes, where two species occur. This is another excellent
piece of evidence of a land connection, though it does not, of course, necessarily
suggest a direct connection between Celebes and Lombok; it may be mentioned,
however, that the long string of Paternoster or Tenga, and Postilion or Sabalana
Islands stretch in a direct line between Lombok and Celebes. Hylidae, absent
LESSER SUNDA ISLANDS. 31
on the Greater Sunda Islands, and also on Celebes, are present in this group,
one species, Hyla everetti, being confined to Ombaai, Timor, Savu, and Sumba;
while the Papuasian, H. dolichopsis, has been reported from Timor, though it
must be confessed that the same form has also turned up recently on Java as an
accidental immigrant; it is not, however, as likely to have been accidentally
introduced into Timor.
Since the preceding pages were written I have received the report on the
reptile and amphibian collections of the Elbert-Sunda-Expedition des Frankfurter
Vereins fiii' geographie und statistic by Jean Roux. Three new species are
described: — Typhlops elberti Roux from Lombok, and Cylindrophis boulengeri
Roux, and Rana elberti Roux from the island of Wetter. This island remained
hitherto unexplored herpetologically, although the birds have been made known
by Rothschild's collectors. Aside from these interesting novelties the paper
records most important additions to the knowledge of the extension of the fauna
of southern Celebes to the islands of Kabaeiia and Buton. This condition was
exactly what might have been expected. From the island of Wetter, besides
the new species, six other reptiles were recorded, all species wide ranging through-
out the Archipelago except Splienomorphus florensis (M. Weber), which does
not range beyond the limits of the Lesser Sunda chain. On this island only two
amphibians were found; a new subspecies, or island race, of Rana tigerina,
called verruculosa Roux, and the new Rana elberti Roux.
From Lombok came the greatest surprises, which prove that, so far as
reptiles are concerned, the island is faunistically as Malayan as Bali. Among
the new discoveries were Gekko gecko (Linne), Draco volans Linne, Dibamus
novae-guineae Dum. & Bibr., Gonyosoma (called Coluber) oxycephala (Boie),
Elaphe (also called Coluber) subradiata (Schleg.), and Naia naia (Linne). The
addition of these to the list of species already known goes far to enable us to
form a more accurate idea of the existing conditions on this most important
island.
Among Amphibia we are most surprised to find Rana macrodon Dum. & Bihr.
and Rana modesta Blgr. existing on the same island. I had supposed that the
latter species was a derivative of the former, which had replaced the parent
species after isolation on Celebes. The individuals of R. modesta may have got
to Lombok by the Celebes-Lesser Sunda Bridge and then met again the parent
species, which had come earlier from Java to Lombok and remained specifically
unchanged upon that island. Thus R. modesta probably came by the same
route and contemporaneously with Sphenophryne. If earlier, it might con-
32 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
ceivably have found its way back to Java again, whence its original ancestors
came, by the direct bridge to Celebes. I have separated a Lombok specimen
of Bufo biporcatus Tschudi under the name of Bufo cavator. I note that Roux
makes no such separation. Other important records of Amphibia from Lombok
are Bufo celebensis Gthr., and Polypedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst) . The
other locality visited by Elbert was Sumbawa, an important member of the
Lesser Sunda group, herpetologically another terra incognita. From this island
ten species of reptiles were obtained, none of them new or of particular impor-
tance from a zoogeographic point of view. Rana tigerina Daudin and Rana
microdisca Bttgr. were the only species of Amphibia taken.
Celebes.
We have more accurate information regarding the zoogeographical relation-
ships of Celebes than of any other island in the entire archipelago. This is
almost entirely due to the remarkable collections, and studies based upon them,
by the cousins, Drs. P. and F. Sarasin. The third volume of their work on
"Celebes," in which they have published the results of their trip, is entitled
"Ueber die geologische geschichte der Insel Celebes auf grund der thierver-
breitung" (Wiesbaden, C. W. Kreidel's verlag, 1901). It contains a very full
and graphic explanation of the previous connections which, in their opinions,
Celebes has had with near by islands, and serves to show more fully than any
other work that has ever been published, how satisfactory a basis faunistic
studies form for the interpretation of geologic liistory. The explanations of the
Sarasins will be used in the general summary.
To turn directly to the reptiles and amphibians of the island, we may base
our notes on "A catalogue of the reptiles and batrachians of the Celebes, with
special reference to the collections made by Drs. P. and F. Sarasin, 1893-1896."
This is by Dr. G. A. Boulenger (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1897, p. 193-237, pi.
7-16). There are eighty-three reptiles and twenty-one amphibians recorded
from the island; thirteen lizards and sixteen snakes, or about thirty-six per cent
of the total number, are peculiar to it.
Among these, however, there is but one endemic genus, Rhabdophidium.
Among the amphibians eight, or about forty per cent — a very considerable
proportion — are restricted to Celebes.
Generally speaking, the relation to the western islands has been pointed
out by Boulenger to be much more intimate than that to the eastern islands;
CELEBES. 33
however, Papuasian affinity is shown in the presence of two pecuhar species of
the engystomatid genus Sphenophryne. The fact that scincids predominate
in the fauna of the island, the number of species being larger than that of any
other family, points at once to a more strongly eastern relationship of the fauna
than one would at first sight realize; for many of the species are peculiar to the
island, and as such do not figure in the counts of species known from either
east or west. Thus, considering the enormous predominance of the members
of this family in New Guinea, for instance, as against their extreme paucity in
Java or Sumatra, the presence of fourteen species of what may be broadly
termed Lygosomas serves at once to emphasize this eastern affinity. Some
species, as Natrix littata and N. chrysargoides, as also Calaviaria calamaria, are
found on Java and Celebes, but upon none of the islands of the Lesser Sunda
chain. To this category also belong C virgulata and Typhlops ater; whereas
among amphibians, Rana microdisca occurs on Celebes, on Java, and in the
Mentawei group. Examples of such distribution as this among the various
groups of animals have been made the basis for what the Sarasins call their
Java Bridge ; they maintain that this connection was direct, and had nothing
to do with the Lesser Sunda chain. In other groups of animals, however, dis-
tributions point directly to a bridge with this chain, and Flores has been accepted
as the island to which the connection most probably led, so that this has come
to be known as the Flores Briilge. Whether, however, in the light of the very
little which is known of the herpetology of most of the Lesser Sunda Islands,
the distribution of reptiles and amphibians bears out the distinctness or even
the existence of both of these bridges, it is difficult to say. Special relation to
the Philippines is shown, as Boulenger has pointed out, by a considerable number
of other species.
This brings us directly to another point which is of considerable interest,
viz. — the localization within Celebes of the distributions of various species.
We should expect the forms having closest relationship with the Philippines,
for instance, to occur especially on the Minahassa or northern peninsula of the
Island. This is not very strongly brought out, however, by the data at hand;
to be sure Dendrelaphis terrificus does occur in this locality only; on the other
hand R. microdisca occurs also only on the Minahassa, though it is a species
which we ha\'e spoken of as occurring elsewhere only in Java and the Mentawei
Islands. Any other of the local distributions, so far as we know them, are
equally anomalous; but we may readily imagine that a further special collection
in herpetology may change this.
34 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Timor-Laxjt.
Before proceeding to consider the various islands of the Moluccan groups,
it is proper to notice the herpetology of a small archipelago which presents a
rather anomalous condition. The Timor-Laut or Tenimber group hes about
two hundred miles almost directly eastward of Timor and about the same dis-
tance to the north of Melville Island off the coast of northern West Australia.
While the charts are deficient in soundings, they lead one to suppose that the
island is completely surrounded by water of great depth, from 200 to 900 fathoms ;
there are, however, no soundings on a direct line between Babar, Dawera, and
the small islands Selu, Wariari, and Sera, which lie off the west coast of Jamdena,
the largest island of the Tenimber group.
We owe our knowledge of the herpetology of this island to the collections
of H. 0. Forbes. Boulenger reported on "The coUection of reptiles and ba-
trachians from the Timor-Laut Islands, formed by Mr. H. 0. Forbes" (Proc.
Zool. soc. London, 1883, p. 386-388, pi. 41-42). The reptiles are so few in
number that it may be well to mention each species.
As might be expected, the Gekkos are wide-ranging forms, though it is
interesting to see that Gekko gecko (Linne) reaches here the eastern limit of its
range. It occurs also on both Timor and Celebes. Peropus mutilatus (Wiegm.)
Varanus indicus (Daud.), and Cryptoblepharus boutonii (Desj.) also were found,
all wide-ranging forms.
So far as we know, the scincids are but three in number, wide-ranging, and
generally Papuan in relationships. They are Riopa rufescens (Shaw), Emoia
cyanurum (Less.), and Dasia smaragdinum (Less.). The first mentioned may
prove to be an autocthonous species, as Boettger has separated the Halmahera
Riopa as R. mentovarium.
The agamids are very interesting. One of these is Physignathus maculila-
bris Blgr. This species belongs to a genus which occurs in Australia, Timor-
Laut, and the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The Tenimber species is closely similar
to P. gilberti (Gray) from Australia. The other agamid is Calotes cristatellus
Kuhl, which ranges from the Malay Peninsula through most of the islands as far
as Mysol. The representatives of this species on the islands from Celebes east-
ward may be referred to a subspecies, violuccanus Lesson; while those on Celebes
seem to be similarly recognizable, and may be known by the race name celebensis
Gthr.
Among the Ophidia we have with Python reticulatus (Schn.) e^•idences of
AMBON. 35
this sharply defined, two-fold origin, another species reaching here the eastern
limit of its range; while Holarchus forbesi (Blgr.) is the sole representative of
this typical Malayan genus east of Java. Such a genus, the species of which are
generally small and inconspicuous, with more or less subterranean habits, may
of course exist on the comparatively little-known islands of the Lesser Smida
group. Dr. Boulenger writes to me that there can be no doubt as to this Moluc-
can Holarchus, as it has been recently rediscovered by Mr. J. d'A. Pareira.
Chrysopelea rhodopleuron Boie is confined to the Moluccan groups, but has
Malayan affinities; while Python amethystinus (Schn.), Enygrus carinatus
(Schn.), and Dendrophis calligaster Gthr. are all obviously of Papuan origin.
The only three amphibians recorded are Rana papua Lesson, and Hyla
dolichopsis (Cope), both from New Guinea, and what van Kampen calls Hyla
rubella Gray. This is an Australian species related to Hyla congenita Peters and
Doria. Van Kampen had but a single bleached specimen, and some doubt is
justifiable as to which of these species he really had.
Ambon.
We begin considering the true Moluccas with Ambon (or Amboyna, as it
was formerly called), not on account of its importance geographically, but be-
cause of the fact that it was one of the earliest settlements in the East Indies,
and that collections have been made there since the very earliest times. Lying
near by is the larger island of Burn, and just northward of this isle are the three
islands of the Sula (Xulla) group. Their names are Taliabou, Mangola, and
Sula Besi. Of these three islands we know practically nothing, Buru being
better known as to its birds and some other groups. This forms the most
important region for investigation in the whole archipelago. A glance at the
chart shows that, without the shadow of a doubt, the Sula Islands formed the
site of the bridge which connected Celebes with the Moluccas on the one hand
and with New Guinea on the other. To use a single example, we may emphasize
the fact that the very distinct and highly specialized genus of swine which we call
by tlip Malayan name of deer-pig or Babirusa occurs on Celebes, the Sula Is-
lands, and Buru, and not elsewhere.
We have not considered all of the northern Moluccas at one time for the
reason that they differ very widely from one another in the relationships of their
faunae. With the exception of the island of Halmahera, none of them have been
fully explored, and one can speak of their relationships only in a tentative sort
of way, making use of the definite records which we have and leaving out of
36 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
account altogether numerous forms which without doubt occur, but which have
not as yet been found in modern collections where careful data have been pre-
served.
It may be well to caution students here against the frequency with which
species of the most improbable occiurence have been recorded in the past from
the two ancient settlements of Ambon and Ternate. In speaking of Java we
had occasion to mention how recently it had been supposed that there was a
Papuan element in the fauna there; and the occasion for such supposition was
based on just such records as these of which we complain here. Bleeker was the
chief offender in tliis direction. No further excuse is needed for disbelieving
Bleeker's records than the fact that in 1860 he recorded Calamaria calamaria,
Plyas korros, and Natrix subminiata all from Wahaai, Ceram, as well as a host
of other species equally impossible, from Ceram and other islands near bj^
Ambon possesses a single fresh-water tortoise, the wide-ranging Cyclemys
ambonensis (Daudin), and this species is also found on Bin-u. Crocodilus porosits
.Schn. is also reported from the former island. ■
Lizards are few in number. The wide-ranging Lepidodactylus luguhris
(Dum. & Bibr.) occurs, as well as two species of Gekko — the Malayan G. mon-
archus (Dum. & Bibr.) and Papuan G. vittatus Houttuyn, the latter reaching here
the western limit of its range, though occurring also on Burn. Another Malayan
derivative is Draco lineatus Daudin, the sole representative of the genus in the
Moluccan region. It has a circumscribed range, being at present known from
only four islands: — Ambon, Buru, Ceram, and Mysol. The latter island we
shall consider separately later on. It should be particularly noted here that, in
spite of the careful collecting on Halmahera, no Draco has been found there.
Caloies crisialellus Kuhl is found on most of the Moluccas, both ^Ambon and
Buru being in the list. Varanus vndicus (Daudin), another wide-ranging form,
is found on both islands. The Papuan Tiliqua gigas (Schneider) occurs on
Ambon, but not on Buru, as does also Dasia smaragdinum (Lesson). The
writer, however, saw what he was quite sure was this species, at Tifu in Buru,
though no other record exists, and the specimen unfortunately was not taken.
Leiolepisma fuscum (Dum. & Bibr.) and L. novae-guineae (Meyer) both occur
on Ambon. Emnia cyanurum (Lesson) is reported from both islands, and E.
baudinii (Dum. & Bibr.) is reported from Buru, but not from Ambon.
Boettger, in reporting on Kiikenthal's collection from Halmahera, separated
specifically a number of seines which had previously been supposed to be wide-
ranging forms, and as yet we do not know just how widely distributed these are
AMBON. ■ 37
in the Moluccas. For this reason, without material at hand for comparison,
it is impossible to say whether the Riopa occurring on Ambon is Merrem's
R. rufescens, long known from New Guinea and Queeasland, or whether it
represents R. mentovarium (Boettger), hitherto found only on Halmahera, and
replacing there R. rufescens, which was previously reported from that island.
Boulenger in a recent letter has written me that specimens from Ambon are
different from those from Halmahera. Specimens from Ceram, Obi, and other
neighboring islands, however, still require close comparison.
Cryptoblepharus houtonii (Desj . ) occurs also on both of the islands.
A list of the snakes follows : —
Python amethystinus (Schn.), of Papuan derivation.
P. reticulatus (Schn.), of Malayan derivation.
Enygrus carinatus (Schn.), of Papuan derivation.
Brachyorrhus albus (Linne), of Papuan origin.
Stegonohis modestus (Schlegel). Boulenger writes me that Ambon speci-
mens can not be distinguished from Papuan.
Oligodon bitorquatus Boie, a Javan species, like others omitted here, and
probably erroneously reported from Ambon.
Hurria rhynchops (Schn.), a freely swimming form of Malayan origin.
Boiga irregularis (Bechstein), specifically Papuan in origin, occurring through-
out the Moluccas. The genus Boiga is, of course, Malayan, as is also Python.
Chrysopelea rhodopleuron Boie, Moluccan representative of a Malayan
genus.
Of the amphibians, Rana grunniens Daudin has the same impossible
distribution mentioned before, Java and Ambon.
Phrynomaniis fusca Peters is foimtl only upon Ambon and Batanta, and
is probably incorrectly placed in this wholly African genus. Hyla amboinensis
Horst is confined to Ambon and Mysol. H. dolichopsis (Cope), a wide-ranging
Papuan species which, as we now know, has been transplanted by human agency
as far as Java, occurs also on both islands.
To sum up in a few words the conditions here, we find that, in spite of
geographic proximity to Papua, we are still in what may be called the transition
zone. Timor-Laut, these islands of the Moluccas, and even, as we shall show
later, Mysol, all have a number of Malayan forms, as well as generally even more
Papuan forms, which are the ones we should expect to predominate to a greater
extent than is actually the case. We are now, to be sure, on the extreme limit
of the true Malayan herpetological fauna; and, although it is so conspicuous
38 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
throughout the Moluccas, varjang, it is true, among the different groups, only
one or two Malayan species at most reach the mainland of Papua. Yet there
are many genera which are characteristic of the western islands represented by
well-defined peculiar species of local origin.
Ceram.
Certain peculiarities regarding the fauna of this island make it necessary
to speak of it separately, and to include it neither with Ambon or Burn on the
one hand, — though it would seem to be intimately related to Ambon hydro-
graphically, — nor with the Halmahera group, from which it is separated by a
wide and deep channel, on the other hand. The island itself is of considerable
size and, so far as its reptiles and amphibians go, is incompletely explored. The
interior is mountainous, and still inhabited by many tribes as yet unsubdued
by the Dutch and dangerous to the traveller. It is about 200 miles long, and
varies in width from twenty-five to fifty miles. It is connected by numerous
small islands, which are separated from each other by what appear to be shallow
channels, — though here again plentiful soundings are wanting, — with the Ke
Islands, which lie to the southeast. It is along this route that an ancient con-
nection with New Guinea may have existed. There may have been a double
bridging here, to Ke, on the one hand, and on the other to Mysol.
There are no tortoises recorded from the island. Crocodilus porosus Schn.
is said to occur, though no record of it has been published, so far as I know.
I have, however, myself seen the tracks of crocodiles in the mud in mangrove
swamps on the south coast of Ceram, and there is no doubt as to their being
of this species. Omitting the older and doubtful accounts of Bleeker, we find
few recent definite records. They are as follows : —
Of saurians these — Gekko vittatus Houttuyn, a Papuan form.
Draco lineatus Daudin, a Moluccan representative of a Malayan genus.^
Calotes cristatellus Kuhl, Malayan in origin.
Varanns indicus (Daud.), Papuasian.
Tiliqua gigas (Schn.), Papuan in origin.
Mabuya muUifasciata Kuhl., a Malayan form.
Dasia smaragdinum (Lesson), wide-ranging throughout the whole archi-
pelago, but probably Papuan in origin.
Leiolepisma fuscum (Dum. & Bibr.), Papuan.
' Werner, in a recent paper (Mitt. Nat. mus. Hamburg, 1910, 23, p. 20), has recorded Dracn timoren-
sis Kuhl. from Ceram. This is most surprising and needs confirmation.
CERAM. 39
Lygosoma muelleri (Schlegel), Papuan; reported also from Ternate by-
Peters & Doria; this record, however, needs verification, as the species was not
found by Kiikenthal in his extensive collecting on Ternate and Halmahera,
nor had other collectors found it there up to the time Boettger wrote his account
of the- Kiikenthal collection. I showed a Ceram specimen of L. muelleri to
many inteUigent natives of Ternate, including indeed AU, the faithful companion
of Wallace during his many journeys, now an old man, and all agreed that they
had not seen such a lizard before.
Dihamus novae-guineae Dum. & Bibr., a burrowing form, which has been
found sporadically from the Malay Peninsula to New Guinea.
Of Ophidia these — Typhlops braminus (Daud.), almost omnipresent in
the eastern tropics.
Python amethystinus (Schn.), Papuan.
P. reticulatus (Schn.), Malayan.
Enygxus carinatus (Schn.), Papuan.
Natrix elongata (Jan.), confined to this island.
Stegonolus cuculatus (Dum. & Bibr.), Papuan; found also in Queensland.
It occurs on Ceram alone, of all the Moluccas.
*S. modestus (Dum. & Bibr.), Papuan.
• Dendrophis pidus (Gmelin),- Malayan.
Hurria rhynchops (Schn.), wider-ranging, semi-aquatic.
Fordonia leucobalea (Schleg.), of the same habits as Hurria.
Boiga irregularis (Bech.), Papuan representative of a Malayan genus.
Chrysopelea rhodoplcuron Boie, a Moluccan representative of a Malayan
genus.
Pseudelaps muelleri (Schl.), a Papuan species found on this i.sland alone,
of all the Moluccas.
Acanthophis antarcticus (Shaw), a Papuan species found west of New Guinea
only on Ceram and the Ke Islands.
Of amphibians fewer still have been recorded. Hyla dolichopsis (Cope)
occurs, as it does on many other islands near by. H. vagabunda Peters and Doria
has been found, west of New Guinea, on this island alone. H. kampeni Barbour
is, so far as known, confined to this island. Cornufer corrugatus (A. Dum.)
occurs in Coram, whence specimens liave just been received, and so probably
on Ceram also.
It will be seen by examining these lists that both among reptiles and amphi-
bians there are Papuan forms which have not been found upon any other of the
40 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Moluccas than Ceram, even though this island is one of the least known. There
can be no doubt about these records, as I have taken several of the Papuan
species myself, both at Wahaai on the north coast, and at Piru on the south,
and several other collectors have also reported them. This strong and peculiar
Papuan element can only mean that the connection of New Guinea with Ceram
was independent of its connection with the other islands. As yet there are
hardly sufficient soundings to indicate where this connection lay, though the
fact that Acanthophis antarcticus (Shaw) also occurs on the Ke Islands, and the
close hydrographic relationship of Ceram of this group through the chain of
small islands already referred to would suggest that there had certainly been a
connection with Papua by way of the Ke islands. Nevertheless the Ke Islands
are very far from having such a typical Papuan fauna as the Aru Islands have.
Then, too, the fact that Draco lineatus Daud. occurs on the island of Mysol, of
which I shall speak separately, suggests a different route of migration. Possibly
both bridges have existed, though at different geologic periods.
Mysol.
If there was any reason for drawing a line such as Wallace proposed between
Bali and Lombok, as a faunal limit, such a line might well be passed between
Mysol and New Guinea. For the Malayan fauna may be followed as far as
this island, which is the ultimate statioii to which Malayan species have ex-
tended specifically unchanged. The island does not, however, form a western
boundary of the Papuan fauna.
This small and rather isolated island is separated by a shallow sea from New
Guinea, the nearest large island, the strait being not more than forty-five or
fifty miles wide, and from 8 to 25 fathoms in depth. It is separated also by what
is apparently comparatively shallow water from the small islands of Kofiau,
Kalap, Popa, and others which reach out towards the soutliern extension of
Halmahera, this island itself being distant some hundred miles in a northwesterly
direction. Southward of Mysol, between it and the nearest point of the island
of Ceram — a cape near Wahaai — there intervene about 55 miles of what
appears to be indeed deep water. Two soundings in this immediate region
give 462 and 673 fathoms respectively, and just to the eastward there is another
depth of 995 fathoms. The island, like most of the others in its vicinity, is
almost entirely unknown, but we record here only those species which are now
known from Mysol with considerable probability of accuracy. Many of these
records are based upon specimens which are mentioned by Boulenger in his
MYSOL. 41
Catalogue as coming from Mysol; others are records taken from the collections
reported upon by Peters and Doria, and others.
No turtles nor crocodiles appear among the definite records up to the present
time. Boulenger has recorded ^ Gekko nionarchus (Dum. & Bibr.) on the basis
of a male antl female in the British Museum. G. vittatus Houttuyn appears,
as might be expected. *Draco lineatus Daudin occurs, as well as *Calotes cris-
tatellus Kuhl.
Few seines are recorded. They are Tiliqua gigas (Schn.), Dasia smaragdi-
num (Lesson), Leiolepisma fuscmn (Dum. & Bibr.), and Eitwia cyanurum (Les-
son). Many more surely remain to be found.
Of snakes we know only very few. Typhlops olivaceus (Gray) is said to
occur, but this is almost certainly an error, for the species occurs elsewhere only
in the Philippines and Borneo. Python amethijstinus (Schn.), Emjgrus carinatus
(Schn.), and E. asper (Gthr.) are recorded. The last here reaches the western
limit of its range. Stegonotus modestus (Schlegel), *Dendrophis pidus (Gmelin),
Boiga irregularis (Bech.), *Chrysopelea rhodopleuron Boie, and Pseudelaps
muelleri (Schl.) close the list of reptiles.
There are three species of amphibians. Hyla amboinensis Horst is found
only upon this island and Ambon, which is the type locahty. The wide-ranging
H. dolichopsis (Cope) occurs, while H. aruensis Horst was originally described
from both the Aru Islands and Mysol. It possibly occurs in Papua also.
Now, it will be seen by looking at these notes that we have to deal with
certain species reaching this island from the west which are on Ceram but not
on Halmahera, though other species are of course also found on that island as
well. However, the series of species as a whole shoWs a much closer relationship
to that of Ceram, an island separated by deep water, than it does to that of
Halmahera, an island connected by strings of islets which are separated from each
other by only shallow straits. It would seem at first that this condition might
be accounted for either upon the ground that we did not know Halmahera
sufficiently well, or that these species have reached Mysol by accidental carriage.
But, first, I can not believe that, if the forms existed on Halmahera, now so well
known, they would not have been found long ere this, and secondly, if we had to
account for the occiu-rence of only one or two species on Mysol, we might expect
accidental carriage to be responsible, but this is not likely to be the case where
we have a considerable number of species to account for upon an island which,
' Species marked with an asteripk reach here the extreme eastern limit of their range (five out of
eighteen or nearly twenty per cent).
42 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
like Mysol, is one of the least known and least visited of the islands in its vicinity.
Mysol is important neither to the Malayan traders nor to the whites, from a
commercial point of view. There are no large settlements on the island, and
it is not as frequently visited as are some points on the mainland of New Guinea.
Nevertheless, the more or less haphazard distribution of the three species of
Hyla would favor the view that accidental introduction may have played a part
here. Furthermore it is entirely possible that in the list of reptiles have been
included one or more records which should be eliminated. At any rate, the fact
remains that, so far as we now know, Mysol shares with Timor- Laut a position
on the Malayan zoological frontier, though it remains much more of an enigma
as regards the derivation of its fauna than does the other group of islands.
Halmahera Group.
None of the other Moluccan Islands is so well known herpetologically as
are these; and a most complete resume of their reptilian fauna has been written
by Boettger (Abh. Senck. nat. ges. 1900-3, 25, p. 325-375, pi. 14-16). The
islands of the group, consisting of the large island of Halmahera, with the small
islands of Ternate and Batjan lying near by, are the ones where Klikenthal
made the collections on which Boettger's paper is based. Other islands of the
group less known are Tidor and Morotai. Farther to the south, and quite
unknown herpetologically, lies the island of Obi. All of the Halmahera group,
with the exception of Obi, are close together, separated from one another by
only shallow water, though between Halmahera and Obi there is deep water,
from 808 to over 1 ,000 fathoms. Between the group as a whole and New Guinea
there is the not unusual condition of a string of small islands with deep water
between and about them. Obi was once doubtless connected to the old bridge
between Halmahera and New Guinea. The island does not seem ever to have
been joined to any otlier land except this bridge, which is now gone, leaving
only many small islands to show where it once existed. As a matter of fact,
soundings are so few in this region that it is hard to see what is connected by
submarine banks, and what is separated by chasm-like straits. However, a long
series of islands, as if a continuation of the southern peninsula of Halmahera,
stretches out towards Mysol and Salawati. None of these seem to be separated
by water more than 60 fathoms deep. To the northward, again, lies the Papuan
island of Gebe, directly between the southeastern peninsula of Halmahera and
the Papuan island of Waigiu. The water between these islands seems to be
much deeper, though there are no soundings available in a direct line between
HALMAHERA GROUP. 43
them. We should expect, then, from the conditions here, that this group of
islands would show a much stronger preponderance of Papuan forms than the
Ambon group, and as a matter of fact this is the case. To sum up, we conclude
that Halmahera was joined to both Celebes and Papua; while Obi had an erst-
while indirect connection with both by being part of the old Halmahera-Papua
commissure.
Twenty-five lizards are recorded, six of which are peculiar to the island.
One of these is a species of Gehyra, a genus of usually wide-ranging species;
while the others are all species of Lygosoma, using the generic term in its broad-
est sense. They are closely related to other Papuan species, and in many cases
have been considered identical until a very short time ago. It is strange to
see these Papuan species replaced in Halmahera by distinct forms, whereas in
the Ambon group, so far as I can discern, individuals occur which are indis-
tinguishable from Papuan examples, even though the island seems less closely
related geographically to the Papuan region than does Halmahera.
Of all the species of lizards, only two can be said to be preeminently Malayan;
these are Calotes cristatellus (Kuhl) and Mabuya multifasciata (Kuhl). The fact
that there are fourteen Lygosomas shows how preponderating is the Papuan
element among the lizards.
Of snakes there are seventeen, not counting the sea-species; and of these,
six are peculiar to the island, two of them belonging to genera Styporhynchus
and Calamorhabdium, not occurring elsewhere. The Malayan Python reticu-
latus (Schn.) occurs here, along with P. amethystijius (Schn.), which does not
go west of Timor. The distribution of Cylindrophis rufus (Laur.), Ptyas
dipsas (Schlegel), Typhlops ater Schl., and Tesludo farstenii (Schl. & Miill.),
if it exists on the island, wMch I now doubt very much, shows that there was
once direct connection between Celebes and Halmahera, perhaps through the
Sula Islands, or perhaps by an independent bridge to the north of that group.
A connection with Celebes through Obi is very improbable on hydrographic
grounds. The Ambon group and especially Buru seem far more intimately
related to the Sula Islands than these are to the islands about Halmahera.
Two species of Natrix and a Dendrophis, all confined to the island, are, of
course, of Malay origin, although evidently modified by long isolation here.
The other snakes are Papuan.
I have spoken already of the single land-tortoise, Tesludo forstenii Schl.
& Miill., a rare, species, reported from Celebes and Halmahera though it is
probably absent from the latter; while only a single fresh-water tortoise occurs,
44 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
*
the wide-ranging Cyclemys amboinensis (Daud.)- Crocodilus porosus Schn. is
also known.
Of the amphibians, eight in number, we find that four are peculiar, two
representing genera not known elsewhere, Phrynixalus and Oreophryne.
Broadly speaking, these show affinities much more Papuan than Malayan, as
do also the other amphibians, except the two species of Rana. One of these is
Rana moluccana Bttgr., closely related to Rana varians Boulenger, which is a spe-
cies originally described from the island of Palawan in the southern Philippines,
but since discovered on Celebes; so that here again the direct connection with
Celebes is emphasized. The other frog, which is recorded as Rana macrodon
Dum. & Bibr., more probably represents R. modesta Blgr., which replaces the
former species upon Celebes and Talaut, and has been reported by van Kampen
from the island of Nusalaut near Ambon.
To sum up, we see that this group of Moluccas shows conditions decidedly
different from those which we have already indicated for Ceram and the islands
about Ambon. In many cases these northern islands show a closer relationship
to Papua than do the others; though, strangely enough, such characteristic
Papuan genera as Acanthophis and Pseudelaps occur upon Ceram, but not
upon Halmahera, to say nothing of the fact that upon Ceram also we find the
avian genus Casuarius, which occurs along with Acanthophis in the Ke Islands.
These discrepancies can not in this case be explained by probable ignorance
of the conditions, for the island of Halmahera we now know well. The only
explanation possible is either two independent connections with New Guinea,
or else a separation at different times of these two islands from a common land-
mass stretching out towards Papua. The hydrography of the region leads one
to believe most strongly, one might almost say surely, that there were two,
possibly more, separate connections. Halmahera was connected with Salawati
along the line of the many small islands now existing, and Obi joined to this
same bridge; while Ceram and Ambon may well have received their Papuan
types by means of a connection passing through the Ke Islands.
Ke Islands.
The Ke (variously spelled K^, Kay, Kei, Key, etc.), or Ewaf Islands are a
small, heavily forested group lying directly south of Cape van den Bosch of the
Kumawa district, Dutch New Guinea. They are distant from this point some
seventy miles, and from the southeast point of Ceram some 160 miles. The
group itself consists of the island of Nuhu Jut, which is fifty miles long and only
KE ISLANDS. 45
a few miles wide; Nuhu Roa, some 20 miles long and ten miles wide; as well as
a large number of islets of varying size, on one of wliich the town of Tual is
situated, the main settlement of the group, the island being of the same name.
The islands are, one might say, almost connected with Ceram; for the few
soundings are of depths of only about a hundred fathoms, while many islands
lie in a direct line and form a chain with many submerged banks and reefs just
awash between them. Between the Ke Islands and the Ai-u Islands, and be-
tween the Ke Islands and New Guinea, the depth of water seems to be much
greater. There are a number of soundings off towards the .\i-u Islands reaching
the depth of almost 2,000 fathoms; and towards the Lsland of Adi, off the New
Guinea coast, almost as great a depth has been found.
These conditions at once associate the islands rather with the Moluccas
than with the true Papuan groups; although, as we find on studying the records
for the fauna, the Papuan element seems predominant. Our hydrographic
knowledge of the region is too limited to say surely that there are no sub-
marine evidences of connection with either New Guinea or the Aru Islands.
If such evidences do not exist, we have simply another added case which shows
how dangerous it is to rely exclusively upon data of this sort for the recon-
struction of past land connections. That this connecting area was one of
comparatively recent date, geologically speaking, is evidently proved by the
intimate faunal relationship which the Ke Islands have with true Papuasia.
It has been customary in the past to speak of the Ke and Aru groups as both
being purely Papuasian in their fauna. This is perfectly true of the Aru Islands,
but the Ke Archipelago shows strongly the influence of its direct relationship
with Ceram.
There has just appeared an exhaustive study of the herpetology of these
two groups from the pen of Dr. Jean Roux (Abh. Senck. nat. ges., 1910, 33, p.
211-247, taf. 13-14). Dr. Roux's data are especially valuable inasmuch as he
adds considerably to the list which we previously had of species from both these
groups. The following notes are made up largely from his list.
The snakes are nine in number, three of which are species of Typhlops;
one, T. kraalii Doria, is pecuUar to the island, and another, T. muUilineatus
Schl., is found both at Tual and in Dutch New Guinea. The other species are
Python amethystinus (Schn.), Stegonoius modestus (Schl.), S. cucullatus (Dum. &
Bibr.), Dendrophis calUgasier Gthr., Boiga irregularis (Bechsf.), and A canthophis
aniarcticus (Shaw). These, as may be seen at a glance, are forms of Papuan
origin; yet nearly all of them occur in the Moluccas as well. The distribution
46 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
of Acanthophis antarcticus (Shaw) is important, as we know almost certainly
that in the Moluccas it is confined to Ceram. It has long been known from the
Ke Islands; and now Roux records it from Aru, as well; so that its migration
route to Ceram is plainly seen. Were it not for such species as this one and the
Stegonotus, we might be incUned to imagine, in view of the great depth of water
about the islands, that the Papuan species had reached Ke fortuitously.
This explanation, however, could not of course apply to any such number
of species when we take the lizards into consideration as well. Of these Roux
records twenty-one species. Five are wide-ranging members of the Gekkonidae,
and their presence is not significant. Gekko vittatus Hout. and Gekko monarchus
(Dum. & Bibr.) both occur; the former Malayan, and the latter of Papuan
affinity. Then, of the Agamidae, Roux records for the first time Physignathus
temporalis (Gthr.), a species hitherto known from Queensland and Papua only;
while on page 247 he remarks that Werner has reported Draco lineatus Daud.,
and has described D. ochropterus Werner, both from this group. As a matter
of fact, D. lineatus was first recorded a long time ago, so that it is not especially
surprising to find another peculiar species present. And in view of what we
know of the distribution of such species as Acanthophis antarcticus, and the
avian genus Casuarius, it is hard to understand why in regard to the Draco
records Roux wrote: —
"Mit diesem Fund wiirde in die herpetologische Fauna der Kei-Inseln ein
Element hineintreten, welches fur eine fruhere Relation dieses Archipels mit
den mehr westlich gelegenen Inseln (sei es nordwestlich oder siidwestlich)
sprechen wiirde.
"Eine weitere Bestatigung dieser Fundortsangabe ware wiinschenswert."
We have already remarked on the hydrographic evidence, so we need do
no more than call attention to it again in this connection.
Other lizards are abundant. The wide-ranging Varanus indicus (Daud.)
is found commonly, as well as the geographical race of Tiliqua gigas (Schn.)
subsp. keiensis Oud. The other seines number eleven species; and, though
Sphenomorphus kuhnei (Roux) and Leiolepisma beccarii (Peters. & Dor.) are
peculiar to the islands, still the great majority are of direct Papuan origin, and
might be expected to occur. One species should be mentioned specially, and
that is Lygosoma muelleri (Schl.). Tliis species is rare, extremely retiring in its
habits, and seems to be generally confined to the dense forest. It is certainly
not one which could by any chance have been carried about by human agency.
Roux records it from both Ke and Aru. It was previously known, he says,
ARU ISLANDS. 47
only from New Guinea and Ceram. As a matter of fact there is a record for
Ternate, but it is quite unsubstantiated. This distribution is directly compara-
ble to that of the Death-adder, and as such is most interesting.
So far, we know of only two amphibians from the Ke Islands : — Hyla doli-
chopsis (Cope) , which we know to be easily carried about, and Cornufer corrugatus
(Dum.), which does not seem so likely to have had a similar history. The
absence of amphibians in this case, however, must not be taken as offering evi-
dence against a land connection. Van Kampen has shown that the land con-
nections were probably in many cases so narrow as to lack suitable places where
amphibians might breed. Very probably the connections which existed here
were of this nature, and so very transitory that amphibians could not pass
across them. There is no special need to postulate that these Ke Island con-
nections had any special relation to the migration to New Guinea of its amphibian
fauna.
Aru Islands.
The Aru Islands differ considerably in physical features on the one hand
from the Ke Islands, which lie near by, and on the other hand from the opposite
coast of New Guinea. The group consists of what was probably recently a
single large low-lying island, heavily forested, and with many swamps and
estuarine water ways. Lying in general in a north and south direction, it is
some hundred miles long by forty-five miles wide. The divisions at the present
time are into low-lying islands, simply separated by swampy creeks; and the
major divisions are five in number — Kola, Wokam, Kobror, Koba, and Teran-
gan. To the westward lies the small island of Wammer, on which is the re-
nowned trading settlement of Dobo. Numerous other islands to the eastward
and southeastward are separated from the main land-masses by water only a
few feet deep. The group lies on the edge of a submerged bank of enormous
extent, which reaches out to the northeastward from Melville Island and the
Coburg Peninsula of AustraUa away to the western portion of New Guinea.
The major portion of the Arafura Sea is from 30 to 70 fathoms in depth; while
in the region in which we are interested — that is, between the Aru Islands and
the Timoraka district off New Guinea and Prince Frederick Henry's Island —
the depth of water runs from 16 to 25 or 28 fathoms. Between New Guinea and
Timor-Laut the water is deep — 459, 592 and 650 fathoms being depths which
are given on the most recent Dutch Admiralty charts; while the still greater
depths previously mentioned occur between the Aru and Ke groups. We see
at once, then, from this that these islands may be considered almost an integral
48 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
part of Papua itself. It has been customary to mention together in the same
category both the Ke and the Aru Islands, and to consider them both as purely
Papuan groups. This, however, is not justifiable, for the differentiation between
them is very strongly marked indeed.
In drawing up these notes on the Aru Islands, use has been made of the
same paper by Roux which was referred to under the Ke Islands. We may note,
however, that among the species which he records in this paper on page 212
"zum erstenmal fiir die Aru-Inseln nachgewiesenen Arten" appears Chondro-
python viridis (Schlegel), which, as a matter of fact, was described by Schlegel
from specimens from the Aru Islands, so that this is really the type locality
for the species.
Roux also fails to point out a very fundamental difference between the
fauna of the Ke and Aru groups. This is largely, to be sure, one of degree,
many Papuan species occurring in Aru which do not get to Ke, while the species
in Ke are also Papuan and found in Aru. The important point is that many of
the species reach beyond Ke into the Moluccas; so that the important break
in the fauna occurs between Ke and Aru, and not between these two groups and
the Moluccas, the connection between Papua and Aru e^'idently having con-
tinued for a very long time after the break just mentioned took place.
It is hardly necessary to discuss the fauna here in detail. It is practically
that of New Guinea itself; and even the differences are unimportant, in view
of the fact that any of the species supposedly confined to Aru may possibly be
found at any time in the little-known regions of New Guinea lying across the
straits.
Curiously enough Typhlops seems to be absent, as also Stegonotus cucullatus
(Dum. & Bibr.), which occurs upon Ke and New Guinea. It has probably
simply not yet been found here. Otherwise all the Papuan snakes occurring
in Ke are found here, with Natrix doriae Blgr., and Glyphodon irisiis Gthr.
added; while Roux found also Myron richardsonii Gray, which was pre\'iously
known only from northern Australia.
The lizards number twenty-eight, of which two are peculiar — SpJieno-
niorphus aruanus (Roux) and S. rufus (Blgr.). Lialis burionii Gray was one
of Roux's most interesting discoveries, emphasizing the extremely close Papuan
affinity; while on the other hand the occurrence of Gekko monarchus (Dum. &
Bibr.) is unique, in that the species is derived from the west. This Gekko is a
rare species throughout its range, and one which would seem very unlikely to
be carried so far accidentally; if such a fate is not wholly improbable, at least
NEW GUINEA. 49
it is much less likely than for many other of its more common congeners, and
yet these do not seem to have attained to anything like so wide a range. We
find Gekko monarchus on Mysol, Ke, and Aru, and its distribution suggests at
once that it is really a very ancient species indeed, though the form is not one
which offers other evidence of its antiquity.
The amphibians are purely Papuan, and number eight. Microbatrachus
pusillus Roux represents a genus and species peculiar to the group, but one
which will probably in time be found on New Guinea. The only other local
form is Sphenophryne mertoni Roux. Curiously enough Cornufer corrugatus
has not yet been found, though it probably exists still undiscovered along with
other species.
New Guinea.
The enormous island of New Guinea lies directly south of the equator,
with its northwest projection at 131 degrees east of Greenwich, and its southwest
end at 151 degrees; so that the island is something over 1,200 miles long, while
it varies in width from a narrow neck of land, where the McClure Gulf cuts
almost through to the Wandamman Bay — a distance of only about twelve
miles — to the width of almost 400 miles at the points where the 139th and the
142nd parallels cross the island. As everyone knows, the interior of the island
is still largely unexplored. Various expeditions have searched the Arfak moun-
tains in the northwest, and are now at work upon the Charles Louis and the
Snow Mountains in the southwestern portion; while in British New Guinea,
southeast, and German New Guinea, northeast, various expeditions have brought
back important collections from the different mountain ranges. It was doubted
for many years whether the reports that snow mountains existed were true.
Recently they have been found both by Dutch and by British expeditions, and
their great height — over 17,000 feet — verified. Still the great central area
of the land, lying along the Dutch boundary, is entirely unknown.
A word regarding the political divisions of the island, as they will be spoken
of often. All land west of the 141st parallel is Dutch. The remainder, to the
eastward, is divided between Germany and England, the British possessing
the Torres Strait region, a zone rather larger than that held by the Germans
on the Pacific coast.
