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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY
SPECIAL
COLLECTIONS
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MEMOIRS
OF THE
PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.
CONTAINING
COMMUNICATIONS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS
IN
HUSBANDRY & RURAL AFFAIRS.
TO WHICH IS ADDED,
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT
OF THE
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE.
VOL. L
** Let us cultivate the ground, that the poor, as well as the rich, may be
*' filled ; and happiness and peace be established throughout our borders.**
Tentanda Via est, qua nos quoque possimus tollere Humo :
PHILADELPHIA :
PRINTED BY JANE AITKEN, No. 71,
NORTH THIRD STREET.
1808,"*
CCopy-Right secured according to Law. J
PREFACE.
THE Philadelphia Society tor promoting Agri-
culture, was formed in the year one thousand seven hun-
dred and eighty Jtve, by some citizens, only a few of whom
were actually engaged in husbandr}', but who were convinced
of its necessit}- ; and of the assistance which such an associ-
ation, properly attended to, would afford to the interests of
agi-icidture. The societ\"* continued to meet regularly, for
several years ;— and published numerous communications from
practical men, in the news papers of the day, on various in-
teresting subjects ; and thereby contributed to diffuse the
knowledge of many improvements in agriculture ; the general
adoption whereof, has visibly tended to increase the product,
and to improve the qualities of the soil of Pennsvlvania.
The continuance of a long war with Great Britain had ef-
fectually precluded all friendly intercourse, and prevented the
receipt of all information irom that comitr}*, (in a language ge-
nerally understood here) not only of the improvements in agri-
culture there existing, but of those in other European coun-
tries, wherein the practice and principles of good husbandr)-
are universally attended to. The system generallv pursued
here at that time, was bad in the extreme. It consisted in
a series of exhausting grain crops, with scarcely anv inter-
ruption, for several years ; after which, the land was abandon-
ed to weeds and natural grass, under the fallacious idea of
rest; and, v.hen completely v.'oiii out, new land was cleared.
:i ^ 1 3 r
ii Preface.
and the same wretched system pursued. A natural meadow,
or one artificially watered, supplied more or less of hay ; but
where these resources were wanting, the purchase of winter
fodder was made from the hard earnings and savings in other
products ; or the poor animals fed on straw, and the scanty
pickings in the fields. — Since the introduction of red clover^
and other artificial grasses^ a great and obvious change has
taken place ; and the most beneficial consequences have fol-
lowed. The comforts of the farmer are greatly increased,
and abundant supplies of summer and winter food for all do-
mestic animals, are furnished. Thus, by the manure obtain-
ed, ample means are afforded, of renewing the original strength,
of the soil. Among other measures tending to produce this
happy alteration, the general use of gypsum may be men-
tioned, as one of the most important : for although this sub-
stance had been introduced many years before the date of
our institution, yet its use was chiefly confined to the vicinity*
of Philadelphia. The society reflect with patriotic pleasure,
upon their agency in diffusing more extensively the knowledge
of its eff"ects upon land ; and in assisting to dispel the preju-
dices which unfortunately prevailed against it, by the publi-
cation of the communications of practical men, containing the
result of their experience with that valuable substance.^
Premiu?ns were also proposed and conferred, for the eluci-
dation of subjects upon which information was required, for
the adoption of approved systems and modes of European
culture, and practices, and for the improvement of certain ar-
ticles of domestic manufacture. Among the latter, cheese may
be mentioned ; for the best sample of which, and greatest quan-
tity, a gold medal was presented to Mr. Mathe~tvson of Rhode
Inland^ in the year 1790; the consequence of this distinction
* The reader Is referred to the concise and useful publication of our now
President, in 1797, upon the subject ofgjpsum, for a full account of its use
as a manui-e ; and a refutation of the various prejudices foi'merly urged
asrainst it.
Preface, iii
by the society, was a laudable competition among dairy men,
and an increased demand, owing to the striking improvement,
in the quality of the article, and a rise in price, so as amply
to reward, and extend the manufacture, and in a great degree,
preclude the necessity of importation. At the present day
no occasion exists, for the importation of cheese from Europe^
for general consumption, or as an indispensable supply. Im-
portations on a less scale, continue to be made, but these are
in a small proportion to the quantity produced, and manufac-
tured from our own dairies.
After several years of active exertions, the society was un-
fortunately permitted to fall into a long sleep ; but was again re-
vived, in the winter of 1804, and now holds regular meetings.
New subjects for premiums have been proposed, as will be
seen by the present volume, and have been several months in
circulation : numerous communications have been received ;
from which those now published, are a selection ; and some
papers before published are added ; as being thought worthy
of preservation, in our collection. As it is the wish of the
society to pursue its labours, with all the zeal due to the im-
portance of the object, for which it was instituted, the com-
munications of all practical agriculturists, upon whose support
the usefulness of the Society will in a great measure depend,
are earnestly solicited. The example being once set, will be
followed by others ; and thus, a body of information will be
collected ; which may essentially benefit the country. The
pursuits of the industrious farmer, being more of a practical
than a literary nature, he may be induced to think that he is
not qualified to give a written account of his improvements,
but let not such be backward. The Society are in want of
facts, and they care not in what stile of language they are com-
municated. Criticism is missapplied, and out of place, on such
occasions. The communications of philosophical and literary
characters, on any points contributoiy to the elucidation of sub-
iv Preface,
jects connected with agriculture,^ will be highly beneficial and
gratifying.
Two subjects, in particular, are deemed worthy of great at-
tention, from all concerned in agriculture ; and on these the
society would gladly receive information : viz. on the diseases
of our domestic animals^ and^ on neiv manures ; on both these
subjects, very interesting papers will be found in the present
volume. A great object in American husbandry, is the
improvement of horned cattle : the society will therefore
receive, with thanks, all information respecting any domes-
tic breeds of neat cattle, sheep, and swine, which have been
found to possess peculiar good qualities : and they strong-
ly urge the necessity of presei'\^ing, for breed, all those, even
of accidental offspring, possessing the desirable and requisite
qualities, to entitle them to value and preference. Thus a
breed of neat cattle, producing oxen, remarkable for speed
of gait and strength, symmetry of form, and gentleness of dis-
positioYi ; and a tendency to fatten quickly, and to increase of
flesh and fat, upon those points which recommend them at
market, are to be attended to. It is well known, that the di-
versity in these respects is great, and constitutes the gi'ound
of important improvements, by various spirited farmers in
Europe^ And as in many parts of this country, occasional
instances of very excellent breeds are to be found, the soci-
ety think they will render service to the communit}^, by
calling the public attention to the subject. It must be acknow-
ledged that the common American oxen fatten well, that they
* Many citizens have a mistaken idea, that their not being- agriculturists,
disqnaliiies them from becoming useful members of our Society. A con-
tribution of pecuniary means, and personalpiitronage, are the first reqiii-
pites, in our plan, for promoting tlie prosperity of this great City, by diffus-
ing and encouraging the knowledge and pursuits of agriculture. The in-
terests of Commerce, Arts and Manufactures, form, with Agriculture, an in-
dissoluble union ; to which citizens of every class and calling, have it amply
int-heir power to contribute*
Preface, v
grow to immense sizes ; and that as fine samples of beef,
are every day to be met with in the markets of Philadelphia^
as in any other part oi the world. But as respects cows, we
are much deficient,^ a circumstance which is the more to be
regretted, as probably in no country, dees the article of butter,
yield greater profit than in the United States, Some attempts
have indeed been made, to improve our stock, by the impor-
tation of bulls and cows, particularly in Maryland and New
York ; but the public generally, are not yet informed of the
success, which has attended the experiment ; and whatever
may be the result of imported brood animals, the great price
at which they must necessarily be held, to remunerate the
concerned, for the heavy expences of importation ; will pre-
vent the desired benefit from being speedily or generally de-
rived from them. This circumstance ought to operate as an
additional reason, for a careful selection of the most valua-
ble animals from our domestic stock, and for the preserva-
tion of such others as we may occasionally meet with.
With respect to sheep^ the objects to be attended to are in
part common, with those first noted as to oxen. Within a
few years, large sizes" were chief objects of attention in En-
gland; but repeated experiments have shown, that they are
not so profitable, as those of a moderate size.
The fortunate introduction of the o/7c/;z 26/2, English^ and
Barbary sheep^ all of which are now spreading through the
middle States, may be considered as important acquisitions
to the agricultural interest. With rt^-^irditot\\e Spanish sheep^
it is found by years of experience, that the cross with Ame*
* In Holt's agricultural survey of the county of Lajicashire, a plate is
given of a cow, which, as a pattern of excellence and model of perfection,
was said to have been sent some years since to America. The place un-
fortunately, is not mentioned. Three years since, information respecting-
this cow, was sought for by advertisements in news papers ; and although
the request was universally circulated, no intelligence Avas obtained res-
pecting her.
vi ^Preface- ^
■ ' ■ ■ - .jji.- ■
rican exves produces a healthy, hardy, gentle race, which fat-
ten more speedily than the pure Ame7'ican blood ; do not
loose their wool, when shearing has been neglected beyond
the usual time, and do not become diseased when fat. The
fine quality of the wool is known to all the world; and what
is of great consequence, the weight oi fleece of the cross with
American ewes, is evidently increased, when compared with
the imported sheep. The same increase takes place in the
cross with the English sheep. It may be well to add, that
the wool of sheep from the Spanish cross, exhibits the most
evident marks of improvement ; this adds another proof to the
many which all parts of the world furnish,* that the prejudice
respecting the peculiar nature of the climate of Spain^ being
exclusively calculated to produce fine wool, is erroneous.
We owe the introduction of the Barbary mountain sheep,
Avith broad tails, to our gallant countryman, William Eaton,
who, when Consul at Tunis, sent them in an armed vessel in
the service of the United States, commanded by Henry Ged'
des, to Timothy Pickering then secretary of state, who pre-
sented a fine ram and ewe to the President of our society,
from whose disinterested zeal, this valuable breed is now
spreading through the State of Pennsylvania, and other States
in its immediate vicinity. The wool of those sheep, owing
* Mr. Lasteyrie in an extensive tour, made with the express purpose
of ascertaining the fact of the congeniality of various climates to fine wool,
found that the climate of Holland, though damp, does not prevent the breed
of the Spanish sheepTrom thriving. He saw the fourth generation of these
animals, bred in the country, which had as fine wool as the Spanish sheep,
though both the soil and the climate, were in appearance very unfavourable
to the constitution of those animals. In Denmai'k and Sweden, and even
in the most northern parts of those two countries, that breed has existed
without degenerating for many years. He adds that a few years since,
the Danish Government, sent for 300 Spanish sheep, and that only on& died
in the course of two years, notwithstanding a very severe cold happened the
vear after thev arrived.
Preface, \{\
to their health and vigour, does not fall off, like the fleeces
of those meagre and degenerate runts, which are too frequent
here ; it is moreover, in general, of a good staple, and next
the skin, peculiarly soft and furry. The weight of the sheep
is above mediocrity, but their chief excellence arises from
their hardihood, and disposition to fatten speedily ; a quality
they possess in a remarkable degree, w^hich causes them to
be highly valued, both by the grazier and butcher. Hatters,
who are acquainted with it, prefer it, for their manufacture,
to any other wool. It spins free, and to any fineness. Flos-
sy, fine and well dressed cloth, has been made of it. Those
who have worn fleecy stockings, and gloves, of this wool,
speak of it with great approbation. Perhaps a cross v/ith the
Merino^ would benefit both.
We possess several valuable breeds of swine ; but none, ex-
cept the Chinsse and African breeds, are distinctly marked.
Both these breeds are remarkable for fattening speedily, but
their deficiency of flesh, lessens their value, when preserved
pure. They both therefore answer best when crossed with our
native breeds ; as their progeny take on a disposition to diffuse
the fat through the flesh, which is also increased ; instead of
being laid thick on the outside. The Chinese hogs are very
prolific, but have thick skins, and therefore not so profitable
or delicate for roasters as the African breed, which have re-
markably thin skins: these latter will weigh ten pounds at the
age of four weeks, and will then bring one dollar twenty five
cents at market.
If we have not published all the communications with which
we have been favoured, it is not owing to a want of respect
for them, or their authors. But our means are yet limited ;
and our society is only emerging from a state of torpoj'^- into
which past circumstances had thrown it. "VVe selected subjects-
rather than essays; and risk this recommencement of our
well meant endeavours, to promote the happiness and pros-
perity of our countr}-, with no motive either of personal fame.
viii Preface.
or interest. Should this attempt be favourably received, and
our exertions adequately supported ; we have strong hopes,
that the usefulness of our association will be extensively ex-
perienced. We cannot be disappointed in the satisfaction we
feel in having made an effort, to attain a desirable object,
however feeble, it may be found, as it respects us in its means,
or result. It will at least set an example ; and invite men of
talents and practical experience, to add to our scanty stock of
knowledge, on the important subject of our institution. Those
who have enabled us, by their communications, to fulfil our
wishes, in the objects we endeavour to attain, merit and re-
ceive our sincere acknowledgments ; and we are persuaded,
have entitled themselves to the grateful attention of those,
whose interests they are calculated to promote. It is equal-
ly usef^J to us, to be supplied with information, either new or
not generally known here ; whether it be obtained by those
who impart it, from reading, travel, or original thoughts or
practice. As other countries receive the benefits of our la-
bours, in the products supplied to them, through the chan-
nels of an extensive and prosperous commerce, it is fit that
we should profit by their experience in the arts of cul-
tivation ; by which those products will be brought forth
more advantageously to us, and beneficially to them, both
in quality and abundance. Those who introduce among
us, the improvements of foreign countries in agriculture,
and the arts and sciences with which it is intimately con-
nected, effect a reciprocity of accommodation. It de-
pends on the good sense and practical attention of our far-
mers, to adapt them to our climates, soils, habits, and actual
circumstances. All foreign practice or improvement, will not
suit our situation. We cannot furnish labour, or afford ex-
pence, beyond a certain point ; but the principles will apply
in all countries, and when they are developed, in a plain and
intelligible manner, they may, in a greater or less degree, be
practiced upon, and fitted to the actual state of things here,
Preface. ix
so as to produce incalculable and permanent advanta-
ges. Although much benefit has been, and will continue
to be derived from European models, and examples in hus-
bandry ; it is with pleasure we observe, that iVom our own
resources, we grow more and more independent of foreign
aid. The knowledge of both principles and practice in agri-
culture^ is daily increasing ; and the general mass of agri-
cultural improvements is evidently advancing throughout our
countr}^ Nothing will more conduce to the attainment of
the great object oi those, who desire to promote this most
essential of all arts, than associations to receive and commu-
nicate information, on this important subject. Let these be
devoted entirely to agricultural enquiries and pursuits ; and
avoid all topics which are productive of dissension, and calcu-
lated to withdraw their attention from the objects of common
concern. A small collection of Books and Models^ are attain-
able at little expence, w ith some judicious attention in the
choice of them. These will be sources of information and
useful amusement, as well as cements of union, and means
of gaining and diffusing knowledge, auxiliary to practice.
A community of interests, may be thus established ; mutual-
ly supporting and supported, informing and informed ; and
nothing contribute ly to the benefit of the whole, will be omit-
ted or lost. Public aid has been so often sought in vain, that
private exertions must be redoubled. To this end, a zeal for
agricultural knowledge, and practical improvements, must
be rendered fashionable, that it may become general and cha-
racteristic. Those who seek for personal distinction in our
government, and those who from disinterested and virtuous
inclinations, pertorm duties the most honourable to them-
selves, and beneficial to society ; will find the most solid
popularity and durable fame^ in measures promotive of the
interests (always inseparable from those of commerce and
the arts) of agriculturists ; w^ho compose the great body of
the people. This will shew itselt in public improvement ^
b
X Preface,
in which the efforts of individuals will be aided and cherish-
ed by legislative patronage, and pecuniary support. Our
state will then hold its proper rank among our neighbours ;
and our natural and local advantages, remain no longer in-
active. Roads and inland navigation, w^ill be primary ob-
jects of legislative attention. The arts oi husbandry will be
assisted, supported, and rew^arded : public men will be po-
pular and eminent, in proportion to the services they render
to the leading interests of their country. These, most as-
suredly, are those of agriculture, and the arts and sciences.,
all of which are intimately, and indissolubly connected. Oui'
eyes will then be opened, to the sources of wealth and pros-
perity, wdiich are properly our own ; easily attainable, ample^
and inexhaustible : and it will no longer be leit to the dis-
cernment of the intelligent in rival states, to perceive, and
take advantage of our culpable blindness, negligence, and
mistakes.
CONTENTS.
Pag-e.
Laws of the Philadelphia Society for promoting
agriculture^ -_-„__ xi
A List of the members^ - - . . xvii
Outlines of a plan for establishing a state society of
agriculture^ in Pennsylvania^ - - - xxi
Premiums proposed by the Philadelphia Society for
promoting agriculture \ in the year 1791, - xxxi
Premiums, in 1806, - - - xxxvi
Library, - . - - xlvii
An introductory lecture to a course upon the insti-
tutes ajid practice of medicine; delivered in the
University of Pennsylvania, on the 2d of Novem-
ber 1807; upon the duty and advantages of stu-
dying the diseases of domestic ajiijnals, and the
remedies proper to remove them, by Benjamin
Rush, M. D. xlix
CONTENTS OF THE MEMOIRS.
I. On Sheep, by John D. Steele, ?2ear Doxvning
Town, Chester county, Pennsylvania, - - 1
II. On Hoven Cattle, by Richard Peters, - - 5
III. On Rotting Flax, by Joseph Cooper, of New
Jersey, - . - - . - 9
IV. On Peach Trees, by the same, - - 11
V. On Peach Trees, by Richard Peters, - 15
CONTENTS.
Page,
VI. On Cutting off the horns of bull calves^ by
Paul Cooper of TVoodbury, New Jersey, - 25
VII. On Departure of the southern pine timber: a
proof of the tendency in nature to a change of
products on the same soil, by Richard Peters,
a change ajid succession of crops recommended, as
well OS of deteriorated animals, - - - 27
VIII Supplement thereto ; by James Mease,. M. D. 41
IX. On Smut in wheat: by JFilliam Young, of
Brandywine, Delaware, - - - - 4<7
X. On ditto, by James Mease, M, D. - - 54
X. Remarks on the smut and mildexv of wheat;
with hints on the most pi'obable means of preven-
tion, by A. Fothergill, M, Z). F, R. S, 'd'c. '^c.
Fiat experimentum, — Bacon, - - - 65
XI. Substitute for trench ploughing, and nexv mode
of putting in winter grain^ and on live fences,
by Caleb Kirk, near York, Pennsylvania - - 85
XII. New mineral manure for clover^ by Josiah
Reeve ofRancocas creek. New Jersey, Co?n?nu-
nicated by Dr. Mease, - - . , 93
XIII. Expences and profits of a dairy, by Algernon
Roberts of Merion, Montgomery county, Pennsyl-
vania, - - - - - 95
XIV. Account of the produce of wheat and rye, dur-
ing 16 years', in Lower Merion township, Phila-
delphia county, and times of liarvesting ^c. by the
same, - - - - - 99
XV. On live fences, by Joh?i Taylor, of Port Royal,
Caroline county, Virginia, - . - . 102
CONTENTS.
Page*
XVL ylccount of a 7iew pummice press ^ with some
remarks upon cyder makings by Timothy Matlack^
of Lancaster, = . . „ 109
XVII. O71 the inJu?'ious effects of clover to orchards,
by Richard Peters; and letter from W, Coxe of
Burlington on that subject, - - - 119
XVIII. New disease in wheat, - . _ 124
XIX. Improved hay ladders, by Moses Coates, near
Doxvni?ig town, Chester county, P emuylva^iia, 131
XX. On sheep ^ and their diseases, by Joseph Capner
of Flemington, New Jersey, - - - 133
XXI. On Jerusalem wheat, by Dr. John Keemle, 135
XXII. On the yellow water of horses, by Richard
Peters, with a Supplement by Dr. Mease ^ 139
XXIII. On gypsum, by the same, - - 156
XXIV. Account of the dimensions of American
trees, by John Pearson, of Darby, 176
XXV. On peach trees, by Richard Peters; with a
letter from Dr. James Tilton of Bellevue, near
Wilmington, Delaware, . . _ - 183
XXVI. Improvement of land, by William Ashford
of Chester county, Pennsylvania, - - 193
XXVII. On the thickness^ cement, and materials of
walls of farm and other buildings, by Richard
Peters, - - - - - 197
XXVIII. On orchards, by Richard Peters: Com-
municating an account of operations and opinions
on that subject, by William Coxe, Esq. of Bur-
lington, New Jersey, - - - - 211
XXIX. On coarse flour, brown bread, and the force
of habit, as it relates to esculents^ by Richard
Peters, » - . - . 227
CONTENTS.
Page
XXX. Herbage and shrubs spojitaneously produced,
after forest timber burnt, by firing the woods, by
the sanWy - - - - - 237
XXXI. On trench ploughing, by the same, - 240
XXXII. Hemlock, for live fences, by the same, 249
XXXIII. Utility of the Italian mulberry tree, and
on making wine, by Joseph Cooper, - - 252
XXXIV. On a three furrow plough, by William
Bakewell, of Montgomery County, - - 257
XXXV. On speltz, by James Mease, M, D. 260
XXXVI. On draining, by Samuel Dickey, Com-
municated to John Miller, and by him to the So-
ciety, ----- 262
XXXVII. Observations on making and fining cyder,
and on peach trees, by Timothy Matlack, Esq. 268
XXXVIII. Postscript to Mr, Taylofs memoir on
live fences, - - - - - 280
XXXIX. Remarks on the plan of a stercorary, de-
scribed in the note, page 153, by Richard Peters, 281
XL. Accoujit of native thorns, by Thomas Main, 286
XLI. G7'0Wth of thorns, from cuttings of the roots,
by James Mease, M. D, - - - - 288
XLII. Description of a kitchen stove, by Samuel
Dickey, Communicated to John Miller for the
Society, - - - - - £91
XLIII. Changes of timber and plants. Races of
animals extinct, by Richard Peters. Communi-
cati?7g lettei's on the subject: from Mr. Rembrandt
Peale, Charles Caldwell, M, D, and Thomas F.
Leaming, Esq, - - - - 296
XLI V. Gypsum ; whether it is found in the United
States, by the same, - - - - - 3 10
CONTENTS,
Page.
XLV. Observatiaiis'on the pea Jiy or beetle and fruit
curculio^ by William Bartram, - - 317
XL VI. 0?i clearing land, by John Taylor, Esq, of
Caroline, Virginia, ----- 324
A statistical account of the Schuylkill Permanent Bridge,
Communicated to the Philadelphia Society of Agricul-
ture, 1806.
SELECTIONS IN APPENDIX.
I. On smut in wheat, - - - - 1
II. On blight, - - - - 3
III. On the fax husbandry of Ireland, - - 8
IV. Change of seed not necessary to prevent degene-
racy, naturalization of plants, and important cau-
tion to secure permanent good quality of plants, 11
V. Produce of grains in 1787 and 1788, - 19
VI. Produce of land, in 1787, - - - 20
VII. On hedges, by Thomas Main, of Georgetown,
Potomac, - - - - - 21
VIII. Mode of plashing hedges, - - - 25
TX. Analysis of soils, and modes of discovering their
component parts, ----- 27
X. Utility of Pyrites as a manure^ - - 33
XL On the Fruit Curcidio, ^ - - - 34
CONTENTS.
CUTS.
I. New Pummice Press, - - - - 115
Instruments in the process as substitute for trench
ploughing,
II. A Ripper, - - - - 89
III. A Coulter and Shovel Plough, - - 90
\S[ , Improved Hay Ladders, - - - 131
V. Plan and Elevation of a Stercorary, - - 285
VI. Plashed Hedge. Selections, - - 26
PLATES.
I. A Kitchen Stove, „ - - - 291
II. Architectural plan and elevation of the Schuyl-
kill Permanent Bridge,
LAWS
OF THE
PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE,
THE society shall be stiled, THE PHILADELPHIA
SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.
IL
The society's attention shall be confined to agriculture and
rural affairs,
HI.
The society shall have a president, a vice-president, a
treasurer, and a secretary ; and an assistant-secretary^, when
the increase oi business shall require it ; all of whom shall
be annually elected, by the tickets of a majority of the
members present, at the stated meeting of the society in
January ; the persons, so elected, to continue in office one
year, and until others shall be chosen in their stead. And
in case of any vacancy, by death, resignation, or otherwise,
the same may be supplied by a new election, to be made at
any stated meeting of the society; the person thus newly
elected, to serve the remainder of the year.
xii Laws,
IV.
A quorum for business shall consist of at least five mem-
bers, including the president or vice-president.
V.
At all meetings of the society the president shall exercise
the usual duties of that office ; all motions shall be address-
ed to him ; and on all questions he shall collect and declare
the votes. He shall also have power to call special meetings
of the society, by notice published in at least two of the city
newspapers. In his absence the same duties shall be per-
formed by the vice-president. And ii it happen, at any
meeting of the society, that both the president and vice-pre-
sident be absent, the members present (being a quorum to
constitute a regular meeting ior the business to be transacted)
may choose a vice-president ior that meeting.
VI.
The treasurer shall keep the accounts, methodically stated,
in the books of the society ; and, vvhen called upon, pro-
^ duce them for inspection. At the last meeting of every
5^ear, and also whenever his office ends, he shall produce a
fair and regularly stated account of all receipts, pa^Tnents
and expenditures ; and deliver it, together with those books,
and all other propert)^ of the societ}', in his hands, to his
successor in office, or to the orders of the society.
VII.
The secretary and his assistant shall have in charge all the
books and papers of the society, and keep the same in ex-
act order. They shall also register all letters which shall be
written by the committee of correspondence, or by them-
selves, by order of the committee.
VIII.
At the annual meeting of the society in Januarj^ shall be
chosen a committee of correspondence, to consist of five
members, any three of whom to be a quorum, for the pur-
Laws* x'lii
pose of corresponding with any other society, or persons,
touching the objects which this society has in view. The
same members shall also be a committee of accounts, to re-
ceive and adjust all claims against the society, for its contin-
gent expences ; and the president shall give orders on the
ti-easurer ior the payment of them.
IX,
The stated meeti?"!gs of the society shall be on the second
Tuesday of every month.
X.
The members of the society shall be distinguished into
resident and honorary members. The twenty -three persons
named when the society was first proposed to be instituted,
and whose names are entered in the minutes of the eleventh
of February, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-five,
are resident members, according to the eighth article of the
first laws of the society, enacted on the fifteenth of March,
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-five. All resident
members, afterwards added to the society, were, and shall
continue to be, of persons residing within a convenient dis-
tance to attend the meetings of the society at Philadelphia ;
and these are defined to be such only as, at the time oi elec-
tion, reside within ten miles of the said city, on either side
of the Delaware. All members of agricultural societies in
other states and countries, wdth whom we shall correspond,
and all persons of this state, and of other states and coun-
tries, w4io shall be elected by us for the purpose, shall be ho-
norary members ; and are hereby invited to assist at our
meetings, whenever they come to Philadelphia. Strangers
who desire to be present, as auditors, may be introduced by
a resident member.
XI.
New members, whether resident ox honorary^ shall be elect-
ed by ballot. And the secretarv shall issue notice to each
xiv Laxvs,
person, of his being elected, to the following purport — On
the day of 17 A, B. of
was elected a member [or honorary member] of the Philadel-
phia Society for promoting' Agriculture ; the society invit-
ing his assistance. C, D, Secretary,
XIL
All elections and appointments shall be between eight and
nine o'clock in the evening, at one oi the stated meetings of
the societ}^ And no person shall be elected a member,
whether resident or honorary, unless, at a preceding stated
meeting, he shall have been openly proposed, and such no-
mination duly entered on the minutes oi the societ}'. The^
nomination and election to be in the absence of the candi-
date.
XIII.
The society shall annually propose prizes upon interest-
ing subjects, relative to actual experiments and improve-
ments, and for the best pieces written on proposed subjects.
And in order more effectually to disseminate the knowledge
of useful discoveries and improvements in husbandr}^, the so-
ciety will, from time to time, publish collections of memoirs
and observations, selected from such communications as
shall be made to them. To promote these views, the friends
of agriculture are invited to assist the society with informa-
tion of experiments and incidents in husbandry.
XIV.
All claims of prizes shall be sent in writing ; and when
read, the society shall detennine which of the claims, rela-
tive to each prize, shall be selected for their definitive judg-
ment, on a future comparison. This judgment is to be
given at the stated meeting on the second Tuesday in Febru-
ary. If it happen, in any case, that there be no competition
for a prize, but only a single claim, the society will con-
sider such claim ; and if the claim er claims be supported
Laws, XV
answerably to the views and just expectations of the society,
the prize proposed shall be decreed. Premiums and prizes
are equally due to persons residing in any of the United
States, according to the merit of their respective exhibi-
tions.
XV.
For the purpose of defraying the necessary expences of
the society, for premiums and prizes, books on agriculture,
improved instruments of husbandry, and other important
objects and contingencies, every member shall annually pay
to the treasurer a contribution of two dollars. This con-
tribution shall be considered as due and payable at or be-
fore the last day of December in every year. And at the
first meeting in January of every year, the treasurer shall
lay before the society a list of the members, specifying who
have, and who have not paid their contributions ; and any
member, whose contribution shall be found to be more than
one year in arrears, after the same shall have become due
and payable, as aforesaid, provided payment thereof has
been personally demanded of him by the treasurer, or col-
lector, authorised by him for the purpose, such member
shall be considered as withdrawing from the society, and be
no longer deemed a member of it ; and the same shall be
entered on the minutes.
XVI.
New rules, or alterations to be made in old rules, shall be
proposed, and the proposal entered on the minutes, at a pre-
ceding stated meeting ; and may then be made by not less
than two thirds of the members present.
XVII.
When any part of the society's funds is to be disposed
of, (excepting for ordinary contingent expences) the same
shall be done at a stated or special meeting, after having
been proposed at a previous stated meeting.
xvi Laws.
XVIII.
•^ Still further to advance the objects of this institution, the
society will promote the establishment of other similar so-
cieties in the United States.
XIX.
On the first meeting of the societ^^ in January, in every
year, there shall be a revision of the then subsisting rules ;
and the same shall stand confirmed, so far as two thirds of
the members present, including the president or vice-presi-
dent, do not revoke or alter them.
A L I S T
OF THE
MEMBERS
OF THE
PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY
FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE.
Note — Those members whose places of residence are not
specified, are of Pennsylvania ; and those marked * are
honorary members.
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR 1808,
President—RICHARD PETERS.
Vice-President—GEORGE CLYMER.
Treasurer— SAMUEL HODGDON.
Secretary— .JAMES MEASE, M. D.
George Clymer. Samuel Hodgdon.
Peter Aston. Adam Kuhn, m. d.
Edward Burd. Wm. Lewis.
^Elias Boudinot, N, Jersey. John F. Mifflin.
Charles Biddle. John Nixon.
Henry Drinker. Rev. Joseph Pilmore.
John Dunlap. William Rush, grazier.
Levi HoUingsworth. *Wm. Embleton, Mar>^land,
xviu
List of Monbers,
John Vaughan.
Hugh Brackenridge.
^Lambert Cadwalader.
Joseph Cooper, N. Jersey.
Tench Coxe.
*John Curwen.
*Charles Thompson.
=*James Tilton, m .d.
Delaware.
'*Dr. Aaron Dexter, Mass.
Miers Fisher.
*Wm. Fitzhugh, Virginia.
Wm. Hamilton, Woodlands.
John Lardner.
Jacob Barge,
Richard Bache.
^Thomas Bee, S. Carolina.
David H. Conyngham.
*George Clinton, N. York.
^Daniel Carroll, Maryland.
^Edward Carrington, Virg.
* Count Castiglioni, Milan.
Rev. Dr. White.
Caspar Wistar, m. d.
=*Henry W}Tikoop.
^Jonathan Williams.
Samuel Wheeler.
*Noah Webster, Connecticut.
"* Arthur Young, England.
^Philemon Dickenson, N. J.
John Dickenson, Delaware.
Mr. Howard, Maryland.
Francis Johnston.
*John Jay, New- York.
George Logan, m. d.
*Geo. Morgan.
Gen. W. M'Pherson.
Timothy Pickering,
David Sellers.
Nathan Sellers.
George Fox.
Thomas Fitzimons.
Dr. Benjamin Say.
Members elected since April, 1805.
J. M'Intire, Delaware.
^George B. Lownes.
^ General Wilkins.
^Gen. Geo. Wallace.
=^Col. Cultbertson.
Forks of Ohio.
=5«=Philip Price.
Thomas Butler.
Thomas Cumpston.
John Dorsey.
Francis Gurnev,
=^Wm. West.
^Peter M'Call.
*Wm. Young.
^James Johnston. Ohio.
^Dr. J. M'Dowell. ditto.
*Derick Peterson.
*Henry Clymer.
Thomas Lieper.
John Leamy.
John Miller, M. C.
Israel W* Morris.
List of 3fembers>
3tl3C
George Honey.
Thomas C. James, m. d.
Arch. M'Call.
James Mease, m. d.
Robert Poalk.
*Dr. Robert Rose,
David Sickle.
Edward Tilghman.
Charles Breck.
Thomas W. Francis.
Wm. Guier.
Dr. George Gallespie.
^Caleb Lownes.
*Luke W. Morris.
Wm. Pojmtell.
Lawrence Sickle.
William Tilghman.
Robert Wain.
Zaccheus Collins.
Stephen Girard.
Godfrey Haga.
Anthony Fothergill, m. d.
'^Moses Marshall.
^David Humphreys, Con.
*Thomas Porter.
Jacob Shoemaker.
Joshua Humphries, junr.
Wm. Montgomery.
John Thompson.
W. Coxe, Burlington, N. J.
Jeremiah Parker.
*Col. Lewis Morris, S. Caro.
*John Kaihn, N. Jersey.
^Wm. Fitzhugh, Maryland.
*Daniel Cowgill, Delaware.
Wm. Rawle.
*John Shallcross, Delaware.
George Sheaf.
Richard Wistar.
Frederick ^leisz.
^Job Roberts,
John Clifford.
Paul Beck.
Joseph Cloud.
Thomas Harper.
Joseph Kirkbride.
Zachariah Poulson.
Richard Peters, junr.
•Edward Pennington.
Jacob Sperry.
James Caldwell.
Anthony Morris.
Martin Dubs.
Gavin Hamilton.
'^•'Ebenezer Zane, Virginia.
*Bazaliol Wells.
*Wm. Bakewell.
*Geo. Izard.
*G. W. P. Custis, Virginia.
Paul Busti.
^Samuel Dickey.
*John Gamett.
N. Brunswick, N. Jersey.
J. A. Eckfeldt.
*James Kelton.
^Albanus Logan.
Samuel Gibson.
^Nathaniel Comegys, Md.
^Thomas Main.
George-Town, Potowmac.
XX
LUt of Members.
Samuel Meeker. ^Joseph Capner.
*John Taylor. Flemington, N. Jersey
Port-Royal, Virginia. *Caleb Kirk, Delaware.
^Joseph Priestley. *Detmar Bassa MuUer.
*Winthrop Sargeant, Natches *Paul Cooper, N. Jersey.
^Wm. Dunbar. ditto. *Thomas Newbold, ditto.
John Lang.
'•^Samuel Bayard.
Princeton, New-Jersey,
OUTLINES OF A PLAN..
FOR ESTABLISHING
A STATE SOCIETY
OF AGRICULTURE
IN PENNSYLVANIA.
At a special meeting of the Philadelphia society for promotr
ing agriculture^ on the 21st of January^ 1794.
AGREED, That Mr. Bordley, Mr. G. Clymer, Mr.
Peters and Mr. Pickering, be a committee to prepare out-
lines of a plan for establishing a state society lor the promo-
tion of agriculture ; connecting with it the education of
youth in the knowledge of that most important art, while
they are acquiring other useful knowledge suitable for the
agricultural citizens of the state.
And a petition to the legislature, with a view to obtain
an act of incorporation.
At a special 7neeting of the society^ January 28, 1794.
The committee -appointed at the last meeting to prepare
outlines of a plan for establishing a state society for the pro-
motion of agriculture, and a petition to the legislature for
an act of incorporation, made report. The report was adopt-
ed. The same committee are now requested to sign the pe-
tition, present it to the legislature, and attend the commit-
tee thereof which may be appointed to confer with them on
the subject.
xxii FettttQii,
To the Senate and House of Representatives of the
Commomvealth of Pennsylvania,
The Philadelphia society for promoting agriculture, beg
leave to represent :
THAT finding the important object of their association
not to be sufficiently attained on the limited plan, and by the
means hitherto pursued, they are desirous of promoting an
establishment on a broad and permanent basis, which may
rtfFord more certain prospects of advancing the interests of
agriculture. They also conceive that the acquiring a know-
ledge of it may be combined with the education which is
practicable and most useful for the great body of citizens.
To shew what in their opinion may, in process of time
be accomplished, they take the liberty of presenting to the
view of the legislature, the annexed outlines of a plan for
establishing a State Society of Agriculture in Pennsylvaniay
which shall embrace the aforementioned objects.
They pray that a committee of the legislature may be ap-
pointed to confer with a committee of the society on the
subject J and, as the necessary means of conducting the ex-
ecution of the plan, that an act of incorporation may be grant-
ed to the persons whose names shall be presented for that
purpose.
By order and in behalf of the society.
John B. Bordley,
George Clymer,
Timothy Pickering,
Richard Peters.
OUTLINES OF A PLAN, t(c.
1. THE legislature to be applied to for an act of incor-
poration of the society, which is to consist of citizens of the
state, as generally dispersed throughout the same as possi-
ble. In the first instance, the society to be composed of such
persons as may be named, and these to be vested with au-
thority to make rules for admission of other members, and
by-laws for the government of the society, as usual in simi-
lar cases. Honorary members to be admitted according to
rules to be established, and these may be of any state or
country.
2. The organization of the society shall be so formed, that
the business thereof may be done by a few, who will be re-
sponsible to the body of the society, in such manner as their
by-laws shall direct.
3. The governor of the state, the speakers of the houses
pf the legislature, and the chief justice for the time being, to
be the visitors of the corporation. The transactions of the
active members, i. e. those entrusted with the monies and af-
fairs of the society, by whatever name or description they
may be designated, and all by-laws and regulations, to be
• submitted to the visitors ; to the end that the same may be
so conducted and established as not to prejudice the interests
of the corporation, or interfere with or oppose the consti-
tution or laws of the state. The visitors will also judge of
the objects of the society, and perceive whether or not they
are calculated to promote the ends of its institution. Re-
ports may by them be made annually to the legislature. —
These will be useful, as they will exhibit in a comprehen-
sive view, the state of agriculture throughout the common-
wealth, and give an opportunity to the legislature of being
informed on a subject so important to the prosperity of the
xxiv Outlines of a Plan for establishing
countty, both as it relates to political eeconomy and the indi-
vidual happiness of the people. The legislature will per-
ceive, from their reports, when and in what manner they
may lend their assistance to forward this primar^^ object :
Whether by endovring proiessorships, to be annexed to the
university oF Pennsylvania and the college of Carlisle, and
other seminaries o/ learning, lor the purpose of teaching the
chemical, philosophical and elementary parts of the theory
of agriculture : or by adding to the funds of the society, in-
crease their ability to propagate a knowledge of the subject,
and stimulate, by premiums and other incentives, the exer-
tions of the agricultural citizens : or whether by a combi-
nation of these means, the welfare oi the state may be more
effectually promoted.
4. Though it will be most convenient to make the reposi-
tory of the information of the society, and the office or place
of transacting its business at Philadelphia ; yet it is intend-
ed that the society shall be rendered active in eveiy part of
the state. To effect this, there should be county societies
established, organized as each shall think proper. In union
with, or as parts thereof, there may be agricultural meet-
ings or establishments, at the will of those who compose
them, in one or more townships of a county. These may
correspond with the county societies, and the latter may an-
nually inform the society of the state (of which the less so-
cieties may be considered as branches) of all the material *
transactions of their respective societies. Societies already
formed may remain as they are. They may, at their option,
correspond directly with the state society, or through the so-
ciety of the county in which they meet, as shall be found
most convenient and agreeable to them. They will thus
collect all the information and business relating to the sub-
ject, and will give an opportunity to the society of the state,
to see where their assistance is most necessar}', and afford a
facility of diffusing agricultural knowledge. The premiums.
a State Society of AgTiciilture* xxv
books and other articles, at the disposal of the society, may
pass through the hands of the county or other societies, for
many purposes ; and they can judge on the spot, of the pre-
tensions of the claimants. The county schoolmasters may
be secretaries of the county societies ; and the school houses
the places of meeting and the repositories of their transac-
tions, models, &c. The legislature may enjoin on these
schoolmasters, the combination of the subject of agriculture
with the other parts of education. This may be easily ef-
fected, by introducing, as school books, those on this sub-
ject ; and thereby making it familiar to their pupils. These
will be gaining a knowledge of the business they are desti-
ned to follow, while they are taught the elementary parts of
their education. Books thus profitable to them in the com-
mon affairs of life, may be substituted for some of those now
used ; and they can easily be obtained. Selections from the
best writers on husbandry may be made by the society. The
essays of our own experimentalists or theorists, and the pro-
ceedings of the society, will also afford information ; and as
many of these will, no doubt, be good models of composi-
tion, they may form a part of the selection for the use of the
county schools. And thus the youth in our country will ef-
fectually, and at a cheap rate, be grounded in the knowledge
of this important subject. They will be easily inspired with
a thirst for enquiry and experiment, and either never acquire,
or soon banish attachments to bad systems, originating in the
ignorance and bigotry of their forefathers, which in all coun-
tries have been the bane of good husbandry. It will also be
the business of the society to recommend the collection of
useful books on agriculture and rural affairs in every county.
The citizens of the country should be drawn into a spirit of
enquiry by the establishm.ent of small, but well chosen libra-
ries, on various subjects. This would not only promote the
interests of agriculture, but it v/ould diffuse knowledge among
xxvi Outlines of a Plan^ for establishing'
the people and assist good government, which is never in
danger while a free people are well infovmed.
5. The general meetings of this society, consisting of such
members as may choose to attend, and particularly those charg-
ed with communications or information from the county and
other societies, should be held at Philadelphia, at a time, in
the winter sessions of the legislature, when citizens who may
be members thereof, or have other business, can with most
convenience attend. At these meetings, the general busi-
ness of the society can be arranged, its funds and transac-
tions examined, and its laws and rules reported, discussed
and rendered generally serviceable and agreeable to the
whole.
6. It will be necessary that a contribution be made by each
member, annually, for a fund. But this should be small,
that it may not be too heavy a tax. The funds will, no
doubt, be increased by donations from individuals; and if
the state should find the institution as useful as it is con-
templated to be, the patriotism of the members of the go-
vernment will be exercised, by affording assistance out of
the monies of the state. They will perceive that it is vain
•to give facility to transportation, unless the products of the
country are increased by good husbandry : And though these
facilities are important to the objects of this society, yet an
increased knowledge of agriculture is the foundation of their
extensive utility. The subjects of both are intimately con-
nected, and mutually depend on each other.
r. When the funds of the society increase sufficiently to
embrace the object, it will perfect all its efforts by establish-
ing Pattern Farms ^ in different and convenient parts of the
state. Let the beginning of this plan be with one establish-
ment, under the direction of the society, and committed to
the care of a complete farmer and gardener. In this, all fo-
reign and domestic trees, shrubs, plants, seeds or grains may
be cultivated, and if approved as useful, disseminated, with
directions for their culture, through the state. The most ap-
a State Societij of Agriculture, xxvii.
proved implements may be used on this farm, and either im-
proved by additions, or simplefied to advantage. Inventions
may be brought to trial, and the best selected. Models there-
of may be made and transmitted to the county and other so-
cieties. Those who are sent to, or occasionally visit the farm,
will gain more knowledge, in all its operations, from a short
inspection, than can be acquired, in a long time, by reading
on the use and constiaiction of instruments, or the modes of
cultivation. The cheapest, best and most commodious style
of rural architecture — the most proper and permanent live-
fences — improvements in the breed of horses, cattle and
sheep — remedies for occasional and unforeseen visitations of
vermin — the times and seasons for sowing particular crops-r-
the adapting foreign products to our climate — and preven-
tives against all the evils attendant on our local situation, or
arising from accidental causes — may here be practically in-
troduced. The thoughts and suggestions of ingenious men
may here be put in practice ; and being brought to the test
of experiment, their utility may be proved, or their fallacv
detected. This farm need not be large. On it the best
systems novy' known may be carried through, and farther
experiments made : promising youths may be sent from dif-
ferent parts of the state, to learn practically the arts of hus-
bandry. Manures and the best mode of collecting them,
may be tried ; native manures should be sought after, and
premiums given for their discovery. Their efficacy may be
proved by small experiments on this .arm, which should, in
epitome, embrace the whole circle of practical husbandrv.