The fauna is distinctive in all groups of animals. It is not purely Australian,
as formerly was supposed. To be sure, a number of species occur in common
with Australia, and a still larger number of genera; but the range in Australia
50 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
of the great majority of these is limited to the Cape York Peninsula region of
Queensland, which undoubtedly within a short time formed an integral part of
Papua itself, and may indeed be considered more Papuan than Australian.
The rest of Australia — that part of the continent where were evolved the great
hordes of typical Australian forms — was probably separated from northern
Queensland until just before the break took place through Torres Strait. The
fauna of the Bismarck .Aj-chipelago, of the Louisiade Islands, and of the Solo-
mons is truly Papuan, and shows little affinity to that of Austraha, except inas-
much as some of these same Papuan forms occur which are now found to be
common to both New Guinea and Queensland. As would be expected, these
species are more common in that part of New Guinea which lies directly opposite
Cape York Peninsula than they are in the western, Dutch section; though
many of them are wide-ranging, and some reach out to those islands in the
Moluccas where the'Papuan element in the fauna is distinctly traceable.
No single true Malayan species is found in this whole region, except Dibamus
novae-guineae, which may not be Malayan at all. A number of Malayan genera,
however, occur, some of these reaching to Queensland itself.
Regarding New Guinea, again, it is only fair to say that we are hampered
by lack of knowledge; and nearly every year new genera, especially among the
inconspicuous burrowing forms, are being discovered; so that sets of figures
showing proportionate relationships between the different elements in the fauna
here may vary greatly from year to year.
Among the Amphibia conditions are of especial interest. The family of
Cystignathidae, which is so characteristic of both Australia and South America,
and serves to emphasize the relationship between these two areas, has only
recently been found upon Papuan soil; while the enormous predominance of
engystomatids observed by van Kampen has served him as the basis of a \'ery
ingenious theory regarding the coming of amphibians to New Guinea from the
mainland of Asia. Now, we know, from recent data, that the life histories of
many of these engystomatid amphibians are similar to those which have long
been known for certain New World species, such as the classic Eleutherodactylus
martinicensis (Ptrs.) ; that is, they skip their larval stage, and the life cycle is
completed within the egg, which is placed for incubation either in soft mud,
damp ground, or in the little collections of moisture which are held in the axils
of leaves of so many tropical plants, bromeliaceous, and others. This is dis-
tinctly and at once evidently an adaptation to regions where only small amounts
of standing water are usually met with. Van Kampen maintains that the
NEW GUINEA. 51
connections which New Guinea previously had through the Moluccas with the
Malayan islands were narrow necks of land where standing water was probably
almost non-existent, and that for this reason the engystomatids which had
taken up this method of development were the most fitted to pass over these
commissures to what is now New Guinea itself. Members of the family occur
throughout the whole area, but only sparingly until the Papuan region is reached,
where they immediately become the most prominent feature of the amphibian
fauna, and attain to an enormous diversity.
Van Kampen's views have been well expressed twice: once in a paper on,
the amphibian fauna of New Guinea (Nova Guinea — Resultats de I'expedi-
tion scientifique Neerlandaise a la Nouvelle Guinee. Zool. 1909, 9, p. 31-49,
pl. 2) ; and again in a most enlightening lecture which he delivered before the
Royal natural history society of Batavia, entitled "De zoogeografie van den
Indischen Archipel (Separate from Bijblad, Natuurkundig tijdschrift voor
Ned.-Indie, 1909, 3, 4, p. 1-24, map). Of this I iiave jjublished an EngUsli
translation (Amer. nat., 1911, 45, p. 537-500).
The chelonians of New Guinea, while not abundant in number of species,
nevertheless show a strong differentiation, which is hardly paralleled by any
other group of animals found upon the island and not by chelonians elsewhere
in the world. In the first place, we find a relative of the American Chelydra,
a peculiar species, whicli Douglas Ogilby named Devisia mythodes. This rare
and strange form was discovered in British New Guinea, and the type is no'w in
the Sydney museum. Its affinities are, broadly speaking, American, and so far
as we know at present that is about all that can be said of it. Its habits are
unknown and it remains probably the most remarkable known example of
discontinuous distribution.
Four other genera of turtles are recorded; of which one, Caretochdys in-
sculpta Ramsay, is not only peculiar to the island, but represents a genus similar
in structure to the pelagic turtles; it is confined to the Fly River of British New
Guinea. This species again is known by but few specimens, and its habits
are as yet largely unknown. The occurrence of Pelochelys canloris Gray is of
peculiar interest, inasmuch as, while the creature is common upon the mainland
of southeastern Asia, in the Philippines, and on Borneo and Sumatra, it has
only recently been recorded from British Papua and has not been found upon
the intervening islands. The other two genera represented are Chelodina,
with two species, — one, C. novae-guineae Blgr., which is found upon the island
of Timor and in British Papua; the other, C. siebenrocki Werner, which is con-
52 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
fined, so far as we know, to New Guinea; the other genus is Eraydura, two of the
five species of which occur in New Guinea and Australia, while three other
forms are strictly Papuan. Crocodilus porosus Schn. occurs widely spread over
the whole island.
Among these ten species of chelonians, then, six are peculiar to the island,
two generically autogenous; while of the other four, only one ranges into Malayan
waters, and this same one is the only one that is not generically distinct from
those genera known to the Malayan regions. The affinities of the various forms
do not seem particularly Australian, inasmuch as Emydura is represented in
Australia by only two species, one of which is reported only from Queensland;
while on New Guinea we find five. There seems for this reason to be no object
in not calling this genus truly Papuan in contradistinction to those genera which
have obviously had their centre of dispersal in Australia, or perhaps e\'en in
Queensland.
It may be best in considering the lizards simply to run through the genera
one by one, and note the relationships of each.
Gymnodactylus has three species which are also found upon other islands in
the group, while four species are peculiar to Papua. The geims itself may
perhaps be considered a Malayan one. Markedly strange is the occurrence of
Thecadadylus australis, a species described by Giinther ; the only other species,
which occurs in the West Indies, being T. rapicaudus (Houttuyn). The fu"st
mentioned species, discovered on one of the islands of Torres Straits, may be,
but is probably not, an example of convergence; since with Devisia occurring
here also, as well as cystignathoids which have a very South American look, it
is hardly fair to propose this as a probable explanation for the occurrence.
Of Hemidactylus, there are two species, probable of Malayan origin, both
occurring elsewhere.
Peropus may well be considered as probably having a purely Papuan origin;
the genus contains two species which are restricted to Papua, and three which
are found elsewhere as well.
A single wide-ranging Lepidodactylus is reported.
Of Gekko, a Malayan genus, one autocthonous species is found, hkewise
another species which ranges through the Moluccas and towards the Solomons,
without occurring on any of the Sunda Islands. Liasis, on the other hand, may
be considered Australian; of this genus one Australian species occurs, and another
which is found only on New Guinea. ,
Amongst the Agamidae we have only Gonyocephalus, with four species,
NEW GUINEA. 53
confined to the island and four which are not. This last genus presents a
curious example of discontinuous dispersal. The species from the Greater
Sunda Islands do not seem to be even subgenerically differentiated from the
Papuan species; while two, known from the Andamans and Nicobars, are
closely similar to the Papuan forms. While species occur in the Philippines,
none have as yet been reported from the Sunda Islands east of Bali, nor in any
of the Moluccas. The distribution, then, is a peculiar one for a lizard in this
area. The species are conspicuous and have probably already been found on
most of the islands where they occur.
Varanus is present, with three autocthonous species, two others which are
wide-ranging, and one form which is confined to Papua and the Aru Islands.
The genus is certainly one which has been directly derived from the westward.
Tiliqua gigas (Schn.) is the single species of this Australian genus which ranges
from its origin.
Using the generic term Lygosoma as a convenient general name to cover
the many closely related small seines which have been considered elsewhere as
being generically separable, but which have all been placed in this genus by Bou-
lenger, we find the condition of affairs most astonishing in comparison with that _
on the Malayan islands — for here we have thirty-one peculiar species and in
addition twenty others which range off the island. The almost omnipresent
Cruptoblepharus boutonii (Desj.) is, of course, found too.
Tribolonotus is another peculiar monotypic genus with a single species,
T. novae-guineae (Schl.), which is not known outside the island; while Dibnmus
novae-guineae, though certainly more abundant in Papuasia than elsewhere, has
recently been found in the Malay Peninsula and in Sumatra. It either occurs
elsewhere undiscovered, or else the individuals from these two parts of the range
represent different species, however indistinguishable they may seem to be.
The snakes show a somewhat different state of affairs from that of the
lizards. The Australian character is very strongly brought out, and the purely
Malayan forms do not seem to flourisli in the area, inasmuch as they arc repre-
sented by comparatively few genera, hardly any one of which has more than a
single species within the range.
Typhlops may certainly be considered as having relations westward. Two
species of the genus are autocthonous; one occurs in British New Guinea and
in Queensland; another in Dutch New Guinea and the Ke Islands; while T.
braminus (Daud.) is well known for its enormous range.
Liasis, an apparently Papuan genus, is represented by three species in New
54 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Guinea, one found in British New Guinea and Timor, and also in Queensland.
The only other member of the genus has been found on the islands of Timor,
Savu, and Samao.
Enygrus is another genus which originated here, and we find two species
on the island.
Acrochordus, Chersydrus, and Fordonia are three monotypic genera, all of
the same class, which range widely, probably owing to their semi-aquatic habits,
as they are frequently found in estuarine regions where the water is strongly
saline.
Three forms of Natrix occur, — one peculiar, another found also in Australia,
and the third occurring on the Papuan islands of Waigiu and the Aru group.
The genus so prominent on the Sunda Islands here reaches almost the limit of
its range.
The monotypic Brachyorrhus albus (Linn6) occurs in New Guinea, in the
Moluccas, and on Timor.
Stegonotus, also Papuan, has two local species, and two others which occur
on the Moluccas as well.
Dendrelaphis, a Malayan genus, has two peculiar species here; while
Enhydris, a similar genus, has one autogenous form.
Dendrophis, also Malayan, has two pecuhar species; one form ranges
through the Moluccas, as well as through the Solomons, Bismarck Islands, and
Queensland, and a fourth form is confined to New Guinea and the Bismarck
Archipelago near by.
Boiga irregularis (Bechs.) is the single representative of the genus in this
area, but the species has a wide range from Celebes eastward.
The other genera found, nine in number, are all of elapine affinities, and are
probably closely associated with the similar forms which predominate so very
strongly in AustraUa. Some of these genera, such as Pseudelaps, with one
species; Apisthocalamus, with two species; Toxicocalamus, with one species;
Pseudapisthocalamus, with one species, are pecuhar to New Guinea. Micro-
pechis has one species each in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Glyphodon
and Acanthophis are two monotypic genera which occur both in Australia and in
Papua. It should be noted, however, that G. tristis Gthr. occurs only in south-
eastern New Guinea.
Of the important and very characteristic Australian genus, Pseudechis,
one species occurs in southeastern New Guinea and in Queensland, while another
is confined to the same region in Papua.
NEW GUINEA. 55
It will be seen from what has been written that the snakes are, as one might
expect, decidedly more characteristic of the area in which they occur than are the
lizards. In the first place, among the lizards the number of genera which are
wide-ranging are far larger; and in the second place, few of these genera can be
picked out as being distinctly of Australian affinity as compared to tho.se found
on other islands to the westward. Thus, excluding Thecadactylus, which has
no affinities hereabouts at all, we have five genera of lizards which we may con-
sider as being essentially Papuan and with no marked affinities either Malayan
or Australian; while six genera may be considered as essentially Malayan. On
the other hand, two only among the lizards show predominant Australian rela-
tionships.
Among the snakes, however, while there are eight genera which may be
considered Malayan, still four of these are of almost certainly widespread acci-
dental dispersal; while the remaining four form but a comparatively incon-
spicuous part of the whole ophidian fauna. Of the eight wholly Papuan genera,
four are obviously of direct Austrahan derivation, while the others are strongly
differentiated from relations on either side. There remain, besides, four genera,
not wholly confined to the island, which are conspicuous Austrahan entities in
the Papuan fauna, only one of them reaching as far as the island of Ceram in the
Moluccas; while still another genus of southern aflfinity, Micropechis, occurs in
New Guinea and on the Solomon Islands.
The snakes are almost as strongly what we would call Australian as are those
of that country itself, although many of the Papuan species occur only in Queens-
land, that part of Australia which was most recently associated with it, and
which we have elsewhere spoken of as forming, zoologically speaking, almost
an integral part of New Guinea itself.
Before leaving the reptiles, it is perhaps worth while to point out one record
which may be doubted. It is a remarkable coincidence that Gymnodactylus
marmoratus (Dum. & Bibr.) should occur in just that part of New Guinea alone
to which Javanese coolies have been brought for plantation work; so that we
may consider that this Javanese species has in all probability been introduced
into New Guinea in almost exactly the same way that the Papuan Hijla
dolichopsis (Cope) has come fortuitously to Java by human agency.
The amphibians have been so completely discussed by Dr. P. N. van Kam-
pen in several of his recent papers that there seems no reason for giving more than
the briefest outline of the conditions which we find among them. Dr. van
Kampen has treated this part of the fauna with its remarkable zoogeographical
56 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
relationships in mind, so that there remains Httle to be added to what he has
already said. His first paper appeared in "Nova Guinea: Resultats de I'cx-
pedition scientifique Neerlandaise a la Nouvelle Guinee " (1906, p. 163-180, 1
pi.), and gave a list of all the amphibians from New Guinea known up to that
time. In the following year he published his excellent ' ' Amphibien des Indischen
Archipels," with tables of distribution for each form (Max Weber's Zool. ergel).
einer reise in Niederland. Ost-Indien; 4, 2, 1907, p. 383-416, 1 taf.). These
revised again our knowledge of the distribution of the various forms, so that they
might be referred to with the greatest ease; and finally in 1909, again in Nova
Guinea (1909, 9, 1, p. 31-49, 1 pi.), he has described the booty of several Dutch
expeditions to southern New Guinea, including some remarkable new forms,
among them a single cystignathoid (Phanerotis novae-guineae van Kampen)
from Merauke, the only one known upon the island. The revised list increases
the number of species recorded considerably; now, counting Hyla ouwensi
Barbour (Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 51, p. 325), and the new genus and species,
Pomatops mlvifera Barbour (Proc. Biol. soc. Wash., 1910, 23, p. 89-90, pi. 1),
the number is finally raised to sixty-five species, of which, as van Kampen has
shown, an astonishing proportion are confined to Papua.
It seems hardly worth while to note further the conditions amongst these
amphibians, since van Kampen has explained them so clearly. Suffice it to
say that Engystomatidae alone constitute nearly fifty per cent of the entire
fauna; that eighty-five per cent of all the species are peculiar to the island;
and that the species which do occur off the island are with few exceptions found
only near by upon Australia, in the Bismarck Archipelago, on the Aru, Ke, and
Timor-Laut groups, etc. Chaperinafusca Mocq. is said to occur also on Borneo,
which may be possible if we consider the type a specially archaic one; while
on the other hand, Rana novae-britanniae Wern. has been reported from Sumatra.
This of course is improbable; and possibly emphasizes the fact that species fre-
quently look so much alike that it is impossible for lis to separate them, when in
reality we know from the physical circumstances of their occurrence that they
can not be the same. Such a distribution for a Rana is absolutely impossible;
and it would be interesting to know the breeding habits, notes, and other details
regarding the life histories of both species, so that if they are as identical in
appearance as we are told, they might be separated nominally, as they should be.
BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO. 57
Bismarck Archipelago.
When, many years ago, the Rev. G. Brown began to send reptiles from the
Duke of York Island (now called New Lauenburg) to the British museum, it
became at once evident that a local fauna of the very highest interest was being
made known. This small island — lying between islands that were formerly called
New Britain and New Ireland, but have been renamed by Germany New Pom-
merania and New Mecklenburg — was the site of a mission, and for a long time
the fauna of this region was known only from the specimens sent back from this
mission station. Since that time, however, the region has been seized by Ger-
many, in spite of the fact that she had no valid claims based upon discovery here
or elsewhere in the Pacific; and since then collecting in the whole group now
known as the Bismarck Archipelago has gone on quite extensively, with the ex-
ception that from the island of New Mecklenburg itself no records are forthcom-
ing. In 1909 Franz Werner published an extensive paper upon the reptiles and
batrachians of the Bismarck Ai'chipelago (Mitt. INIus. nat. Berlin, 1900, 1, p. 1-
132, 46 text figures). Referring to this, we find that there is a fauna here resem-
bling closely that occurring upon Ne w Guinea, but lacking the Australian facies,
which become so evident in the Torres Strait region of Papua itself. Thus we
find six wide-ranging Gekkos, none of them of special importance; whilst among
the agamids occur two Papuan species of Gonyocephalus, and a genus and spe-
cies not known from anywhere else, namely, Diptychodera lobata Bttgr. Only
a single Varanus, the wide-ranging V. indicus (Daudin), is recorded; while we
find no less than eleven scincids, of what we have called in general terms Lygo-
soma. One oi these, Emoia impar (Werner) , is autogenous. Many of the other
species are wide-ranging; but still others occur simply on the near by mainland
of New Guinea; and one, Rioj)a albofasciolaium (Gthr.), reaches also to Queens-
land and the Solomons, occurring on New Guinea as well. This species, how-
ever, is a rather rare one ; and a form of Riopa is not one which by its habits is
likely to be subject to artificial transport through the agency of man.
The snakes, as one would expect, are even more differentiated than are the
lizards. There are three species of Typhlops, none of which is found elsewhere.
This is very remarkable, in that the surrounding regions are phenomenally poor
in species of this genus. This may be due, however, to the fact that as yet
they are incompletely explored. Python ameihtjstinus (Schneider) occurs, as
well as a peculiar genus, Nardoa boa (Schlegel). This group shares with the
Solomon Islands Enygrus australis Montrouz., while the two other species
58 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
common in this region also occur, E. carinatus (Schneider) and E. asper (Giin-
ther). Both species of Natrix, A^. hypomelas (Giinther) and N. dahli (Werner),
are pecuUar to the Bismarck group. One Stegonotus, S. heterurus BIgr., occurs
here only, and along with it the more wide-ranging S. modestus (Schlegel).
Two species of Dendrophis occur: — D. lineolalus Hombr. and Jacq. and D. calli-
gaster Giinther, both wide-ranging. The only other two land species are both
well known throughout the whole area. They are Boiga irregularis (Bechs.)
and the more strictly Papuan Pseudelaps muelleri (Schlegel).
Thus it will be seen that the reptiles, while obviously most closely related
to those of New Guinea, show hardly any relationship with those of Australia,
only one land proteroglyph occurring, so far as is known; while all the
other genera are originally derived from the Asiatic mainland through New
Guinea.
Only five amphibians occur. They are Rana novae-britanniae Werner, which
has been mentioned before as supposedly having the impossible distribution of
Sumatra and New Britain ; Cornnfer hotdengeri Boettger, a peculiar species ; the
Papuan C. corrugatus (A. Dum.), a supposedly local variety of Hyla dolichopsis
(Cope); and a so-called Hijlella brachypus (Werner). I agree with van Kampen
in considering the absence of vomerine teeth an insufficient distinction in itself
to separate the two genera Hyla and Hylella; while the subspecies of Hyla
dolichopsis (Cope) does not seem to be very satisfactory. I fail to find the
characters which have been assigned as distinctive of the Ternatian subspecies
tenuigranulata Boettger as actually serving to distinguish this from the variable,
individuals on the mainland of New Guinea; and I believe that the same con-
dition obtains here regarding the subspecies pollicaris.
I have not mentioned Crocodilus porosus Schneider, because it is so wide-
ranging as hardly to deserve constant repetition. It is important also to point
out the fact that the remarkable development of amphibians in the Solomon
Islands finds no parallel among these islands; another point of still greater
import is the fact that the two genera, Enygrus and Stegonotus, have peculiar
species differentiated in the Bismarck .\rchipelago, which have been derived of
course from Papua; while the same genera occurring in the Moluccas have true
Papuan species over most of the islands, except in the case of Stegonotus batjanen-
sis (Giinther), localized in the Halmahera group; while upon Ceram, for instance,
two unmodified Papuan species occur. The fauna, of course, is a small one in
point of number of genera, so that it is impossible to point out this condition of
affairs in more than a few types. It would suggest strongly that the separation
SOLOMON ISLANDS. 59
between New Guinea and these islands is an older one than that between New
Guinea and the Moluccas.
vSoLOMON Islands.
The Solomon Islands consist of a long chain of high mountainous islands,
many of them of considerable size, stretching away to the southeast from the
Bismarck group, and lying parallel to the coast-line of southeastern New Guinea.
There is really good reason for recognising the Solomon Islands as being of
sufficient zoologic differentiation to warrant their separate consideration from
the Bismarck group. To be sure, the islands are of much the same character
and size; none of them being quite as large, however, as either New Pomerania
or New Mecklenburg. Generally speaking they are now fairly well known,
thanks especially to the researches of Guppy some years ago. His collections
were reported upon by Boulenger (Trans. Zool. soc. London, 1886, 12, p. 35-62,
pi. 7-13).
From some points of \'iew the difference between these two faunae are in-
significant. It is most unfortunate that we have so few hydrographic data on
this area. Soundings are few and far between upon all sides of the group, and
they do not show anything of the submarine relationship between these two
groups of islands and the Papuan mainland. It seems very hkely from the condi-
tions of the fauna that the Solomon Islands, or some of them at least, remained
connected and formed a single land-mass for a very considerable time after their
separation from the region of the Bismarck Archipelago took place. This is
suggested by the fact, as will appear later, that a number of most characteristic
autogenous forms occur upon many of the islands, while they do not occur in
the Bismarck group. On the other hand, it is worth noting, as Boulenger has
already said (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1888, p. 89), that between the" extreme
islands, Faro to the northwest, and San Cristoval towards the southeast, there is
considerable difference in the abundance and variety of amphibian life; Faro
being strongly Papuasian, and the other end of the group far less so. This
immediately suggests that the islands separated from one another progressively
from the lower end of the chain; or, in other words, that the subsidence, if this
be considered the cause of their separation, began with the depression of the area
to the southeast of the group, and continued in a more or less northwest direc-
tion. This seems reasonable, inasmuch as New Caledonia, though obviously
a continental island, with a fauna derived over a previous land connection, lacks
snakes and amphibians; while the Fijis, lying nearer to the source of supply,
s
nn BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
so to sjieak, support the peculiar ophidian Ogmodon vitianus Peters and several
species of the amphibian genus Cornufer, which are, of course, not found else-
where.
The Solomon Islands concerning which we ha\'e data are San Cristoval,
Ugi, Guadalcanar, Treasury Island, Faro Island, and Howla, in the Shortland
group; and Florida Island, or Gela. Thus if will be seen that for some of the
islands not a single record is forthcoming. Boulenger (Proc. Zool. soc. London,
1888, p. 90) prepared a table of distribution giving the ranges within the group
of all the species which were known up to 1888; and added again to our knowl-
edge of this fauna by another paper (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1890, p. 30-31,
pi. 2), which reported upon C. M. Woodford's second collection from Gela; Wood-
ford being the person to \\hom, next to Guppy, we owe our most considerable
zoological knowledge of the group.
But few of the species found here are confined to a single island; and the
exception occurs in the ophidian genus Denisonia, each of the three known species
of which occurs on a single island. The genus evidently evolved by isolation,
when most of the Solomons were connected in one land mass, from some Pseude-
laps- or Pseudechis-like ancestor, perhaps Pseudelaps itself; and then the
species each became differentiated from among the individuals isolated on each
'sland when the group took on its present asi)ect. It is hardly worth while to
discuss the reptiles at greater length. Suffice it to say that Gekkos occur as in
the Bismarcks, with the exception of two peculiar species of Lepidodactylus,
both confined to Faro Island, so far as is now known; but it must be remembered
that this island is better known herpetologically than almost any other, and
undoubtedly many species which appear to have a limited or discontinuous
distribution within the group are in reality of general dispersal, did we but know.
The same Gonyocephalus, Varanus, and Crocodilus occur also as in the Bis-
marcks; while besides the usual wide-ranging scincids, four peculiar species
occur, some found on a single island, others occurring on several. Corucia
zehrata Gray is an autogenous genus found probably throughout the grouj).
Among the snakes a single peculiar Typhlops, T. aluensis Blgr., is note-
worthy, as apparently occurring only on Alu in the Shortland group; while the
species of Enygrus, Dendrophis, and Boiga occur widely spread. The species
of Denisonia have been mentioned.
It is amongst the amphibians that we find a truly remarkable state of
affairs: — four a.stonishing Ranas, no one of the species confined to a single
island, all peculiar to the group; concerning the development of one species,
SOLOMON ISLANDS. 61
R. opisthodon Blgr., Boulenger (Trans. ZooL soc. London, 1888, 12, p. 51) quotes
the following from Guppy's field notes: —
"During a descent from one of the peaks of Faro Island I stopped at a
stream some 400 feet above the sea, where my native boys collected from the
moist crevices of the rocks close to the water a number of transparent gelatinous
balls, rather smaller than a marble. Each of these balls contained a young frog,
about 4 lines in length, apparently fully developed, with very long hind legs
and short fore legs, no tail, and bearing on the sides of the body small tufts of
what seemed to be branchiae. On my rupturing the ball or egg in which the
little animal was doubled up, the tiny frog took a marvellous leap into its exis-
tence, and disappeared before I could catch it."
In addition to the above Boulenger observes : —
"In illustration of this interesting observation, Mr. Guppy sent several
ova and recently hatched young, which are to be referred without the slightest
doubt to Rana opisthodon. The ovum, which measures from 6 to 10 millim.
in diameter, is a transparent spherical capsule in which the young frog is coiled
up in the same way as figured by Peters ^ in Hylodes tnartinicensis; but none of
the specimens, which are in an advanced stage of development, show anything
of a tail. There are no gills, but on the side of the abdomen are several regular
transverse folds (which in their arrangement remind of the gill-openings of
Plagiostomous Fishes), the function of which perhaps is that of breathing-
organs, like the tail of Hylodes. The tip of the snout is furnished with a small
conical protuberance, projecting slightly through the delicate envelope of the
egg, and evidently used to perforate that envelope, as is shown by one of the
specimens."
The characteristic genus Cornufer is represented by four species, two of
which are autocthonous; and in one species of these, C. solomonis Blgr., the
describer indicates that a probable intra-oval metamorphosis also takes place,
owing to the condition of the ova in the ducts. It is of great importance to
emphasize the fact that here, as in New Ciuinea, we have so prominent this
adaptation to life in a region where standing water in the shape of ponds or
lakes is rare. From the steep configuration of the islands, it becomes e\'ident
that fresh-water must almost always occur in the form of swift-running streams.
It is well to recall again van Kampen's suggestion that the assumption of this
mode of reproduction has played a very important part in permitting amphi-
bians to extend here to the present frontier of their range.
' Mon. Bcrl. acad., 1876, p. 714, fig. 2.
62 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
But we have not yet mentioned really the half of the pecuUarities of this
ampliibian fauna; for amongst the Ranidae we find a remarkable autogenous
genus, so far known only from Faro Island, — Batrachylodes vertebralis Blgr. ;
and upon all of the islands, with the exception of San Cristoval, we find a ranid-
derivative so differentiated as to constitute the type of a peculiar family, the
single known species being Ceratrobatrachus guentheri Blgr. It is interesting
to note that hitherto every island explored, with the exception of the one men-
tioned, which was probably separated very early from the rest of the group,
supports this peculiar creature; but it is still more remarkable that from the
different islands as we know them now there does not seem to be any peculiar
local differentiation amongst the various individuals. This may perhaps be
due to the fact that the form itself seems to be an especially variable one.
Three pecuUar species of Hyla close the list.
ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES.
AMPHIBIA.
Ichthyophis monochrous (Bleeker).
Bleeker, Nat. tijd. Ned. lud., 1858, 16, p. 188. Boulenger, Fauna Brit. India. Kept. Batr., 1890,
p. 517.
Type locality: — Sinkawang, west coast of Borneo.
Only a single example of this species was met with, an adult from Rungeet
Valley, border of British and Independent Sikkim.
This coecilian is known from India, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo,
and Java.
Oxyglossus lima Tschudi.
TscHDDi, Clasa. Batr., 1838, p. 85. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 5-6.
Type localUy: — Java.
A very common frog in the swift running waters about Buitenzorg. Ten
specimens were taken. Bryant also has sent in two from Buitenzorg, and one
from Tambun in Bantam.
Known from southeastern Asia and Java. '
Rana macrodon Dumeril et Bibkon.
DuMERiL ET BiBRON, Erpet. gen., 1841, 8, p. 382. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882,
p. 24^25.
Type locality: — T)umeri\ and Bibron had six specimens in the Paris mu-
seum,—five from Java, whence undoubtedly the very first specimens came
(coll. of Kuhl). The sixth specimen was supposed to have been taken in Celebes
by Quoy and Gaimard. This undoubtedly represented what is now known as
Rana modesta Boulenger.
This form has a wide range on the mainland of Asia, and is also known from
Sumatra, and the near by groups, Natuna, Borneo, Java, Lombok, and Flores.
Rana tigerina D.4.udin.
Daddin, Hist. nat. rain., 1803, fol. ed., p. 42; quarto ed. (p. 64), pi. 20 (not seen). Stejneger, Bull.
58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 139-142.
Type locality: — Bengal.
Careful comparison of adults from various stations in the wide range of
64 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGR.\PHY.
this species will almost certainly show that it has developed a number of local
races. Already van Kampen (Zool. ergeb. Max Weber's reise, 1907, 4, 2,
p. 388) has noted that specimens from Celebes vary from others. These he
calls R. t. angustopalmata. His sketches of a foot of a specimen each from
Calcutta, Buitenzorg, and Tempe, Celebes, show well his reason for this designa-
tion.
Stejneger (loc. cit., p. 142) writes "Specimens from Borneo, which I had the
privilege of examining in British Museum, have the A'omerine groups of teeth
more oblique and separated from tlie choanse by a space fully eciual to that be-
tween the two patches. I can not, therefore, agree in regarding Rana schhtcteri
Werner as a synonym."
I think this form may best be known as R. t. schlueteri Werner.
Unfortunately the adults of this species are everywhere very shy and difficult
to capture. Besides two from Sarawak, I have full-grown examples from
Buitenzorg, Java, only. This frog was, however, taken at the following locali-
ties:— Lucknow, 3 half grown; Sunderbans, Lower Bengal, 4 young; Teesta
Valley, Bhutan frontier, 8 small; Mandalay, Burma, 1 half grown; Tigyaing,
Upper Burma, 1 almost adult; Buitenzorg, Java, large series of all ages; Bali,
Lesser Sunda Islands, 3 young; Lombok, Lesser Sunda Islands, 4 young and
tadpoles; Makassar, Celebes, 10 young, half grown and almost adult. These
represent R. t. angustopalmata van Kampen. The describer of this form had
specimens from Makassar and other stations as well as Tempe, whence came the
example figured. This record from Buleleng, Bali Island, is a substantiation
of the previous notice of this form here, by Bleeker. Van Kampen (loc. cit.)
in his table of distribution has wisely questioned Bleeker's record until it might
be confirmed. Dr. van Kampen was with me, and we both took examples of
this frog from the same rice-field. Bryant's collection contained an enormous
number from west Java.
This species occurs almost everjnvhere throughout southeastern Asia, and
through the Malayan Islands to Timor and Rotti.
Rana limnocharis Wiegmann.
WiEGMANN, Nova acta Acad. Leop. Carol., 1S35, 17, 1, p. 25,'). Stejneher, Bull. .58, U. S. n.it. nius.,
1907, p. 127.
Type locality: — not given, but from context it may be concluded that
description was based on Bole's Javan material.
This frog may be recognized in the field from Rana tigerina, which it so closely
resembles, by its less webbed feet, and by its lacking the fold of skin along the
AMPHIBIA. G5
outer edge of fifth toe. This species has the same habits as Rana tigerina, with
which it is usually found associated in the swamps, rice-fields, and banks of
streams. It is, however, much less common. Bryant's collection contains
but two specimens. These do not agree at all with specimens from Japan and
the Riu Kui Islands. So that there is some doubt as to just what Rana limno-
charis really is. The species is very rare in Java; consequently if the type came
from Java, it is quite likely that it was a young Rana tigerina. In which case
both R. limnocharis, so-called, from Java and Japan, will need new names.
Rana papua Lesson.
Plate 5, fig. 1.5.
Lesson, Voy. Coquille. Zool., 1830, 2, 1, p. 59, pi. 7, fig. 1. Boulenqer, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, imi.s.,
1882, p. 64. Van Kampen, Nova Guinea, 1906, 6, 6, p. 164.
Type locality: — the island of Waigiu. Here, Lesson remarks, the natives
brought them almost every day to the ship as an article of food.
Six examples were taken in Sorong, one at Manokwari, and two at Pom,
Jobi Island. A large female from the last-named station has been figured
(PI. 5, fig. 15) and the colors are accurate to the living condition. A male from
Pom exhibits well-developed humeral glands. Boulenger {loc. cit.) remarks that
they do not occur in this species, while van Kampen, on the other hand, found
them on a male from Ibaiso. His records show that this was the only adult
male which he had before him. Van Kampen thinks that this may be a chance
occurrence. It seems, however, that pcssibly there may be some geographical
variation. Boulenger's Papuan examples were all from the Torres Straits
region, while these two cases are from the northeast region.
This frog is now known from Waigiu, Batanta, Jobi, the Aru Islands besides
New Guinea itself. It is also reported from northern Australia and Timor-Laut.
Rana moluccana Boettger.
Plate 5, fiK. 12.
Boettger, Zool. anz., 1895, 18, p. 132. Abh. Sonck. nat. ges., 1900, 25, p. 366. (Rwia varians Boulen-
ger).
Type locality: — "Auf ganz Halmaheira und Ternate haufig."
While Boettger in his preliminary report described this frog as peculiar to
the Halmahera group of the Moluccas, he considered it as synonymous with
Rana varians Boulenger in the final report on Kiikenthal's collection. Thanks
to Dr. Stejneger I have before me three topotypes of R. varians, U. S. nat. mus.,
Nos. 39,9G4, 39,977, 39,978, from Pancal and Puerto Princesa, Palawan. On
comparing these with one from Gane, Halmahera, and eighteen from Ternate, it
becomes at once evident that, though these species are related closely, yet they
66
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
are not specifically identical. They may be separated by the smaller tympanum
of R. varians, and by the less extent of web between the toes of R. moluccana, as
well as other characters regarding the size and position of choanae and vomerine
teeth groups. The difTerence be-
tween these characters is made
clear in the figures.
The Gane specimen was taken
in the deep woods without any
fresh-water near by. In this in-
dividual the vomerine teeth are
rather more separated, and are
placed in a slightly more anterior
position than is the case with any
one of the Ternatian series. The
interorbital space is slightly wider
in the example from Halmahera
than in the others. It is also much
more brilliantly colored, the legs
being heavily barred above, and
very brilliant yellow below. This
coloration may have relation to the
nuptial season, or may be due to
life in the woods. The lot from
Ternate were all taken from a well,
the water in which stood almost
level with the surface, and from
which the frogs could have easily
escaped. They seemed to be liv-
ing a strictly aquatic life. They were taken a month later than the Gane frog, in
late February, instead of January. It is not safe to draw any conclusions from
so unevenly distributed material ; but this series points strongly to a frog upon
Ternate which is not certainly identical with those on Halmahera, and is certainly
not identical with Rana varians of Palawan. Nevertheless, the origin of these
frogs is all the same, and the close relationship serves to emphasize the existence
of a connection from the Phillippines through Celebes to the Halmahera group.
It will be very instructive to learn whether a frog of this type occurs on the Sula
Islands, Obi, or Buru.
c f
Rana varians Boulenger, Topotype.
a, piofile of head; b, palmar view of foot; c, gape.
Rana moluccana Boettger, Topotype.
d, profile of head; e, palmar view of foot; f, gape.
AMPHIBIA. 67
Rana erythraea Schlegel.
ScHLEGEL, Abbild. Amphib., 1837, dec. 1, p. 27, pi. 9, fig. 3. Bodlenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus.,
1882, p. 65-66.
Type locality: — Java and Sumatra.
This is a common species about Buitenzorg. It was taken much more
frequently in swift water than in the rice-fields. About twenty examples were
preserved. Bryant brought back eight from Buitenzorg, four from Depok, and
one from Daru, Bantam.
It is known from Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula; and, among the is-
lands, on Sumatra, Nias, Natuna, Borneo, Java, Celebes, 'and the Philippines.
It has been reported from Banca by Bleeker {Cf. \-an Kampen, Zool. ergeb.
Max Weber's Reise, 1907, 4, 2, p. 416).
Rana chalconota Schlegel.
ScHLEGEL, Abbild. Ampliil)., 1837, dec. 1, p. 23, pi. 9, fig. 1. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Std. Brit, mus.,
1882, p. 66.
Type locality: — Java, figured specimen taken by Kuhl ; later known to
Schlegel from Sumatra.
A single large specimen of this interesting .species was taken at Tjibodas,
Java. The hind limb being carried forward the tibiotarsal articulation reaches
beyond the snout. In other respects the individual is typical. Bryant got
many examples of all ages at Tjibodas and in the surrounding districts, and a
few near Buitenzorg.
Reported from the Philippines, Sumatra, Nias, Borneo, Java, and Celebes.
Polypedates reinwardtii (W.^gler).
Wagler, Nat. syst. Amphib., 1830, p. 200. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. luus., 1882, p. 88-90.
Type locality: — Almost surely Java, though none is specified.
Of this most beautiful tree-frog, hve were found in Buitenzorg, and two in
Tjibodas. Bryant got thirteen at Buitenzorg. Schlegel's figure gives a good
idea of the splendid colors of what was probably also a Javan example. (Schlegel,
Abbild. Amphib., 1837, dec. 1, pi. 30, figs. 1, 2, 4). It makes a good pet, becomes
ciuite tame, and is capable of the most astonishing leaps.
Known only from Ja\-a and Sumatra. Van Kampen (Zool. ergeb. Max
Weber's Reise, 1907, 4, 2, p. 416) notes that Boulenger pays no attention to the
fact that Peters reported the species from Borneo. The record certainly needs
confirmation.
68 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
PoljTpedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst).
Gravenhorst, Delic. Mus. zool. Vratislav., 1829, p. 26. Stejnbger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907,
p. 157-159.
Type locality: — Java.
Twenty-five specimens taken in Buitenzorg, where the species is very
abundant, and one at Tjibodas, Java, show great variety in color and markings.
Bryant's series of thirteen from Buitenzorg, and one from Gunung Bunder, Mt.
Salak, vary similarly. I agree completely with the observations of Flower
(Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1896, p. 906) as to the value of these markings for
determining color varieties. The condition after killing and preserving is entirely
dependent on the phase of color which had been assumed by the animal just before
death. They change color and color-pattern with considerable rapidity. Flower ,
in a subsequent paper (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p. 898-899) notes that they
seem to breed at almost all times of the year. All of these Javanese individuals
have the skin of the head more or less involved in the cranial ossification. This
seems to begin when the frog is about li" long, and when the creature is 2" long
the process is complete.
Five specimens from Mt. Wuchi, Hainan, though not fully adult seem to
have a much less extensive ossification than Javan examples of the same size.
This may be due to the fact that these specimens were originally preserved in
formol, a preservative which usually should be carefully shunned, unless the
collector is skilled in its use.
A wide-ranging form over southeastern Asia, the Philippines, Sumatra,
Nias, Banka, Natuna, Borneo, Java, Madura, Timor, Sumba, Salayer, and
Celebes. Reported once from Ternate, no doubt incorrectly.
Polypedates javanus (Boettgeb).
Plate 8, fig. 31.
Boettger, Zool. anz., 1893, 16, p. 338.
Type locality: — Mt. Tjiserupan, west Java.
Bryant had a single fine example from Tjibodas, Mt. Gede, and also one
from Buitenzorg.
The species is confined to Java.
Philautus aurifasciatus (Schlegel).
Schlegel, Abhild. .\niphib., 1837, dec. 1, p. 27, pi. 9, fig. 4, Bodlenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus.,
1882, p. 100. Van Kampen, Zool. ergeb. Max Weber's Reise, 1907, 4, 2, p. 404.
Type locality: — mountains of Java.
A single example each in Bryant's and my own collections from the moun-
AMPHIBIA. 69
tain branch of the Buitenzorg Garden at Tjibodas. These specimens agree well
with van Kampen's notes on one from the same locality. Both vary consid-
erably from Boulenger's description, as he has shown.
Known from the Natunas, Borneo, and Java.
Philautus pictus (Peters).'
Peters, Mon. Berl. akad., 1871, p. 580. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 99.
Type locality: — Sarawak, Borneo.
A single example in poor preservation, but evidently belonging to this spe-
cies, was taken near the town of Johore Bahru, Malay Peninsula.
Known now from several stations in the Peninsula as well as Borneo.
Philautus pallidipes (Barbour).
"Snout rounded, as long as diameter of orbit; canthus rostralis moder-
ately distinct; loreal region slightly concave; nostril slightly nearer tip of
snout than eye; interorbital space broader than upper eyelid; tympanum very
small, round, rather indistinct, one-fifth diameter of eye. Fingers free, toes
not quite half webbed; disks prominent, larger than tympanum; subarticular
tubercles small, a small elongate inner metatarsal tubercle. The hind limb
being carried forward along the body, the tibiotarsal articulation reaches beyond
the tip of the snout. Skin minutely granular above; beneath both throat and
belly more coarsely granular. Upper surfaces uniform brown, varying from
dark reddish to grayish. Palms of hands and ends of toes yellow. Throat
so heavily punctulate with dark brown as to appear almost of solid color, belly
and inner sides of limbs less heavily specked on a yellow ground. Outer sides
of thighs barred with very deep brown.
Type, No. 2442, Museum of Comparative Zoology, from near the summit of
the volcano Pangerango, Java. T. Barbour, collector.
The small size (body 1 inch long for nearly adult female), lack of cranial
ossification, and absence of vomerine teeth place this form with the genus Ixalus.
The fact, however, that two species of Pohjpedates have been discovered, viz.
P. edentulus (F. Mlill), and P. anodon (Van Kampen), which also lack vomerine
teeth, shows how scant is the Ijasis of separation for the two genera. Cranial
ossification is unknown in Ixalus, and, of course, is not general in Polypedates
so that the adult size alone stands as the generic distinction. A very slim one
surely." Proc. Biol. soc. Wash., 1908, 21, p. 190.
' Philautus takes the place of Ixalus, preoccupied. (Stejneger, Proc. U.S. nat. mus., 1905,28, p. 346).
70 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Nyctixalus margaritifer Boulenger.
Plate 8, fig. 32.
Boulenger, Ann. mag. nat. hist., 1882, ser. 5, 10, p. 35.
Type locality: — East Indies.
This species was described from a single example in the Brussels museum
with no definite locality. It has since been taken three or four times in the
mountains of west Java. Bryant got one specimen on the slopes of Mt. Gede,
near Tjibodas, during August, 1909. This single individual agrees generally
with the original description. It does differ, however, in having an apparently
rather smaller tympanum, which is bordered above by a strong fold running
from the eye to the axil. So that it is possible that this specimen, which is an
adult female, may in reality represent a second species of this little-known genus ;
though without more material conjecture is futile. The type was a male, and
there may easily be some sexual dimorphism.
Cornufer corrugatus (A. Ddmeril).
A. DuMERiL, Ann. sci. nat. 1853, ser. 3, 19, p. 176. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, nius., 1882, p.
110. Van Kampen, Nova Guinea, 1906, 5, 6, p. 167.
TTjpe locality: — Java. Incorrect, it has not been taken in the true
Malayan Islands.
A single young individual evidently of this species was taken under a rotten
log in the woods near Ansus, Jobi Island, New Guinea. This specimen has no
light dorsal line as van Kampen has noted for some Papuan specimens, and
Boettger (Abh. Senck. nat. ges., 1901, 25, 2, p. 367) for Halmahera. Five speci-
mens have just been received from Goram Island, a new locality for the species.
Now known from the Philippines, Ceram, Halmahera, Batanta, New
Guinea, Jobi, Misori Island, and the Bismarck and Solomon Islands.
Cornufer corrugatus rubristriatus Barbour.
Plate 5, fig. 14.
Barbour, Proc. Biol. soc. Wash., 1908, 21, p. 190.
Type locality: — Roon Island, Geelvink Bay, New Guinea.
Two examples from this island seemed almost specifically distinct from true
C. corrugatus. They both lack the characteristic dermal fold which extends from
the eye to the shoulder. The tympana are round instead of vertically oval,
there are three palmar tubercles, and the tibiotarsal articulation reaches only to
the eye. The inner sides of the thighs are yellow, and down the brownish olive
back runs a brick-red vertebral stripe.
In other characters there does not occur any such divergence. It seems
AMPHIBIA. 71
better to consider this a localized island race, and not a distinct species; though
more specimens of various ages and from a numlwr of localities might completely
separate this race, or possibly invalidate it altogether.
Microhyla annectans Bohlenger.
Plate 7, fig. 26. *
BouLENGER, Ann. mag. nat. hist., 1900, ser. 7, 6, p. 188. Van Kampen, Zool. ergeb. Max Weber's
Reise, 1907, 4, 2, p. 404-405.
Type locality: — Larut Hills, Perak.
Two examples from the Botanical Gardens at Tjibodas, about 4,500 feet in
altitude. During March and April specimens of this genus were very rare, and
it was only after long searching that these few individuals were found. They
spring nimbly about on the damp leaf-mould of the deep forest, often clinging
to a leaf as would a Hyla. Their colors serve as a most perfect protection against
their being seen.
Now known from Java and the Malay Peninsula. It should be noted how
this distribution is paralleled by that of many other species of both Reptilia and
Amphibia.
Microhyla achatina (Boie).
Plate 7, fig. 27.
Bore, Isis, 1827, p. 294. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 166.
Type locality: — Java.
A single specimen taken in April, 1907, on the volcano Papangdaiang, near
Garut, Java. Altitude about 5,000 feet. This is a typical highland species in
Java; I could not learn that it had ever been found near Buitenzorg. It is
said to occur commonly at certain seasons near Sukabumi and Tjibodas, about
3,000 and 4,000 feet respectively. From the latter station Bryant has a very
minute frog which I think belongs to this species.
Now known from the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Nias, and Java.
Kaloula pulchra Gray.
Plate 7, fig. 29.
Gray, Zool. miac, 1831, p. 38. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 170-171.
Type locality: — China.
This species is not uncommon about Maka-ssar, Celebes. It is strictly
nocturnal, remaining hidden in holes dm'ing the daytime. These specimens
do not agree at all with Gray's original description of color. He writes, "Back
brown; black spotted; beneath pale; with a broad band across the forehead
and the fore legs, and on each side from the eye to the groin rose red." The
72 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
colored figure of a Makassar example shows the living colors. Examples in the
Museum from Ceylon, Siam, and Cochin China appear to have been colored in
life as this figured specimen was.
Known now from Ceylon and India over most of southeastern Asia, and
Celebes, Sumatra, !ind Flores.
For an excellent account of the habits of this species, see Flower, Proc. Zool.
soc, London, 1899, p. 906-908.
Kaloula baleata (Muller).
MtJLLEB, Verh. Bat. genootsch., 1836, p. 96. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, nuis., 1882, p. 169-170.
Type locality: — "\^an Oort and Miiller discovered this species on a trip taken
through the Preanger earlyin 1833. Miiller wrote his notes on it, and sent them
back to Batavia for publication from Lewie Gadja. He reported finding about
fifty examples near this town.
This species is locally quite common in west Java. In the city of Batavia
its loud screams may sometimes be heard in the roadside ditches during the rains,
late in the evening. I have three examples taken there, where, however, they
were very shy. In the daytime they stay largely in the hollows of fallen bamboos.
I never met with this species during several months at Buitenzorg. Van Kampen
told me he had found it sparingly at Tjilatjap.
This species is unknown from the mainland, but is reported from the fol-
lowing islands : — Philippines, Sumatra, Nias, Borneo, Java, Sumba, and Celebes.
Bufo andersonii Boulenoer.
Boulenger, Ann. mag. nat. hist., 1883, ser. 5, 12, p. 163. Fauna. Brit. India. Rept. Batr., 1890, p. 504.
This toad seems to be the common garden toad of the dry regions of Upper
India. Specimens were taken at Jeypore during November, 1906, where it was
fairly common.
This species was first accurately characterized by Anderson (Proc. Zool. soc.
London, 1871, p. 203), but he referred his specimens to Bufo pantherinus auct.
These examples were from Agra, and were also used by Boulenger in the de-
scription of B. andersonii, as well as examples from Ajmere, Tatta, and some
with no more definite locality than "India." It is therefore impossible to
establish a precise type locality.
The species is known from Upper India and Arabia.
Bufo himalayanus (GOnther).
GOntheb, Reptiles Brit. Ind., 1864, p. 422. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 305-306.
There are three large specimens typical of this species which were sent to
the Museum from the Koolloo Valley, India, by the Rev. M. M. Carlton. Th*
AMPHIBIA. 73
small indistinct tympanum, and low blunt cranial ridges serve to distinguish
this species from B. melanostidus.
First described as a Himalayan subspecies of the latter form, it is now known
from a number of stations along India's upper frontier, always, however, among
the hills. B. bankorensis Barbour from Formosa is surprisingly closely related.
Bufo melanostictus Schneider.
ScHNEiDEB, Hist. Amphib., 1799, pi. 3, p. 216. Boulbnger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 306-307.
Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 72-75.
Type locality: — While the species was described from examples from east
India, Schneider also remarks that he had a Chinese specimen in the Blochian
museum.
With considerable material before me, I am quite unable to find any con-
stant differences which would serve to distinguish specimens from the many
localities where tliis toad occurs. During 1906-07 the following specimens were
taken: — five from Calcutta, two from Kyouk-meoung, a town on the Irrewady
above Mandalay, one large individual from Penang, three from Batavia, and
twenty-one from Buitenzorg.
Besides these I have examined three from Hong Kong (M. C. Z. 1,437, 2,129) ;
three from Saigon (M. C. Z. 1,318) ; one from Amballa (M. C. Z. 450); and one
very large specimen from the "East Indies" (M. C. Z. 1,313); also seven speci-
mens, taken by Mr. Agassiz's expedition to the Maldives, from Addu Atoll;
and ten from Male Atoll. The latter series shows well the changes which take
place during individual growth. The young begin with a smooth flat crown,
this is followed by small black prominences serially arranged. These extend,
fuse, and finally grow to the characteristic heavy cephalic ridges. At about the
time of fusion the concavity of the crown is noted;, during adult life this seems
to increase slowly, and in old individuals it is very much depressed. Bryant
had specimens from Batavia, Buitenzorg, and Depok.
This toad ranges from Celebes, through continental Asia to China and
Formosa. It is also known from the Philippines, Sumatra, Banka, Riouw Island,
Natuna, Borneo, Java, and Madura. Bleeker, as van Kampen remarks (Zool.
ergeb. Max Weber's Reise, 1907, 4, 2, p. 416), has also reported it from Celebes
under the synonymous name Bufo scaber. He may have had specimens of either
B. celebensis or B. biporcatus.
74 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Bufo biporcatus Tschddi.
Plate 6, fig. 21, and Plate 8, fig. 3.5.
TscHUDi, Class. Batr., 1838, p. 51 (not p. 88). Bodlenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 311.
(ref. to TscHUDi, p. 88, nomen nudum).
Type locality: — Java, collection of Kuhl.
Curiously enough we did not once meet with this species in Java, but Bryant
got one at Buitenzorg (fig. 35). There is a single young example (fig. 21),
from Makassar, Celebes (Barbour coll.).
Van Kampen in his table of distribution of East Indian Amphibia (Zool.
ergeb. Max Weber's Reise, 1907, 4, 2,) records this species from the mainland of
Asia (r/. also Boulenger, Fauna Brit. India. Rept. Batr., 1890, p. 507). Among
the islands it occurs on Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Madura, Lombok, and Celebes.
Bleeker has reported it from Bali, and this is probably correct.
Bufo cavator Babboub.
Plate 6, fig. 22.
Barbour, Proc. Biol. soc. Wash., 1911, 24, p. 21.
T^jj)e locality: — Ampenan, Lombok.
This species is known from the type alone, from which the figure was drawn.
Bufo asper Gravenhorst.
Gravenhorst, Delic. Mus. zool. Vratislav., 1829, p. 58. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882,
p. 313.
Ty-pe locality: — Java.
This large toad does not seem to be common anywhere. It is very rare
in Batavia, and constant search, the offering of special inducements to the
natives, etc., brought in only three adults at Buitenzorg. Here also Bryant
got the same number as well, as an additional one at Gunung Bunder, Mt. Salak.
It occurs on Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, as well as on the mainland up to
Tenasserim.
Bufo borbonicus (Boie).
Plate 8, fig. 33.
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 294. Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus., 1882, p. 286-287. Hobst, Notes
Leyden mus., 1883, 6, p. 236.
Type locality: — Java.
Boulenger, in his synonymy of this species, mixed two very widely different
species, this one and Bufo cruentatus Tschudi. Both of these were recognized
by Tschudi as being wholly unlike. Van Kampen (Zool. ergeb. Max Weber's
Reise, 1907, 4, 2, p. 416) says in a note "Bufo cruentatus: auch diese Art gibt
AMPHIBIA. 75
Peters {loc. cit.), nicht aber Boulenger, fiir Borneo an. Peters trennte sie aber
nicht von B. borbonicus, so dass nicht ersichtlich ist, welche der bieden Arten
er meint." Turning now to the work of Peters (Ann. Mus. civ. Geneva, 1872,
3, p. 43) to which van Kampen refers, we find that he not only mentioned both
species separately, but did not even consider them congeneric. As a matter of
fact, Boulenger was probably correct in not including them in the Bornean fauna,
since Peters evidently had a mixed collection which contained, besides these,
other things which never saw Borneo.
Bryant got one example at Buitenzorg.
Known certainly from Java and Sumatra.
Bufo cruentatus Tschudi.
Plate 8, fig. 34.
TscHDDi, Class. Batr., 1838, p. 52. Horst, Notes Leyden imis., 1883, 5, p. 236.
Type locality: — "India orient. Mus. Lugd."
Boulenger's reference to Tschudi given on page 286 of the Catalogue of
Batrachia Salientia British museum 1882, is "Batr. p. 88." This refers to a
pure nomen nud^im, and such description as is given is comprised in a fewUnes,
which are found in Tschudi's discussion of the genus Bufo. The type locaUty
was undoubtedly Java as Horst mentions specimens in the Leyden museum
taken by Kuhl and van Hasselt, and by Boie and Maclot. '
Bryant found this toad twice at Tjibodas, where it is very rare.
I have noted the confusion which has placed this species as a synonym of B.
borbonicus Boie under the remarks on that species.
Bufo cruentatus is probably confined to Java.
Tschudi (p. 50) says " Bufo calamitus, mehr dem norden Europas angehorig
***wesshalb er von Schneider Bufo cruentatus genannt wurde." Schneider
really used the name Bufo cruciatus {vide Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus.,
1882, p. 294)
Bufo obscurus (Bahbodr).
Plate 6, fig. 20.
Barbour, Proc. Biol. see. Wash., 1904, 17, p. 51.
Type locality: — Sarawak.
This species is not a Nectes, to which genus it was originally assigned. The
very small and inconspicuous paratoid glands shown in the figure were not
seen when the original description was penned.
76 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Hyla dolichopsis (Cope).
Cope, Journ. Acad. nat. sci. Phila., 1867, ser. 2, 6, p. 204. Boulenqer, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, imis.,
1882, p. 384-385. Van Kampen, Nova Guinea, 1906, 5, p. 171-172.
Type locality: — Ambon.
Nine examples were taken at Sorong, New Guinea, and two at Manokwari.
An enormous specimen, nearly five inches from nose to vent, was fouiirl in
Ternate.
Boettger (Zool. anz., 1895, 18, p. 136-137) designates the Ternatian ejtamples
by a special subspecific name, H. d. tenuigranulata. Among some of the Pajiuan
examples are found nuptial asperities of the shape which Boettger has described
as peculiar to those from Ternate; while in the figured example which we took
in Ternate the tympanum is greater in diameter than are the digital dilations.
This condition is the same as that seen in Papuan specimens, and the opposite
of what Boettger has noted for the individuals from the Moluccan Islands.
The Sorong series shows that the species is subject to considerable variation even
in a limited locality.
This is the most widespread Hyla of this whole region. It has very recently
been reported from Java, where it was artificially introduced into the Buitenzorg
Botanical Garden; before this it was known from Timor, Talaut, the Moluccas
generally, Papuasia, Australia, and some other islands to the eastward.
Hyla kampeni Bakboub.
Plate 5, fig. 13.
Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 51, p. 324.
Tongue subcircular, slightly nicked, and free behind. Vomerine teeth in
two short groups between the middle of the choanae, the interspace separating
them as wide as one of the groups. Snout rounded, tympanum round ; its diam-
eter is equal to two thirds of the distance from eye to nostril. Rudiment of
pollux present. Fingers webbed as follows: — second digit two thirds, third
wholly, fourth almost wholly, fifth wholly. The toes are all wholly included
in the extent of the web. Discs large, almost as large as tympanum. Skin
smooth above, belly and lower side of tliighs finely granulate. Upper surfaces
greenish brown (dull green in life) , lower surfaces unmarked yellow.
Type: — No. 2,433, M. C. Z., a single specimen, taken at Wahaai, Ceram,
January, 1907, by T. Barbour.
Hyla kUmpeni is nearly related to H. montana Peters and Doria. It may be
readily distinguished by its larger tympanum, greater extent of webbing between
the toes, and a more slender build. It is also evidently different from H. am-
AMPHIBIA. 77
boinensis Horst and H. ruepelli Boettger, which we might expect to find in this
locality.
Hrjla dolichopsis (Cope) and H. vagabunda Peters and Doria are the only-
other members of the genus which have been previously reported from the island
of Ceram.
Hyla (Hylella) ouwensii Barbour.
Plate 7, fig. 2.5.
Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 51, p. 325.
"Head short; snout squarish; loreal region rather concave; tympanum
extremely small, about one fifth diameter of eye; the tibio-tarsal articulation
reaches a considerable distance beyond the snout. Fingers two thirds webbed,
toes three fourths webbed. Skin of back rough, but without enlarged tubercles,
skin on belly with very many small tubercles ; -these are largest and most abun-
dant about the anal region, whence the series extends out onto the inner sides of
the thighs for about half their length. Upper parts of head, body, thighs, shins,
feet, and arms of a grayish ground color \-ermiculated and blotched with blue,
in alcohol, green in life; more ashy gray shows on the limbs than on the back.
Throat white, belly and lower sides of hind limbs yellowish.
Allied to Hyla {Hylella) nigromaculaia (Meyer).
Type: — No. 2434, M. C. Z., a single specimen, about an inch and a half
long, taken at Pom, north coast of Jobi (Japan) Island, Geelvink Bay, Dutch
Papua, February, 1907. T. Barbour, collector."
Two other species of this genus, also lacking in vomerine teeth, have been
described from Jobi Island; while from the great "mainland" of Papua but a
single species is known. In the preKminary paper {he. cil., p. 324) I pointed out
why these species might advantageously be included in tlie genus Hyla. Van
Kampen (Nova Guinea, 1906, 5, 6, p. 176) showed that certain true Hylas lack
vomerine teeth in the young condition. As this might, therefore, be a character
which persisted in some species, and as Hylella from its distribution could not
be considered a monophyletic genus, it seemed wise to combine the two groups,
as van Kampen suggested.
Megalophrya montana Waqler.
Plate 7, fig. 30.
Waqler, Nat. syst. Amphib., 1830, p. 204, Boulbnger, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit, mus., 1882, p. 442-443.
Webbb, Ann. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg, 1898, 15, suppl. 2, p. 6.
Type locality: — Java.
This species is not uncommon in Java, locally at elevations of over 4,500
78 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
feet. Two adults and a young one were taken at 5,000 feet on the Papandaiang,
near Garut; two on the slopes of the Pangerango at about 4,500-4,800 feet; and
six adults on the Gedeh near the Mountain Gardens at Tjibodas. I feel almost
sure in saying that the lower limit of the occurrence of this amphibian is nearly
coincident with the lowest level at which there is a general occurrence of tree
ferns. Bryant got two on Mt. Salak, and seven on Mt. Gede, about Tjibodas,
at altitudes of from 4,500 to 6,400 feet.
The peculiar larvae were sought in vain. They have been carefully de-
scribed by Weber {loc. cit.). Their habits are well considered by Annandale,
whose field notes Boulenger (Fasc. Malay. Zool., 1903, 1, 1, p. 132) has used.
Bryant, however, got eight at Tjibodas. These were taken from a small sluggish
pond, not from a rushing stream, which they have usually been reported as
frequenting. Van Kampen (Nat. tijd. Ned. Ind., 1909, 69, 1, p. 27) has added
some observations on specimens taken in a similar situation, which are of special
value in view of the very great interest which has been aroused by the remarkable
form of this curious larva.
As Flower (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p. 913) notes for M. nasuta, the
specimens vary in color individually, and by frequent changing they always show
tints which harmonize wonderfully with dead leaves, in which they lie hidden
during the daytime. The colored figure, which has been made from my field
notes, shows this resemblance, very well. In these notes specimens are described
which in life are "Uniform violet above; belly rusty, mottled with dark
brown." * * "Immaculate violet brown above with a pair of dark spots on
the back, belly almost white with darker marblings." * * "Violet with many
varied black markings above, belly black, or brown, or violet gray with streaks
and spots of black."
The largest example measured 5" from snout to vent; the smallest, a little
over an inch. Boulenger recorded a Javan individual in the British museum
which "bears a slight dermal appendage on the tip of the snout." This is not
the case with any one of this series.
The range of this form includes the mainland, Philippines, Sumatra, Borneo,
and Java.
Megalophrys hasseltii (Tschudi).
TscHUDi, Cla8s. Batr., 1838, p. 81. Boulenger, Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1908, p. 425.
Type locality: — Java.
Tschudi did not actually describe this species; but as he made his genus
Leptobrachium monotypic, we can use the generic characterization, which,
SAURIA. 79
coupled with the fact that his material came from Java, makes it quite certain
as to what species he really had.
On page 43 he speaks of, and describes briefly, Septobrachium, using, how-
ever, no specific name. This spelling is obviously a typographical error, in that
the name is correctly given on page 81 ; for this reason it has no standing in
nomenclature.
The reasons for uniting Xenophrys and Leptobrachium with Megalophrys,
are given in Boulenger's convincing paper on the subject (Proc. loc. cit., p. 425).
Neither Bryant nor I met with this interesting frog; but, thanks to my
friend. Major P. A. Ouwens, I have received three fine adults, and four larvae
showing various stages of development. These tadpoles have been studied and
figured by van Kampen (Nat. tijd. Ned. Ind., 1909, 69, 1, p. 27, pi. 1, fig. 1).
The series before me is from Pengalongan, Malabar, Java. The species
is confined to the mountains wherever it occurs.
SAURIA.
Gymnodactylus marmoratus Dumeril et Bibron.
DuMERiL ET Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1S3G, 3, p. 420, pi. 34, fig. 1. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus.,
18S5, 1, p. 44.
Type locality: — Java.
Boulenger credits this name to (Kuhl) Fitzinger, Neue class, rept., 1826,
p. 47. The name is here a nomen nudum, and is apparently based on a name
received in litt. from Boie. Stejneger, who has Isis at hand, writes me regard-
ing this case the following:— "We next hear of it in Isis for 1827, but not in the
paper by F. Boie (H. Bole's brother), but in one by Schlegel, severely criticising
Fitzinger's work of 1826. We find the following: p. 289 'Herrn Boies neue
Genera folgen nun in systematische Ordnung.
p. 290
'3) N. G. Goniodactylus Kuhl. Species: 1) marmoratus Kuhl. n. sp.
2) Ascul. stenodactylus Licht. — "
The name is thus also a nomen nudum here as well as in Gray, Griffith's
Anim. kingdom, to which Boulenger {loc. cit.) refers. Dumeril and Bibron were
then the first to describe and figure the species, and the name must, of course,
be credited to them.
The lizard is not a rare one, and is generally found under stones or logs in
more or less open country. I have seen a few examples in cracks in the bark of
trees in the forest. M y series of six came from Buitenzorg. Bryant got one at
80 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Gunung Bunder, Mt. Salak; four in the Megamendung Mountains, west Java;
two at Depok; one at Buitenzorg; and one at Tjibodas.
Gymnodactylus lateralis Werner.
Werner, Verh. zool. bot. ges. Wien, 1896, 46, p. 11, pi. 1, fig. 4.
Type locality: — Sumatra.
One specimen of this rare gekkoid was obtained by exchange from the Ameri-
can museum of natural history. It is from Sumatra, the only region whence the
species comes.
Hemidactylus frenatus Dumeril et Bibron.
DuMERiL ET Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1836, 3, p. 366. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p.
120-121.
Type locality: — "Cette espece habite I'Afrique australe, et parait etre
repandue dans touts I'archipel des grandes Indes." Mention of specimens is
made from the Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar, Mauritius, Ceylon, Ambon,
Timor, Java, Marianne Island, Bengal.
This wide-ranging form is represented in the collection by specimens col-
lected by the writer at Jeypore, Delhi, and Calcutta, India; Rangoon and Tig-
yaing, Burma; Saigon, Cochin China; Buitenzorg, Java; various localities on
Halmaheraand Obi Islands in the Moluccas; at Saonek, Wiagiu; and at Sorong,
Manokwari, Djamna, and Humboldt's Bay in New Guinea.
Ranges through China, southeastern Asia generally. East Indies and Papu-
asia, Queensland, St. Helena, and Korea.
Hemidactylus gleadovii Murray.
Murray, Zool. Sind. 1884, p. 300, pi. — , fig. 3. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 129.
Type locality: — Sind, India? Murray, loc. cit. (not seen).
Three specimens taken in Lucknow, one in Calcutta, and one from Manda-
lay. The Museum has six (No. 3,242) from Bengal.
Hemidactylus bowringii (Gray).
Gray, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1845, p. 156. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 176-178.
Type locality: — unknown.
A number of examples from the thatched roofs of Butiya's houses in the
valley of the Teesta River in the border of Bhutan and one example from
Schwegu, Upper Burma.
Occurs in parts of India and Burma; Formosa and Riu Kiu Islands.
SAURIA. 81
Hemidactylus garnotii Dumeril et Bibron.
DuMERiL ET Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1836, 3, p. 368. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 141.
Type locality: — Tahiti.
Three examples from Buitenzorg, Java.
Occurs sporadically in the Malay Archipelago; and also in Sikkim, Burma,
Philippines and in some of the South Pacific Islands.
Cosymbotus platyurus (Schneider).
Schneider, Amphib. physiol., 1792, 2, p. 30. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 178-179.
Type locality: — not given.
Of this wide-ranging form specimens were taken in Batavia and Buitenzorg,
Java; at Patani, Halmahera; and at Sorong, New Guinea. It was observed
commonly throughout the East Indies. Bryant had one example from Buiten-
zorg.
Peropus mutilatus (Wiecmann).
WiEGMANN, Herpt. Mex., 1834, 1, p. 54. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 148. Stejnb-
GER, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 180.
Type locality: — Manila.
Boulenger dates this name from Wiegmann, Nova acta, Acad. Leop. Carol,
1835, 17, 1, p. 238. While the Mexican herpetology is dated 1834, there are in it
references to the Nova Acta, 17, which apparently was issued a year later.
It is possible that the references, as they are simply made to the part and not
to the page, were put in from a proof; and that Nova acta, 17, really did not
appear until a year after the other book, which as it stands would seem to have
been wrongly dated, and not to have appeared itself until 1835. For this rea-
son it seems better to take the dates as they stand, and not to heed the al-
lusions made in " 1834."
A considerable number were taken at Buitenzorg.
Peropus oceanicus (Lesson).
Lesson, Voy. Coquille. Zool. 1, 1830, 2, 1, p. 42, pi. 2, fig. 3. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885,
1, p. 152.
Type locality: — Tahiti and Borabora.
A single specimen from the crevice in the bark of a tree at Djamna, Dutch
New Guinea.
Ranges widely in the Moluccas, New Guinea, Polynesia.
Peropus interstitialis (Oudemans).
Oudemaus, Semen's Reise. Zool., 1894, 5, p. 134.
Type locality: — New Guinea.
Pratt took a large example at Fak Fak. The species is confined to Papua.
82 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Gekko gecko (Linn£).
LiNNfi, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 205. Bouuenqeb, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 18S5, 1, p. 183.
Type locality: — "Habitat in Indiis, frequens etiam in domibus."
Specimens in hand are from Buitenzorg, Java; from Katha and Thaybeit-
kyin, Burma. On the mainland it is conmion in houses, but also found in hollow
trees in the forest. In Java it is rare. Bryant got only two from Buitenzorg,
and one from Depok. It is not, however, absent from Java, as Werner would
have us believe, when he claims that G. stentor replaces this species in Java;
whereas it occurs on Sumatra to the exclusion of the other species.
Gekko stentor (Cantor).
Cantor, Cat. Malay, rept., 1847, p. 18. Boulbnqer, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 184.
Type locality: — Pinang.
Common about Buitenzorg. I got a number there ; while Bryant also got
one, as well as ten from Daru, Bantam, and the same number from Depok.
Gekko vittatus Houttutn.
HouTTUTN, Verb. Zeeuw. gen. Vlissingen (Middlebiirg), 1782, 9, p. 325, pi. — , fig. 2. Boulenqer, Cat.
lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 185.
Type locality: — -" De Afkomst is zekerlyk uit de Indien."
This species is represented in the collection by a large example, quite typical,
from Ambon; another from Wahaai, Ceram ; a series of twelve from Djamna, near
Humboldt's Bay, New Guinea; and one from Ansus, Jobi Island. There are
specimens from Faro Island, Solomons in the Museum. The specimens from
the two places last mentioned are typical of Gekko bivittatus (Dum. & Bibr.),
which Boulenger relegates to subspecific rank. As the two forms overlap in
range, in fact, each seems to occur more or less promiscuously over the whole
area where the species is found, it seems to represent the case more fairly to
consider the whole series as belonging to one variable species, and to recognize
no subspecies at all. The difference lying in color, not in structure, they can both
hardly be true species; and subspecies can not occur distributed in this way.
Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneqer.
Plate 7, fig. 24.
Stbjneqeb, Proc. Biol. soc. Wash., 1902, 15, p. 37. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 190.
Type locality: — Originally described by Creveldt (Mag. naturf. fr. Berl.,
1809, 3, p. 266, pi. 8), as Lacerta homalocephala. Stejneger gave a substitute
name after the founder of the genus, as Creveldt's was preoccupied. I do not
know the original description from autopsy.
SAURIA.
83
h i
Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger.
Buitenzorg, Java.
Forms of reproduced tails.
On arrival at Buitenzorg, search began at once for the "Flying gekko."
In a few days living specimens began to be brought in by the natives, and we
were shown how to find them as they rested by day in the chinks and crannies of
rough-barked trees. This is never a "house-Uzard." We never heard any of
the many specimens we kept alive utter a sound, nor did they ever rest with the
skin flaps extended. They may be
able to do so, however; and when in
this condition, they would be marvel-
lously inconspicuous. As for flying
with such weak supports, this struck
us at once as being both impossible
and ridiculous. Individuals were teased
into jumping from a table, were
dropped from several feet up in the air,
and were in every way induced to try
to use what has so often been called
their parachute. They never did this
once. Annandale, who had only a single young one ahve for observation, came
to the same conclusion (Ann. mag. nat. hist., 1905, ser. 7, 15, p. 32). Annandale
also exposed the error arising from Wallace's figure of the flying frog. This
error was most unfortunate as it became firmly fixed in zoology on the
authority of a great naturalist.
The two small white eggs of Ptychozoon are always found stuck together
in pairs, usually against the wood under the bark of trees. Curiously enough,
the eggs of Aristelliger are laid in just the same way; and the eggs of the two
species are so alike in size as to be almost indistinguishable.
The period of incubation for the eggs of Ptychozoon is very long. It has
been discussed by Annandale, who has also given an excellent account of egg-
laying (Boulenger, Fasc. Malay. Zool., 1903, 1, p. 150, quoting Annandale's
field notes). Annandale has published other notes on habits, and on the regen-
eration of the tail (Journ. Asiat. soc. Bengal, 1904, 73, suppl., p. 22). Gadow
(Amphibia and reptiles, 1901, p. 505) says that the lobes and flaps of skin are
apparently to assist adhesion. This is almost surely not the case, since by far
the greater part of the time they are closely folded along the sides of the body.
They may possibly assist in rendering the creature less conspicuous at certain
rare momentary crises. I beheve it far more probable that these developments
serve at present no purpose whatever. They may be taken to represent, perhaps.
84 ■ BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
the result of an inherited tendency to vary in a definite direction, coupled with
what Cope has called superabundant growth force. We see incipient lateral
flap-hke outgrowths of skin in other genera of Gekkonidae; in this one the
growth process has carried the development far beyond the conditions seen among
the other forms. Such growth is comparable to that which shows itself in the
curling tusks of the Babu-usa, which are perfectly useless; in the enormous
curved tusks which may have been a vital hindrance to the persistence of the
Mammoth; or in any other one of the hundreds of examples which may be drawn
from among both vertebrates and invertebrates, to show that nature often seizes
hold of some one feature or character and complicates it or increases its develop-
ment beyond all usefulness.
When the tail is lost, instead of the regenerated portion showing the crenu-
lated or lobate outline which extends almost to the tip in P. kuhlii, and quite to
the tip in P. horsfeldii, it grows out with a single unemarginate wide fringe of
skin. Thus specimens with reproduced tails from localities where both species
occur could not be separated. This is an excellent example of the more simple
condition always visible in a reproduced tail. Squamation here invariably
consists of small pavement-like scales, quite uniform in size, where the original
may have shown ornamentation either with whorls of enlarged tubercles, or in
other ways. In this tail, the squamation and margin both show far less compli-
cation in the new growth than in the original. This may or may not be a rever-
sion to a more primitive or ancestral condition. There is no proof one way or
the other.
For some strange reason this lizard bears, in Java, a form of native name
usually confined to snakes. It is called Ular-pa'atek or Ular-papatek. The
word Ular is invariably used with some qualifying word for a snake-name, as
Burung is invariably used for birds. I know of no such generic term for lizards
or mammals which is used in the same way.
The material preserved consisted of fifty-two examples of all ages from Bui-
tenzorg. , Bryant had several also from the same locality.
Kuhl's Fringed lizard has been found in Java, Sumatra, Engafio, Penang,
and the Malay Peninsula to southern Burma.
Horsfield's Fringed lizard occurs on the Malay Peninsula and in Borneo
and the Natuna Islands. It is recorded from the Riu Kiu Islands, but Stejneger
naturally doubts the accuracy of so improbable a record (Bull. 58, U. S. nat.
mus., 1907, p. 170).
SAURIA. 85
Draco volans Linn£.
LiNN^, Syst. nat., cd. 10, 1758, 1, p. 199. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 256.
Type locality: — "Habitat in India, Africa."
This wonderful little creature, the Hap-Hcip of the Javanese Malays, is
extremely common about Buitenzorg, wlience came the thirty specimens col-
lected in 1906-1907. Bryant found it equally abundant there, and sent back
twenty-five; he took two others at Gunung Bunder, Mt. Salak; and one at
Depok. It is strictly a lizard of the lower regions of the island, and it does not
occur about Tjibodas or Sindanglaia, or at an altitude above 3,500-4,000 feet.
Draco fimbriatus Kuhl.
KuHL, Beitr. zool. und vergl. anat., 1820, p. 101. Bodlenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 265.
Type locality: — "India orientalis."
This flying lizard is much rarer than the common D. volans. Bryant got
five examples at Buitenzorg. It can be easily cUstinguished from the other by
the pure white under surfaces of the "wing"; and, of course, it grows to a far
greater size. One of this series (collector's No. 558) has a minute tympanum,
almost indistinguishable; in this character it is widely different from that typical
of the species.
Gonyocephalus chamaeleontinus (Laurenti).
Laurenti, Syn. Rept., 1768, p. 47. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 285.
Gonyocephalus kuhlii (Schleg.). Bodlenger, loc. cit., p. 286.
Type locality: — "Habitat in America."
This species is a variable one. With a considerable series at hand, I have
concluded that G. kuhlii is not a valid species; and, although I have no Sumatran
specimens, I strongly suspect that Schlegel's G. (Lophyrus) sumatranus should
be added to the synonymy as well.
The 1900-1907 collecting brought back two examples from Sindanglaia;
one from Sukabumi; two from Tjibodas; and one from Tjiserupan. Bryant
had six from Tjibodas. In this lot were individuals of all ages, including several
large, fully adult specimens. Some had the ventral scales keeled quite distinctly,
others less so; while a single, large one had them almost smooth. The project-
ing supraciliary border is more or less developed; varying, as does also the
nuchal crest, both in height and in position anteriorly; so that no definite line
can be drawn to separate groups of individuals.
86 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Gonyocephalus dilophus (Dumeril et Bibron).
DuMERiL ET Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1837, 4, p. 419, pi. 46. Boulbngeb, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1,
p. 290.
Type locality: — New Guinea.
A fine adult of this remarkable species collected by Mr. A. E. Pratt in the
Aru Islands is in the Museum series.
Gonyocephalus modestus Meter.
Meyer, Mon. Berl. akad., 1874, p. 130. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 294.
Type locality: — Jobi Island.
Of the two examples examined, one came from Pom, Jobi Island, Papua;
the other was purchased abroad, and comes from the Astrolabe Bay, German
New Guinea. They are both of practically the same adult size, some 300 mm.
in length; but the serration on the dorsal aspect of the tail is much more pro-
nounced in the specimen last mentioned than in the other.
Calotes cristatellus (Kuhl).
KuHL, Beitr. zool. und vergl. anat., 1820, p. 108. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 316.
Type locality: — unknown.
Bryant took one at Buitenzorg, and there were six in my collection from near
Garut, Java. This may be known as C. cristatellus cristatellus (Kuhl) .
Other examples — six from Ternate, one from Ceram, and four from Hal-
mahera — often vary considerably from the condition seen in the Javan specimen.
Javan examples can be matched in the Moluccas, but only rarely. Boulenger
has noted the differences which may occur (loc. cit., p. 317). Moluccan examples
probably represent a valid geographic race, and may be known as Calotes cris-
tatellus moluccanus Peters, (Mon. Berl. akad., 1867, p. 171).
The Celebes examples should probably stand as Calotes cristatellus celebensis
Giinther (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1873, p. 168).
Calotes mystaceus (Dumeril et Bibron).
Dumeril et Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1837, 4, p. 408. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 325.
Type locality: — Burma.
This' species was seen commonly on fences and in garden shrubbery at
several places in Upper Burma. Four from Mandalay were preserved.
Calotes jubatus (Dum. & Bibr.).
Plate 6, fig. 23, egg.
Kaup, Isis, 1827, p. 619. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 318.
Type locality: — Java.
This is a common tree-Uzard about Buitenzorg, where six were preserved in
SAURIA. 87
1906. Bryant got many more : — eighteen from Buitenzorg ; seven from Gunung
Bmider, Mt. Salak; two from Tjibodas; one from Depok; and one from Daroe,
Bantam.
The curious spindle-shaped eggs are often found in loose earth about tree
trunks or in decaying vegetable matter, such as old leaves ®r the rubbish in hol-
low trees or logs.
Calotes versicolor (Daudin).
Daudin, Hist. nat. rept., 1802, 3, p. 395, pi. 44. Boulengbb, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 1, p. 321.
Tyve locality:— Daudin based his description on two specimens in the Paris
museum. He did not mention whence they came. He identifies them, however,
with a lizard which Seba figured as coming from Brazil. Daudin undoubtedly
believed that he was describing a lizard from tropical South America.
Individuals from Calcutta; the Teesta Valley, Sikkim; Mandalay; and
Saigon, which were got in 1906-1907, do not show constant variations correlated
with the places where they were found.
Dendragama fruhstorferi Boettqer.
BoETTGER, Zool. aiiz., 1893, 16, p. 335.
Type locality:— Tjiserupan, west Java.
An a])undant species in the mountain regions at an altitude of over 4,000
feet. It is partial to sunny glades in rather heavy forest, and is rather strictly
arboreal.
Both my own and Bryant's collection had large series, the latter the larger.
The species is, so far as known, confined to west Java, the only other member
of the genus being found on Sumatra.
Hydrosaurus amboinensis (Schu)8ser).
Plate 4, fig. 11.
SCHLOSSER, Epist., Hornst. Abh. acad. Stockh., 1785, 6, p. 130, pi. 5, fig. 1. Barbour, Proc. Biol. 8oc.
Wash., 1911, 24, p. 19.
Type locality: — Ambon.
A specimen from Piru, Ceram, agrees absolutely with a topotype recently
taken in Ambon and now in the United States national museum. It has been
described (Barbour loc. cit.) in connection with the original description of the
following species.
So far as known this form occurs on Ambon and Ceram only.
88 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Hydrosaurus weberi Barbour.
Plate 4, fig. 10.
Barbour, Proc. Biol. soc. Wash., 1911, 24, p. 20.
Type locality: — Weeda, Halmahera Island.
This distinct species was described on the basis of two adults (male and
female) from Halmahera. A series of young examples of various ages show
that the species occurs on Ternate also. Probably the examples recorded from
Batjan belong here too.
This, the largest of the sail-tailed lizards, is apparently confined to the
Halmahera group of the Moluccas. A head of the Philippine species, H. pustu-
losus (Eschscholtz) , is figured for comparison (PI. 4, fig. 9).
Varanus salvator (Laurenti).
Laurenti, Syn. Kept., 1768, p. 56. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 2, p. 314.
Type locality: — "America."
Specimens from Buitenzorg, Java, are in each of the Javan collections seen.
The species is a very common, variable, and wide-ranging one. Its distribution
is given in the table appended.
Varanus indicus (Daudin).
Daudin, Hist. nat. rept., 1802, 3, p. 46, pi. 30. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mua., 1885, 2, p. 316.
Type locality: — Ambon.
This was a common Moluccan species. Specimens were preserved from
Ceram, Ternate, and Halmahera.
This species frequents mangrove, nipa, and sago swamps especially. It is
not apparently fond of climbing, but can do so, though far less ably than Hydro-
saurus, which is generally associated with it. It swims, of course, with ease.
A small swampy pond some miles to the westward of the town of Ternate lies
in what is apparently the bed of an old crater. One side is blown down, so that
it may be approached at almost sea-level, while otherwise it is shut in by a perfect
amphitheatre of hills. About the shores of this lake, these monitors occur in
great droves; and the helter-skelter rush for the edge of the pond on the part
of these great lizards as we approached reminded one only of the pictures of
Amblyrynchus on the rocky shores of the Galapagos Islands, living under
conditions so totally different.
Mr. A. E. Pratt's collection brings in one from the Aru Islands.
The table (p. 197) may be consulted for the distribution.
SAURIA. 89
Varanus kordensis Meyer.
Meyer, Mon. Berl. akad., 1874, p. 131. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1885, 2, p. 322.
Type locality: — Korido (Kordo), Wiak Island (Mysore), Schouten group.
Two fine examples from the Aru Islands, taken there by Mr. A. E. Pratt.
They are both coal-black above and below.
Takydromus sexlineatus Daudin.
Da0din, Hist. nat. rept., 1802, 3, p. 256, pi. 39. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 4.
Type locality: — unknown.
The specific name quadrilineatus for this species was based on what was
without doubt the same species, and occurs in Daudin on an earlier page (252).
According to the usage of some writers, ornithologists especially, this 'name,
from the mere fact of its place in the volume, becomes ipso facto the only avail-
able name for the species. It seems, however, better to follow the rule that the
first reviser can designate the name by which the species shall be known. All
authors have used sexlineatus. The alternative name, quadrilineatus, which
seems never to have appeared in the literature but once, is thus sharply dis-
posed of.
This is an extremely common species in open country, and both Bryant
and I got large series in west Java.
Tiliqua gigas (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. Amphib., 1801, 3, p. 202. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 144.
Type locality: — Ambon.
This species was taken twice at Ternate, and once at Wahaai, Ceram.
Under the notes on Java I have expressed my doubt as to the probabihty that the
record for that island (Berlin mus. 10,490, Bantam) is correct, even though there
seems to be every semblance of accuracy.
Mabuya multifasciata (Kuhl).
KuHL,-Beitr. zool. und vergl. anat., 1820, p. 126. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 186.
Type locality: — not given.
One of the most wide-ranging of the skinks (c/. table). Specimens were
preserved as follows: — thirty-five from Buitenzorg, Java; one from Wahaai,
Ceram; seven from Patani, Halmahera; one from Gane, Halmahera; nine
from Ternate; and one from Meosbundi, Wiak Island, Schouten group, which
seems to be the first Papuan record for the species. It is probably not arti-
ficially introduced, as there has been very little intercourse with this place, owing
to the hostility of the natives, who are even yet considered especially dangerous .
90 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Mabuya macularia (Blyth).
Blyth, Journ. Asiatic soc. Bengal, 1853, 22, p. 652. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 182.
Type locality: — "?Rungpore" India.
A common species in the suburbs of Calcutta. Two specimens preserved.
Sphenomorphus sanctus (Dumeml et Bibron).
Ddmeril et Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1839, 5, p. 739. Max Weber, Zool. ergeb., 1890, 1, p. 171, pi. 14,
fig. 4.
Type locality: — Java.
Boulenger (Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 243) said that this species,
"described from a young specimen in bad condition, is probably closely allied"
to S. maculatus Blyth. Only the type was known until it was rediscovered by
Weber. The species is an extremely rare one in Java, at any rate about Buiten-
zorg. I should say that it occurred in the ratio of about one to two hundred as
compared to Mabuya multifasciata; perhaps even less often. I found but two
at Buitenzorg; Bryant, on the other hand, got five at the same place.
Sphenomorphus variegatus (Peters).
Peters, Mon. Berl. akad., 1867, p. 20. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 246.
Type locality: — Mindanao.