Similar farms may be added, as the funds increase ; and
thus practical agricultural schools be instituted throughout
the state.
8. When the pecuniary affairs of the society become ade-
quate, it will highly contribute to the interest of agriculture,
if, at the expence of the society, some ingenious person or
persons were sent to Europe, for the purposes of agricultural
enquiries. It would be well too, if a few young persoilSj,
xxviii Outlines of a Plan^ for establishing'
of promising abilities, were sent thither, to be instructed in
the arts of husbandry, the breeding of cattle, &c. and to
gain a practical knowledge on all subjects connected Avith
this interesting, delightful and important business, on which
the existence, wealth and permanent prosperity of our coun-
try so materially depend.
9. Although it would seem that a great portion of this
plan has reference to the older settlements of the state, yet
in fact, many of its most useful arrangements will apply to
new settlements, in an eminent degree. These settlements
are, for the most part, first established by people little ac-
quainted with a good st}de of husbandry. The earth, in its
prime, throws up abundant vegetation, and for a short period
rewards the most careless husbandman. Fertility is ante-
cedent to his efforts ; and he has it not to re-create by ar-
tificial means. But he is ignorant of the most beneficial
modes whereby he can take advantage of this youthful vi-
gour, with which his soil is blessed. He wastes its strength,
and suffers its riches to flee away. A bad style of cropping,
increases the tendency of fresh lands to throw up weeds, and
other noxious herbage ; and that luxuriance, which with care
and system might be perpetuated, is indulged in its own de-
struction. It is discovered, when it is too late, that what
^vas the foundation of the support and wealth of the impro-
vident possessor, has been, by his ignorance and neglect, like
the patrimony of a spendthrift, permitted, and even stimu-
lated, rapidly to pass from him in wild extravagance.
The products of nature, in our new countries, seldom
have been turned to account. The timber is deemed an in-
cumbrance, and at present is perhaps too much so. The la-
bour and expence of preparing for tillage are enormous ; and,
when the sole object is that oi cultivation, very discourag-
ing.=^ European books give us no lessons in these operations.
*At the present time (1808) the expence of clearing- land is much les-
sened, owing to the g-i-eat influx of population in our new countries ; foi-
fiTe dollars per acre, land may be completely cleared of timbei'.
a State Society of Agriculture* xxix
But when the experience of our people is aided and brought
to a point, by an union of facts and the ingenuity of intelli-
gent men, now too much dispersed to be drawn into system,
it is to be expected, with the surest prospects of success,
that our difficulties on this head will be abated, if not over-
come. The manufacture of potash, and the products of the
sugar-maple, may be objects of the attention of the society.
More profitable modes ol applying labour will hereby be pro-
moted, and returns for expence, in the preparation for cul-
ture, be obtained. Facilities for clearing lands may be dis-
covered. Minerals, earths and fossils now either unknown or
neglected, may be brought into use, or become objects of
commerce. In fine, no adequate calculation can be formed
of the effects which may be produced by a consolidation of
the efforts, and even speculations, of our citizens, whose in-
terests will stimulate them to exertion. Channels of com-
munication will be established, and the whole will receive
the benefits arising from a collection of the thoughts and la-
bours of individuals, whose minds will be turned to a sub-
ject so engaging and profitable, as well to themselves as to
their country.
It is much to be regretted, that the excellent plan pro-
posed in the foregoing outline, was not acted upon and car
ried into effect by the legislature to which it was presented.
At some future period, it is to be hoped, that the impor-
tance of the measure will be duly estimated, and properly
encouraged by our state government. Those who consider
the effect of witnessing good practices, must be convinced,
that no.- measure within the reach of man, would tend so
completely to improve the agriculture of the state as a pat-
tern farm. A similar establishment, though upon the plan
of subscription was proposed by Sir John Sinclair, in Lon-
don, in the year 1800, but was not carried into effect, A
national farm was established by the French government in
xxviii Outlines of a Flan ^ for establishing'
of promising abilities, were sent thither, to be instructed in
the arts of husbandly, the breeding of cattle, &c. and to
gain a practical knowledge on all subjects connected with
this interesting, delightful and important business, on which
the existence, wealth and permanent prosperity of our coun-
try so materially depend.
9. Although it would seem that a great portion of this
plan has reference to the older settlements of the state, yet
in fact, many of its most useful arrangements will apply to
new settlements, in an eminent degree. These settlements
are, for the most part, first established by people little ac-
quainted with a good st^^le of husbandry. The earth, in its
prime, throws up abundant vegetation, and for a short period
rewards the most careless husbandman. Fertility is ante-
cedent to his efforts ; and he has it not to re-create by ar-
tificial means. But he is ignorant of the most beneficial
modes whereby he can take advantage of this youthful vi-
gour, with which his soil is blessed. He wastes its strength,
and suffers its riches to flee away. A bad style of cropping,
increases the tendency of fresh lands to throw up weeds, and
other noxious herbage ; and that luxuriance, which with care
and system might be perpetuated, is indulged in its own de-
struction. It is discovered, when it is too late, that what
was the foundation of the support and wealth of the impro-
vident possessor, has been, by his ignorance and neglect, like
the patrimony of a spendthrift, permitted, and even stimu-
lated, rapidly to pass from him in wild extravagance.
The products of nature, in our new countries, seldom
have been turned to account. The timber is deemed an in-
cumbrance, and at present is perhaps too much so. The la-
bour and expence of preparing for tillage are enormous ; and,
when the sole object is that oi cultivation, very discourag-
ing. "^ European books give us no lessons in these operations*
*At the present time (1808) the expence of clearing- land is much les-
sened, owing- to the great influx of population in our new countries ; foi^
fire dollars per acre, land may be completely cleared of timbei*.
a State Society of Agrknltiire* xxix
But when the experience of our people is aided and brought
to a point, by an union of facts and the ingenuity of intelli-
gent men, now too much dispersed to be drawn into system,
it is to be expected, with the surest prospects of success,
that our difficulties on this head will be abated, if not over-
come. The manutacture of potash, and the products of the
sugar-maple, may be objects of the attention of the society.
More profitable modes oi applying labour will hereby be pro-
moted, and returns for expence, in the preparation for cul-
ture, be obtained. Facilities for clearing lands may be dis-
covered. Minerals, earths and fossils now either unknown or
neglected, may be brought into use, or become objects of
commerce. In fine, no adequate calculation can be formed
of the effects which may be produced by a consolidation of
the efforts, and even speculations, of our citizens, whose in-
terests will stimulate them to exertion. Channels of com-
munication will be established, and the whole will receive
the benefits arising from a collection of the thoughts and la-
bours of individuals, whose minds will be turned to a sub-
ject so engaging and profitable, as well to themselves as to
their country.
It is much to be regretted, that the excellent plan pro-
posed in the foregoing outline, was not acted upon and car
ried into effect by the legislature to which it was presented.
At some future period, it is to be hoped, that the impor-
tance of the measure will be duly estimated, and properly
encouraged by our state government. Those who consider
the effect of witnessing good practices, must be convinced,
that no.- measure within the reach of man, would tend so
completely to improve the agriculture of the state as a pat-
tern farm. A similar establishment, though upon the plan
of subscription was proposed by Sir John Sinclair, in Lon-
don, in the year 1800, but was not carried into effect. A
national farm was established by the French government in
xxs Outlines of a Plan for establishing^ ^c.
1783, at Charenton near Paris, and afterwards removed
to Rambouillet, and placed under the care of the cele-
brated Daubenton, and is continued to this day ; a full proof
that great benefit has been derived from it» At this place,
the breeds of various kinds of good cattle are kept pure,
particularly of fine wooUed sheep, whence farmers from every
part of the kingdom are supplied upon moderate terms, a
regulation, from which it is evident the greatest advantages
must be derived to the community at large,
"A Veterinary School is connected with the farm, and four
other professorships established, two for rural ceconomy, one>
for anatomy, and another for chymistry. There is a spacious,
apartment for dissecting animals, a large cabinet, where the
most interesting parts of all domestic animals are preserv^ed,
and also of such parts of their bodies, that mark the effect of
visible distempers. This, with a similar one near Lyons, is
kept up, at the moderate expencc of 60,000 livres, (2600
pounds sterling).
There are at present, about one hundred pupils from dif-
ferent parts of the kingdom, as well as from every country
in Europe, except England ; a strange exception, considering
how grossly ignorant our farriers are." — Travels by A. Toung'
in France^ in 1787-8-9^ pa^e 67. Lond, 1792.
The following premiums were offered by the society in the
year 1791, a short time previously to the suspension of their
regular meetings. A part of them had been previously offered
at different periods. They are now published with a view of
calling the attention of farmers to the v^arious important sub-
jects noticed in them, and though the society do not deem
themselves bound by the prizes offered in the list, in conse-
quence of the subjects which have been proposed in that
immediately following, yet they will always be happy in an
opportunity of distinguishing, by some honorable mark,
the enterprizing cultivator, who successfully attempts to im-
■^rove the agricultvLre of his countrv.
PREMIUMS
PROPOSED BY THE
PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY
rOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE IN THE YEAR 1791.
I. THE ROTATION or CROPS having been found in Eng-
land constantly to improve the soil instead of exhausting it —
and the society being persuaded, that to this management
alone is to be attributed the great comparative products of
that country — they esteem it of the first importance to Ame-
rica to gain a knowledge of the theory and practice of so
admirable a system. — Within the limits of this article, it is
impossible to state, with any useful degree of precision, prin-
ciples, which, after all, must vary with circumstances — ^but
knowing that some farmers, in Pennsylvania and elsewhere,
have already made themselves acquainted with this mode of
husbandry ; and that it is as much the interest, as it is with-
in the power of all to obtain the necessary knowledge — the
society without attempting to lay down any particulai' direc-
tions, offer — ^For the best experiment of a five years course
of crops — a piece of plate, of the value of two hundred dol-
lars, inscribed with the name and the occasion ; and for the
experiment made of a like course of crops, next in merit —
a piece of plate, likewise inscribed, of the value of one him-
dred dollars.
II. The importance of complete farm or fold-yards, for
sheltering and folding cattle — and of the best method of cor •
xxxii Old Premiums,
ducting the same, so as to procure the greatest quantities of
compost, or mixed dung and manure, from within the farm,
induces the society to give for the best design of such a yard,
and method of managing it, practicable by common far-
mers— a gold medal : and for the second best — a silver me=
dal.
III. For the best method of raising hogs, from the pig,
in pens or sties, from experience ; their sometimes running
in a lot or field not totally excluded, if preferred — a gold
medal ; and for the second best — a silver medal.
IV. For the best method of recovering v/orn outfields to a
more hearty state, within the power of common farmers^
without dear or far-fetched manures ; but by judicious cul-
ture, and the application of materials common to the gene=
rality of farms ; founded in experience— a gold medal ; and
for the second best — a silver medal.
V. For the best information, the result of actual experience,
for preventing damage to crops by insects ; especially the Hes-
sian-flv, the wheat-fly, or fly-weevil, the pea-bug, and the com
chinch-bug or fly — a gold medal ; a silver medal for the se-
cond best.
VI. For the best comparative experiments on the culture
of wheat, by sowing it in the common broad-cast way, by
drilling it, and by setting the grain, with a machine, equi-dis-
tant ; the quantities of seed and produce proportioned to the
ground, being noticed — a gold medal ; for the second best —
a silver medal.
VII. For an account of a vegetable food that may be easi-
ly procured and preserved, and that best increases milk in
cows and ewes, in March and April, founded on experi-
ment— a gold medal ; for the second best — a silver medal.
VIII. For the greatest quantity of gTomid, not less than
one acre, well fenced, producing locust trees, growing in
1791, from seed sown after April 5th, 1785; the trees to
be of the sort used for posts and trunnels, and not iewer
than 1500 per acre — a gold medal ; for the second — a silver
medal.
Old Premiums, xxxiii-
IX. The society believing that very important advantages
would be derived iVom the general use of oxen, instead of
horses, in husbandry and other services ; and being desirous
of facilitating their introduction into all these states ; per-
suaded also, that the comparative value of oxen and cows
must very much depend on the qualities oi their sires and
dams ; and that by a careful attention to the subject, an im«
proved breed may be obtained ; they propose a gold medal
for the best essay, the result of experience, on the breeding,
feedmg, and management of cattle, for the purpose of ren-
dering them most profitable for the dairy, and for beef, and
most docile and useful for the draught -, and for the next
best — a silver medal.
N. B. Among other things the essay should notice the dif-
ferent breeds of cattle, and their comparative qualities ; as
their sizes, strength, facility in fattening, quantity of milk, &c.
X. It is a generally received opinion, that horses in at
team travel much faster than oxen ; yet some European
writers on husbandry mention many instances, in which it
appeared, not only that oxen would plough as much ground
as an equal number of horses, but also travel as fast with a
loaded carriage : particularly when, instead of yokes and
bows, they were geared in horse-harness, with such varia-
tions as were necessary to adapt it to their different shape.
To ascertain the powers of oxen in these particulars, and the
expence of maintaining them, the society deem matters of
very great moment ; and are therefore induced to offer a
gold medal for the best set of experiments, undertaken with
that view ; and for the next best, a silver medal. In relating
these experiments, it will be proper to describe the age and
size of the oxen, their plight, the kinds and quantities of
their food, the occasions, manner, and expence or shoeing
them ; in travelling, the kinds of carriages used, and weight
of their loads, and seasons o\ the year, and the length and
quality of the roads : and, in ploughing, the size and lash-
e
xxxlv Old Premiums.
ion of the plough, the quality of the soil, the depth of the
furrows, and the quantities ploughed : and, in every opera-
tion, the time expended, and number and sorts of hands em-
ployed in perlorming it ; with any other circumstances w^hich
may more fully elucidate the subject. These experiments will
enable the essayist to determine what will be the best form
and construction of yokes and bows, and what of ox-harness,
to enable oxen, with the best carriage of their bodies and
heads, the most ease, and quickest step, to drav/ the heaviest
loads, a description of each of which sort of gears, explained
cm mechanical principles, r.iUst be subjoined to the account
of experiments.*
XI. For the best method, within the power of common
farmers, of recovering old gullied fields to an hearty state,
and such uniformity, or evenness of surface, as will again
render them fit for tillage ; or where the gullies are so deep
and numerous as to render such recovery impracticable, ior
the best method of improving them, by planting trees, or
otherwise, so as to yield the improver a reasonable profit
for his expences therein, founded on experiment — a gold
medal ; 'and for the next best — a silver medal.
XII. For the best cheese, not less than five hundred pounds
weight, made on one farm within the United States, and
which shall be produced to the society by the first day of
January, 1792 — a gold medalf — and for the next greatest
quantity, not less than two hundred and fifty pounds weight,
of equal quality — a silver medal.
XIII. The society believing that the culture of hemp on,
some of the low rich lands in the neighbourhood of this cit}^^
*The facts lately brought forward by Lord Somerville of England, are
decisive as to the great oeconomy of oxen for farm work : the experience
too of the farmers in New-England shews, that the expensive animal the
horse, is by no means so necessary as many suppose for agricultural la-
bour. 1808.
fThis premium was obtained by Mr. Mathewson of Rhode-Island,
Old Premiums, xxxv
may be attempted with advantage, do hereby ofFer a gold
medal for the greatest quantity of hemp raised within ten
miles of the city of Philadelphia. The quantity not to be
less than three ton; for the second greatest quantity — a sil-
ver medal.
^^^ It will be left to the choice of those successful candi-
dates for prizes, who may be entitled to the plate or gold
medals, to receive the same either in plate or medals, or the
equivalent ii^ money.
The claim of every candidate for a premium is to be ac-
companied with, and supported by, certificates of respecta-
ble persons of competent knowledge of the subject. And
it is required, that the matters, for which premiums are of-
fered, be delivered in without names, or any intimation to
whom they belong ; that each particular thing be marked in
what manner the claimant thinks fit ; such claimant sending
w^ith it a paper sealed up, having on the outside a correspond-
ing mark, and on the inside the claimant's name and address.
Respecting experiments on the products of land, the cir-
cumstance of the previous and subsequent state of the ground,
particular culture given, general state of the weather, &c.
will be proper to be in the account exhibited. Indeed in all
experiments and reports of facts, it will be v/ell to particu*
larize the circumstances attending them. It is recommend-
ed that reasoning be not mixed with the facts ; after stating
the latter, the former may be added, and will be acceptable.
Although the society reserv^e to themselves the power of
giving, in every case, either one or the other of the prizes,
(or premiums) as the performance shall be adjudged to de-
serve, or of withholding both, if there be no merit, yet the
candidates may be assured, that the society will always judge
iiberallv of their several claims.
PREMIUMS
PROPOSED BY
THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF
PHILADELPHIA
FOR THE YEAR 1806.
To be conthiued till any measure^ experiment^ or practice,
nozv proposed^ and commenced in this or the succeeding
year^ be brought to siifficient perfection and proof.
1. Ascertaining the component parts of arable land.
To the person who shall produce the most satisfactory set
of experiments, to ascertain th^ due proportion of the several
component parts of arable land, in one or more of the old coun-
ties of this state, by an accurate analjsis thereof. A like analysis
in detail must also be made of the poorest, medium, and
richest soils, in the same county or counties. By a due ad-
mixture of these soils, or substances within the reach of com-
mon farmers, they are by these experiments, to be enabled
to improve, by good tillage, and a course of applicable crops,
the poorest or most worn land, with the materials found on
their ow^n farms, or those of their neighbours respectively. —
Lime, or lime stone, is excluded, its qualities and effects be-
Premiums proposed hij the xxxvii
ing already well known. But clays, marles, gypsum and
sand, or other natural substances, ;all within the meaning ot
this proposal. The crops, so far as consistent with good
husbandry, to be the same a-ter improvement as before, and
their relative product to be given. All auxiliary, and influ-
encing circumstances to be mentioned ; as well as the mode
and results Oj the analysis ; and the proportions of the com-
binations. Artificial manures, after improvement, (lime at
this stage may be one) may be used, if the like had been be-
fore applied : and all the means and circumstances are to be
fairly developed. A piece of plate of the value of one hun-
dred dollars.
The object is, not only to promote experiments calculated
to improve farms, out of the materials ibund upon them ;
and thus save, or extend the efficacy of artificial manures;
but to excite a spirit of exploration for fossils, earths, marie,
and clays, applicable to agricultural as wxll as manufacturing
purposes. For subterraneous researches, the society have
provided a very complete set of boring instruments, with
which those who will use them effectually, may be accom-
modated.
2. Trench Ploughing,
For the greatest quantity and best trench ploughed worn
land, not less than five acres. The trenching not less than
ten inches deep.
The following mode of trenching is recommended, as be-
ing known to be practicable, and easily performed.
1. Provide a light plough, from 12 to 15 inches wide in
the hind part of the span or sole, calculated to pare off the
sod from 2 to 3 inches deep, according to the depths of the
roots of weeds.
2. A strong heavy Trench Plough^ capable of turning a
depth of from 8 to 10 inches of mould, or earth. This must
be one or two inches narrower than the Paring Plough^ or
it will cut into the unpared sod. The first is to be drawn by
xxxviii Premiums proposed by the
a pair of horses or oxen. The second by two pair of oxen,
or strength equiva]ent. A Trench must be first made, with
the Trench Plough as deep as practicable. The Paring
Plough must then pare the sod off the next intended lurrow,
and turn it into the trench. The Trench Plough follows,
constantly, after the Paring Plough, This throws over a
body of eardi so as to bury all w^eeds, which are placed too
deep for vegetation, and thus, by rott ng, become manure.
The mould board, of the Trench Plough, should have a thin
plate of flexible iron (an old stone-saw the best) screwed on
its upper edge, vertically^ so as to extend the surface and
accommodate itself to the curvature of the mould board. —
With this auxiliary, the loose earth will be completely thrown
into the trench. It is otherwise liable to run over, and choak
the Plough. Both Ploughs (the latter the most) require bri-
dles, or clevasses with notches and curvated regulators, to
direct and fix both their depth and lateral course. Such are
not uncommon. The east Jersey, or low Dutch plan, is the
best for the Trench Plough. A Coulter is not much re-
quired.
This operation should be performed in the autumn, and
the field lay through the winter, to attract from the air,
whatever is the food of plants j and to receive the benefits
of fre(^uent frosts and thaws. The subsequent ploughing
need be no deeper than usual in good tillage. If limed the
first spring for Indian Corn^ the better it will produce. A
fallov/ crop oiily should succeed the trenching the first year^
and Corn admits and requires frequent stirring and exposure
of the soil. For the best experiment, a gold^ and for the
second best, a silver medal.
3. A course on trench-ploughed ground.
For the best and cleanest course of crops, on not less than
five acres of land trench-ploughed. The course may be. 1.
Indian corn. 2. Legumes. If beans or pease, of a species
least subject to the bug ; and sov>ti on the fallow of the 2d
Agricultural Societzj of Philadelphia* xxxix
year, so as to be off in time for a winter crop of wheat or
rye. Broad cast of the legumes as a cover, be preferable ;
though drillmg will be highly useful. Potatoes may occupy
a part, to be taken off in time for wheat. 3. Clover sown in the
winter grain. 4. Clover. This, course will be preferred in
a competition, unless the society shall be convinced, by the
results oi another course, that in practice, turns out better.
Manure admitted ; but the best products, with the least ar-
tificial manure, will be preferred. A gold medal for the best ;
and one of silver, for the second best experiment.
The object of both the above premiums is, to introduce a
practice, found very beneficial where it has been fairly tried ^
and to place the experiments in the hands of spirited and in-
telligent agriculturists, who will do complete justice to them-
selves, and the subject recommended to their exertions.
4. Cover of Leguminous Crops.
For the best and greatest crops of beans, pease, or other
legumes^ of th© kind beiore mentioned, sown broad-cast, as
covering on fallows, preparatory to winter grain. Not less
than five acres, and left clean and fit for wheat. These crops
ameliorate, and do not exhaust like all culmiferous plants
and those whose seeds produce oil. Oats — the worst and
most ruinous to succeeding winter crops.
The object is, to introduce the practice of valuable and
improving covering crops, in preference to naked fallows, or
exhausting covers. A silver medal, or fifty dollars.
5. Destruction of perennial xveeds.
For the best set of experiments calculated for the destruc-
tion oi perennial weeds. The daisy or Maij weed^ ransted^
garlic^ and St, Johri^s ivort^ to be particularly aim.ed at and
noticed. A botanical account oi th^ \Y&G^ds com-VCionly infesting
our fields, will highly recommend these experiments ; and
communications, relative to all or any of those enumerated,
will be gratefully received. This account should specitdly
tl Premiwns proposed bij the
mark the stages of their growth ; and periods when they are
the most easily destroyed, by the means employed. Botani-
zing for the destruction of weeds, is as necessary and lauda-
ble, as it is for the propagation and culture of useiul plants.- —
Nothing promotes the health, increase, and value o. the lat-
ter, more than expelling the iormer. Trench ploughing is
excluded. This has been found to be the surest mode of
destroying weeds ; especially those with fibrous or bulbous
roots. A gold medal.
6. Dt
•y-
To the person who shall exhibit to the society an account
of the profits of the best dairij^ applied to butter or cheese.
Not less than twenty cows. The greatest proportion ol cows
kept the longest in profit, and the best. Winter feed (oeco-
nomy considered) for carrying the cows productively through
the season, enters into the account. The greatest product
from an equal number kept without change (except by sub-
stitution of Avell bred heifers raised on the farm) through the
year, will have the preference. It is to be understood, that
changing cows is not to be admitted, unless full proof, on the
annual balance of account, that such practice is comparative-
ly the most productive and profitable, Avhen in competition
vrlth one predicated on keeping the same set of cows through
•the year. The same profits from the permanent dairy (un-
avoidable casualties allowed) will be preferred. It will be re-
commendatory of the pretensions of the claimant, if the ac-
count be accompanied with experiments, or practical know-
ledge of the best sizes, description, breed, and ages of dairy
cows.
The object is, to induce an attention to the breed and se-
lection of dairij cows. Their points and qualities differ from
those proper for breeding beef cattle, or for venders of milk.
Much depends even with the best stock, on regularity and at-
tention in the dairy women. Unless great care in stripping,
and regular periods of milking, are practised, as well as clean-
Agricultural Society of Philadelphia^ xli
liness in keeping, the best cow will soon cease to be in pro-
lit. The quality, and not the quantity of milk is the most;
important. Nor are the largest the best for the dairy : espe-
cially where there are short bites and irregular seasons. A
silver medal, or fifty dollars.
7. Live Fences,
For the best experiment on, or practical application of,
any species of shrub or tree proper for live fences ; and the
most ceconomical and practical mode of securing them in
their early stages of growth, from injur\^ by cattle or other
enemies.
The general idea of European agriculturists has been con-
fined on this subject, to thorn ox quick inclosures. But these
may not be found exclusively the best here. On Long Lsl-
and^ before the revolution, a very able and spirited proprietor
of a large estate there, went very extensively into inclosures
with quick set, procured not only in this country, but from
Europe and elsewhere. He found the thoni, of every de-
scription, subject to many casualties and diseases ; some of
them unknown in Europe. Blights injured a great proportion,
after they were in sufficient growth for inclosure without
protection. It was not frequent that a sound crop of haws
was produced ; these being subject to the worm, and other
impediments to their perfection. Although it is still dtsirable,
that every attention should be paid to the hawthorn^ it is not
improbable that some other of our native shrubs or trees,
may thrive as well, if not better ; and equal the thorn in utili-
ty. The object therefore is, to promote enquiries and expe-
riments that shall determine this point. The -walnut^ the ap'
ple^ the honey locust CGleditsia triacanthosj the white Jlow-
ering locust (Robinia pseudo-acacia^) have been tried, on a
small scale — Each has its peculiar disadvantages. The white
mulberry has also been recommended,
f
xlii Premiums proposed by the
Live fences are of such high importance, in our old settle-
ments, where the timber is daily decreasing, and the expence
of inclosure becoming so very serious, that the society cannot
sufficiently express their wishes, that some spirited and ex-
tensive measures may, without loss of time, be commenced
on this momentous subject. The present generation may re-
ceive incalculable advantages from successful experiment and
practice, in a desideratum so eminently interesting to them.
But posterity will bless the memory of those, of whose genius
and labours they enjoy the fruits. They will gratefully feel
the benefits of durable inclosures, commenced, if even not
entirely perfected, in our day : and while they inherit these
safe guards to their property, they will perceive the insur-
mountable difficulties to which they would have been exposed,
by a neglect on our part, to establish and provide them.
A gold or silver medal — according to the merit and extent
of the experiment or practice.
8. Clearing and cropping new Lands,
For the best essay, practical and theoretical, founded on
experience and facts, as well as calculation and investigation,
of the most approved and beneficial mode of clearing and
cultivating new settlements, in an unseated, and theretofore
uninhabited part of this state, or one in its neighbourhood. A
gold medal,
The^ practice heretofore used of girdliJig trees, can only
be justified by the necessity of doing it, through want of la-
bourers, by those who first enter a wilderness. But if lands
are inviting, population soon increases^ and yet the practice of
girdling the timber continues. One part is girdled after
another, v/ithout foresight or precaution. Timber is wan-
tonly, because lavishly and unnecessarily destroyed ; and be-
comes in a few years scarce, where its abundance was at first
accounted a burthen. Culmiferous crops [plants composed of
straw and chajy husks for the gi*ain] follow one another in
Agricultural Society of Philadelphia* xliii
uninterrupted succession, the worst of all bad husbandry. —
These are " stuhhled in'''' (the phrase of new settlers) till the
land is exhausted, and produces nothing but sorrel ?cs\^ other
execrable vegetation. The timber rots and falls, sometimes
dangerously to men and cattle. It is burnt and destroyed,
when the field, after a useless waste of time, is cropped
again. Fencing, fuel, building, implements, &c. call for tim-
ber— but it is distant or gone. The field is choaked with
briars, worthless shrubs, and other pests, and its cultivation
is generally more expensive than if well cleared originally,
and occupied by wholesome and productive crops, either of
grain or grass.
Many of us are interested in new lands — and all of us,
from public motives, wish to introduce a better stile of
clearing and cropping into our new countries. Information
from several new settlements (particularly some in the state
of New- York) is favourable to a far better plan, of both
clearing and cropping. It is, to till less ground cleared
perfectly ; and crop, according to circumstances, as near as
practicably to the rules of good husbandry. Labourers are
not there in greater plenty, than elsewhere, in such settle-
ments ; and yet the settlers succeed and thrive.
Our object is therefore, to obtain and promulgate every
species of information ; and thereby be enabled to recom-
mend and encourage better modes of clearing, and a more
advantageous, as well as reputable stile of husbandry, in our
new countries.
There are in these countries, many intelligent citizens,
who may, and it is hoped will assist in both example and in-
vestigation. But some of these have not correct ideas on
this subject. They conceive that the art of husbandry, for
the most part, consists in restoring, or creating fertility,,
which in new lands is the gift of nature. But the fact is,
that fertility without good management, like a savage in pow-
er, and subject to no civilized regulation, as often exerts it-
self mischievously as profitably. It frequently ruins by de-
xliv Premiums proposed by the
sultory and misapplied operations. Weeds and other worth-
less products, are its offspring. These, in many cases,
might be prevented, destroyed or converted into benefits,
with well directed systems. To instance only the sorrel
apparently the most mischievous and forbidding. It has
been found that with lime^ it may be made a powerful and
efficient auxiliary to profitable crops, and when judiciously ap-
plied is known in Europe to be so valuable, that the sorrel is
propagated for its uses in husbandry. Limestone is found a-
bundantly in most of our new lands, or at least, in very ex-
tensive districts. Careful experiments may point out the
mode of liming lands overrun by this apparent pest, so as to
destroy its bad qualities, and convert it to salutary and pro-
fitahle purposes. If this be not now deemed eligible in parts
where land is less valuable than labour, it will nevertheless
be an object e'er long, when the products of land are un-
attainable, without combinations of labour with ingenuit}',
good management and appropriate systems of husbandry.
9. Veterinary Essay and Plan.
For the best essay and plan for promoting veterinary
knowledge and instruction, both scientifically and practically,
under the circumstances of our country. Aid to schools and
establishments for this, among other agricultural purposes,
ought to be given by the national and state legislatures. But
agriculture^ and the subjects connected with it, have not
heretofore been cherished by their patronage. Her young
sister, commerce, has fortunately fascinated with contribu-
tions to revenue, and thereby secured protection and en-
couragement. But private and individual exertions, for the
accomplishment of agricultural objects, must, from necessi-
ty, be resorted to, for public benefits derived from this pri-
mary source of all the wealth and prosperity we enjoy. —
Some of the most worthy and truly respectable governments,
and many of the most eminent men, in Europe, have deemed
Agricultural Society of Philadelphia, xlv
the object here recommended, honourable, politic, and pro-
motive of the public interest and prosperity. While agri-
culturists are employed in the production of plants^ their
stocks of useful animals are abandoned, when diseased, to
all the calamities attendant on ignorance of their maladies,
or cure. . Pretenders and empirics, of the most contemptible
characters, prey on the necessities and credulity of those who
are compelled to apply to them on this subject.
The essay proposed, should among other requisites, be
calculated to rouse the attention of medical professors, to this
important branch of neglected knowledge. It should con-
vince them, that they cannot employ themselves, in any part
of their studies, in a manner more conducive to real re-
spectability of character, than in gaining and promulgating
information, so intimately connected with the wealth and po-
litical (Economy of their country. This society pledge them-
selves to distinguish, with some testimony of their gratitude,
any medical professor who will assist them in calling the at-
tention of students, to this very interesting subject.
Investigations into anatoiiiy^ diseases and re?nedies^ for the
preservation and improvement of animals, on which our sub-
sistence and comforts so materially depend, must assuredly
be considered worthy tUw most patient enquiry, intelligent
observation, and professional talents, of the most celebrated
among those, who have devoted themselves to medical pur-
suits. As patriots, it should stimulate their public spirit. —
As professional men, nothing can more entitle them to the
rewards due to their labours. Who is there among the most
respectable of our own citizens, or in the highest grades of
society in the old world, who has not deemed it meritorious
to promote the interests of agriculture ? And is there any
branch of that occupation so important, as that now recom-
mended to the notice and enquir\' of medical men ? If it has
held an inferior rank in the classification of science and know-
ledge, it is entirely owing to the unmerited neglect with
xlvi Premiums proposed by the Agricultural Society.
which it has been unaccountably treated. It is time it should
be rescued from obscurity, and placed among the most com-
mendable and necessary branches of medical education. A
gold medal.
10. JDo??iestic or Household Manufactures.
For the best and greatest quantity and quality of woolen,
cotton or linen fabrics, made in any family, by the members
thereof. Weaving, fulling, and dressing, may be done as
usual, in the accustomed modes of performing these opera-
tions. The object is, to encourage industry in the families
of farmers and others, at times when leisure from other oc-
cupations permits. Such intervals are too often filled up
with dissipation, or suffered to pass away in indolent waste
or inattention. The materials being raised or produced on
the farm, will entitle to preference in a competition. The
breed of sheep, and quality of wool, will be peculiarly re-
commendatory. A silver medal.
Although the society have principally confined their pre-
miums to honorary distinctions, they w' ill always be ready to
commute them for, or add pecuniary reward to assist in expen-
sive or difficult experiments. Our funds are far below our zeal.
But the former are not of so much r^oment, as energies ex-
cited bv emulation, among those who have strong propensi-
ties to benefit their country, while they are labouring for
themselves. Without the co-operation of our fellow citizens
of this description, all our well meant endeavours are vain !
*^=* For rules respecting claims- — See the laws, art. 14.
Richard Peters, President,
James Mease, m. d. Secretary^
No, 192 Chesnut-street — to xuhom communication^
may be sent.
LIBRARY
Maityn's edition of Miller's Gardener's Dictionary 2 vols.
folio.
Dr. Mease's edition of Willich's Domestic Encyclopaedia.
Bordley's Notes on Husbandry. [5 vols.
Trans. Agric. Soc. New York.
Marshall's Rural Economy, 14 vols. viz-
Southern Counties.
Do. New Edition.
Yorkshire.
West of England.
Norfolk.
Gloucestershire.
Midland Counties.
M'Mahon's Gardener.
Darwin's Phytologia.
Peters on Gj^sum.
Culley on Live Stock.
Lawrence's Farmer's Calendar,
on Cattle.
xlviii Library.
Communications to the Board of Agriculture of London,
4 vols.
Nicholson's Joiner's and Carpenter's Assistant.
Bryant on Esculent Plants.
Preston's modern English Fruit Gardener.
CuUyer's Farmer's Assistant.
Farmer's Magazine — Edinburgh, 7 vols.
Dundonald on the Intimate Connection of Agriculture
with Chymistry.
The Errors of my Age, with respect to Agriculture, by
M. Cointeraux (French.)
Complete Course of Agriculture, by Rosier lOv. (French.)
Michaux on the Oaks of the United States (French.)
Farmer's Daily Journal, or Accountant.
Farm accounts — consisting of ruled tables.
Forsyth's Principles of Agriculture, 2 vols.
Lucock on Wool.
Anstruther on Drill Husbandry.
Farmer's Calendar, by A. Young.
Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London.
Young's Agricultural Survey of Essex.
Dickson's Agricultural Magazine.
Scott's Plates of Prize Cattle.
Boydell's ditto.
White's Veterinary Medicine, 2 vols. *
Forsyth on Fruit-trees.
Epitome of Forsyth. Presented by J. Humphreys.
Gleanings of Husbandry. do. do.
THE following veiy appropriate and interesting Lecture^
was delivered by Dr. Rush, at the request of the President
of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, in compliance with
motives impressed by the recommendations of that Society in
their premiums. He has permitted it to be printed among
their Memoirs, at the request of the members of that Society,
who attended its deliveiy.
An Introductory Lecture to a Course of Lectures^ upon the
Institutes and Practice of Medicine^ delivered in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania^ on the 2nd of November^ 1807 ;
upon the duty- and advantages of studying the Diseases of
Domestic Animals^ and the Remedies proper to remove them*
By Benjamin Rush, m. d.
Gentlemen,
THE science of medicine is related to every thing. A
mere physician, that is, a physician who knows nothing but
the sciences which are supposed to belong exclusively to his
profession, is a non-entity. To deserve that title in its ex-
tensive import, it is necessaiy for us to know something of the
principles and practice of every art, and pursuit oi man. There
is scarcely one of them that does not furnish some useful facts,
or striking analogies, which may be applied to practical pur-
poses, or to the support of some important principle in medi-
cine. Even the science of morals is capable oi affording aid
to the healing art by its influence upon the understanding
through the medium of the passions. It produces this effect
1 Rush^ on studying the diseases of Anhnals.
in proportion to the extent of the objects to which we direct
our benevolence. The physician who loves the whole human
race, will always be actuated with more zeal to extend the
usefulness of his profession, than the physician whose affec-
tions are confined to the limited circle of his habitual patients.
His zeal v/ill be more active, and more impressive upon his
understanding, should he descend in the overflowings of
his benevolence from the human species, and embrace in his
studies and labors the means ot lessening the miseries of do-
mestic animals. This part .of the brute creation have large,
demands upon us. The design of this lecture is simply to
point out the duty and advantages of studying their dis-
eases, and the remedies that are proper to remove them. —
The subject is an interesting one to private gentlemen as
well as to physicians, and I entertain too high an opinion of the
good sense and correct views of medical science of my pre-
sent audience to believe, that a few remarks upon it will be
deemed an improper introduction to a course of lectures
upon the institutes and practice of medicine.
We are bound in the first place to discharge the important
duty to domestic animals which 1 have mentioned, by the re-
lation that has been established between them and us by the
author of nature. They were created at the same time, and
from a portion of the same dust of which our great ancestor
was formed. They are the only part of the brute creation
over which man has retained his dominion smce his banish-
ment from paradise. We are to them (says Dr. Hartley)
the vicegerents of God ; and empowered to receive homage
from them ; and we are obliged by the same tenure to be
their guardians andbene/actors.^ Their subjection to death,
and all the diseases and pains which they feel in common
with us, are the effects of the sam.e rebellion against the Go-
*Observations on the frame, duties and expectations of man. Vol 1. p.
415.
Eush^ on studymg the diseases of Anhnah* I
vemor of the universe which subjected Adam and all hi^
posterity to the same evils.
The diseases of the animals which still roam the forests,
and refuse to be subject to man, are few in number, and ge-
nerally of so mild a nature as to yield to the operations of na^
ture. But this is far from bemg the case with domestic ani-
mals. Like the human race, they acquire new and violent
diseases by civilization, or by the manner of life to which
their connection Wjith us, and their subserviency to our in-
terests and pleasures expose them. Even parturition so per-
fectly the work of nature in beasts of prey, is b;ten attend-
ed with the same difficulty and danger in domestic animak
that take place in women. Oi this Dr. Bland has mentioned
some remarkable instances in his observations upon human
and comparative parturition. Similar instances have been
communicated to me by Dr. Dewees, as having occurred
under his notice while he practised, midwifery in the neigh-
bourhood of Philadelphia.
2nd. We are bound to study the diseases of domestic ani-
mals, and the remedies that are proper to cure them, by a
principle of gratitude. They live only for our benefit. They
cost us nothing in wages or clothing. They require in ex-
change lor their labor, and all the other advantages we derive
from them, nothing from us but food and shelter, and these
of the cheapest and coarsest kind, so that there is constantly
due to them, an immense balance of debt from us. This mo-
tive to take care of their health and lives will appear more
striking when we consider the specific benefits we receive
from each oi them. The horse is not only an important ap-
pendage, but a necessary part o/the cement of civilized so-
ciety. He ploughs our fields, — ^he drags home our hai-vests
and fruits to our barns and cellars. He conveys them from
distant countries, over rough and difficult roads, to our mar-
ket towns and sea ports. He receives in exchange from them^
tlie products of foreign nations^ and conveys them to the in-
Ill Rush^ on studying the diseases of Anhnals,
terior and remote parts of our country. He keeps up the
inland connection between different states by means of stages
and posts, and thus favours the quick communication of in-
telligence, and the increase of national intercourse, commerce
and happiness. He administers to our health and to our
pleasures under the saddle, and in harness. He keeps up
societ)^ and friendship in neighbourhoods too scattered in its
population to admit of visits upon foot. In vain would coun-
try churches and courts be opened, without the strength of
this noble animal ; nor could the great system of representa-
tive government be supported in an agricultural country un-
less he conveyed the elector to the place of suffrage. In main-
taining the freedom and independence of nations, the horse
bears a distinguished part. When caparisoned with the fur-
niture of war, he ieels with his rider, the courage and the
pride of arms. In the race, he delights us with his swift-
ness, in which he exceeds all other lOur footed animals. — =
^or let us forget his sagacity in discovering roads, and chu-
sing the safest parts of them, when inattention or darkness,
has rendered his rider, or driver unable to discover them.—
In the physician's midnight excursion to visit the sick, how
often has his horse conducted him in safet}^, (and sometimes
overcome by sleep) through imperceptible paths, and across
deep and rapid currents of water to the door of his patient,
and again, back to his own home. Still further, how often
has the convivialist who has sat too long over his evening
bowl, owed his liie or his limbs to the good temper of this
faith/ul animal, who in spite ol a contrary direction of his
bridle, has carried him with unbroken bones to the arms of
his servants, to be conveyed by them to his bed in order to
dose away the remains of his intoxication.
To the horned cattle we are indebted for many of the bles-
sings and comforts of life. The strength and patience of the
ox in the plough and the team, have added to the wealth of
the farmer in every age and country. The cow has still great-
JRush^ on studying the diseases of Animals^ I'm
er demands upon our gratitude, Her milk, in its simple state,
furnishes subsistence to a great part of mankind. Its pro-
ducts in cream, butter and cheese, form the most agreeable
parts of the aliment, and even of the luxuries of our tables.
A pustule upon her udder supplies a matter which when in-
troduced into the body defends it for ever from the small-
pox, and v.'ithout substituting in its room, a painful or loath-
some vicarious disease. Millions in every part of the globe
unite with us in expressions of gratitude to heaven for this
important contribution to the happiness of the human race.
But our obligations to this benefactor of mankind, and to
her v/hole species, do not cease with their lives. Their flesh
affords us the most agreeable aliment after death. Their
tallow and the oil which is interposed between their joints,
supply the absence of the sun in candles and lamps, whereby
labor and study are profitably extended during a part of
the night. Their hair affords a necessary ingredient in the
plaister of our houses. Their skins protect our feet and legs
in the form of shoes and boots from the injuries of the
weather. They furnish likewise coverings for our books and
pleasure carriages, and saddles ibr our horses. Their horns
supply us with combs, and even their bones are converted
when fresh into aliment, and when dry, into a salt of exten-
sive use in medicine and in a variety of the arts.
Sheep occupy the next rank in the list of domestic animals
in their claims upon our science. They afford us by their
wool a covering irom the inclemeSicy of winter during every
year of their lives, and by their deaths they supply us with a
delicious aliment in the forms of lamb, and mutton.
The hog is said like the miser to do good only when he
dies. But this is so far from being true that he is dishonor-
ed by the comparison. He fattens upon the offals of our
kitchens, and periorms the office of a scavenger in cleaning
the streets of our cities from putrefying masses of animal
and vegetable matters. At his death, he bequeaths us his
Iw Rush^ on studying' the diseases of AtiimaU*
flesh for food, his hair for brushes, and his fat for medical
and culinary purposes.
The immense and profitable disproportion between the la-
bor of the ass and the mule, and the expense of their food,
render their health of great importance in those countries
where wheel carriages cannot be employed to convey the pro-^
ducts of the earth to a public market.
The goat by its contributions of the delicate flesh of its
young, and of its medicinal milk to our use, is entitled to a
share of medical attention.
The courage and fidelity of the dog in defending our per-
sons and property from the midnight assassin and robber, and
the usefulness of the cat in destroying or chasing from our
houses the mischievous animals that infest our cellars and
closets, entitle each of them, to an enquiiy into the causes and
cures of their diseases.
It remains only to mention the claims of poultiy of all
kinds, to a physician's care. They adorn our yards and fruit
trees with their plumage. They inform us by their crowing,
and other noises of the approach of day. A part of them
furnish us with eggs for aliment, with quills for writing, and
with feathers for our beds ; and all of them, in a greater or
less number at a time, generally constitute after death a por-
tion of our banquets, where a display is intended of hospitality
or elegance.
In addition to what has been said in favor of domestic ani-
mals in their individual edacities, I shall only remark that
collectively, they lessen the solitude and silence of a country
life. They please us with their gambols when young, and
delight us, by their looks and gestures in mature life, every
time they receive food or shelter from our hands. They fur-
nish the means of encreasing and perpetuating the fertility of
our lands, and finally they gratify us with a sense of our sove-
reignty over their labor and their lives ; and thus furnish us
v/ith a small portion of that pleasure which the father of the
2^us/i, on studying the diseases of Animals, Iv
human race enjoyed, when he received from his Creator the
commission of his extensive dominion over all the creatures
that live and move upon our globe.
A third reason why we are bound to study the causes and
cure oi the diseases of domestic animals, is because nature is
yvhoWy passive in such of them as are violent, or does harm
in her efforts to remove them. This is evident in a more es-
pecial manner in the epidemics w^hich sometimes prevail a-
mong them. The horses, cattle and sheep, of large neigh-
bourhoods, and extensive districts are often swept away by
those general diseases where no aid is afforded from me-
dicme.
4th. By studying the diseases of our domestic animals v/e
may rescue them from the hands of quacks, who add to the
mischievous and unsuccessful efforts of nature, the evils of
absurd, painful, and destructive remedies. Under this head
I shall introduce a passage from the words of Mr. Vial,
which exhibits those evils in the most expressive and af-
fecting language. Speaking of the veterinary science, he
says, " At this moment all appears obscured or bewildered
by the ill placed confidence of the owners of cattle upon
the blacksmith of the parish, upon illiterate and conceited
grooms, stupid and listless shepherds, or upon a set of men
infinitely more dangerous than all the rest. Who arrogating
to themselves the style of doctors, ride about from town to
town, distributing their nostrums, compounded of the refuse
and vapid scraps of druggist's shops to the destruction of
thousands, whose varied disorders they treat alike, neither
consulting nature, or art, for the cause or effect.
" Miserable animal! bereft of speech, thou can'st not com-
plain, when to the disease, with v/hich thou art afRicted, ex-
cruciating torments are superadded by the ignorant efforts of
such men, who at first sight, and without any investigation to
lead them to the source of thy disorder, pronounce a hack-
Tseyed common place opinion on thy case, and then proceed.
Hi Rush^ on studying the diseases of Animals,
with all expedition to open thy veins, lacerate thy flesh, cau-
terize thy sinews, and drench thy stomach with drugs ad-
verse in general to the cure they engage to perform."^
5th. It is our duty and interest to attend in a more especial
manner to the health of those domestic animals Vvhich consti-
tute a part of our aliment, in order to prevent our contracting^
diseases by eating them. Certain vegetables upon which they
feed by accident, or from necessity, impart to the milk and
flesh of some of them an unwholesome quality. Great labor
sometimes has the same effect. A farmer in New-Hampshire,
who had overworked a fat ox a few years ago in the time of
harvest, killed him and sent his flesh to market. Of four and
twenty persons who ate o' it, fourteen died, and chiefly with
diseases of the stomach and bowels. Putrid exhalations pro-
duce obstructions and ulcers in the livers of cattle, sheep and
hogs which render them unfit for alnnent. They are more-
over always unhealthy during the season in which they propa-
gate their species ; hence^ the wisdom of that church which
substitutes fish for flesh during a part of the spring months.
Even the heats in summer, in middle climates, lessen the
wholsome quality of flesh, — hence the propriety of living
chiefly upon vegetables with a small portion of salted meat
during the summer and autumnal seasons.
6th. We are further called upon to study the causes, seats,
and remedies of the diseases of domestic animals, by the dut' ^^
which we owe to our country and to humanity. The products
of agriculture and commerce are often lessened by a fatal epi-
demic, brought on by diseases which blast the character of
animal provisions ; and many poor families have been left to
suffer all the evils of penury and famine, by the death of a
single horse, upon whose labor, of a cow, upon whose milk,
or of a hog upon whose flesh, they had relied exclusively for
* General Observations on the Art of Veterinary Medicine, p. 16, 17
Rush^ on studyiiig the diseases of Anhnals. Ivii
subsistence, all of whom perhaps perished by diseases that
might have been cured.
7th. By extending our knowledge of the causes and cure
of the diseases of domestic animals, we may add greatly to
the ceitainty and usefulness of the profession of medicine as
far as it relates to the human species. The organization of
their bodies, the principle of animal life, and the manner in
which the remote and proximate causes of diseases produce
their morbid effects, are the same as in the human body, and
most of medicines produce in tht m, and us, nearly a similar
operation. Their acute diseases are the same as ours. They
are subject to epidemics from an impure atmosphere as well
as from contagions. Fevers, catarrhs — haemorrhages — dy-
sentery— drop sy — s crophul a — ^\-erti go — m adne s s — worms, —
stone, hydrophobia and apoplexy, affect horses, horned
cattle, sheep, hogs and dogs. The rheumatism, angina and
tetanus affect horses. Cows are subject to diabetes. Can-
cers have been observ'^ed in dogs. Cats suffer and die from a
disease which appears to be a form of bilious fever. Cutane-
ous eruptions and sores are common to them all. In short,
when we except the diseases which are the effects of certain
trades and professions, of intemperance, of the operations of
the mind, and of a peculiar function in the t'emale body, there
is scarcely a form, of disease mentioned in our systems of no-
sology, but what is to be met with in domestic animals.
To encourage us to extend to them the benefits of medi-
cine, let us attend to the light and knowledge which several
branches of our science have already derived from them. Du-
ring those ages in which it was deemed criminal to dissect a
human body, the bodies ox domestic animals afforded the only
sources of instruction in anatomy and physiolog}^, and even
since those ages oi ignorance and prejudice have passed away,
many important discoveries have been derived from the same
sources by accident or design.
The discovery of the salivary glands in an ox by Dr. ^Vhar-
ton ; of the fallopian tubes in an ewe bv Rufus j of the thora-
h
Iviii Rushy on studying the diseases of Animals.
cic duct in ahorse by Eustachius ; of the lacteals in a kid by
Erasistratus, and of the pancreas in a turkey, by Dr. Mau-
rice Hoffman, led to the discovery of the same parts in the
human body ; and it is well known that the circulation ot
the blood, and the peristaltic motion of the bowels in man,
were first suggested by experiments and observations upon
those functions in some of the above named animals.
Many useful hints have been taken -Vom the instincts of do-
mestic animals. They generally retire to places of silence
and darkness, and discover an unwillingness to move, and
to eat, when indisposed, and thereby teach us the advanta-
ges of retirement, rest and abstinence in the beginning of
acute diseases.
The approach of epidemics is often known by the sickness
of certain domestic animals, or by their deserting our habi-
tations.
Many useful remedies for the cure of the diseases of the
human body, have been discovered by observing their salu-
tary effects upon domestic animals. The hellebore was in-
troduced into practice as a purge, in consequence of its purg-
ing qualities having been observed in the goat. The use of
the seton in certam diseases of the human body, was first
suggested by its efficacy in the diseases ot cattle.. The be-
nefits of frictions in glandular diseases, are pointed out by
the improvement in the quality of the milk, and the increase
of its quantity, which are obtained by currying the cow.
The benefits of fasting in fevers, are strongly urged by the
slow putrefaction oi the flesh of domestic animals, which are
deprived of food several days before they are killed.
The benefits of wakefulness, and a standing posture in cur-
ing madness, are suggested by the practice of some of the
farmers in England, who tame the most intractable and vi-
cious horses, by confining them in a pound, and keeping
them awake and upon their feet, by pricking them with a
sharp nail, for three or four days, whenever they show a dis-
position to sleep or to lie down.
Fush^ on stuchjvig the diseases of Animals,'^ lix
The cure of madness in a dog, by means of a profuse hss-
ftiorrhage which followed the cutting oif his tail, suggests the
propriety of copious blood-letting in the hydrophobia. Per-
haps a remedy unilormly certain in that awiul disease, may
be reserved to reward the successful application of industry
and humanity, to its cure, in the affectionate centinels of our
houses and our lives.
The safety of blood-letting in old people, is deducible from
the appearances of inflammation which are discovered in the
bodies ol old animals that die of acute diseases. The famous
race horse Eclipse, so long known and celebrated at New-
Market in England, died in the 26th year of his age of a colic,
after two days sickness. Upon dissecting his body, not only
the whole aliementary canal, omentum and mesentery, ex-
hibited marks of violent inflammation, but the stomach, li-
ver, spleen, lungs, blood vessels and glands, all discovered
the same, and other eflPects of the highest degree of morbid
excitement."^ Many other instances of the light which the
anatomy, physiology-, and remedies for the diseases of do-
mestic animals have shed upon medicine, shall be mentioned
from this chair in our lectures upon the institutes and prac-
tice of physic.
8th. We are bound to study the means of preserving the
health of domestic animals, by all those precepts in the Old
and New Testament, which recommend kindness to them
and protection from outrage and oppression. A portion of
the humane spirit of those precepts has pervaded all coun-
tries, and descended in a particular manner to the nations of
the east. One of the tales of a philosopher of India, has re-
corded this fact in a striking manner. A traveller who was
permitted to visit the piace of torment for v/icked men, sav/
there every part of the body of a man of high rank in flames,
except one of his feet. Upon asking the reason why that part
of his body alone was exempted from the rage of the fire, he
Vial's elements of the Veterinary art, p. 9, 10, 11.
ix Rushy on studying the diseases of Animak,
was told, that the only kind action that man had performed
during his whole life, was to liberate a lamb which had been
entangled by one of its feet, by means of a briar, in crossing
a field, and that as a reward for that act, his foot was ex-
empted from punishment.
I proceed in the ninth and last place, to mention a reason
for making the health of domestic animals the subject of our
studies and care, which I should hesitate in delivering, had
it not been sanctioned by the name of a man whose discove-
ries in physiological, metaphysical, and theological science,
mark an sera in the achievements of the human mind : I mean
the great and good, — I had almost said the inspired Dr.
Hartly And that is, their probable relation to us in a re-
surrection after death, and an existence in a future state. I
shall read a short passage from the Doctor's works upon this
Subject. After expressing a doubt concerning the redemp-
tion of the brute creation, he adds, " However, their fall
with Adam, the covenant made with them after the deluge,
their serving for sacrifices for the sins of men, and as types
and emblems in the prophecies, and their being command-
ed to praise God, seem to intimate that there is mercy in
store for them, more than we may expect, to be revealed in
due time."*
In favor of these remarks of Dr. Hartly, it may be said,
that as moral evil and death accompanied each other in the
human race, they are probably connected in the brute crea-
tion— That they possess nearly all our vices and virtues ; that
the perfection of the divine government required that their
vices should be punished and their virtues rewarded ; that
reparation should be made to them for their accumulated suf-
ferings in this world ; and that the divine boimty discovered
in the gift of their pleasures would be rendered abortive, un-
less they were placed in a situation to make returns for them^
in praise and gratitude in a future state of existence.
* ^ ■ — — — ■ " — ~
* History of Man. VoL ii. p. 486.
Rush^ on studying the diseases of Animals* Ixi
It is alike foreign to my inclinations, and to the design of
this lecture, to enter further into this question. To such of
you as wish to see all the arguments that are urged in its favor,
from reason and revelation, I beg leave to recommend the pe-
rusal of an essay in the works of Dr. Hildrop, a learned and
pious clergyman of the church of England, intitled " Free
thoughts upon the brute creation." In whatever way the con-
troversy may be decided, I shall only add, that a belief in the
opinion suggested by the physician, and defended by the di-
vine, whose names have been mentioned, is calculated in no
one instance to do any harm, but on the contrary, much good,
by increasing our obligations to treat our domestic subjects
with tenderness and care. If the opinion be erroneous, let
the justice and mercy of the Supreme Being, in his con-
duct to his brute creation, remain unimpeached. The divine
government in this world, may be compared to the dreary
prospect of an extensive and highly cultivated countiy, on a
winter's day. The last revolution of our globe, will clothe
this prospect with all the beauties of the vernal, and all the
products of the autumnal months. It will then appear that
the apparent discord in the being and end of all intelligent
and animated creatures, was
" Harmony not understood ;"
And that all their sufferings were a necessary part of " uni-
versal good."
But if the claims of domestic animals be so numerous, and
the advantages of attending to their health be so great, and
above all, if their high destiny hereafter be in the least de-
gree probable, it may be asked, why do we doom them with
so much cruelty to premature death, and afterwards feed
upon their flesh ? I answer, that by destroving them we pre-
vent their perishing by hunger, for in the present state of
cultivation of our earth, there would not be subsistence for
them and their offspring for more than a few years, by which
means their species would soon be extinct. By thus midtl-
Ixii Rush^ on studying the diseases oj Animals,
plying their numbers, we multiply life, sensation, and enjoy-
ment. We moreover prevent the pains of a gradual death
from sickness, and the miseries of a helpless old age. To
destro}' them by tlie knife, therefore, and to use them as a
part of our food, is so far from being cruel, that it is an act
of kindness and benevolence to them.
To the proposal for studying the diseases of domestic ani-
mals, it may be objected that their want of speech v/ill for-
ever prevent their imparting to us an account of the seats
and symptoms of their diseases. This objection, I am aware,
will be urged by those physicians who believe that every dis-
ease has a specific proximate cause, and requires an appro-
priate remedy ; but students of medicine, who believe that
all diseases have one proximate cause, will find no difficulty
in discovering their existence and force in dumb animals.-—
The full or frequent pulse, the loss of appetite, the deject-
ed head, and the languid and watery eye, are certain marks
in all brute animals of one of the most frequent diseases with
which they are affected, that is fever. The vfatery eye, an
inability to bark, or barking with a stertorous hoarsness, in-
dicate the approach of madness in the dog. The elevation
of the hair on the back of a cat, and its not falling upon its
feet when thrown from a moderate hight, are the premoni-
tory signs of that disease which has lately been so fatal to
that species of animals in Europe and America. The tail
of a horse losing its regularity of m-otion from side to side,
indicates that he is indisposed, and the part in which his
disease is seated is pointed out, by one of his ears inclining
backwards to the side affected. In acute pains, particularly
from the colic, he bites his manger. The seat of diseases in
the abdomen vvhere the signs are absent, may be known by
pressing the hand upon the whole belly of the animal. It will
discover marks of pain, when the diseased part is pressed.
Diseases of the head, lungs, kidneys, limbs and skin, are as
easily known as the same diseases are in the same parts ©f
tlie human bodv.
Rush., on studying the diseases of Animals* Ixiii
There are indeed circumstances, which favour our ac-
quiring a more accurate knowledge of the diseases of dumb
animals than of those of our own species. From the causes
formerly mentioned, the number of their diseases is more li-
mited, and their symptoms are more obvious, for tliey are
not multiplied, nor complicated by intemperance in eating or
drinking, nor are they under the influence of passions which
suspend or alter them, and in some instances, to prevent their
evolutions.
The seats of their diseases, moreover, are more perfectly
known from the greater facility of dissecting and exraiiining
their bodies after death. Again there are circumstances v/hich
favour the operation of medicine upon them, of which we
are deprived in our fellow creatures. These are, no prejudi-
dices against the names or taste of medicine, — a rare rejec-
tion of them after they havobeen received into the stomach,
and the absence of all fear and solicitude, about the issue of
their diseases.
I have then, gentlemen, laid before you, a brief detail of
the obligations we owe to our domestic animals, and the re-
ciprocal advantages to be derived from extending to them the
benefits of the science of medicine. In performing this task,
I have endeavoured to become the organ of speech for the
dumb, and a suppliant for creatures that are unable to plead
for themselves.
Permit me to recommend the subject to your attention in
your future studies. From the knowledge you will acquire of
the anatomy of the human body in this university, of the
laws which govern its ceconomy, you will easily comprehend
the small deviations from both, which take place in the bodies
and functions of inferior animals. By acquiring this kind of
knowledge, you will add to the resources of medicine as far as
it relates to the human body, and by disseminating it gratui-
tously in your neighbourhood, you will become the benefac-
tors of your country.
Ixiv Rush^ on studying the diseases of Animals.
For a while your knowledge in this branch of science, must
be acquired by reading, observation and experiments ; for as
yet no societies or schools have been established for culti-
vating, or teaching it in the United States.
In all other countries, it has accompanied the advanced
stages of civilization. In Greece and Rome, the necessity
of offering such animals only in sacrifice, as were perfectly
sound, added to the motives for taking care of their health.
The Arabians cultivated veterinary medicine with nearly the
same zeal that they did the medicine of the human body. In
France and Germany the health of domestic animals, has for
many years been a part of the studies of regular bred physi-
cians. In St. Domingo, a society called the '^ Philadel-
phians," was established many years ago, consisting chiefly
of physicians, whose principal business w^as to investigate and
cure, what they called epizootic diseases, that is the diseases
of domestic animals. They favoured the w^orld with one
valuable publication upon them., before the civil war in that
island put an end both to their labours and their name.
A veterinaiy school has been lately established in London,
under the patronage of some of the most respectable noble-
men, private gentlemen, and physicians in the British na-
tion. Already it has diffused a great deal of knowledge
through Great Britain, particularly of the diseases of the
horse. Of this knowledge, a considerable portion has fallen
to the share of the farmers and farriers, much to the advan-
tage of that noble animal !*
V/hile I lament the want of a veterinary institution in our
country, I am happy in an opportunity of mentioning that the
diseases of domestic animals have not escaped the notice of
the agricultural society of Philadelphia. They have recom-
*The Dublin society of arts have lately established a professorship of the
veterinary art, and endowed it with a salary of fifty pounds a year, with
a dwelling house for the professor, (Dr, Peel,) valued at sixty-six pounds,
sterling a year. Carr's Stranger in Ireland, p. 29.
Rush, on studying the diseases of Anhnals* Ixv
mended the study of them in strong terms, in their late ad-
dress to the physicians and citizens of the United States ;
and it would be an act of injustice not to acknowledge, that
it was in consequence of the excellent remarks contained in
the part of the address to which I have alluded, being im-
pressed upon me witn peculiar force by the enlightened and
patriotic president-^ of that society, that I was led to select
the interesting subject of our lecture for the present occasionc
But in vain will be the efforts of public bodies, and pri~
vate individuals to disseminate veterinary knowledge in our
country without a provision for regular and oral instruction
unon it.
From the public spirit of the trustees of our University, and
particularly from their disposition to promote every branch of
science connected with medicine, there is reason to believ^e,
that it is only necessary to lay be lore them the advantages of
a veterinary chair, in order to insure its establishment.
Should the subject of the diseases of domestic animals,
be connected v/ith instruction upon the principles of agricul-
ture, and implements o^ husbandry, so as to constitute what
is called in some European universities, ^' ceconomics," or a
system of rural osconomy, it would iorm a still more useful
branch of education, not only for physicians, but for private
gentlemen. I have lived to see the medical school of Phila-
delphia emerge from small beginnings, and gradually advance
to its present flourishing condition, but I am not yet satisfied
with its prosperity and fame, nor shall I be so, until I see the
veterinary science taught in our University.
One of the patriots and heroes of the American revolution,
who died suddenly a few years ago, in his barn yard, said
with his last breath to his servant who stood by him, " take
care of the creatures." Nearly in the same words which dic-
tated this kind direction, I shall conclude this lecture. Take
CARE OF THE HEALTH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
*Richard Peters, Esq.
MEMOIRS
OF THE
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OP
PHILADELPHIA,
On Sheep. By John D, Steele^ near Downing Towriy
Chester County^ Pennsylvania,
Read June 11th, 1805.
THE illustrious BufFon has very justly observed,
that " the sheep is an animal to man the most valuable,
its utility the most immediate and extensive ; it alone
satisfies wants of the greatest necessity, it furnishes
both food and apparel, besides the advantages arising
from the skin, suet, milk, entrails, bones, and dung of
this creature, to which nature seems to have given no-
thing as its property; all is to be delivered up to man."
To this splendid catalogue of the valuable properties of
sheep, an additional item may be placed, which enhances
their value in a high degree to the farmers of Pennsyl-
vania; viz. many of the weeds that disfigure their fields
in autumn, furnish sheep with agi'eeable and nutritive
food ; few are refused by them, and rag- weed, f Ambro-
sia elatiorj they eat with avidity. This last advantage
seems not sufficiently appreciated by the generality of
M
On Sheep
farmers, though the benefits that would result to them
from keepmg sheep where these weeds prevail, is too
obvious to admit of illustration ; whence it may be
safely inferred, that the small quantity of sheep kept
in Pennsylvania, is a misfortune and mistake in the ru-
ral (Economy of the State, that cannot be too much re-
gretted, nor too speedily removed.
But there are many objections almost uniformly ad-
vanced against keeping sheep, by those who are un-
friendly to the practice; one of which is the injury they
do to pasture, and particularly, to young clover, by
biting it too close to the ground, and by leaving it ex-
posed to the too poAverful influence of the sun and frost.
Another is, the quantity of grass they consume, which
it is contended is comparatively much greater than is
eaten by other animals; and a third, is the danger they
are exposed to, from the nocturnal depredations of
dogs.
I admit there is much plausibility in the first objec-
tion, but experience has taught me to doubt its soli-
dity. I have not thought it prudent to suffer any kind
of cattle to go into clover early in the spring, when the
roots are loosened by the recently departed frost; but
at every other season my experience forbids me to
think sheep injurious to pasture.
For the last six years, I have been in the practice of
feeding large flocks of sheep, and have generally eaten
the young clover in my stubbles very bare with them ;
but never found the succeeding crops perceptibly injur-
ed thereby, though they were frequently kept in the
fields till the verge of winter.
On Sheep,
The second objection appears equally as questionable to
me as the first. I have never ascertained the exact com-
parative quantity of herbage that sheep will destroy, but
if I might be allowed to use the quantity of fodder that-
will support them in winter as a criterion to judge by,
I should conclude it to be in the proportion of nine to
one with black cattle, for I found nine sheep, w^hich I
confined in an enclosure last winter, to eat no more than
one cow would consume.
The last objection is beyond a doubt a formidable
one, and requires the farmers utmost vigilance to guard
against : — for a whole flock to be destroyed in one night,
by a single dog, is not very uncommon. Guided by an
instinct which cannot fail to excite admiration, he pros-
trates the terrified animal, and opens the jugular blood
vessels, whence he sucks the vital fluid, till the spring of
life is nearly exhausted, then leaves it, frequently with
some slight remains of animality, and proceeds to feed
liis sanguinary appetite with the blood of the rest of the
flock, which fall in succession, victims to his ferocity.
When the animals thus worried are found still living,
people are apt to imagine that those parts of the carcase
which have escaped the teeth of the dog remain unin-
jured, but this idea is erroneous. The meat has an ex-
tremely disagreeable taste, or smell, or both, which it
would be not easy to describe, and perhaps equally as
diflicult to account for.
It is said if sheep are confined in a field in the night
with black cattle, the cattle wdll protect them, but I
have alw^ays thought it hazardous to make the experi-
ment.— ^The plan which I have hitherto follow^ed with
success has been, to confine them in a yard contiguous
On Sheep,
to the house; but a fold encircled with pales six or seven
feet high would doubtless be preferable, and where tim-
ber is in plenty, this might be done at a light expence.
If a fence of this description, were made moveable, it
might be applied to folding in the field for the purpose
of improving land.
In one respect sheep in their value to the farmer, have
a decided superiority over black cattle. This never oc-
curred to me till lately ; when I was looking over a field
that had been closely pastured by a large fiock, I was
forcibly struck with the manure they had left on the
ground ; not with the quantity, for this was perhaps not
comparatively greater than would have been left by
other animals, but with the equability of its disposure
over the surface.
The dung of larger animals is generally dropped in
a heap, and the benefit arising from it is confined to the
particular spot on which it has fallen, which would have
been sufficiently improved with half the quantity ; and
besides, in the summer it is more liable to the depreda-
tions of insects, and more subject to have its moisture
exhaled by the sun beams than sheep's dung, for the lat-
ter incorporates sooner with the soil, the heaps being
much smaller, and the granulations less.
Another advantage which sheep have over black cat-
tle, is the shortness of the season they require dry fod-
der in. — They w^ill do well in pastures so short, that
black cattle* cannot live in them. Hence less expence
is incurred in supplying them with hay.
^ The term ''black catde" is adopted from Professor Munro.
I 5 ]
On Hoven Cattle. By Richard Peters.
Read July 9th, 1805.
The clover husbandry being now, happily for the
parts of our country heretofore worn out and sterile, ve-
ly prevalent, it behoves us to extinguish all prejudices,
against this great and extensive improvement. One
evil, attending luxuriant clover, whether plaistered or
not, is immaterial; (though some have, without reason,
supposed a difference,) is the subjecting cattle to become
hoven, by too greedily feeding on this grass, when it is
growing, or when cut, and given to them green, while
it is wet with dew or rain. — Horned cattle paiticularly,
when turned in hungry, though ever so much accus-
tomed to clover, are liable to this misfortune. — Young
and soft clover, loaded with dew or rain, is the most
productive of this disease. They therefore should not
be turned in, till after the dew or rain is exhaled. Beasts
kept constantly in the field, are not in danger, in so great
a degree ; horses do not always escape. Swine and
sheep, are also subject to this malady. Any succulent
and juicy food, if moist with rain or dew, has a capacit}"
to generate the air, which, by its expansion in the ani-
mal, produces hoving. — Lucerne, pea-vine, green Indi-
an com plants, and buckwheat, have, mider my own
observation, occasioned this destructive complaint.
Symptoms. The paunch is so enormously swelled,
that unless relief be promptly afforded, death ensues :
in the last stages of this disease, the tongue hangs out
of the mouth, the eyes are full and protuberant, and the
On Hoven Cattle,
rectum (or last gut) is distended externally, sometimes
four or five inches. The beast falls, and exhibits signs
of the most severe pain and torture. Its groans are
piteous and distressing.
Cures. 1st, Immediately stab the animal, on the left
side, between the hind rib and the hip bone, not too
near the latter, with a pen knife, or other small knife;,
stand near the left shoulder, with your left hand on the
back of the animal, and perform the operation, two
or three inches deep, with your right, to avoid being
kicked, which sometimes, though rarely happens. If
he lie dov.ai, the hind legs may be secured, for the
moment with a cord ; be not afraid of wounding the
intestine. The knife must pierce the abdomen, to let
the v»and escape. If one incision fail or close, im-
mediately make another; the operation has been re-
peated seven times, on the same bullock, in different
distended parts of the belly, and succeeded at last. — It
does not always wound the gut ; as the wind is between
that and the exterior parts. Vast explosions of wind,
often very foetid, with water of a reddish colour, will
issue from the orifice. A knife sharp at the point, and
not edged far, a short blade, or one ^\Tapped round with
cord or rags to prevent its going too deep, is the best.
But be not nice as to this. The disease v» ill be certainly
mortal, unless instantly relieved ; therefore think not any
remedy'too daring. A large butcher's knife has been,
used, when a penknife was not at hand. After the
evacuation of wind through the incision, give a warm
clyster. It may be composed of oil, fish pickle, mo-
lasses, and if no pickle, some salt. In the '-'■ Museum
RmticwrC in 1764, and Mr. Wynn Baker's report to
On Hoven Cattle. 1
the Dublin Society in 1769, a full account of this disease
may be seen. It will effectually remove all prejudices
against this remedy, which, if applied in time, is so cer-
tain, that not one in a hundred cattle thus treated, has
been lost. I can vouch on my own experience, for the
efficacy and little danger of the operation. Let nature
cure the wound. Do not sew it up, or apply any thing
except what will keep away the flies. 2d, A beast has
been relieved by violent eructations, on the tongue's
being suddenly and forcibly drawn out. 3d, Another
instant, and very efficacious remedy, is raking the beast,
and drawing out the superabundant fccces: this is well
known to, and often practised by farriers. 4th, Ano-
ther remedy, in the first stage, and frequently successful,
and always useful as an auxiliary, after the more prompt
methods before recommended have been used, is
drenching. For this purpose take a pint of sweet oil,
or if this cannot be had, raw linseed, or even train oil,
or melted hog's lard. Sometimes salt and water have
been serviceable, but these are too feeble in extreme
cases. All these remedies may be applied, without in-
compatibility, to the same diseased subject. Half an
hour, and frequently a less time, terminates the disease
by death or recovery, therefore be expeditious ; do not
listen to those who tell you about danger from the
knife. It may, and sometimes does fail. — But without
it, your loss is generally certain. Some will suppose
your beast poisoned; and not a few will dream, that it
.is a poison generated by plaistered clover ; some, asto-
nished at the suddenness, hideous symptoms and rapid
progress of the malady, will pronounce, very gravely,
that it is the effect of madness, or secret mischief and
^vitchcraft.
8 0?i Hoven Cattle*
However absurd they may appear to persons of intel-
ligence, I have been present when such causes have
been seriously assigned. All my endeavours to pro-
cure the application of prompt remedies, have been
defeated by one or other of these vagaries. The knife
is the surest remedy for, and antidote against, this ima-
ginary poison. It instantaneously dissolves the fancied
spells of the ideal practitioners in witchcraft. It ba-
nishes from the brains of those who prove themselves
no conjurers, all apprehensions on this score; more
decidedly and promptly than even the old horse shoe,
nailed on the door sill. These latter observations are
made with the sole view of warning the owners of stock,
against the ignorance and prejudices of their subor-
dinates or weak advisers, and to induce them personally
to attend to the preservation of their cattle, on such
sudden and dangerous emergencies,
C 9 ]
O71 Rotting Flax, By Joseph Cooper of Neiv Jersey,
Read November 12th, 1805.
About 18 years past I purchased a German servant
man, and soon afterward set him and others to spread
my flax ; the lot not containing the whole, he requested
me to let him rot the remainder in his own way ; this he
did, and the flax so rotted, proved the best, softest and
whitest, I had ever seen, and the method pleased me so
well, that I have practised it ever since, with some alte-
rations as to time. — The process I find to answer best,
is, after the seed is beaten olf, to bind it in bundles about
the size of common rye sheaves, and about the last of
September or first of October, to immerse them in water,
(stagnant water is preferable to running,) about two
weeks, but the time should be regulated by the weather,
as to heat or cold ; it is then taken out and spread thin
and even, and turned as often as occasion may require :
after being spread, ever}' rain, fog, dew, or frost, assists
in separating the harl, whitening and softening the flax
and extracting the gum, the detention of w^hich is the
only cause of flax being coarse and harsh. It is an esta-
blished fact with those who have tried both ways, that
either thread or cloth made from flax prepared in the
above manner, is softer, and will whiten in one third of
the time that is requisite for either article, made from flax
rotted in the common manner.
I believe the principal reason why water rotting flax
is so little practised in North America is, that those who
have tried it, find the flax harsh and brittle, the cause of
N
10 On Rotting Flax.
which, (I imagine,) is putting it in water in hot weather,
when two or three days will rot it sufficiently for dress-
ing, but will not extract the gum.
A person from Ireland, (who is well acquainted with
the process of flax prepai'ation,) informs me, that it was
the common practice in Ireland about 20 or 30 years
ago, to permit flax to remain in water until sufficiently
rotted, but the people in general finding it did not answer
their expectation, ha^^e since adopted the above method
wdth success. — Linen made of flax prepared as before
directed, with one boil, will be about the colour of
Russia sheeting, which induces me to believe that all
the hemp and flax in Russia is rotted in the same way.
See an account of the Irish mode of preparing Jlax^ among
the selected papers^ at the close of this volwne.
[ 11 ]
On Peach Trees. By Joseph Cooper of New Jersey »
Read January 14th, 1806.
In looking over an Almanack* for the present year, I
observed a piece giving, information, that peach trees
had been preserved in the neighbourhood of Philadel-
phia, by removing the earth from the roots, after the
first hard frost, in the fall, and returning it again in the
spring, and oiling the body three or four feet from the
ground, with common lamp oil.
The author likewise observes, that peach trees that
stand in hedge rows and thickets, thrive better than
others in cleared ground, which had suggested the idea,
of defending the body of the tree, by wisps of straw,
to prevent the attack of insects.
I take the liberty to make some observations on the
piece alluded to.
In the first place, I think the taking the earth from
the roots of peach trees, in the fall, dangerous, as I tried
that method in the fail of 1779; the succeeding winter
proved very severe, as to frost, and but little snow; the
consequence was, the loss of every tree so treated, and
their worms not injured. On examining the trees in
the spring, I found worms abundant as usual, and the
eifect the removing the earth had on them, was, caus-
ing them to injure the tree more, by descending the
roots, as the cold came on ; they returned to the surface
as the weather warmed, and in picking them out, I found
^Publishedby Kiniber Conrad and Co.
12 On Peach Trees.
the bark dead, up to the place above whence the earth
had been removed, as ifa fire had been made round the
tree, and the top as fresh as usual ; it however died, with
the approach of warm weather. The observation, that
peach trees flourish in hedge rows, &c. I know is
-accurate ; they also flourish in most places where the
body is shaded; this I attribute to their being preserved
from the effects of the sudden transitions, from heat to
cold, and from cold to heat, which I apprehend are
more destructive to peach and cherry trees, than in-
sects, as I have had hundreds of fine trees to perish in
one summer, after an irregular winter, without being
in the least injured by worms.
Among many reasons for the opinion, that irregular
winters are destructive to peach trees, one is, that from,
good authority, said trees live in Cape May county in
this State, to the age of 30 or 40 years ; an age, which
I attribute to situation, the county being half surround-
ed by the waters of the Atlantic ocean, and Delaware
bay ; and in the direction of the winds, that cause the
warm spells here in winter, and which have not the
same effect there, coming as they do, so immediately oft*
those large waters ; a proof of this is, that vegetation is
generally two weeks later there than here, though so
far to the southward.
From many observations and experiments, I have
found that the worm most destructive to peach trees,
begins to change to 2i chrysalis about the first of July, and
remains in that state about two weeks, when they come
out a wasp, and proceed to couple and lay their eggs
near the roots of the trees, or in woimds in any other
part; but do little injury, except in or near the roots as.
On Peach Trees.
if attended to, the issuing of the gum will shew their
seat, and they are easily picked out ; but their principal
object is the root, the bark being softer there than on the
body, and the rapid growth of the trunk near the root,
at the time of the wasps depositing their eggs, causes a
number of small rents in the bark, which give the
worms an easy entrance. I have observed that trees
in a declining state, are more favourable, to the increase
of peach w^orms than those of luxuriant growth, as the
latter discharge so much gum from the wounds, as to
cause the death of the insect, and the former will bring
them into the wasp state a month sooner; for w^hich rea-
son I examine the peach trees carefully every spring,
and those that are in such a declining state as to render
them unprofitable, I hitch a team to, and draw up by
the roots, as the most certain mode to destroy all the
worms they may contain.
The best method I have yet discovered, to prevent
injury from the worms, is to examine the trees carefully
in the spring and take out the worms ; repeat the ope-
ration about 1st July, and hill up the earth round the
trees eight or ten inches : in October, remove the earth,
examine as before, then renew the hill, which leave, till
the spring examination. By continuing this process
annually, I am confident that not more than one of my
peach trees has been killed by the worms, for twenty
that have died in consequence of irregular winters:
and as I have observed the fluctuating state of the wea-
ther in winter, constantly to increase for more than fifty
years, I conceive it must proceed from some certain
cause, which I apprehend to be the improvement of the
country, every cleared field operating, when free of snow,
14 On Peach Trees.
as a reflector of the rays of the sun. That the clearing
of the country is at least in part the cause of our variable
winters, is rendered in some measure probable by a fact
communicated to me, viz. that in the thinly settled paits
of the country, peach trees flourish as well as they did
formerly in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia: therefore
it seems advisable to endeavour to find out some method
to defend tender fruit trees from the effects of fluctu-
ating winters ; I can think of no better method to suc-
ceed, than binding straw round the body or trunk of
the trees, that part appearing to be the seat of the dis-
ease.
C IS 3
On Peach Trees, By Richard Peters.
Read February 11th, 1806.
The last meeting of the Society was favoured with
a communication on the subject of peach trees, from
Joseph Cooper Esq. of New Jersey, whose experience
has enabled him to add much to our stock of practical
knowledge. I was desired to give some account of
what had fallen under my own observation, relating to
this valuable and delicious fruit. I know not any in the
catalogue of our trees, more desirable, nor more sub-
ject to mortifying decay, disease and destruction.
Having cultivated it from my eaiiiest youth, it should
seem that I could give some certain and profitable
mode of remedying its tendency to premature decay,
and repelling the diseases to which it is invariably a
victim. But I have found myself so frequently baffied
in my endeavours; and have seen the fallacy of so ma-
ny theories, on this subject, that I diffidently affirm any
thing respecting its culture or cure. It is therefore
only in obedience to the wishes of the Society, that I
express my opinions or experience.
About fifty years ago, on the farm on which I now
reside, my father had a large peach orchard, which
yielded abundantly. Until a general catastrophe befei
it, plentiful crops had been for many years produced,
with little attention. The trees began nearly at once
to sicken, and finally perished. Whether by the wasp
then undiscovered, or by some change in our climate,
I know not. For 40 years past, I have observed the
16- On Peach Trees*
peach trees in my neighbourhood, to be short lived.
Farther south, in the western country, and, it seems in
some parts of New Jersey, they are durable and pro-
ductive, as they had been formerly here.^
In my youth, excellent plumbs grew here ; now we
can obtain none, but those of inferior species. In grapes
we were never successful ; though much more so than
at present. Our wheat in modern times, is attacked by
enemies unknown to our predecessors. Our apple or-
chards do not produce, as they did in early times. There
must therefore be some change in our climate ; and new
races of vermin, not known to our ancestors. In cities
and towns, grapes and plumbs and I believe peaches^
are in high perfection. The atmosphere in which they
vegetate, possesses a character favourable to their
growth ; and their position admits fewer enemies to assail
them. I am aware that it is a frequent mistake, to draw-
general conclusions, from partial facts. My opinions
are formed on experience, I have gained on my own
property, and may not generally apply. I have near
1000 apple trees, 150 grape vines, 200 peach trees, and
a number of plumbs. They are of all ages, kinds and
exposures ; and set out in every vai'iety of soil. I have
endeavoured to practise on every information to be ac-
quired from books, or oral directions. I must there-
fore conclude from my frequent disappointments, that
^ I have seen them also in great perfection, in and about
Lancaster, and other parts, where limestone and other calca-
reous substances abound. The cause I do not pretend to as-
sign; nor do I know the general duration of the ti'ee, in that
countrv.
On Peach Trees. 17
fruits in this part of the country, are uncertain in pro-
duct; and have declined, in quantity and quality, in a
degree not formerly experienced. I have often observ-
ed, that in bad fruit years, the seasons were unhealthy
for animals. Insects and their larv{;e^ or catterpillars,
and other enemies to fruit, abound in such seasons.
The products of the earth seem to be more favoured at
one period, and in different stages of the settlement of
our country, than at others. Advantages or misfor-
tunes, merely local, have their influence. Some are
perfected in old settlements ; others thrive only when
the earth is recently reclaimed from the wilderness of
nature.
Of the peachy I have 32 varieties. Mr. Coxe, of
Burlington, has double that number. But those I have
are sufficient to enable me to form a general idea. I find
some less exposed than others, to misfortune and decay.
It v/ould therefore be desirable, to mark, and cultivate
those most commonly, in w^hich the most success could
be counted on. Mr. Cooper has been successful, on
this plan, in other products. Let him, and other curi-
ous cultivators, practise on this suggestion.
I have failed in m.any things, in which others are said
to have succeeded. Straw and bass, or paper, surround-
ing the tree, from the root, at all distances, from 6 in-
ches, to 3 or 4 feet — white washing, painting, urinous
applications, brine, soot, lime, frames filled with sand,
oil, tar, turpentine, sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, ni-
trous mixtures, and almost every kind of coating. I
ruined several trees, by cutting them down, and per-
mitting the stump to throw up new shoots, and branch
at pleasure. All teguments kept the exsudation from
IS On Peach Trees*
evaporating with freedom. The pores being closed, or
too open, were aUke injurious. Teguments of straw or
bass made the bark tender ; and it threw^ out under the
covering, sickly shoots. The more dense coating stop-
ped the perspiration. The oil invited mice and other
\ ermin, who ate the bark thus prepared for their repast
and killed the tree. I planted in hedge rows and near
woods, I paved, raised hillocks of stone — I have suifer-
ed them to grow from the stone only, grafted on vari-
ous stocks and budded, hilled up the earth in the spring
and exposed the butt in the fall, sometimes I have used
the knife freely — frequently have left the tree to shoot
in every direction — I have scrubbed the stocks or
trunks, with hard brushes, soap suds and sand, scraped
them with proper instruments : I have, for a season or
two under various experiments, amused myself with
the persuasion, that I had discovered an infallible pana-
cea. I had temporary success, but final disappoint-
ment.
The aphis or vine fretter, and many other insects are
hostile to this tree. They injure it, by piercing, cur-
ling, and destroying its leaves. As to frosts^ they are
common enemies to all fruit.
Having thus candidly given an account of my fai-
lures, which never discourage, but animate me to new
projects, I mention what w^ith me has been attended
with the most success.
The worm or grub, produced by the w^asp, deposit-
ing its progeny in the soft bark, near the surface of the
ground, is the most common destroyer. I remove the
earth, a few inches round the tree in August or Sep-
tember. After July the wasp ceases to pierce the bark^
On Peach Trees. 19
and to make its deposits. I pour around the butt of the
tree, beginning about one foot above the ground, a
quart or more (not being nice about the quantity) of
boiUng hot soap suds or water. This kills the tg^ or
worm lodged in the tender bark ; and of course prevents
its ravages the next season. I carefully search the trees,
though I seldom find vvorms. I do not perceive any
injury from this operation. I have discovered woi-ms
in or near the roots of the smallest stocks taken from
the nursery. These I frequently plunge into boilinc;
water, before planting. I lose very few ; and do not
attribute the losses to the hot water. I have the trees
bared at the roots, exposed to the winter. I have lost
some in the way described by Mr. Cooper ; but I still
continue the practice. I have been in the habit of do-
ing this for ten or twelve years, and prefer it to an)
other treatment. To supply deficiencies, I plant young-
trees every year. By these means, I have generally
fruit enough for my family, and frequently very abun-
dant crops. How long I shall continue to prosper by
this practice, is yet problematical. I have now some of
the most healthy trees I ever possessed. When trees
become sickly, I grub them vip ; I find that sickly trees
often infect, those in ygour near them, by some mor-
bid effluvia. The young trees supply their loss, and I
have no trouble in nursing those in a state of decay ;
which is commonly a hopeless task.
I have been thus particular, to justify the inference
from this statement — that, in this part of the country
peach trees cannot be profitably cultivated on an ex-
tensive scale. — But we may have great abundance of
their delicious fruit, in everv variety, if every farmer
20 On Peach Trees.
and horticulturist, would plant the number, to which he
could attend, without interference with his other con-
cerns. He might keep up a constant succession, by
setting out a few every year. Our grain, and garden
plants in general, require renew^al annually ; and peach
trees require no more trouble. A tree with Yory little
attention, will produce three or four crops. Its growth
is quick ; and it may be propagated easily, and come
to perfection, in any soil of tolerable staple. As the
older trees decay, or grow sickly, young and vigorous
trees will begin to bear. The method which I have lately
pursued is simple ; guards against the worm, and affords
me a plenty of fruit. I do not mean to discourage perse-
verance in experiments, which may yet succeed. We
must never pait \\'ith hope ; though she seduces and
'* cheats us o'er and o'er again." The ants of Grenada
were exterminated by a single tempest.
Although I have had trees 20 years old, and I know
some of double that age, (owing probably to the indura-
tion of the bark rendering it im.pervious to the wasp, and
the strength acquired when they had survived early
misfortunes) yet, in general they do not live in tolerable
health after bearing 4 or 5 crops. And being among
the most gummy, viscous, succulent and tender of our
fruit trees, they require from the earliest stages of their
growth more labour and attention, than could be pro-
fitably applied to an extensive plantation. I have too
many to be sufficiently attended to ; but a number of
them, by their present appeai'ance, warn me not to be
uneasy on that score. The shoots of the last season
were remarkably injured by the excesive drought; and
the extremities of many limbs are entirely dead. I
On Peach Trees. 21
shall have, however, more than I require for myself, my
friends, and my foes. I have a superfluity, to afford de-
ductions made by plunderers; for whom (from neces-
sity) I plant an extra number. The trees now verging to
their last stage, are chiefly those set out in the locust
year. They have never recovered the wounds, inflict-
ed by this most pernicious of all insects.
Fifteen or sixteen years ago, I lost one hundred and
fifty peach trees in full bearing in the course of two
summers ; by a disease engendered in the first season.
I attribute its origin, to some morbid affection in the air,
which has the most to do with all vegetation, as well in
its food and sustenance, as in its decay and dissolution.
The disorder being generally prevalent, would, among
animals have been called an epidemic. From perfect
verdure, the leaves turned yellow in a few days, and
the bodies blackened in spots. Those distant from the
point of original infection, gradually caught the disease.
I procured young trees from a distance, in high health,
and planted them among those the least diseased. In
a few weeks they became sickly, and never recovered.
I took the determination of grubbing up every peach
tree, and converted them into fuel. In my ov/n nursery,
perceived I should have an hospital of incurables. The
young peach trees being generally infected, I cleared
the whole of them away. Various kinds of fruit trees,
in the same nursery, were not in the least disordered.
Trees, like animals, have inherent diseases, or a sus-
ceptibility to receive those, peculiar to their species.