This species is one of the less common ones, though it is met with sparingly
over a wide range. The series studied consists of two from Sorong, and one
from Manokwari, Papua; one each from Ansus and Pom, Jobi Island; and one
from Jeendee, Ron Island.
Sphenomorphus jobiensis (Meyer).
Meyer, Mon. Berl. akad., 1874, p. 131. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 247.
Type locality. — Jobi Island.
This species seems to be a rather rare one, at any rate in the coast regions
in which we collected. Two were got at Djamna; and one each at Pom and
Wool Bay, Jobi Island. Another specimen from near Astrolabe Bay, German
New Guinea, came in with a small collection recently procured.
, Sphenomorphus brevipes (Boettger).
Boettger, Zool. anz., 1895, 18, p. 121, 129. Abli. Senck. nat. ges., 1901, 25, 2, p. 346, pi. 14, f. 3-3a.
Type locality. — Sao Konora, Halmahera.
This skink has so far been taken on Halmahera alone. A lizard from
Ternate, taken in 1907, agrees well enough with the description to make it
appear to be almost certainly the same species. Boettger's figure, in appearance,
is not very convincing of accuracy; and the specimen does vary considerably
SAURIA. 91
from the figure, though not enough, when the agreement with the description
is considered, to separate it as a distinct species.
Sphenomorphus elegantulus (Peters e Dokia).
Peters e Doria, Ann. Mus. civ. Geneva, 1878, 13, p. 344. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus.,
1887, 3, p. 235.
Type locality: — Somerset, Cape York, Queensland.
A single specimen from Sorong, Dutch New Guinea, agrees well with
Boulenger's description. Nevertheless, even a good diagnosis alone, without
specimens for comparison, is never very convincing; and if this Sorong specimen
were compared directly with authentic examples from Queensland or British
New Guinea, it would very possibly be found to be different from S. eleganhdus.
I can not find any record that it has been previously taken in this region of Papua.
It is known from the type locality, and British and German New Guinea.
Dasia olivaceum Gray.
Gray, Ann. nat. hist., 1839, 2, p. 331. Boulenqbr, Cat. lizards Brit. Mus., 1887, 3, p. 251.
Type locality: — "Prince of Wales Island," coast of Indo-China.
This wide-ranging species is another which is rare in Java. Bryant and I
each got two at Buitenzorg. Its habits are those of Mabuya multifasciata;
and its occurrence, judging from very many observations, can not be in the
proportion of more than one to several hundred of that species.
Dasia smaragdinum (Lesson).
Plate 1, fig. 1 and 2; Plate 2, fig. 4.
Lesson, Voy. Coquille. Zool., 1830, 2, p. 43, pi. 3, fig. 1. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3,
p. 250.
Type locality: — Oualan, Caroline Islands.
This species is common, wide-ranging, and of unusual interest. A list of
the specimens preserved follows: —
From Moluccas: — two from Wahaai, and one from Piru, Ceram; six from
Ternate; six from Obi, and two from Galela, Halmahera. From Papuasia: —
32 from Sorong, Papua; three from Manokwari, Papua; two from Humboldt's
Bay, Papua; three from Saonek, Waigiu; six from Wool Bay, Jobi Island ; and
one from the A. E. Pratt collection from Fak Fak, Papua. The Museum has
specimens from New Britain, Formosa, the Pelew Islands, and from Ebon in the
Marshall Islands. While in Japan I got from Mr. Alan Owston, of Yokahama,
two specimens from Ruk, Caroline Islands, which are, of course, approximate
topotypes.
Lesson's two figures, each of specimens said to be from Oualan, CaroUne
92 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Islands, — one of which he calls Scincus smaragdinus (PI. 3, fig. 1), and the other
S. mridipundum (PI. 4, fig. 1), — represent what I assume to be surely a Papuan
example wTongly labelled as to locality; the second one is really from the Caroline
Islands. All the specimens fall into three groups, characteristic of their geo-
graphic ranges. Thus all the specimens without a single exception from Waigiu,
Papua, and New Britain have the body grass-green in life, blue in spirits, some-
times fading posteriorly to a reddish buff, which color continues along the whole
tail. This race may be known as Dasia smaragdinum smaragdinum (PI. 1, fig. 1) .
Ten examples from Ebon, Marshall Islands; two from the Pelew Islands;
and two from Ruk, CaroHne Islands, are all alike, and unvarying in color. They
are dark iron-gray, each scale with a dark centre or edge. This is the form not
very accurately represented by Lesson, PI. 4, fig. 1. It may be known as Dasia
smaragdinum viridipunclum (PI. 2, fig. 4).
The specimens from the Moluccas are as uniform, and are characterized t)y
a light gray ground color, more or less irregularly spotted or blotched with dark
brown or black. This gives a sort of pepper-and-salt appearance. The type
has been designated as No. 7,481, M. C. Z., an adult from Wahaai, Ceram. The
race (PI. 1, fig. 2.) may be called Dasia smaragdinum moluccarum Barbour (Proc.
Biol. soc. Wash., 1911, 24, p. 17). Curiously enough no structural characters
have been found which hold for this large series which are constantly present
jointly with these most striking and unexpectedly fixed color-patterns.
The young of all seem to be ahke, — brownish, green spotted, and mottled
with darker green; so that the single small example which I recorded from
Formosa, the first known, can not be definitely placed as to its subspecies
(Barbour, Proc. N. E. zool. club, 1909, 4, p. 65).
It may be urged that, on the evidence of Lesson's two figures, the green
form as well as the other occurs in the Carolines. We must recall, however,
that in the early part of the last century on long voyages specimens were not as
carefully separated from each other according to locality as they are now. We
know that Lesson visited Papua; and the examples of D. smaragdinum smarag-
dinum figured, and the types of other of his species indeed, doubtle.ss are of
Papuan origin. Many of the Oualan records need verification.
Leiolepisma fuscum (Dumeril et Bibron).
DuMERiL ET BiBKON, Erpet. gen., 1839, 6, p. 7.59. Bodlenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 283.
Type locality: — Waigiu and Rawac Islands.
Of this common skink, which is abundant almost everywhere, both in open
and in forested regions, the following material was preserved: — seven from
SAURIA. 93
Ternate; three from Ambon; one from Piru, Ceram; three from Wahaai, Ceram;
five from Patani, Hahnahera; fifteen from Saonek, Waigiu; eight from Sorong,
Papua; twelve from Manokwari, Papua; one from Djamna, Papua; three from
Jendee, Ron Island, Geelvink Bay, Papua; one each from Pom and Ansus on
Jobi Island. An example from Fak Fak, Papua, came in with the A. E. Pratt
series. The examples from Jendee differ from all the others in being of a darker
color, and in having the dark dorsal line very strongly marked.
Leiolepisma noctua (Lesson).
Lesson, Voy. Coquille. Zool., 1830, 2, p. 48, pi. 3, fig. 4. Boulenqer, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3,
p. 256.
Type locality: — ■ Oualan, Caroline Island.
This skink was found but once, at Sorong, northwest New Guinea. It is
rare in Papua.
Leiolepisma novae-guineae (Meter).
Meyer, Men. Berl. akad., 1874, p. 132. Boulenger, Cat. liaards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 289.
Type locality: — New Guinea.
This lizard was met with but once, when seven individuals were taken at
Lawui, Obi Major Island, Moluccas. It has not been recorded from this island
previously; and without any specimens from other localities for comparison,
there is a possibility that these may not be typical examples of the species. They
seem, however, to agree very well with Boulenger's description.
Leiolepisma pullum Barbour.
Plate 2, fig. 3.
Barbour, Proc. Biol. see. Wash., 1911, 24, p. 15.
The type from Humboldt's Bay, Dutch New Guinea, near the frontier of
Kaiser Wilhelmsland, is the only specimen known so far.
Emoia cyanurum (Lesson).
Lesson, Voy. Coquille. Zool., 1830, 2, p. 49, pi. 4, fig. 2. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit. Mua., 1887, 3,
p. 290.
Type locality: — Tahiti.
On account of its sky-blue tail this species is strikingly conspicuous, and thus
often appears to be the most common lizard in many places. In reality this is
not always the case; L. fuscum, though inconspicuous, is, where it occurs, gen-
erally the most plentiful species. The following specimens of this form were
preserved: — from Piru, Ceram, two; from Wahaai, Ceram, one; from Saonek,
Waigiu, one; from Manokwari, Papua, one; from Djamna, Papua, one; from
Jobi Island, Ansus, three, Pom, four, Wool Bay, eleven. Another example comes
from near Astrolabe Bay, German New Guinea.
94 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Emoia mivarti (Boulengek).
BouLENQER, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 292, pi. 23, fig. 1.
Type locality: — Admiralty Islands.
In the shore vegetation just back from sandy beaches, this lizard was gen-
erally about equally abundant with E. cyanurum. The collection contains
twenty-four from Djamna; nine from Manokwari; thirteen from Sorong;
three from Wooi Bay, Jobi Island, and four from Pom, Jobi Island. The first
three places are all on Papua, except Djamna, which is on a very near by islet.
This species was probably long confounded with the true Blue-tailed skink,
and for that reason was not described until 1887, though it is both common
and conspicuous.
Emoia atrocostatum (Lesson).
Lesson, Voy. Coquille. Zool., 1830, 2, p. 50, pi. 4, fig. 3. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3,
p. 295.
Type locality: — Oualan, Caroline Island.
Another widespread and not uncommon species. Of the specimens ex-
amined, three came from Sorong, Papua; one from Ansus, and four from Wooi
Bay, Jobi Island; one from Saonek, Waigiu Island; and one from Gane, Halma-
hera.
Emoia baudinii (Dumeril et Bibron).
DuMERii. ET Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1839, 5, p. 653. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 296.
Type locality: — New Guinea.
This lizard, while it is not uncommon in Papua, seems to be rare among
the Moluccas. There are two from Wooi Bay, and four from Ansus, Jobi
Island; also five from Manokwari, on the Papuan mainland. We did not meet
with it elsewhere. When the British museum catalogue was written, there were
only two specimens in the collection, both Papuan. Boulenger (Proc. Zool. soc.
London, 1897, p. 214) says that the specimen upon which the Celebes record for
this species was based is really an E. cyanurum.
Emoia cyanogaster (Lesson).
Lesson, Voy/ Coquille. Zool., 1830, 2, p. 47, pi. 3, fig. 3. Boulenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3,
p. 292.
Type locality: — Oualan, Caroline Islands.
This species was found to be a rather rare one. One was got at Sorong,
Papua, and another at Wooi Bay, Jobi Island. A third comes from German
New Guinea by purchase.
SAURIA. 95
Emoia sorex (Boettger).
BoETTGER, Zool. anz., 1895, 18, p. 118. Abh. Senck. nat. ges., 1901, 25, p. 243.
Type locality: — Halmahera and Batjan.
This species, which seems to replace E. cyanogasler in the Hahiiahera group
of islands, was taken three times : — once at Gane and at Patani, both stations
on Halmahera; and at Lawui, Obi Island, where two were caught. It has not
lieen recorded from this island previously.
Riopa rufescens (Shaw).
Shaw, Gen. zool., 1802, 3, p. 28,'). Boulengeb, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 303.
Type locality: — "Arabia and Egypt. . . .shores of the Nile."!!
This species wide-ranging, but of shy and retiring habits, was only met
with at Djamna, near Humboldt's Bay, New Guinea. Two specimens were
found under rotting logs in the forest.
Homolepida temminckii (Dumeril et Bibron).
DuMERiL ET Bibron, Erpet. gen., 1839, 5, p. 727. Bodlenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 321.
Type locality: — Based on a specimen, incorrectly labelled, received from
the Leyden museum. Locality not mentioned.
This species is abundant in west Java; and may be found under bark,
stones, and similar situations, usually in open country.
It was common at Buitenzorg, where twenty-five were preserved; as well
as five at Tjibodas, and two near the summit of the Papangdaiang volcano near
Garut. Bryant got one at Batavia, eleven at Buitenzorg, and an enormous
series on the slopes of the volcano Gede, near Tjibodas, Java. The elevation
was from 4,500 to 6,000 feet.
Lygosoma chalcides (LiNNfi).
LiNN^, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 209. Bodlenger, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 340.
Type locality: — "Habitat in Europa australi, Africa."
A rare species in Java; Bryant and I each found it but twice. All four
specimens are from Buitenzorg. The distribution of this species is to be found
in the table, and a note regarding its occurrence on Sumatra (p. 12).
Lygosoma muelleri (Schlegel).
ScHLEOEL, Abbild. Amphib., 1837, dec. 1, p. 13, pi. 3. Boulenqer, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3,
p. 338.
Type locality: — Dutch New Guinea.
This rare lizard was found but once, when a splendid adult was taken at
Wahaai, Ceram. The species coming from Papua and Ceram emphasizes
96 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
again the point made elsewhere about the closer Papuan relationship with this
island than with other of the Moluccas (c/. the notes on Ceram, p. 38-40).
Cryptoblepharus boutonii (Desjabdin).
Plate 3.
Desjabdin, Ann. sci. nat., 1831, ser. 1, 22, p. 298. Boulbngeb, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 18S7, 3, p. 346.
Type locality: — Mauritius.
Sufficient material is not on hand to attempt to straighten out the probable
validity of many of the "varieties" which have been suggested. So far as
concerns the material which Boulenger had, one can see that the "varieties"
are apparently rather regularly distributed. They are probably real geographic
races, for Stejneger (Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 225) has shown that there
is a definite condition found in all Bonin Island specimens, so far as seen. He
had examined ten examples; and four others here, from Hahashima, Bonin
Islands, confirm his observations. Regarding the other individuals which I
have studied, I find nothing new to add to what has been said in Proc. Biol,
soc. Washington, 1911, 24, p. 17-8.
The difference between the races pointed out in Dasia smaragdinum and in
this species may be distinguished better from the colored figures than by lengthy
verbal descriptions. PI. 3, fig. 8, represents the type of C. b. balinensis Bar-
bour. PI. 3, fig. 5, represents the type of C. b. cursor Barbour. PI. 3, fig. 7, is
of C. b. peronii (Cocteau) from Saonek, Waigiu Island and PI. 3, fig. 6, shows
what has been called C. b. peronii (Cocteau) from Madagascar.
Dibamus novae-guineae Dumerii, et Bibron.
DuMEBiL ET BiBEON, Erpet. gen., 1839, 5, p. 834. Boulengeb, Cat. lizards Brit, mus., 1887, 3, p. 435.
Type locality: — New Guinea, almost certainly from the Dutch section.
A single typical example from Wahaai, Ceram; its presence on this island
was to be expected, even if it had not been previously taken.
This curious lizard has a far wider range than for a long time was supposed.
It is known from New Guinea; Waigui; Ternate, Halmahera, and now Ceram,
in the Moluccas; Celebes; Sumatra; and the Malay Peninsula. This is the
only land-reptile of burrowing habits, — in other words, which is not carried
about fortuitously, — whose range extends from Malaya to Papua without any
apparent specific differentiation. It is probably a form whose degradation
' began in very early times. Boulenger speaks of the genus as one "which appears
to stand in the same relation to the Scincidae as Anniella to the Anguidae."
The only other Dibamus known comes from the Nicobar Islands.
SERPENTES. 97
SERPENTES.
Typhlops lineatus Schlegbl.
ScHLEQEL, Abbild. Ampbib., 1S39, dec. 2, p. 39, pi. 32, fig. 32-34. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit,
mus., 1893, 1, p. 15.
Type locality: — Java; collection of Reinwardt, Leyden museum.
Color: — head and lower parts dull yellow; back with fine zigzag Hnes of
very dark brown from 12 to 15 in number. These lines do not follow the rows
of scales, but run between them. This gives the lines a wavy appearance. There
is commonly a light yellow or yellowish band around the body in the region near
the vent.
The early history of this species is of interest, and I must thank Dr. Stejneger
for help in verifying and transcribing some references to books not available here.
1827. Boie Isis, p. 563.
"a. lineatus Reinw. welche dem septemstriatus Schneid. sehr nahe steht.
Vaterland Java." A nomen nudum though a type locality is referred to.
1830. Wagler, Nat. syst. Amphib., p. 196.
"Acontias lineatus Reinw." Another nomen nudum.
1831. Gray, Griffith's anim. kingdom, p. 77.
"Lined Typhlops. Typhlops lineatus Acontias, Reinw." (sic). Again
a nomen nudum.
Schlegel {he. cit., 1839, p. 39) writes, after a brief but recognizable descrip-
tion, "Die Abbildung, welche Herr Reinwardt, als er diese Ai-t entdeckte, nach
dem Le'ben machen liess, ist der Folge." This figure, however, is incorrect both
as to the contour of the cephalic scales and the number of scales around the body.
Giinther (Reptiles Brit. Ind., 1864, p. 171) notes that this figure is incorrect.
He counts 405 transverse series of scales on the body and 8 around the tail.
Dumeril and Bibron (Erpet. gen., 1837, 4, p. 259) count 430 transverse series.
Schlegel likewise counted 430 series on the body and 8 on the tail ; also 23 rows
of scales. Giinther {loc. cit., p. 171) and Boulenger {loc. cit., p. 15) both agree
that there are twenty-two rows around the body. This is also the condition
in the specimens under examination. The species was well figured by Jan (Icon,
gen., 1860, p. 7; 1.1, pi. 5 and 6, fig. 9) ; he speaks of it thus, "Typhlops lineatus
Reinw. Java. Musee de Leyde."
This form is known from Penang Island and other localities in the lower
part of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java. I should add that it was not
taken by Messrs. Annandale and Robinson during their explorations of Perak
98 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
and the Siamese Malay states. It is, so far as I know, confined to the vicinity
of Singapore, where Cantor took it, and Malacca, whence there are specimens
in the British museum. For a long time it was known only from Java, but
Dumeril and Bibron (he. cit.) record it as common in Java and equally so in Suma-
tra. Gray (Cat. hzards Brit, mus., 1845, p. 134) records specimens from India
presented by General Hardwicke. In 1893, however, Boulenger (loc. cit., p. 15)
records the only example taken by Hardwicke as from Singapore, and also
questions the correctness of locahty of the Hong Kong specimen, which is proba-
bly the same as the one mentioned by Giinther (loc. cit., p. 171). In 1896 Werner
(Verh. Zool. bot. ges. Wien, 46, p. 13) describes " Typhlops lineatus Boie typ. und
var. sumatranus n." This is said to differ from the typical form in having 24
rows of scales around the body and a U-shaped mouth, the typical form having
22 rows of scales and a more V-shaped mouth. The latter character is one which
varies greatly in Javan examples; for one of a series of four taken at Buitenzorg
in April, 1907, has a mouth with almost parallel sides. The number of rows of
scales seems to vary little in these forms, and probably constitutes a valid basis
of separation. Dr. Werner ends by suggesting that perhaps this is entitled to be
considered a new species, but it seems more probable that extensive collections
will show that it can not even be distinguished as a geographical race. There
were six other typical examples in the Bryant collection from Buitenzorg, Java.
Typhlops braminus (Daudin).
Daudin, Hist. nat. rept., 1803, 7, p. 279 (based on Russell's Account of Indian serpents, 1796, 1, p.
48-49, pi. 43). Stejneger, BuU. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 260-262, figs. 232-235.
Type locality: — Vizagapatam, Madras presidency, India.
Color brown, in varying shades; often each scale is dark at the apex and
paler at the base. This gives the specimens a minutely speckled appearance.
The snout and tip of tail are almost invariably whitish, and frequently also the
region about the vent. In those individuals which are about to shed the skin
the color is steely gray.
This species is found in a number of situations, most frequently under
ground in soft leaf -mould ; often under rocks or rotten logs, and under the bark
of decaying trees. During January, 1907, two specimens were taken in Buiten-
zorg, Java, about seven feet from the ground, living in small accumulations of
decaying vegetable matter between the base of the leaf of a palm tree and the
trunk. The tree was well covered with masses of epiphytic vegetation, and the
creatures must have crept up through this to reach the position in which they
were taken.
SERPENTES. 99
This species has a very remarkable distribution through the tropical regions
of the Old World. It has been previously recorded from the following localities:
— South Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, the Maldive and Laccadive Islands,
Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Straits Settlements, Java, Borneo, Flores, Celebes, Ke
and Aru Islands, Moluccas, Philippines, Formosa, Hong Kong, Okinawa Island,
Miyakoshima, Yaeyama Island, Riu Kiu Aixhipelago. In the collections at
hand, the following localities are represented, some of which extend the known
range considerably. Thus the creature seems generally distributed through the
Moluccas and also occurs in Papua.
Manokwari (Doreh), Dutch Papua 2 examples
Patani, Halmahera I., Moluccas 1 example
Ternate I., Moluccas 1 example
Wahaai, Ceram I., Moluccas 2 examples
Buitenzorg, Java 14 examples
Johore State, Malay Peninsula 1 example
Saigon, French Cochin China 1 example
The Bryant collection contains eleven other examples from Buitenzorg.
The following are in the collection of the Museum: —
Madras, India, M. C. Z., 3,913, 3,914 16 examples
Madras, India M. C. Z., 5,229 (= T. pammaces) 2 examples
Amballa, India M. C. Z., 4,270 1 example
Plains 70 miles s. w. of Am-
balla, India, M. C. Z., 3,750, 5,393 8 examples
The Plains, India, M. C. Z., 4,780 1 example
Gadow (Amphibia and reptiles, 1901, p. 594) offers the following suggestion
regarding this family of snakes. "The Typlilopidae * * * are undoubtedly the
last living descendants of formerly cosmopolitan, rather archaic, snakes which
in adaptation to their burrowing life * * * have undergone degradation."
It seems probable, certainly possible, that from this simple form (viz.
T. braminus) various local races of full specific distinction have arisen. This
species may have spread abroad whilst still there was land connection between
the Indo-Malayan Islands and Papuasia. The distribution over the western
portion of its range is also suggestive that at perhaps the same time a land-bridge
connected Somaliland with .Ai-abia. It is not necessary to assume that these
land connections were coexisting, — they probably were not. Is it not also
possible that in the last-mentioned connection was included the island of Socotra,
100 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
on which occurs a pallid form varying from T. hraminus in the following char-
acters: — a wide rostral, a preocular broader than nasal or ocular, and 24 rows
of scales around the body. There are many points of close similarity in pro-
portions and squamation between these two forms; the only really noteworthy
deviation of T. socoiranus Blgr. from T. hraminus being the addition of four
rows of scales around the body.
Giinther in his article on snakes in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1881,
p. 190, says: "Snakes are the most stationary of all vertebrates; as long as a
locaUty affords them a sufficiency of food and shelter to wliich they can readily
retreat, they have no inducement to change it. Their dispersal therefore must
have been extremely slow and gradual." Again on p. 194 he remarks in direct
allusion to the forms under discussion: "Some of the small species have a wide
range, having been probably transported by accident on floating objects to
distant countries." It seems hardly credible that so small and delicate an
organism as T. hraminus would hve under the peculiar conditions to which
travel on some "floating object" would subject it; yet it is possibly sometimes
carried about with bulbs and roots transported by man. The oft-quoted story
of a boa floating two hundred miles from the coast of South America to the
Island of St. Vincent, twisted round the trunk of a "cedar tree," has little bear-
ing on the possible dispersal of a Typhlops. South American rivers more than
any others are prone to float great matted masses of vegetation to sea, and this
occurs quite frequently during the heavy rains. This, however, could hardly
ever occur in the case of the greater Indian rivers, for instance; for their courses
now, at any rate, lie largely through even plains, perhaps deforested by man for
cultivation, — but also largely through sandy wastes. The Irrawaddy does
frequently carry down considerable masses of vegetation, but these are' not
buoyant, and are wave-beaten and saturated with sea-water as soon as they
emerge from the delta into the Bay of Bengal. Flotsam carries with it but few
terrestrial animals compared to what was once supposed.
Possibly this archaic form, or ancestors of this form, followed some such
route of dispersal as Osborn has figured for the elephants (c/. Century mag.,
79, p. 829, map). That this form itself dispersed and not its ancestors, seems
likely from the fact that no definitive variation occurs within the species itself.
During a visit to Calcutta it was a matter of great interest to learn of the
newly discovered T. hraminus arenicola Annandale (Mem. Asiat. soc. Bengal,
1, p. 192). This is a peculiar, almost pigmentless, form from "the desert tract
of Southern India" in the district of Madura. Dr. Annandale describes two
SERPENTES. 101
new species (Typhlops limbrickii and T. psarmnophilus) , pallid forms also, from
this region; and also remarks on the pale color of various desert species in
comparison with their relatives. We can conceive that, were this area as isolated
as is the island of Socotra, the local race of T. hraminus would be differentiated,
as is T. socotranus. In this area of Ramanad we must allow for a more or less
constant influx of typical individuals from outside the desert, and this of course
reduces the rate of change. Dr. Annandale adds some interesting notes on the
habits of T. hraminus. A living specimen which he "kept in an insect cage ate
the excerta of caterpillars, and he adds that this very individual was taken from
a stick of sugarcane at a considerable height from the ground, where it was
living in the tunnel made by some boring caterpillar.
Typhlops polygraimnicus Schlegel.
ScHLEGEL, Abbild. Amphib., 1839, dec. 2, p. 40, pi. 32, fig. 35-38. Bodlenger, Cat. snakea Brit,
mus., 1893, 1, p. 34-35.
Type locality: — Timor.
This species, which has the interesting distribution of Australia and Timor,
is represented here by a single example taken in Portuguese Timor, and obtained
in exchange from the American museum of natural history.
Typhlops flaviventer Peters.
Peters, Men. Berl. akad., 1864, p. 271. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 25.
Type locality: — Ternate Island, Moluccas.
This species was taken but once during about a week of collecting in Ternate,
March, 1907. It is very similar in habits to T. hraminus, but appears more
active when disturbed. In life the upper surface is blue-black with iridescence,
and the lower surface is chrome-yellow. The edge of the darker color appears
sharply serrate, due to the corners of the first row of yellow scales being visible
between the corners of the scales of the lowest dark row. The lighter color
becomes somewhat diffuse over the upper surface of the head and the tip of the
tail. In life the body is strongly depressed, and the creature usually rests
rather tightly coiled.
This species is known only from this group of islands : — -
Ternate, where von Martens took the type, and where Bruijn took the series
reported on by Peters and Doria.
Batjan, one specimen taken by Beccari, the famous companion of d'Albertis
in exploration of the Dutch East Indies.
102 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Halmahera, collection of W. Kiikenthal (Boettger, Zool. anz., 1895, 18,
p. 129)
Peters and Doria (Ann. Mus. civ. Geneva, 1878, 13, p. 384) WTite the follow-
ing on the history of this species: — "Questa specie fu descritta da Peters sopra
un unico esemplare raccolto a Ternate dal dott. von Martens. Appunto da
questa localita il sig. Bruijn ce ne ha inviato una bella serie d'individui e cio ci
fu credere che esse vi debba essere piuttosto abbondante. II Beccari poi ce
ne fece avere un esemplare raccolto a Bacian."
The term Molucca Islands, as used for the habitat of this form, is used in
the old strict term. Formerly only the islands whence came cloves and nutmegs,
— viz. that small chain on the western coast of the large island of Halmahera, —
were known by this name. Now the term is used to designate the Dutch Resi-
dency, which embraces all the islands from Halmahera and Morotai on or north
of the equator, to the distant groups of the Ke, Aru, Tenimbar or Timor-Laut,
and Sermata Islands. These lie far to the south, and the extreme southwestern
islands meet the chains of the Lesser Sunda Islands.
It is probable that this species will be taken on Tidor and the islets between
it and Bat j an, unless exterminated by the widespread and rather constant or
frequent volcanic activity.
Python reticulatus (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. Amphib., 1801, 2, p. 264. Boulenqer, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 85-86.
Type locality: — not given.
This Python, which apparently grows larger than any other, is common
throughout its extensive range. It is especially abundant in western Java.
Ever3rwhere it is essentially a deep forest species, wandering occasionally, how-
ever, into cultivated areas.
The geographical distribution of this and other members of the genus is of
great interest. P. reticulatus is now known from the following islands, as well
as from Burma, and the Malay and Indo-Chinese Peninsulas: — Java (M. C. Z.) ;
Sumatra (Werner, Verb. Zool. bot. ges. Wien, 1896, 46, p. 13); Borneo (Blgr.,
loc. cit.); Philippines (Blgr., loc. cit.); Celebes (Peters & Doria, Ann. Mus. civ,
Genova, 1878, 13, p. 399); Ceram (M. C. Z.); Ambon, Ternate, and Halmahera
(Peters & Doria, loc. cit., and M. C. Z.); Timor-Laut (Blgr., loc. cit.); and more
recently it has been taken on Great Natuna Island (Blgr., loc. cit., 1896, 3, p.
592). Six Javan examples from Buitenzorg and Depok, five from the Bryant
collection, have an average scale-formula of 72f8|.
SERPENTES. 103
Python bivittatus Schlegel.
ScHLEQEL, Essai phys. Serp. 1837, 3, p. 403, pi. 15, figs. 1-2. Werner, ZooI. jahrb. Syst., 1909, 28, 3,
p. 273.
Type locality: — not mentioned.
The distribution of this form in the Indonesian area was long considered
limited to Java and Celebes. For a long time it was not definitely recorded
from Sumatra. While this island is by no means completely known herpeto-
logically, it is strange that so conspicuous a form, if it existed there, should have
gone so long undiscovered. It is, however, rare in Java compared to P. reticu-
latus, and possibly has been taken in Sumatra by travellers who mistook it for
this more common form. Werner (Zool. garten, 1899, 40, p. 24) has named a
race which is distinguished by its dark, rich coloration, — viz. P. m. sondaica.
This was based on a Uving specimen in Hagenbeck's possession which was said
to be from Sumatra. Javan examples seem to merit this racial name, and until
other Sumatran specimens are found, we may consider it applicable to Javan
examples only.
Chondropython viridis (Schlegel).
Schlegel, Dierentuin Rept., 1872, p. 54. Boulbnger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 90-91.
Type locality: — Aru Islands.
Color in life brilliant green with an irregular series of creamy yellow spots
scattered along the whole dorsal region of the body and tail. Each of these
spots covers a single scale. The ventral surface is chrome-yellow. Boulenger
{loc. cit.) notes that the color may also be "brick red with bluish, black-edged
spots"; this seems to be a rare coloration. The young apparently also show
dichromatism ; Boulenger writes, "young pinkish or yellowish, with purphsh
or reddish-brown markings; lower parts yellowish white." Boettger, however,
has figured a small specimen from southeastern New Guinea which has the
typical coloration of the adult first described (c/. O. Boettger in Semon's Reise,
6, 1, p. 120, taf. 5, fig. 3). Peters and Doria (Ann. Mus. civ. Geneva, 1878, 13,
p. 403-404) have examined a considerable series of examples of this Python,
and do not speak of any but the typical coloration: — viz. green spotted with
yellow. The scale formula runs 51-61, rows; 227-241, ventrals; 75-109,
subcaudals. In habits this species is a rather slow-moving, inoffensive, nocturnal
creature. It is much sought after by the Papuans as a,n article of food.
This beautiful form, which, with the genera Aspidites and Calabaria, seems
to approach the boas in that they lack premaxillary teeth, is one of the generic
types which have been evolved from some widely spread generalized pythonine
104 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
forms, each in a comparatively circumscribed area. Besides occurring in the
Am Islands, whence the type came, the species occurs on the mainland of
Papua, and on the islands of Geelvink Bay. Most specimens have come from
the Arfak district, Dutch Papua; and in southern Papua we first hear of it
in Boettger's {loc. cil.) report on Semon's collection. Peters and Doria {he.
cit.) record it also from the Dutch Papuan mainland, and also from Ansoes
(Ansus), Jobi (Japen or Jappen) Island; and from Kordo (Korido) on Misori
(Wiak or Biak) Island, one of the Schouten group. These last records are
under the synonymous name C. azureus Mayer.
Enygrus asper (Gunther).
GuNTHBR, Proc. Zool. soe. London, 1877, p. 132, pi. 21. Boulenqeb, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1,
p. 109.
Type locality: — Duke of York Island, near New Ireland.
A fine specimen of this striking snake from New Britain is M. C. Z. 6,282.
This species is now known from a great part of Papua and various islands of the
so-called Bismarck Ai-chipelago.
Enygrus bibronii Hombr. et J acq.
Schneider, Hist. Amphib., 1801, 2, p. 261. Botjlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 107-109.
Type locality: — unknown.
The colors of this form are exceedingly variable, and the color-phases seem
to have no relation to its geographical range. As regards its habits, it is essen-
tially a tree-dwelling form. Sluggish and inoffensive when handled, its actions
call to mind those of living examples of Kropidophis or Eryx. If disturbed after
being placed on the ground, it rolls itself up into a tight ball, remaining thus for
some time. \Vlien left alone, however, it slowly pushes out its head, gradually
uncoils, and moves off into the brush. While visiting Djamna Island off Dutch
Papua several examples were observed at rest, during daytime. These were
all tightly coiled about small twigs springing directly from the trunk of a good-
sized tree, the snake resting against the main trunk. With the tree-boas of the
West Indies it is more common to find them resting loosely coiled at the crotch
formed by several large limbs.
The early history of this species is of some interest. It was known as early
as 1735, when Seba figured it. Then Schneider described it in 1801. Although
he had examined eight specimens, he knew whence none came. Daudin (Hist.
nat. rept., 6, p. 222) in 1803 again described it, but followed Schneider, as there
were no specimens in Paris. Schneider discussed it again in 1821 (Denkschr.
Akad. wiss. Mtinchen, 7, p. 118), noting that Merrem (Ann. Wetten. ges., 1810,
SERPENTES. 105
2, p. 60, pi. 9) has also had specimens with no locahty. In 1837, however,
Schlegel (Essai phys. Serp., 2, p. 397, pi. 14, fig. 12-13) tells us that he knows of
its occurrence in Ambon, Saparua, and the west coast of Papua. The latter
locality was just beginning to be visited by the Dutch. Saparua is rather seldom
visited to this day, though for a while of considerable importance as a clove-
producing locality; nevertheless it was decidedly secondary to Ambon in com-
mercial importance. As it was from Ambon that so many of the early collec-
tions of natural history objects were sent to Holland, it seems most probable
that the types came from there.
Gray (Griffith's Animal kingdom, 1831, 9, p. 97) states that the species
comes from India; but this statement is untrustworthy.
As we know it now, this species has a wide range over Papuasia. It has
been recorded from the following, and doubtless other, localities : — Dutch
Papua, Mansinam, Doreh, Sorong, Andai, Ansus, J'obi Island; Korido, Wiak
Island; also Batanta, Salawati, and Mysol Islands; it is also found about
Huon Gulf in southeastern Papua. Among the Moluccas it has been taken in
Ambon, Ceram, Timor-Laut, Ternate, and Halniahera. Among the Solomon
groups on the following islands: — Faro, Shortland, Treasury, Florida, San
Cristoval, Ugi, and Santa Anna. It occurs on Normenby and Rossel Islands
among the Louisiades, and also in the Pelew group, this latter being the type
locality for the synonym E. superciliaris (Gunther, Ann. mag. nat. hist., 1863,
ser. 3, 7, p. 360, pi. 6, fig. 2).
The specimens which have been examined here are from Ceram Island and
Djamna Island in Papua, and were taken during 1906-1907. Two specimens
from the latter very small islet are extreme examples of the color-phases which
Boulenger has designated A and C. The squamation of all these specimens is
included in the range of variation which Boulenger has shown to exist. It may
be added that Mehely (Termes. fiizetek, 1895, 18, p. 132) notes that a specimen
from Astrolabe Bay falls under Boulenger's group B. Boettger (Berl. Offenb.
ver., 1892, p. 152) has also studied specimens from southeastern Papua.
Cylindrophis rufus (Laurenti).
Laubenti, Syn. Rept., 1768, p. 71. "Anguis ruffa" (sic). Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893,
1, p. 135-136.
Type locality: — "Surinam"; in the Museum Gronovianum.
No geographical races seem to occur in the rather wide range of this species.
Specimens from Java may have their scales in either 19 or 21 rows, and the range
of their ventral and subcaudal scale-counts is the same as that of specimens from
106 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
the mainland. This species is doubtless common, though difficult to find, in the
vicinity of Buitenzorg. It is usually found burrowing in leaf-mould, or under
the loose bark of a decaying forest tree. The brilliant red of the under surface
of the tail is lost very soon after preservation in spirits. This form occurs over
southeastern Asia, and on Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Celebes. Among a few
purchased snakes, which were said to have come from Ternate, are several
specimens with no unusual features as regards color or squamation.
The curious habit which this form, as well as Doliophis intestinalis, has of
exposing the red under surface of the tail, has been well described and figured
by Flower (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p. 656-657, pi. 37). I had excellent
opportunity to verify these observations, with which my own agree. It should
be added, however, that the Javanese have not the fear of either of these serpents
which .seems to be held by the Peninsula Malays. (Boulenger, Fasc. Malay.
Zool., 1903, 1, p. 169-170. .Annandale's field notes).
Xenopeltis unicolor Reinwardt.
Reinwardt in Boib, Isie, 1827, p. 564. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 168-169.
Type locality: — Java.
Bryant got one example at Buitenzorg. It is typical in every way. Schlegel
(Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 20) says: "Le Xenopeltis est un des serpens les
plus rares de I'ile de Java, ou le professeur Reinwardt I'a decouvert le premier;
11 a ete depuis retro uve par nos voyageurs a Sumatra et a ete egalement envoye
de Celebe au Musee de Paris." Rare it certainly is, for up to 1907 the Buiten-
zorg museum had no specimens, and I was quite unable to find the species
mj'self.
Chersydrus granulatus (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. Amphib., 1799, 1, p. 243. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 174.
Type locality: — unknown.
This form is barely separable generically from its doubtless very near ally,
Acrochordus javanicus Hornstedt. Except for the greater compression of body
and tail and tlie elevation of a few series of ventral scales to form a median
ventral fold, these forms are extremely similar in both internal and external
morphology. It seems probable that a critical review of the five known genera
of Acrochordinae would reduce Chersydrus to subgeneric rank. This can not.
be undertaken now on account of lack of material. All of the other genera,
except Acrochordus and Chersydrus are very rare in collections. C. granulatus
is generally common in brackish or salt-water. At Makassar, Celebes, it may
be found at almost any time crawling slowly on the filthy floor of the "passer
SERPENTES. 107
ikan" (fish market), beneath the platforms on which the Buginese fishermen
expose their catch for sale. They probably drop from the nets which the fisher-
men bring to the market to mend and dry during the latter part of the day, after
their catch has either been sold, or has spoiled from the heat. They do not live
more than a few hours out of water, and are always extremely inactive and offer
no resistance when handled. The fishermen at Makassar are not at all afraid
of them; but in Batavia they are considered deadly by the Malay fishermen.
Young specimens have the body more compressed and are of more brilliant color
than adults. In specimens about one foot in length the depth of body is nearly
2.5 times the thickness. Adults are barely compressed at all. It has been
impossible to examine anything but adult specimens of Acrochordus javanicus,
and the condition seen in the young of this species would be of the greatest
interest. In C. granulatus the young are boldly striped with vertical bars of
black and light buff. In many cases the light bands do not cross the dorsal
region. In adults the black becomes a dull brown, and the light regions of the
young show only a faint irregu'ar triangle of dirty lighter brown on the sides.
This species has a wade distribution along the coasts of India and south-
eastern Asia, and throughout the Indonesian area to and including New Guinea.
It seems generally distributed.
Sibynophis geminatus (Boie).'
BoiE, Isis, 1826, p. 211. Boulengeb, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 185.
Type locality: — Java {fide Schlegel).
Bryant had two individuals, both from Buitenzorg. This is another very
rare snake in western Java. These individuals were typical in every way, and
their scale-counts fell well within the limits set by Boulenger.
Natrix mairii (Gray).
Gray. Grey's Journals Australia, 1841, 2, p. 442. BonLENOEB, Ann. Mus. civ. Geneva, 1898, 38, p. 703.
Type locality: — New Holland.
Boulenger {loc. cit.) in reporting on Loria's collection from British New
Guinea takes occasion to point out that this valid species, along with several
others, had been long wrongly buried in the synonymy of N. picturata (Schl.).
Two examples from Fak Fak, Dutch New Guinea, collected by A. E. Pratt,
agree well with this species as now restricted.
' For use of the name cf. Stejneger, Proc. IT. S. nat. mus., 1910, 38, p. 102.
108 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Natrix trianguligera (Boie).
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 535. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 224-225.
Type locality: — West Java {fide Schlegel).
Serpents of this species, together with N. subminiatn and A^ vilkita, are the
common water-snakes of the rice-fields cjf Java. The species under consideration
is probably rather less common than the other two, wliich are both about equally
abundant. Before me are ten specimens from Buitenzorg, March-April, 1907,
and five from Buitenzorg and one from Depok in the Bryant collection. About
half of all the adults of these common species of Natrix have their tails bitten off,
evidently the work of turtles. N. trianguligera shows in its coloration three
distinct growth stages. (1) In the fr&shly hatched young the back is oUve-
brown, faintly barred and mottled; the tliroat and anterior half of the belly are
dull yellow, with a coppery tinge; this color extends up between the lateral
triangular markings of the olive; the tail is encircled by many complete black-
brown rings ; the ground color of the ventral surface of the tail and the posterior
half of the belly is ivory-white. (2) In half-grown examples we find a red
blotch situated between the dark lateral markings on the anterior part of the
body, while on the posterior part the markings become indistinct. (3) In fully
adult specimens the whole dorsal and lateral surfaces become mottled olive,
the lateral triangular spots show as faint darker areas. The whole lower surface
of body and tail becomes white. The rings under the tail show only as the
faintest dark lines.
All of the specimens show great uniformity in the number of ventral scales.
The range is 137-143, and the average 140; on the other hand the number of
subcaudals may vary greatly; the range 67-99 exceeds by five that given by
Boulenger for specimens from widely separated localities. The single specimen
from Java in the British museum had scales 139-69. Speaking generally from
Boulenger's figures, the Bornean specimens seem to average lower and Sumatran
higher in scale numbers than the Javan. But nothing conclusive can be said
without far larger numbers.
This ^nake has a wide range, from Burma and Malaya to Sumatra, Nias,
Java, and Borneo.
Natrix sancti-johannis (Boulenger).
Boulenger, Fauna Brit. India, llept. Batr., 1S90, p. 350; Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1S93, 1, p. 230, pi. 15,
fig. 1.
A single very large specimen of this species from a pond near Lucknow,
United Provinces, India, November, 1907. This form, judging from this and
SERPENTES. 109
other examples apparently of this species from the Koolloo Valley in the collec-
tion of the Museum, while evidently nearly related to Natrix piscator, seems too
distinct to be relegated to subspecific rank unless it can be shown to intergrade
with this species. The smooth, or nearly smooth, dorsal scales, and the smooth
rows near the ventrals seem constant characters. The fourth labial only enters
the orbit generally but according to Boulenger it is not always alone in doing so.
Natrix piscator (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. Ampbib., 1799, 1, p. 247. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 230-232.
Stejnbgeb, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 288-291.
Type locality: — India.