The peach seems most subject to this tendency ; pears
are liable to blights from the electric fluid. Iron hoops,
old horse shoes Sec. hung on these trees, attract and con-
22 On Peach Trees,
duct for a time, this floating fluid. But when the air
is surcharged, destruction partial or total is certain.
Cherries are fatally operated upon, by what is called the
four o'clock sun. Plumbs too are exposed to peculiar
disasters, which would lead me too far to detail ; though
I have paid much and unprofitable attention to them ;
and have, now and then, hit on temporary palliatives.
Particular insects and A^ermin have their respectively
favorite tree, or plant to prey on. They pursue the
dictates of nature, for their own propagation and sup-
port; while, by destroying our sustenance and comforts,
they become hostile to us. They compel us to wage
against them a perpetual warfare.
After my general defeat and most complete over-
throw, in which the worm had no agency, I recruited
my peaches from distant nurseries ; not venturing to
take any out of those in my vicinity. I have since ex-
perienced a few instances of this malady; and have
promptly, on the first symptoms appeai'ing, removed
the subjects of it, deeming their cases desperate in them-
selves, and tending to the otherwise inevitable destruc*
tion of others.
POSTSCRIPT.
I have only recently seen, or I would have mentioned
with my communication, an extensive plantation of
peach trees (now in vigour and very productive) by
Edward Heston Esq. in my neighbourhood. It is well
worthy of inspection, ar^d its design exemplary; the
071 Peach Trees. 23
scale being larger and more spirited than of late years,
we have been accustomed to see, in this part of the
country. I conjecture there are 7 or 800 trees, plant-
ed in rows or lines; so that the branches interlock, and
are suffered to shoot without controul. The intervals
between the rows are wide, and cleaned with the plough
and harrow. As is to be expected, the fruit though
plentiful is small; and wants flavour equal to that of
more distant trees. They grow from the stone, and
Mr. H. occupied in his plan, did not attend to the se-
lection. He is now improving by inoculation, and pro-
viding better kinds. In an imitation of this commend-
able effort, I would advise a little more distance, and
more use of the knife ; but not so much as to thwart
nature. I would not entirely depend on inoculation.
Planting the stone is more certain, as to quick growth
and earlier profit as well as oeconomy ; though it does
not insure identity of species. Mr. H. begins to suf-
fer by the disease, I call the "yellows;" though he has
fewer worms, than common in other modes. The wasp
from which the worm proceeds, does not of choice, fre-
quent shady places. I do not know any product more
valuable than peaches, to v/hich the same extent anil
quantity of ground could be applied. To ensure constant
supply, another plantation should be progressing, while
that in profit is bearing and declining. It should be
distant from the first, to be out of reach of infection.
Why should we not cultivate, in this way, this fruit,
-when other products are equally long before profit is
obtained? Madder, liquorice, &c. require as much
time, and better ground. Their certainty or superior
profit is questionable. By the mode here mentioned.
24 On Peach Trees.
constant successions may be counted upon, without the
toil and disappointments of attempts, to prolong the
duration of this short lived tree. I perceive Mr. H.
is travelling the same road of experiment, to save de-
dining, or insure healthy trees, I have passed over be-
him. He will be fortunate, if he does not meet with
similar disappointments.
September^ 1807-
As I predicted, the ^^ yellow s^'^ are seen making de-
structive ravages in Mr. Heston's peach plantation. I
have lost a great proportion of my trees, by the same
malady, this year. Some of them were young and vi-
gorous. We have had two successive rainy seasons.
I do not recollect ever to have seen more general de-
struction among peach trees, throughout the whole of
the country. It seems that excessive moisture is one,
if not the primary cause of this irresistable disease.
C 25 3
On cutting off the horns of Bull Calves, By Paul Coopei\
of Woodbury^ New Jersey,
Read August 12th, 1806.
The method is, when a calf is about a month old,
and the horns have risen above the skin, to cut off the
knobs close with a chisel, and with a sharp gouge, pare
them clean from the bone : then sear the wound, and
fill it with sturgeon's oil, or hog's lard.
Cattle often acquire such dexterity in throwing down
fences with their horns, that if they are chained, head
and foot, to prevent their jumping; they will neverthe-
less, with their horns, throw the fences down to the
gi'ound ; and by that means, let a great part of the stock,
perhaps in the night, into your field of corn or wheat.
Cattle often learn to lay down bars, open stable and barn
doors, gates, &c. with their horns. I have known them
a number of times to get into my bam by this means,
in the night, when I have had a large quantity of grain
on my barn floor. Bulls and coavs not only gore each
other, but very frequently wound horses ; I have had se-
veral dangerously injured in this way, and a neighbour
of ours lately had a horse, that I think he gave S 900
for, killed by a bull. Bulls even gore children and grown
people, many cows too are dangerous to milk on this
account.
It is materially important, that the above operation
should be performed on all bull calves that are not cas-
trated. If this method were practised a few 5^ears, I think
we should be so fully convinced of its utility, that le-
gislatures would apprehend it conducive to the public
26 On cutting off the Horns of Bull Calves.
welfare, to impose a fine on all such who neglected to
cut the horns of their bulls when young.
[The inconveniencies mentioned by Mr. Cooper,
might be obviated by encouraging the polled or horn-
less breed of cattle. Another advantage would attend
this breed, viz. that they would be free from the hollow
horn^ a disease which frequently proves fatal, when not
duly attended to. In England, this breed, which is al-
most universal in the great farming county of Norfolk,
affords the greatest milkers.]
C 27 ]
Departure of the Southern Pine Timber^ A Proof of the
Tendency in Nature to a Change of Products on the
same Soil. By Richard Peters.
Read September 9th, 1806.
Belmont^ August SOth, 1806.
Sir,
I have formed the outlhie of a plan, which, as leisure
may permit and inclination prompt, I propose more ma-
turely to digest ; and, in which, I request and invite the
members of the Society to assist. The object of it is,
to illustrate and enforce the leading principles of good
husbandry, proved on experience to be just, by facts,
and reasoning deduced from them, taken from the great
movements, or less operations of nature. She is the
best and wisest instructress ; because she is moved and
governed by the all wise creator and governor of the
universe. Our task must be to follow her dictates ; and
apply her precepts and example, with due discretion
and judgment. This mode of disseminating agricul-
tural knowledge, appears to me best calculated to con-
vince the understanding, and rouse the attention of
those, for whose benefit such associations, as that we
have established, are intended. To give a specimen of
the mode I have in view, (in which I have been more
diffuse, than on subsequent occasions may be deemed
requisite,) and excite more able exertions in others, I
send the inclosed communication; which, with this ex-
planation of my motives, I request you will please to
lay before the Society. There ai'c few, if any of iu;<,
28 ji Change and Succession of Crops recommejidedy
who cannot furnish some materials, for such a design.
Facts may be collected, when the mind is turned to an
object, which would otherwise pass without observation
or useful instruction. If, in the prosecution of enqui-
ries of this kind, some ideas may appear speculative,
and visionary, they may nevertheless lead to practical
and useful results.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
Richard Peters.
Dr. James IMease,
Secretary, Agric, Society , Fhilad,
There is an account in the public prints, of the ge-
neral decay of the pine woods in South Carolina ; effected
by a disease, which commenced in 1802. It would be
highly useful to ascertain and record the facts, relative
to this catastrophe. It has fallen under my observation
to know, that this phenomenon is not rare, or singular.
Intelligent surveyors, who have been occupied in run-
ning out new lands, in Pennsylvania, and other States,
remark, in a variety of instances, a total change of tim-
ber, in many extensive districts of the wilderness.
They discover by the fallen timber, coated with a di-
versity of the mosses (by which the air, and other means
of decay, being excluded, they were the better preserv-
ed*) that the present forest trees are entirely different
* Coating, or covering large timber, before the acid sap
is evaporated, is destructive. After it is seasoned, protec-
tion from exterior injuries, is beneficial. The moss^ must,
As well as of deteriorated Animals. 29
from those of the former growth. Those prostrate are
in many instances, of the resinous tribe, where those
of a totally different kind are now growing, of enormous
dimensions ; in sites where white pine, pitch pine, and
hemlock, had formerly possession; so that the living
timber must be very antient.* The largest trees ma-
on those the best preserved, have established itself after de-
siccation. Where the covering has been premature, these
trunks have been converted into vegetable mould, by the fer-
menting and Peculating of the sap, confined and prevented
from evaporation. Some of them, in the shapes or forms of
fallen trunks of trees, have the consistency and texture of
green hillocks, of rich earth. Some trees may have been
blov/n down by tempests, in critical stages of the sap, wiien
timber is most liable to rapid decay.
To prevent the heart rot in timber, boring through the
center, longitudinallv, is effectual, ^lartering and sazvzng\
through the hearty are also preserv^atives, if afterwards, the
parts be artificially joined ; and grooves, or passages, left, or
made, for the admission of air.
* The growth of timber is, in our climate, so rapid, that
in 25 years, it is of size sufficient, for every purpose com-
monly required; and possibly, on this account the less dura-
ble. Some years ago, when attending the subdivision of a
body of lands in Tork County^ I measured an oak growing-
out of a cellar of a ruined house or cabin, which had been
inhabited 2t5 years before. The tree was near two feet in
diameter. Around this ruin, there was a beautiful wood, of
healthy and thriving timber; standing where grain had been
raised, by the occupant of the building. The traces of in-
closures v/ere evident, through the woods ; and some of the
rails v/ere not decayed. At iron works, they cut, for char-
coal, the second growth of timber, after a lapse of from eigh-
30 A C/iange and Succession of Crops recommended,
jestically flourish among the fallen trunks of their pre-
decessors. Those of us who have traversed our distant
forests, especially beyond the mountains, where the tim-
ber is truly gigantic, must have noticed this striking
circumstance. The variegated verdure of these im-
mense recumbent trunks, numerous and extensive, af-
fords to the traveller, a curious, pleasing, picturesque,
and stupendous contrast, v/ith the dusky glooms of the
shades surrounding him.
In my memory, on a smaller scale, a total change of
timber has occurred, in a tract of mine, containing
about 800 acres in Northampton gounty. Previously
to our revolution, perhaps 35 years ago, I knew^ it to be
covered with pitch pine. It was called the pine tract.
This first growth of timber having been blown down
by a tornado, was consumed by fires of the w^oods, a
practice mischievously common in that quarter. It is
now entirely re clothed with oak, hickory, and other va-
luable well grown and thriving timber ; and scarcely a
pine tree is to be seen. I can give (within my own know-
ledge) several instances similar, but of less extent.
One, of a fine grove of white pine, thrown up spontane-
ously, on old fields, where no timber of that species had
teen to twenty five years. Our forest timber is produced
spontaneously, as we all know. No pains are taken to plant,
protect, lop or prune it, as is the custom in Europe. We
take the opposite course : we not only neglect, but assist dis-
solution in its natural march, by wanton waste. Posterity
will look back, w*ith keen regret and reproach, when they feel
the effects of our careless indifference, and culpable inatten-
tion, to their interests and necessities.
As well as of deteriorated Animals. 31
originally grown ; and far from any such timber. Ano-
ther, of a large body of valuable chesnut; where aperson,
now living, has reaped wheat, and other grain; and where
hickory and oak had been the precedent growth ; and no
timber but of the latter kinds, is now to be seen in the
adjacent lands. May it not therefore be probable, that
a change in the timber of the southern country is about
to take place ? Dissolution and renovation, are constant
operations, in nature. Some whole races of animals,
have become extinct. The mammoth^ the former mo-
narch of the woods, is a proof, in the knowledge of eve-
ry body. Beasts of a very different race, now occupy
his haunts. Yet this had excited more curiosity, than
important research, or useful enquiry.
I do not find that the particular species of timber
growing on land, invariably designates its qualities, or
strength: although it is certain, that some kinds arc
the most frequently found, on lands of similar quality.
I have known hemlock^ white phie and pitch pine^ grow
on very rich, deep stapled, and strong land ; as well as
on the most sandy, thin and sterile soil.
I mention these facts, and the opinions resulting from
them, to invite attention to this subject: so as to extract
from this trait in natural history, something auxiliary,
and useful to the objects of our association. It behoves
us to gain improvement, from the shifting of the grand
scenery around us. Important movements in the sys-
tem of nature, should not be suffered to pass, without
profitable instruction.
Although some respectable agriculturists will not
concede the point most generally agreed, to wit: — that
changes of both animals and plants, are necessary to
32 A Change and Successioji of Crops recommended^
their amelioration, or as preventives of degeneracy, I
have always been of that opinion.* Selecting the best
seed from vigorous plants on the same farm, is a sub-
stitute for change. Indeed it may be called a change,
as is that of selections from the same breed of animals.
But I have never considered this as a decisive proof of
the doctrine, it is intended to support. It is an instance
of commendable and exemplary attention, but its result
would be more easily attained, by conforming to gene-
ral experience. The same kind of seed, sown on the
same farm, in soils of different textures and qualities,
will ameliorate. Thus sand ameliorates and recovers,
what in clay had degenerated ; and so vice versa. A
change of soil operates like a change of seed. I have
ameliorated wheat, and other grain and plants, taken
from crops in low land, on my own farm, without selec-
tion of the best grains, by sowing them on distant and
* In agriculture^ a collection of practical facts only, is to
be depended on. Solitary instances are often deceptive, more
so are speculative opinions. Yet these have their use, as
they lead to experiment and enquiry. Sir Joseph Banks as-
serts, contrary to general experience, that light, or shrivelled,
gi'ain, v/ill produce as healthy a crop, as the best seed ! In
this it should seem that Sir J. Banks ^ was a mere theorist.
It shews, however, what opposite opinions are entertained on
the same subject. Mr. Joseph Cooper whose practical opi-
nion has great weight (though I do not entirely agree with
him in his conclusion, not doubting the fact he alleges) holds
the direct contrary doctrine. He thinks that the selection of
the best seed from his own crops, which is highly commend-
able, answers all purposes. — Sijstein may be carried too far^
on both sides of this question. _
As well as of deteriorated Animals.
higher grounds. The same breed of animals, shifted
to distant and different^ parts of a country will recover
a degenerate race. Both these facts, as they apply to
plants and animals, have been experienced by me, and
multitudes of other farmers.!
Nature^ the creature and agent of the divine author
and director of all things, without intermission, when
special interferences do not occur, (which they who do
"^ ^'- Different^'* is here to be understood, from high to low
lands, and vice versa. Also as to herbage, and texture of
soil, — such as, from salt marsh, to fresh grass &c. — Sheep
with the 7-ot^ and other diseases, have been cured, by change
itovcv fresh pastures to salt marshes.
f The careful attention of some Europeans^ to the breeding
Systeniy may, like a selection of grain for seed corn, be, by
such judicious selection, a substitute for changes. They are
not however, there agreed, what is the best course for con-
tinuing, preserving from deterioration, or improving their
valuable animals* Great success has attended a few cele-
brated breeders, in different modes. Some are attached to
crosses, others hold it unnecessary and injurious ; and select
the best and finest stock for breeders, from the same family.
In this country'-, where little knowledge of, or attention to this
system exists, the shortest and best mode is to change, either
locality, or stock. But in no case, should either the original
stock, or attention to it in its progress, be neglected* Our
time and labour are engaged so unremittingly, in our com^
mon affairs, that the necessary application to liice selections,
cannot often be afforded, by the mass of farmers. If the re-
sult can be produced, with the same application, as profitably,
it will be immaterial and a mere speculation, whether selec-
tion be considered a substitute for change, or change for
selection, of either stock, or grain.
34 ji Change and Succession of Crops recommended^
not often perceive, must be indeed blind) progresses in
a system prescribed to her ; and employs various in-
struments to effect her purposes. The most flagitious
of the human race (who also perish in their turns,) are
frequently impelled to exercise, a subordinate agency
to chastise, destroy, and finally to produce a change,
renovation^ or substitution^ in nations, or races of men.
What immense numbers of our species, have, out of
the common course of mortality, and prematurely, to
our short sighted apprehension, been utterly destroyed !
How many of the aborigines of South America, and the
islands near it, among other instances ancient and mo-
dern which might be imported from Europe and other
quarters of the old world, have been extirpated! Neai'-
er home — in our part of this Continent, in the spot we
now inhabit, the more modem theatre of a tragedy in
which Europeans and their decendants, have been the
chief actors — whole tribes, and nations, have been ex-
terminated ! Their names ai'e not known to us, who now
possess their soil. Their places are now tenanted, by
those destined to extinguish and succeed them. Ver-
min and diseases, of infinitely diversified descriptions,
are employed, for the purposes of change, and thereby
to effectuate the inscrutable designs of heaven, to pros-
trate the most exalted, as wtII as the most humble, of
the animal and vegetable creation. The pride of the
forest, the riches of the field, and the ornaments and
delights of the gai'den, are alike their victims. Tempests
and ijiundations, ravage, with resistless ruin. The mes-
sengers of destruction spare neither the palace, nor the
cottage. They deal out desolation, in a system of perfect
equality !
jis well as of deteriorated Aniinals, 35
This picture may not be valuable for its colouring:
but the likeness is drawn by history and experience,
with the pencil of trudi. Nor is it gloomy, to those
who succeed this winter of dissolution. They enjoy
fruitful and renovated seasons; when new products,
more vigorous and estimable, are benignantly sent
forth, to retribute for those lost, by either sudden or
progressive, but inevitable, decadency. Nature will
have her course ; and to her, an age, is but as to us a day.
For the distribution, supply and succession of animal
and vegetable productions^ means are established, in end-
less diversities ; as well as to operate the changes de-
signed, in the ordinary, or special course of progres-
sion. The human race^ though endued, by the bene-
ficent author of our existence, with the like organization
of our system, both corporeal and mental, with that of
our first parents, is nevertheless disposed to great vari-
eties, in the branches from the original stock. These
are numerous and operated upon, if not produced by
climate, means and quality of subsistence and other
local circumstances, as they are dispersed through differ^
ent quarters of the earth ; like the trees of the forest or
the plants of the field. Although none of the human
species may be said to be, in their nature, strictly indi-
genous, as it respects any particular hemisphere, or
district of the globe ; yet they become, in due time, ac
commodated (as are other animals) to the situation, in
which they are doomed to live ; and successions, and
changes, of individuals continually occur. A diversity
in their successions is seen, as one race, or variety, is
located, or displaces another. The power of locomotioji
is given to us ; and a disposition to change, is implant-
36 ^ Change and Succession of Crops recommended^
ed in our nature. A propensity to wandering, is not
confined to savage tribes, it shews itself in those deemed
civiUsed; who follow the worst and most savage pro-
pulsions, when they establish themselves, when nations
are devoted to chastisement or overthrow, on the ruin,
total or partial, of those they subjugate or destroy.
And, whether the purpose be achieved progressively
and peacefully, or violently and promptly, by those en-
circled with diadems, leading hosts, in the pomp, and
fearful equipment of war; or by bands, or hordes, of
savages, not less destructive and fierce, though less
gaudily attired, or formidably aiTayed, the same ends
are accomplished, though the means are apparently
dissim.ilar. Thus also, violence, decay and dissolution,
and operations boih aw^ful and disgusting, are the pre-
cursors of the changes in timber and plants. These
flourish on the destructionof others, to which they suc-
ceed ; as do men and other animals, whose numbers and
vigour encrease, by changes of race, or locality.
It is peculiar to animals to be endo\\Td with the ca-
pacity of self movement, when choice or necessity in-
vites, or compels, changes of locality and habits : and,
by the exercise of their own powers, and propensities,
man^ and other animals^ are distributed through every
clime. The strong disposition, in minds rude or culti-
vated, for travel, and visiting distant countries, disguis-
ed under an infinity of motives, either of curiosity, im-
provement, cupidity, or ambition, is but an evidence of
this natural impulse in men. A similar instinct for roam-
ing and wandering, appears in other animals ; when they
are invited to change their haunts, in pursuit of prey,
in search of more sunny regions, and temperate seasons
j4s well as of deteriorated Animals, 37
or greater plenty of subsistence. Such propulsions are
stimulants to the execution of the great designs of hea-
ven to replenish and popidate the earth ; and to spread
through every region, the tenants of the forests^ and the
beasts of the fields. The migrations of birds ^ and wing-
ed insects^ are easily effected : and the animals appointed
to inhabit the '' vasty deep^''"' are in constant progress,
through its immensurable expanse.
For the dissemination of the vegetable tribes^ their
all wise creator has instituted countless means. Ajiimals
winged and footed, winds and waters^ are subservient
to their propagation. In the wonderful machinery of
nature, one part is always assistant to the other. Hence
we can account for a few and rare appearances of trees
and plants, in unexpected spots. — But how, or from
w^hat germes, or organized particles, new and extensive
products spring forth spontaneously ; in situations very
distant from any of the same kinds, where none such
M^ere before seen ; and where a distinct vegetation had
long occupied the site ; — is hidden among the arcana of
the creation, into which I do not presume to enter; —
much less to explain. The facts are numerous and in-
dubitable:^ and, if I can fairly deduce any practical,
and profitable conclusion, it is all I aim to accomplish.
^ Since this communication I have met, accidentally, with
7s.{ix\\\Q^^V!\\h<t Edinhurg Remew, Vol. I. 1802-3. on ili«ci^?2-
'Zie^s Voyages, It calls to my recollection a confirmatory fact ;
mentioned by him. He alleges it to be " a very curious and
extraordinary circumstance, that land covered with spruce pine
and rvhite h'lrch^ when laid waste !)y fire, should subsequentlv
produce nothing hit poplars, where none of that species of
38 A Change and Succession of Crops recommendedy
Tlie corollary to be drawn from these observations,
is practical. Speculation is vain and visionary, when
it does not assist in the practical business of life. Let
agriculturists be warned., by the decline of plants or ani-
malsy to change their course. When crops are repeat-
tree was previously to be found." The reviewers speak in-
credulously of this fact, which is nevertheless undoubtedly
true; and corroborative of similar relations. Many of the
phenomena of nature pass so often without notice, that they
appear incredible, when our attention to them is awakened.
We are yet novices in these secrets, which, with all our
pride of science and experience, are hidden from our ken»
We can but seldom agree about effects, much less do we ac-
cord in developing causes. It is almost as extraordinaiy,
that any timber should grow, where, at the depth of four
inches from the surface, he (Mackenzie J uniformly met with
a solid body of ice, in midsummer : but tliis is not a solitary
instance.
The savage and ruinous custom oifring- the woodSy against
which our laws have feebly provided, is borrowed by our
borderers, from their predecessors the Indians. It not only
prevails where lilackenzie found it, in the northern regions
of our Continent ; but through the southern and middle dis-
tricts of the wilderness, possessed by the natives, and their
half civilized successors. The partial and temporary benefits
of pasture, or facilities to hunting, serve as excuses for an
enormity, which renders extensive tracts of countiy, origi-
nally valuable, finally desert, sterile and worthless. No de-
predations on personal property, are so destructive, as this
most atrocious and irreparable offence. Timber will not grow,
or thrive, where fi.res of the woods are frequently repeated.
The change of timber, from a species destroyed, to one en-
tirely different ; is by no means confined to those places, where
fires have caused the destruction of precedent growths.
M well as of deteriorated Anmals. 39
edly destroyed or stinted by vermin, by too long cultiva-
tion of the same species on the same field, or other caus-
es; or animals are deteriorated, by disease, or impercep-
tible causes, let an entire new course^ and species of crops ^
be adopted ; and a different breed of the same kind, or
of another description of animals^ be substituted. In a
lapse of time, the same career may be ran over again.
This is but extending, through the whole scene, the
lessons of experience, taught by nature. A continual
sameness of crop, in the same field, soon produces de-
generacy and poverty. Successions and changes^ are the
steps to prosperity. Instead of uselessly repining un-
der the visitations, with which we are occasionally, and,
for our listlessness, deservedly punished ; when the most
apparently contemptible i?isects, desolate our fields, and
blasts and diseases disappoint our hopes by frequent re-
currences, w^e should profit, by mementos^ thus strongly
marked for our instruction. Growing wiser by misfor-
tune, we should be convinced — ^that nature calls loudly,
for her expected and salutary change^ of the objects of our
industry and care.^
Belmc\t, August SOth, 1806.
* It seems almost unnecessary to mention, that, in this
change^ the quality of the soil must be consulted, and the course,
adapted accordingly. Nature delights in change ; yet she
will not be violently forced. In a new clearing, neglected, or
not judiciously managed, it is curious to observe the infinite
variety of plants, spontaneously thrown up. Herbaceou.^
plants, arc products of the first eflbrts, to clothe the surface ;
after the timber has been removed. These are generally,
40 ^ Change and Succession of Cfops reco?n mended.
In some degree connected with the foregoing sub-
ject, I think it useful to recall the attention of the Soci-
ety, to the communication, I made, at their request, on
peach trees. The contagious disease, I therein men-
tioned, as having given me some monitory indications,
has verified these warnings. I have lost a great num-
ber, in the manner described, without the agency of
the worm. I shall take my old course of eradicating the
disease, by removing its subjects. I shall use none out
of my ow^n nursery, but procure young trees from a
distance, beyond the scene of infection. I observe,
throughout my neighbourhood, the same disease, pro-
ducing the like destruction.
R. R
(though there are wandering exceptions) suitable to the soil.
Aquatic plants will not be found in arid situations ; nor vice
versa. The next step is to recover timber. This occurs in
new, as well as old lands, when timber had been thereon ori-
ginally. In glades^ prairies^ or places not naturally woody,
it is otherwise. The timber, though often changed in species,
is adapted to the qualities of the soil. So is the herbage of
the lands, to which nature has denied timber. This should
be attended to, in artificial plantations.
See St. Pierre* s studies of nature ; (Beauties of the Stu-
dies. 108.J for an handsome description of the operations of
nature^ when resuming her violated domain.
Cause of Decay ofTimher in South Carolina* 41
Supplement to the foregoing.
The cause of the rapid and alarming decay of the pine
timber in South Carolina, is an insect or bug which was
first observed in the northern and eastern parts of the
State about six years since. It is a small black winged
bug resembling the weavil, but somewhat larger. A
great number of these bugs have been observed in the
spring of the year, and early in the summer, flying near
the roots of the trees : they pierce the bark a little dis-
tance above the ground, and lay their eggs between the
bark and wood ; in a few wrecks after, these eggs hatch,
and a worm appears, w^hich at its full growth, is about
an inch long : they immediately begin to feed on the
sappy part of the tree, and do not cease eating until the
Vvdiole of it is destroyed.
Very considerable injury has been done by these in-
sects to the pines of South Carolina. In one place, viz.
on the Sampit creek, near Georgetown, in a tract of two
thousand acres of pine land, it has been calculated that
ninety trees in every hundred have been destroyed by
this pernicious insect; the adjoiniag lands, and many
tracts on the Santee and Black rivers have equally suf-
fered. The fact of an oak springing up in the place of
a fallen pine tree, and of the latter appearing when the
former is cut, in the southern States, is known to every
one there.
The indelicacy of the Edinburgh reviewers in ex-
pressing theu' disbelief of the fact related by M' Kenzie,
is the more inexcusable, inasmuch as their own country
exhibits a glaring fact analogous to that of the intrepid
voyager. I allude to the production of white closer,
42 Proofs of the Natural Rotation
without seed being sewn, upon the wretched poverty
struck heath and moss ground of Scotland, merely from
the influence of lime spread on the surface. Mr. Hearne
says, that *' strawberries of a considerable size, and ex-
cellent flavour, are found as far north as Churchill river,
imd that it is remarkable, they are frequently known to
be more plentiful in such places as have formerly been
set on fire. This is not peculiar to the strawberr}% for
it is well knovv-n, in the interior parts of the country, as
well as at Albany, and Moose forts, that after the un-
derwood and moss have been set on fire, raspberry
Ijushes and hips have shot up in great numbers on spots
where nothing of the kind had ever been seen before.''
^^Journey to Northern Ocean^ P^K^ ^^^- Lond, 1795,
Mr. Cartwright also observes, "that if through care-
lessness of those who make fires in the woods, or by
lightning, the old spruce woods are burnt, indian tea
is generally the first thing which comes up : currants
follow next, and after them, birch." — Journal of Trans-
actions at Labrador, Vol. 3. p. 225.
The following extract of a letter to the writer, from
.John Adlum, Esq. of Havre de Grace, Maryland,
dated September 16th, 1807, is a further confirmation
of the point here in discussion. Ever}^ one who knows
the high authority of Mr. Adlum, as an accurate ob-
ser^'er, vrill duly estimate the facts he details.
" As to your query respecting a rotation or succession
of forest trees, I am as well satisfied of it, in my own
mind, as if I had lived to see the Vviiole change for cen-
turies back ; and although it may be difficult to give
the kind of information, that may be satisfactor}-, I
have no doubt that I could con^•ince any person as to
the fact, v,ere he to travel over the country with me."
Of Shrubs and Forest Trees,
*' I first took the idea in the summer of 1788, when I
was surveying lands south of the great bend of Susque-
hannah, between that river and the Delav/are, in what
is called the beech and sugar maple country. In the
course of my surveying, I traversed some places, con-
sisting of a few acres each, growing red and white oak
trees of an enormous size, none being less than sixteen
feet in circumference, five feet above the ground, and
generally from 40 to 50 feet to the first branches ; some
^^w red oaks, were 22 feet in circumference, and the
white oaks 20 feet round. I was struck w4th astonish-
ment to meet a few trees of the oak kind, considering
that I had not seen any for some weeks. After disco-
vering the first few, I kept a look out for more such
places, and as well as I can remember, I found two more
of the same kind, containing trees of the same enormous
size, but no small oaks nearer than the large waters
emptying into the Susquehannah and Delaware. The
places mentioned, were near the heads of those rivers,
and where the streams w^ere small, I invariably found
small bodies of very large hemlock^ trees (the prevail-
ing timber,) near those places ; the remainder of the trees
consisted of beech, sugar maple, with a few white wal-
nut,! white ash, birch Ike. but no oaks."
"- In those parts of the country, where the prevailing
tim.ber consisted of sugar maple, beech, and birch ; I
observed large trees growing as it were on stilts, their
roots being three feet above the ground, which trees un-
doubtedly grew on old logs that had either fallen with
P'lnus Abies Americana, f Jiiglajis Alba,
44 Proofs of the Natural Rotation
age, or had been thro^^ai down by hurricanes, and had
rotted away from the roots of the trees."
"The chimps of oak and hemlock are generally in the
midst of, or surrounded by large bodies of beech and
sugar maple lands, mixed with some ash, and a few
wild cherry and hemlock trees. In some parts of the
country, the prevailing timber is still hemlock, on the
sides of hills, and along streams."
"From the circumstance of the great size of all the oak
trees growing in the spots noted above, it appears to
me, that most of the liigh country, including the head
waters of the Delaware, Allegheny and Chenesee rivers,
was originally an oak country. The hemlock appears
to have succeeded the oak, for there is still a consider-
able quantity of that timber over the face of the country,
but from the number of logs of it lying on the ground ,
and its visible decline, I think the beech, sugar maple
Sec. succeeded the hemlock, as they are the prevailing
timber at present. The timber that appears to me will
take place of all others in the country before mentioned,
is the white ash and wild cherry, for I observed that
all places where the woods have been blown down by
hurricanes for a number of years back, the young
growth consists principally of those two kinds of trees,
and the largest saplins of them Vv hich I saw, were six
to nine inches diameter. I suppose that the appeai^ance
of the latter trees commenced between twenty and thirty
years back, counting from 1794 or 1795. There are
several of those wind falls, in the remote parts of Penn-
sylvania, and New York near the line dividing the two
States; they are generally 1-8, rarely 3-4 of a mile wide,
and several miles long, and in every one that I saw, and
Of Shrubs and Forest Trees* 45
that did not appear to have happened more than from
20 to 30 years ago, the ash and wild cherry were the
prevaihng timber; there were indeed, other trees gi'ow-
ing among those but from their appearance, very few
of them would attain to a large size, except some birch,
and I have no doubt, that if cultivating the country
does not make some alteration in it, in another century,
the beech, sugar maple, hemlock &c. will be as scarce
in those parts of the country, where they now abound,
as the oak is at present."
The benefit derived from a change of crops is so ob-
vious, that to doubt it would airgue scepticism, border-
ing upon the ridiculous. The same kind of seed, long
continued upon the same ground, almost ceases to yield,
losing as it were all excitability, or disposition to be
stimulated by the qualities of the soil to which it had
been so long accustomed ; and yet we find that other
seeds will grow in the same soil, with great luxuriance,
and yield abundantly. The southern States afford a
remarkable proof of this truth. In South Carolina, in-
digo w^as so long continued upon the same land, that
the expence of cultivation was scarcely cleared,^" and
yet cotton afterwards yielded abundant and very pro-
fitable crops, upon the same ground,! and in all proba-
* Mr. Bryan Edwards says ''from observing its long top,
root, and spontaneous growth, in almost ever}^ dry and barren
savannah, he is convinced, it will thrive on soils that are fit
for nothing e/.ye." The difference of the experience of plant-
ers in South Carolina and Georgia, is remarkable.
j It is to be understood, that tlie land alluded to was not
manured.
46 Proofs of the Natural Rotation of Shrubs ^c.
bility will be continued until the same thing happens
with regard to it as to the indigo, unless the want of
demand for the wool should cause it to be laid aside,
before the expected event shall have taken place. It is
also found, that land will yield excellent crops of cot-
ton, which will not produce indian corn, and I have on
the contrary, seen luxuriant crops of the latter growing
in St. Simons, Georgia, on land which I was told had
ceased to produce cotton. On tide lands too, it is found
greatly to benefit ground, which exhibits signs of dimi-
nished vigour, from long cultivation in cotton, to plant
rice, but in this case, the deposition from the water,
when the ground is overfiowed, may be supposed to
produce the efiect of a renewal of the soil.
J. Mease.
[ 47 ]
0« Smut in Wheat, By William Young, of Brandt/-
zvine, Delaware,
Read October 14th, 1806.
I herewith send a sample of wheat, which produced
a considerable quantity of ears filled with smut balls,
in place of grain. The seed from which it was raised
w*as procured in this neighbourhood last October, and
had been sown for four years, on the same farm, and
deemed of the best quality. In the harvest of 1805 for
the first time, a mixture of smut was observed. It was
not however to that extent, as to be considered deep-
ly injurious to the grain, which was of course sown upon
several farms, and upon different fields in the same
farm, from September to December, under various as-
pects, and in every situation, it produced a considerable
proportion of smut balls in the harvest of the present
year. I had part of two fields sown with it ; the one a
south, the other a north aspect. Carolina white, Virgi-
nia eai'ly, and red chaff bearded wheat were contiguous
in the respective fields. There was not a ball of smut
found, except that from which the sample is sent. Nor
was it found on any of the other farms, except ^vhen the
heed was sown from the same stock. And even the
bame species of wheat, procured from another farm,
and sown on one of my fields, produced no smut balls.
The farinaceous part of the grain, unto which the
smut adhered, was perfectly pure, after the smut was
removed at the barley mill.
It is evident, that the seed produced in 1805 was in-
fected, bv a kind of hereditarv disease, occasioned bv
48 On Smut in Wheat.
the smut, which burst from the balls, during the act of
thrashing, and lodged in the small beard on the plume
end of the grain, preventing or impeding the process of
vegetation in the plant, in its embryo state, withholding
the power required to mature the grain, at a certain pe-
riod. It becomes a matter of no small import to inves-
tisrate the causes of this disease, for althous:h smut has
not prevailed, in the States Pennsylvania, Delaw^are, and
Maryland, it has been highly injurious in the remote
counties of the State of New York, and in the valley
of Shenandoah : and it some years ago made its ap-
pearance in a field of v/heat in this neighbourhood, the
seed of which was brought from New York.
If any favourite species of w^heat shall be introduced
amongst us infected with smut, the disease might have
a rapid increase. When perhaps the evil might be as-
cribed to that sort of Avheat, or an unfavourable state of
the atmosphere, rather than to a disease inherent or at-
tached to the seed.
The foregoing facts inform us, that smut is sometimes
produced from seed, which had no mixture of it,
as in the harvest of 1805. At other times it is the na-
tive offspring of the purest grain, infected with, or hav-
ing smut thereon, as in the harvest of 1806. The first
may arise from an unfavourable state of the atmosphere
or more frequently, from some radical defect in the seed
so-wn. When the early advances of the plants are vi-
gorous and the infection of all sorts of wheat, at an af-
ter period, general, there is reason to presume, that the
disease arises from some external circumstance, such
as a hot sun, after heavy rains, continued moisture to
excess in the Gitmospliere, while at an high temperature
On Smut 171 Wheat. 49
high wind prevailing in a continued draught, while the
bloom or farina is present, and the milk in the corn.
But when the complaint is local, unless the aspect is
of an uncommon kind, there is reason to conclude the
seed has been in some respect imperfect. And being
unable to produce the farina, and mature the grain, an
abortion takes place, and the result is the same, but
not attended with all the symptoms of that sown with
the smut adhering thereto. This was the case in 1805,
the smut had no offensive smell, while the produce from
that grain in 1806 was highly offensive, bearing a re-
semblance to that arising from putrid fish, and continued
so, notwithstanding the low temperature of the atmos*
phere. This may readily be perceived by rubbing a
smut ball between the finger and thumb.
The reason why the smut had no offensive smell in
1805, was, the disease seems to have progressed more
slowly, and the foetid effluvia carried off by the partial
perspiration, remaining in the plant.
The introduction of smut, may be prevented by care-
ful selection and preparation of the seed. The wash-
ings recommended by the best agricultural authorities,
are to be performed, and all imperfect grain rejected;
for it frequently happens, that although the principles
of vegetation are not extinguished, the powers for ma-
turing the grains are destroyed. The smut stated as
having made its appearance in the harvest of 1805,
seems to have originated in this way. No other farms
in this neighbourhood were infected or contained any
mixture of smut, except that alluded to in this paper.
The smut which made its appearance in the harvest
of 1806, was evidently a species of hereditary disease,
50 On Smut in Wheat,
arising from the smut adhering to the beard of the grain
sowTi, which had fixed itself on the pure grain (after
being put into motion by the operation of threshing,)
where it appears deposited in the form of a fine, oily,
\egetable mould.
It is as yet unknown, by what means smut becomes so
pernicious to the offspring of the plant, arising from the
grain to which it adheres. It does not produce any
fungous matter, which might prove injurious to the
root, or stalks of the plants : for their vigour and appear-
ance ^^'ere not surpassed by any in the same field. There
is no apparent disease, until after the appearance of the
bloom or farina, but then its progress becomes rapid
and destructive. For while the plants from the unin-
fected grains, display vigour and health in the riclmess
and activity of their farina, the ear at the same time as-
suming the texture and properties of grain, the farina of
the infected is dead and pallid, adhering to the external
coating of the ear, as if it were some foreign matter
pasted thereon. Sterility and deadness then universally
prevail, and the perspiration of the plant is at an end. The
moisture which had been drawn up from the roots, be-
comes stagnated, and finally returns to the roots, visibly
discoloured, as if it had been steeped in impoverished
lye: — the stock for some time continues green, which
finally terminates in yellow rust over the whole ; the
milk, which abounded in the ear, in place of assuming
the texture, and properties of grain, becomes a putrid
mass, and so far as it remains insulated, by the coatings
intended for farinaceous matter and secluded from the
air, it produces that offensive smell, already stated.
On Smut in Wheat. 51
These are facts, which introduced themselves in the
harvests 1805 and 1806; they are now produced, that
every reader, may consider the plant before him, and
draw such conclusions as arise out of the premises.
Another fact may be added, that some grains which
tillered, you will find produced stalks with perfect
cars of grain, others from the indentical grain, pro-
duced smut balls, but in no instance were grain and
smut balls found in the same ear, as stated by some
observers.
I shall conclude this communication, with such re-
flections as arise from the circumstances laid before,
you.
1st. That imperfect or damaged seed yields a diseased
crop, and that under the circumstances last stated, the
disease becomes hereditarv. It is reasonable to conclude,
that part of the seed sown in 1804 was damaged, for it
produced a mixture of smut, while all the farms in the
neighbourhood were exempted from that disease in the
harvest of the next season.
2d. The disease in the harvest of 1806, from seed of
the infected crop of 1805, assumed an hereditary aspect.
Wherever the seed from the crop of 1805 was sown,
and in those places only, smut appeared in 1806,
I am aware of the danger of submitting hypothesis,
in place of facts, for consideration. It may neverthe-
less be proper in the present case : for as every act of
the judgment is right or wrong, true or false, the hypo-
thesis if wrong, may invite that solid information, which
otherwise would have been excluded from the public
eye.
52 On Smut in Wheat,
It is therefore presumed, that the smut of the harvest
field of 1806, arose from a privation of the action of the
beard (which is on the phime end of the grain of wheat)
in the ceconomy of vegetation. The office of that beard,
in the embryo state of the plant, is either to generate,
act upon, or in the vessels producing the bloom, or
farina; for if these vessels are imperfect, or the action
required be wanting, all the mutual advantages which re-
sult from the perfection of the farina, and its operations
will cease; instead of grain, there will be a putrid mass,
as in the sample before you. Every one will allow,
that the beard is formed for some important function,
in the service of the plant. It is here where the cause
of the disease exists ; when the smut is removed from
the beard, perfect grain is produced ; when it is suffered
to remain on the beard, smut is produced. It is then
in some measure conclusive, that the diseased ears nei-
ther receive nor communicate the fainna. For until
this period, all the usual functions were performed, so
far as inspection could determine; afterwards all the ope-
rations of the plant toward maturing the grain are at an
end.
It may be objected, if the disease arose from the
impaired functions of the beard, and the consequent
imperfection and inactivity of the farina, that the iden-
tical grain would not, at the same time produce heal-
thy and diseased ears, as stated. It may be answ^ered,
that upon examination of the grain with a glass, many
of the beai'ds on the identical grain, were free from the
smut when sown. The office of such would therefore
be performed, in the same manner, as if no disease had
existed on the grain, wherein they acted. It is reason-
On Smut in Wheat.
able to conclude, that although their intercourse with
the farinaceous part of the grain, is minute, yet their
ramifications are independent, as well as the leaders of
the respective parts of the plant, to their proper offsets,
the independence of which, has been proved, by fre-
quently parting the offsets, and planting apart, in which
cases, they matured the grain, with an increase of some
hundred fold. Each member of those offsets, radically
pure and perfect, although subdivided to a great extent,
performed its respective function in vegetation.
The washing recommended, is merely to remove
the smut and imperfect grain; whatever is found most
effectual for that purpose, is deemed the most expedi-
ent. No dependance is placed on various steeps, as it is
presumed, that plump seed, well kept, and laid in a soil
well prepared, is the best security against smut and
every disease.
Since writing the above, I have met with a case of
a palm tree, somewhat analogous to the hypothesis, the
palma major, foiiis flabelliformibus. A tree of this kind
had for 30 years, flowered and borne fruit in a garden
of the Royal Academy at Berlin, but the fruit never ri-
pened^ and when planted did not vegetate. There was
a male plant of the sam^e kind, in a garden at Lcipsic,
20 German miles from Berlin, from thence a branch of
the flowers was procured, and suspended over the tree
at Berlin, the experiment produced ripe fruity next year
it was repeated, and the palm tree produced above 2000
ripe fruit. The fruit vegetated, and produced young
palm trees. — See Hunter'' s Georgical Essays^ York Edi-
tion, pa^e 432.
C 54 3
Remarks on the foregoing^ with additional Observations on
Smut J and the means of preventing it. By James
Mease, M. D.
Read November 11th, 1806.
From the first fact mentioned by Mr. Young, viz.
that the smutty wheat he raised, was part of a kind
which had been so^mi for several years upon the same
ground, an apparent confirmation may seem to be given
to the commonly received opinion, of the necessity of
a change of seed in order to prevent disease and dege-
neracy, but the experience of the accurate Mr. Cooper
of New Jersey, and other facts on this subject, will not
permit its adoption. That industrious improver has
found, that the seeds of his vegetable productions im-
prove instead of degenerating, although sown upon the
same ground for various periods, viz. 20, 30, 45 yeai's.
His account being before the public,* need not be dwelt
on at this time. Mr. Bakewell, the celebrated improver
of the breed of cattle in England, disproved the position
of the necessity of crossing breeds merely for the sake
of a cross, and hence constantly bred in and in, from his
own excellent stock, until he found one with peculiar
qualities which he wished to add to those of his own
stock.
The cause of smut in jNIr. Young's wheat must still
be sought for, but what that cause is may not be easily
ascertained. The disease has prevailed to a great de-
* It is also inserted in this Volume.
On Smut in fVheat, SB
gree within a few years in Britain, and has been fre-
quently investigated by the philosophical and practical
agriculturists of that country, and to their remarks I
shall be indebted for what I now have to offer on the
subject.
Mr. Wimpey,^ is of opinion that smut is almost in-
tirely occasioned by some vitiating principle in the air,
a constant concomitant of wet, storm.y w^eather. His
experiments agree with those of Mr. Young in shew-
ing, that grain which is vitiated by smut, infallibly
causes the produce from it to be smutty : he also proves
that the cleanest grains frequently produce smutty
crops, notwithstanding change of seed, steeping, and
liming, and adds a fact not noticed by Mr. Young, viz.
that sound seed taken from smutty ears, produce as clean
crops as seed from grains that w^ere perfectly free from
smut.
Mr. Somervillef thinks that smut is occasioned by a
very small insect not visible by the naked eye, in the
downy part of the grain. He ascertained the truth of
this opinion, by observing some smutty balls perforated
in many places with small round holes, and by holding
them near a candle, he discovered the insects, resem-
bling vrood lice in shape. The heat from the concen-
trated rays of the sun thrown upon the balls with a burn-
ing glass, also put them in motion, and shewed them in
every different point of view. He supposes that v»'hen
the balls are broken in the operation of threshing, or
come in contact with clean healthy grains, the insects
* Transactions of Bath Society of Agriculture.
f Communications to Board of Agriculture. Vol. '^.
56 Oil Smut in Wheat,
leave the smutted grains, and adhering to such as arc
healthy, are sown with them, and wound the tender
stem in such a manner as to render the plant incapable
of producing any thing but smut. Another practical
writer* also ascribes the disease to an insect, which lays
its eggs in the dovv^ny Darts or beard of the grain, and
by wounding the eai' in several places, checks its growth.
The late Sir John Call,t entertained the same opinion
as to the cause of smut, but he adduces no experiments
to support it. He adds however a fact, which is con-
trary to the experience of Mr. Wimpey, Mr. Young,
Mr. Somerviile, and all others whose observations have
been published : it is, that the black dust of the smutty
grains has no effect upon the growth of sound grains,
though rubbed and mixed therev/ith. The Rector of
the parish, and two farmers, have certified to the cor-
rectness of his statement. Giving full credit to the fact,
we can only say, that being so contrary to general ob-
servation, prudence requires that we do not follow a
practice attended by mischief in all cases except one.
Bai'on Munkhausen of Hanover,! also says, that after
a strict examination of the black powder of smut, with
a microscope, he found it to consist of small transparent
globules, with black specks in the middle of each: that
these globules are the eggs of extremely minute insects;
from these eggs, v/hen they are placed in water of a
certain degree of warmth, there proceeds, an animal-
cule of an ^^^ shaped form. When the wheat is
^ Communications to 'Board of Agriculture. Vol. 2.
f Same v/ork and Volume.
i Gentlemeri's Ma.crazine. 1 768. d. 698.
On Smut in Wheat. 57
threshed, these eggs stick to the tops of the sound
grains, which being sown, continue the evil.
Mr. Caleb Kirk, who lives near Mr, Young, sent
me a specinrien with the smut attached to the grains,
in consequence of the diseased sheafs having been
threshed among the sound, in which order it came to
his mill to be gi'ound. He first passed it through the
barley mill,* and thereby removed the smut, (which
chiefly adheres to the downy substance at the upper end
of the grain,) and then found that it produced excellent
flour; whereas when ground without this operation, a
flour was produced of a dark colour, which, though it
rose well, yet spread out when baken, into the form of
a^cake, and became compact; and when cold was dry
and crumbly, and so hard, that a knife entered with
difficulty ; it w^as moreover without the agreeable taste
of bread. — Four bushels of infected grain yielded half
a bushel of smut !
From a paper in a French periodical work on domes-
tic and rural oeconomy,t it appears, that by washing
and drying, smutty grain may be rendered fit for mill,
and for making wholesome bread, but to do this pro-
perly, the wheat must be stirred with a broom, and
rubbed with the hands, in small quantities at a time ;
the foul water must be let out of the cistern, and fresh
water put upon the wheat, until it runs off clear. If it
is washed at a river or a w^ell, the basket must be plung-
ed in several times quickly, that the grain may be
^ Mr. Kirk makes pearl barley equal to any imported,
and cheaper.
t Bibiiotheque Phisico — Economique*
58 On Smut in Ji^heat.
Washed without being softened, to prevent the difficulty
in drying it, and to avoid wrinkling the skin.
From an accurate analysis of the smut of wheat, by
those eminent chemists, Vauquelin and Foucroy,* it
appears, that it is only a "residuum of putrefied farina*
which instead of the constituent elements of this last,
viz. starch, gluten, and saccharine matter, contains only
a kind of charred oily substance, very similar to that
Species of bitumen which derives its origin from ani-
mal or vegeto-animal bodies.
For seed grain, Mr. Young places no dependence
upon steeps in preventing smut in the succeeding crop^,
but there are several facts on record, which would lead
us to incline strongly to the belief, that some have a
powerful influence ; a few of these shall now be men-
tioned.
1. Tull, the father of the drill husbandry relates, that
a ship load of wheat was sunk near Bristol, in autumn^
and afterwards, at ebbs, all taken up ; but being unfit
for the miller, it was used for seed. At the following
harvest, all the wheat in England was smutty, except
the produce of this brined seed.
2. Mr. Richard P. Barton of Frederick county Vir-
ginia, relates that in 1805, some fine wheat was brought
from Redstone Pennsylvania, to his neighbourhood to
exchange for salt; and having purchased two bushels,
he steeped it in strong salt brine, and then sifted on it
as much quicklime as would adhere to it. Two of his
neighbours sowed some of the same wheat without steep-
ing. The soil was the same, and the seeding done iji
^ Annales du Museum jd'Histoire N^turelle, No. 35-.
On Smut in Wheaty ^^
good order, and in good time. Mr. Barton's crop was
iVee from smut, at the following hai'vest, but the crops
tpf the other two persons were much infected.*
Mr. Somerville in the paper before quoted upoi>
blight, smut and mildew in wheat, says that from his
own observation, aided by the testimony of the most res-
pectable farmers, the salt pickle has always prevented
the crop from suffering by smut, where it has been ju-
diciously applied, yet that under certain circumstances,
it may be injurious.
3. In the Farmer's Magazine,t we find the following,
remarks, under the Banffshire quarterly agi'icultural re-
port: "what wheat we have, where free of smut, is of
excellent quality. The advantage of pickling was ap-
parent in a patch, where part had been pickled, and pan
of it not. The former was very little touched, while the
latter was at least a fifth or sixth smutted. Several in-
stances of this kind shew the utihty of that preparation,
and though it may not at all times be an entire preven-
tive, it should not be omitted."
A writer in the same volume : J who signs J. W. and
dates from Norfolk, offers for a trifling premium per
acre, to insure the whole seed of England from injury
by pickling, and the crop from being damaged by smut,
provided the following recipe be judiciously applied.
'' Steep your wheat five or six hours in water brought
from the sea, or in common water salted, till it is strong
* Barton's Medical and Physical Journal. 2 Supplement,
f Vol. 5. page 483, printed at Edinburg. An excellent work,
which ought to be in the possession of every farmer.
\ Page 443.
60 On Smut in Wheat,
enough to swim an egg, stirring it frequently. Procure
first unslacked lime, and wdien you begin to let the
water off, slack your lime with a small quantity of it;
when the water is completely drained off, turn the wheat
out of your tub, and to every bushel of it allow a peck
of lime ; sprinkle this over it, and stir the whole with a
shovel till they are completely mixed, so as every grain
may receive a share. When dry it is ready for sow-
ing, but should the lime prove troublesome or dange-
rous to the seedsman's eyes, some more water may be
thrown upon it, for when the lime is dry, the cure is
effected. If the wheat is meant to be drilled, sift the
lime upon it, in the first instance, and from it, after-
wards.
" The lime, I am persuaded, is the grand panacea,
and I only recommend salt water in preference to fresh,
because the lime adheres more closely to the grain,
when the former is used. The principal difficulty in
the process lies in the mixing of the wheat and lime
completely, so as every kernel of the wheat may receive
its due proportion of lime ; for unless this is carefully
attended to, danger will not be prevented ; ever}^ kernel
that escapes the lime, being liable to receive and pro-
pagate the disease. I once witnessed a case, which has
fixed me most firmly in the opinion, that fresh lime is
absolutely necessaiy to accomplish a cure. A very ex-
perienced and intelligent farmer having used all the
wheat he had prepai^ed for seed, wanted a few bushels
to complete his sowing; and being at a considerable
distance from the kiln, determined to make use of some
old lime, which had been long in his possession. I exa-
mined the crop along with the owner, in the succeeding
On Smut in Wheat, 61
year, when it was ready for the sickle, and found, that
w^here hot hme had been used, no smut prevailed^ but
that the crop was much hurt where cold lime had been
substituted.
" Some caution is certainly necessary with regard to
lime ; for should it be used when not properly slacked,
the great degree of heat thereby occasioned, would de-
stroy the vegetative principle of the seed ; but if appli-
ed with the precautions recommended, I am persuaded
that the liming and pickling may, in some slight degree
act as a manure. I have practised the method of pickling
now described, for more than twenty years, and never
suffered injury from smut. Once, and once only in that
time, during my absence from home, and when my re-
gular seedsman w^as indisposed, the process was left to
an inexperienced hand, and I was a material sufferer, by
his applying the lime without slacking it sufficiently."
The authority upon which the above observations
and facts are given, is certainly lessened from the cir-
cumstance of its being anonymous ; and yet they are
in part corroborated by so many living persons, that we
suffer no risque in admitting them in favour of the prac-
tice under consideration. It must however be remark-
ed, that the opinion entertained respecting the lime
being the chief agent in the prevention of the disease,
is certainly not supported by as many, as that which
attributes an equal share to the salt water.* I myself was
* Mr. Somerville, as we have seen before, thinks that the
lime is useful only to dry up the superfluous moisture and
make the grains separate and sow more readilv ; chalk or
62. On Smut iu Wheats
.■•„■■■ ■ . ■ ■ ;-, •■,,-■•■ --V-^T-4;
shewn two years since, by Job Roberts of MontgomerJ.^
county, Pennsylvania: a fine field of wheat, which fully
proved the utility of steeping the seed in simple salt
and water. For the sake of experiment he sowed a
strip in the middle of the field, with dry unsteeped seed
and the backwardness and want of vigour in that por-
tion, when compared with the rest of the field was so
apparent, as to call forth a remark from me. He in-
formed me, that several of his neighbours had tried the^
same steep, and w^ere so convinced of its utility, as to
induce them to continue the practice. f
These facts are sufficient in my opinion, to prove the-
benefit derived from steeping seed grain in various
liquids : some caution how^ever is to be observed in the
process; according to Mr. Somerville, " while the grain;
steeped in the pickle continues in a moist state, it may
be kept for any length of time without much injurv^, but
wheat which has undergone this preparation, and has
had lime in a very active state mixed with it, if sown
early in autumn upon warm dry land, and no rain falls
for a considerable time, a great proportion of the grain
•will be either entirely destroyed, or materially injured.*'
Mr. WagstafTe found that soaking and rinsing the
grain in simple water, was effectual in the prevention of
whiting will therefore he thinks answer equally well, without
the risk attendant upon the use of lime.
\ Stale Urine is sometimes employed as a pickle for seed
grain, but it requires so many circumstances to concur in or-
der to its being used with safety, that it should be avoided upon
all oecasioris;
On Sinut in Wheat, 63
smut from the succeeding crop ; this plan may therefore
be tried, where the salt pickle cannot be used with
safety.— ^a?A Society TrarisactiGm,
Came of Increase of Insects in Grain.
Mr. Somerville acknowledges that experience has
decided, that particular seasons are more favourable to
insects than others : yet supposes that they are propa-
gated chiefly by the chaff*, in which they commonly lay
their eggs, being mixed with the barn yard manure; in
proof of this he says, that in all cases where any material
injury has been done to them, it is to crops that have
been well manured. And further, that if the sweep-
ings of a barn, in which smutty wheat has been thrashed
or mixed with dung, be laid upon land where wheat is
to be sown, the crop will infallibly be tainted with the
disease. Trials of this have been made, and in some
instances four fifths of the plants sown, where the dung
„so mixed was laid, produced nothing but smut balls.
The radical means of preventing the propagation of
the insect, according to Mr. Somerville, are 1st. to
collect and bum all the chaff* and dust; 2d. By applying
the manure in the spring instead of the autumn, on the
surface: and also 3d. By mixing lime with the manure,
after it has completely fermented, by which the insects
"will not only be destroyed, but putrefaction in the dung
promoted, and its effects upon the dung, rendered more
valuable. — Other substances possessing similar pro-
perties as lime may be used for the same purpose, but
64 On Smut in Wheat,
under the above restriction, as soapers (leached) ashes,
bleachers ashes, or refuse, potash, kelp &c. all of which
destroy insects, and render the dung more valuable.
L 65 ]
Remarks on the Smut and Mildew of Wheat; with hints
on the 7nost probable means of prevention.
By A. Fothergill, M. D. F. R. S. £^c. ^c.
Fiat iLxperhyientuTn.'—BACo'ix,
Read November 11th, 1806.
The Society at our last meeting, having requested
my opinion on the nature of the disease, I must ob-
serve that the subject appears hitherto to be too little
understood to admit of a clear and satisfactory elucida»
tion. Such useful hints however, as occur to my recol-
lection, I will now lay before the Society without re-
serve.
This and almost every disease, however different in
its nature, which renders fruit or grain unproductive has
been called a blight — a generic term of indefinite sig-
nification which writers on husbandry have adopted,
without proper discrimination : thus the smut, the mil-
dew or rust, the effects of lightning, of sudden changes
of weather, and the depredations of insects have all pas-
sed indiscriminately under the general, though vague
appellation of blights. Writers have, however, liberal-
ly furnished us w ith sundry infallible remedies so called
against blights in general, and particulai'ly against smut,
but these infallibles, when put to the test, have generally-
had the misfortune to fail.
The smut of grain is easily distinguished by the black
dust which covers the ear, seemingly as if sprinkled
with soot; whereas the mildew or rust infests the stem
and leaves with yellow and dark brown stains, and forms
an orange coloured dust, which viewed with a good
tr
G6 On Smut in Wheat,
microscope, is found to consist of clusters of a fungus
or parasitical plant, the invisible seeds of which insinu-
ate themselves into the pores of the absorbent vessels
of the stem, and deprive the grain of the sap destined
for its nourishment.* Of this minute fungus, highly-
magnified. Sir Joseph Banks has given beautiful plates
finely executed by Bauer, engraver to his Majesty.
In some parts of England, where I have had oppor-
tunities of observing the disease called smut, it has ne-
ver been so general as described by some writers, but
partial, consisting of some solitary black ears, dispersed
here and there, among an infinite number of others,
sound and healthy. On viewing more narrowly the
smutty ears, some grains have been sound, while others
have been reduced to chaff, others, small and shrivelled.
By washing the infected grain with water in a cylin-
drical vessel adapted to the purpose, (to which is given
a rapid circular motion) they may be wholly divested
of the smut,t and much useful grain preserved, which
being afterwards gently dried in a kiln, and a part of
it used as seed, an experienced farmer assured me pro-
duced a moderate crop, and perfectly free from smut.
Having seldom seen the disease among long bearded
grain, as rye, or barley, I am inclined to think it is most
predominant in wheat, especially the smooth eared sort,
and in late harvests, particularly in Great Britain ; nor
^ Communications to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. 4.
page 399.
f When the smut is so glutinous as not to be thus washed
off, I should recommend the addition of an equal quantity
of fine sand, in order to cleanse the grain more effectually.
On Smut 171 WheaU G7
do I recollect, in those samples I have seen, that the
black powder emitted any oiFensive odour; though in
warm, moist seasons, when a higher temperature dis-
poses more powerfully to putrescency, the disease may
become more general, and assume a more putrid or vi-
rulent nature.
Like the mildew, it is most prevalent in low grounds
and in a damp or foggy season, but never produces
such extensive damage as the mildew which infests
whole fields of grain and grasses. For the destructive
effects of the mildew have frequently been experienced
not only in the United States, and the British isles, but
also in Germany, France, Italy, Sicily, and even in New
South Wales, though its cause has never yet been
clearly developed. It has long been a received notion,
that wheat cannot thrive near the barberry bush, and
as that plant has a yellow flower, and has been found li-
able to the mildew, it has been accused of first propa-
gating the disease to the wheat. But the disease infests
the grain where the barberry shrub is unknown, and
Avheat has been sown under tlie shade of the barberry
without being injured. This experiment is said to have
been carefully performed a few years ago by a farmer
near Edinburgh, and considered as decisive.* How-
ever, before we undertake to exculpate the barberry ti'ee
from the general odium under which it has long suffer-
ed, it will be very proper to repeat the experiment in
different climates, and under different aspects. The
noxious quality imputed to the barberry tree has alrea-
dy indeed caused the plant, in many places, to be to-
^' Edinburgh Farmers Magazine, No, 10.
68 On Smut in Wheat,
tally extirpated. Should this popular opinion, like many
ancient prejudices, be found to belong to the catalogue
of vulgar errors, the sooner it is detected the better.
But to proceed, — Mr. William Young, in his paper,
read at our last meeting, well describes the progress of
the disease called smut, at Rockland and the neigh-
bourhood, in Delaware State, where the damage occa-
sioned by it, appears to have been very considerable.
The seed had been used four years successively, and
where it had afterwards been sown, there the disease
appeared, and no where else. He attributes it, with ma-
ny other writers, to imperfect or infected seed, and con-
cludes that it seems to be a hereditaiy disease : this at
the first view, seems at least somewhat plausible, as a
disease may be hereditan^ (as we often see in the ani-
mal kingdom) ^vithout affecting all the offspring of the
diseased parent; but can we believe that any washing
can remove an hereditary taint? The smut indeed has
been considered by many ^vriters as xtry infectious,
yet how can we reconcile tliis with the experience of
others who have raised sound ears from smutty seed,
as has been hinted, or with the fact of a smutty ear be-
ing surrounded by various sound ones, without com-
municating the disease? It were to be wished, howe-
ver, that the principal cultivators of wheat would pursue
Mr. Young's laudable example, in making accurate ob-
servations on the rise and progress of the disease, and
the different methods of treatment.
Analysis of the Smut.
A foreigner, M. Chantran, on analysing the smut,
found it yielded an acid to boiling water, which reden-
On Smut in Wheat. 69
ed turnsole. It emitted the odour of burnt grain by
calcination, and left 6 times the usual residuum. — On
the whole, he concludes it to be of an animal nature.
Had it yielded phosphoric acid, and azotic gas (of which
we have no mention) it would have afforded a stronger
presumption, though still not a proof of his conclusion.
Besides, that singular principle peculiar to wheat, the
gluten partakes of the animal nature and yields similar
products. Therefore, whether the smut be of an animal
or vegetable nature still remains doubtful, and requires
several experiments to unfold its real origin, which not-
withstanding the experience of many centuries, in
which the disease has been in existence, its cause seems
still to be entirely unknown.
I shall suggest to the Society a few experiments, the
result of which po^ibly might aftbrd some new light on
this subject.
Experiment 1. Let a considerable quantity of the
smut be collected in a separate state, and a part of it
subjected to calcination and distillation in close vessels;
and let all the volatile as well as the fixed parts, be mi-
nutely examined by chemical tests.
Exp. 2. Let a portion of the smut be viewed, when
placed in the focus of a powerful magnifying glass.
Exp. 3. Let another portion be kept in a phial half
full of water covered with gause to admit air, and ex*
elude insects; and another be sown in a pot of fine
mould to try if it will either hatch latent ova, or vege-
tate. But upon reconsideration, — parasitical plants are
never observed to take root in the earth, as for instance
the misseltoe, yet the viscid juice of its berries when
ripe, if rubbed on the smooth bark of almost anv tree,
70 On Smut in Wheat,
will produce misseltoe the following season. Therefore
instead of placing the smut in mould, it may be more
adviseable to introduce it into various parts of a plant
of wheat, as the stem, and the ear in various stages of
vegetation, from the milky state of the grain to its com-
plete maturity.
The first experiment may serve to shew whether the
products yield azotic phosphoric or carbonic gas ; or a
fixed or a volatile alkali, and consequently whether they
partake most of the animal or vegetable nature : finally
the products should be compared with those of sound
wheat.
The second may shew whether it contains any visi-
ble marks of organization, as the seeds of vegetables or
the ova of insects.
The third whether any of the particles can be made
to bring forth insects in the embryo state, or clusters of
minute fungi, as in the mildew, w^ich are visible in a
very good microscope.
The black powder of the puff ball, which bears no
small resemblance to the smut of wheat, contains the
invisible seeds of the plant, which are buoyant in air,
and float in the atmosphere till they descend to the earth
with rain or dew, to be deposited in the soil. The seeds
of the parasitical fungus, which insinuate themselves
into the pores of the stem or leaves constituting the mil-
dew, are alike invisible to the naked eye, and are pro-
bably disseminated in the same way, as are also the other
minute seeds of the fungi, which belong to the crypto-
^amia of Linnseus. The mildew commonly exhibts a
yellow powder, but Sir Joseph Banks observes another
species which consists of a dark brown or chocolate co-
On Smut 'hi Wheat.
loured powder; who knows but a third species of fun-
gus may produce the black powder, which constitutes
the smut? And the mushroom tribe be found more in-
jurious to grain than has yet been imagined?
The time of blooming is the critical period at which
the smut first begins to shew itself, and then proceeds
rapidly, as Mr. Young observes, converting part of the
ear into chaff, or preventing the grain coming to matu-
rity. For whatever may be the hidden source of the
smut, the proximate cause of scanty crops of grain, fre-
quently consists in an imperfect impregnation at the
time of flowering. For according to the impregnation,
the grain will be either plump, shrivelled, or entirely
abortive. Heavy rains with high winds, at this season,
by washing off* a part or the whole of the pollen, des-
tined for fecundation, generally cause a scarcity in the
ensuing crops. If the pollen be consumed or vitiated
by insects or fungi, a proportionable failure will take
place. On the other hand, a calm, dry fiow^ering sea-
son is favourable towards a full and perfect impregna-
tion. Hence, when the spring proves dry, and wells and
rivulets sink to a low ebb, the British wheat harvest is
generally abundant. Here permit me to propose ano-
ther experiment.
Exp. 4. Let a portion of smut be sprinkled on the
centre of the flower, and let the same be performed on
rye, barley, oats and other grain in the blooming season,
to determine whether the disease can be propagated b}'
inoculation. If the wheat should acquire the smut, it
proves the contagious nature of the disease, if all the
other kinds of grain should resist it, it will confirm the
opinion of its being more incidental to wheat; accord-
72 On Smut in Wheat,
ingly we are informed by Mr. Bordley,* that an intel-
ligent farmer in Georgia, protects his wheat from smut
by mixing rye v/ith the seed, or encircling it with a list
of rye, of 25 feet breadth, which he considers as per-
fect security, and adds, that it has also been tried with
success in England. This however, merits further in-
vestigation in other places, and in different seasons.
For if rye itself, be liable to the disease, how can it
protect other grain ?
Prevention.
Various means of prevention have been proposed by
steeping the seed in different antidotes, and sanguine
expectations formed of their success from the extrava-
gant encomiums of their authors, such as acids, alkalies,
neutral salts, lime, brine, sulphur, &c. But the fresh
soil, with its exhaling moisture, soon destroys the most
offensive tastes and odours ; assimilates foreign substan-
ces, and speedily o\'erpov»^ers the virtues of these pre-
tended antidotes. Accordingly most of them, after ma-
ny fruitless trials, ha^^e at length been given up, some
as useless, others as highly pernicious. Therefore the
best precautions I can venture to oHer at present, ai'e
the following. For until the nature of the disease be
more fully ascertained, it is not easy to direct the pro-
per remedy.
1. Make choice of the best seed wheat that can be
procured, and parti culai'iy such as comes soonest to ma-
turity, as the early Virginia, or the red bearded wheat.
* Notes on Farming, page 481.
On Smut in Wheat. 73
Prime seed thus selected, need not ever to be changed,
nor will it degenerate under proper culture, notwith-
standing what some writers have asserted to the contra-
ry. This curious fact has been confirmed by more than
thirty years practice, by Mr. Joseph Cooper, an eminent
farmer in New Jersey. As the most perfect seeds of
vegetables sink in water — this may be a criterion of
good wheat, proper to be selected for seed, and such
grains as float on the surface should be rejected. Ne-
vertheless some eminent authors allege from experi-
ments, that the small shrivelled grain, or refuse of fine
wheat after winnowing, if not deprived of the power of
vegetation, yields an equal, or even superior produce at
the harvest, because a bushel of the shrivelled seed con-
tains 3 grains to 2 of the plump grain. Hence by using
an inferior sort for seed, and converting the best kind
of wheat into flour, a great annual saving may be made.^"
But this is a species of oeconomy so directly contrary
to the practice of Mr. Cooper, and other eminent far-
mers, who improve their grain by a careful selection
of choice seed, that a contrary method, it is presum-
ed, will not be readily adopted, unless in a season of
extreme scarcity.
The immersion of seed wheat in water, and then
gently drying it just before sowing, will accelerate ger-
mination, in a more kindly and natural way, than the ar-
tificial stimulating steeps commonly employed.
2. Where wheat cannot be readily had, without a mix-
of shrivelled or imperfect seeds, the above method will
* Communications to the Board of Agriculture. London,
Vol. 2. p. 630.
X
On Smut in Wheat,
bring it to the test — aiid as it may be used with safety
and advantage at all times, it ought never to be neglect =•
ed in mixed grain, or imperfect samples.
3. If the seed wheat be suspected of having received
a taint from smut, rust, or the ova of insects, particularly
the wheat moth, (not the Hessian fly, improperly so
termed) which first committed its ravages in Virginia,
and afterwards extended its depredations to the neigh-
bouring States, we know no means of prevention, more
likely to produce the desired effect, than the exposure
of the seed to such a degree of heat, or cold, as will de-
stroy the life of insects, without being incompatible
with the germinating power of the grain.*
Exp. 5. The proper degree of heat requisite to ac-
complish both purposes, will probably be found between
150 and 180 of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and might
easily be determined by subjecting the suspected grain
to the heat of a maltster's kiln, carefully regulated to the
necessary temperature, previously ascertained by accu-
rate experiments: The malting heat probably some^
times exceeds 180**.
Exp. 6. As wheat can sustain without injury, a much
greater degree of cold than is necessary to kill insects,
and perhaps also their ova, in an unsheltered state, let the
suspected grain be spread out on a sail cloth, to the open
air, during two or three sharp frosty nights, and let the
grain, after undergoing these processes be sown, noting
the germination and produce, compared with those of
* See the valuable Notes on Virginia by his Excellency the
President of the United States, whose opinion liere coincides
with that, which v/e wish to establish.
On Smut in Wheat. 75
other healthy grain in a similar soil. Happily for man-
kind, wheat is accommodated to almost every climate,
and by habit, is enabled to sustain the scorching heat of
the torrid zone, or the extreme cold of high northern la-
titudes sufficient to freeze mercury, though it certainly
thrives best in the more temperate regions. Should
these experiments, after repeated trials, prove success-
ful, the result, being communicated to the Societ}^,
might prove highly important towards that great deside-
7'atum, the preservation of gi^ain from the deplorable de-
predations of the moth, the weevil, and other destruc-
tive insects. Notwithstanding the means hitherto em-
ployed, have generally disappointed expectation, yet the
case ought, by no means, to be given up in despair, as
totally irremediable : This Vv^ould only render it such,
by checking all further enquiry. Since there are few
evils, for which nature has not provided some remedy,
it becomes the duty of the philosophical agriculturist,
in the present case, to trace Her footsteps through her
hidden recesses, by prosecuting his researches with re-
doubled ardor.
^^ Mille mali mores ^ mille scdiitw enint,^'^
Since writing the above, having met with the follovvr-
ing interesting passage, from the Transactions of the
Linnsean Society in London, we flatter ourselves gen-
tlemen will readily indulge us a few minutes longer, in
reciting it; as it tends to corroborate what has been al-
ready advanced.
The Rev. Mr. Kirby, F. L. S. has noticed certain
species of this minute parasitical mushroom, which are
supposed to occasion several species of blight found on
various kinds of grain, and grass.
76 On Smut in Wheat,
The first is our recticularia segetum^ or smut, and
which in England, is called dust brand, smut, or burnt
corn, a species common to wheat, oats, barley, and rye ;
is scentless, and consumes not only the farinaceous part
of the grain, but even the chaff.
The second is called pepper brandy or bladders; this
species consumes only the farinaceous part of the grain,
which assumes a deep and dingy hue, and, being crumb-
led, emits a very foetid scent, like putrid fish, which
distinguishes it from the former; it is considered as
veiy prejudicial to the farmer.
The third is that known to agriculturists by the name
q{ red gum (cecidum^) which thi'ows forth a powder of
a bright orange colour — this minute mushroom does
not appear to be so materially injurious to the grain.
The fourth is very common on wheat, the uredo fru-
mentis (Sov\^erby 140) grows on the ears, straw, and
chaff, bursting in longitudinal streaks from under the
epidermis, or skin ; this is represented as the blight of
the wheat, and which in certain soils and seasons, is so
very injurious to that grain. *^
The fifth is the one, by which the wheat, in certain
paits of England, in the year 1797, suffered very consi-
derably, which the farmers call blight or mildew^ and by
far the worst enemy to wheat; the cars injured by it, were
distinguished at a considerable distance, by their black-
ness, and on closer examination, they appeared as if soot
or some smutty powder had been thrown upon them ;
the chaff appeai^ed covered with small black dots, very
different in appearance from the uredo frumenti^ on the
* Sowerby on British fungi. Vol. 2. Table 139 and 140.
On Smut in Wheat, 77
same plant ; he observes that wheat seized with mildew,
is only fit food for swine or poultry; and that on ex-
amining a mildewed ear with a iens, the appearances did
not so fully convince him of its being a fungus, as the
other species did ; however he seems inclined to believe
it is one, because Abbe Tessier, who had expressly
written on the subject, asserts, that the mildew is a very
minute lycoperdon, or puff ball, and Sir J. Banks who
has lately seen clusters of a mushroom plant on mil-
dewed grain, seems to confirm the opinion.
Upon the whole then, it would appear that the blight,
or mildew is the most destructive species of recticula-
ria frumenti; and Mr. Kirby very justly laments, that
some method has not yet been found out, to prevent this
blight, as effectually as that, which has long been in use
amongst farmers, to secure their crops from the smut,
— meaning slacked lime.
There is yet another species of blight, entirely dis-
tinct from any of the preceding maladies, mentioned by
Mr. Kirby, namely that which proceeds from the nu-
merous race of Aphides, which cause great ravages
among fruit trees, and are now known to produce the
honey dev/, often visible on the leaves of trees, in a warm
season ; but this is too remote from our present subject,
and would merit a separate discussion.
Mr. Kirby proceeds to enumerate sundry steeps for
seed grain, as alkaline lixivia, common salt, vegetable
and mineral acids Sec. and concludes that slacked lime
is the most efficacious, but acknowledges that lime is
dangerous, especially when slacked in the air, and that
a farmer by using it, sustained a loss of 300 pounds ster-
ling.— Here it may be doubted whether the remedy v as
78 On Smut in Wheat.
not worse than the disease. — From the result of many
experiments, he also owns, that wheat washed with sim-
ple water, produced the greatest number of plants ; and
that with acid steeps, the smallest number. He con-
cludes with recommending the washing it with water,
and drying it with slacked lime. He makes no men-
tion of nitre (salt petre) yet as this, by a singular
accident, has been discovered to be an effectual pre-
ventive of the depredations committed by weevils, and
may be used with safety, we should incline to try it,
in preference to all the other artificial steeps. Likewise
gentle kiln drying, cai'efully regulated, as already hin-
ted; or exposure to a keen frost, as safer, and better than
the method proposed by Mr. Kirby, with slacked lime.
It may be proper, however, to try the difference be-
tween lime, slacked in water, and in air. In case of mil-
dew, or wheat moth where the very straw is infected,
and probably swarms with minute parasitical seeds, or
ova of the m^oth, or other destructive insects, the grain
should be speedily thrashed out, and may probably be
secured by the above method, which Ave have earnestly
recommended : still, however, as the straw may afford a
nidus for a future progeny ; it should therefore, be dis-
patched from the barn, as quickly as possible, to form
eompost, and during the putrefactive process, well in-
corporated with quicklime; the chaff and sweepings of
the barn, and the stubbles ought to be burnt upon the
ground, which may enrich not only the soil, but tend
to extirpate the evil; towards v/hich important purpose,
all farmers ought cordially to unite, otherwise a single
neglect of the means proposed, may renew the calami-
ty, and propagate it to the adjacent farms.
On Smut in Wheat. 79
Finally, should future researches confirm this opinion
(however novel or fanciful it may at present appear) that
the 5 species of blight above mentioned, result from one
genus of parasitical fungus, it would seem to follow, as
plants of the same genus partake of similar qualities,
according to the law of nature, which produces similar
effects from similar causes, that an effectual remedy
against one of these species would be applicable to all
the rest, agreeably to the simple means we have propo-
sed, and which seem to merit a fair trial.
But while thousands of parasitical seeds ai^e probably
floating, unseen around us, we can only act on the defen-
sive, in preventing, as far as we are able, their fastening
on our seed wheat, by destroying the vegetating power
of their invisible germs, without injuring the grain. As
a further security against moths and weevils, the sacks,
in which the w^heat is kept, should be previously im-
pregnated with a solution of nitre, fumes of sulphur, or
of charcoal. This would afford a very proper subject
for an experimenjt, in addition to those, which have been
proposed.
Exp. 7. Let the preservative effects of these methods
on grain, exposed to a long voyage, be compared with
an equal quantity sent out, in the same vessel, in the or-
dinary way, which would bring the matter to the test.
Exp. 8. Lastly, to determine whether, as some emi-
nent authors allege, the shrivelled seeds of sm^utty and
mildewed grain can yield as good a crop as plump
sound seed : let some of each sort be sown at a distance
from one another, and from other crops, and the result
carefully noted. If the products resemble the parent
seeds in quality, or in other words, good grain from good
80 0?i Smut in Wheat,
seed, and vice versa^ it will confirm the general opinion,
of the importance of selecting choice wheat for seed,
agreeably to the judgment of the most eminent farmers.
If so; it will next be worthy of their inquiry, whether the
frequency of smut, and mildew, may not be generally
traced, in the first instance, to vitiated or imperfect
seed, or that which ripens late in the season ; the vege-
tative principle of which, being feeble, predisposes the
wheat to these diseases ; while early, sound and healthy
seeds vegetate vigorously, and resist intruding insects,
and parasitical germ.s, till the critical period be past;
after which they are secure.
Whence is it, that the white efflorescence called
^mouldiness, overspreads the surface of dead plants,
while all the living ones, contiguous to them, wholly es-
cape? Is it not the vegetative, or vital principle which
protects the latter? and the loss of it, v/hich exposes the
the former to decay, and to fall a prey to the enemy?*"
But the disease, called mouldiness, if narrowly examin-
ed, will, it is presumed be found nearly akin to mildew,
and perhaps turn out to be, only another species of
mushroom, belonging to the pai^asitical family of plants.
* Crops of gi'ain in a moist state, or containing (as often
happens) a mixture of weeds, when smothered close in a barn,
and deprived of proper ventilation, soon exceed the point of
healthy fermentation, and contract not only, the disease of
mouldiness, but are peculiarly incident to depredations from
mildew, moth, and vermin. Might not ricks of grain, well
secured, in the open air, in this, as in other countries, super-
cede the use of large expensive barns, and at the same time,
preserve the grain more completely, from these destructive
incidents?
On L^fnuf in IFheat. ' 81
But this, being at present, a matter of conjecture only,
is submitted to the future observation of the inquisitive
naturalist, possessed of a penetrating eye, and powerful
microscope.
If the preceding new doctrine be true, it will tend to
correct some received opinions, and prove that many of
the diseases termed blights, hitherto attributed to othet
causes, wdll, on a more close inspection, be found to ori-
ginate from a parasitical vegetation, or the depredation
of insects; either of which causes may probably operate^
by depriving the grain of its nutritious sap*
POSTSCRIPT,
In a late elaborate essay, which we have just had
the pleasure of perusing, the author Mr. Robert So-
merville endeavours to prove, that the smut originates
from a very minute insect, which he detected in the
smut ball by the microscope, but not till it was put in
motion by the heat of a candle.^ That it appeared red,
and resembled a boiled lobster, and afterwards turned
black and was covered with a crustaceous coat, in which
state it remained till it died. — That the dark coloured
stains, on the stems of wheat are produced by its excre«
Tnent. That it wounds the tender stem, at the place of
the insertion of the grain ; preys on the milky juice, and
deprives the ear of nourishment. That the smut balls
consist of fine vegetable earth, which the diseased plant
^ Communications to the Board of Agriculture. Vol. 2. p. 214,
y
82 On Smut iti JVheaf.
absorbs from the soil, and transmits to the eai'. That
the insect is generated in stable dung, and abomids
most, where fields are most plentifully manured. That
its ravages are confined to the tender blade, in the flower-
ing state of the plant, and never take place afterwards.
That potatoe plants and clover are infested by similar
insects, bred in the manure. That the insect is well
known to farmers, and has been long observed, even in
their best fields of wheat. When a diseased plant is
pulled up, one or more worms are found at the root.
Whether the insect is at length transformed into a fly,
is not mentioned. He thinks wheat, in the growing
state, may be protected from these insects by a weak
decoction of aloes, tobacco, and hellebore : a long dou-
ble flannel being steeped in it, is drawn over the whole
ridge, and back again, so as to touch all the plants, on
both sides.
Having thus briefly stated the result of his researches^
we shall conclude with a few^ remarks. — Should his
observations be confirmed by future enquiries, it would
seem, that the smut is rather to be considered as a
vermicular, than a parasitical disease ; but as worms
in the vegetable, as well as in the animal system, are
often the effect, rather than the cause of the disease at-
tributed to them, it will become agriculturists to exa-
mine, whether worms are essential to the production of
smut, or only an adventitious circumstance, in certain
seasons, as in late crops, and a feeble state of vegetation.
Hence the necessity of such further observations, as
may sufficiently clear up these difficulties. For instance^
On Sfnut in JFheaL 83
1. Whether worms are not often found, at the roots
of healthy gram?
2. Whether the smut ball consists of vegetable earthy
as Mr. Somerville supposes, or whether it is not rather
the milky substance of the infant grain, carbonized by
the heat of the sun, and converted into a kind of char-
coal?
3. Whether sound wheat, on which no stable manure
had been applied, be wholly exempt from the smut?
4. As stable manure tends to infest green crops w^ith
insects and weeds, whether it may not be divested of
that property, by undergoing a previous putrefactive
fermentation, and afterwards, by being incorporated into
a compost, with an equal portion of quick lime, as has
been mentioned?
Should smut be found, where no vestige of worms or
insects can be discovered by a powerful microscope ; or
mildew, without any trace of parasitical fungus, it will
afford reason to suspect, that these supposed causes of
the respective diseases, were rather the effects, or only
adventitious circumstances, and that a more close scru-
tiny will still be necessary, to afford complete satisfaction
to philosophers. For instances of mildew have been
noticed, where no stable manure had been used.*
As the proposed methods of prevention are applica-
ble to both maladies, it now will rest with agriculturists
to determine the points in question, by attentive obser-
vation and accurate experiments, agreeably to what has
been suggested. For whatever may be the result,
truth ought to be the principal object of our researches.
'5^ Board of Agriculture. Vol, 4. p. 399.
48 On Smut in fVheat,
Having conducted this essay, solely with that view,
and directed the scattered rays of light on the principal
objects of inquiry, the prosecution of the subject, it is
presumed, will now, be rendered more easy to experi-
mental agriculturists. But since microscopical insects
and parasitical germs, in their infant state, are invisible
to the naked eye, and the diseases, apparently produced
by them, seldom discovered till the mischief be done,
farmers ought to be extremely vigilant, in the timely
application of the most rational means of prevention :
Whether they adopt the present plan, or any other
course of experiments, they are requested to favour the
Society annually, with the result of their observations.
If the preceding pages should put them on their guard
against drawing hasty conclusions, from fallacious ap-
pearances, and facilitate the experimental inquiry pro-
posed, on a subject so interesting to the country, the
author will think his labour has been well bestowed.
I 85 ]
Suhstitufe for Trench Ploughing^ and neiv Mode of put-
ting in Winter Grain, and on live Fences, By Caleb
Kirk^ near York, Pennsylvania.
Read Nov'r. 11th and Dec'r. 9th, 1806.
I observe m tlie United States Gazette, sundry pre-
miums offered for improvements in agriculture ; among
which the 2nd and 7th subjects, viz. Trench plough-
ing, and live fences, have engaged my attention for
a number of years. As to trench ploughing, I am
fully of the opinion that 12 inches is a depth, too great
to bury a scanty soil, except the farmer, has a great store
of manure to dress his field after ploughing. Moreover
as few farmers have six able work horses or oxen, the
paring and trench ploughs, which are directed by the
society to be in action at the same time, cannot be em-
ployed; besides, I know from my own experience, du-
ring seven years, that equal benefit may be derived from
the adoption of another mode of working land, as from
trench ploughing, without requiring more than half the
number of horses.
In the first place, coulter the ground with a coulter
plough drawn by two horses, about eight or ten inches
deep, the cuts being about one foot apart : then plough
the land in an opposite direction, with a common bar
share plough with two horses to about the same depth,
and let a man follow in the furrow with a narrow sptide
plough, three inches broad and drawn by one horse, to
break the under stratum four or six inches deep. Thus
the surface is turned eight or ten inches deep, and the
S6 Substitute for Trench Flouglnng,
ground effectually loosened from 12 to 16 inches deep.
This practice I esteem more advantageous, than that of
burying the old soil to the same depth by trench plough-
ing, does not require more than three horses, and may
be adopted in any soil however dry, provided it is not too
stony or stumpy. It has been particularly practised by
me for the last seven years, when the ground is hard and
dry in summer, or the sward very tough.
For wheat, I prepare my ground as if it were to be
seeded in the common way (with a bar share plough;),
the ground being harrowed smooth, it is then ploughed
with the shovel plough, the shovel of which is 15 inches
long, and about 13 inches broad at top, rounding off to
an obtuse point. With this I make about ten cuts ia
the breadth of a rod, not ploughing it in lands, but going*
along one side of the field, with one horse in the furrow,
and returning on the same side of the land or field, with
the off horse in the furrow, thus forming one ridge :
then going with the near horse in the last made furrow,
another ridge is formed, and so on till the field is
ploughed. Thus every ridge or row will go from end
to end of the field, which will seldom be the case, if the
field be marked out in lands, and then ploughed by
going on one edge of the land, and returning on the
other, as there is often some small difference in the
width of the land, near the finishing, which might make
tvvo furrows run into one, and not be so plain a guide
to the reapers: and as the shovel plough throws the
mould on both sides alike, the ridges will be as fair one
way, as the other.
The cuts or furrows will appear about six or eight
inches deep, with a sharp ridge between them. I then;
Substitute for Trench Ploughing, 87
sow broad cast, and harrow in the direction of the fur-
rows.*
Grain sown in this manner has many advantages.
The plants stand handsomely in rows, which are a suffi-
cient guide for the reapers, and for sowing clover seed,
or g\^psum; and the whole field being in one entire land,
there is less ground lost, than when made in ridges ; the
ground, moreover, is less liable to wash, and the surface
is handsomer for mowing than in the common way. A
little fine mould, generally rolls into the furrow behind
the shovel, which makes an excellent bed for the grains
of wheat to push out their roots in, and the harrow rest-
ing on the ridges, levels them, and throws a proper
portion of mould on the grain, nearly as light as if it
were riddled. Thus the ground is levelled, bat the soil
being lighter in the rows where the seed lies, it will
settle a little, and the plants being somewhat below the
general surface, they are not so subject to injury, by
*The annexed cuts will explain the difference between the
ddmmon ploughing, and the new mode.
Common Ploughing,
New Mode,
8S Substitute for Trench Ploughing*
alternate freezing, and thawing in winter, on the con-
trary, in the common way, the plants often stand on the
very heights, where by a Uttle freezing and thawing, the
roots are left na.ked. The grain should be harrowed
and rolled in the spring, as these operations are of great
benefit to the clover, if intended to be sown, for when
the seeds are a little buried, the young plants take deep-
er roots, and consequently stand the drought better;
the operation of harrowing is likewise beneficial to the
wheat, for by harrowing lengthwise, a crust which
sometimes forms on the surface is broken, and thus
adds a light mould to the roots :' the harrow too, resting
chiefly on the ridges, hills the wheat, without tearing
up more than five plants in an acre. I have seen also,
in a time of extreme drought, that ^vhen shooting and
heading, wheat sown in my way, suffered less than com-
mon. Lastl}', by the free transmission of air along the
rows, the straw will be stiff and not liable to lodge.
Explanation of the annexed Cut,
AB C, 5 feet 1 inch in length.
E to D, iron stud, 3 feet 4 inches long.
F to G, the ripper, 1 foot long, the iron 3 inches broad,
screwed on to the stud.