Six specimens of this species were taken at Buitenzorg, Java, and all belong
to var. C of Boulenger; as do also five from Daroe, Bantam, and fifteen from
Depok, in the Bryant collection. Two from Java, and one from Borneo, were
in the British museum. There were three other specimens (vars. A and B) in
the same collection, also said to be from Java. These Javanese specimens were
all taken by Horsfeld. Now, excepting this lot, which may be from some other
locality, it seems probable that all Indonesian examples belong to this race.
All the examples in the Buitenzorg museum did, if I remember correctly, and
all that Werner reported from Sumatra (Verb. Zool. bot. ges. Wien, 1896, 46,
p. 14). It is, I think, quite certain that the race is confined to this area. We
may then designate it correctly as N. p. melanozosta (Boie).
In Java it is rare as compared to the Indian form, which seems to occur
widely spread (c/. list of localities for British museum examples, Boulenger,
loc. cit.). In the M. C. Z. there are many examples from the Koolloo Valley,
from Madras, and from Calcutta. Dr. Stejneger writes me that a specimen
which I sent for his examination is indistinguishable from a cotype of Hallowell's,
N. flavipunctata; the example came from Ting-an, Hainan. Boulenger and
Stejneger agree that this species from Canton is synonymous with N. piscator.
The range of this snake extends from India to the Malay Peninsula, Siam,
south and Cochin China; also to Java, Sumatra, and Borneo.
The six Buitenzorg specimens mentioned above have their ventral scalation
as follows: — V. 134, C. 80; V. 145, C. 67; V. 140, C. ?; V. 147, C". 72; V. 149,,
C. 68; the five Daru, Bantam, examples: — V. 139, C. 79; V. 137, C.?; V. 143,
C. ?; V. 137, C. 89; V. 139, C. 72; and the Depok fifteen: — V. 128, C. 77;
V. 142, C. 67; V. 143, C. 69; V. 132, C. 72; V. 145, C. 06; V. 141, C. 72; V. 141,
C.?; V. 141, C. 67; V. 145, C. 73; V. 140, C. 52; V. 144, C.?; V. 147, C.?;
V. 139, C. 70; V. 134, C. 78. The lepidosis does not afford any basis for the
no BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
racial separation which has been made on the ground of the great distinctness
of color. The body of the largest specimen is 21" long, and the tail 8".
Flower (Proc. Zool. soc, London, 1896, p. G60) gives some important notes
which tend to show that var. B is also a local race which should be recognized
by a subspecific name.
Natrix stolata (Linn^).
Linn£, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 219. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. nius., 1907, p. 280-283.
Type locality: — "America."
A specimen of this species was taken near Lucknow, India, November, 1907,
in the act of swallowing a frog (Rana tigerina). In the Museum collections a
large number are preserved from various localities in India, especially from near
Umballa. The Rev. M. M. Carlton sent large collections of Indian reptiles to
this institution from that locality. Boettger (Ber. Senck. nat. ges., 1894,p. 132)
records seven specimens from Hainan. These certainly average higher in .
number of scales than Indian or even Formosan specimens. Thus, for eight
examples from Hainan the average is 150 for ventrals and 79 for subcaudals;
range, V. 148-152, C. 76-81. According to Boulenger's statistics (Cat. snakes
Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 254) Indian specimens range as follows: — V. 120-158,
C. 50-87. The average, however, is far lower than for the Hainan series.
Stejneger's data for Formosan specimens {loc. cit.), thirteen in number, show no
evidence of any peculiar local conditions; these range: — V. 142-150, C. 65-81.
Curiously specimens from Nepaul, the Khasi Hills, and Himalayas, average a
little higher than do the Hainan specimens, which come next in average number
of scales; then follow Formosan and Chinese, and then specimens from Lower
India and Ceylon.
Known from India and Ceylon to the Philippines and Formosa. It is not
certainly known from the Dutch East Indies. There is, however, in the British
museum a specimen said to be from Borneo. Boulenger doubts the accuracy
of this record.
From its wide continuous range and general prevalence, this species is
probably one of thosfe whose migration has been comparatively recent; and it
is probably still in process of actively increasing its range.
Natrix vittata (Linn£).
LiNNfi, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 219. Boulenger, Cut. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 255.
Type locality: — "America."
Fifteen specimens from Buitenzorg; and, in the Bryant series, ten from
Buitenzorg, eight from Depok, and six from Daroe, Bantam. The range of
SERPENTES. Ill
counts for the ventral scales is slightly increased by this series over what Bou-
lenger gave, viz. V. 138-155; C. 47-85. The anal is divided in all examples
except one. The coloration of this species shows no marked variation between
young and adult.
This water-snake is locally abundant in the "sawas" or rice-fields. It feeds
on frogs and small fish. My records do not show that it was seen at altitudes
of more than 1,000 feet.
This form is known from the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Celebes.
Natrix subminiata (Schlegel).
ScHLEQEL, Essai phya. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 313. Bodlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 256-257.
Type locality: — Java.
A comparison of the scale-counts which Boulenger has given for specimens
from a number of widely separated localities with the conditions in a series of
thirty-.six specimens obtained about Buitenzorg, Java, during January, March,
and April, 1907, and eighteen from the same place taken by Bryant, points
strongly to the existence of geographic races witliin the species. Thus, speci-
mens from the type locality, have 143.8 as an average number of ventral scales,
and 70.3 for subcaudals. Ventrals range from 136 to 147, and subcaudals from
64 to 74, in the Buitenzorg material mentioned above; U. S. nat. mus. 5425
(141-73); several specimens mentioned by Boulenger (he. eit.); four recorded
by Boettger (Semon's Reise. Zool., 1899, 5, 1, p. 123); and four in this Museum
also from Java, — a total of sixty-eight Javan examples.
This species in its distribution recalls that of Agkistrodon rhodostoma and
Geoclemys trijuga, since it is unknown in both Sumatra and Borneo.
We pass on now to specimens which have been recorded by Boulenger from
Tenasserim, Siam, Lao Mountains, and Camboja: seven specimens have as an
average number 150.4 ventrals and 77.3 subcaudals. The range of ventrals
is 144-157; and that of subcaudals, 73-82. Flower, however, has recorded
(Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p. 662-663) six specimens from Bangkok with
ventrals averaging 146, and subcaudals 71, the ranges of ventrals being 138-151,
and subcaudals 70-73. These combined give an average, viz. 148.2 and 74,
higher than that of the Javan specimens, although the range is not widely
different.
Specimens from Hong Kong recorded by Boulenger average V. 138, C. 71.3;
range V. 132-143, C. 68-76; while others again from India and the Shan States
average V. 165.4, C. 79.7; range V. 163-166, C. 75-86. The specimen in the
British museum taken by the Challenger at Ternate has V. 147, C. 70. Finally,
112 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
we know from Celebes a specimen described by GUnther (Proc. Zool. soc. London,
1873, p. 170) as Tropidonotus manadensis, whicli had an unusual formula, V. 139,
C. 76. This is certainly not specifically distinct from N. suhminiata, but more
material might establish a race in Celebes, as also others in Malaya and Siam,
as well as China and India. The limited material now available makes the nam-
ing of these forms at present unwise.
One Buitenzorg specimen combines unusual A-ariations, — the presence
of two preoculars and seven supralabials, of which the third and fourth only
enter the orbit.
Since writing the above statement I have received from the Indian museum,
thanks to Dr. Nelson Annandale, two specimens of this species; one from
Samagooting, Assam, with a count of V. 172, C. 83; and another from the North-
ern Shan States of Burma, with a count of V. 166, C. 81. The latter snake is
twice as large as the largest Javan individual I have seen,
Natrix chrysarga (Schlegel).
ScHLEGEL, Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 312, pi. 12, fig. G-7. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, imi.s.,
1893, 1, p. 258-259.
Type locality: — West Java.
The Bryant collection contains three examples of this water-snake: — one
from Gunung Bunder, Mt. Salak, Java, with V. 166, C. 60; and two from
Tjibodas, Java, V. 154, 155; C. ?, 77. In all there are nineteen rows of scales.
This narrow range for these three specimens comes far within that given by
Boulenger.
Natrix maculata (Edeling).
Edeling, Nederl. Tijds. Dierk., 1864, 2, p. 203. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 200.
Type locality: — Bandjermasin, Borneo.
A specimen, M. C. Z. 7307 (T. Barbour), came from northern Sumatra.
It agrees well with Boulenger's description so far as squamation is concerned, but
differs in coloration. There are black blotches on each side of the neck, and but
two dorsal rows of dark spots, generally alternating in position. There is a
black spot 'at each end of every ventral shield.
Brachyorrhus albus (Linn^).
LiNNfi, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 218. Uoulengek, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 305-306.
Type locality: — "Habitat in Indiis."
Four specimens of this variable form are in hand, — three from Ternate,
and one from Ambon. They were all taken by Malay helpers; and it is, unfor-
tunately, impossible to offer any notes on either habits or habitat.
SERPENTES. 113
In the example from Ajiibon the preocular is present on both sides; in one
of those from Ternate it is absent on both sides, being fused with prefrontals;
while in another it is present on one side and absent on the other. The color
when freshly taken was a beautiful rich brown with plumbeous iridescence,
fading on the sides and becoming a rich yellowish cream color on the ventral
surface. The Ambon and one of the Ternate specimens have the characteristic
dusky midventral stripe under the tail. It is lacking in another specimen from
Ternate. A young one is characteristically distinct in coloration.
This snake is recorded from Java, where according to Schlegel (Essai phys.
Serp., 1837, 2, p. 33) it is very rare. Tliis is a definite statement, certainly,
but undoubtedly incorrect. The other localities are Timor, Ambon, Halma-
hera, Ternate, New Guinea, and Jappen (or Jobi) Island. It is apparently
nowhere common.
There is no available material by which to determine whether B. jobiensis
(Meyer) is a valid species or not. According to Boulenger, the fusing of the
internasals is not a constant character. Peters and Doria permitted it to stand
as a distinct species provisionallj^ or until more material was available. It
probably represents a local race at least; this fusion of scales does not appar-
ently occur in specimens from other than the Papuan localities.
Elapoides fuscus Boie.
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 579. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 307.
Type locality: — Java.
Tliis is a species which seems to be confined to the Javan highlands. Two
specimens, var. A of Boulenger, were taken in April, 1907, near Sindanglaia, at
about 5,000 feet above sea-level; and there is one from Tjibodas, near by, in
the Bryant collection. The native collector who brought in the two snakes said
that they were found in ponds. There are several such ponds in ancient craters
at high levels. The native did not distinguish these creatures from Enhydris; I
imagine their habits are similar. Of the six species in the British museum,
three, — all those having definite data, — came from Kediri, Java, at 5,000 ft.
elevation. This adds weight to my own observation, and to those of Major
Ouwens of Buitenzorg, who very frequently spoke of the great dissimilarity of
faunae between the Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg and the Mountain Station,
near which these snakes were taken.
Known only from Java and Sumatra.
114 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Lycodon subcinctus Boie.
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 551. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 359-360.
Type locality: — Java {fide Schlegel, Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 117).
In the Museum there are three specimens of this species from Batavia;
and there is one in the Bryant collection, from Depok, with perfectly smooth
dorsals, but otherwise typical. The apparent absence of this species from
Buitenzorg or higher altitudes would make it seem almost certain that it is most
common in, if not entirely confined to, the coastal lowlands. In each case eight
, supralabials are present, and there is no preocular; in two the anal is divided,
while in the third it is entire.
Range: — Malay Peninsula, Great Sunda Islands (except Celebes), PhiHp-
pines.
Lycodon striatus (Shaw).
Shaw, Gon. zool., 1802, 3, p. 527. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 349-350.
Type locality: — India.
This Museum has specimens of tliis generally scarce form from various
localities in India. It is also known from Transcaspia and Ceylon.
Lycodon aulicus (Linn£).
LiNN^, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 220. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 352-354.
Type locality: — "Habitat in America."
This form is one of the most widely distributed of Asiatic reptiles, as well
as one of the most variable in coloration. In many parts of India it is extremely
abundant, notably in the vicinity of Lucknow, where it was common during
November, 1907, in swampy lowlands, especially near ponds and tanks. There
are in the collection here specimens from Pondicherry, Madras, Amballa, Bom-
bay, Lucknow, in India; Pegu and Rangoon, in Burma; Ceylon; Singapore;
Bangkok, Siam; Java, Philippine Islands, and Bourbon. In the last locaUty
it was undoubtedly introduced, probably very early, as the specimen here is an
old one obtained by exchange from Dumeril. There is a specimen from the
same locality recorded by Boulenger in the British museum. This species,
judging, from several stomachs contents, feeds almost exclusively on scincoid
lizards. It may be noted that the extent of contact between loreal and inter-
nasal varies extremely in individuals. They are always in contact, but fre-
quently only to a slight extent.
Range: — India and Ceylon to Cochin China; through the Malay Archi-
pelago, as far east as Celebes and Timor.
A specimen taken at Buitenzorg, April, 1907, belongs to Boulenger's var. D;
SERPENTES. 115
color, slaty with a diffuse network of white lines. A specimen (M. C. Z., No.
3,055), from Batavia, is almost uniform brown with a white collar. Five Bryant
specimens from Buitenzorg and one from Depok are also the same in color as var.
D of Boulenger. They may be known as L. aulicus capucinus Boie.
Stegonotus cucullatus (Dum. et Bibr.)-
DuMERiL ET BiBRON, Erpet. geu., 1S5-1, 7, p. 370. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit. luus., 1S93, 1, p. 365.
Type locality: -r Dorey, Dutch New Guinea.
Two fine examples of this Papuasian species were in a small collection
obtained from that excellent zoological collector, Mr. A. E. Pratt. He took
them at Fak Fak, in western Dutch New Guinea.
• stegonotus modestus (Schleget,).
ScHLEGEL, Essai pliys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 119, pi. 4, fig. 16-17. Bodlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus.,
1893, 1, p. 366.
Type locality: — Ambon. Schlegel definitely mentions this type locality
for the only specimen which he had for description and figuring. He simply
mentions passmi that the Paris museum had a snake, apparently similar, taken
by Lesson and Garnot in the forests of New Guinea near Dorey Bay. This
specimen was the very one which served Dumeril and Bibron for the type of
their Lycodon cucullatus.
In the collection made by Pratt at Fak Fak, New Guinea, there were two
large examples of this rather widespread species.
Zaocys carinatus (GIjnther).
GiJNTHER, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., ISoS, p. 112. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1893, 1, p. 377,
pi. 27, fig. 1.
Type locality: — not specified.
It was a great surprise to find two adults of this species from Depok, Java,
in the Bryant collection. Both are quite typical, except for the presence of nine
supralabials on the left side of the head of one of them. In this case the fifth
and sixth supralabials enter the eye, while ordinarily this is done by the fourth
and fifth.
Boulenger gave the range for this species as Borneo, Sumatra, and the Malay
Peninsula; I have found no previous Javan records for its occurrence. It is
evidently very rare, and of local distribution.
Ptyas korros (Schlegel).
Schlegel, Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 139. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 348-349.
Type locality: — Java.
This species is abundant about Buitenzorg. Nine examples were taken
116 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
there during March and April, 1907. Bryant also took ten there, one at Daroe
Bantam and five at Depok. All of these fall in with the characters which
Stejneger (loc. cil., p. 345) has used in his key. "Scale rows 15; scale rows a
head length anterior to vent 11 ; ventrals less than 185."
Known from Asia, from northern India to southern China southward; also
from Sumatra and Ja\'a.
None of the smaller of these specimens, say from two to two and a half feet
long, have any traces of the cross-bands composed of transverse series of pearl-
shaped spots, which, according to Stejneger, the young are said to possess. The
Malay name is XJlar Kar-rus.
P. mucosus (Linne) was not observed in Java; nor did Bryant find a speci-
men in his long collecting.
Xenelaphis hexagonotus (Cantor).
Cantor, Cat. Malay, rept., 1847, p. 74. Botjlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., II, 1894, p. 8.
Type locality: — "the great Hill of Pinang."
The only Insulindian individual examined is one wliich Bryant got at
Buitenzorg. Its ventral count, 178, is seven less than the lowest number given
by Boulenger, while the subcaudals number five less, or 140. This again is one
of the rarest of west Javan snakes.
Gonyosoma oxycephala (Boie).
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 537. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, nms., 1894, 2, p. 56-57.
Type locality: — Java, collection of Reinwardt.
This beautiful serpent is not uncommon about Buitenzorg. Four speci-
mens were caught during March, 1907; and Bryant also took several specimens
in or near Buitenzorg and Depok. During the daytime this .species seems to
spend much of its time tightly coiled up in trees; but if disturbed it will become
extremely aggressive, and can move and strike with wonderful rapidity. It
is a very quick-tempered snake.
It is evident that the range of this species is either very incompletely known
as yet', or else the distribution took place at so remote a period that the form has
had time to die out in many areas. It is known from the eastern Himalayas,
Tenasserim, Philippines, the lower part of the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Natuna,
and Java.
SERPENTES. 117
Elaphe melanura (Schlegel).
ScHLEGEL, Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 3, p. 141, pi. 5, fig. 11-12. Boulenger, Cat. snakos Brit, mus.,
1894, 2, p. 60-61.
Type locality: — probably Java was the locality whence the first specimens
came, but Schlegel states that specimens from Sumatra and Celebes were in the
Leyden museum at the time of his writing. He states that Reinwardt took two
specimens, these were probably his Javan examples.
I found this species rare in Java; a single young specimen only was taken
on the mountain slopes above Tjibodas; while Bryant got four at Buitenzorg,
two on Mt. Salak at 2,200 feet, and one on Mt. Gede near Tjibodas. It has a
median dorsal stripe of brilliant lemon-yellow beginning on the head and running
about one third the length of the body. No. 2,197 M. C. Z. is an adult from Java
identified by Jan and received from Dumeril.
This species occurs on the mainland in Burma, southern China, and the
Malay Peninsula; among the islands it has recently been taken on Sumatra,
Nias, Borneo, and Java. The specimens spoken of by Schlegel from Celebes
were undoubtedly E. erythrura (Dum. & Bibr.).
Dendrophis pictus (GurELiN).
Gmelin, Syst. nat., 1769, 1, p. 1116. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2, p. 78-79-
Type locality: — unknown.
Only seven specimens of this common snake, taken March-April, 1907, at
Buitenzorg, were preserved. Bryant, however, saved a large series, — fourteen
from Buitenzorg, three from Depok, and one from Daroe in Bantam. All are
typical examples; in every case the eye is smaller in diameter than the distance
to the nostril. Two postoculars and a loreal are present in all.
Ranges from Bengal to Cochin China, throughout the Malay Archipelago.
The fact that in the British museum there is an example from Mysol would make
it seem very probable that the last connection between Papuasia and the Moluc-
cas lay there, as noted in the chapter on geographical distribution.
Dendrophis formosus Boie.
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 542. Boijlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2, p. 84-85.
Type locality: — Schlegel says, " Le Profe.sseur Reinwardt a fait la decouverte
de cette espece a I'lle de Java, oii elle est assez rare."
Boulenger gives its distribution as "Mountains of the Malay Peninsula,
Borneo, Java." B>Tant, however, found it sparingly about Buitenzorg, where
he took six examples. The elevation of this locality is about 900 feet, while
the species is not found in his collections from several Mountain Stations.
118 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Holarchus octolineatus (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. Amphib., 1801, 2, p. 299. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, raus., 1894, 2, p. 224.
Txi])e locality: — unknown.
This snake is decidedly rare in Java. Only a single specimen was taken
during March, 1907, while Bryant got two at Depok. These belong to Bou-
lenger's var. A. These color-phases, A and B, really merit no designation, for
they occur in as nearly a haphazard manner as can be imagined. It is \-ery
probable that " Simotes meyerlinkii" which Steindachner described from the
Sulu Islands, is a valid species; it deserves a subspecific rank at least. The
number of ventrals is low, 158 in Boulenger's specimen from Tawi Tawi, and 156-
161 according to Steindachner. The color also is distinctive. For H. octo-
lineatus, the lowest number of ventrals is 165, recorded from Singapore. The
average for specimens from many various localities is 176. Javan examples
range from V. 175-186, C. 55-58. The Malay name is Ular pi-ter.
The range of this form includes southern India, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. H. meycrlinkii (Steind.) was doubtless evolved
by isolation from specimens of this species probably derived from Borneo.
Oligodon bitorquatus Boie.
BoiB, Isis, 1827, p. 519. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2, p. 237.
Two typical examples seen. Bryant's specimen from Tjibodas, Mt. Gede,
4,500 feet, is the only one with specific locality.
In 1860 Bleeker described Rabdosoma amboinense, which Boulenger placed
in the synonymy of this species. I have discussed elsewhere (p. 24) the possi-
bility of Bleeker's type ever having seen Ambon, and I believe that it was simply
a Javan example, which got mixed into an Ambon collection. This sort of thing
evidently happened to Bleeker with startling frequency.
Liopeltis baliodirus (Boie).
Boie, Isis, 1827, p. 539. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2, p. 283.
Type locality: — East Java {fide Schlegel).
Having examined an unfortunately small specimen from Sumatra which
the M. C. Z. obtained by exchange with the American museum of natural
history, I did not find the hypapophyses, which Cope mentioned as being
present throughout the vertebral column. So this species may be considered
congeneric with the other members of the genus Liopeltis; the latter name
should take the place of Ablabes. This has been pointed out by Stejneger
(Bull. 58 U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 337-338). If, however, hypapophyses are
SERPENTES. ] 19
found to be present when adult individuals are carefully examined, then the
name Gonglyosoma of Fitzinger becomes available for L. baliodirus, generically
separated from the species with which it is now associated.
Liopeltis libertatis Barbour.
Plate 6, fig. IS and 19.
Barboith, Proc. Biol. soc. Wash., 1910, 23, p. 169-170.
Type locality: — Buitenzorg, Java.
This distinct species is known only fi'om the type; regarding its habits we
have no data.
Pseudorhabdium longiceps (Cantor).
Cantor, Cat. Malay rept., 1847, p. 63, pi. 00, fig. 1. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2,
p. 329.
Type locality: — "the great Hill of Pinang."
A single example from Sumatra in collection of Museum of Comparative
Zoology (T. Barbour).
Calamaria linnei Boie.'
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 539. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, p. 345-346.
Type locality: — Java.
Of this species, which is the most abundant member of the genus in western
Java, seven specimens were taken at Buitenzorg and two at Sindanglaia. Among
the examples from the lot first mentioned, four belong to what Boulenger has
called var. B; two stand between var. B and C; one is typical of F. Both the
specimens from the mountains belong to var. B. Taking these nine examples
in the order in which they have been mentioned, their scale-formulae are as
follows: — V. 152, C. 9; V. 146, C. 15; V. 156, C. 11; V. 157, C. 10. These
counts are for the four of var. B from Buitenzorg. Examples between B and
C: — V. 154, C. 10; V. 142, C. 16. Example of var. F: — V. 1.55, C. 9. Sin-
danglaia specimens: — V. 145, C. 19; and V. 155, C. 11. Bryant had twenty-four
from Buitenzorg. These range in count from V. 130 to 161; C. 8 to 17. He
had two from Gunung Bunder, which count V. 1.31-148; C. 16-19. Also,
besides this long series of var. B, he had two of var. A, and two of var. F.
Calamaria sumatrana Edeling.
Edbling, Nat. tijd. Ned. Ind., 1870, 31, p. 379. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2,
p. 339-340.
Type locality: — Redjang, Sumatra.
It is interesting to note that among the snakes of this genus which were
' Linn^'s Coluber calamarius = Oligodon iemplelonii Gthr. Cf. Anderson, Bihang. Kongl. svoii.sk.
vet. akad. Handlingar, 1899, 24, 4, p. 8.
120 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
caught at Sindanglaia, in the Preanger region of Java, there was a single adult
example of this rare form. It constitutes an addition to the ophidian fauna of
Java, for it was previously known only from Singapore and various localities in
Sumatra. Probably this form will prove to be separable into three races. The
Singapore specimen, now in the Indian museum at Calcutta, has a small nmnber
of ventral scales, V. 129, C. 31. The Sumatran specimens have more: — V.
142-168; C. 13-24. In the single known Javan example there are V. 190, C. 21.
In this specimen also the rostral is broader than deep, and the diameter of the
eye is less than the distance from the mouth.
Range: — Singapore, Sumatra, west Java.
Calamaria virgulata Boie.
BotE, Tsis, 1S27, p. 540. Bodlengbr, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2, p. 340-341.
Type locality: — not definitely stated, but a citation to the "Erp. de Java,"
which never appeared, leads me to suppose that the specimens came from Java.
Three specimens of this form, which Boulenger calls var. C, were taken near
Sindanglaia, Java, on the slopes of the twin volcanoes Pangerango and Gedeh at
altitudes varying from 3,500 to 4,500 feet. Ventrals, 164, 166, 180; subcaudals,
19, 25, 26. This species seems to replace to some extent C. calamaria, for about
Buitenzorg the latter is common, while no specimens of C. virgulata were seen.
Probably this form is an inhabitant of a life-zone higher than Buitenzorg; I have
pointed out that this is also true of other species. The specimens in the British
museum which have definite locality records seem to bear out this conclusion.
Thus, there are specimens from Fort de Kock in the Padang Highlands, and also
from Mt. Singalang in Sumatra. Menado in Celebes lies near liighlands where,
as they offer the best opportunities for collecting. Dr. Meyer's examples were
probably taken. Two out of three of the Javan specimens bear no data. One
is from Rarahan, but the altitude of this locality I have not found.
Known from Sumatra, Java, and Celebes.
' Calamaria borneensis Blegker.
Bleeker, Nat. tijd. Nod. Ind., 1860, 21, p. 296. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2, p. 347.
Type locality: — Sintang, Borneo.
A single specimen of this rather rare and apparently dichromatic form,
M. C. Z. 5,241. This species is now known from Sarawak, and also from a
number of localities in Dutch South Borneo.
SERPENTES. ^^l
Calamaria sondaica Bakbour
Barboto, Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 51, p. 319.
yype._No. 7,102, M. C. Z., one specimen, Buitenzorg, Java, April, 1907.
T. Barbour, collector.
Rostral very nearly as deep as broad, easily visible from above; frontal a
little longer than broad, considerably shorter than the parietals, a little more
than twice as broad as a supraocular; one pre- and one postocular; diameter
of the eye a little less than its distance from the mouth; five upper labials, the
first nearly three times as large as the second, which is smaller than the third
or fourth. These are subequal and enter the eye. The fifth is larger than the
third and fourth together. A pair of infralabials in contact between the mental
and the anterior pair of chiti-shields. Scales in 13 rows; ventrals, 154; anal-
entire ; subcaudals 10. Tail rather obtuse. Dark reddish brown above (with fine
plumbeous iridescence in life) ; six dark lines just visible on neck, very indistinct
on body; rows of scales separated by zigzag white lines; a lateral white fine on
last row of scales. Ventral surfaces white (yellow in Uf e) , very heavily blotched
with angular dark markings; a black line down midventral region of the tail,
and two black lateral lines on tail.
It was with great reluctance that this new species was described. No
ophidian genus cries for a revision more than Calamaria. Nevertheless, this
new form seems to merit recognition on account of several distinctive characters.
Superficially, i. e. in coloration, this form does not bear the shghtest re-
semblance to it's nearest relative, which is C. virgulata; nor, it may be added,
does it seem to agree with any of the forms which Boulenger (Cat. snakes Brit,
mus., 1894, 2, p. 340) has considered synonymous with this species.
Calamaria albopunctata Barbottb.
Barbour, Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 61, p. 319-320.
7^ypg;_No. 7,106, M. C. Z., one specimen from the East Indies.
Rostral somewhat broader than deep; frontal longer than broad, much
shorter than parietals, and less than twice as broad as a supraocular; one pre-
one postocular; diameter of eye less than distance to mouth; five upper labials,
first, third, and fourth subequal; second and fifth large; third and fourth enter-
ing orbit; first infralabial meeting its fellow behind the symphysial; two pairs
of chin-shields in contact u-ith each other. Scales in 13 rows; ventrals 247; anal
entire; subcaudals 14. Tail rather blunt. Dark brown above, a lighter band
122 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
on occiput; two outer rows of scales with light centres; lower surfaces yellow
with a few dusky markings; a blackish line along lower surface of tail.
Several years ago a collection of reptiles was offered for sale which purported
to come from the Moluccas, and was marked "Ternate or Amboina." Many of
the specimens undoubtedly did come from the Moluccas. The Calamaria which
is described above was from that collection ; it reminds one strongly of C. occi-
pitalis Jan, and very possibly will be found locallj' in some one of the many
small areas in Java which are as yet unknown herpetologically.
Calamaria agamensis Bleeker.
Bleekbr, Nat. tijds. Ned. Ind., 1800, 21, p. 292. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1894, 2, p. 343-
344.
Type locality: — "Sumatra (Fort de Kock), Borneo (Sinkawang)."
The Bryant collection contained a typical example of this species, which
seems to be a very rare one indeed in Java.
Enhydris enhydris (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. AmpUb., 1799, 1, p. 245. Botjlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 6-8.
Type locality: — Ankapilly Lake, India. From here came the specimen,
taken in an eel-trap, which Russell figured and described (Account of Indian
serpents, 1796, 1, p. 35, pi. 30). Russell's figure was the basis of Schneider's
account, in which no definite locality is mentioned.
A single specimen from Buitenzorg, Java, while being quite typical in
coloration, has but 19 rows of scales; Sc..l9; V. 162; C. 61. The usual condi-
tion is 21 rows, while 23 does occasionally occur. There does not seem to be any
previous note of an example with 19 rows. In life this specimen had five dark
dusky stripes on a ground color which was dull lilac dorsally, and faded to
light brownish gray laterally. One of the five stripes extends along the middle
of the back, one along each side about halfway down, at the edge of the light
and dark color-zones, and one along each side of the ventral scales. Bryant
took six specimens; their scales range as follows: — V. 152-159; C. 45-57. All
had scales in 21 rows.
This form has a wider range than E. plumbea. It is found from India and
Ceylon to southern China. In both forms the range includes Malaya; through
this region, however, there is little definite information as to the exact distribu-
tion.
SERPENTES. 123
Enhydris doriae (Peters).
Peters, Mon. Berl. akad., 1871, p. 577. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 13.
Type locality: — Sarawak.
It may be of interest to record a specimen of this rather rare species from
Borneo, No. 5,240, M. C. Z. Shelford (Notes Sarawak museum, 1901, p. 64)
states that the Sarawak museum possesses this species; and Brown (Proc. Acad,
nat. sci. Phila., 1903, p. 180) records a specimen. No. 2,311, in the collection of the
Academy, taken in the Kapuas River. Boulenger has one specimen from
Sarawak in the British museum.
Homalopsis buccata (LiNNfi).
LiNNfi, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 217. BonLENGER, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 14-15.
Type locality: — "Habitat in Indiis."
An excessively variable species, which is common in all the waterways of
western Java. It is readily tamed, and eats frogs, chiefly Rana tigerina and
R. erythraea. The well-known change in color which takes place during growth
has been accurately described by Flower (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p. 677-
678). In hand are six adults and four young from near Buitenzorg, taken in
April, 1907. On account of its swimming powers one would hardly expect to
find evidence that subspecific races may be developing in this form. The ten
specimens mentioned above, however, have their scale-rows as follows:— one 35,
five 37, four 39. The two which Boulenger had from Java possessed 37 and 39.
Bryant had six examples from Buitenzorg and Depok; their scales ranger-
rows 33; 37, 39 (4 ex); V. 153-175, C. 73-91. The specimens from the main-
land have a tendency to much higher numbers of rows; this is evident from
material available here, and from Boulenger's data. Again, more material is
necessary to show how distinct the Javan examples are from the apparently
much more variable individuals on the mainland.
Ear?ffe.-— Southeastern Asia generally; Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.
Hurria rynchops (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. Amphib., 1799, 1, p. 246. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, pp. 304-306.
Type locality:— Giiniam, India. (Original description based on Russell,
account of Indian serpents, 1796, 1, pi. 17) . This town is situated in the extreme
northeastern corner of the Madras Presidency, Lat. 20° 30' N., Long. 85° E.
It was the seat of a Resident in the days of the East India Company. It was
ravaged by fever and abandoned during the early part of the nineteenth century.
This common species has a distribution very similar to that of Chersydrus
124 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
granulatus. It is found generally along the coasts of India, southeastern Asia;
in the Indonesian area it occurs generally from Sumatra to Ceram and Goram,
also in the Philippines and the Pelew Islands. Schlegel (Essai phys. Serp.,
1837, 1, p. 171) reports its occurrence on the coasts of New Guinea. It is evi-
dently rare there, as I was unable to find it; and recent collections do not seem
to ha^'e contained it. It is unknown as yet from the coasts of Australia. On
January 25, 1907, a single specimen was taken at Buleleng, Bali Island, in salt-
water at the mouth of an estuary. Observations on its habits only confirm those
noted by Cantor and more recently by Flower (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899,
p. 679). This is apparently the first record of its capture on Bali, though its
occurrence there was certainly to have been expected.
Fordonia leucobalea (Schlegel).
Schlegel, Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 345, pi. 13, fig. 8-9. Bodlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus.,
1896, 3, p. 21-22.
Type locality: — Timor.
A very variable and widely ranging form. An example here is from Penang,
M. C. Z. No. 941.
Known now from nearly all coasts and rivers from Bengal to Queensland.
Boiga multimaculata (Boie).
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 549. Boulengek, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 63-64.
Type locality: — Java. WTiile Boie does not make a definite statement as
to whence his specimens came, it is quite certain that they were from Java. For
he credits the name to Reinwardt, and we have evidence from Schlegel (Essai
phys. Serp., 1837, 2, p. 265) that this material was collected in Java. Schlegel
writes: "Cette espece inedite, egalement due aux recherches du professeur
Reinwardt, habite I'lle de Java, ou elle est aussi abondante que la prec6dente
[Boiga dendrophila] MM. Boie, Macklot, Kuhl et van Hasselt nous en ont fait
parvenir un grand nombre d'indiAadus."
This arboreal serpent is not uncommon in the vicinity of Buitenzorg. It
also seems probable that a large series of specimens would show the examples
from Malaya to be subspecifically distinct from those from Burma. Bole's
specimens ranged in scale-counts as follows: — V. 202-213, C. 83-93. From
Boulenger's data {loc. cit.) and two specimens taken in March, 1907, at Buiten-
zorg, it seems that Javan examples average about 206 in ventrals and 85 in
subcaudals. Bryant got two at Depok, V. 217-218, C. 86-90. The range is
not quite within that mentioned above for Bole's specimens. For the five
specimens in the British museum from Burma and Indo-China, we have a much
SERPENTES. 125
higher average; \az. V. 225, subc. 92.8. The range is also different: — V. 220-
227, subc. 81-100. Should we add to this series Cantor's specimen from Penang
(V. 223, subc. 106), the average would be materially raised; but without a series
from Penang, this example, differing so widely from all the rest, can not be
considered as necessarily included in this race. In a general way, however, this
condition of affairs is paralleled by that found in Natrix suhminiata (q. v.), in
which species there is a Javan- form with fewer scales than in the mainland
representati\'e. In A^. suhminiata also the single specimen from Hong Kong
(Bowring's) shows a condition more like the Javan than the Burmese. Bow-
ring's specimen in the British museum has V. 203, C. 80, which is very near the
average for Javan specimens, and widely different from the counts of specimens
geographically much nearer.
I wish again to thank Dr. Stejneger for having a verbatim copy of Bole's
description taken for me from the Isis in the Library of Congress at Washington.
This snake is known from southern China, Indo-China, Burma, Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Celebes.
Boiga dendrophila (Boie).
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 549. Bodlenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 70-71.
Type locality: — Java.
Boulenger {loc. cit.) gives in his synonymy of this species Coluber peruvianus
Shaw (Gen. zool., 1802, 3, p. 483, pi. 122). If this species were B. dendrophila,
then of course Shaw's name, however inappropriate, would have to stand. I
heartily agree with Dr. Stejneger, who has expressed his opinion in a letter, that
Shaw's figure and description can not be identified with this species, and proba-
bly not with any other. In tliis case, of course, it drops from literature, so far
as this form at any rate is concerned.
In Java this snake was seen on several occasions, although no specimens were
obtained. A specimen from Borneo in this Museum seems to connect varieties
B and C of Boulenger; it is over five feet long. Another, smaller, example
from the Philippine Islands has 76 cross-bands on the body, almost all complete,
and 26 around the tail; this represents var. E, or better, perhaps, B. d. multi-
cincta (Blgr.). Bryant had seven from Depok and one from Buitenzorg, all
var. A of Boulenger. This seems to be really confined to Java. The scales
range V. 218-226, C. 96-108.
Judging by Boulenger's account, there seem to be some fairly definite
groupings into geographic races. There is no necessity to recapitulate these
conclusions here, as the material at hand is unimportant. It seems worth
126 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
pointing out, however, that individuals from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra
are closely similar.
Known from Lower Siam, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo,
Celebes, Palawan, and Mindanao.
Boiga irregularis (Bechstein).
Bechstein, Ueber Lacdpede, 1802, 4, p. 239, pi. 37, fig. 1. Boulenqeb, Cat. snakes Brit. mus. 1896,
3, p. 75-77.
Type locality: — Bechstein writes, "Das Vaterland ist unbekannt."
The genus Boiga was founded by Fitzinger in 1826. The type he has
expressly designated as Coluber irregularis Merrem. Dr. Stejneger has kindly
transcribed for me Fitzinger's own statement. "Merrem's Coluber irregularis
gab Veranlassung zur Griindung von Boiga." Dumeril and Bibron (Erpet. gen.,
1854, 6, p. 1072) give a comprehensive survey of the early lustory of the species,
and show that Merrem gave only a German name to the species when he pub-
lished his origmal figure in 1790. This figure. Dr. Stejneger has written me,
forms the basis for Bechstein's name. In 1843, Fitzinger (Syst. Rept., 1, p. 27)
proposed a new generic name for this species, Gonyodipsas. It has been known
at various other times by different names: — Lycodon, Dipsas, Triglyphodon,
Pappophis, and Hurria. This last name Dr. Stejneger has shown (Bull. 58,
U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 304) can be used for Hydrus rhynchops Schneider only,
as the genus Hurria was founded by Daudin (Bull. Soc. philom. Paris, March,
1803, 3, no. 72, p. 187) for this single .species. Curiously, Boulenger has not
observed the necessity of using the name Boiga, but holds to Dipsadomorphus.
Cope recognized the correct name, and used it for a number of species in 1860
(Proc. Acad. nat. sci. Phila., 1860, p. 264).
The coloration and number of rows of scales vary; not, however, with any
relation to the geographical distribution, so far as can be learned. This snake
is one of the common forms which occur o\'er a very wide insular range; it does
not reach Austraha, or the continent of Asia, or the islands most closely related
to Asia faunistically.
The following list of localities is gathered from various records, as well as
material at hand here; and serves to show how general is the distribution of
this form throughout the eastern part of the East Indian Archipelago, and through
Melanesia.
The species is probably general over Celebes; it is found also on the Sanghir
group towards the Philippines, though it appears to be unknown in the PhiHp-
pines themselves. Among the Moluccas it occurs widely distributed, being
SERPENTES. 127
known from Bum, Ambon, Ceram, Halmahera, and Ternate. It occurs on the
following Papuan Islands : — Salawati, Mysol, the Ke and Ai'u groups ; on Jobi
and Sook (Misori Islands) in Geelvink Bay. On the mainland of Papua it is
widespread, being known from Dorey, Mansinam, Sorong, Mt. Ai-fak; in
northern Dutch Papua; from the Fly River country of British Papua; and from
Huon Gulf, and other places in Kaiser Wilhelm's Land. It occurs on various
islands in Torres Straits, in the D'Entrecasteaux group, in the Louisiade Islands;
and is widely spread in the Solomon Islands, as the following list shows : Treasury,
Alu (one of the Shortland group). New Georgia, Gela, and Guadalcanar.
M6hely (Termes fiizetek, 21, p. 172) proposes a subspecific name for ex-
amples which he says fall in Boulenger's var. B; his examples come from various
localities in German New Guinea. Werner (Verh. Zool. bot. ges. Wien, 49,
p. 152) holds to this racial name of B. i. papuana (Mehely). A glance at Bou-
lenger {loc. cit.) will show that specimens of his var. B come from almost any-
where, so that it can not be the basis of the name for a geographic race. The
material at hand consists of one adult from Manokwari, Papua; two from
Ceram, and one from Burn.
Psammodynastes pulverulentus (Boie).
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 547. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 172-174. Stejnegee, Bull.
58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 383-385.
Type locality: — Java.
Stejneger has given a very full account of this species, so satisfying, indeed,
that the material at hand adds httle to our knowledge of this form. He suggests
that in the migration of this species to Formosa, its absence, so far as we know,
from the mainland of China leads one to suppose that it reached the island from
the south, probably from the Philippines. He adds, however, that there is
"every reason to believe that P. pulverulentus may yet be discovered in the
mountains of southern and western China."- Wliile I am not able now to add
this form to the known fauna of the mainland of Cliina, I have two typical
examples from Mt. Wuchi in central Hainan. Knowing how close is the rela-
tion of the fauna of this island to that of south China, we may now be quite certain
of its presence there.
These two examples have the under surface very dark brown, spotted with
black. A specimen taken April, 1907, at Sindanglaia, Java, had in life a salmon-
pink belly, with a few scattered black specks. M. C. Z., No. 4,077 is a specimen
of this species from Tay-ninh, in French Cochin-China. In this individual the
belly is almost immaculate light brown. On the sides of the posterior half of
128 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
the body there are distinct longitudinal markings. These do not show at all
in either of the other specimens. Bryant has two specimens from Tjibodas,
Mt. Gede, 4,500 feet; V. 152-171; C. 44-48.
Range : — Upper India through southeastern Asia to Hainan, Formosa, and
the Philippines. In the Malay Archipelago it is known from Sumatra, Engano,
Java, Lombok, Flores, Celebes, Borneo, and the Natuna Islands.
In Java certainly, and probably in Hainan, it is confined to the liigher ele-
vations. It does not seem to occur at Buitenzorg, but is taken quite often at
Sukanumi and Tjibodas, whence there are specimens in the Buitenzorg museum.
Dryophis prasinus Boie.
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 545. Botjlengeb, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 180-182.
Type locality: — Java; collected by Reinwardt (vide Schlegel, Essai phys.
Serp., 1837, 2, p. 251).
Fourteen examples of this rather common, lizard-eating serpent, taken
during March and April, 1907, at Buitenzorg. In the Bryant collection, five
are from Gunung Bunder, Mt. Salak, four from Depok, and eleven from Buiten-
zorg. D. prasinus was not taken at any of the stations at high altitudes by
either of us.
Known from the eastern Himalayas through southeastern Asia to the
Malay Peninsula; and in Java, Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, Philippines, and
Lombok.
Dryophis xanthozona Boie.
Boie, Isis, 1827, p. 545. Boui^nqer, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 180.
Type locality: — Java (fide Schlegel).