H, the shovel plough.
The implement as represented in the annexed cut, is
called a ripper^ and is highly useful in attending a crop
of indian corn, if ploughed both ways therewith, about
one foot deep, when quite young, and very near the
plants.
The ripper iron F G, may be taken off, and the sho-
yel H, scre^ved on by means of the two screws between
D and G,
Substitute for Trench Ploughing.
89
m
Substitute for Trench Ploughing,
SI
f
Substitute for Trench Ploughing. 91
^
Explanation of the Coulter Plough.
A to B, 1 foot 3 inches.
B to end, 4 feet 9 inches.
C to D, the coulter, 2 feet 8 1-2 inches.
E to C, 8 1-2 inches.
F stud, 10 inches long.
G G, 2 feet 2 inches.
Handles, 6 feet long.
By means of the holes in the coulter D E, it may bp
set to different depths, as it will run in until the hind
end of the beam and the stud in the fore end, run on the
ground. If the hind end of the beam should wear away,
a plate of iron may be put on it.*
An implement called a miner ^ is frequently used in
Euiope, with the same view as the coulter plough^ de-^
scribed above by Mr. Kirk, viz. opening ground to a
great depth : "it is made very strong, but with one share
only, not having any mould board ; it therefore rather
loosens than turns up the earth. In deep, stiff soils,
where the surface mould is good, it may be conveni-
ently employed in the same furrow, after a common
plough, in order to stir the ground to a greater depth.
It is an extremely useful tool where working deep is
necessar}^, without bringing up the inert under stratum
or sub-soil, as in loosening the ground for carrots, or
other tap -rooted plants, and in eradicating the roots of
thistles, or other weeds which strike deep in the earth."
' — Dicksoii's Agriculture^ Loud. 1805. Vol. 2. page 12.
^ Working models of these implements, are deposited in
the Society's room for public inspection.
92 On Live Fences.
As to the article Fencing, I have tried many kinds of
trees and shrubs for the purpose : as 1st, the Palmetto
Royal^ of South Carolina, which does not stand the
winter here. 2d, French Furze from Europe, which
is handsome, but not quite hardy enough. I have at
length fixed on the common locust, f I tried for seven
years to propagate this tree, and at length adopted a
method, by which I can make myself as sure of a plant
from every seed, as from indian com: they will grow
from four to six feet high the first year. My method
is, — take the trees at one or two years growth, make a
ditch (with the plough) where they are to be planted,
and set the trees from nine to twelve inches apart, lean
one half one way, and the other half the other way, platt-
ing them together, and tye them at top, and in four or
five years, they will make a good fence. The locust
does not injure grain, and if the proprietor should choose
to cut them when grown high, we have no timber that
will bear the expence better, on account of its durabi-
lity, and if cut at four, five, or six feet in height, the
stumps will not decay, until there is a sufficiency of
sprouts to supply their places.
[* Tucca Aloefolia, In South Carolina, Georgia, and Flo-
rida, tliis plant abounds, and makes the best fence in the
world, owing to the sharp thorns at the end of the thick
fleshy leaves, which project at acute angles from the body of
the tree ; it is called, and with propriety the "bayonet bush."
\Rohmia Pseudo-acacia* — Lin.
Attempts to raise locust trees from the seed, for fences,
have been made near Philadelphia, but have failed, owing te
the destruction of the young plants by ground mice.]
C 93 ]
New Mineral Manure for Clover,
Read December 9th, 1806.
Having been shewn by Dr Woodhouse a small quan-
tity of a mineral substance, which had been brought for
his examination from New Jersey, by Josiah Reeve, of
Evesham, I ^vrote to the latter and requested all the in-
formation in his power to give, on the subject of the qua-
lities of the substance, and received the following an-
swer, J. Mease.
Rancocas Creek j Wth mo, 20th^ 1806.
Respected Friend^
I received thy letter dated the 18th of June last, and
should have answered it sooner, but wished to take
some time to make further observations, as well as to.
gain information from my neighbours and from some
others at a distance. The black sulphuric substance
by us called marie, is found in great abundance through
most parts of the country, in a north east and south west
direction, from the head waters of Crosswick's Creek,
in Burlington County, along on the upper part of nearly
all the creeks from thence to the southern part of Glou-
cester county; we find it in the banks of the streams,
and in most places at the bottom of many of our wells,
and it often spoils the water. On my farm, and through
our neighbourhood, it abounds near the surface in the
meadows, and generally in the banks or hill sides, about
from 4 to 6 feet below the surface ; the depth I cannot
from experience say much about, but from the obser-
94 Kew Mineral Manure for Clover.
vations of others, find it varies from 6 to 15 feet and
more. I have at thy request, brought with me to the
city, for thy use, a box of it, of which I wish thee or
thy friends to make a chemical analysis. The result of
my own, and my neighbour's experience is, that for grass
lands, about ten two horse loads to the acre, laid on the
surface in the autumn, is better, if the next season prove,
moist, than double the quantity of any other manure,
and will last longer ; changing in two years rough bound
meadow into almost clear white and red clover : but the
last dry summer it did very little good. I am in the
practice of mixing in my bam yard, or in the compost
heap, the marie with the dung, two loads of the former
with one of the latter, and always find when put on my
fallow, that it is as good, or better than the same quan-
tity of dung alone, and much better for the clover that
follows, but in its crude or raw state, does not do on
grain, the first year, except for Indian com, which some
say it helps, by laying it on the tops of the hills in the
spring. I put some, in my manure for my garden, and
found it made the clover grow among vegetables, so
spontaneously, that we have had much trouble to de-
stroy it ever since.
From thy friend
JosiAH Reeve.
At my request, Dr. Seybert analyzed the substance.
sent by Mr. Reeve, and found it to be a ferruginous
clav.
J. M.
.[ 95 3
Expences and Profits of a Dairy. By Algernon Roberts.
Read April 14th, 1807.
[Mr, Roberts having been requested by the Agricultural
Society of Merion and Blockly townships Philadelphia
County J to favour them with a statement of the expences
and profits of his dairy ^ presented the following account.
It was afterwards presented by Mr. Roberts^ to the Agri-
cultural Society of Philadelphia. As the quantity of land
which sustained his cows^ was not mentioned^ the Society
requested information on that head^ arid received in conse*
quencey the letter subjoined to the following paper. ~\
Agreeably to the request of the Society, I lay before
them, an account of the butter, I sold from a dairy of
twenty cows, during eight years viz : from 1st Janu-
ary 1796 to 3 1st December 1803. The weight amount-
ed to 27835 pounds, being an annual average of 3479
pounds, or 173 pounds to each cow^ per year.
Cash received for butter sold from 20
cows in 8 years, . . . !g 8276 19
Consumed in family the milk of 3 ditto, 1506
Sucking pigs estimated at - - 320
17 cwt. of pork at S 6 per cwt. sustained
by dairy, - - - . . 816
20 calves at % 4 each^ - - * 640
11558 19
7748
8)3810 19
476
96 Expences and Profits of a Dairy,
20 cows at 30 dollars each is S 600 at
6 per cent,
36
Grain for winter food, - -
300
Hay, straw &c. . . - •
300
A man and woman's wages,
300
78 times expences going to market at
25 cents per time, - « * .
19 50
Summer keeping of a bull,
13
968 50
Annual expence multiplied by
8
7748
In the above estimate, I suppose all the sustenance of
the pigs to proceed from the dairy, as any other food
their dams had, is supposed not to exceed the amount
of pigs used by the family, and of those sold alive : it is
lilcewise supposed that one half the food of the other
swine, consisted of the ofial of the dairy. The calves
were sold on the spot. The item of the family milk is
founded on a supposition, that it would take three cows
to give milk to a family of ten persons, a considerable
proportion of which are children. It is also to be re-
marked, that in the autumn months of part of the years
included in the calculation, there were some persons
added to the family, in consequence of the epidemic
fever, prevalent in the city of Philadelphia, and who
caused a diminution in the quantity of butter sold. It
is difficult to estimate the expences. The interest is
founded upon a supposition that each cow costs thirty
dollars ; and the winter keep is set down as equal to her
full value. The dairy is supposed to be managed by
a man and woman, who are thought fully equal to the
Expences and Profits of a Dairy. 97
task, and their wages as stated, a full reward. The
marketing is supposed to be done by the man, who is al-
lowed eight cents, each time for expences, exclusive of
horse standing at the city stable, ferriage and turnpike
toll. Nothing is allowed for the bull, except his sum-
mer pasture, as it must be bad management, if he does
not sell in the autumn, for more thcji he cost in the
spring; his manure also is to be taken into considera-
tion . The allowance for replacing dairy cattle is thought
to be trifling, as they are most frequently sold, with pro-
per management, when turned off for grazing, for more
than their prime cost; their manure is supposed equi-
valent to their summer pa sture.
The neat profit then is S 3810 19 for eight years;
this sum divided by eight gives S 476 27 cents; which
being again divided by 20, (the number of cows,) will
give the average per head, viz. twenty three dollars,
and eighty one cents.
Blockley, April 20th, 1807.
Sir,
My farm consists of about two hundred and eighty
acres, thirty of which are wood land, and ten of natu-
ral meadow and homestead inclosures; consequently
there remain about two hundred and forty acres of ara-
ble land; which are divided into thirteen inclosures of
unequal sizes: my general mode of cultivation, is two
succeeding summer crops, first indiancorn, and second-
ly oats, the stubble of which is ploughed and sown with
winter grain; the succeeding spring, the land is sown
with clover, orchard grass, and timothy seed. Several
of the inclosures are so pestered with garlick, as to se-
A a
98 Expences and Profits of a Dairy.
elude my dairy eattle from them, of course they are ap-
plied to my horses, sheep and feeding cattle : the con-
sumption of pasture by these I believe generally equals
that of my dairy stock, therefore I suppose it a just
inference, that one hundred and twenty acres (cleai' of
garlick) would support my dairy stock, under my pre-
sent mode of management, but as my arrangements of
business are much blended, I find it difficult to ascertain
with precision the quantity of land appropriated to my
dairy cattle, for the part devoted to the dairy stock, is
also allotted to cultivation, and divided between pas-
ture, mowable, and ploughed land. I would have the
above considered rather as an opinion, than an exact
statement. If from it, you can collect such hiformation
as may in any-wise answer your purpose, I shall fed
fully gratified; ever remaining,
Yours h.c,
Algernon Kobehts.
James Mease, m. d.
C 99 3
Account of the produce oj* wheat and rye, during 16 years
in Lower Merion township, Philadelphia county, and
times ofharvestijig, ^c. By Algernon Roberts »
Read April 14th, 1807.
WHEAT.
RYE.
c/i
<
o
1
N
0
1
is
Average per acre,
each year,
in Bushels.
eft
t!
(A
c
N
o
Q
1790
16
Sep.
14
296
Jan.
29
July 7
148
9
1791
17
do.
16
328
luly
o
do. 12
164
9
1792
12
do.
22
247
do.
1
do. 9
123
10
1793
7
do.
25
250
Jun.
30
do 8
125
18
1794
7
do.
18
368
July
6
do. 12
184
26
1795
10
do.
11
do.
4
do. 10
166
16
1796
14
do.
16
281
do.
4
do. 13
140
10
1797
9
do.
21
216
do
5
do. 10
108
12
1798
7
do.
20
250
do.
6
do. 16
125
18
21
486
1799
8
do.
27
268
do.
9
do. 14
134
17
14
328
1800
7
do.
22
282
do.
1
do. 6
141
20
7
184
1801
10
do.
28
437
do.
5
do. 16
218
21
9
234
1802
15
do.
30
565
do.
4
do. 13
282
18
13
193
1803
10
do
27
325
do
5
do. 11
162
16
10
362
1804
4
Oct.
1
181
do.
4
do. 12
91
23
15
409
1805
4
Sep.
24
187
do.
o
do. 11
93
23
19
633
Wheat, 24 sheaves to a bushel.
Rye, 19 sheaves to a bushel.
Average of Rye, 13 bushels per acre.
The foregoing table exhibits an account of the quan-
tity of wheat sown for sixteen years, the times of sow-
ing and harvesting, together with the quantity raised.
The quantity sown per acre, was one bushel. Preced-
ing the year 1794>. the wheat was sown on indian com
ground : but in that year, on a clear fallow, and the sue -
100 Produce of JVheat and Rye,
cecding years, it was sown after oats : a manifest advan-
tage is shewn in favour of an open or clear fallow. If
it should be asked, why pursue a mode so injurious, as
preceding wheat by oats, my answer is, that my ground
being infested with garlic, and a dair}^ my chief object,
oats is made a fallow crop, as the greatest enemy to
garlic, that I have yet discovered.
[In forming an average result per acre, the calcalation
should commence with the year 1794, because previously to
that year, it appears that the bad system of sowing wheat
among the maize was pursued. Neither ought the result,
whatever it may be, to furnish a rule to judge of the crops
in Pennsylvania, because Mr. Roberts acknowledges the
necessity he unfortunately labours under, of continuing a
practice, which his own experience, and that of every other
farmer, who has made a comparative experiment, proves to be
bad farming, viz. sowing wheat after an exhausting crop of
oats. Could other statements, equally accurate as those of
Mr. Roberts, be obtained, of crops raised upon land in our
fertile counties, which are under a regular improving course
of wheat on a clover lav, a great difference would appear.
Instances might be produced, in the same neighbourhood,
of crops repeatedly producing 60 to 80 shocks, and this year,
(1 807) 100 shocks or dozen sheaves per acre. The practice is,
ploughing often, timing the stirrings, so as to destroy weeds,
and deeper ploughing, avoiding an intermixture of corn and
small grain crops, and never sowing, except when the earth
is in a state to receive the seed advantageously, both to its
cover, and vegetation. A small quantity of land thus ma-
naged, will produce more grain, with less manure, than large
fields ill farmed.
Produce of Wheat and Bye. 101
The average result of the rye, will give still less than the
wheat, because it was sown upon unmanured ground, as is
common, while the wheat received all the manure he could
make.
The dates of harvesting will be found useful, in assisting
to form an opinion oi the variation in our weather, and may-
be compared with the table, taken from M'Mahon's Ameri-
can Gardener, which the reader will find among the selec-
tions in this work.
Statements similar to that furnished by Mr. Roberts, from
other districts of this State, or of the United States, will be
highly acceptable to the Society, as they may serve to furnish
a basis for a calculation, highly desirable, with respect to the
average produce per acre, of our lands. They are therefore
earnestly solicited from our agricultural proprietors.]
[ 1G2 ]
On Live Fences. By John Taijlor, of Port Royaly
Caroline County, Virginia.
{The following communication from a distinguished
citizen, and very intelligent and extensive cultivator, on
a subject highly interesting, is not only meritorious, as it
respects the execution of a plan on a scale so extensive:
hut affords a practical proof of the ease and profitable ef-
fect^ -with which other native productions may be used, as
substitutes for the thorn. This valuable paper will pass
under the respectful notice of the Society, when Premi-
ums are the subject of consideration. In the mean time
it is entitled to their approbation and thanks; and cannot
fail to recominend itself to imitation.']
Read August 11th, 1807.
About 12 years past, conceiving that cedar was well
adapted for live fences, I planted 10,000 on the inte-
rior declivity of the banks of ditches, cut in the outside
of fields (so that the cedars were Avithin) two feet apart;
but a removal of my residence compelled m.e to relin-
quish the experiment. The appearance of those cedars
at this timx evinces, that by proper culture they might
have been formed into a good live fence.
In 1799 I recommenced the experiment at the place
whereon I now live, b}^ planting cedars round a stable
yard, containing about an acre, and in each succeeding
year along the ditches incloj^ing my farm; so that now
they inclose an ai'ea of above six hundred acres, except
a part, the fence of w^hich is a river. The distance
On Live Fences. 103
planted is about six miles, and the number of cedars
about sixteen thousand. This is only conjecture, but
it is supposed to be considerably below the fact.
The culture applied to this hedge, is to top, weave,
prune and weed it once a year, and to manure it once
in a mode which will be explained. Until the last year,
it was topt at thirty inches, then I began to top the ce-
dars recently planted, at the height of twelve.
The cedars are planted on the interior declivity of the
bank of a ditch, about nine inches from the fence there-
on, made of stakes and cedar boughs; except at the sta-
ble yard, where the ditch being on the inside, they are
planted on the similar outside declivity; the boughs
which grow perpendicularly to the line of the fence, and
towards it, are by its help trained into a conformity with
this line ; those which thus grow on the opposite side,
are cut off six inches from the stem; and those which
grow in the direction of the fence, or with a small incli-
nation that v/ay, are woven in that direction by the help
of the stems, as soon as they grow above two feet long.
In this wattling, the boughs should be bent as near to the
ground as possible, to the fence below. The dead fence
stands on the summit of the bank, between the live one
and the ditch.
All the weeding I have given the cedars, has been
yearly to draw the earth with a hoe, from the dead fence
to the bottom of the bank, about one inch deep and two
feet wide, leaving it in a ridge, with the live fence be-
tv/een it and the old fence ; and the next year to return
this ridge to the bank of the ditch, whence it came, first
slightly cutting up the weeds and grass.
104 On Live Fences.
Except as to the hedge round the stable yard, it
must be recollected, that on one side of this hedge, there
is a dead fence, on the other, I have annually manured
a space of nine feet wide, and cultivated it in peas,
working close to the live hedge; and perceiving the
vast benefit of it, I last yeai' commenced the following
mode of mrinuring the hedges at a distance from the
fai'm yards, and have applied it to two thirds of the
w^hole. The intire materials of the old dead fences which
require renewal, are nicely patched on both sides of the
live one, and this decaying wood and brush is covered
with good mould collected from the bottom of the ditch.
At the same time a new dead fence is made, expected
to last until the live fence becomes sufficient. The dead
fences are made of stakes and Cedar boughs, closely
wattled.
The live fence around the stable yard, having been
annually topt higher, as its use is to confine horses, is
now about fi^-e feet high, and two wide ; and is a good
hedge, well filled up from bottom to top, two or three
gaps excepted, made by the stable boys.
The rest are in a state of progress, graduated by their
ages, some being nearly sufficient to confine horses,
and others but lately planted. The excessive drought
of the last year, checked their growth very much, but
did not kill a single plant that I observed. Indeed I do
not recollect to have seen one dead, after it had lived
a year.
The mode of planting is extremely simple, rapid and
certain. The cedar is taken up with a spade, in a sod,
nearly in the form of a cube; tvro of its sides receiving
dimension from the l^readth of the spade, and the other
i)n Live Fences. IO.5
four from its breadth also and the depth of the sod ;
which depth cannot be too great. By a shuilar spade,
a similar sod is taken from the spot, where the cedar is
to be planted ; the sod with the cedar growing in it, is
deposited in its place ; and the earth of the removed sod
is used to fill up chinks, or is crumbled about the young
plant as a dressing. The success depends upon not
breaking the sod, and the smallness of the cedar. Very-
few will die, if any care be taken. The gaps made by
the few which do die, by violence or by accident, are
speedily repaired by replanting annually.
The winter months and March, are the best seasons
for planting. Moisture, sufficient to prevent the ground
from crumbling, is necessary. A congelation so slight
as to be penetrated by the spade, places the earth in the
best state for the operation ; but this is seldom attain-
able.
The advantages of the cedar over shrubs, are 1st, its
longevity. 2dly, the rapidity with which it is planted,
and the certainty with which it takes root. 3dly, the
absence of thorns and its pliancy, so that it can be bent
wattled and worked into any form, and trained to fill up
apertures, with ease and dispatch. 4thl3^, its being ab-
solutely refused by most animals as food, and never in-
jured by browsing. 5thly, the smallness of its annual
shoots, rendering it fai' more subservient to the shears,
than the thorn. 6thly, the size and rigidity bestowed
by age on its branches, united with a disposition to grow
extremely thick, under the pruning regimen. And
Vthly, its being an evergreen, presenting an uniform
state of perviousness ; which is not the case with any
deciduous plant.
Bb
106 Ofi Live Fences.
The errors I have hitherto detected in the experi-
ment, are, topping too high, forbearing too long to ma-
nure, and being too spare of cultivation. By beginning
to top at one foot, and proceeding as the hedge fills up
below, with- manuring and good cultivation, I am per-
suaded that the cedar may, in seven years, be trained
into a hedge as close from bottom to top, as box, of a
breadth not exceeding four feet; and that it is more
likely to become an effectual fence against hogs, than
any of the family of shrubs, because it unites great den-
sity, with the inflexibility and exuberance of the tree.
The hedge of that age inclosing the stable yard, is well
filled up, is the best live fence I ever saw, and though
originally topt too high, promises rapidly to acquire
this state of resistance.
The young cedars are generally to be found near the
ditches on my farm. If they are above 100 yards from
the spot at which they are to be planted, the sods con-
taining them are removed in a waggon or cart, in one
layer on its bottom. In this way they are rapidly re-
moved to the distance of one mile. If the distance be
greater, the bottom of the carriage may either be en-
larged, or a second and third story of flooring added,
as the size of the plants may allow.
Having a farm whereon the cedar is scarce, and hav-
ing unsuccessfully attempted to raise young plants by
sowing the berry, and observing the surface of snow
covered with the cedar seed voided by birds, complete-
ly freed from its viscous tegument, I had a parcel col-
lected in Februaiy last, and planted them in March.
The place has not since been visited by me. The idea
is only mentioned, because should this preparation of
Oh Live Fences. lOl
the seed cause them to vegetate, a copious supply of
young cedars may be obtained, without resorting to the
troublesome and precarious fermenting experiments.
However provided, they must be sown sufficiently thin,
to supply each with the indispensable sod.
The following, is the last idea, connected with the
subject, which may not deserve to be forgotten. It is,
to plant apple trees at eighteen feet distance along the
hedge, three feet from the stem of the cedars. The
apple trees, whose bodies are somewhat shielded against
the sun, seemed to me to thrive best. The manure and
cultivation required by the hedge, w^ould I thought, pre-
sent us without any additional expence or labour, with
spacious and luxuriant orchards. The land under the
hedges, could not be devoted to so useful a purpose.
If public roads only, were by law to be thus bordered,
a splendid agricultural ornament, the comfort to travel-
lers of protection against the sun in summer and against
the wind in winter, and an annual pecuniary saving to
the nation by the use of cyder in place of ardent liquors,
to a great amount, would be returns intirely superero-
gatory to the benefits of living fences, made by the ma-
nure and cultivation which these fences, whilst young,
require. Under these impressions, I planted apple
trees (crabs, excellent for cyder, but hardly eatable)
around the hedge inclosing the stable yard, which has
now spread to within a foot of the trees. These have
borne, spai'ingly, this year, for the first time. I have
never seen trees more flourishing. It is only seven
years, since they were grafted. The lot is neai'ly a
square, facing the cardinal points of the compass, and
as the trees equally flourish, it is probable that live fen-
108 Oil Lkve Fences*
ees will be serviceable to them in any geometrical
figure. The branches of my trees growing perpendi-
cularly to the opposite hedge, have been annually prun-
ed off, that the others might interlock the sooner, so
that the trees are in the form of an espalier, embracing
tlie hedge, rising above it, and dropping their fruit on
the outside of the yard; and with the hedge bestow up-
on horses, the luxuries of a shelter from a cold wind
and hot sun.
August \st, 180'
L 109 ]
Account of a new Pwnmice Press, with some remarks
upon Cyder making. By Timothy Matlack, of Lan-
caster.
Read March 10th, 1807.
Lancaster, February 1th, 1807»
Sir,
Colonel Johnston of your city paid me a visit, and I
shewed him, as I had done some others, a pummice
press that I had made for my o\mi use ; intended princi-
pally for making of wines from currants, black berries,
grapes and other small fruits ; but as I w ished to make
wine from quinces which is beyond question, little if any
inferior to that of the best grape, and also, expecting
to make some perry, it seemed best to extend its size,
to those objects, espiecially as the encreased expence
would be very small. I therefore fitted it to those ob-
jects, and as it now appears, to that of cyder making,
in a way far indeed beyond my first intention. On
viewing it, Colonel Johnston suggested the idea of send-
ing a sketch of it to you, assuring me that it would not
fail of a favourable reception; and I now enclose a side
view of it, that will shew the principle on which it is
constructed; and I trust, demonstrate that it is capable
of an almost incredible force, within a small space, by
very simple means, and at a \&cy small expence ; and also
that it can be used with the greatest facility,' and when
done with for the season, can be laid securely by, with-
out occupying much house room.
Several persons who have seen the press have expres-
sed their idea, from the smallness of the crib; that it was
110 Account of a nexv Pummice Press,
intended only for a model ; not adverting to the space
left for a much larger crib ; nor instantly perceiving that
both levers, acting xvliolly -within the machine^ press with
equal force, both upwards and do^vnwards ; but no one
who has examined it, has failed to express his opinion
of its promising fair to become really useful; and if it
shall prove to be so, it will aflbid me ample satisfaction
for my trouble.
Be this as it may, I am convinced that the best chance
for becoming so, will be derived from your care and
attention, to which it is committed with the greater
pleasure, as I confide that you will allow me the credit
of a respectful attention.
I am your most obedient,
humble servant,
T. Matlack.
Hon". Richard Peters Esq^.
President^ Agric. Society^ Philad*
£Mr. Matlack having been requested, by order of the
society, to procure a model to be made, and to trans-
mit it wath further explanations, was so obliging as to
comply with that request; and the model vvas accom-
panied by the following letter.]
Lancaster, February 21th, 1807.
Dear Sir,
The model now sent you under care of Col. John-
ston, is on a scale of an inch to a foot. — The levers to
press 40 for 1, and the cribb to contain 40 bushels.
And some Remarks on Cyder making. 111
which I think maybe wrought at least three times, while
one of 80 bushels can be wrought once in the common
mode.
I have no wish to engage in the question of cyder
making, further than to suggest this mode of simplefy-
ing the lever; the sole inconveniency of which appears
to be the frequency of removing the weight; which from
the unalterable law of the lever, must be proportioned
to the increase of pressure. Hence each weight should
be no greater than is within the strength of the attend-
ant ; or, which is the same thing, the weight of each
lever should be divided for that purpose. It is planned
for three pair of le^^ers, of which two only are inserted,
and the spa.ce for the third blocked; either of which a
stout lad of twelve years old may handle. It is intend-
ed, that two of the three should continue to press while
the other is raised; in doing of which an inch board of
a foot width, and of a proper length, will be quite suffi-
cient to support the first lever: or with a little more
strength it may be turned over, out of the way. As to
the second lever, it can be withdrawn, and replaced in
less than a minute. But enough of the model, which
it was more trouble to make than the working press,
rough as it is. I chose to make it myself, rather than
employ a mechanic here, because I well know^, that it
would require more time to get any thing done by them,
than to make it, if I was able.
To reason against fixed prejudices is folly that ought
not to be expected beyond tht si^t of 70: it always gives
offence, and is generally fruitless. Yet, lest it may look
like sneaking from the question you suggest (with your
usual address) I will venture to say the best cyders that
112 Account of a ?inu Fummice Fress,
I have ever seen, if not all the truly excellent^ has been
pressed immediately from the niill.*
The truth is, th^t cyder making depends on fermenta-
tion ; a subject less miderstood than any other to which
philosophy or chymistry, have attended ; and my know-
ledge of it, is just sufficient to warrant the sentiment, and
to have learned, that the little that is known on the sub-
ject, it is extremely difficult to communicate, or to reduce
to practice, in a country whose climate is so extremely
variable as that of Pennsylvania, sometimes even in
the cyder making season, so warm as to put the fermen-
tation above controul ; and at times soon after, so cold
as totally to suspend it ; so that it unavoidably commen-
ces again and goes beyond its proper point in- the spring.
A wort of malt and hops, fermented at 65° and separat-
ed from its yeast in due time, becomes spontaneously
iine, and even perfectly bright; is a fine colour accord-
ing to the colour of its materials ; is soft and free from
bitterness. A part of the same wort fermented at 76° has
a cloud fixed in it, which art has not yet been able to
remove ; is so far decomposed as to cause the resin of
the hop to offend the palate with its bitter, which grows
more and more offensive by time and finally acquires the
offensive bitter of the aloes. The pulp of the apple
^ This opinion is so different from that generally entertain-
ed by cyder makers, that experiments are well worth making
to determine the point, or to ascertain the difference which
pressing the pummice immediately from the mill, and per-
mitting it to remain some hours before pressing, would occa-
sion in the quality of the liquor. The subject is earnestly
recommended to the attention of farmers. — N^te hy a Member,
Ayid so7ne Remarks on Cyder making. 113
forms at least a part of the yeast of cyder, and if not se-
parated by fermentation, but suffered to remain, will
decompose the cyder, and exhibit to the palate the pre-
cise bitter of the apple leaf, previously to the com-
mencement of . the acetous fermentation. Warmth is
the first sensible effect of fermentation. This expands
the air contained in the vesicles of the pulp, and occasi-
ons them to rise ; they should then be removed ; their
return increases the fermentation.
Our farmers have not yet attended to the important
fact of difference in the strength and weight of the must
from the different kinds of apple, on which the suc-
cessful practice of fermentation will forever depend —
And which they w^ill hardly credit until the use of Di-
cas's hydrometer,-^ or som^e such instrument, finds its
way amongst them. To you, I may venture to say,
that by even a more accurate mode of determining this
difference, beyond the weight of rain water, I have
found it to be so incredibly great as 11 to 24, which,
I think (for my notes on this subject are in the city)
was between the juice of the Vandever and of Cooper's
sweet russert, which produces the richest must of all
the apples I have examined, and I have tried very many
for more than 48 years back ; the next heaviest is the
house apple.
Having said thus much, it would be wrong not to
add, that the Virginia crabb affords a juice extremely
different from that of any other apple I know of, and ap-
pears to be less liable to an excess of fermentation, the
* The appropriate name of this valuable hydrostatic instru-
ment 1 do not recollect. {It is called ^^Saccharometer,'^^}
e c
114 Account of a new Pummice Press y
bane of our common cycler, than that of any other apple.
The cause of this difference, I am quite wiUing to leave
others to guess at^ or to enquire concerning by more
rational means, at their choice. For the truth of this
important fact you may venture to take my assurance :
to wit — That the sooner the pummice is pressed after
grinding, the paler the cyder will be — the more per-
fectly bright^ it may be made in the cask — and the less
lees it will deposit in the bottle. A moment's- reflection
will satisfy you, of the incorrectness of the practice of
measuring the length of time which pummice should re-
main after grinding, and before it is put to press, by
hours^ without regard to the heat of the air at the time/
You will perceive, that one season the same length of
time will produce no sensible effect, which at a much
warmer season would induce the commencement of an
acid fermentation.
Having gone so much, further on this subject, than I
had intended, I cannot help asking my self the question,
ought I to ask your pardon for it, or my own ? Per-
haps the answer should be, that I deserve it from neither.
However I am certain of this — that I am with much
esteem and respect,
Your most obedient and "
very humble servant,
T. Matlack.
Hon. Richard Peters,
President Agric, Soc, Philad,
^ The word bright is a term used by brewers to express the
difference between what is commonly called Jijie, and that per-
fect transparency in which liquors are, alone, tasted in their
purity.
Account of a new Putmnice Press.
115
Upright which stands on the inside of the side plank;
blx feet long.
110 Account of a new Pummice Press,
A, An iron pin 1 1-2 inches thick, passing through
both uprights, against which the toe of the lever presses
upwards, and an eye boU passing through the lever,
which keeps the lever from falling, when the blocks are
removed.
B, B, B, Holes in the upright, to which the lever
may be removed at pleasure, to any required height.
C, C, A similar tenon and dove tail at the other end
of the side planks, bearing upwards.
C, A tenon with a dove tail, bearing downward, to
strengthen and bind together the side planks and up-
rights.
D, This dotted line shews the foot of the upright, as
it extends forward within the side plank. The upright
is secured by a pin represented by a . near D.
E, The cribb, 21 by 20 inches, and 20 inches high.
F, Plank side of the cribb. G, Wedges.
H, Side plank lying on the out side of the upright,
7 feet 4 inches long from out to out.
I, 6 feet 8 inches, equal to five times the length below
the fulcrum.
K, 6 feet 8 inches. .
L, A wedge over the plank side of the cribb not
really necessary.
Though the cribb contains only four bushels, yet the
press is equal to a cribb of 48 by 48 inches, and 36 in-
ches high, which will contain 37 bushels. The facility
with which that quantity can be pressed, discharged, and
replaced, leaves no doubt but that a much greater quan-
tity in a day can be pressed, than is practicable with the
longest beam hitherto ever used; or with the best double
screw press, now in use. The plank being prepared, it is
Account of a new Pummice Press* 117
not more than two days work , for a carpenter, to compleat
the press ; and this estimation of time is not guess work,
but the result of experiment. A carpenter's apprentice
assisted me in the sawing of the plank for one day, and
1 completed it on the second day. The plank which is
2 1-2 inches thick, delivered at my door, cost me two
dollars and one half, and the chain, pin, and a hundred
of 4d cut nails for the cribb, is the whole expence of
iron work. So that this may be considered as much
the cheapest, as well as the most powerful press yet
known, and any farmer who can handle a saw, an axe,
and an augur, can readily make the whole ; especially
considering, that a strong withe may supply the place
of the chain, and a tough piece of hickory the place of
an iron pin.
The pressure of the weight ( 100 pounds) on the pum-
mice, is as 5 times 5 is to 1. That is, its pressure down-
wards is equal to 2500 pounds. But, the uprights being
fastened to the side planks, the toe of each lever bears
the cribb upwards with the same power as the heel (or
fulcrum) presses do^vn wards ; so that the actual pressure
on the pummice is equal to 5,000 pounds.
The press from which this is sketched, is provided
with two of these compound levers acting side by side,
and consequently press equal to 10,000 weight; al-
though the uprights are only five inches apart, and by
lengthening the pin, which supports the levers only five
inches, two more of those levers may be added, on the
outsides of the uprights, which will press equal to ano-
ther 10,000 pounds, and so infinitely.
The floor of the press is perforated with two augur
holes, of an inch and quarter diameter; and on the floor
118 Account of a new Pummice Press.
is laid a lattice bottom, which is supported by three ribs
of one inch and quarter wide, and half an inch thick.
Upon this lattice, an hair cloth or coarse bagging should
be spread, and it will be best to spread the same cloth
on three sides of the cribb, by which means the must
will run off quite fine. One side of the cribb is of
plank, and pressed against the uprights by the floor,
which is wedged on, by double wedges; and the other
three sides are tenoned into the plank side, with headed
pins, long enough to be readily knocked out when the
pummice is sufficiently pressed. That side of the cribb
is then to be turned outward, the pummice thrown out,
and the cribb returned to its place and refilled. The
side planks are tenoned together, and dove tailed up-
wards, at the outer end, and downwards at the foot of
the uprights.
The whole space occupied by the press is 13 feet 7
inches. The frame of the cribb is pinned together, so
as to be very readily taken apart, into the three sides.
The whole press can be taken apart in about 20 minutes,
and put together again in less than an hour : and the
whole so taken apart, can be laid in a box 20 inches
square, and 8 feet in length.
In my press the side planks are 10 inches apart, and
bottomed to receive the juice, which is to be drawn off
near the second lever.
The side plank lying on the out side of the uprights,
is seven feet four inches long, from out to out.
When only one pair of levers are used, as shewn in the
cut, the space for the other pair, between the uprights,
is occupied by a square block through which the pin at
A, passes, which keeps this le^•er steadily in its place.
[ 119 ]
On the injurious Effects of Clovet* to Orchards. By
Richard Peters.
Read May 12th, 1807.
Belmont, April 20th, 1807.
Sir,
It having been mentioned at a late meeting of the
society, that it was an opinion gaining credit in many
parts of New England, that sowing clover in orchards
was injurious to the fruit, I have made some inquiries
on that subject. I have received a letter from JV, Coxe
Esq. at Burlington, who has the most extensive plan in
execution, for apple orchards, and fruit trees of every
species, I have heard of in America. If I gain farther
information I will communicate it. I wish that other
members of the society would assist in this inquir}'.
My own observations are, that for many years my fruit
(apples) have never rewarded my endeavours to profit
by a large number of trees I possess. I am in the habit
of cultivating my orchards, in their turn, with the usual
course of crops, pursued on other parts of my farms.
Clover occupies them, for two and thi'ee years. The
fruit is always rath, or early ripe; and drops before the
season for making cyder, though the produce is fre-
quently abundant. Whether this is ow ing to the loose
state of the soil, and its better tilth by cultivation and
manure, forwarding the fruit, and producing super-
abundant juices, and too rapid circulation of the sap,
or any qualities in clover, I know not. I should sup-
pose the circumstances first enumerated, accounted
for the premature decadency of the fruit, most ration-
120 On the injurious JEffects of Clover to Orchards.
ally. I recollect tha\ many years ago, when my farms
were in a worse state of culture, the crops of apples re-
mained till the proper times for gathering them. Please
to communicate Mr. Coxe's letter to the society.
I am, Sir,
your obedient servant,
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Agric, Soc. Philad.
I am pursuing my old plan of reinstating my peach
trees, lost last season by my unconquerable foe, the dis-
ease I call the yellows. I obtain them from different nur-
series, free from this pestiferous infection. The worm
or wasp I have in complete subjection. I should be per-
fectly disinterested in proposing that the society offer
a premium for preventing the disease so fatal ; for I
shall never gain the reward.
Burlington 5th April 1807.
Dear Sir,
I am perfectly ignorant of the disease to which you
give the name of the yellows. Nothing of this descrip-
tion has ever appeared among my peach trees. For
four or live years past, my trees have borne well, and
have resisted the worms. I have used no precaution
but searching twice in the season ; once in the end of
July or beginning of August, and once late in Septem-
ber. On the first of October, my men begin to open
the roots so as to leave a ba^on of the size of a large
On the injurious Effects of Clover to Orchards 121
wash hand bason around each tree ; in this state they are
left until the season of cultivation, the following spring,
the ice and water which frequently fill the hole during the
winter, effectually kill the worm, should it have eluded
my search and descended into the roots for winter co-
vering. I also endeavour to prevent excessive bearing,
by close pruning, which I have long found more effica-
cious in peach, than in any other fruit trees.
With respect to orchards being injured by clover, I
am yet undetermined in my opinion. I cannot think that
clover in itself can be more injurious than other grasses.
I have for some time believed, that annual cultivation
is necessary for young orchards. I have found nothing
better than indian com. The most injurious effects
from clover, I have supposed to be, the difficulty of
keeping the ground in a loose state, around the trees,
and the quantity of vermin enticed by the roots of the
clover. I have about seventy to eighty acres compris-
ing upwards of 2000 apple trees, from 12 years, to one
years planting out, and I have every year to renew forty,
fifty or sixty young trees destroyed by ground mice,
during the winter. This evil is entirely confined to
the clover grounds. I am continuing one farm under
corn exclusively, for the purpose of promoting the
growth of the orchards, and shall be very particular in
my observations.
I had forgot to mention that I have directed the peach
trees to be sent of young and thrifty growths. I am
persuaded that large peach trees however vigorous can-
D d
122 On the injurious Effects of Clover to Orchards.
not be removed Avith safety in our climate ; at least there
can be no certainty of their success.
. With very sincere respect and esteem,
I am dear Sir your obedient servant,
William Coxe.
Richard Peters Esq.
P. S. Last year I had the ground around every apple
tree in my grass grounds, dug with spades from two to
three feet from the stems. I mean to continue the
practice hereafter, from a conviction of its utility.
[The opinion that the cultivation of clover, is injuri-
ous to orchards, is maintained by Mr. Blakesley of
Plymouth, and by Mr. Ives of Cheshire, Connecticut,
as appears by the publication of the Agricultural Soci-
ety of New Haven.
Mr. Blakesley says, ''A neighbour of mine, an ob-
serving farmer, informed me some years since, that in
the younger part of his life, he had nearly ruined his
orchai'd, by raising crops of red clover on the land; but
that when his orchard was decaying, he conjectured the
cause, and left off raising the clover in his orchard,
when it soon recovered. I never ventured it myself.
Many orchards in the country appear to me to be inju-
red by this cause."
Mr. Ives says, "I have found the large red clover
^ery prejudicial to my orchard. I used formerly to
On the injurious Effects of Clover to Orcharas, 123
raise crops of clover and mow tliem. But I found my
orchard decaying, and immediately began to feed it,
iind it recovered. I have since had clover in my or-
chard, but have been careful by feeding it, to keep it
from. having any bloom; and it does not injure it, as it
manifestly did when suffered to come to maturity, so as
to be fit for mowing.
Mr. Chauncy in the year 1800, upon remarking to a
farmer in Pennsylvania, who shewed him a large apple
orchard, of about fourteen years growth, in which red
clover grew, that many of the farmers in N. England
considered that plan as detrimental to their fruit trees, if
suffered to grow for hay, received the following reply.
" I trust, you seldom if ever, saw an orchard more
thriving than this ; I keep it in clover almost constantly,
and generally for hay, but plaister of Paris, does every
thing for clover, and is highly beneficial as a manure, for
fruit trees. I grow great crops of clover with it, and it
prevents any ill effects which might otherwise arise from
the clover."]
C 124 3
New Disease in Wheat,
The following communications have been received
upon an alarming disease in wheat which has appeared
in Maryland, and threatens to be attended wuth the most
serious consequences unless speedily checked.
Read June 9th, I80r.
Elkton, August 10th, 1807.
iSifj
I acknow^ledge the receipt of your favour of the 4th
instant. It is with pleasure I anticipate the great use
your society may be of to the farming interest.
I have nothing to communicate worthy of notice but
a disease that has been for tliree years past in partial
spots of my wheat. I call it a decay in the root. Land
recently manured, or where old buildings have been,
or where stacks of hay, or fodder houses have been
fed from in fields, or land manured with scraping about
doors, with a mixture of ashes, are the parts most af-
fected with this pernicious distemper.
From the first to the tenth of Maixh, the wheat affect-
ed declines in colour, its blade dw indies and draws toge-
ther, resembling a bunch of sage. The principal tap
root decays, small fibrous roots grow out, and small
sprouts also grow up, seldom more than 6 inches high;
which do not incline to stalk. In this state, the injured
wheat continues till harvest.
Many of our farmers complain of this same distemper
in their wheat and generally in their best lands. Where
J^ew Disease in Wheat. 125
this distemper was three years ago, it continues with a
much greater spread. Its ravages are to be dreaded.
To prevent this disease is the great desire of your
Respectful friend,
Z. HoLLINGSWORTH,
Dr. J. Mease.
Belaxvare Mills, Ithy e>th mp, 1807..
Esteemed Friend,
I have delayed Vv^riting to thee, for the purpose of
ascertaining the cause of the disorder that prevails in
some parts of the country in the present crop of wheat,
especially at Elkton, Cecil county, Maryland. Zebulon
HoUings worth informs me, that he lost 25 acres last year
with this disease, and his present crop is considembly
affected in spots especially in rich places, where old
buildings or fodder houses have stood, and such places
as have been manured with scrapings, (as he terms it.)
He has sent me several bunches with the soil about
the roots, for examination. I fnid the principal root that
was first formed from the seed grain, to be injured as if
done by an insect, and I have likewise found a single
t^g on said root, but in a tender state. The root ap-
pears tainted and the shoots spring therefrom ; such as
are turning yellow break off upon a slight touch, and
other buds putting out to form more stalks, though
none of them have strength to come to perfection ; the
principal root being gone, the support depends on the
fibrous ones issuing out above, and consequently never
can come to a head, or if a small head should form, can-
126- New Disease in Wheal.
not fill with grain. The appearance of this complaint-
is discovered by the roots or bunches, being a thick tuft-
or bunch of blades rising in a cluster without forming a
stalk. I shall continue to examine further, hoping to
find some of the eggs further advanced towards matu-
rity, though could not find any in the last sent to me.
I hope others will be attentive to this subject, as it is a
serious malady in our most valuable grain.
With much esteem from thy friend,
Caleb Kirk.
Dr. J. Mease.
The facts stated by Mr. Hollingsworth, while they
justly ought to cause serious alarm, tend at the same
time fully to prove, the truth of the theory of Mr. So-
merville, respecting the origin of grain insects. He
supposes that they are generated in the manure made
use of, being put into the earth, and covered up from
the sun and air: insects he remarks in such circum-
stances, breed much faster, than when the same manure
is left upon, or near the surface. To prevent their in-
crease, he recommends the mixing lime with stable
dung, (but not until it is completely fermented) and the
application of manure so prepared, in the spring as a top
dressing, when the crop is in a growing state, instead,
of ploughing it under in the autumn. In the trials he
has made of the practice he recommends, the success
has been very great. Another mode in which the in-
sects mentioned by Mr. Hollingsworth might be de-
stroyed, is by paring and burning the surface; the
mode of performing this operation may be seen in books
New Disease in Wheat, I27
of agriculture.^ No other method appears to be so
certain, and it ought certainly to be adopted, as it is im-
possible to say to what extent the evil may proceed, if
not soon checked.
The following piece appeared in the news papers in
the year 1804, and may allude to a disease similar to that
described by Mr. HoUingsworth. The importance of
such communications from farmers cannot be too ear-
nestly inforced. If the insect, called the ^'hessianjiy,'^^
be really imported, it is not too much to say, that by an
early alarm, and by burning the straw of the crop in
which it first appeared, the whole race might have been
destroyed, and many millions saved to the United States.
Legislative interference in such cases is highly justi-
fiable, and the government of Maryland is urged to at-
tend to the insects that affect the wheat in that State^
in a manner so alarming.
UTICA, fNew York J July 2?id.
To the Editor of the Patriots
Sir,
Having heard much complaint among the farmers^
and others, of the destruction of their growing wheat
by the hessian fly ; and some from the rusty or blighty as
they suppose, by the easterly wind ; I was led to exa-
mine my own fields, and endeavour to discover the
cause of the yellow and rusty appearance of my own
wheat; particularly a small field of spring wheat, which
-* Dickson's Agriculture. Lawrence's Farmer's Calender.
128 Nexv Disease in Wheat,
at an early period, made a good shew of being a fine
crop ; but which, all at once — or at least in a very few-
days, seemed wholly to droop and put on the same sick-
ly hue which I had previously observed to the eastward
of Albany, and also in the county of Montgomeiy. I
had never seen the hessian fly, but had generally un-
derstood that its first appearance was that of a small white
maggot in the stalk of the grain., about the first andsecona
joints and that the stalks, infested with the fly, or rather
maggot, could easily be pulled asunder. Examining
some stalks of my spring wheat, and finding them per-
fectly sound, and not to be separated, except by cutting
them with a knife, and at the same time observing a
yellow dust or rust on the decayed leaves, I hastily
concluded that the defect in the grain was not owing to
the hessian fiy., but to a mildew., which had caused the
stalks and leaves to grow rusty and perish. But acci-
dentally observing that the roots of all the stalks which
I had pulled up, appeared dead, and quite decayed like
over rotten flax, I was led to examine them with more
attention, when I found a number of very small white
worms., extremely fine, and very lively., which I under-
stand is never the case w^ith the hessian fly. But of this
circumstance (respecting the always torpid state of the
hessian fly) I have no personal knowledge. These
worms were of different lengths, from an eighth to a
fourth of an inch (as well as I could judge from the eye)
and moved either end foremost; although evidently dif-
ferent as to the force of the head from the other extre-
mity— what I supposed the head, being longer, and of
a red colour. The body of some was neai'ly as white
as a maggot in new^ cheese, others of the pale green
New Disease m Wheat, 129.
colour of the stalk of wheat. In the roots of those
stalks, most decayed, there were insects in a quiet or
dead state ^ or more properly speaking in a state of ab-
solute rest, and of the colour of a ripe flax seed, though
not of that shape — they were rounder and longer ; but
in no instance as long as the live worm. I take this to
be the second state of this destructive insect — and that
the third state is probably a fly. The chrysalis or first
remove from a worm, is not lodged in the stalk of the
grain, but amongst the roots, or in the first insertion of
the leaves adjoining the root. The destruction of the
grain appears owing to the ravages of the v/orm on the
line and tender roots, wider the surface of the earthy and
the reason that so few are found in pulling up the wheat
and examining the stalks, I imagine, is owing to the
worm's being concealed by the dirt adhering to the
roots, and their being shaken off with the dirt before
the roots are examined. I am led to believe that this is
a new species of worm, as it has made a more complete
destruction of the spring wheat than the winter wheat.
I have always understood that the hessian fly was pro-
duced from eggs laid in the young shoots of wheat in
tlie fall — and that wheat late sowed, and on highly ma-
nured lands, always escapes their ravages. By the way
I would observe that some of these worms were disco-
vered in my winter wheat, which was veiy late sown—
but they did it but little damage. My spring wheat
was sown partly on land, last season in corn and pota-
»toes, and was but an indifferent soil — the rest in a small
adjoining field which had been one year in grass, and
was this spring broken up in order to prepai'e the grx)und
for planting an orchard. P. Colt.
E e
130 New Disease in Wheat.
Mr. Frederick Heisz mentioned at the Society, at
the meeting of January 12th 1808, that his wheat suf-
fered extremely last autumn, during a drought, from
insects having a great resemblance to those of the hu-
man head; several of which w^ere found in the main
stalk of the plant, just as it left the earth. The gro\^i;h
of the wheat was checked, and the leaves turned yellow-
A similar disease prevailed in several places in his
neighbourhood, viz. in the county of Philadelphia, 11
miles up the Wissahickon road.
C 131 3
Improved Hay Ladders. By Moses Coates, near DoWi"
ing Town, Chester County, Pennsylvania.
Read August 11th, 180r.
Waggon ladders for hauling hay or grain, may be
made from 15 to 20 feet long, and spread as wide at
top, as the. wheels will admit.
132 Hay Ladders.
x\, a piece of scantling 4 1-2 inches thick, and 5 1-^
deep, for the bottom rail.
B B, the two top rails.
C, the sloats, set in mortices in the bottom rail, and
passing through the top rails.
D D, pieces across, one at each end, to keep them from
spreading.
E, the hind bolster, notched down on the spurrs or
guides of the hind wheels, just before the bolster on
the axle tree.
F F, two strong studs, standing nearly erect, to suppoi:t
the top rails.
G, the bolster at the fore end, through which the tho-
rough bolt passes.
This bed is much stifFer, stronger, and better sup-
ported, than one made after the usual method, and is
not so subject to get out of place. But its chief merit
is turning easily; for having but one bottom rail, and
that in the middle, there "is nothing to prevent the wag>
gon from turning as short, as if there was no bed on it,
a circumstance which is frequently of ver}- great advan-
tage, as in turning from one cock or shock to another;
the old kind requires such a large circle to turn in, that
the waggon often times cannot be brought to the spot
desired.
[ 133 3
Oji Sheep afid their Diseases. By Joseph Capnef^ of
Flemington, New Jersey,
Read September 8th, 1807.
Flemington^ June 6th, 1807.'
Sir,
Agreeably to your request, I will give you any in-
formation, according to my abilities and observations,
on those useful animals, — sheep.
As I am in the habit of killing what sheep I have to
spare, and of selling to my neighbours, I have had a
good opportunity of viewing their internal complaints,
they are,
1st, The worm in their head. The smallest size which
I have observed, is less than a cheese skipper, about one
inch up the nose, creeping about in the mucilage ; as
they grow, they creep higher up, and when fully grown,
they lie as high up as the cavities will admit. I have
seen as many as twelve or fifteen, great and small, in
one head, but commonly only two. I suppose they are
produced from a bee, that frequents the walks in sheep
pasture, much resembling those bees, but of a less size
which pester horses in summer, and deposit nits on
their hair. I call them the sheep bee; but where they
deposit their eggs, whether externally or internally, I
know not. They first begin to be troublesome about
the time the honey bees swarm.
I know of no cure. The method I follow to prevent
the complaint, is to smear the noses, and up to the eyes
of the sheep, with tar. This practice seems to have a
l^ood effect upon a sheep, for about one month, and on-
134 On Sheep and their Diseases,
ly three weeks on lambs, as they are apt to rub off the
tar in sucking.
2d, Intestinal worms. I frequently find the tape
worm, to the number of four or five, in one sheep, and
four or five yaixls long. I lately killed a lamb with ele-
ven : the animal was fat : these seem to be least injuri-
ous to sheep, as those in which I have found them have
the fewest knobs on their bowels.
The second kind of worms resemble narrow strips
of boiled parchment, cut about one fourth of an inch in
length ; they are discovered in the dung of the animal,
and are much more injurious than the former kmd, oc-
casioning so many lumps on the bo^vels, as to cause
great difficulty in taking off" the rough fat.
Sd^ The third kind are more fatal, than either of the
former two, but fortunately they do not appear so often.
In two or thi'ee instances, the animals which were trou-
bled with them, continued ill until diey died ; and upon
examining their bodies, I discovered several small round
worms, about one inch long, coming out of the anus.
I observe that sheep are much more healthy here,
than in England. I also notice a great neglect in the
American farmers, in not docking the tails of sheep,
hence they often dislocate their spines, and render their
limbs pai'alytic, by the violence with which they frisk
their tails when afiiighted.
I remain with esteem v
JOSETH CaPNER.
Dr. James Mease.
, [Mr. Capner presented to the society, four vials, contain-
ing the intestinal worms mentioned in his letter, and the bee
v/hich he supposed produced the kind he first notices.]
Oti Jerusalem JVheat, By Dr. John Keemle,
Read September 8th, 1807.
PhilacL Septr. 2d, 1807.
Sir,
This letter with a head of the Jerusalem wheat, will
be handed you by Doctor Mease, secretary to your so-
ciety.— In December 1805, 1 wTote to Mr. Humphreys,
of Dublin, requesting him to favour me with some of
that wheat : this request he complied with, by sending
me a small bag, containing about a quart and an half
pint, which Iliad sown in different kinds of soil, to as-
certain in which kind it vv^ould thrive best, and ripen
soonest. One third part I had sown on high ground on
the 15 September, 1806; this ground was not in a high
state of cultivation. The other two parcels were sown
in low ground, highly cultivated, one and two weeks
later than the first. That which was sown on the 15th
September, was fully ripe on the 12th July, 1807. The
other two parcels did not ripen so soon, nor so perfectly,
as the first ; whence it appears that it should be sown as
early as possible. In my opinion 1st Septr. v/ouid be
the most proper time for sowing it.
From reading some observations on that part of the
eastern country, from which this w^heat vv^as brought
to Ireland, I am confirmed in my opinion of the neces-
sity of its being eai'ly so^vn. From the time this v/heat
starts to grow, to the time of its ripening, there is very
little rain, if any, in the climate of Jerusalem. This
wheat requix*es a high degree of heat to ripen it, and as
136 On Jerusalem Wheats
the degree of heat in our climate, is not so high as that
of Jerusalem, the deficiency must be made up by early
sowing. I am informed that it does not ripen equally,
and perfectly in Ireland or England. This is easily
accounted for. Our indian corn will not ripen iii either
of those countries, which being farther north than our
climate by several degrees, have not the same degree
of heat: consequently our climate is more favorable to
it than England, or Ireland.
In the States of Pennsylvania, DelaM^are, Maryland;.
Virginia, N. and S. Carolina, and Georgia, this grain
may be raised to advantage. North and South Caro-
lina, lie in the same latitude as Jerusalem. In these
States, therefore, I would presume, it will best succeed.
The southern States, will find it their interest to attend
to the cultivation of it, as soon as a supply can be ob-
tained.
As to the quantity reaped from what I sowed, I can
only state, that from a pint sown about two miles from
town, I do not expect to get more than a peck. Not-
withstanding all the care taken of it by the farmer, half
was destroyed by fowls. A farmer in the neck who
had half a pint, assures me, he will get a peck at least.
Of the produce of the third parcel I have as yet received
no information.
Considering the three severe seasons it had to en-
counter, I am fully satisfied with the produce. We
never had a more severe and trying winter for grain than
the last, much rain, little snow, and extreme cold. Du-
ring the spring and summer almost eveiy other day we
had rain, which not only checks the growth of grain, but
also the ripening of it
On Jerusalem Wheat, 137
This wheat, is hardier and more productive than any
we have among us : neither heat nor cold seem to have
much effect on it* It does not mildew and rust as easy
as our wheat. Some of the common wheat, that was
sown by the side of it, in the neck, was entirely spoiled
by rust and mildew^, when this was not in the least af-
fected. Its productiveness may be estimated by the
number of heads on a single straw, on some there are
3^ — 5, — 7 heads as you will observe, by those I send
you. The straw^ is six feet high, and very stout, suffi-
ciently so to bear its own weight uncommonly well.
The grain is full and plump, differently shaped from
our wheat, and somewhat larger. The Jerusalem wheat
will be a valuable acquisition to our country, if it does
not degenerate, of which we shall be enabled to judge
by one or two further experiments.
With much respect I am &c.
John Keemle.
Richard Peters esc^.
President Agjic, Soc. Philad.
The public papers have frequently mentioned the
origin of the above mentioned wheat. It appears, that
a servant of an eccentric character, the late Mr. Wha-
ley, (who for a wager undertook to walk to the holy
land) brought back a small sheaf of wheat, and fixed
it up as a sign to an ale house which he kept for some
years after in Dublin. In time it was blown down, and
a farmer who accidentally passed, perceiving a few
heads, among the straw, picked and planted them. He
continued to propagate it, until he had several acres
Ff
i38 Chi Jerusalem Wheat,
of it sown, when he sold the seed at the immense price^
of ten guineas the stone. The produce was said to be,
greater tlian that of any other known kind of wheat ; the
stalk strong and reedy, and to be filled with a pithy sub-
stance which proved highly nourishing when the straw-
was cut and given to horses. The straw bears a clump
of many ears, and the grain is said to yield an unusual
quantity of the finest flour. I was presented by Captain
Geddes, with half a pint of the Jerusalem wheat from
Dublin, in June 1806, it weighed six ounces: when
exhibited at the Agricultural Society, the members
were struck with the shrivelled appearance of the grain,
and their unequal whiteness. This led to the opinion
that more than one variety of wheat, was contained in
the sample. I sowed it in drills, on a spot highly pre-
pared, but the carelessness of my overseer permitted the
poultry to destroy it during the winter. Joseph Cooper
of New Jersey, sowed some of the same kind of wheat
in October 1805, and observed that it ripened very
unequally, owing as he thought to the weight of the
heads causing many of the stalks to fall to the ground.
The crop of 1807, stood well, but still ripened une-
qually. I procured half a peck from him last autumn^
which I sowed in a piece of well prepared ground, and
shall carefully note its progress, and produce.
It is believed that the same variety of wheat was in-
troduced into this country in 1792, as some of a kind
answering to the description of the Jerusalem wheat,
ivas presented to the society, and distributed among
the members, but as it has been lost, it is more than
probable it possessed no particular good qualities.
J. Mease.
[ 139 1
On the Yellow Water of Horses, By Bi chard Peters.
-Read October 13th, 1807.
Belmojity in Bleckley^ Aug, SOthy 1807,
Sir,
The following communication on the yelloxv water
of horses, was made, at the time of its date, to " The
Blockley and Merion Society for promoting agriculture
and rural ceconomy,^^ I was principally instrumental in
forming this Society, 20 years ago. It chiefly consists
of intelligent, worthy and industrious practical farmers,
^vith whom, I feel a pleasure in mentioning, I have uni-
formly lived, in uninterrupted habits of friendly inter-
course and confidence. As a means of combining them
by some attractive object, a small, but well selected
library has been established, out of their easy annual
contributions, and occasional fines. I have had great
satisfaction in perceiving the progressive information
and improvement, this has afforded. It would be high-
ly beneficial, if such societies were more generally form-
ed through our country, for the promotion of agricul-
tural knowledge ; without which, industry and labour
lose the fairest portion of their merited reward.
I have a belief, and have heard that the adventurous
mode I accidentally pursued on the subject communi-
cated, has been singularly serviceable in the fatal disease
treated of. It is truly unfortunate, that veterinary
knowledge is so rare, and so little valued by medical
characters, that necessity compels, and accident alone
favours experiments, in the hands of those, who have
no assistance from professional attainments.
140 On the Yelloxv TVater of Horses.
By permission, and at the request of the Philadelphia
Society, I send to you a copy, to be inserted in their
memoirs. Herbs, and feeble remedies, have been in
vain administered. Some bold, and well directed
course, must be taken with a malady uncommonly and
rapidly dangerous, and generally fatal. My observa-
tion and even slender and unfortunate acquaintance with
the disease, may furnish some useful hints to those, who
will add to them scientific and medical skill.
I risk all observations on a subject, on which it will
be perceived, I am not scientifically informed; that I
may break the way, and invite those, who have it in their
power to benefit and instruct agriculturists, in a branch
of knowledge intirely neglected.*
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Agric, Soc. Philad,
* Those who are zealous in any important subject, cannot
always avoid committing themselves, on points they deem'
useful. If injustice is done to me, by the supposition, that
any personal motive actuates me, to treat on topics I do not
protess to know extensively, it is a tax, which all who have
similar propensities to do service to others more than to them-
selves, must, with me, agree to pay. For a great portion of
my life, I have occasionally endeavoured to prevail on profes-
sional men, to assist the business of agriculture, by devoting
some part of their time and talents to veterinary subjects.
But until 'Dr.Rush, very lately, laid me under personal obli-
gations, and my brother farmers generally, by introducing
these subjects in an handsome manner, to the notice of his pu-
pils, I have never succeeded. This entitles him to my most
On the Yelloiv Water of Horses, 141
" To the Blockley and Merion Society, foi promoting
Agriculture, and Rural (Economy,
'* Having, within a few weeks past, lost three horsesy
by a disorder, which I believe to be the yellow watery
I endeavour to render my misfortune as useful as I can,
by communicating all I have observed, or heard on that
subject. I do this, in hopes that other members of the
society will assist in collecting facts, preventives, and
remedies, necessary to enable us to know, resist, or
conquer, this alarming and fatal invader. I am con*
vinced that those who depend on several recipes I have
seen published, will be deceived, unless the disease be
very mild indeed. One only, out o^four of my horses
grateful thanks. Whatever may be thought by others, of this
first compliance, with my long continued endeavours, I deem
it the corner stone of some future most valuable building.
Chymical pro.essors, and those whose employments lead
them to know this important assistant to husbandry, have it
in their power, to render inestimable services. When I have
been forced into chymical subjects, with which I have but
too slight an acquaintance, some of these gentlemen have been
very kind ; both in their instructions, and detections of error.
Others have locked me up insolubly ; or decomposed Viiy fee-
ble attempts, without putting any thing instructive or useful
in their place. Agriculture and chijm'istrij are so intimately
connected, that one who has knowledge and talents in the
latter science, could not do a more patriotic service to his
fellow citizens, who are husbandmen, than he would accom-
plish by instructing them, when requisite, on this all essen-
tial auxiliary to their prosperity.
142 On the Yellow TVater of Horses.
taken with the disorder, has survived.* So that I have
no reason to boast of success in the application of reme*
dies; though this is the only subject, which gave time
for them to operate. He had so many medicines ad-
ministered, and so many external applications were
used, that I do not pretend to say what, specifically,
performed the cure. But I am satisfied, that what
would, in a common case, be called a violefjt remedy^
iptiust be pursued. Deplettjig, both by blood letting^
and, at first, strong purges, I should depend on the most.
Few know the great quantity of blood, a tolerably sized
horse can lose, without injury. A gallon at the first
bleeding, and half a gallon every day, for three or four
days, will not be too much. If the pulse continues to
be fluttering, tense, or indicatory of fever afterwards^
Xht fiearn should be used: and the quantity taken away
may be small or large, according to circumstances,
which must govern in all cases. Small and repeated
bleedings, at this stage of the disease, shock the system
less, than few and very copious blood lettings. Nitre
should be given in all the draughts, or drinks and
drenches, in large quantities ; — three or four ounces
* He is now living in perfect health ; and is 2d years old.
He passed a great part of his long life, as a carriage horse.
He is now on the farm ; as active, laborious, fat and sportive,
as any horse of his size possessed either by myself, or my
neighbours. If it be said, his constitution Jielped out the cure,
and even vanquished both his disease, and the remedies^ I va-
lue him so much, that I freely yield him all the credit, he is
entitled to, on this accoimt. R. P.
Oti the Yellow JVater of Horses, 143
per day. Gruelj when the horse could take nothing
else for his sustenance, was given in drenches frequent-
ly. Injections, to produce speedy evacuations, com-
posed of any thing cooling and laxative, are very useful.
I used a decoction of the black snake 7'oot and peach
leaves, with oily shad pickle, salt, soap and molasses, at
difterent times, and in various combinations. Breiver''s
yeast, was also plentifully given, in drenches and clys-
ters. All my sick horses, one excepted, took some ca-
lomel. To the one recovered, the mercury was admi-
nistered, in various ways. It was given in balls, licked
in Avith salt, and mercurial ointment rubbed in, near the
region of the liver. This horse, by the advice of an ex-
perienced friend, was rowelled and blistered. As soon
as the blisters (produced by the potatoe JIt/ ; fLytta vit^
tataj a most powerful vesicatory) rose, he began to sa-
livate freely, shewed evident signs of recovery; and
continued mending from that moment.
The first purges should consist of aloes and calomel;
two ounces at least, of the former, and two drachms, of
the latter, with half an ounce of creme of tartar.^ If the
clysters are rejected, the rectum should be raked by a
small hand and arm ; and the indurated foeces removed.
I am confident that rowels and blisters are very efficaci-
ous, as auxiliaries. The rowels were fixed between
the fore legs : the blisters on the soft parts, under the
belly and throat. The short hairs were shaved off, to
=^ The bile being acrid and calculated to stimulate and pro-
mote the peristaltic motion of the intestines, acids should not
be used too plentifully. Some distinguish between mineral
imd vegetable acids, in bilious cases.
144 0?i the Yellow Water of Horses,
admit their application. On conversing with medical
gentlemen, I found varieties of opinion. Some con-
demned the calomel— some th'^ bleeding; — both as to
the remedy and quantity — and some recommended
both. I should have been perplexed, had I not consi-
dered it a case Avhich nothing could deteriorate. The
first victim died in a few hours, without furnishing any
materials for disputes about remedies. A fruitless at-
tempt was made to bleed hini and he took no medicine.
The second died in two or three, and the third in eight
days. Bleeding was freely, but ineffectually, used in
the case of the second horse. The third was bled com-
paratively little. The survivor was bled plenteously^
and took mercury in great quantities; though one of the
faculty told me he had not taken enough. I found them
out of their usual track of practical intelligence, when
the diseases, or cure, of quadrupeds were in question*
A friend (Col. S. Miles) some years ago, at his iron
v/orks in Center county, had a number of horses seized
with this disorder, and lost none : though the horses,
very generally, through the neighbouring country, died
of this disease. He cured by immediate and plentiful
bleeding and nitre. He took, at various times, from 6
to 8 gallons of blood from an horse. The most was
di*awn at the first bleeding. Another, who has been
very successful, cured, by one or two copious bleedings,
a violent purge — and afterwards, gentle opening medi-
cine^ and nitre. But, above all^ he recommends clean-
liness^ good nursings and repeated rubbings not slightly,
but laboriously. The horse should be clad, and kept
from swis night air, *and deivs.
Oji the Yellow Water of Horses, 145
A medical gentleman recommended the mode of ad-
ministering calomel to be, — suffering the horse to lick
in thirty grains of calomel, with salt^ three or four times
a day. This method had been previously pursued. A
servant was slightly salivated, by improvidently letting
the horse lick the calomel and salt, frequently, off his
hand. The same physician informed me, that the calo-^
Twe/.entered the system the soonest in this way ; and that,
in a foreign country, from whence he came, he had
knov/n horses cured of this disease by calomel thus giv-
en, with the addition of bleeding and purging.
The whole of the cure, I am convinced, depends on
attacking the complaint in its first stage, with depleting
and cooling remedies. After a certain point, which oc-
curs probably in the first 24, or at fcirthest 48 hours, it
seems to me, nothing will cure; yet every thing should
be pertinaciously attempted.
I shall not enter the lists, for or against plentiful blood
letting. The lancet is held by some, in human sub-
jects, to be the magick wand of Hygaia; and by others,
the minister of death. So may they deem the fleain,
applied to horses. Yet notwithstanding the prejudices
against it, I do not see what other chance there is, in a
disease so acute, that the subject of it may fall a victim,
before any other depletory remedy can operate. Twelve
or fourteen, at least, and often twenty-four hours, elapse,
before any medicine taken into the stomach of a horse,
has its effect. Purges and clysters only can be admi-
nistered with effect and success. No emetic, if it were
proper, operates on an horse. The intesthies of an horse,
if extended, measure from 30 to 36 yards in length;
and the peristaltic motion is slow, as it is in most animals
146 On the Yellow Water of Horses.
— - ■ ■ ■ •■ ' ■ .>.-^.^.. ■■^^■ia^—
where the intestines are in an horizontal position. Those
of a human subject are, generally, in length, six times
the height of the person ; and this proportion holds in
many animals. So that purgatives must have time ; and
this in desperate cases, is peculiarly precious. The
pressure on the morbid part, should be lessened, for its
i*elief, as soon as practicable. When or how to hit the
true point of depletion, either by bleeding or purgatives,
I do not profess to know. The first is certainly more
within controul, than the latter. The pulse must direct :
if the pulsations were quick, or unequal and fluttering.,
and the skin hot and chy, blood was taken from my
horses; but in small quantities at a time, after the first
copious depletions.
/ have no theory to establish^ but candidly mention
fiicts and opinions, that some stand may be made against
this dreadful foe, which attacks so useful and valuable
a part of our property.
It is to be earnestly wished, that intelligent medical
characters here, would turn their attention to the dis-
ease of that noble animal, the horse. — The companion,
the faithful servant, and friend to man, — he deserves
our grateful attention, and care. He shares and lessens
our toils, promotes our health, administers to our com-
forts and amusements, fights with us our battles, and
contributes largely to our wealth and prosperity.
In England^ and other European countries, Societies
and Professorships are established, and patronized by
their governments, for the promotion of veterinary
knowledge. Enquiries on tliis subject would be honour-
able to the most eminent among our medical men.
Their differences of opinion, for such there will be.
On the Yellow JVater of Horses, 14'
would agitate questions, and bring to light useful facts,
and remedies would follow.
The disagreements in opinion, whether the tjellow
water ^ be endetnial (if this phrase can be properly thus
applied) or contagions^ are as great, and as unsatisfac-
tory, as are those in the tase o{ yellow fever; to which
it seems to bear some resemblance. The wisest course,
is not to risque a well horse, among the sick.
The remedies are by no means wtII ascertained. Nrtre
and sulphur, ere me of tartar, antimony, and such driigs,
may sometimes answer as preventives, or gentle aperi-
ents 2i\\d sudorifics ; but are, of themselves, too feeble,
when the disease is fixed. Balls composed of mustard
and camphor, are said to be preventives. I have expe-
rienced the efficacy of camphor, given to sheep tainted
with the rot. Pills of camphor given to poultry I have
found very serviceable this season ; having saved many
by them, from a fatal disease, of which great numbers
died. I lost few or none of those, to whom the cam-
phor was given. I should think mustard and camphor
too heating, if any fever appeared in a sick horse, un-
less applied in cataplasms. The pulse of an horse beats
from 40, to 45 times, in a minute. If it exceeds 45,
he is feverish. The pulsation may be felt in any of the
arteries ; particularly those of the neck and breast.
The symptoms, I cannot accurately, or technically
describe. The disease first appears in a dulness of the
eyes ; the whites whereof ai'e jaundiced or yellow. But
they frequently, at intervals, become bright; and flatter
w ith hopes of recovery. The ears hang, and are sel-
dom erect, or pointed. The tail is often projected ho-
rizontally, with a quick motion, and dropped in a man-
148 On the Yellow Water of Horses.
ner different from that of a sound horse. A frequent
inclination, without the capacity to stool, is perceived.
The flanks are tucked and hollow ; and partial shiverings
are frequent. The hind legs are stiff, and straddling
wide ; but finally all the limbs fail. The horse falls,
and in his agonies, works round on his side ; describ-
ing a circle, with his hind feet, on the ground, as he is
seized with paroxysms at irregular periods. Hence
some country people call the disorder '' the circles.''^
Sometimes he perspires freely, perhaps from pain, hut
commonly the skin is dry, and the fever ardent. He
w ill eat at any time ; but cannot swallow^ much. Some
of my horses died with the food in their mouths ; taken
in when drawing almost the last breath. The blood is
thin, and the serum yellow. It is for the most part
dissolved into water, highly tinged with bile. It de-
posits the crassamentum^ in a livery mass, of a deep
flesh colour, sometimes in unconnected lumps. Some-
times the blood is covered with a tough or buffy skin,
full of bubbles, or watery blisters. The smell., arising
from the sick horses, was remarkably fcstid, and differ-
ent from that of an healthy horse.
My dead horses were opened. Nothing was disco-
vered the least injured, but their livers; and these were
alike affected, but not all in an equal degree. It is an
hepatic affection ; and as a farrier who attended my ana-
tomical theatre., and had opened many horses with this
disease, called it the 'Hiver disorder,'^'' for want of a more
appropriate term. The morbid parts of the liver were
hard and scirrhous, and of adai'ker colour than the sound
parts. The contents of the parts affected were dr>' and
friable; and might be tabbed to pieces with the fingers.
On the Yellow TFater of itorses, 149
They resembled the stuffing of a boiled blood puddmg.
The whole liver of the horse who died last, was reduced
to one fourth of its usual size, and on the parts near it,
there was some redness, or inflammation. The disease
appears to be an highly malignant bilious fever. The
secretion of the 5z7e is obstructed by the morbid state of
of the liver and the gall is retained in the blood : and thus
tinging that and the urine^ possibly gave the name to the
disease, of the yellow water. The horse is among the
few animals, having no gall bladder.
The horses in one stable (in or near vvdiich I find no
putrid taint, there being nothing but what is common
about stables) were alone affected. The horses on my
farm (those diseased being family horses, used in a car-
riage, and for riding) are yet in health.*" Their feed
has been chopped corn, rye and cut straw; which some
object to, at this season (July and August) unless the
horses are hard worked. Indian com is peculiarly heat-
ing. A change of food is best. For family horses, used
irregularly, and stabled constantly, the general food
should be oats and hay. Flax seed, and chopped grain ^
or shorts, should occasionally be given, with some sul-
phur and nitre. Air, exercise and cleanliness, should
never be neglected. My horses were generally kept in
the stable, in which I never before had a sick horse. I
have since heard of horses dying of the yellow water,
that had not been stabled since wmXtw The facts as to the
health of horses stabled, or pastured entirely, are so va-
rious, that no accurate decision can be made. From
* None of the farm horses became diseased. But several
in the neighbourhood were affected.
150 On the Yellow Water of Horses.
what I have collected, it appears to me, that those at
grass, exposed to hot days and damp, de^vy and chilly
nights, are the most subject to this disorder. Stabling
or shech^ to cover them at nights, would be salutary.
A member of this society (our vice president, J. Curwen
Esq.) lost an horse with this disorder, kept in a large
pasture field, without communicating -with any other
horse, for a great length of time. Two or thre€, among
30 or 40 others, liave died in livery stables, with the
tfellow water; and none of the rest have caught the dis-
order.
I omitted mentioning, tlmt, as soon as I perceived my
fii*st horse to be ill, I turned the other three out of the
stable, on an extensive lawn, or open field. They were
playful, and coursed violently, for an hour or more,
through my grounds ; and induced an opinion that they
were safe. But this exercise excitedxht lurking disease.
For in a few hours, one fell apparently lifeless, and
shortly afterwai'ds died. He was raised on his legs, for
some tim^e previously to his catastrophe, by a copious
bleeding. The other two, though less affected, shewed
for the first time, symptoms of languor, and stiffness in
theii' hind legs and quarters.
The tonsils^ or almonds, of the ears, of horses dead
ip^ith this disorder, have been found (as I have heard)
much sv/elled. I have been told of cures performed by
the cautery [hot iron] applied behind the ears, and an
incision being made, it vras stuffed with salt; so as to
produce suppuration. I much doubt whether the dis-
order was the yellow water ^ thus cured. This is not a
disease so local, as are the glanders^ strarigles, or znves.
It is not attended with defiuxions^ like a common horse
disorder.
On the Yelloxv Water of Horses. 151
In the British Museum Rusticum, there is an account
of the yellows^ or jawidice. Some of its diagnosticks arc
similar to those of the present disease. It is owing to
an obstruction of the liver^ and the blood overcharged
with bile. Bleeding in this case is forbid ; but I doubt
the propriety of this prohibition. The vitality of the
blood, which no doubt to a certain point is true, is a fa-
vorite doctrine in England, among some of their phy-
sicians; prejudices against plentiful bleeding are there
strong, (w^hether these are proper or not, I do not un-
dertake to decide) and their climate does not produce
malignancy in febrile complaints, so much as do the
ardent heats, and variable temperatures, of our atmos-
phere.
If this, perhaps too prolix, account of what I have
experienced and collected, furnishes the means of sav-
ing any valuable horses, or ^i^ords facts for more intel-
ligent enquirers, it will be some recompense for my dis-
asters* At any rate, this almost resistless destroyier,
should add to our motives for using more oxen, and
fewer horses, on our farms. Good will then arise out
of evil. Providence aiHicts us with piulial evil, to rouze
our attention to measures promotive of general good.
Since writing the foregoing account, I have heard of
many horses having, during this season, perished with
the same disease. Partial losses have occurred among
an assemblage of many horses, and the rest remained
in health. They w^r^fed in various w^ays — sovrq sta-
bled, others at pasture. — From this it should seem, tliat
there was nothing peculiarly noxious in my mode of
feeding ; or in the local situation of my stable. I have
heard of several remedies; one composed of herbs.
152 0?i the Yellow Water of Horses.
much used in Kentucky^ where this disorder has been
prevalent and fatal. When more accurately informed,
I will communicate the result of my farther enquiries."^
Richard Peters.
Belmont in Blockley, September^ 1799.
* August 1 807. Every thing I have since been informed
of, convinces me of the inefficacy of palliatives, and feeble
applications, or remedies. There is no chance of saving an
horse xvhen the disease is jixed^ but by some such powerfuj
course, as is before mentioned.
A respectable friend, Samuel Chexv Esq. of or near Chester
town Maryland^ informs me that the yellow zuater has been
rife, and has lately carried off many horses in his neighbour-
hood. He lost four, after following the mode I pursued.
Too copious bleedings are there condemned. But he saved
a horse, with little or no bleeding, and the free use of mercu-
ry ; with the other auxiliaries I mention, viz. cover, rubbing
and good nursing. Whether the blisters were applied or
not, I do not recollect. He agrees with me (and I have
heard of various instances) that if the horse lives, till the ca-
lomel touches the mouth, his recovery is ensured. The
chances are against any horse taken with the yellow water.
Without powerful remedies, his fate is fixed ; and with them,
uncertain. It is better that, by bold remedies, some should
be saved, than that all should perish.
I have not yet been able to discover kny local cause, for
the infection of my horses. Unless a pity into which the muck
was thrown immediately out of the stable (deep and walled
round to hold a great quantity of manure, and covered) may
have assisted to prom.ote, or caused the disease. The vapour^
ox fiimes^ o^. fermenting' muck^ must be noxious. I have long
banished all pits and dimg holes^ as being injurious to ani-
On the Yellow Water of Horses. 15!
[The utility of bleeding and other depleting reme-
dies, in the yellow water of horses, is further shewn by
mals in their vicinity, and preventives to the equal fermer-'
tation, and putrefaction of the manure. The receptacles for
dung under stables in cities^ and under harns^ in the country^
ought to be abandoned. Those whom necessity, or conve-
nience, obliges to use them, find arguments in favour of their
innocence, and even salubrity ; in which, I must be excused
for my incredulity.
A stercorary should be at some distance from the stables.
It is best for its bed to rise about two feet in the centre like
the back of a tortoise^ with channels round it, to conduct the
sap into a small xuell^ or reservoir^ which may be pumped^ or
laded out ; and the draimngs returned on the heap. Those
who choose it, may have the bottom paved^ and surrounded
by a stone xvall^ 3 feet high ; on which the sills o. the frame
for the roofvi\-3iy lie. It should be cov er ed hy ^lyool oi wo od^
or thatch^ on posts ; open at the sides for air, and railed^ or
stripped round, high enough to prevent access by cattle ;
whose treading or poaching the heap, impedes its regular
fermentation. Spouts^ or troughs^ at the eves of the roof,
may be furnished with small cross troughs^ to lead in rain
water occasionally : though it is seldom required ; as its own
juices are generally sufficient, for the supply oi the necessary
moisture to the dung. Under the pitch of the roof, over the
heap, there may be a pigeon house; and roosts {or poultry^
whose dung would encrease, and ameliorate the whole mass.
The square of the frame, should be about 8 feet from the bed ;
that carts, &c. may be admitted to enter, with convenience.
Those who experience its utility and value, will never regret
the expence. A parallelogram is the best ground plat. In a
British publication (I believe in a com.munication to the Board
of Agriculture) I have seen a draft and description of an ex«
<!ellent stercorary, on the plan I mention.
Hh
1 54 On the Yellow JVater of Horses,
the successful practice of two medical gentlemen, who
have given an account of the disease, and of their modes
of treatment.
The late Dr. Sayre has recorded the prevalence of
the disease, in one of the most highly cultivated coun-
tries in Nevv^ Jersey ; abounding with rich natural mea-
dov\'S. The symptoms were, loss of appetite, incapa-
city for labour, costiveness, heaviness of the eyes, great
heat, high coloured urine, cough more or less severe,,
and frequently an enlargement of the belly and limbs.
The blood when drawn, was extremely buffy, exhibit-
ing a covering of coagulable lymph, more than an inch
thick. Large glandular swellings occurred about the
throat, which suppurated, and such were more apt to re-
cover. Horses imiformly stabled, fared worst. One
dissection shewed adhesions among the contents of the
belly, enlargement and blackness of the liver, and effu=
sion of water into the cavity of the belly.
Dr. Sayre had a horse attacked by the staggers, dur-
ing the prevalence of the disease, and as he believed it
to be only a variety of the yellow water, the force of the
disease being directed to the brain, he took away more
than thirteen pints of buffy blood, which caused a tem-
porary alleviation of the disease. In a few hours after,
on a return of the disease, seven more pints w^ere taken
aw^ay : a purge of a drachm of calomel, and -3 drachms
of jalap was given. — Bleeding to the same amount as
the last, was performed again, the next day, in conse-
quence of a return of the disease. In the evening, the
horse began to nibble a little grass for the first time,
since his illness, and the next day, appeared free from
complaint. — Kexv York 3Ied» Repos. VoL 3. page 342.
On the Yellow JFater of Horses. 155
2. Dr. John Stevenson, of Newtown, Worcester
county, INlaryland, says that his riding mare shewed
symptoms of indisposition, after a severe ride, in a cold
N. E. rain, about nine miles, and standing out of doors
all the succeeding night in September, 1805 ! The sjTnp-
toms were, a dull, heavy, sleepy look, reluctant gait,
strong pulsation of the arteries, hurried respiration, fre-
quent micturition, but the urine not altered, great thirst,
white tongue, hot mouth, wasting, appetite good.
From the 1st of October to the latter part of Novem-
ber, she was bled twelve times ; and upwards of eleven
gallons of blood taken away. The operation was indi-
cated by the continuance of strong pulsations. Nitre
in doses of one ounce, and twice tartar emetic, in doses
of twenty grains each were given. An obstinate cos-
tiveness attended, which requu*ed large doses of aloes
and calomel, to produce even a slight effect.
Her appetite failed in the progress of the complaint,
and she wasted in flesh. After the alleviation of the
symptoms, and the partial return of appetite, two drams
of sulpliat of iron, (copperas) dissolved in her drink
twice a day, appeared to have a good effect. Half a
pint of brandy also, mixed with the same quantity of
water had a considerable effect upon her appetite. Dr.
Smith feels confident, that "had he discovered the na-
ture of the disease sooner, and adopted rigorous mea-
sures with it at first, and succeeded well in the use of
cathartic medicines, he might have effected a cure in.
half the time."— /Se'^ Med. Museum, Vol 4. page '2iS.
J. Mease.]
C 156 ]
On Gypsum, By Richard Peters.
Read October 13th, I80r.
I often receive a variety of enquiries in letters from
distant places; and in conversations, with those who
strew the plaister of parts. I find some are still doubt-
ful as to its use, or permanently beneficial efficacy. I
had supposed, that this substance was now so well
known; and all its properties and uses, so well establish-
ed; that intelligent farmers, in all quarters, were per-
fectly acquainted with every thing reletting to it. I am
not therefore over confidently impressed, with the im-
portance of any opinions I may entertain at this time ;
when all the information I possess, and most probably
much more, must be generally dispersed. If length of
experience w^ere necessary, as an additional proof, it
would form almost the only consideration, added to the
requests made to me by several respectable friends,
which would justify to myself, any idea that my testi-
mony, in favour of this great auxiliary to our agricul-
tural prosperity, is of any consequence, at this period.
I can add nothing of essential use, to the statements of
facts and opinions contained in the publication I made
on this subject in 1797. I have had no reason to alter,
or retract, any opinion I had then formed. On the con-
trary, my experience, since that time, has uniformly
confirmed them. Thirty seven years have now elapsed,
since my first acquaintance with the gypsum ; and its
agricultural uses and properties. During the whole
of that period (saving an interval occasioned by the war)
On Gypsum, 157
I have unremittingly continued the free rind extensive
use of that substance ; and have not, in a single instance,
had occasion to repent, that I had used, or recommend-
ed it. It is on the contrary, among my most pleasing
recollections and reflections, that, more than any other
individual, I was instrumental in its general introduc-
tion here; and in spreading throughout the country, a
knowledge of its existence, qualities, and benefits. The
success attending such efforts, (amply repaid by the
gratification they afford) v/ill be seen in all quarters, and
the general amelioration in husbandry, is a most esti-
mable reward.
So far is the gypsum from injuring, by frequent repe-
tition, the soil to which it is applied; that I am persuad-
ed it will perpetuate its fertility, if the husbandry be
good ; and common prudence, and attention to changes,
and cleanliness of crops by destruction of weeds, be
practised. On many parts of my farms the applications
of plaister have been at least, ten times repeated, in ro-
tations ; and other parts annually, in small quantities.
If there be any difference in perceptible effect, I
think it favourable: the crops of clover are not so
over abundant; but more regular and certain, than
they were in my first essays. In the principles, on
which its operation can be most probably accounted
for, I am confirmed; by invariable experience. The
decayed, or putrefied substances on which the suL
phuric acid operates, or by which it is operated upon,
must be replaced ; when the use o^ gypsum has exhaust-
ed, or neutralised them. This renovation may be pro-
duced, by turning in green manures, or animal sub-
stances : or strewing the plaister on a top dressing of
158 On Gyp.
sum.
rotted dung, compost, or ashes, to which it gives re-
markable activity. I do not profess so accurately to
know causes,' but only, with confidence, relate effects
on vegetable products. The first must remain con-
jectural; the latter are too visible and striking to coa-
tinue disputable. It still evinces the like effects ; with
similar materials to work on. What in my compen-
dious compilation, I threw out as a conjecture ; is found
on experience, with the strongest appeai'ance of proba-
bility, to be the chymical principle or agent of its ope-
ration. When I first mentioned this ta the late Dr.
Fjrisstley ; he received it with hesitation. But some
years thereafter, he told me he was convinced of its cor-
rectness. He had received information from Europe
(I think from France) confirmative of the opinion, that
whatever substance contained sulphuric acid foil of vi-
triol J would produce similar effects in agriculture. He
told me, that our then minister, Mr. Livingston^ had
observed the Flemish farmers applying burnt pyritesy"^
in the same manner, and for the same purposes, we use
the gypsum.