This distinct, yet reaUy Uttle-known, species seems to be very much rarer
than D. prasinus Boie. Bryant got two specimens at Depok, Java; but none
near Buitenzorg, where it seems to be unknown. However, it is probably con-
fused regularly with its congener wherever it occurs. The range of scale-counts,
so far as Boulenger knew it, was small; yet Bryant's two fall well within it: —
V. 187, 193; C. 130, 125. Scales in fifteen rows as usual.
Chrysopelea rhodopleuron Boie.
Bora, Isis, 1827, p. 547. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 195-196.
Type locality: — unknown. Reported first definitely from .\mbon.
A single specimen of this characteristic Moluccan species from Ambon,
taken January, 1907. Scales 17 rows; ventrals 207; anal divided; subcaudals
186. The maximum number of subcaudals cited by Boulenger is 180.
SERPENTES. 129
Known from a number of the Moluccas, and from Timor-Laut. It is found
upon the Sanghir Islands; and hence we may suppose that it is hkely to occur
in Celebes and even perhaps in the Philippines.
Hydrus platurus (Linn£).
LiNNfi, Syst. nat., ed. 12, 1766, 1, p. 391. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 266-268.
(Data on variation). Stej.veger, Bull. 58, U. S. nut. nnis., 1907, p. 439-442 (Synonymy and
description).
Type locality: — unknown.
This form, one of the most widely distributed of reptiles, presents a per-
plexing problem to the zoogeographer. In the series of specimens available for
study here, and with the data which Boulenger {he. cit.) supphes, nine easily
distinguishable color-phases may be recognized. To show, moreover, what
slight relation these phases bear to the distribution of the snake, it may be addetl
that six of these forms occur in and about the Bay of Panama. Stejneger
{he. eit., p. 440) remarks that there seems to be "a certain regularity" in the
distribution ofthe.se " color varieties." "Thus the ordinary black-backed form,"
he says, "seems to be almost exclusive in the Pacific Ocean; spotted individuals,
such as the one figured in Fauna Japoniea, plate viii (from the west coast of
Borneo), appear to occur mostly in the Indian Ocean. All the specimens from
eastern China, Formosa, Riu Kiu, and Japan, so far as the records show, are of
the black-backed form." However, this same "black-backed form," which
in its simplest coloration Boulenger calls E, is known to occur from Madagascar
to the eastern coast of Central America. Not so with the "spotted form,"
which Boulenger calls A. This appears to be rather definitely confined to the
waters of the East Indian Archipelago, and may be recognized as a geographical
race.
Hydrus platurus ornatus (Gray) .
Color: — yellowish, dorsally with brown, black-edged cross-bands; ventrally
with black bars running up the sides, and alternating with the dorsal bands.
This form is the most distinct of any of the color-phases. It shows Httle
relation to the others, and does not seem to intergrade with them, unless we
consider the rare and little-known var. maeulata Jan an intermediate phase.
Gray (Zool. misc., p. GO) in 1842 recognized this as a distinct species, and
recorded it from India. In 1896 Boulenger {he. cit., p. 267) recorded a specimen
from Borneo as "Type of P. ornata"; the only other specimen of this form in
the British museum at that time was one from "India?." It would be interest-
ing to know whence the type really came! Dumeril and Bibron (Erpet. gen.,
130 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
1854, 7, 2, p. 1337) record a specimen taken by Quoy and Gaimard at Makassar,
Celebes. Schlegel, in Fauna Japonica (PI. 8), figures this form; and Stejneger
Q.OC. cit., p. 440) states that the figured specimen came from the west coast of
Borneo. Russell in 1796 figured a specimen from Tranquebar, on the Coro-
mandel Coast. In the collection of the M. C. Z. No. 938 is tj^aical of this form,
and was taken at Singapore.
This variety is still rare in collections, and curiously enough was apparently
not observed by. Cantor during his residence in the Straits Settlements.
As regards the A^ar. maculata Jan, little can be said. There are no specimens
here, and it appears to be rare. Boulenger described it (B, he. cit., p. 267),
but had in the British museum no specimens from known localities. It is sup-
posed to be confined to the Indian Ocean. It may' be intermediate between//,
p. ornatus and some of the black-backed phases, all of which are a good deal alike.
The forms having the whole dorsal surface black or broken into confluent
rhombic markings occur very widely and promiscuously. There seems to be no
localization whatever amongst them. In 1906 I recorded (Bull. M. C. Z., 46,
p. 227) three color-phases from the Bay of Panama; now, however, a re-examina-
tion of this material, and the study of additional specimens, show six phases
occurring in this circumscribed area. Boulenger (loc. cit., p. 267-268) likewise
shows that four phases occur on the coasts of India. Here, there are se\-eral
well-marked phases from the China Sea. It is hardly necessary to discuss these
forms in detail, for Boulenger has already described them. However, the series
from Panama does contain two specimens which are noteworthy. One from
Saboga Island (ex. No. 7,084, 12 specimens) may be described as follows: —
Dorsum black, entirely composed of confluent rhombs; lower surface olive; a
yellow stripe along the side separating black from olive. In the area of the
latter color occurs a series of black spots, which alternate with the dorsal rhombs.
On the tail are alternating bands which arise dorsally and ventrally dovetailing
into one another.
The specimens of the second lot are from San Miguel Island (ex. No. 7,083,
14 specimens), and have a black dorsum and brown belly, but lack the yellow
stripe on the sides which separate these areas.
These phases may be confined to the Panamic region; but in the light of
what we know of the distribution of nearly related forms, it seems much more
likely that they are rare phases simply, and may turn up almost anywhere in
the Indian and tropical Pacific Oceans.
SERPENTES. 131
Laticauda laticaudata (Linn£).
Linn£, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 175S, 1, p. 222. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 402-408.
Type locality: — The Indies.
This generic name was used by Cantor (Cat. Malay rept., p. 125) in 1847;
for its history see Stejneger, he. cit.
Dr. Stejneger in this paper has thrown a deal of light on the status of many
of the sea-snakes. He has described L. laticaudata, and also L. coluhrina, in
such a way as to give to each full specific rank. The differences between the
species would warrant this, were they constant; but since intermediate indi-
viduals occur, it seems better to consider that we are dealing with a single species,
embracing two subspecifically varying forms, which occur over practically the
same area. The subspecies may be known and characterized as follows : —
Laticauda laticaudata laticaudata (Linne). Scales in 19 rows. Ventrals
210-247; subcaudals 25-47. No unpaired shield between the prefrontals;
upper lip often dark in color. Black annuli on body from 29 to 58 in number,
on tail from 2 to 5.
Laticauda laticaudata coluhrina (Schneider). Scales in 21-25 rows. Ven-
trals 195-247; subcaudals 29-45. Generally an unpaired shield between the
prefrontals. Upper lip usually all yellow; black annuli of body from 25 to 54
in number, on tail from 2 to 6.
In L. I. coluhrina the azygous sliield is sometimes lacking, therefore we
might saj' that these examples were specimens of the first-mentioned subspecies
in which the addition of two or more rows of scales had taken place. Such a
specimen from Queensland is mentioned by Stejneger (loc. cit., p. 408) as having
been examined in the Christiana museum. Werner (Mitt. Zool. sammlung
mus. nat. Berlin, 1900, 1, p. 104) records the existence of a similar specimen in
the Vienna museum. In the collection of the M. C. Z. there are two specimens
which are of interest. One is from the Indian Ocean (4,831), with 23 rows of
scales, and lacking the azygous shield; the other is from New Caledonia (6,790).
This the writer obtained at the last Paris Exposition in 1900, as it was peculiar
in having a prolongation of the frontal, separating the prefrontals as if an
azygous shield were present. In the series here, some twenty-five specimens
from widely separated localities, no variation in the number of oculars or tem-
porals occurs in either subspecies. Nor can characters be found in the arrange-
ments of cephalic plates or colors which regularly serve to separate these forms.
The usual number of supralabials is seven in each case; eight occur on one side
132 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
of a single individual, belonging to the subspecies colubrina; a reduction to six
occurs on one side of a snake of the other series.
It is quite useless in a case of this sort to give a list of the localities whence
the two forms of this species have been recorded. They have both very nearly
the same range, — from the eastern coasts of India to the China Seas, and through
the western Pacific as far as the Friendly and Society Islands. Stejneger records
the first subspecies from as far north as Okinawa-shima, Riu Kiu Islands. The
form colubrina is not known definitely from this region.
For the benefit of those who study this group it may be added that this
collection contains specimens from the following localities: — Java, Singapore,
Australia, New Caledonia, Pelew Islands, Philippine Islands, Ternate, and
Fiji Islands, besides a number from less definite localities, as, for example, from
the Indian Ocean.
Since the above was written I may add that I find that Peters and Doria, in
their "Rettile e Batrachi Austro-malese," 1878, p. 412, regard the form which
possesses the azygous shield as a variety of the form in which it is wanting.
Pseudelaps muelleri insulae Barbour.*
Barbour, Bull. M. C. Z., 1908, 61, p. 320.
Type: — No. 7,080, M. C. Z., one specimen, Djamna Island, Dutch Papua.
T. Barbour, collector. Djamna is a small islet, situated off the Saar district
between Cape D'Urville and Humboldt's Bay. It lies a few miles southeast of
the Arimoa (Kumamba) group of islands.
Rostral scale visible from above. The eye is somewhat greater in diameter
than its distance from the mouth. The scales around the body are in 15 rows;
the ventrals 146, and the subcaudals 19 pairs, in number. The anal is divided.
Total length 400 mm.; tail, 32 mm. Boulenger's (Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896,
3, p. 317) measurements of P. rnvdleri are as follows: — "Total length 500 millim. ;
tail 70."
Color: — In life this is almost coal-black above, with rich plumbeous irides-
cence when held in bright light. The ventral surface is, in general, dusky white.
Along each of the gastrosteges runs a line of dark brown spots; these spots occur
in a closely grouped cluster at the ends of each ventral scale. In the gular region
the spots fuse and grow darker in color; the general effect is a very deep brown.
On the lower labials small white spots occur, irregularly scattered. In alcohol,
' Recently van Lidth <le Jeude has shown that this curiously colored race occurs also on the main-
land of Papua near Djauma. If this race seems to be really localized geographically, my name may
stand to designate it. Cf. van Lidth de Jeude, Nova Guinea, 5, 4, 1911, p. 527-529.
SERPENTES. • 133
however, the black has changed to a very dark dull green, and the brown mark-
ings below to an olive color.
This form differs from Pseudelaps muelleri (Schlegel) in having a much
shorter tail, fewer pairs of subcaudal scales, and a distinctive coloration. There
is a typical Papuan example in the A. E. Pratt collection from Fak Fak, Dutch
New Guinea.
This subspecies may be identical with "P. schlegelii (Giinther)," which seems
distinguishable as a race of P. muelleri (Schl.). The color of this Djamna form
does not, however, seem within the variation limits of any described form.
Acantbophis antarcticus (Shaw).
Shaw, Nat. misc., 1794, 13, pi. 356 (not pi. 435, as cited by Boulenger). Boulenger, Cat. snakes
Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 355-356.
Tjjpe locality: — "A native of Australasia."
In life this snake acts much like a true viper. When angered it vibrates its
tail very rapidly. The tip of the tail is armed with an elongated spine-Uke scale.
This recalls the condition in Agkistrodon, which was considered by both Garman
and Stejneger (Garman, Bull. M. C. Z., 1888, 8, p. 259-268, pi. 1-2, Science,
1892, 20, p. 17, fig. 5: Stejneger, Rept. U. S. nat. mus. for 1893, 1895, p. 337-487,
pi. 1-19, fig. 1-70) as an early stage in the evolution of a rattle. In Australia
this species is said to be an inhabitant of dry sandy areas; in New Guinea
and Ceram, whence specimens were taken during February and March, 1907,
the creature was found in damp, heavily forested areas. It is, however, quite
impossible to distinguish between Australian, Papuan, and Moluccan specimens.
The range of variation for the whole species, which has been well described by
Boulenger, may occur in specimens from a restricted region.
This species is known in many parts of Australia; from as much of Papua
as is now known herpetologically ; and from Ceram, the Aru and the Ke Islands.
Its distribution in the Moluccas is curiously restricted.
Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider).
Schneider, Hist. Amphib., 1801, 12, p. 283. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 366-367.
Type locality: — Schneider merely states that the specimen which he de-
scribed was in the Museum Blochianum. At the end of his account he refers
to the third plate of Russell's account of Indian serpents as an excellent illustra-
tion of the species.
A single large specimen of this dangerous species was killed while it was
lying in a road near Buitenzorg, in March, 1907. While it is very much less
134 - BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
common than B. candidus, it is nevertheless abundant enough to be much dreaded
by the natives. Bryant had two examples from Depok.
In color my specimen is perhaps noteworthy, in that the forward prolonga-
tion of black from the first annulus reaches the internasals. Between this black
and the brown on the nose is a very narrow line of yellow.
Bungarus candidus (Linn£).
Linn£ Syst. nat., ed. 10, 17.58, 1, p. 223. Boolenoek, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 368-369.
Type locality: — "Habitat in Indiis."
Boulenger has grouped under the name B. candidus three forms of serpents
which, as he has shown, come from well-defined geographic areas. We have
no proof that these forms merge into one another where their respective ranges
meet. It seems, then, necessary, owing to their well-marked color-characters
and their distribution, to call them separate species. Thus we have: —
B. candidus (Linne) from Java and Celebes.
B. multicinctus Blyth (Stejneger, Bull. 58 U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p.
397-399) from Upper Burma, China, Hainan, and Formosa.
B. caendeus Daudin, from India to the Straits Settlements.
This last form is variable in coloration, but has not been shown to be com-
pletely connected with either of the others.
Two specimens of B. candidus taken at Buitenzorg, January, 1907, agree
perfectly with the descriptions. When compared with a specimen of B. caeru-
leus taken at Lucknow, November, 1907, they show the followdng differences in
addition to the well-known divergence in coloration: — the width of the head of
the Javan specimens is about one fourth greater than in the Indian ; the frontal
in the Javan examples is very nearly as broad as long, in the Indian the frontal
is one and one third times as long as broad ; in the Javan individuals the length
of the suture between the internasals is two thirds that of the suture between the
prefrontals; in the Indian snake the first-mentioned is only one third as long as
the second. In the Javan specimens the superior preocular is much larger than
the inferior, while in the Indian they are of the same size. The scale-counts do
not aid in separating any of the three forms. Bryant's series, ten from Buiten-
zorg, and two from Depok, bear out these observations. One of his specimens,
however, has an almost square first temporal, a curious anomaly.
SERPENTES. 135
Naja naja (Linn^).
LiNirt, Syst. nat., ed. 10, 1758, 1, p. 221. Boulenger, Cat. .snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 380-385.
Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 394-397.
T]ipe locality: — "Habitat in India orientali."
Stejneger has outlined a scheme for tlie study of the varieties of the cobra
which is an advance over that of Boulenger. The latter grouped them accord-
ing to color alone, and we had as a result a curious series of subspecies in any
one of which might occur specimens from almost any locality. As a matter of
fact, by using the scale-counts of Boulenger and those of Stejneger, we may define
in a fairly satisfactory manner several apparent geographic races in the East
Indian region.
Naja naja leucodira (Boulenger, loc. cit., p. 384).
This form seems to be confined to Sumatra, whence specimens have come to
the British museum. Examples also exist in the zoological museum of the
Department of agriculture at Buitenzorg, Java.
Body with no marking above; dark brown, almost black. Hood unmarked.
Throat whitish, usually spotted with black, and with a black band. Scales on
neck 21-25; generally 23; 17 or 19 rows across body. V. 183-193; C. 50-55.
N. n. sputatrix (Boie). Isis, 1827, p. 557).
I add here a transcription from a letter from Dr. Stejneger copying Boie's
text. Under N. tripudians Boie writes, "Im Pariser Museum Exemplare von
Java, Sumatra und den Philipinen, die kaum specifisch verschieden zu seyn
scheinen. Bey javanischen Exemplaren die Brille undeutlicher, die Lippen
ungefarbt."
"6. sputatrix Reinw. Russell, Account of Indian serpents, 1796, 1, 2,
tab. 36. Elaps fuscus Merr. Coluber castaneus Oppel, cf. Erpet. de Java.
"Oculis parvis, cauda s, tota e badio aenea, capite dilutiore, cervice in
junior e subperspicillato, 173-80 = 50-52."
Javanese cobras show a remarkable constancy in the number of rows of
scales on the neck. This appears to be regularly 25, while the number of rows
around the body may be 19 or 21, the latter being most frequent. Boulenger
has recorded three specimens from Java belonging to two varieties. Two
{loc. cit., p. 382) as var. caeca, and one as var. sputatrix. The scale-counts in
all lie within these limits, viz. Sc. If; V. 172-180; C. 44 for the first two men-
tioned; and Sc. fi; V. 163; C. 44, for the single N. n. sputatrix. The following
counts, taken from seven specimens all from near Buitenzorg, show the range in a
restricted locaUty. They can not be separated on a color-basis, and are all N. n.
136 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
sputalrix. Sc.'lf, 175, 52. Sc. f|, 173, 50. Sc. If, 176, 51. Sc. f|, 173, 50.-
Sc. If, 175, 52. Sc. If, 171, 50. Sc. |f, 183, ?. The range may be expressed as
Sc. il^, 163-183, 44-52. Curiously, the highest ventral count of a Javan in-
dividual is the same as the lowest ventral count of a Sumatran.
The coloration of this form is usually ^■ery dark Ijrown or black above,
yellowish on chin. A complete or broken circular mark is usually present on the
hoods of the young. The marks on the hoods of most adults are nearly vanish-
ing; hence, perhaps, the recording of two by Boulenger as var. caeca, which has
the hood regularly unmarked.
A'', n. miolepis (cf. Boulenger, loc. cit., p. 384-385).
The Bornean form may be distinguishable by the peculiar marking in the
young. A scale-formula based on Boulenger's data is Sc. ,7^19; 181-199; 45-
51. In this case all of the specimens identified with this race come from a single
region.
A^. n. atra (Cantor). (Stejneger, loc. cit., p. 395).
To this form a single specimen, from Ting-an, Hainan Island, seems re-
ferable; its scales count If, 173, 43. A young specimen agreeing well in color
and squamation with Stejneger's description of a young Formosan example.
It differs, however, in having the "white rimmed spectacles" lying in a broad
black band, and tlie general ground color olive-green.
The great difficulty in reaching any general conclusions in regard to the
geographical races of this form is the lack of material in large series from well-
authenticated localities. When we have records of scale-formulae for hundreds
of cobras where we now ha\'e tens, we may be able to reach conclusions which
are safely tenable.
Provisionally, following Stejneger so far as he went, we may summarize our
information concerning these races as follows: —
A'aja naja (Linne).
Many scales about neck, 29-35 (sometimes 27). Sum of ventrals and
subcaudals averaging about 230. Range: — India, Ceylon, Burma, Malay
Peninsula.
A^. n. oxiana (Eichwald).
Ventrals and subcaudals averaging 268. Transcaspian region.
Then follow: —
A^. n. leucodira from Sumatra.
A'', n. sputatrix from Java and possibly part of Sumatra.
A'^. n. miolepis from Borneo and Palawan.
SERPENTES. 137
A'', n. atra from the Siamese and Chinese regions.
To the above may be added : —
N. n. paucisquamis; this is known from a single specimen taken in Borneo.
Peracca, after correspondence with Boulenger, proposes (Rev. Suisse zool., 1899,
7, p. 328) the name for an example with 19 rows of scales on the neck, and
15 on the body. He mentions 46 subcaudals, and coloring similar to N. n.
miolepis.
Since the preceding pages were written, Bryant's Javan cobras have come
to hand, and bear out what has been said as to the ventral counts of Javan and
Sumatran specimens just meeting but not overlapping in numbers. From the
nine specimens which Bryant preserved at Buitenzorg and Depok we get the
following counts: — Ventrals 166-180, subcaudals 45-53. These counts are
almost the same as those taken from my specimens. Bryant's show a greater
variability in numbers of rows on both neck and body. Instead of these being
expressed by the formula which I gave before, j^, we must now write fl^if.
Only the ventral counts, then, distinguish Javan from Sumatran cobras.
Doliophis intestinalis (Laurenti).
Plate 5, fig. 16; Plate 6, fig. 17.
Laurenti, Syn. Kept., 1768, p. 106. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 401-404.
Type locality: — "Africa."
An excessively variable species. Studies of material from Java and Penang
in the collection of the M. C. Z., and data made available by Boulenger, lead me
to conclude that this form is not divisible into subspecies. Color varieties which
embrace examples from widely separated localities express no relationship, and
hence do not merit a name. The averages obtained by adding the number of
ventrals and subcaudal scales of specimens from the same locality teach us little.
Thus, seven .specimens each from Java, Sumatra, and Nias, and from the Straits
Settlements, give averages respectively as follows: — 267.7, 261, and 260.4.
Twelve specimens from Borneo and Labuan give an average of 258.3. And
finally a specimen from Menado in northeastern Celebes has scales which total
262. The Javan average is raised by the counts of two specimens which have
extremely high scale-counts, — 294 and 287. This is paralleled by a single
specimen from Singapore with 288, and one from Borneo with 283. If we had
fifty specimens from each of these localities, we might be able to separate satis-
factorily a Bornean form; for these do seem to have a smaller average than
those from the other islands. With small series, and from scattered parts of the
various regions, it seems unwise to try to separate races, especially since color
138 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPm^
is valueless. A glance at Boulenger's account of this form will show that
variety A occurs in Java and Borneo; B in Straits Settlements and Borneo;
C in Straits Settlements, Sumatra, and Borneo; E in Borneo and Sumatra;
F in Borneo and Celebes. Of variety D, only one specimen is in the British
museum; and of G, only two; both taken at the same time. These varieties
have been given names by Boulenger; and these do doubtless afford useful
handles by which to speak of the different specimens, but they do not seem to
express anything which is valuable to the zoogeographer or student of ophidian
relationships. It is noteworthy that all the specimens at the Buitenzorg mu-
seum, as well as three taken at Buitenzorg and now in the collection of the M.
C. Z., had the coloration designated A by Boulenger. Inasmuch as this phase
also occurs in Labuan, we can not name it as a local race, however. Since the
above was written, Bryant's series has brought in seven from Buitenzorg, and
four from Mt. Salak, all of var. A, the only one occurring in Java.
Annandale has noted the very large size of the poison-apparatus of D.
bivirgatus in the Malay Peninsula; and Gadow, in his Amphibia and reptiles,
1901, p. 634, has mentioned it for this species (see fig. 17). Boulenger (loc. cit.)
notes the pushing of the heart to a position far posterior of its characteristic
position. This apparatus is figured here because none of these accounts give
one a definite idea of the enormous development of the glands, and this condi-
tion seems to be quite unknown to the average comparative anatomist.
The curious habit of crawling with the tail up-turned to show the brilliant
red under color is also figured. This has been noted before by Annandale (Fasc.
Malay. ZooL, 1903, 1, p. 167-168). Flower (Proc. Zool. soc. London, 1899, p.
693, pi. 37) has described and figured the same habit for Cylindrophis rufus. In
spite of the enormous poison-glands, and the widespread native suspicion directed
against all the red-tailed snakes, it seems very unlikely that this reptile can be
considered a really dangerous form.
Amblycephalus carinatus (Wagler).
Waglee, Nat. syst. Aniphib., 1830, p. 181. Boulemger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 445-446.
Dr. Stejneger writes me that A. carinatus Boie is a complete nomen nudum.
Reinwardt had sent .specimens to Leyden, using this MS. name, which Boie
simply copied. Dr. Stejneger points out that this evidently happened before
Boie himself left Holland. The authority for the name must therefore stand as
Wagler. He described the species as the type of a new genus, Pareas; and, just
as Dr. Stejneger also has written me, credits the name " Dipsas carinata" to
"Reinw. in Mus. Lugd." The type locality, then, is Java.
SERPENTES. 139
Apparently this species, like Lachesis puniceus (q. v.), is chiefly confined to
high altitudes. It is rare, and most of the specimens in the excellent collection
of Javan reptiles in the Museum of the Agricultural department at Buitenzorg
came from levels higher than that of Buitenzorg. \Vhile collecting in the
vicinity of the Mountain Gardens at Tjibodas, several specimens were taken at
an altitude of about 4,500 feet on the slopes of the volcano Pangerango. Others
were brought to Buitenzorg by natives, who had taken them on neighboring
highlands. Seven specimens, all told, were preserved; and they agree well with
Boulenger's description. Color is brightest, and carination most distinct, in
young specimens. It remains tightly coiled unless much disturbed. Under
provocation, however, it will strike very viciously. It may be added that
Bryant, had six specimens from Buitenzorg, and two from Depok. They may
have come from the hill regions near by.
This form has been recorded from both Cochin China and Bi^rma, in both
of which localities it seems to be rare. Mouhot's specimens in the British mu-
seum came from the Laos ("Lao") Mountains, and it is quite possible that care-
ful collecting among the higher mountains of Burma and Cochin China would
prove that the species was as exclusively a highland form on the continent as
it seems to be in Java.
Agkistrodon rhodostoma (Boie).
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 561. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus., 1896, 3, p. 527-528.
Tyj)e locality: — Java.
This large and dangerous creature is abundant in western Java, mostly in
heavily forested areas at more than 1,000 feet elevation. Its coloration of
beautifully blended shades of lilac, violet, and rich brown makes it most difficult
to see, as it lies tightly coiled on the ground, with a background of decaying
leaves. Contrary to Annandale's field notes, which Boulenger has quoted (Fasc.
Malay. Zool., 1903, 1, p. 170-171), the natives of Java reaUze full well how
dangerous this form must be. The fangs are excessively long, and the actual
quantity of poison secreted is very great indeed. In the young of this species,
about the last inch of the tail is bright yellow. This feature is also conspicuous
in the congeneric forms of North America. In all, as the individuals grow older,
small spots appear on the dorsal surface of the tails ; and as these increase in size
and number they spread down on the sides; so that by the time the specimens
are eighteen inches long, the yellow may be seen only after careful examination.
In A . rhodostoma it persists a very long while — certainly until full growth is
reached — as narrow bands between the dark spots. This does not seem to be
140 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
the case in A. contortrix and A. piscivorus; in both of these it disappears before
adult size is reached. The largest specimen measured by Boulenger {loc. cit.,
p. 528) was 900 mm., total length of body and tail. In a series of eight examples
taken near Buitenzorg during March and April, 1907, one measures 1,030 mm.
total length. In all, the number of rows of scales was 21 ; ventrals ranged from
144 to 157, and subcaudals from 38 to 53.
The history of our knowledge of this form is curious. When Boulenger,
in 1896, wrote vol. 3 of the British museum catalogue, this species was definitely
known only from Java, whence Reinwardt had taken it, and whence the example
for Russell's (Account of Indian serpents, 1801, 2, pi. 21) figure had come.
There was a specimen known bearing the label "Siam." Six years later the
first part of the Zoology of Fasciculi Malayenses appeared, papers based on the
collections of Annandale and Robinson in Perak and the Siamese Malay States.
For this Boulenger prepared a list of Malayan reptiles as an appendix to his
study of the collections entrusted to him. He notes that A. rhodostoma does
occur in Siam, whence a specimen has been received by the Christiania museum ;
and also records it from Biserat, Jalor, Malay Peninsula. Annandale says that
it is not rare, and it is remarkable that it remained so long undiscovered.
Strangely, it has not been found in Sumatra as yet. As Boulenger notes, a
parallel case to this discontinuous distribution is afforded by Geoclemys^ sub--
trijuga (Schl. en Mull.), and other species which are mentioned passim.
I got a series of specimens from Buitenzorg ; and Bryant took thirty-one : —
one at Gunung Bunder on Mt. Salak, elevation 2,200 feet; eighteen at Depok;
eleven at Buitenzorg; and one at Daru in Bantam.
Trimeresurus puniceus (Boie).
BoiE, Isis, 1827, p. 561. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mua., 1896, 3, p. 560-561.
Type locality: — Java, collection of Reinwardt {vide Schlegel, Essai phys.
Serp., 1837, 2, p. 545).
This form in western Java is an inhabitant of deep forests at high levels.
Major P. A. Ouwens of the Buitenzorg museum told me that it was never taken
near Buitenzorg. On the higher volcanic peaks near Soekaboemi it occurs
sparingly. Two specimens were taken at an altitude of from 4,500 to 5,000 feet
during April, 1907. Bryant took it only on Mt. Salak, where he got six speci-
mens. One of my specimens is now in the Museum of the Department of agri-
culture at Buitenzorg, and the other is before me. The color has hardly changed
' For the use of Geoclemys instead of Damonia, c}. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 496-
SERPENTES. 141
from what it was in life. Rich reddish brown, with some faint darker markings;
a very faint whitish line running through the eye, and some yellow scales laterally
near the gastrosteges, which are dark yellow specked with slate color. This
form in life is excessively sluggish ; when aroused, however, it strikes viciously,
and with a speed which is, I think, quite unexcelled. Though the tail is strongly
prehensile, the natives say that this form is generally found on the ground.
Curiously, this form, while occurring on the Natuna group of islands,
Sumatra, and Borneo, does not occur on the mainland. It would be most
interesting to know whether its occurrence at high levels is as constant through-
out the rest of its range as it is in western Java. In the Natuna group there
is a hill on Great Natuna; but the rest of the islands are, so far as can be
learned, low lying.
Trimeresurus wagleri (Schlegel).
ScHLEGEL, Essai phys. Serp., 1837, 3, p. 542, pi. 17, fig. 16-18. Boulenger, Cat. snakes Brit, mus.,
1896, 3, p. 562-564.
Type locality: — Sumatra.
This species is attributed to Boie, Isis, 1827, p. 561, by Boulenger, but Dr.
Stejneger writes that there is no diagnosis whatever. Boie referred to "Col.
sumatranus Raffles," and to "Seba T. ii, tab. 68, fig. 4." These snakes are
different species, and it was Schlegel who definitely fixed T. wagleri to the snake
for which the name is now used.
Two specimens from the Philippine Islands, belong to phase B of Boulen-
ger. It is interesting to compare the distribution of this species with that of
T. gramineus (q. v.). This form has reached Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, Philip-
pines, Sirhassen, and Natuna Islands, occurring also on the Malay Peninsula.
Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw).
Shaw, Gen. zool., 1802, 3, p. 420. Stejneger, Bull. 58, U. S. nat. mus., 1907, p. 480.
Type locality: — Vizagapatan, India. (Based on Russell's Account of
Indian serpents, 1796, 7, pi. 9).
The green tree-vipers are either extremely rare in Java, or else their colora-
tion makes them so hard to find that they are seldom taken. The former pre-
sumption is undoubtedly correct, since such green species as Gonyosoma oxy-
rhynchus are very often found.
The only Javan specimen seen was one adult taken by Bryant at Buiten-
zorg.
142 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TESTUDINATA.
Geoclemys subtrijuga (Schlegel en MfrLLEE).
ScHLEGEL EN MtJLLER, Temminck's Verb. Natuur. Ned. Ind. Rept., 1844, p. 30. Boulenger, Cat.
chelonians * * * Brit. Mus., 1889, p. 94.
Type locality: — Java.
Three examples from Depok, Java, in the Bryant collection.
This species is mentioned (p. 23) on account of its interesting distribution.
It is one of the many species which occur on Java and the Asiatic mainland
without as yet having been found in either Sumatra or Borneo.
Orlitia crassicollis (Gray).
Gr.\y, Synop. Rept., 1831, p. 21. Bodlengee, Cat. chelonians * * * Brit, mus., 1889, p. 98.
Type locality: — Sumatra. Boulenger records the shell of a half-grown
individual in the British museum, the gift of Thomas Bell, Esq., as being the
type from Sumatra.
Bryant sent two examples from Depok. The species does not appear to
have been taken in Java previously. Being unfamiliar with East Indian fresh-
water tortoises and having but httle identified material at hand for comparison,
I concluded that I had to deal with what is generally called Cyclemys dhor (Gray)
(Blgr. loc. cit., p. 131). In this, as in many other matters. Dr. Stejneger set me
aright; but our study and discussion of the latter species led to some interesting
results affecting this name, so long used. Gray's Synopsis Reptihum is not in
the library of the M. C. Z., but I have the following information sent me by Dr.
Stejneger taken from his copy of this rare work.
In the first place Boulenger {loc. cit., 1889, p. 131), alluding to the original
description of Cyclemys dhor refers to Gray, Synopsis Reptilium, 1831, p. 23.
This is an error, the description being on p. 20. Concerning this name and the
type locality of the species. Dr. Stejneger writes me that he has come to the
following conclusion: —
" Gray' g Emys dhor, p. 20, corrected to E. dentata on pp. 79 and SO, and
figured on pis. 8 and 9, is a compound based in part upon (Hardwicke's drawing
of) a Bengal specimen, and in part upon three young (apparently from Java).
"p. 20 'Emys dhor. Gray Illustr. Ind. Zool., apparently not yet, 1851,
published (v. Mus. Brit.) Emys Hasselti, Boie Mss. (v. Mus. Leyd.)
'"Habitat in Bengal, called Dhor and Thum, General Hardwicke, Java,
Van Hasselt. (v. v. Hort. Zool. Bell et nostr.)
TESTUDINATA. 143
'"Like the former, only known from three young specimens, p. 21 one of
which, given me by Mr. Bell, I kept alive for some time.'
"In 1844 (Cat. Tort. Br. Mus.) the two species are still confounded under
the name Emys (Cyclemys) dentata, inasmuch as he still quotes pis. 8 and 9,
though only enumerating specimens from Java.
"In 1855 (Cat. Shield Rept., p. 35) he realizes his mistake and quotes pi. 8
under Batagur baska as the young, although by a lapsus he still quotes '8, 9'
under Cyclemys dentata (p. 42), which he now assigns exclusively to Java and
Borneo.
"Finally in 1870 (Suppl.) he returns to the name dhor for the exclusively
Javan species without giving any reason.
"I believe dentata should take the precedence over dhor, and that Java
must be considered its type locality."
Cyclemys amboinensis (Daudin).
Daudin, Hist. nat. rept., 1S02 (1803), 2, p. 309. Boulenger, Cat. chelonians * * * Brit, mus., 1889,
p. 133.
Type locality: — Ambon.
This species inhabits ponds and sluggish streams. It is usually the most
common chelonian where it occurs. I preserved eight specimens from Makassar,
Celebes, and three from Buitenzorg. Bryant got one at Buitenzorg, and one at
Depok, Java. A topotype has been received with a recent acquisition.
The two editions of Daudin's Histoire naturelle. . . .de reptiles are some-
what confusing as to dates. One, bearing the title ' ' Histoire naturelle generale
et particuliere des reptiles; ouvrage faisant suite a I'histoire naturelle generale
et particuliere, composee par Leclerc de Buflfon, et rediger par C. S. Sonnini, ....
8 vols. Paris," appeared as follows: — Vols. 1-4, An X (1802), and vol. 5-8, An
XI (1803). As Dr. Stejneger writes me in sending data regarding his copy,
quotations occur throughout the whole work from Latreille's Histoire naturelle,
which appeared in 1802; so that the whole of Daudin should be dated at the
earhest 1803.
The other, rather more common edition bears a sUghtly different title: —
"Histoire naturelle generale et particuliere des reptiles; ouvrage faisant suite
aux oeuvres de Leclerc de Buffon, et partie du cours complet d'histoire naturelle
redige par C. S. Sonnini,. . . .8 vols. Paris." The volumes are curiously dated
as foUows: Vol. 1-2, An XIII (1805), vols. 3-4, An X (1802), Vol. 5-8, An XI
(1803).
144 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
There are many sets which are composed of some volumes from each
edition.
Amy da subplana (Geoffrot).
Geoffroy, Ann. mus., 1809, 14, p. 11, pi. 5, fig. 2. Boulenger, Cat. chelonians * * * Brit, mus., 1889,
p. 253.
Type locality: — unknown.
This turtle occurs in apparently about equal numbers with A. cartilaginea.
It Uves in the same sluggish waters. I preserved one example, and Bryant two,
from Buitenzorg.
Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert).
BoDDAERT, Epistola ad W. Roell, cum tab., 1770 (fide Boulenoer). Boulenger, Cat. chelonians
* * * Brit, mus., 1889, p. 253.
Type locality: — original description not seen.
This species is abundant in the sluggish ditches and flowed rice-fields about
Buitenzorg. Each of the collections examined from there contained two small
examples.
PART III.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
In preparing the table of distrilxition it has been necessary, in order to
keep it in convenient form, to limit the number of localities included. Thus,
the Philippines have been taken together, even though conditions vary greatly
upon the different islands. Again, species have been described which are appar-
ently confined to son\e small islet, and in these cases they have been credited
to the nearest listed locality to which they belong faunally or geographically.
For instance, Dasia aignanum (Boulenger) was described from St. Aignan's
Island in the Louisiade Archipelago ; but this species has been credited to British
New Guinea, a region of which the Louisiade Archipelago forms simply a dis-
jointed part, and to which the group belongs both zoologically and geographically.
For the table see p. 169-203.
ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
The conditions which limit an attempt to use the data of the geographic
distribution of animals as an aid in reconstructing past geographic changes in
the East Indies are very many. In the first place, an accurate, systematic
knowledge of the fauna of any one East Indian Island is still far from an accom-
plished fact. Of many islands we know nothing at all. We may wish to argue
from what we know of the Amphibia of one island, and to compare this with
the conditions on another island where the birds are well known, liut the amphi-
bians little, or not at all. .Vgain, we know that species often become extinct,
especially upon islands, for no apparent reason; so that we may be constrained
to argue from the absence of certain forms, and yet never feel sure that they
have not existed in the past.
Conditions of life on islands, as elsewhere, are subject to certain purely
economic conditions: beasts of prey demand the presence of a definite number
of plant-eating animals, the latter demand the proper food supply of plants.
Insectivorous animals must have insects; and insects must have appropriate
plants, each in definite supply. Thus a certain balance must always be main-
tained; and this may be accomplished at times only by the dying out of some of
146 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
the forms wliich have been left imprisoned, as it were, upon any island at the
time of its separation from the land with which it formerly was in connection.
Zoologic evidence can never outweigh or set aside positive geologic evidence.
It can never hope to place the time of a geologic change with the accuracy that
geologic evidence does, when the latter exists. Unfortunateh^, convincing
geologic evidence is, in tliis region, frequently wanting. In the East Indies, as
in the West Indies, we may, it is true, postulate extensive land connections as
existing in a recent geologic past, and as having only in some cases left behind
them evidence of their existence in the shape of elevated ridges or shallow areas
on the bottom of the sea.
The origin of the fauna of the West and East Indian areas presents a
condition of affairs singularly parallel. In the West Indies there has been an
immigration of land types into Haiti and Porto Rico, and thence to the Lesser
Antillean chain, which have come by land connections stretching from Cuba to
Yucatan, on the one hand, and to Haiti on the other; and again from the
Mosquito Coast to Jamaica, and thence to Haiti. There has also been a
connection of Florida with Cuba, and of Cuba with the Archipelago of the
Bahamas; for these islands have drawn more of their fauna from Cuba than
they have from Haiti, though the latter is nearer to some points of the Bahamas.
Then, up to the Lesser Antillean chain has come an immigration of animals
which have been derived from the region of Ai-chiguiana, or part of the Gond-
wana land of Suess (Face of the earth; translated by Hertha B. C. Sollas
4 vols., Oxford, 1904-1910; 1, p. 387; 4, p. 471, 663). This faunal element
from what is now northeastern South ^America is predominant in Trinidad and
Tobago, recently separated; very strong in Grenada; and less so in St. Vincent.
It reaches up to Porto Rico, where it still forms a prominent part of the whole
fauna, and is naturally less evident in Cuba and Jamaica (Barbour, Bull. M. C. Z.,
1910, 62, p. 275-285).
In the East Indies the case is more complicated, but the main features of
the two-fold origin are the same — am influx of mainland tjrpes from south-
eastern Asia, on the one hand; and an influx of types derived from Antarctis,
on the other (Antarctis = AustraUa + Patagonia. Cf. Suess, 4, p. 667-669).
The points of view of both zoologist and geologist are fast changing regard-
ing the extent to which one may assume that alterations have taken place in tlie
shape of existing land-masses. There has been up to recent times a strong
tendency on the part of English, and some American, geologists to look upon the
ocean basins as fundamental surface features of the earth, which have existed
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 147
practically unchanged since its geologic infancy. There has been an inclination
to look askance at those who do not beUeve in the permanence of land forms
almost as they exist today. Suess, however, says that "the crust of the Earth
is traversed not only by isolated faults, * * * but Ijy whole systems of fractures,
that extensive areas have thus been broken up, and have foundered into the
interior of tlie planet" (Suess, 1, p. 7). Again, he remarks that the enthusiasm
which we have expended in contemplating the part that the little polyp has played
in building up the coral reef, or that the rain-drop has performed in hollowing
out the stone, have brought the commonplaceness of everyday life into our
conception of the phenomena of the past. In his opinion the convulsions which
have affected parts of the crust of the earth have been greater, and of greater
frequency, than was formerly supposed. "The earthquakes of the present day
are certainly but faint reminiscences of those telluric movements to which the
structure of almost every mountain range bears witness." Enormous changes
of level have taken place upon the siu'face of the earth in such recent times,
geologically speaking, that one can fairly consider these changes to be hardly
less than others whose existence can not be proved geologically. These sup-
posedly have been brought about by the folding of the surface of the earth, or
by depression of those areas of the lithosphere which, once dry land, now lie
deep below the sea. The elevated valley of California, and the upper valley of
the Po in Europe are excellent examples of regions where enormous changes of
le\el of land in relation to sea have taken place since late Pliocene and probably
even since early Pleistocene times. The northeastern coast of North America
is fast sinking at the present. Where lines of recent volcanic activity, as in the
East Indian and West Indian Island areas, occur, one may fairly assume that
fundamental changes of level have taken place, or may take place in any short
space of time. These regions lie in geosynclines, areas where changes of level
are most likely to occur, for there folding and faulting are at a maximum. Prof.
J. B. Woodworth has told me that he considers it as not at all an extravagant
statement to say that, so far as the geologic evidence is concerned, the Brazilian
highland area may be projected indefinitely into the Atlantic basin; and the
same thing is true of the probable projection of the Chilean region into the
Pacific. He has recently studied both these regions in great detail. The geologic
evidence as to the great age of the Atlantic Ocean is purely negative. So late
as the Upper Trias there were, except for a small area in the Atlas Mountain
region, no marine sediments laid down by the existing shores of the Atlantic.
We know that the facility with which animals of various orders are trans-
148 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
ported across the open sea fortuitously, or by what has been called flotsam and
jetsam dispersal, is much less than was previously supposed. I have discussed
this question at considerable length in "Notes on the herpetology of Jamaica"
(Bull. M. C. Z., 1910, 52, p. 280-284). To attempt to trace the history of this
change of opinion would be a long task, and would have no place in this connec-
tion. Many naturalists still adhere to the old views, and there can be no doubt
that in certain cases fortuitous distribution does play some part in providing
continental islands with faunae. Generally speaking, however, it is a negligible
one ; and the tendency is stronger and stronger to conclude that the dry surface
of the earth has undergone enormous and fundamental changes in extent since
life has been existent. Thus, the Galapagos Islands, considered by Darwin,
Wallace, and others as typical oceanic islands, are in all probability truly con-
tinental in nature; at least this opinion is gaining ground (c/. G. Baur, Amer.
nat., 1891, 35, p. 217-229, 307-326; also Amer. nat., 1897, 31, p. 661-G80).
So also with the Azores, Madeira, and the Canary Islands.
The marvellous land-snail fauna of some of the Pacific Islands, especially
of the Hawaiian Islands, is no longer considered as consisting on!}' of individuals
which reached the island fortuitously; but rather as an enormous group of
species, greatly modified and divided up amongst themselves through long
isolation upon the different islands, or even in the different valleys of the various
islands; and, moreover, these species are shown to be the descendants of ancient
types. If individuals in the past occasionally reached the islands by floating,
they would still do so ■ once in a while. An influx of continental indi^•iduals
would tend, of course, to keep the groups of individuals upon the islands more
or less like those upon the shores whence the immigrants came. That this
is not the case has been most ably argued by Pilsbry (Proc. Acad. nat. sci. Phila.,
1900, p. 568-581), who shows that, in the first place, many genera of land-snails
reach back to tlie Oligocene unchanged in specific characters; and that the mod-
ern family groups of snails diverged far back in Mesozoic time. This shows the
difference in the conditions which one finds in dealing with the fauna composed
of invertebrate groups of animals alone. A land-mass cut off in early Tertiary
times might lack most mammals, and yet present moUuscan genera identical
with those upon other land-masses, or upon the continents. This, in brief, is
the basis of the argument which Pilsbry employs in commenting upon the antique
character of the Polynesian snail fauna. After mentioning the primitive char-
acter of the Orthurethra, Heterurethra, and the Sigmurethra (Aulacopoda),
he shows their astonishing abundance in Polynesia, along with the absence of
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 149
such typical recent families as Helicidae and Bulimulidae, and others, which are
the \ery families known to be most successful as emigrants; for species of these
modern successful families follow modern agriculture and commerce about the
world, and easily become established. Some of these have come to Polynesia
within historic times; but we find none existing as a part of the true fauna of
any island. Thus Pilsbry continues, "the advocate of a Polynesian waif fauna
is then compelled to adopt the view either that accessions to the mid-Pacific
snail faunas practically stopped a long time ago, from causes unknown or hypo-
thetical, or that an unparalleled series of accidents intervened to pre\'ent the,
in recent times, ubiquitious and prominent continental groups of snails from
effecting a landing in these islands." In continuing he shows how wrong
Wallace was in deri^•ing the Polynesian fauna from the Australian region, and
says: "Far from being a faunal dependency of the Austrahan or Oriental regions,
Polynesia has every appearance of being a region which started with a fauna
long antedating the present Australian and Oriental faunas, developing along its
own lines, retaining old types because they did not come into competition with
the higher groups developed on the greater and less isolated continents * * *
On the supposition that Polynesia has always had the constituti(5n the name
implies, it is difficult to see why agencies which introduced representatives of
some eight families of snails into the Hawaiian group should totally fail to act
during the mesozoic and tertiary. Even Wallace felt that some explanation
was called for, and speaks vaguely of the ' extensive shoals to the south and south-
west,' and 'two deep submarine banks in the north Pacific between the Sandwich
Islands and San Francisco.'" Again Pilsbry says, "In writing that 'none of
these oceanic archipelagos present us with a single type which we may suppose
to have been preserved from mesozoic times' (I. c, p. 305), Wallace makes a
statement totally at variance with the nature of their land molluscs." Cramp-
ton has told me that he has arri\'ed at similar views by studying the Partulae of
Tahiti and other islands where they occur.
These quotations are made here simply to show how an opinion, almost
universally held at one time, has had to give way to the newer interpretation of
conditions in the Polynesian Islands based upon fuller collections and a better
knowledge of palaeontology.
In the East Indies the islands have always been considered to be of conti-
nental origin; so that the question is not one of whether the islands have e\er
been connected with one another, and with the mainland, but rather one of the
exact conditions as regards land-bridges and their positions. Scharff, in his
150 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
address before the Seventh international zoological congress on The evolution of
continents as illustrated by the geographical distribution of existing animals
(Proc. 7th intern, zool. congr., 1907, 1909, separate, p. 10-11, 1912, p. 864-865),
wrote : —
"Within recent years, it has been shown that Australia must have been
joined to Asia by land. This land-bridge existed, no doubt, in rather remote
times, probably towards the close of the Secondary era, and became broken up
perhaps during the eocene period.
"Wallace acknowledged that the Asiatic mainland extended as far to the
southeast as Borneo within comparatively recent times, and that a large tract
of country had since sunk, so as to produce the present configuration of the Indo-
Malayan region. He was particularly impressed by the apparent sharp line
of demarcation in the faunas between the small islands of Bali and Lombok, and
assumed that the latter were separated by a marine channel of great depth.
It has been now clearly established, however, by Weber, that no such deep
channel intervenes between these islands, and that their faunas are by no means
so distinct as Wallace supposed.
"The faunistic relationship of the numerous islands of the great Indo-
Australian archipelago and their geological history is being energetically worked
out at present with the aid of the geographical distribution of animals.
"Since Wallace's classic investigations in this archipelago, foremost in im-
portance from our point of view are the researches of the two Sarasins. Their
remarkable work on the geological history of the island of Celebes, based on
animal distribution, may truly serve as a model to those prepared to devote
themselves to pursuits of a similar nature. From the time, in the dawn of the
Tertiary era, when the island was still submerged by the sea, they trace its
gradual evolution, the geological history of its immigrants, and its final separation
from other land masses. They show that though Celebes was connected with
Australia by way of New Guinea, westward with Java, Sumatra and the Malay
peninsula, and also northward with the Philippine Islands, the Strait of Macassar
always separated it directly from Borneo."
Again, later still, van Kampen, in a paper entitled "De zoogeografie van
den Indischen Archipel" (Nat. tijdschr. Ned. Ind., 1909, separate, p. 1-24)
has given us an excellent historical account of East Indian zoogeography. An
English translation of this paper will be found in the American naturalist,
1911, 45, p. 537-560. It seems hardly worth while to repeat here a discus-
sion of the work of Miiller, Earle, Wallace, the Sarasins, Max Weber, Pelseneer,
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 151
and others who have studied in these fields, since van Kampen has so recently
reviewed their labors.
The most of the land connections by which each island, or group of islands,
has received its present fauna have been dealt with elsewhere in this paper. We
may sum up the present state of evidence by saying that, in order to account for
conditions as we find them now, it must be conceded that since Cretaceous times
there has existed a general land connection between southeastern Asia and the
islands Sumatra, Borneo, and Java; and, at the same time, a connection between
Borneo and Palawan, and possibly some other of the southern PhiUppines.
Important evidence for this is the finding in Java of Tertiary fossils belonging
to such characteristic mainland genera as Hyaena, Stegodon, Hippopotamus,
several antelopes, etc. Then, at the other end of the group. New Guinea must
have been widely connected with Austraha, though this connection will need
discussion to show why so many characteristic Australian types are lacking in
Papuasia. New Guinea was connected in Eocene times, and probably later,
with a great stretch of land which extended down to the southeastward, in-
cluding certainly what are now the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands,
New Hebrides, Fiji, and probably New Caledonia, and New Zealand. This
enormous territory had nothing whatever to do with Austraha, though it liad
some relation to South America. This last statement is not a new one, since
Beddard, Benham, Henry Woodward, Hutton, and von Ihering have all adopted,
on various grounds, the view that there was some connection between New
Zealand and southern South America (for a resume of this subject cf. Suess, 4,
p. 667-668) . The question is, did this connection simply reach out to a previously
existing Antarctic continent which had an independent connection with Australia;
or was there a direct connection lietween New Zealand and Patagonia, indepen-
dent of any connection which Australia may have had with South America?
Concerning this there may be difference of opinion. In the light of more com-
plete knowledge, it seems most reasonable to explain conditions in the simplest
possible manner; this would undoubtedly be that Australia and New Zealand
were connected mth Patagonia by a common commissure, which may have
been part of an Antarctic continent ; from this continent New Zealand probably
separated first, since it got few South American types compared to Australia.
Antipodes, the Snares, Auckland, and the other islands lying south of New
Zealand are undoubtedly remnants of this connection. There is certainly need
of postulating land connections to explain the South American element in the
fauna of both of these areas. The point which should be brought out most
152 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
stronj^iy now, and which has never been adequately touched upon, is the extreme
difference between New Guinea and Australia. We notice at once that a large
proportion of the anima's which have previously been cited as being common to
New Guinea and Australia, though they may occur widespread through Papuasia
are confined in Australia to the Cape York Peninsula region. Numberless ex-
amples of this sort of distribution are found among birds, reptiles, amphibians,
and many other groups. Only one hypothesis can possibly explain tliis. The
Gape York Peninsula of Australia formed an integral part of Papua for a long
time; for almost as long it must have been cut off from the rest of Australia.
The other part of the continent developed what we now know as the true Aus-
tralian fauna, probably derived in great part from Antarctis; and just before
the Torres Strait break took place, the region of the Cape York Peninsula became
joined to the rest of Australia; thus a certain number of Australian creatures
got into Papuasia, and ultimately reached the Solomon Islands on the one hand,
and Celebes on the other, by the land connections which still persisted in these
two directions. Thus we have an Australian element in Papuasia, but not a
Papuan element in .Australia, — the opposite of what Suess maintains (4, p. 668).
F. C. Muir, who has done extensive collecting in British New Guinea and
in Upper Queensland, arrived independently at very similar views; with his
permission I quote the following from one of his recent letters : —
"The Eucalyptus is a characteristic Australian plant, and goes into New
Guinea and the Malayan Islands. But whereas in Australia it is the home of a
very large and peculiar insect fauna, in New Guinea and the Malay Islands it is
nearly destitute of insects. Australia is very rich in short-tongued bees. One
can collect many any day ; but in New Guinea and the Malayan Islands they are
comparatively rare, — the Rhynchota of Fiji are far more Papuan than Australian.
To anyone who has collected in British New Guinea and Queensland, the differ-
ence is very striking indeed."
Muir then continues: —
"My opinion is that the Australian fauna and flora arose in western Australia
when it was separated from east Australia. In those days east Australia was a
long, mountainous island, divided from west Australia by a sea, and had a heavy
rainfall. The island had then a distinct Malayan facies. When the land rose,
joining east and west Australia, the east became much drier, and the western
forms made headway in northern Queensland; and certain spots in southern
Queensland and New South Wales, where there are still heavy rains, retain their
Malayan facies; but in drier parts it is Australian. New Guinea was cut off
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 153
(if it was ever actually joined) from Australia very early; and the great develop-
ment of peculiar species of birds, insects, etc., is of later date. The real diffi-
culty is to account for such large provinces so near to one another being so dis-
tinct, not to account for a few forms getting across the narrow passage."
Muir continues by saying that he could adduce very many facts against a
recent connection between the two provinces. It is interesting to see how closely
his views, based upon field observations and his studies on insects, agree with
my own, based upon the studies of other animals. This two-fold origin of the
present Australian fauna certainly seems reasonable enough. I can not, how-
ever, agree with Muir in believing that the connection between Papua and
Queensland did not persist until after east and west Australia had joined together.
That a change of climate, such as Muir suggests, would tend to destroy the
Malayan fauna in southern Australia if it reduced the rainfall, is quite certain.
It seems, however, more reasonable to assume that the part of Australia so long
connected with New Guinea was in reality rather Umited; and that some of the
Malayan forms, left isolated in this region, have spread to other favorable areas
in the land to which the Cape York region joined. A large proportion of Papuan
species in Australia would seem, from what we know of their kindred elsewhere,
to be perfectly well able to adapt themselves to somewhat changed conditions;
yet they are entirely confined to this Cape York region. It is unlikely that they
formerly had a great range in eastern Australia.
That Suess inclines to an opinion very like that of Muir is proved by the
following quotation (4, p. 292) : —
"The Cordillera [of Eastern Austraha] is continued, according to Haddon,
SoUas, and Cole, in islands, formed chiefly of granite, from York Peninsula across
Torres Straits, and it terminates on the margin of the great southern plain of New
Guinea in the granite hill of Mabudauan." He continues, "The succession of
marine strata in Australia presents many more gaps in the Mesozoic series than
that of Timor, New Caledonia, or New Zealand. The Cretaceous system, * * *
extends over broad Archaean regions; according to recent observations the
desert sandstone is assigned to it."
The statement that the shallow sinking which took place to form the present
Torres Straits occurred Init shortly after the changes of level in Australia itself,
is supported by the fact that the Solomon Islands and the New Hebrides have a
strongly marked Papuan fauna, while typical Australian forms are very rare there.
This is also the condition as far as New Zealand, where this connection with
Papuasia and isolation from Australia is probably emphasized even by the migra-
154 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPJn^
tions of the birds. Hiitton and Drummond (Animals of New Zealand, 1905,
p. 19-20) ask the question: — "^Vhy should some of the shore birds and the two
Cuckoos migrate to New Zealand, while the Swallows, which are certainly quite
as capable of undertaking the journey, do not come? " Possibly the answer may
be found in the palaeontological history of birds. The evidence is of a negative
character, and must be used with great caution; but it seems probable that the
Godwit and the Cuckoo migrated to New Zealand at a time when there were no
swallows in existence, and that the original land-bridge had been completely
broken down before the first of the swallows arrived in Australia from Asia. We
may therefore suppose that migration to and from New Zealand commenced
in the Eocene period, when the land stretched away northwest to New Guinea,
a time when all New Zealand was joined to the mainland.
Papuasia, judging from its markedly pecuUar bird fauna, consisting of an
enormous number of species and genera, and its peculiar amphibians and insects,
and especially its Onychophora, would warrant its being considered a zoological
province almost as well differentiated as that which we have always called the
Australian, and quite distinct from this. It received some characteristic Austra-
lian types from among those able to distribute themselves quickly, owing to a
short-Uved communication with Australia (excluding Queensland) which we
have discussed. This increment has not fundamentally affected the facies of
the fauna of the region.
The fauna of western AustraUa was received by a land connection with Asia
quite independent of the Papuan-Queensland bridge, if it is necessary to suppose
that Australia was ever really connected with Asia. Such a connection may have
had relation to the ancient arc of which Timor and Sandalwood Island are but
the last remaining vestiges. These islands do not belong to the actively volcanic
arc of the Lesser Sunda Islands, and have a different geologic structure. This
ancient arc, too, may have led into the region of Java, and so had relation to the
mainland. The islands west of Sumatra do not show evidences in their reptiles
and amphibians of having formed a continuation of this arc, and of having thus
formed a link between Java and the Malayan or Burmese continental region
parallel to, but independent of, Sumatra. There is no hydrographic evidence of
such a connection; and, though at one time it was thought that the land shells
of Engano were more Hke those of Java than of Sumatra, this was undoubtedly
due to the fact that we then knew but Uttle of the fauna of Sumatra, while Engaiio
had been visited by several collectors. Rana microdisca Boettger was formerly
thought to have had a similar distribution, but it has since been found quite
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 155
widely distributed on Sumatra. The fact that the Javan fauna came from the
mainland by way of Sumatra alone, and that the Timor arc would not seem to
have been projected to the mainland independently of Sumatra, need not in any
way effect a presumption that the Timor arc may have been continuous, and had
existence before the arc of the present Lesser Sunda chain came into being. The
latter may have had more recent origin by extravasation and accumulation, and
this may have accounted for sinking of the ancient land; and this sinking then
left Timor and Sandalwood the sole remannts of what was perhaps once an
ancient land-bridge from west Australia to the region where Java is now.
If Timor and Sandalwood have had tliis relation to both Australia and the
mainland, one would expect to find on them some of what are always called the
"ancient Australian types." Why these types should be supposedly so very
ancient is not quite clear, for there would seem to be but few types now in exist-
ence in AustraHa which would require us to assign to them an origin much pre-
vious to early Tertiary times. As a matter of fact, in spite of their structure,
the fauna of both of these islands is strikingly similar to that of the other islands
of the Lesser Sunda chain, except for certain forms in Timor which are discussed
later. There can be no doubt that they both have been joined to this chain in
recent geologic time. The anomolous forms in Timor are not antique relics
derived from Australia, but are rather apparently of Papuasia origin. Wliether
the ancestors of the characteristic Austrahan forms came through Sandalwood
and Timor in coming from Asia, and died out there naturally ; or whether they
were destroyed by subsequent telluric disturbances, can never be answered.
They may, on the other hand, most of them have come by way of Antarctis, —
perhaps even have had origin there; and in this case it is not, of course, necessary
to presuppose that a continuous connection has ever existed between Australia
and the continent of Asia.
The remarkable development of Ophidia proteroglypha in Australia can
hardly be explained by assuming that they came from South America. The
many species in Africa, and the scattered species in southern Asia, would rather
lead one to suppose that these were the remnants of a once more general popula-
tion of similar forms which have died out in extensive regions where they have
come into contact with the more modern and successful viperine and crotaline
types to which they themselves gave rise; while the proteroglyphs in Australia
did not happen to evolve into these competing types as they did in other regions,
and they themselves remained predominant, and form practically the whole
Australian ophidian fauna. Their origin in Asia, and their probable spread from
156 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Asia through Austraha into South America, can hardly be doubted. They
have never been especially successful in South America, and only two or three
species have reached to the United States. But the many prominent forms of
Lachesis and Crotalus, which have come from Eurasia, have passed south, and
have met their ancestral immigrants from Australia in South and Central America.
One of the points which van Kampen and previous writers have failed to
emphasize is the marked difference between the faunas of the Ke and Aru
Islands. This has been spoken of in detail (p. 44—49) in the notes on the herpe-
tology of these two groups of islands. We can not consider them both equally
Papuan. The Ke Islands have an impoverished fauna, due largely to their
small size; for the number of species supported by any island is, other things
being equal, directly proportionate to that island's area; it is important to note
that a number of typical Papuan types found on the Ke group extend further,
and are met with either in the island of Ceram, or else more widely distributed
in the Moluccas; while, on the other hand, the Aru Islands possess a larger and
less differentiated number of true Papuan species, which are not found on other
groups of islands. The mere presence of Draco in Ke' should have suggested at
once that there was a fundamental difference between the biota of the two
islands.
Hartert (Nov. zool., 1901, 8, p. 2), describing a collection of birds from
the Southeast Islands, — that is, those between Ceram Laut and the Ke group,
— says: "Zoologically, the Key Islands belong to the Moluccas.... Only
sixty miles eastward of Dobbo in the Aru group, and just as near to New Guinea
as the Aru Islands, the Key Islands have only very few specially Papuan bird
forms." He continues that the Southeast Islands in general want primeval
forest, and are apparently of recent, coraline nature; and that their ornis shows
relations to that of Ceram and Ke.
While dealing with the Ke Islands, it is necessary to postulate land-bridges
which have existed in the past, and which have left behind them entirely different
sorts of hydrographic conditions. On the one hand, there are left distinct
evidences of the bridge to Ceram in the shape of submerged ridges, or chains of
islets connected by submarine banks; and, on the other hand, there are no sub-
marine traces, so far as we know, of the Ke-Aru Bridge, but rather a surprisingly
deep area where once the l^ridge probably existed. Soundings are, however,
unfortunately few in this region. Such a depth near an island, and between
it and the land to which it was recently joined, is not at all a rare condition.
Such an island can not have been raised out of the sea, but the dividing deep
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 157
must have been I'onnecl by subsidence. Islands presenting such deep areas all
about them are simply, according to Suess (4, p. 638), great horsts, and "the
theory of the permanence of oceanic basins represented by Wallace, is for this
reason alone untenable." There is hydrographic evidence in the shape of
extensive shoals for most of the greatly extended Papuan land which we assume
existed between New Guinea and New Zealand, reaching out to and including
the Fiji Islands. There are deep clefts between the Solomons and New Cale-
donia, but they are comparatively limited in extent. Torres Strait is so shallow
as to need no comment. The deep water between Ke and Aru is remarkable,
as there can be no doubt that in comparatively recent geologic times there was
dry land either from Ke to Aru, or from Ke to Papua.
Mention must be made of the extremely fragmentary data which we have
regarding the geology of many of the islands. This applies especially to many of
the Moluccas. Suess (2, p. 171) says that the observations made on Halmahera
are not sufficient to hazard even a conjecture as to the structure of the island,
though regarding other islands we have a certain amount of geologic or palaeonto-
logic information. We have spoken of the Tertiary deposit in Java, decidedly like
that of the Siwalik fauna of India, which is also of late Tertiary age. No such
extensive deposits ha\'e as yet been founel on Borneo, though Sumatran beds are
known. Mastodon, however, is known to occur on Borneo, Banka, and Sumatra,
as well as on Java. If we assume that at the time of the laying down of the
Javanese Tertiary beds Java was still in connection with Sumatra and the main-
land, and if we also agree that Java was the first of the Greater Sunda Islands
to break away from the mainland, then we see that this break must have taken
place in times more recent than Tertiary. This is not a convincing argument,
but it affords a working hypothesis. From the impoverished fauna which we find
upon the Lesser Sunda Islands we must assume that they wei'e separated from
Java earlier still. All are agreed to this. Celebes probably existed in about
the same shape that it now has, and it also became separated from the Greater
Sunda Island region at this time. We know from the researches of the Sara-
sins that in Eocene times Celebes was covered by the sea. Its connection with
Java was Pliocene (fide Sarasins), and along this connection came most of the
animals which we find in Celebes now. The existence of both a Java Bridge
and a Flores Bridge from Celebes seems now to be beyond contention. We have
hydrographic evidence for both bridges in the shape of chains of islands and
shoals; besides there are many species of animals from Java and Celebes which
do not, so far as we know, occur in the Lesser Sunda chain. Thus it would
158 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
seem that Celebes had been in connection with Java since the Lesser Sunda chain
became separated from Java, and that it was probably at the same time in con-
nection with Flores. In this way we can account for such a distribution as that
of Sphenophryne, a Papuan genus found in Celebes and Lombok, but not occur-
ring in Java. If the Java Bridge was Pliocene, then, it would seem probable, as
the Sarasins beUeve, that this Flores Bridge was also PUocene; but the Lesser
Sunda break with Java was surely much earlier. This interruption was between
BaU and Lombok; and hence "Wallace's hne" has the local significance, if
nothing more. Though the Sarasins emphasize the essentially Indian character
of the fauna of Celebes, still we must bear in mind that the reptiles and amphi-
bians show extremely strong evidences of connection to the eastward.
It is futile to spend time discussing the faunistic relations of Celebes, in
view of the completeness with which this has been worked out by the Sarasins.
It should be noted, however, that there is good ground for emphasizing the possi-
bility of there having been two bridges between Celebes and the Moluccas; for
we know that the birds of Buru, and the presence of the Babirusa there, suggest
at once a connection with Celebes; while a number of forms known from Hal-
mahera suggest a similar connection for that island, even though there is no
Babirusa on Halmahera; furthermore the birds of that island are widely different
from those of Buru. On the other hand, such forms as Rana moluccana, and
Typhlops ater have never been found on Buru.
It is extremely unfortunate that we do not know more about Obi. There
is no evidence that would seem to justify the view that Obi was ever included,
as has been suggested, in either one of these two bridges from Celebes to the
Moluccas. Obi probably received its fauna by having been connected in the past
with the old commissure which stretched from the southern peninsula of Hal-
mahera to Papua. The Sula Islands would seem to have much more relation
to Buru than to Halmahera, and probably represent the remains of the Celebes-
Buru Bridge. There is no geograpliic evidence whatever as to the position of
the Celebes-Halmahera Bridge, unless it be that the small islands of Tifori and
Majo are the remains of this old land. The water about them is very deep;
but, as we have said before, this is not the only place where we must assume that
land has existed where now there is deep water.
The remarkable distinctness between the faunas of Borneo and Celebes is
so well known as to need no emphasis here. To return to the Moluccas, we have
pointed out in our remarks on the different islands that Ceram had its connection
with Papua through the Ke Islands. We were unable to explain, however, and
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 159
can now offer no explanation for, the fact that Mysol, as has been pointed out,
seems to bear a definite relation to Ceram as regards its reptiles. The birds of
Mysol are strictly Papuan, and the relationship of the island to Papua is well
established by the fact that it is separated by only the shallowest water. Roths-
child and Hartert (Nov. zooL, 1901, 8, p. 56) remark, after reporting on the
ornithology of the island: "Mysol belongs faunistically entirely to New Guinea;
and this is easily explained by the number of small islets stretching in a northern
and northeastern direction from Mysol towards Salwatty and New Guinea, and
the shallow sea surrounding Mysol and New Guinea; while deep sea, of more
than 200 fathoms, separates Mysol from the Moluccan Islands. Most of the
birds are quite similar to those of New Guinea; others, subspecifically allied to
the latter. Moluccan influence is scarcely perceptible." Nevertheless, the
strong Malayan element in the herpetology can only be explained by supposing
either that there has been a land-bridge to Ceram where deep water now exists,
or that we have to do with a number of erroneous records. We have not seen
reports of any recent collections made in Mysol, but it liardly seems possible that
so many records are invalid.
The relation of Halmahera to New Guinea has already been spoken of; and
there remains now to mention the fact that Timor has a strong Australian, and
perhaps a Papuasian, tinge to the fauna, which has probably not come through
Timor-Laut, which lies but a little off the great shallow bank that extends out
beyond the Aru Islands, from there down to Melville Island, and thence far to
the southward. The fauna of Timor-Laut is different from that of Timor;
therefore it seems entirely possible that while Timor-Laut may have been
connected formerly with the Ke Islands, or with Papuasian land about Aru,
and so indirectly with the Moluccas, Timor must have been connected directly
with some old extension of Papuan land reaching westward. A connection
which allowed such forms as Liasis and Chelodina to reach Timor must have been
fairly recent, or perhaps have lasted for a very long time.
This whole series of suggestions may seem absurdly simple, for there can be
no possible doubt that conditions were far more complicated than these con-
clusions would seem to presuppose. There is strong evidence of a two-fold fauna
in Java. This would make it far from unprobable that Java was for a long
time in reality two islands, since the west Javanese fauna is in many respects
strikingly different from that of east Java. Moreover cUmatic conditions are
very different in the two ends of the island, west Java being far more heavily
forested, and having a much greater annual rainfall, than east Java. Again,
160 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
as one would expect, British New Guinea — /. e. that part of the island lying
along the Papuan Gulf and Torres Strait — supports the great majority of the
forms which are so strikingly similar to those of Queensland. The western end
of New Guinea, even now almost cut off from the main bulk of the island by the
Great Geelvink Bay and McCluer Gulf, has a very distinct fauna, and certainly
has not always been connected with the rest of Papua. Tlie l)irds of the region
of Mt. Arfak are almost always specifically, and often generically, distinct from
their relatives in the Owen Stanley and Finisterre ranges. The same thing is
almost equally true of the ornis of the coastal plain region. The reptiles and
amphibians are strikingly dissimilar, as a glance at the table of distribution
will show. Again, the question is not yet conclusively settled as to whether
Celebes was pushed up from the sea as a single island with shape similar to that
which it now has; or whether, as Weber holds, it has been formed by the con-
solidation of several separate islands, which have each received their fauna from
a separate region, and these islands, having fused, gave Celebes the composite
fauna which it now supports. This particular question, however, is really of no
special importance. The point of real importance is the three-fold origin of the
fauna itself.
The relation of the Philippines to Halmahera is a question which still awaits
solution. It seems possible to project the line of recent volcanoes through
Halmahera up to Mindanao; in which case land may well have existed along a
similar line. Lines of recent extensive faulting often give rise to volcanoes, and
this may have been the case here. Such a connection, however, can hardly be
urged as a substitute for the Celebes-Halraahera Bridge. The types which
suggest immigration from Celebes do not occur among the southern Philippines,
except for some on Palawan. The relation of Mindoro to Celebes, suggested at
once by the distribution of the pigmy buffaloes, is, according to Bartsch, also
evident from a study of the land-snails. Mindanao, with a fauna different from
that of Celebes and Mindoro, must needs be of more recent origin. It has
probably i;eplaced, by having been lifted again from the sea, some of the land
which became submarine between Celebes and Mindoro; and, joining with
other islands, received a typical Malayan fauna from Borneo, and some Celebe-
sian types from small islands that may have represented unsubmerged mountain
peaks of the older land-mass, and that supported some of the types common to
Mindoro and Celebes. The Papuan element in the amphibian fauna of Borneo
may be a true relic-fauna; for the engystomatids, which exhibit such a very
noteworthy elaboration in Papua, may have come from Borneo to Halmahera
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 161
through the southern Phihppines. Mindanao and Hahnahera both support a
number of engystomatid genera; butthese forms are not abundant in Celebes,
nor, so far as we know, in the Lesser Sunda chain, where we would expect to find
more of them if they got to Papua by this route. The few occurring there
represent probably what is really a back-flow from Halmahera. Borneo is well
known herpetologically; but these small, inconspicuous frogs are very difficult
to collect, and many may yet remain undiscovered both here and in the southern
Philippines. Most of the Papuan species are known by only few examples,
and new forms are being discovered constantly. I have described the most
recently found generic type, Pomatops valvifera Barbour, from a single example
taken from the stomach of a Matrix ■mairii Gray. That the land-bridges by
which such forms as these got from Malaya to Papuasia were narrow necks of
land that probably rose steeply from the sea is suggested, as van Kampen has
remarked, by the fact that the great majority of the types which were successful
in extending their range to Papua are those which in their development skip the
free-swimming larval period, and escape from the egg as completely meta-
morphosed adults. This is doubtless an adaptation to hfe in a land where there
is little or no standing water, which was probably the condition on these narrow
stretches of land. We know certainly that there is no dearth of standing water
suitable for spawning places on either Borneo, Mindanao, or Papua. So far as
we know, Ceram is very poor in amphibians, as are also ^^onbon and Buru,
though of the latter we know practically nothing. So, for this reason again,
it seems likely that the southern Moluccas were not in the direct route of mi-
gration of the Engystomatidae, or of the Rana varians- or R. tnoluccana-\ike form
which gave rise to Rana papua in New Guinea. The connection of Ceram with
Papua may have been of so narrow a form and of so transitory a nature that
reptiles and birds passed across easily, but that only few amphibians came over.
Again the Ceram-Ke-Papua Bridge, or the Ceram-Mysol-Papua Bridge may have
existed before so many varied amphibian types became differentiated from one
another by some process akin to what Osbofti has called the law of adaptive
radiation; or the bridges between Ceram and Papua may have already disap-
peared before the influx of amphibians by way of Halmahera. This is quite
possible, since Mysol, which probably supports an amphibian fauna similar to
that of Papua (though we know nothing of it as yet), would have lain directly
in the migration route from Halmahera to Papua, and hence would have passed
on these amphibians to Ceram, if a suitable bridge had existed for them to cross
on. The amphibians now existing in New Guinea strike one at once as being
162 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
peculiar in that their distribution shows no- special correlation to that of the
reptiles. To be sure, they have been derived from the same two directions; and
the engystomatids from the Asiatic continent, which appear to have come from
Borneo through the southern PhiUppines, and so to Papua, met there the hylids,
and the single cystignathid, Aphaniotis novae-guineae van Kampen, which have
come from South America by way of Australia. That these amphibians haxe
been estabUshed in New Guinea for a very long time, perhaps even since the
beginning of the Tertiary, is shown by the great number of generic types which
are autogenous in Papua.
With the reptiles of New Guinea we find that specific differentiation is
general, but that only a few genera are entirely confined to the island. This
suggests at once that the amphibians reached New Guinea long before the
reptiles, and this is probably the case; though there seems no special reason to
assume that the later migration of reptiles came along a different highway than
that over which the ancestors of these peculiar endemic genera of amphibians
had already passed. It is not necessary to assume that both reptiles and amphi-
bians had coincident periods of maximum activity of dispersal, since there is no
reason to believe that the amphibians are much more plastic, or much more
subject to evolution by isolation, than are reptiles. This condition of these two
groups in Papua is in marked contrast to the condition in Sumatra, for instance,
an island which was long an actual part of the continent, and not a distant area
connected by narrow and perhaps short-lived bridges with the most outlying
region of the continental area. It seems fair to state that the amphibians of
New Guinea form a very old fauna, derived even before the migration of opistho-
gljrphs into Australia, and certainly of much older origin than the greater part
of the reptilian fauna of New Guinea itself.
The finding of Cornufer widespread from Fiji to the Philippines, as well as
the development of Ranas and of Rana derivatives in the Solomon Islands,
would make it appear probable that the Ranidae came to Papuasia before the
Engystomatidae, or else that the latter, in spite of their adaptation to xerophilous
life, spread less successfully.
Another explanation of this state of affairs which may be a solution to the
question is that the Ranidae may have come from Celebes to the southern Mo-
luccas, and so to Papua, and passed on quickly to the Solomon Islands and Fiji;
while the Engystomatidae may have come through the southern Philippines to Hal-
mahera, as has been indicated before, and, spreading more slowly, found the Bis-
marck, Solomon, and Fiji Archipelagos cut off from Papua before their advent.
ZOOGEOGRAPHY. 163
Mention has been made elsewhere in this paper that, broadly speaking,
the number of species supported by any given island bears a direct relation to
the area of the island in question. This is not an easy theory to confirm with
definite data, inasmuch as two islands that appear to be geographically of about i
the same size may in reality be vastly different in superficial areas, according
to the surface features of the country. Thus, in the West Indies, Jamaica and
Porto Rico appear to be of about the same size. It is evident at once, however,
that the fauna of Jamaica is vastly greater than that of the other island. It may
be argued that this is due to Jamaica's being nearer to the mainland source of
supply; but the fact that the whole island is traversed by high mountain ranges
of broken peaks, while Porto Rico has only one or two isolated highland areas,
would seem to offer the true solution of the question. So in the East Indies,
taking the islands in the order of their size, the numbers of species of reptiles
and amphibians are about as follows : —
Amphibia Reptilia
New Guinea
70
144
Borneo
79
207
Sumatra
48
166
Celebes
26
S3
Java
37
122
Papua and Borneo are of practically the same size. Recent accounts of
surveys of them indicate that New Guinea is really the larger island. Enormous
ranges of high mountains give it, of course, a vastly greater surface area. At the
rate at which new species have been found in New Guinea, during the last few
years, it will soon take its place at the head of the list. In Borneo, on the other
hand, new species of reptiles and amphibians are now but rarely found, and our
systematic knowledge of the fauna is probably approximately complete. Celebes
has a larger area than Java; but, on the other hand, it has many fewer peaks, its
highlands being mostly of the nature of plateaux, while in Java there are many
chains composed of high peaks rising from lowland areas. This, coupled with
the fact that it is somewhat nearer the source of supply whence the fauna of
Celebes has come, gives it a larger fauna than seems to be present in Celebes;
though here, again, we must remember that Java is the best known island in the
entire archipelago. The fact that the Ke Islands, which, zoologically, seem to be
very closely related to Ceram, have so few amphibians and so many less reptiles
than Ceram is probably due to the same factor. When the Moluccas are really
well explored, we shall probably find that Halmahera holds the lead it now has in
point of number of species found on it; while Ceram will come next, and Bum,
164 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
Morotai, and Obi will follow in the order named, which is the sequence in which
their comparative areas place them.
The competition to which the different individuals of a species are subjected
is probably of a completely different sort from that between different species;
the latter sort of competition, a phenomenon of which we know little or nothing,
is probably the real cause for the relation which area bears to species population.
A glance at the table of distribution, p. 169-203, will show at once that, so
far as the distribution of ReptiUa and Amphibia is concerned, there is no evidence
whate^•er of the existence of what has been called a Wallace's line, a Weber's line,
or any other similar faunistic boundary. To be sure, a few conspicuous forms
might be chosen whose limits of distribution more or less coincided, and to this
limit a "Line name" might be given. Such lines could be drawn anywhere
through the whole area, and each would limit the distribution of some form or
forms. Probably no species reaches from Malaya to Papua unchanged. Di-
hamus novae-guineae is supposed to do this now, but the identification upon
which the Malay Peninsula records rest was perforce based upon the stud}^ of an
immature example. A number of Malayan species do reach Halmahera, Mysol,
Ceram, the Ke Islands, and Timor-Laut; and this north-south series of islands
forms the only semblance of a zoologlc frontier in the region. Moluccan species
of Malayan genera have reached Papua in numbers, and many other Malaj-an
genera are represented in Papua by pecuUar species. Papuan species are trace-
able to Celebes and Lombok. Here again that this gap is bridged is shown by
the number of species which are common to Sumatra, Java, and Celebes, or to
Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda chain. Thus, no line of demarcation
having a fundamental significance is reallj' existent here.
An intensive study of Ceram, Burn, the Sula Islands, and some of the
Lesser Sunda Islands, both between Timor and Timor-Laut, and between Timor
and Java, will be necessary before the subject can be really satisfactorily attacked.
The work of the Sarasins in Celebes, and of Kiikenthal in Halmahera, stand out
as superb examples of what can be done; but more, far more, such work is needed.
I have tried in this paper to collect all the existing authentic data regarding
the occurrence of Reptilia and Amphibia in the Ai'chipelago, as well as to define
their distribution, and, so far as possible, point out the probable origin of the
herpetologic fauna of each island. The task has been aided by a knowledge of
geographic conditions which only a voyage through the Archipelago can give;
nevertheless no one can realize more fully than I how inadequate has been my
treatment of a most absorbing subject.
SUMMARY. 165
SUMMARY.
The following conclusions seem warranted by the evidence obtained. It is
to be emphasized that these conclusions are based primarily on herpetologic evi-
dence only.
1. The fauna of the three Greater Sunda Islands, Sumatra, Borneo, and
Java, has been entirely derived from the Malay Peninsula region. The supposed
Papuasian element in the Javan fauna, which has been emphasized by Werner, is
probably entirely non-existent.
2. The islands off the western coast of Simaatra have probably not formed
an ancient highway whereby the migration of animals once took place between
Java and the mainland, but have rather formed a part of three great peninsulas
which jutted out to the westward from Sumatra, and along which they received
the fauna which they support. This explanation is proposed in place of the one
previously suggested, that each island received its animal population from that
part of Sumatra which was nearest to it in point of distance
3. The relation of Celebes to the regions lying eastward suggest that there
have been two bridges between Celebes and the Moluccas.
4. The evidence is not conclusive that Obi ever had direct relationship
with Celebes or either of the Celebes-Molucca Bridges. The soundings suggest
that it may have received its fauna by having been joined to the old commissure
which stretched from southeastern Halmahera to Papua.
5. Mysol supports a most anomalous fauna, if the records for the occur-
rences of species on this island can all be believed. The reptiles seem to show a
marked relationship with those of Ceram and the southern Moluccas, though
hydrographically the islands seem to be intimately related to Papua only, while
the mammaUan and avi faunas are both evidently purely Papuan.
6. The distribution of the genus Casuarius among flightless birds is paral-
leled by that of Acanthophis, and by that of certain burrowing skinks; so that
Ceram seems to be connected with Papua more intimately and more recently
than any other of the Moluccas. This connection was probably by way of the
Southwest and Ke Island groups.
7. The Ke Islands should not be considered equally with the Aru Islands
as having a Papuan fauna. The conditions in the two groups are fundamentally
different, and the creatures which they support show that the Ke Islands have
had direct relations with the Moluccas which the Aru Islands have not had, hence
their fauna is much more Malaysian in character.
166 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
8. Apparently the Papuasian fauna, taken as a whole, is sufficiently well
differentiated to be considered as an entity almost as distinct as that which has
always been called the typically Austrahan fauna. This is shown by the con-
ditions seen amongst a number of groups of animals. There is also evidence of a
distinct fauna in western Dutch New Guinea, which may have been separated
from eastern Papua during part of the time that eastern Papua was one with
northern Queensland.
9. The manifold origin of the fauna of Austraha seems worthy of emphasis.
That the cystignathids and hylids, among amphibians, came from South America
seems to be almost beyond contention; while other groups suggest an Asiatic
derivation. The assumption that in western Australia the many characteris-
tic Australian types were evolved while this region was separated from Queens-
land, and while the latter was in connection with New Guinea, seems to be the
only satisfactory explanation of the fact that there is so strong a Papuasian
element in the fauna of Queensland, and that so many of the autocthonous
Australian genera are absent from New Guinea.
10. Broadly speaking, flotsam and jetsam methods of dispersal have played
a negligible part in providing any of the islands under discussion with the fauna
which they now support, although in some cases species carried by human
agency have circulated widely.
11. There is evidence, though as yet it is of an unsatisfactory and frag-
mentary nature, that the species population of an island has a very direct rela-
tion with the surface area of that island, other things being equal. It would
not be possible, however, to compare in this way the faunas of two islands having
the same size if one of them had a heavy rainfall and luxm-iant vegetation, while
the other was arid.
The evidence which would show that any existing island has remained un-
changed faunally since the time when it formed a part of the land-bridge between
Austraha (not Queensland) and continental Asia is apparently altogether wanting.
The geologic formation of Timor and Sandalwood (or Sumba Island) would lead
one to suppose that these islands might be the remains of an ancient synclinal
arc which curved from Austraha toward the mainland. The zoologic evidence
is unsatisfactory, although Timor supports a number of species which are in
marked contrast to those found throughout the Lesser Sunda Island chain.
13. Neither Wallace's nor any other fine can be held to form a real zoo-
logical boundary. A transition zone with a fairly definite western frontier and
with an eastern frontier incapable of equaUy clear definition seems really to be
POSTSCRIPT. 167
the condition which serves to separate the Malayan from the Papuasian subre-
gions. This zone may be about equally well defined for any of the groups of land
animals, and the boundaries for the distribution of the several groups coincide
with reasonable accuracy.
POSTSCRIPT.
Since this paper was written several reports upon the herpetology of the
East Indies have been received. The records for these new species and new
locahties have been added to the table of distribution. These additions have
naturally made differences, in some cases, regarding what is said in the body of
this work regarding the number of autocthonous species in the various islands,
and the range of distribution for some other species. It was thought best, how-
ever, to bring the information in the table as nearly down to date as possible.
Every effort has been made to have them complete and accurate. The writer
begs that readers noting errors and omissions will communicate them to him, as
it is hoped to republish the table from time to time.
The reports recently received are those of Nelly de Rooy (Nova Guinea,
1909, 5, livr. 3, p. 375-383, pi. 17-18), and two by T. W. van Lidth de Jeude,
(Nova Guinea, 1911, 5, livr. 4, 1911, p. 519-530, and 9, livr. 2, p. 265-287, pi. 8).
These reports are all upon the rich booty of the various recent expeditions which
have been exploring Netherland's Papua under the auspices of the Dutch gov-
ernment and scientific societies. Many important new species are described,
and the ranges of many other known species from Malaysia, Queensland, and
even the Philippines, have been extended to include Papua.
Besides these purely herpetological reports, another has appeared by Max
Weber, "Diefische der Aru- und Kei-Inseln. Ein beitrag zur zoogeographie
dieser inseln." Abh. Senck. naturf. ges., Frankfurt, a. m., 1911, 34, p. 3-49,
taf. 1-2. Tliis analyzes very carefully the fish faunas of these two groups,
with special reference to those forms which are known to be absolutely confined
to fresh-water. Weber's conclusions are summed up in the closing sentence of
his remarks upon the zoogeography of the island. "Wohl aber durfen wir nach
dem vorliegeden Materiale schliessen, dass die Susswasserfische von Hoch-Kei
durchaus indischen Charakters sind und ganz verscheiden von denen der Aru-
Inseln, welche letztere einen ausgesprochen australischen (papuanischen) Cha-
rakter besitzen." This substantiates what is stated earher in this paper
regarding the difference in the faunas of these two groups, when it was pointed
out that there was a great difference in the reptilian and amphibian faunae of
168 BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
the two groups. The Ke Islands support many forms which have passed from
Papua to the Moluccas, while the Aru Islands, probably geologically much
younger, support few species which Papua has in common with the other
islands, Ceram for instance.
Still more recently Fry (Rec. Aust. mus., 1912, 9, p. 87-106, pi. 8-9) has
described several species of a new engystomatid genus, Austrochaperina, from
Queensland. This most important discovery emphasizes what has already been
said about the Papuan element in the Queensland fauna. A feature so promi-
nent as to demark this region sharply from the rest of Australia and to really
permit of our considering Queensland as practically a zoologic dependency of
Papua.
At the last moment, after this paper was in page proof, I received from Dr.
Boulenger a notice entitled "On some tree-frogs allied to Hyla caerulea." (Zool.
jahrb. Suppl., 1912, 15, 1, p. 211-218). This affects one species which is
referred to frequently and others less often mentioned. Hyla dolichopsis
(Cope) becomes a synonym of Hyla infrafrenata (Giinther). The latter was
described from a young Australian example and the former from a Moluccan
adult. Dr. Boulenger forestalls what I have said regarding the characters of
the variety tenuigranulata Boettger; this form can not be recognized. The
other variety, pollicaris, described by Werner is a synonym of the valid species
Hyla militaria Ramsay, the type of which also came from New Britain. Hyla
aruensis Horst becomes a synonym of Hyla infrafrenata (Giinther) so that its
anomalous distribution, Aru Islands and Mysol, is quite insignificant. Dr.
Boulenger also relegates van Kampen's Hyla sanguinolenta to the same category.
Two new species are described Hyla spengeli and Hyla humeralis, the former is
described from a single female and the latter from two males. Both forms are
very close to, if really distinct from, Hyla infrafrenata. A long and most in-
teresting table of measurements of specimens of Hyla caerulea and H. infra-
frenata is also contained in the paper and the series shows that the former,
usually considered an Australian species pure and simple, occurs in the Owen
Stanley Mountain range of British Papua along with its near ally, Hyla infra-
frenata.
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
169
Amphibia.
4
a
i
1
.
03
io
Oh
1
1
0)
1
U2
.s
1
1
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09
1
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3
OB
1
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1
1
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03
a
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1
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i
'4
K1
1
1
13
§
3
!
1
2
1
Ichthyopbis monoclu-ous (Bleeker)
Ichtbyophia glutinosus (Linn6)
Oxyglossus lima Techudi
Oxyglossus laevis Gunther
Rana kuhlii Dum. & Bibr.
Rana grunnJena Daudin.
Rana macrodon Dum. & Bibr.
Rana modesta Boulenger
Rana microtjinpanum van Kampen
Rana leytensis Boettger
Rana microdisca Boettger
Rana palavacensis Boulenger
Rana hascheana (Stoliczka)
Rana tigerina Daudin
Rana limnocharis Wiegm.
Rana arfaki Meyer
Rana macroscelis Boulenger
Rana novae-brittanlae Werner
Rana papua Lesson
Rana celebensis Peters
Rana varlans Boulenger
Rana moluccana Boettger
Rana erythraea Schlegel
Rana nicobariensis (Stoliczka)
Rana javanica Herat
Rana chalconota Schlegel
Rana everetti Boulenger
Rana labialis Boulenger
Rana macrops Boulenger
Rana jerboa Gunther
Rana whiteheadi Boulenger
Rana hosii Boulenger
Rana cavitympanxim Boulenger
Rana guttata (Gunther)
Rana luctuosa (Peters)
Rana aignata (GOnther)
Rana mackloti Schlegel
Rana glandulosa Boulenger
Rana baramica Boettger
Rana pantherina van Kampen
Rana debussyi van Kampen
Rana novae-guineae van Kampen
Rana elberti Roux *
Rana opiathodon
Cornufer coiTUgatua (A. Dumeril)
Cornufer unicolor Tschudi
Cornufer baluensis Boulenger
Cornufer boulengeri Boettger
Cornufer guppyi Boulenger
Cornufer solomonis Boulenger
Cornufer pimctatus Peters & Doria
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
* Wetter Island.
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
171
Oreobatrachus baluensia Boulenger
Polypedatea leprosus (Schlegel)
Polypedate8 leucomystax (GravenhorHt)
Polypedates mucrotia (boulenger)
Polypedatea coUetti (Buuleuger)
Polypedates otilophus (Boulenger)
Polypedates macroscelis (Boulenger)
Polypedatea hosii (Boulenger)
Polypedates edentulus (F. Miiller)
Polypedatea appendiculatus Giinther
Polypedates javaiius (Boettger)
Polypedates acutirostria (Mocquard)
Polypedates monticola (Boulenger)
Polypedates georgii (Roux)
Polypedates pulchellus (Werner)
Polypedates pardalis (Giinther)
Polypedates ebelfordi (Boulenger)
Polypedatea fasciatus (Boulenger)
Polypedates dulitensia (Boulenger)
Polypedates reinwardti (Wagler)
Polypedates iiigropahnatus (Boulenger)
Polypedates cbiropterus (Werner)
Polypedates liber (Peracca)
Philautus flavoeiguatus (Boettger)
Philautus pictus (Peters)
Philautus petersi (Boulenger)
Philautus aurifasciatus (Schlegel)
Philautus vittiger (Boulenger)
Philautus bimaculatus (Peters)
Philautus latopalniatus (Boulenger)
Philautua palidipes (Barbour)
Nyctixalus margaritifer Boulenger
Mantophryne lateralis Boulenger
Mantophryne microtis Werner
Gnathophryne robusta (Boulenger)
Gnathophryne boettgeii M(^hely
Goathophryne dubia (Bttgr.)
Xenorhina oxycephala (Schlegel)
Xenorhina atra Guntlier
Xenorhina rostrata (M6hely)
Xenorhina bidens van Kampen
Metapostira ocellata M6hely
Metapostira niacra van Kampen
Copiula oxyrhina (Boulenger)
z: iS
^ '3
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
173
Amphibia.
Phrynixalua birsi M^hely
Phrynixalue montanus Boettger
Sphenophryne
Sphenophryne
Sphenophryne
Sphenophryne
Sphenophryne
Sphenophryne
Sphenophryne
Sphenophryne
Splienophryne
Sphenophryne
cornuta Peters & Doriu
anthonyi Boulenger
ateles Boulenger
biroi M6hely
loriae Boulenger
verrucosa Boulenger
monlicola Boulenger
variabilia Boulenger
mertoni Roux
albopunctala van Kanipen
MicrobatrachuB pusillus Roux
Chaperina fusca Mocquard
Chaperina inacrorhyncha van Kampen
Chaperina polysticta M(*hely
Chaperina basipalmata van Kami>en
Chaperina eeratopbthalmus van Kampen
Pomatops valvifera Barbour
Cophixalus geialerorum Boettger
Phrynella pulchra Boulenger
Engystouia bomeenBe Boulenger
Microhyla
Microhyla
Microhyla
Microhyla
Microhyla
Microhyla
Microhyla
inomata Boulenger
bungurana (Gunther)
achatina (Boie)
leucostiguia Boulenger
palmipes Boulenger
annectenH Boulenger
berdraorii (Blyth)
Kaloula baleata (MilUer)
Kaloula pulchra Gray
Kaloula eundana (Peters)
Callulope doriae Boulenger
Xeaobatraclius ophiodon Peters & Doria
Phrynomantie fusca Peters
Liopliryue brevipes Boulenger
Liophryue rhododactyla Boulenger
Oreophryne celebenBis F. Miiller
Oreophryne 8enckenl)ergiana Boettger
O"
X
X
X
X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
175
Amphibia.
Calophrynus pleuioatigma Tschudi
Calophrynus heterochirus Boiilenger
Calophrynus punctatus Peters
Genyophr3me tbomsoni Boulenger
Phanerotis novae-guiueae van Kanipen
Colpoglossus brooksi Boulenger
Dyscophina volzi van Kampen
Nectophryne everetti Boulenger
Nectophrjme exigua Boettger
Nectophryne guentheri Boulenger
Nectophryne hosii Boulenger
Nectophryne macrotis Boulenger
Nectophryne maculata Mocquartl
Nectophi-yne misera Mocquartl
Nectophryne eignata Boulenger
Nectophryne sumatrana van Kanipen
Bufo borbonic\is (Bole)
Bufo cruentatus Tschudi
Bufo leptopua Giinther
Bufo jerboa Boulenger
Bufo fuligineus Mocquard
Bufo penangeneia (Stolic^ka)
Bufo BumatranuB Peters
Bufo spinulifer Mocquard
Bufo obBCuniB (Barbour)
Bufo melanostictus Schneider
Bufo biporcatue Tschudi
Bufo cavator Barbour
Bufo quadriporcatus Boulenger
Bufo parvus Boulenger
Bufo claviger Peters
Bufo divergena Peters
Bufo longicriatatus Werner
Bufo aaper Gravenhorst
Bufo celebensis Giinther
Nectes subasper (Tschudi)
Nectes pleurotaenia van Kampen
Nectes wenieri van Karapen
Hyla eucnenuB Lonnberg
Hyla rhacophoruB van Kampen
Hyla papuensie Werner
Hyla papua van Kampi-n
Hyla sanguineolenta van Kanipen
Hyla dohchopsis (Cope)
Hyla amboinensis Horst
Hyla ruepelli Boettger
•c
cq
<y
X
X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
Amphibia.
1
a
i
i
«
a
1
O
a
1
bo
.9
a
&
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i
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1
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1
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X
X
X
1
J
X
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X
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a
P
X
i
a
X
1
I
i
1
Q
1
1
X
1
a
<
•
6
X
X
■
m
.1
1
■
1
1
1
a
■
X
i
X
X
X
X
1
X
3
1
s
a
S
q3
pa
1
•
S
3
Q
i
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
§
i
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
m
■c
CC
i
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
J3
o
X
X
X
X
s
X
X
i
&
X
X
X
X
X
c
03
§
3
a
X
X
X
<
Hyla aruensia Horst
Hyla genimaculata Horet '
Hyla kampeni Barbour
Hyla macgregori Douglas Ogilby
Hyla montana Peters & Doria
Hyla mystax van Kampen
Hyla bicolor Gray
Hyla congenita Peters & Doria
Hyla thesaurensis Peters
Hyla boulengeri M^hely
Hyla jeudii Wemer
Hyla everetti Boulenger
Hyla impura Peters & Doria
Hyla nasuta Gray
Hyla eemoni Boettger
Hyla obsoleta Lonnbcrg
Hj'la vagabunda Peters & Doria
Hyla arfakiana Peters & Doria
Hyla prattii Boulenger
Hyla obtusirostria Meyer
Hyla (Hylella) ouwensi Barbour
Hyla (Hylella) nigropunctata Meyer
Hyla (Hylella) pygmea Meyer
Hyla (Hylella) wolterstorferi Werner
Hyla (Hylella) bracliypua (Wemer)
Hyla (Hylella) boulengeri M6hely
Hyla (Hylella) chloronota Boulenger
Hyla (Hylella) longicrus Boulenger
Nyctimantia papua Boulenger
LechrioduB melanopyga Doria
Asterophrya turpicola MUller
Ranaater convexiuaculus Macleay
Batrachylodea vertebralis Boulenger
Megalophrys gracilis (Gunther)
Megalophrye nalunae (Giinther)
Megalophrys baluensis (Boulenger)
Megalophrj's hasselti (Techudi)
Megalophrys nasuta (Sohlegel)
Megalophrys montana Wagler
Ceratobatrachus guentheri Boulenger
Sauria.
Gymnodactylus pelagicua (Girard)
GymnodactyluB marmoratus Dum. & Bibr.
Gymnodactylus consobrinus Peters
Gymnodactylus loriae Boulenger
Gymnodactylus louisiadensis De Via
Gymnodactylus lateralis Werner
Gymnodactylus jellesmae Boulenger
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
' Gebe Island
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
179
Serpentes.
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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Gymnodactylus fumosus F. Mttller
Gymnodactylus darmaDdvillei M. Weber
GymnodactyluB baluensis Mot^quard
Gymnodactylus heteronotus Boulenger
Gymnodactylus cheverti Boulcngcr
Gymnodactylus philippinicus Stcind.
Gonatodea timorensia Dum. et Bibr.
Gonatodes kendallii Gray
Gonatodea affinie (Stoliczka)
Gonatodes kandianus Kelaart
Aeluroscalabotes felinus (Giinther)
Aelurosoalabotes dorsalis (Peters)
Thcoadaotylus australis GUnther
Hemidactylus frenatus Dum. & Bibr.
Hemidactylus garnotii Dum. & Bibl.
Hemidactylus brookii Gray
Hemidactylus nigriventrie van Lidth de Jeude
Hemidactylus tenkatci van Lidth de Jeude
Mimetozoon eraspedotus (Mocquard)
Coaymbotus platyurus (Schneider)
Pcropus marginatus (Boulenger)'
Peropua interstitialis (t)udemans)
Peropue mutilatus (Wcigmann)
PeropUB balioluB (A. Dumeril)
Peropua oceanicus (Lesson)
Peropus variegatus (Dum. & Bibr.)
Spathoaoalabotes mutilatus (Gthr.)
Lepidodactylus lugubris (Dum. & Bibr.)
Lepidodactylus ceylonensis Boulenger
Lepidodactylus aurantiacus (Beddome)
Lepidodactylus guppyi Boulenger
Lepidodactylua woodfordii Boulenger
Gdiko gecko (Linn4)
Gckko stentor (Cantor)
G<^kko monarchus (Dura. & Bibr.)
Gekko vittatua Houttuyn
Gekko rhacophorua Boulenger
Gekko pumiluB Boulenger
Ptychozoon kublii Stejneger
Ptychozoon liorsficldii (Gray)
Lialia jicari Boulenger
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
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X
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X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
'
■
X
*Morty Island.
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
181
Sauria.
Liaiis boutonii Gray
Draco volans Linnd
Draco comutus Giinther
Draco gracilia Barbour
Draco rostratus Giinther
Draco timorensis Kulil
Draco lineatus Daudin
Draco beccarii Peters & Doria
Draco fimbriatus Kubl
Draco haematopogon Gray
Draco melanopogon Boulenger
Draco affinis Bartlett
Draco maximus Boulenger
Draco microlepis Boulenger
Draco modiglianii Vinciguerra
Draco walkeri Boulenger
Draco taeniopterus Giinther
Draco quinquefaaciatus Gray
Draco cristatellus Giinther
Draco reticuJatus Giinther
Draco ochropterus Werner
Draco formosus Boulenger
Draco intermedius Werner
Aphaniotia fusca Peters
Aphauiotis acutirostris Modigliani
Lophocalotes leudekingU (Bleeker)
Cophotia Bumatrana Hubrecht
Harpesaurua tricinctus (A. Dum.)
Harpesaurus beccarii Doria
Phoxophrys tuberculata Hubrecht
GonyocephaluB megalepis (Bleeker)
GonyocephaluB doriae Peters
Gonyocephalus chamaeleontinus (Laurenti)
GonyocephaluB kuhlii Schlegel
GonyocephaluB eumatranus (Schlegel)
Gonyocephalus liagaeter (Gunther)
Gonyocephalus mio tympanum (Gthr.)
Gonyocephalus bomeensis (Schlegel)
Gonyocephalus dilophus (Dum. & Bibr.)
Gonyocephalus modeetus Meyer
Gonyocephalus geelvinkianus Ptrs. & Doria
Gonyocephalus aiiritus Meyer
Gonyocephalus bruijnii Ptrs. & Doria
Gonyocephalus binotatus Meyer
Gonyocephalus godeffroyi Peters
Gonyocephalus papuensia Macleay
X X
X X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
183
Sauria.
Gonyocephalua grandis (Cantor)
Gonyocephalus beyschlagi Boettger
Gonyocephalus herveyi Boulenger
Acanthosaura armata Gray
Diptychodera lobata Boettger
Japalura nigrilabris (Peters)
Japalura omata van Lidth
Calotes cristatellus (Kuhl)
Calotea jubatus (Dum. & Bibr.)
Calotes tympanistriga (Gray)
Dendragama boulengeri Doria
Dendragama fruhstorferii Boettger
PhyeignathuB maculilabriB Boulenger
Physignathus temporalis (Gunther)
Hydrosaurus amboinensis (Schlosa.)
Hydroaaurua microlophus (Bleeker)
Hydrosaurua weberi Barbour
Lanthonotus bomeensia Steindachner
Varanufl dumerUii (Schlegel)
VaranuB rudicollis (Gray)
Varanufl heterolepia Boulenger
Varanue aalvadorii (Ptra. & Doria)
Varanua salvator (Laurenti)
Varanua togianua (Peters)
Varanua kalabeck (Lesson)
Varanua indicus (Daudin)
Varanua gouldii (Gray)
Varanua prasinua (Schlegel)
Varanua timorenaia (Gray)
Varanua kordeneia Meyer
Varanua nebuloaua (Gray)
Takydromua sexlineatua Daudin
Corucia zebrata Gray
Tiliqua gigas (Schneider)
Mabuya multifasciata (Kuhl)
Mabuya rudia Boulenger
Mabuya rugifera Stoliczka
Mabuya lewiai Bartlett
Mabuya rubricollis Bartlett
Mabuya aaravacenais Bartlett
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X I X
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X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
185
Sacria.
1
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a
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Otosaurus granulatus (Boulenger)
Otosaurus annectans (Boulenger)
Otosaurus celebensis (F. Mtiller)
Dasia smaragdinum (Lesson)
Dasia olivaceum Gray
Dasia villatum (Edeling)
Dasia acutirostrum (Gudemans)
Dasia dahlii (Werner)
Dasia nieuwenhuisii (van Lidth de Jende)
Dasia vyneri Shelford
Dasia aignanum (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus kuhnei (Roux)
Sphenomorphus dorsalis (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus minutus (Meyer)
Sphenomorphus elegantulus (Ptrs. & Doria)
Sphenomorphus undulatus (Ptrs. & Doria)
Sphenomorphus rufus (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus maindroni (Sauv&ge)
Sphenomorphus consohriuus (Ptrs. & Doria)
Sphenomorphus melanopogon (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus nigrilabris (Gvinther)
Sphenomorphus simus (Sauvage)
Sphenomorphus amabilis (F. Miiller)
Sphenomorphusbuttikoferi (van Lidth)
Sphenomorphus brevipes (Boettger)
Sphenomorphus everetti (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus louisiadensis (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus malayanus (Doria)
Sphenomorphus milnensis (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus modigUani (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus nigrolineatus (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus shelfordi (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus variegatus (Peters)
Sphenomorphus jobiensis (Meyer)
Sphenomorphus saracinorum (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus tropidonotus (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus florensis (M. Weber)
Sphenomorphus gtriolatus (M. Weber)
Sphenomorphus emigrans (van Lidth)
Sphenomorphus anomalopus (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus tigrinus (van Lidth)
Sphenomorphus sanctus (Dum. & Bibr.)
Sphenomorphus solomonis (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus woodfordii (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus concinnatus (Boulenger)
Sphenomorphus aruanua (Roux)
Emoia cyanurum (Lesson)
Emoia mivarti (Boulenger)
Emoia cyanogaster (Lesson)
Emoia Borex (Boettger) »
.
'
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•
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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X
X
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>Obi Island.
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
187
Saubia.
03
1
B
09
a
d
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s
1
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m
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1
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Emoia calliatictum (Ptra. & Doria)
Emoia atrocoatatum (Lesson)
Emoia baudinii (Dum. & Bibr.)
Emoia nigrum (Hombr. & Jacq.)
Emoia parietale (Peters)
Emoia palidiceps De Via
Emoia cuneicepa De Vis
Emoia impar (Werner)
Emoia irideacens (Boulenger)
Emoia kukentbali (Boettger)
Emoia mehelyi Werner
Emoia tetrataenia (Boulenger)
Leiolepisma pullum Barboui*
Leiolepisma aemperi (Peters)
Leiolepisma anolis (Boulenger)
Leiolepisma virens (Peters)
Leiolepisma noctua (Lesson)
Leiolepiama nitens (Peters)
Leiolepisma fuscum (Dum. & Bibr.)
Leiolepiama beccarii (Ptra. & Doria)
Leiolepisma bicarinatum (Macleay)
Leiolepisma novae-guineae (Meyer) '
Leiolepisma atrogulare (Douglas Ogilby)
Leiolepisma curtum (Boulenger)
Leiolepisma inconspicuum (F. Miilier)
Leiolepiama longiceps (Boulenger)
Leiolepisma miotia (Boulenger)
Leiolepisma nigrigulare (Boulenger)
Leiolepisma pulcrum (Boulenger)
Leiolepisma semonsi (Oudemans)
Leiolepisma stanleyanum (Boulenger)
Leiolepiama subnitens (Boettger)
Leiolepisma textum (F. Miilier)
Leiolepisma vittigerum (Boulenger)
Leiolepiama elegana (Boulenger)
Leiloepisma miangense Werner
Leiolepisma rhomboidale (Ptra.)
Riopa albofasciolatuni (Giinther)
Riopa rufescens (8haw)
Riopa mentovarium (Boettger).
Riopa bowringii (Gunther)
Riopa echneideri (Werner)
Riopa whitehead! (Mocquard)
Riopa bampfyeldei (Bartlett)
Riopa opisthorhodum Werner
Homolepida temminckii (Dum. & Bibr.)
Homolepida crassicaudam (A. Dum.)
Homolepida forbesii (Boulenger)
Homolepida hallieri van Lidth
Homolepida parvum (Boulenger)
Homolepida alfredi (Boulenger)
X
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' Obi Island.
BARBOUR: Z00GE0GR.1PHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
189
Sadbia.
S cu ,Z
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m
Lygosoma muelleri (Schlegel)
Lygosoma chalcides (Linn6)
Lygosoma pratti (Boulenger)
Lygosoma aumatrense (Gvinther)
Lygosoma loriae Boulenger
SiaphoB infralineolatum (Gunther)
Siaphos quadrivittatum (Peters)
Siaphoa relictum (Vinciguerra)
Cryptoblepharus boutonii (Desjardin)
TropidophoruB bcccarii (Peters)
TropidophoruB brookii (Gray)
Tropidophorus iniquus van Lidth
Tropidopliorus micropus van Lidth
Tropidopliorua mocquardii Boulenger
Tropidophorus queenslandiae DeVis.
Tropidophorua grayi Giinthei-
Tribolonotus novae-guineae (Schlegel)
Tribolouotus gracilis de Rooy
Dibamua novae-guineae Dum. & Bibr.
Serpenteb.
Typhlops lineatus Schlegel
Typhlops braniinus (Daudin)
Typhlops leucoproctus Boulenger
Typhlops muelleri Schlegel
Typhlops flavivenler Peters
Typhlops kraalii Doria
Typhlops bisubocularis Boettger
Typhlopa polygrammicus Schlegel
Typhlops multilineatua Schlegel
Typhlopa olivaceus (Gray)
Typhlops ater Schlegel
Typhlops inornatus Boulenger
Typhlops erycinua Werner
Typhlops Boris Boulenger
Typhlops depressua Peters
Typhlopa philococos Werner
TjTihlops subocularis Waite
Typhlops lorenzi Werner
Typhlopa aluensis Boulenger
Typhlopa elberti Roux
Liasis fuscus Peters
LiasiB niacloti Dum. & Bibr.'
Liasia albertisii Ptrs. & Doria
Liasis papuanus Ptrs. & Doria
Liasia tomieri W^emcr
X X
X
X
X
X
X
'Savu, Samao.
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
191
.Serpenteb.
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s
3
CQ
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3
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1
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python spilotes (Lacep.)
Python amethystinus (Schneider)
Python timoreneie (Peters)
Python reticulatus (Schneider)
Python bivittatus Scblegel
Python curtue Schlegel
Chondropython viridis (Schlegel)
Nardoa boa (Schlegel)
Enygrus carinatus (Schneider)
Enygrus aeper (Giinther)
Enygrus australie Montrouzier
Enygrus bibronii Hombr. & Jacq.
Anomalochilus webcri van Lidth
Cylindrophia rufus (Laurenti)
Cylindrophis opisthorhodus Boulenger
Cylindrophia isolepia Boulenger
Cylindrophis liueatus Blanford
Cylindrophis boulengeri Roux »
Xenopeltis unicolor Reinwardt
Acrochordua javanicus Homstedt
ChersydruB granulatua (Schneider)
Xenodermus javanicus Reinh.
Stoliczkaia bomeensis Boulenger
AnoplohydruB aemulans Werner
Sibynophis geminatus (Boie)
Xenochrophis viperinus Schenkel
Natrix picturata (Schlegel)
Natrix truncata (Peters)
Natrix punctiventris (Boettger)
Natrix celebica (Ptrs. & Doria)
Natrix dahh Werner
Natrix doriae Boulenger
Natrix elongata (Jan)
Natrix mairii (Gray)
Natrix conspicillata (Giinther)
Natrix trianguligera (Boie)
Natrix petersii (Boulenger)
Natrix piscator (Schneider)
Natrix vittata (Linn6)
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
•
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
'Wetter Idaud.
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
193
Serpentes.
Natrix subminiata (Schlegel)
Natrix chrysarga (Schlegel)
Natrix maculata (Edeling)
Natrix chiysargoides (Gunther)
Natrix saravacensia (Gunther)
Natrix fiavifrone (Boulenger)
Natrix saracinorum (Boulenger)
Natrix hypomelaa (Giinther)
Natrix lialmaherica (Boettger)
Natrix montana (van. Lidthde Jeude)
Natrix novae guineae (van. Lidth de Jeude)
Macropisthodon fiavicepa (Dum. & Bibr.)
Macropiathodon rhodomelas (Boie)
Pseudoxenodon intermedius Lonnberg
Pseudoxenodon inornatus (Boie)
Hydrablabea periops (Gunther)
Hydrablabea praefrontalie (Macquard)
Opiethotropis rugosa (van Lidth de Jeude)
Opiethotropis typica (Mocquard)
Brachyorrhus albua (Linn^)
ElapoideB fuscue Boie
Lycodon aulicus (Linn6)
Lycodon effrenis Cantor
Lycodon atormi Boettger
Lycodon albofuscua (Dum. & Bibr.)
Lycodon subcinctus Boie
Lepturophis bomeensis Boulenger
Stegonotus cuculatus (Dum. & Bibr.)
Stegonotus modestua (Schlegel)
Stegonotus heterurua Boulenger
Stegonotus batjanensis (Gunther)
Stegpnotus guentheri Boulenger
Stegonotua reticulatus Boulenger
Stegonotua magnua Meyer
DryocalamuB eubanulalua (Dum. & Bibr.)
DryocalamuB tristrigatus (Gunther)
Zaocya carinatua (Gunther)
Zaocye fuscue (Gunther)
Ptyaa dipaa» (Schlegel)
Ptyae korroa (Schlegel)
Ptyas mucoBUs (Linn£)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
195
Serpkntes.
c
6
@
a
a
i
.5
1
c
1
1
S3
i
i
i
s
1
1
g
i
•-5
.^
1
a
o
►J
o
E
1
a
o
o
s
gS
1
%
i
a
i
3
■1
3
1
a
o
a
<
1
3
3
P5
i
1
i
E
1
IB
1— 1
CD
<
t
3
'Cb
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
e
3
i
o
g.
s.
1
1
B-,
1
03
iS
J
s
1
3
a
.2
3
Xenelaphis hexagonotus (Cantor)
Xenelaphis ellipaifer Boulenger
Elaplie porphyracea (Cantor)
Elaplie taeniura (Ojpe)
Elapbe janseni (Bleeker)
Elaphe melanura (Schlegel)
Elaphe radiata (Schlegel)
Elaphe erythmra (Dum. & Bibr.)
Elaphe enganensie (Vinciguerra)
Elaphe subradiata (Schlegel)
Elaphe timoriensis (B. Ferreira)
Gonyosoma oxycephala (Boie)
Gonyophia margaritatus (Peters)
Dendrophis pictuB (Gmelin)
Dendrophis calligaster Giinther
Dendrophis formosus Boie
Dendrophis lineolatus Honibr. & Jacq.
Dendrophis gastrostictus Boulenger
Dendrophis meeki Boulenger
Dendrophis nouhuysii van Lidth de Jeude
Dendrophis lorcntzii van Lidth de Jeude
Dendrophis elegans Douglas Ogilby
Dendi-ophifi papuae Douglas Ogilby
Dendrelaphis inornatus Boulenger
Dendrelapbis candolineatus (Gray)
Dondrelaphis terrificua (Peters)
Dendrelaphia modestua Boulenger
Dendrelapbis papuensis Boulenger
Dendrelaphia schlenckeii Douglas Ogilby
HolarchuB purpurascens (Schlegel)
Holarctua octolineatua (Schneider)
Holarchua forbeaii (Boulenger)
HolarchuB signatus (Giinther)
Holarchua annulifer (Boulenger)
Holarchus auhcarinatua (Giinther)
Oligodon bitorquatus Boie
Oligodon trilineatus (Dum. & Bibr.)
Oligodon everetti Boulenger
Oligodon propinquus Jan
Oligodon vertebralis (Gunther)
Oligodon waanderaii (Bleeker)
Oligodon taeniurus F. M tiller
Oligodon pulcherrimuB Werner
Liopeltis tricolor (Schlegel)
Liopeltis longicaudua (Peters)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
i
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
•
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
197
Serpentes.
Liopeltis Ubertatie Barbour
Liopeltia baliodirum (Boie)
Oreocalamus hanitachi Boulenger
Idiopholia collaris Mocquard
Idiopholis everetti Shelford
Calamorhabdium kukenthali Boettger
Agrophis sarasinorum F. MiiUer
Agrophia saravacensia Shelford
Agrophis albonuchalia (Giinther)
Rhabdophidiam forstenii (Dum. & Bibr.)
Pseudorhabdium longicepa (Cantor)
Calamaria lumbricoidea Boie
Calamaria vermiformis (Dum. & Bibr.)
Calamaria stahlknechtii Stolizka
Calamaria baluensis Boulenger
Calamaria grabowskii Fischer
Calamaria prakkii van Lidth de Jende
Calamaria margaritophora Bleeker
Calamaria acutirostris Boulenger
Calamaria nuchalis Boulenger
Calamaria muelleri Boulenger
Calamaria curta Bouleuger
Calamaria gracilis Boulenger
Calamaria coUaria Boulenger
Calamaria sumatrana Edeling
Calamaria virgulata Boie
Calamaria leucogaster Bleekcr
Calamaria occipitalis Jan
Calamaria aondaica Barboui
Calamaria bicolor Dum. & Bibr.
Calamaria lateralis Mocquard
Calamaria beccarii Peters
Calamaria vebentiachii Bleeker
Calamaria agamensia Bleeker
Calamaria leucocepbala Dum. & Bibr.
Calamaria schlegelii Dum. & Bibr.
Calamaria liunei Boie
Calamaria bomeeneia Bleeker
Calamaria benjaminsii Edeling
Calamaria javanica Boulenger
Calamaria pavimentata Dum. & Bibr.
Calamaria melanota (Jan)
Calamaria lovii Boulenger
Calamaria graciUima Giiuther
Calamaiia brookii Boulenger
X X
■ i •
'C
<y
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
199
Sekpentes.
s
3
Calamaria
Calamaria
Calamaria
Calamaria
Calamaria
Calamaria
Calamaria
Calamaria
brachyura Boulenger
aemiannulata Boettger
hosei Gunther
doderleini Goueh
mehelyi Schenkel
indraginia Schenkel
everettii Boulenger
ornata Werner
Iguanognathus wemeri Boulenger
Enhydris altemans Reuss.
Enhydris plumbea (Boie)
Enhydris metaunensie (Boulenger)
Enhydrie enhydris (Schneider)
EnJiydria polylepie (Fischer)
Enhydrie albomaculata (Diun. & Bibr.)
Enhydris pxmctata (Gray)
Enhydris doriae (Peters)
Homalopeis buccata (Linn6)
Hurria rhynchops (Schneider)
Myron richardaonii Gray
Fordonia leucobalea (Schlegel)
Cantoria violacea Girard
Boiga multimaculata (Boie)
Boiga dendrophila (Boie)
Boiga nigriceps (Gunther)
Boiga jaspidea (Dum. & Bibr.)
Boiga drapiezii (Boie)
Boiga irregularis (Bechstein)
Boiga flavescens (Dum. &. Bibr.)
Boiga cynodon (Boie)
PeammodynaateB pulverulentus (Boie)
Peammodynaates pictus (Gunther)
Dryophis xanthozona Boie
Dryophis praginus Boie
Dryophis fasciolatus (Fischer)
Dryophiops rubescens (Gray)
Chi78opelea rhodopleuron Boie
Chrysopelea omata (Shaw)
Chrysopelea chrysochlora (Schlegel)
Ogmodon vitianua Peters
Glyphodon tristis Gtinther
X |X
X X
X X
X
X ;
X . X
X
X
X I X
X
X iX
■ i X
X j X i
X |x ;
X X
X X
x\x
X I X
X :X
X i
X X X ! X
X X X 1 X
X X ' X ! .
X
X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
201
Sbrpentes.
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
i
1
a
.a
3
1
Oh
■3
s
s
la
8
i
P3
1
CO
2
1
g
6
ca
m
1— 1
1
0
s
■4
i
1
0
■i
a
0
1
1
1
0
a
i
i
si
1
3
j
1
6
g
i
d
CQ
i
e
1
■§
q
•a
m
►5
<
I
3
•a
1
s
1
d
CQ
1
i
a
(2
?
i
X
X
X
X
1
3
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
i
X
X
X
a
pa
X
a
0
i
1
X
X
X
X
'i
3
3
Pseudelaps muelleri (Schlegel)
Apiflthocalamus loennbergii Boulenger
Apiatho calamus loriae Boulenger
Apietho calamus prattii Boulenger
Paeudapiathocalamus nymani Lonnberg
Toxicocalamus etanleyauus Boulenger
Toxicocalamue longisaimus Boulenger
Diemenia olivacea (Gray)
Diemenia psammopMa (Schlegel)
Pseudechia papuanus Ptre. & Doria
Peeudechis scutellatua Peters
Pseudechia australis Gray
Deuisonia melanura (Boulenger)
Denisonia par (Boulenger)
DeniBonia woodfordii (Boulenger)
Micropecbis ikaheka (Lesson)
Micropechie elapoides (Boulenger)
Acanthophis antarcticus (Shaw)
Bungarua fasciatus (Schn.)
Bungarua candidua (Lmn6)
Bungarua flaviceps Reinhardt
Naja naja (Lmn6)
Naja hannah (Cantor)
Doliophie bivirgatus (Boie)
Doliophis inteatinalis (Laurent!)
Marine speciea omitted
Haplopeltura boa (Boie)
Amblycephalua laevie Boie
Amblycephalus malaccanua (Petera)
Amblyceplialus carinatue Wagler
Amblycephalua nuchalis Boulenger
Agkiatrodon rhodostoma (Boie)
Trimereaurua monticola Giinther
Trimeresurua purpureomaculatua (Gray)
Trimereaurua gramineus (Shaw)
Trimereaurua sumatranus (Raflfies)
Trimeresurua puniceua (Boie)
Trimereaurua bomeensis (Peters)
Trimeresurua wagleri (Rphlegel)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.
X
X
X
•
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
•
;
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
'
X
X
X
X
X
X
^
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
BARBOUR: ZOOGEOGRAPHY.
TABLE OF DISTRIBUTION.
203
Trstudinata.
1
1
1
a
o
o
03
03
.5
o
a
6
i»
.3
i
3
a.
a
1
1
i
oi
B
1
E
s
6
1
1
oj
§
o
•-3
1
o
■a
s
o
o
B
i
o
a
s.
H
5"
1
6
g
s
■<
d
1
1
a
1
g
1
1
w
i
hi
1
t
s
3
'Eh
"a
«
eg
eg
1
3
Q
3
a.
i
•A
3
C
(2
?
■c
CQ
3
a
£
i
i
1
it
13
1
q
1
1
oi
1
1
<
Trstudinata.
Devieia mythodes Douglas Ogilby
Kachuga trivitttita (DumerilA Bibron)
Orlitia borneenBis Gray
Batagur baska Gray
Callagur picta (Gray)
Bellia crassicolUs (Gray J
Heosemys spinosa (Gray)
Cyclemys plalynota (Gray)
Cyclemys dhor (Gray)
Cyclemys aniboinensis (Daudin)
Geoclemya eubtrijuga (Schl. & Mull.)
Geoemyda spengleri (Gmelin)
Testudo emys Schl. & Miill.
Testudo foratenii Schl. & Mtill.
C'helodina novae-guineae Boulenger
Chelodina Biebenrocki Werner
Chelodina oblonga Gray
Emydura macquarii (Gray)
Emydura albertisii Boulenger
Emydura subglobosa Krefft
Emydura novae-guineae (McyerJ
Emydura krefftii (Gray)
Carettochelys insclupta Ramsay
Amyda subplana (GeoflFr.)
Arayda hurum (Gray)
Amyda cartilaginea (Boddaert)
Amyda phayrii Theobald
Amyda newtoni Ferreira
Pelochelyfl cantoris Gray
Crocodiua.
Tomietoma echlegeli (S. Mtill.)
Crocodilus porosus Schneider
Crocodilus siamensis Schneider
1
X
X
■
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
]
X
X
X
X
X
X
>;
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
■
•
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
■
X
X
X
•
•
,
X
X
X
'
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.
X
■
■
X
X
X
X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
PLATE 1.
PLATE 1.
Fig. 1. — Dasia sniaragdinuni smaragdinum (Lesson). Sorong, New Guinea. Page 92.
Fig. 2. — Dasia smaragdinum moluccarum Barbour. Wahaai Ceram Island. Type. Page 92.
(Figs. 1-2 slightly enlarged).
Mem.Mus
/■
PLATE 2
PLATE 2.
Fig. 3.- Leiolepisina puUum Barbour. Humboldt's bay, New Guinea. Type. Page 93.
(Fig. 3 twice natural size).
Fig. 4.— Dasia smaragdinum viridipunctum (Lesson). Caroline Islands. Page 92.
(Fig. 4 slightly enlarged).
Mem, Mus Comp. Zool
E.Ind
■phy _ Plate 2.
K N. Fischer p;nx
i'/=T sr J v.'iwer, rror .-::
PLATE 3.
PLATE 3.
Fig. 5. — Cryptoblepharus boutonii cursor Barbour. Buleleng, Bali Island. Tyv^- Page 96.
Fig. 6. — Cryptoblepharus boutonii subsp., from Madagascar. Page 96.
Fig. 7. — Cryptoblepharus boutonii peronii (Cocteau). Saonek, Waigiu Island. Page 96.
Fig. 8. — Cryptoblepharus boutonii balinensis Barbour. Ampenan, Lombok Island. Type. Page 96.
(Fig. 5-8 twice natural size).
Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.
E Ind, Zoc
/
\
PLATE 4.
PLATE 4.
Fig. 9. — Photo, head of Hydrosaurus pustulosus (Esch.). PhilUpine Islands. Page 88.
Fig. 10. — Same of Hydrosaurus weberi Barbour. Weeda Halmahera. Type. Page 88.
Fig. 11. — Same of Hydrosaurus amboinensis (Schlosser). Piru, Ceram. Page 87.
(Fig. 9-11 slightly reduced).
Mem, Mus Comp. Zool.
E Ind Zoogeography _ Plate 4.
WenieriWinter,Frankfort°'M
PLATE 5.
PLATE 5.
Fig,. 12. — Rana inoluccana Boettger. Gane, Halmahera. Page 65.
Fig. 13. — Hyla kampeni Barbour. Wahaai, Cerarn. Type. Page 76.
Fig. 14. — Coraufer corrugatus rubristriatus Barbour. Roon Island. Goelvink Bay, New Guinea.
Type. Page 70.
Fig. 15. — Rana papua Lesson. Manokwari, New Guinea. Page 65.
Fig. 16. — Dolibphis intestinalis (Laurenti). Buitenzorg, Java. Page 137.
(Fig. 12-16 natural size).
Mem. Mus- Comp. Zool.
E-Ind Zoogeography _ Plate 5.
16
PLATE 6.
PLATE 6.
Fig. 17. — ■ Doliophis intestinalis (Laurenti). Buitenzorg, Java, dissected to show development of
poison gland. Page 137.
Fig. 18-19. Two views of head of type of Liopeltis libertatis Barbour. Buitenzorg, Java. Page 119.
Fig. 20. — Bufo obscurus (Barbour). Sarawah, Borneo. Type. Page 75.
Fig. 21. — Bufo biporcatus Tschudi. Makassar, Celebes. Page 74.
Fig. 22. — Bufo cavator Barbour. Ampenan, Lombok. Type. Page 74
(Fig. 18-19 twice natural size. Fig. 20-22 natural size).
Mem^ Mus. Comp. Zool.
E Ind.
r;dcner ue.
PLATE 7.
Fig.
23.
Fig.
24.
Fig.
25.
Fig.
26.
Fig.
27.-
Fig.
2S.
Fig.
29.
Fig.
30.
PLATE 7.
-Egg of Calotes jubatus (Dunicril & Bibron). Buifenzorg, Java.
- Ptychozoon kuhli Stejneger. Buitcnzorg, Java.
- Hyla (Hylella) ouwensii Barbour. Jobi Island, New Guinea. Type.
•Microhyla annectans Boulenger, from Tjibodas, Java.
■ Microliyla achatina (Boie). Tjiljoda-s, Java.
■Microhyla hainanensis Barbour; Proc. N. E. zool. club, 1900, 4, p.
Hainan. Type.
- Kaloula pulchra Gray. Makassar, Celebes.
- Megalophrys montana Waglcr. Mt. Papaudaiang, Ganit, Java.
(Fig. 23-25, 29, 30 natural size. Fig. 26-28 twice natural size).
Page
86.
Page
S2.
Page
77.
Page
71.
Page
71.
Mt. Wachi,
Page
71.
Page
77.
Mem.Mus CompZool
E Ind. Zoogeography _ Plate
Wemer i'.Vinter. FranKior;'
PLATE 8.
PLATE 8.
Fig. 31. — Polypedates javanus (Boettger). Tjibodas, Java. Page 68.
Fig. 32. — Nyctixalus margaritifer Boulenger. Tjiboda.s, Java. • Page 70.
Fig. 33. — Bufo borbonicus (Boie). Tjibodas, Java. Page 74.
Fig. 34. — Bufo cruentatus Tschudi. Tjibodas, Java. Page 75.
Fig. 35. — Bufo biporcatus Tschudi. Buitenzorg, Java. Page 74.
(Figs. 31, 33-35 natural size. Fig. 32 twice natural size)
Mem.MusComp.Zool
ir.a L
32
35
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