The first time I saw the agricultural effects of the
gypsum^ was several years before the commencement of
our revolutionar}^ war; on a city lot belonging to, or
occupied by, Mr. Jacob Barge^ on the commons of
Philadelphia, He was the first person who applied the
gypsum in America to agricultural purposes ; but on a
small scale. This worthy citizen still lives, at a very
* Mr. Livingston's account of the mode of preparing this
substance and the particulars respecting its use, are annexed
to tlie present voUmie»
On Gypsum. 159
advanced age. He informed me, that he had commu-
nicated his knowledge of it to one or two persons in the
countr}^ ; I think to the late Mr. Thomas Clifford and
another. He shewed me a letter, in German^ from one
who had gone over from Pennsylvania to Germany^ for
redemptioners ; as was customary at that day. The
writer sent over a specimen of the gypsum ; and desired
Mr. Barge to seek for land in this then Province^ in
which it could be found. It was, probably, to assist in
this object, among other considerations, that I was taken
into a secret, then utterly unknown to others in this
countn^ But from that time to this, I have not been
able to discover any quarries oigijpsum^ proper for hus-
bandry, in this, or any other of the United States, Tliere
are, in a variety of places, gypseous substances. On the
waters, far south, to ^^ it, on the Alatamaha; and the otiier
parts of that region, gypsum^ of the purest and best qua-
lity, and in immense quantities, is to be found, easily
accessible. The mountains skirting the Alatamaha^ are
formed of nuirhle and gypsum^ in many parts ; appearing
like artificial walls on the sides of the riven The quar-
ries in Nova Scotia^ were to us unknown at the Xiirie of
the introduction of the gypsum here. Burr mill stone
makers^ and stucco plaisterers^ were the only persons
acquainted with any of its uses. From one of the fonn-
er (the late John Br own J I procured a bushel; which
enabled me to begin my agricultural experiments; and
I faithfully pursued and extended them, as I obtained
more means. A quantity imported as ballast (I believe
20 tons) by the late captain Nathaniel Faulkner of Phi-
ladelphia^ then in the London trade ; and thrown out on
a wharf, without knowledge of its value, was the first
160 On Gypsiwu
important foundation, on which this extensive improve-
ment to our husbandry was estabUshed. With this,
Mr. Barge began the business of pulverizing the gyp-
sum^ first in an hand, and subsequent to this, in an horse
villi; and soon afterwards, it was carried on in a water
mill, in my neighbourhood. Such mills are now to be
found every where; brought to the highest state of per-
fection. When I had convinced myself of its efficacy,
I disseminated the knowledge I had acquired, through
many parts oS. P ennsylvama ; and sent samples to Jersey^
New York, and I think, to Delaware (then called the
Loiver counties J and Maryland. But my success in ob-
taining credit to my assertions, or in procuring assist-
ance in prosecuting experiments ; w^as, for a length of
time, very limited, and discouraging. I had no con-
cern in the manufacture, or any other object in the com-
munications ; but one founded in a desire to propagate
a knowledge of this valuable acquisition. The person
who wrote from Germany to Mr. Barge, informed him
(with what correctness I know not) that the discovery
was then of no long standing in Germany : and that it
had been accidentally made by a labourer, employed in
m-ixing stucco mortar, at a large building. He saw that
the path used, or made, by him, in going from his work
to his cottage, threw up a luxuriant crop of clover, in
the succeeding season, when all other parts of the field
exhibited sterility. He attributed this extraordinary
vegetation, to the dust flying off his clothes ; and in con-
sequence of this idea, he strewed offals of the gypsum,
near his cottage. The effects astonished every specta-
tor ; and he received from the Edleman, or landlord, a
reward for divulging the secret. Whether this Ameru
On Gypsum, 161
can voyager had better information, than most of the
travellers and rapid tourists through the United States y
who have amused the world with fanciful, hasty, and^
too often illiberal and malignant tales about us and our
aifairs, I will not undertake to determine. But I have
no doubt of his sincerity, and belief in the information
he imparted.
An English gentleman, Mr. StricJdand^ I with plea-
sure, except from the mass of temporary residents,
tourists and travellers in and through our country. — -
He has published an account of his observations here,
which are chiefly agricultural, with more attention to
truth and accuracy, and I am persuaded with candid
intention. But he is not without some prejudices, and
is misinformed, in some instances. In one particularly,
as to the gypsum, which is only important, because it
is an item in the catalogue of his mistakes. He attri-
butes the introduction of the plaister into this country,
to the Germajis of Lancaster county in this state; to
whom merited compliments are paid, for their industry,
and other good qualities. But this assertion is, so far
as it respects the gypsum, entirely unfounded. When
I first sent samples of the gypsum into that county, very
soon after I was accquainted with it, I perceived the
Germans there, to be totally ignorant of its existence,
and of course, of its agricultural uses. More than ten or
twelve years elapsed, before they could be prevailed on
to use it freely. In combination with all their valuable
qualities, they have some reprehensible alloys: their
I i
162 On Gypsum.
prejudices are inflexible. Some of our Germans^ at this
clay, believe the gypsum invites thunder and lightning'^
and, on the approach of a thunder storm, turn out of
their bams and houses the vessels containing this sub-
stance. But generally their prejudices are gone, and
they use it abundantly, and prohtably-f Their county
^ Thus we stile those descended from the original settlers
from Germany^ though they are born here. In the cities and
large towns, of this and other states, their habits and man-
ners change from those of their forefathers, in the greatest
degree, and assimilate with those of other citizens. Inso-
much that the service in their churches, is occasionally (and
by many desired to be alternately and regularly) performed in
the English tongue. But in the country, their origirtalit}-,
both of language and manners, is most generally preserved.
In many parts of this state, in Germa7i settlemeiits^ I have met
with adults of the third generation, who could not speak En-
glish. I could not succeed in enquiries of the most trivial nature,,
in any language but German.
f I have given too many, to me gratifying, proofs of my
regard for the people of Lancaster county whose industry and
agricultural merits I have long admired, to admit a suppo-
sition that I mention these circumstances in derogation of
them.
Knowing the efficacy of plaister applied to leguminous crops,
I many years ago suggested to some farmers in that county,
the covering their fallows previous to wheat, with Xh^feld
pea ; and procured seed for them. I was informed that it
had succeeded so as to be extensively profitable : insomuch
that one of them told me he had gained as much, in some
years, by his pease, as by his wheat. I have not lately enqui-
red about this culture ; or whether they continue to sow, or
plaister their pease.
On Gypsinn. 163
is for the most part, a lime stone country. The plaister
I presented, several years ago, to my late most worthy
and lamented friend General Hand ; as a trustee for its
introduction into the county, a valuable imported ram of
the broad-tailed breed of sheep obtained off the mountains of
Tunis ^ by the present General Eaton when consul in that regen-
cy. This ram has improved the breed of sheep in Lancaster
county^ and the country adjacent, to a great extent. I know
not any breed of sheep superior, and few equal to it. Its
fleece is of the first quality ; and the valuable points singu=
larly good." I regret that by accident, the old ram has been
lately killed ; but I have the full blood in his descendants. No
other African sheep is to be compared to this species ; either
for fleece, fattening, or hardihood. It bears our severest winters
without shelter. Some of the best lamb and mutton sold in our
market, are of this breed j which is now spread through many
parts of this state and Jersey. It has been done gratui-
tously^ when I supplied the stock. I mention this, because I
failed in an attempt to introduce a young ram, into a weal-
thy neighbourhood of another county. He was refused, un-
der a pretext or false notion, that their pastures were too
luxuriant for store sheep : but I afterwards learned, that
added to this mistake (easily remedied by increasing their
stock and profitably consuming their abundant herbage) an
apprehension was entertained that an heavy charge would
be presented^ with the ram. All the satisfaction I desire for
my disappointment, is, that those who have disappointed
themselves^ will have the grace to be ashamed of it. In eveiy
other instance, the benefit was received with the same spirit,
which prompted my bestowing it. The over luxuriance of
their pastures, was produced by plaister, generally on limed
lands.
164 On Gyp
Slim*
perfectly agrees with their limed lands; contrary to au
opinion entertained in England,
With all this prejudice, among some of this indus-
trious people, who are practically employed in the la-
boars of the field, the literary characters among the
Germans, here and in Europe, are of a very different
cast. Some of the best treatises on husbandry and
rural oeconomy, and topics connected therewith, are to
be found in the German language. Several of my Ger-
man friends have, from time to time, obligingly gratified
me, by sending for my perusal, agricultural books in
this language. I have read in them, some of the best
discussions, both practical, philosophical, chymical,
and oeconomical, I have met with on the subject of agri-
In my letter in which I offered the present of the young
ram, I mentioned, as an inducement to attention to the breed,
that any sum not exceeding 200 dollars ; could have been had
for the ram I sent to Lancaster county ; and that for young
ram lambs, half and three quarters blooded from 12 to 20
dollars, could be obtained. I hoped expectation of profit
would induce care ; and excite emulation. But it had the
effect of repulsion and refusal ; under the idea that some such
charges would be made. This shews that it requires address
to prevail on some of our people, to receive benefits. I am
happy to declare, that this is the only instance of such un-
worthy misapprehension, I met with. It is here noticed,
not because I deem it important, as it relates to myself ; but
to impress the necessity of taking some measures, if any are
practicable, to promote a general disposition among our agri-
cultural citizens, to improve the breeds of every species of
animals, comprising the stock on their farms.
On Gypsum* i6S
culture. There was, some years ago, and, unless the
troubles in Germany have distracted this valuable insti-
tution, there may yet be, a society at Leipsick whose
labours would enrich our country with much valuable
information ; were translations made of their essays and
communications, on a great variety of agricultural sub-
jects. Among them will be seen, some excellent ac-
counts of the gypsum ; by which it will appear, that its
uses in agriculture had been long known in that coun-
try, and that it was there held in high estimation. The
varieties of opinion, and the prejudices entertained
here, are similar to those existing, and ably refuted in
Germany,
Two respectable farmers who live on and near the
tide waters of the Delaware^ in this state, have recently
informed me, that the gypsum has ceased to benefit their
lands ; though it had at first been highly serviceable. —
On enquiry I find this misfortune to be singular, even
in the quarter in which they reside. Their situations
are peculiarly exposed to bleak easterly winds, which
blow over their fields damp vapours : and overload thi^
operative part of the plaister. Possibly water is to be
found at small depths, from the surface of their lands. It
is a property of the sulphuric acid to attract water. Chy-
mists discover this in their laboratories, farmers perceive
it in their plaistered fields; which retain moisture, long
after it has evaporated from other grounds. In combustion^
the sulphuric acid parts with its oxygen^ and retains hy-
drogene; and there may be some process in nature, which
operates, in some situations, similar eftects. We know
that air impregnated with marine salt, neutralizes or
166- On Gyp.
sum.
decomposes the plaister ; and any undue admixture of
other acids or the gosses^ though no salt air may exist,
may destroy its agricultural uses. It is so with the soil;
which, to be producti\'e, must have a due proportion of
the parts administering to its fertility. Lands become
lime-sick, as it is called, after much of that manure has
been applied, for a great length of time. They recover,
so as to admit of new applications of it, after intermis-
sion and proper culture, with vegetable or animal ma-
nures, ploughed in.
It is not strange, that, on the first appearance of the
plaister, with bad properties ascribed to it, people
should have been incredulous. The prejudices and
want of faith should have ceased, when experiment had
verified facts, in proof of its qualities. But both incre-
dulity and prejudice continued, for a great length of
time. — Circumstances not uncommon, being too often
the attendants on the first introduction of all improve-
ments ; however important and salutar}'. It w^as called
conjuring poxvder, inogical dust, &c. &c. by those who
amused themseh^es, with the supposed folly of the ad-
vocates for its efficacy and usefulness.
Among its uses, I have lately been informed of one,
I had not before discovered. It has been given to horses
for the cure of the heaves ; which is a cough and asthma,
the precursors of broken wind. Having an hofse
afflicted with this complaint, I followed, without preju-
dice for, or against them, the directions of my inform-
ant. A small handful of ground plaister is to be given
in the feed, four or five successive mornmgs ; when it
will operate as a strong purgative. The dose is to be re-
On Gypsmn. 167
peated, after a few days. The horse will refuse the se-
cond course, if he be not starved into compliance. I
find it to be a violent catharticky if taken in sufficient
quantity. In the '''' Agricultural Enquiries on Plaister^'*
page 85, in a note, — the formation of calculi^ in the vis-
cera of horses, is mentioned; as having been by some
farmers attributed to their taking in plaister^ mixed ac-
cidentally with their food, I did not then know the
purgative quality of the plaister. It refutes every idea
that it would remain in the viscera^ long enough to form
concretions.
The doses of pulverized plaister, gave my horse
.some temporary relief. But I have no faith in any re-
medy proposed for this incurable malady. I have seen
a fact published of an horse at pasture cured by drink-
ing, during a whole season, pond rvater, impregnated
with lime. But we do not hear of this horse, after be-
ing, for any length of time, on dry food, I have known
hills, in this disease, procured by various palliatives ;
but it returned, after exercise and hard w^ork, or dry
food. Diet is the best palliative, but hay is bad ; the
food should be wet and laxative ; and some gentle ape-
rient should be often used. Garlic, flaxseed, sulphur^
tar, and lime water &c. I have, in vain, administered
with exemplary patience. All are useful, but none ef-
fectual. Horses fed entirely (through the winters) on
potatoes, have been relieved, for several years, though
afflicted with heaves, or broken wind.
The salivary defluxions from horses, and homed cat-
tle, and hoving, are unjustly attributed to plaistered
grass. These I remember from my earliest vouth, be-
168 On Gypsum*
fore the gypsum was used or known, as to its qualities
applicable to husbandry. They occur no^v, in marsh-
es, and other places, where no plaister is strewed. Fogg
or after-mathj and second crop haij^ always produce
these salivations^ in a greater or less degree ; particularly
in wet seasons. Unmixed clover hay, especially where
the crop was luxuriant, and not salted, always disagree
■with horses if exclusively fed. Hoving is common in
Europe, in countries wherein the plaister is unknown,
or not used in agriculture.
The defluxions produced on horses by the above
mentioned causes, afford temporary relief in complaints
of heaves or broken wind. This indication of nature
might be improved upon, for the discoA^ery of some
palliative, or if practicable, a remedy, for this obstinate
disease. Bleeding is useful, but has no permanent ef-
ficacy. It is probable that a course of calomel, in an
early stage of these complaints, would either cure or
palliate.
If any apology for this communication to the society,
be necessar}' ; it must be found in my persuasion, that
it is incumbent on persons w^ho have been in long ha-
bits of strewing the gypsum, to give information of their
experience. Whatever may be its disadvantages, may
now be pointed out, by those who have felt them. My
obligations to it, invite and justify the opinion, that it
will continue to afford important advantages to the
community, as it has, for a long course of time, been
personally beneficial to me. I presumed too, that
it would gratify curiosity, to be informed of the hum-
ble and confined beginnings, from w^hence this ex-
tensive amelioration in husbandrv originated, in this
On Gypsum, 169
country. From its cradle, it has had my assistance, to
foster and rear it. — Now, it is of full age ; and has gain-
ed strength and solidity of character, sufficient to sup-
port itself. Knowing exactly its origin, and the preju-
dices attending its infancy, I see with some surprize,
but more satisfaction, the state of perfection and matu-
rity, to which it has grown up. So that it is now^ not
only an important branch of commerce and manufac*
ture ; but a general, and essential requisite in agricuU
turCo
Additional Observations on Plaister oj* Paris*
In exhausting this subject so far as my imperfect
stock of information or conjecture enables me, I fear I
shall exhaust also the patience of the society unprofit-
ably.
I have been frequently asked '' what quantity of plais-
ter an acre of ground requires f^"^ No precise answer can
be given to this question. It depends on the quantum
of substances in the earth, on Avhich the component
parts of the gypsum operate, or are by them operated
upon. As these are in plenty or scarce, the effects are
produced in a greater or less degree. And when they
are exhausted, or where they do not exist, no quantity
of gypsum, will produce agricultural benefits. If there
be a greater quantity than is required to exhaust the
subjects of its operation, the excess will remain an inert
mass ; inactive till new subjects call forth its powers.
The theory I long since mentioned, (with no small
diffidence as to its chymical accuracy) has been uni-
formly useful, and practically efficient. Dr, Priestley^
•K k
170 0?i Gypsum.
I remember, objected at first to the sulphuric acid being
the agent; because gypsum was insoluble, and the acid
remained in combination. And of this opinion are
some chvmists, with whom I have lately conversed.
But the Doctor finally told me, that by scfme process
in nature (which I do not correctly recollect) it was set
free ; and was at liberty to perform its office. Nature
provides means to effect her designs, superior to our
artificial substitutes. It is incredible, that while the
gypsum is performing astonishing operations, it should
remain an inert, insoluble compound.
Much weight has been given by some, to the opinion
that the calcareous matter of the plaister, is the princi-
pal cause of its utility. But this is a subject operated
upon and not an actor : — a place of deposit for the
acids. If it were otherwise, the small portion of it in
the plaister, applied to a large surface, would not prac-
tically justify the conclusion. I know by experience,
that it requires, of calcareous substances alone, a very
great quantity indeed, to produce important effects on
vegetation. But the oil of vitriol, without calcareous
matter, will operate powerfully. The pyrites have no
calcareous matter, being compounded of metals and
sulphur. And yet they operate on plants, by the vi-
triolic acid contained in them. For the burning the
pyrites by the Brahanters^ I cannot account. I have
been informed, that " it is converted to a sulphat by
moisture, and exposure to the atmosphere ; and then
becomes soluble by lime." But the combustion of
plaister is" not beneficial. I have often failed in the ap-
plication of calcined plaister ; and yet the chymists say,
that it is not the sulphuric acid^ but the water of chrys-
On Gypsum, 171
talUzation, which escapes m combustion. Vitriolated
tartar^ glaiiber and epsom salts, and all combinations of
sulphuric acid promote vegetation. I believe, (though
I do not exactly know the fact) that gypsum contains
the greatest proportion of this acid, of any substance in
which it is combined, and its cheapness gives it a pre-
ference in husbandry. In it there are 48 parts of the
acid, and 34 of. calcareous matter. It is not the only
salt beneficial to vegetation. Those not having this
acid in combination, produce useful effects. Salt pe-
ire (nitrat of potash) I have found highly beneficial,
when Indian corn^ before planting, was steeped in a so-
lution of this salt. All these salts are chymical com-
pounds ; and require greater or less powerful solvents,
as well as gypsum; about which I start no difficulties.
These solvents are furnished to them, in the laboratory
of nature as well as to the plaister. It is not well ascer-
tained that common salt fmuriat of soda J is a manure.^
* It yet remains doubtful whether common salt is, or is not,
a manure, in its crude state. I have sometimes thought well
of it J and used it in every way. When mixed with putres-
cent or putrefiable substances, judiciously, it is best. In
large quantities it prevents, though in small portions it pro-
motes putrefaction ; being antiseptic in one case, and septic
in the other. An incautious mixture of either salt (common)
or lime, with the 7niick, or compost bed, often defeats the ob-
ject of their application. If lime be applied it consumes pu-
trescent substances, and forms insoluble compounds which
are inactive ; and they compose the greatest proportion of the
dung. Lord Dundonald decides against the use of salt, es-
pecially on poor land : he says that if it be at all useful, it is
©n rich land. He highly recommends sea water for its great
172 On Gypsum.
If it IS, it acts by its septic quality, when applied in small
quantities. It prevents the operation of plaister, by fur-
nishing soda to the acid of the gypsum; and with it
forming sulphat of soda, fglauber salts.) This is the
cause of the plaister not operating on sea coasts. I have
ruined a bushel of plaister by an handful of salt; which
renders it unfit either for manure or cement.
It is of no farther consequence to the farmer to know
the operative principle of the plaister, than as it directs
his practical use of it. And whether it acts per se di-
rectly, or by the disengagement of other acids, by its
means; when it expels them and takes their places, is
immaterial; if the results are attended to. The viodus
operandi of manures, is a complicated and yet unsettled
subject. It is highly probable at least, in theory, and
practical results confirm it, that there is in the earth,
assisted by the atmosphere and waters, some process,
or resolvents, to set free this potent actor ; either for its
own operation, or to disengage other acids beneficial to
vegetation. The laboratories of the chymists are inca-
pable of establishing indisputably, or confuting satis*
factorily, this position. The fields of the farmer exhi-
bit agricultural facts, by which it has been sufiiciently
tested for his purposes. By these he is enabled to
benefits in husbandry. It contains, in a ton, a bushel or a
bushel and an half of salt. Sea salt is recommended for the
destruction and putrefaction of snails, slugs, grubs, -worms
raid insects infesting grounds. They abound the most in
lands to which animal manures have been long applied. The
vitriolic acid is equally efficacious ; and I have therefore be-
lieved, they do not so much infest plaistered fields.
Oft Gypsum, 173
know, that when the earth is deprived of these solvents,
subjects of affinity, or by whatever name they may be
called, he must supply them artificially. He will find,
as I believe, this conclusion agriculturally right, what-
ever may be its chymical theory. The opinions o^chy-
mists I highly respect, on any chymical topic. Unum-
quisque in sua arte per itus. They have in many impor-
tant instances, highly served the interests of agriculture;
between which and chymistry, there is an intimate and
all important connection. It is to be wished, that more
chy mists were also farmers, and the soil their laborato-
ries. The whole earth, in connection with its atmos-
phere, is the grand laboratory of nature. All that it
contains, produces and supports, acting and acted upon,
distinctly or in combination, bring forth elFects by chy-
mical processes, essential to their mutual existence.
But the matter and the manner, are to us more subjects
for conjecture, than of accurate knowledge. We must
therefore depend the most, on practical facts.
Lord Dundonald in his " Treatise on the connection of
agriculture with chymistry'*'^ (Lond. Pld. 55-6-7-8) has
given an account of the vitriolic acid^ and its operation
and effects, as they relate to agriculture. Some per-
sons of chymical information, are not satisfied with all
his theory. But I believe his book is generally allow-
ed to have great merit. One part of his account of this
acid, he applies to the use of plaister in America, In it
he observes what we know by experience in its result.
*' Still the gypsum remaining in the soil would, on a re-
newed application of dung^ animal or vegetable mattery
be brought from the state q{ gypsum^ which is insolu-
ble, to a state approaching to that of hepar of lime.
174 On Gypsum.
which is soluble." The effects of this re-application of
dung^ &c. we have often experienced; and let chymists
judge of the modus operandi. This book should be read
by all farmers desirous of gaining valuable information.
That new applications of plaister, with animal and vege-
table substances, will again operate, has been frequent-
ly and universally proved. But I met with an instance
to shew that gypsum lying in the earth for years, will
again operate, with such re -applications of subjects.
It also confirms my assertion, in the outset, that if too
much is applied, only the necessary quantity is opera-
tive. Many years ago, I gave an account of my having
used plaister, after it had remained five or six years, on
old indian com hills, whereon too great a quantity had
been injudiciously and unnecessarily lavished by a c
nant. It operated again where dung was applied,
though I thought not so vigorously as that recently ob-
tained. The excess of that applied too profusely, be-
yond what was required by the substances in the earth,
remained in its original state of composition.
The author of nature (as Lord D. observes) has thus
v/isely directed, that acids, salts, and such volatile, -fu-
gacious and soluble parts of the system, should have an
affinity for, or tendency to form a chymical union with
stationary and more solid substances; that they may be
detained in the earth for the purposes designed by their
creator, and be ready again to act, when their agencies
are again demanded. If this were not the case, they
would escape, or be washed away in the waters of the
earth or the ocean; and thus pollute and poison one
part of the creation, while they left the other barren, and
071 Gypsum. 175
incapable of producing or supporting vegetable sup-
plies, or animal existence.
It is not surprising, that chymical pursuits should
fascinate enquiring minds. They open the great, and
often hidden springs of operation, by which the pur-
poses of the creator are effected. So far are they from
encouraging the wild and flagitious speculations of
sceptics, that they teach us, with humble adoration, and
ardent gratitude, to
''Look through Nature up to Nature^ s GodJ^^
[ 176 ]
Account of the Dimensions of American Trees.
By John Pearson.
Read October 13th, 1807. .
Darby, August 2Sth, 1807.
Respected Frietid,
Agreeably to thy request, I do myself the pleasure
of informing thee of the large forest trees 8cc. of which
I have read, or had information respecting, from per-
sons of apparent veracity. I have generally noted the
books, or the name of the authorities in my notes.
In Georgia, many black oak trees are 8, 9, 10, or 11
feet diameter, 5 feet above the surface, we measured
several above 30 feet girt, perfectly straight 40 or 50
feet to the limbs. The trunks of the live oaks are ge-
nerally (says the same \^Titcr) from 12 to 18 feet in girt,
and sometimes 18 or 20, some branches extend 50 paces
from the trunk on a straight line. Cypress are found
from 10 to 12 feet diameter, 40 to 50 feet to the limbs.
In 1791 a yellow poplar grew on the lands of Charles
Hilly ard Kent County Delawai'e, Z^ feet in circumfer-
ence, appeared sound, and very talk
M'Kenzie says that in latitude 52° 23' 43'' north, are
cedars 24 feet in girt, and that canoes made of them
cai'ry from 8 to 50 persons, and that an alder was 7 1-2
feet in circumference and 40 feet Vvithout a branch.
In 1785 about 2 miles from Morgan town Virginia,
a walnut tree was 19 feet round, retaining its thickness
well to the forks or about 60 feet. In Harrison county
same State, and year, a poplar tree was 21 and 1-2 feet
Dimensions of American Tree^, 17 1
round, 5 feet from the ground, and supposed 60 feet to
the branches. A vine was seen by my informant, at
the same time, which he supposed was more than 2 feet
in diameter ; his idea then was, that he could not have
shouldered a piece of it 4 feet long, though he was able
to shoulder 4 1-2 bushels of wheat, when standing in a
bushel.
In Lycoming county, Penn. the sugar maple tree is
found 4 feet in diameter: a cherry 5 feet from the
ground, 14 feet 4 inches round, and carries its thickness
well near 60 feet to the branches. A white oak 3 feet
from the ground, 15 feet round, and one which was
felled, was 4 feet diameter, and 70 feet without a limb ;
the limbs were 2 feet 6 inches in diameter.
In Evesham, Burlington county New Jersey, gi-ew 3
white oak trees, the stump of one of them was 11 feet
3 inches in diameter, and 59 feet to the forks; from it
were made, and sold in Philadelphia 40,000 merchanta-
ble barrel staves; it was 300 years old: one of the
others 4 feet 6 inches from the ground, was upwards of
27 feet in circumference, and 60 feet to the first fork;
the other at the same height from the ground, was up-
wards of 24 feet round; the first mentioned tree was
«aid to be perfectly sound in the heart.
In November 1791, a hollow button wood or syca»
more, on the south east side of the Ohio, and about 15
miles from Pittsburgh, at 4 feet high from the groundj
was 39 feet round.
Either a chesnut or poplar, near Peach Bottom ferry
on the Susquehanna, was hollow, and was 11 feet in di-
ameter within, a school was said to have been kept in it,
L I
178 Dimensions of American Trees,
A white oak tree 4 feet in diameter, was felled in
Cumberland county Pennsylvania, which w^as about 700
years old.
On Sandy Lick creek in Pennsylvania, a pine tree
was 12 feet in diameter, and at 12 feet from the ground,
divided into branches : on the south branch of Potow-
mack a sycamore tree was 9 feet in diameter.
On the dividing ridge which separates the waters of
the Pymatung, or Shenango, from those w^hich fall into
the Lake Erie, in Pennsylvania, grew a white oak, which
at 4 feet from the ground, was 24 feet round, about 40
feet to the first branches: a Spanish oak of about an
equal size : a chesnut at 3 feet from the ground, was
upwards of 24 feet round. A poplar 28 feet 4 inches;
and a white pine about the same size ; my informant
could not recollect the particular spot on which the two
last mentioned grew.
A wild cherry was said to grow either on the west-
ern waters, or those of Susquehanna, (my informant
could not ascertain which) by a person viewing, and
competent to judge, was supposed large enough to
make 10,000 feet inch boards, exclusive of several large
limbs which would cut good saw logs.
A white pine gre^v on the Hudson or North River,
24 feet d inches to the limbs, and 5 feet hi diameter.
A wliite pine was said to stand near Le Boeuf (Water-
ford) Pennsylvania, 30 feet in circumference.
In Wayne county Pennsylvania, are white oaks, white
ash, and cherry trees, 5 feet in diameter, from 50 to 80
feet in length; white pine nearly 7 feet in diameter f all
almost clear of knots or limbs.
Dwiensions of American Trees* 179
A black walnut near the Muskingum, State of Ohio,
at 5 feet from the ground was 22 feet in circumference,
and a sycamore near the same place, at the same dis-
tance from the ground measured 44 feet round.
In Crav/ford county Pennsylvania, grew a hemlock^
26 feet round ; and a poplar 25 feet, thrifty and likely
to grow many years ; a chesnut in Erie count}^ 30 feet
round.
A poplarf in Adams county Pennsylvania, Hamilton-
ban township, 36 feet round, 30 or 40 feet to the forks,
has a great top, and appears perfectly sound.
In Brush valley near the line of Northumberland and
Centre counties, grew a walnut tree 22 feet round ; the
body straight for about 25 feet to the forks, they were
about 18 feet in length to the commencement of the
branches; appeared perfectly sound ; within about 4
perches of it, was another 4 feet in diameter, 45 feet to
the branches, and perfectly straight.
A sycamore on Harris's Island in the river Juniata,
Pennsylvania, at 3 feet from the ground, was 27 feet 9
inches round, about 5 feet from the ground it divided
into 4 forks, one of which was 15 feet 9 inches, one 10
feet 6 inches, one 8 feet 6 inches, and one 8 feet in cir-
cumference. A tree of the same kind near the former
is 17 feet round, both very high, apparently sound, and
very thrifty.
In Springfield, Delaware county, Pennsylvania, is a
sycamore which in 1803 was 19 feet 6 round, very
thriving, the body short, branches extensive, stands on
* Pinus Abies Americana, f Liriodendron Tulipifera. Lin.
180 Dimemions of American Trees.
high stony laiid, is apparently sound, and will probably
become a great tree.
On an island in the Ohio, 13 miles above Marietta,
grew a tree, the stump of which was standing in 1798,.
12 or 15 feet high and hollow; the circumference was
about 60 feet, the shell 2 or 3 inches thick, diameter
inside upwards of 18 feet.
An apple tree is now (1807) growing in Upper Dar-
by Delaware county, Pennsylvania, which I measured
in 1803, and found it 10 feet 4 inches in circumference,
sound, branches thrifty and top large.
In Ridley in the same county, a red oak was cut in
1795, 6 feet in diameter was then very thriving.
A friend of mine caused a white pine to be felled in
Luzerne county Pennsylvania, which was only 14 inch-
es diameter, but 120 feet to the first branch ; the remain-
der was 12 feet long.
A chesnut sapling in Chester county Pennsylvania,
made nine rail cuts of 11 feet each, the butt cut, made
10 rails, the last cut made one.
In relieving the garrison of Oswego, (I believe in the
war of 1755) came in one birch canoe 45 feet in length,
and 7 in breadth.
A poplar grew near the Virginia head of Roanoke
river, 39 feet round, 4 feet from the ground, apparently
sound and about 40 feet to the forks : my informant
crossed a river in Maryland in a canoe or scow made
of a linn tree,^ in it were 7 men and 4 horses, and he
supposed it would have carried double the number.
^ Tilia Americana Lin,
Dimensions of American Trees. iBl
In lower Chichester, Delaware county Pennsylvania,
a black oak tree was felled in 1790, which was 8 feet in
diameter.
A Sycamore tree stands in the town of Jefferson, Ca-
yuga county, state of New York which is 47 1-2 feet
in circumference, hollow, but improved by art, having
one side open as a door, and is green and thrifty.*
In the spring of 1807, a hickory tree on the banks of
the Ohio, 2 miles below the mouth of Kentucky river,
measured 16 feet 8 inches in circumference, very lofty,
kept its thickness well : at same time an ash on the east
bank of the Mississippi 17 feet round, very tall; several
near to it 12 feet and upwards round.
In Vermont a white pine 6 feet in diameter 247 feet
in height, it was there considered as a large tree; they are
there said to live the longest of the forest trees, being
from 350 to 400 years old.
A white pine was cut at Dunstable, New Hampshire
in 1736, 7 feet 8 inches in diameter.
In 1803, a person told me he saw a white walnut tree
near lake Erie, only 7 and 1-2 inches in diameter, and
63 and 1-2 feet to the first branch.
In the same year I measured a \\ hite oak tree in Al-
legheny county Pennsylvania, 15 feet 6 inches round.
A sycamore on the bank of the Ohio 33 feet round, and
sound; a sugar maple near to it 15 feet round; a w^al-
nut tree near Big Beaver west of Ohio, 18 feet 6 inches
round, 45 feet to the branches: a sycamore 19 feet 6
inches round ; a thorn tree in Mercer county Pennsyl-
vania, 5 feet round ; a white oak tree near the falls of
^ Med» Repository Ilexade 2, vol, 4.
182 Dimensions of American Trees.
Bi^ Beaver, Beaver county 18 feet 6 inches round, 60
feet without a limb, and there, 4 feet in diameter. A
Spanish oak on the east side of the Ohio, a few miles
from the river, 29 feet 6 inches round ; at John Hunter's
in Newton township, Delaware county Pennsylvania, is
a chesnut tree 27 feet in circumference.
I am informed that a walnut tree in Genessee, State
of New York, was 21 feet round, and that a sugar ma-
ple on the banks of the Mahonning, Mercer county
Pennsylvania, was 16 feet 8 inches round : that a poplar
between the Shenango and Neshannoch, was 21 feet
round.
The foregoing contains an account of the principal
part of the large trees I have been able to collect on the
continent of America.
I am with respect, thy friend,
John Pearson.
Dr. James Mease.
P. S. To the above interesting account, the following facts
may be added.
On the farm of Israel Morris, lying on the division line
between Montgomery county and Blockley township, Phila-
delphia countv, I measured a chesnut tree, 17 feet 6 inches
in circumference.
On the farm of J. B. Smith Esq. in New Jersey, a poplar
tree is growing, thirty three feet in circumference.
A cypress tree, near the village of Coosawhatchie, Beaufort
district. South Carolina, grew a few years since, which was
42 feet round : 1 7 men dined inside of it, round a table. — Dr>
Drayton of South Carolina.
J. M.
[ 183 ]
On Peach Trees.
Head December 8th, 1807.
Belmont^ November llth^ 1807.
Sir^
I wished to have all the intelligence on the subject
of the peach tree fully communicated to the society;
and, for that purpose, I wrote to some friends, who had
it in their power to assist my views. I send a letter
from Dr. Tilton^ vA\o adds to professional talents, much
information upon horticulture, and rural affairs. I am
obliged by the Doctor's ready and useful compliance
with my request. I had suggested to him a conjec-
ture, that this tree has a predilection for some favourite
climate and temperature, in which it thrives as an indi-
genous plant. I thought that like cotton, indigo, rice, and
trees, and shrubs of various kinds, the peach was natural
in some regions of our country, and forced in others. —
Although the Doctor does not seem thoroughly of that
opinion, he gives an instance of the early peach, which
came to maturity in Northampton in the eastern shore
of Virginia, in June ; and did not ripen at Wilmington
in Delaware, till September. This would seem to con-
firm my idea, that this tree delights and thrives best, in
a climate more southerly and temperate than ours:
and I endeavoured to find out a line of demarcation. It
is one thing to cultivate, under forbidding circumstan-
ces, for pleasure and curiosity ; and another, to apply
our labours and resources to extensive, appropriate, and
profitable products. Whatever be the causes of failure,
this tree requires, in this quarter, more care and atten-
184 On Peach Trees,
tion than suit the common farmer ; and it appears not
likely to become an object here on any great scale. I
still think, that the disease, so generally fatal (more so
this year, than any other in my memory) called the yel-
loxvsy is atmospherical. Insects^ certainly, are the causes
of many injuries and diseases; but they are most fre-
quently seen in morbid parts, feculent or putrefying
from previous malady; and are efi'ects, rather than
causes. I have always considered mildews and blights ,
as originating in atmospherical taint : yet Sir Joseph
Banks asserts, that parasitical yz/;2^?', and others affirm
that insects, are their causes. I believe, with much de-
ference to authorities so respectable, that ihejungi ori-
ginate, and the insects breed, in the morbid juices and
extravasated sap, after the plant has become sickly : and
I think this to be an opinion most generally received,
both as to plants and trees. It is well to guard against
both, without taking either opinion for granted.
I received verbally from a wealthy farmer (Mr. Bel-
lahj who is the proprietor of a considerable landed estate
in Delaware, the following account ; which he says is
generally applicable to the culture Ol peach trees, in the
southern country.
''In Kent county Delaware, they culti^^^te Xhc peach
tree without any difficulty or risk. Although the com-
mon mode is to plant the young trees grown from the
stone, without budding, or engrafting, yet some crack
the stones and so plant them ; others take out the ker-
nels, and plant them with their corn ; dropping two (to
ensure one J in a hill, at about twenty-five feet apart, in
squares. They tend the corn field in the usual way ;
a>id the young trees grow with the crop, to the height
On Peach Trees. 185
of three or four feet, in one season. Large orchards
are thus obtamed, at a small expence. The knife is
never applied to the standard trees (except that some
head them down o?ice when young) it being found in-
jurious, and to occasion the limbs of pruned trees heavi-
ly loaded, to break otF. When suffered to grow at plea-
sure, they are multiplied, flexible, and tough ; and lay
on the ground unhurt. The crops are certain, abund-
ant, and well flavoured. In size, they are little inferior
to those on pruned trees ; although the sizes on the same
tree, vary much. Trespasses by cattle are sometimes
committed ; but the trees browzed or torn, recover the
next season, the orchards being generally enclosed ; to
exclude horses or horned cattle. They obtain fruit in
three years in plenty ; and the trees have been known
to endure fifty years. No worms or diseases assail
them. They are so easily propagated, and renewed,
that cutting down a peach orchard for a course of til-
lage, on ground ameliorated by standing many years >
occupied as an orchai'd, is not uncommon. The limbs
are often so loaded, that the weight prostrates them ;
and they laj^ on the ground securely. None break that
are not pruned, and they recover their usual position,
when the fruit is detached. There are orchards of fifty
and seventy acres ; and some larger in Accomac and
other parts of the isthmus between the bays of Chesa-
peake and Delaware, further south. The more sandy
the soil, the better the fruit ; nor should it be over-rich.
Peach orchards are planted, to ameliorate worn lands ;
and hogs are at certain periods of the season turned in,
to feed and root at pleasure. Perhaps insects and ver-
min are destroyed by them ; and they benefit the sQi\
n m
186 On Peach Trees.
and by turning and loosening the surface, forward the
growth and health of the trees. Apple-trees do not
thrive, in the soil favourable to the culture of the peach.''
Compare this account, with the actual state of the
peach tree^ in our countr}', and judge whether we live
in a region favourable to its growth. Mr, Heston's at-
tempt at cultivating this tree, in the southern manner,
begins already to fail. His trees are evidently infected ;
and many are on the decline. The yellows are univer-
sally prevalent, this season, throughout the wliole coun-
try. I do not wish to discourage perseverance, in the
culture of this tree. But, when particular products of-
ten fail, they warn us to apply our main strength and re-
sources, to other objects, more certain and equally pro-
fitable. Let hazaidous cultivation, be collateral and
subordinate.
The mercury^ as mentioned by Dr. Tilton^ for the
cure of the disease in peach trees, I have frequently ap.
plied to //z/;72<^5. I bored a gimblethole through the
bark, and about half an inch into the alburnum^ or sap
wood, and inserted a drop or two of crude mercury, so
as to be carried through the circulation, with intent to
destroy vermin or insects in the bark or fruit. I have
sometimes had plenteous crops, apparently from this re-r,
medy ; but I have more frequently been disappointed,
I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Agric. Soc. PhilcaL
On Peach Trees. 187
Bellevue (near Wilmington^ Del) Nov. 6th, 1807.
Dear Sir,
Your letter of the 3d ult. came to hand at the mo-
ment I was setting off on a journey to Talbot county
in Maryland ; and your second letter of the 6th was
received on my return. I shall pursue the order re-
commended in your second letter, by giving you the
best history in my power of the peach tree ; with such
observations as I may deem of any importance in its
culture, diseases, &c. And if it shall contribute any
thing to your more perfect history, I shall be very glad.
Miller says the peach tree was brought into Europe
from Persia, whence it derives its name. There is
good reason to believe it is a native of those parts of
South America, where it grows wild, like other forest
trees. I do not think the success of this tree depends
upon any line of demarkation between north and south.
I never saxv peaches grow in greater perfection, than
on governor Livingston's farm near Elizabeth-town.—
Noah Webster gives direction for the cultivation of
the peach tree, in Connecticut, and particularly recom-
mends the propagation of early peaches. I have been
informed this fruit is matured in great perfection in
Massachusetts ; but how much farther eastward it is
capable of maturity, in open ground, I am not inform*
€d. M'Mahon, in his gardening, takes notice that the
peach tree, in Europe, grows as far north as the grape-
vine, but alledges, that in northern climates, the peach
requires more assistance from art, to bring it to matu-
rity, than the grape. But although the peach is capa-
ble of great perfection in high latitudes, it must be con-
fessed, that southern and warm districts ai*e most fa-
186 On Peach Trees. .
vourable to its production. A fine early peach which
ripened, in Northampton, Virginia, so eai'ly as June,
did not ripen on my farm, before the last of August and
first of September. The sandy soil of our southern
states, appears to be more favourable to this fine fruit,
than the stiff clay of our mountains. But nothing ap-
pears to me to have more influence, in the successful
production of peaches, than a near approach to water.
All the information I have received convinces me, that
not only the coast of the Atlantic, but the borders of
our western waters are more favourable to the produc-
tion of peaches, than districts more inland. It is said
that peaches grow in the greatest perfection, and even
wild, on the river la Plata ; how much faither south, I
am uninformed ; but probably the same rules govern in
ascending the southern latitudes, as on the north of the
equator.
I shall say but little on the cultivation of this useful
tree ; but will barely remai'k, that it should always be
planted shallow, with the soil raised about it in the form
of a hill ; that Forsyth's method of heading down trees,
a year or two after planting, insures the most vigorous
growth ; and that tilling the ground, for some years,
after setting them out in orchards, is essential to the
rapid and successful growth of the trees.
The diseases and early death of our peach trees is a
fertile source of observation, far from being exhausted.
In reasoning on this subject, as in the case of animals,
we must ascertain the cause, before we can apply the
most successful remedies. In all diseases of the peach
tree, that I have examined, it appears to me that insects
do the mischief. The curling of the leaf, the boring
On Peach Trees. 189
of the bark, the destruction of the root and piuncture of
the fruit, all proceed from insects : and even that sickly
appearance of the tree, called the yellows, attended by
numerous weakly shoots on the limbs generally, is at-
tributed to insects, by a late ^vTiter in our news papers.
A little beetle, called curculio, about the size of a
pea bug, is the insect which punctures the fruit, and
occasions it to fall off or rot, before it comes to matu-
rity. I have been so tormented by this insect, as to be
at great pains to investigate it. You may see the re-
sult of my enquiries, in Dr. Mease's edition of the Do-
mestic Encyclopcedia, under the head "Fruits."
The wasp-like insect which bores the bark of the
tree, and delights especially in that region just below
the surface of the earth, I am not so well acquainted
with, but do not believe it so important in its mis-
chief as the curculio.
But besides this large wasp-like worm, w^hich you
always find solitary under the bark, there are millions of
little grubs or maggots, that appear in great clusters,
round the roots of the trees. Some naturalists have
supposed these are of the same kind as the large worm,
only in the infant state ; but I am strongly inclined to
be of a different opinion : for their number is above all
proportion to that of the large worm; and they are as
uniform in size as the large worm, so as to manifest
nothing like gro^vth or progress towards greater matu-
rity. It deserves consideration, whether or not these
small w^orms are the curculiones, in the maggot or grub
state. Their numbers, as well as the natural history
of the beetle order, would seem to indicate this. I have
observed too, that in the districts of our country, viz.
190 On Peach Trees.
between Trenton feny and Cliristiana creek, ^vhere the
fruit is most injured by the curculio, there also the mor^
tal distempers of our peach trees are most prevalent.
My acquaintance with natural histor}', however, is so
limited, that I can only suggest the hint, and express
my wish, at the same time, that you, Avho have it so
much in your power, may pursue the enquiry, by the
assistance of persons at your elbow, altogether qualified
for the task. Professor Barton would probably render
you his assistance cheerfully. Or if he should be too
much occupied, there are in }'our city, other men, and
all the books requisite for the enterprize. If the natu-
ral history of these insects were once well ascertained,
we might then combat them to great advantage.
The best means of combating the curculio, are sug-
gested in the Encyclopaedia before mentioned. — For
destroying the worms at the root of the tree, the best
method I have ever employed, is to draw the dirt from
the root of the tree, in the fall, and pour boiling water
on the roots. In the spring, my practice is, to return
the soil to the tree, in the form of a hill. By means of
this sort, a tree may be preserved many years.
I ha^'e seen t^vo measures proposed, in our news pa^
pers, for curing the ycUov/s in particular, and for de-
stroying insects generally. One is that of boring a hole
in the tree, filikig it with mercurial ointment (unguen-
tum coerulewnj and corking it up. The other is by
boring a hole on the north side of the tree, filling it with
spirits of turpentine and corking it up. Both authors
assert, that their respective specific kills and disperses
ever}^ kind of insect from the tree thus treated. I have
not yet employed either; but I am so well persuaded of
On Peach Trees. 191
their noxious influence, on insects generally, that I am
determined to make trial of them. I will not take up
your time with any account of the little insects which
curl the leaves of peach trees. They have always ap-
peared to me so unimportant, in comparison with those
before described, that I have paid very little attention
to them.
In my jaunt through Maryland, I was attentive to the
subject of your letters. I found the peach trees gene-
rally were long lived, healthy and bore well. In Ed-
ward Loyd's garden, I observed some of these trees
fifteen or eighteen inches diameter, and perfectly heal-
thy. Col. Nicols, near Easton, abounds in the best
kind of peaches. He is an old residenter, and paiticu*
larly attentive to fruits. I shewed him your letter and
enquired for information. He told me he had read my
dissertation on the curculio, and could vouch for the
salutary effects of hogs running at liberty among fruit
trees, particularly the peach, apricot, &c. He also gave
me a receipt, which he said, he had practised on peach
trees with advantage to their health, and v/hich I nov/
transcribe in his OAvn words. " Take av/ay the dirt from
around the roots, and where you discover gum issuing
out, you will also find a white maggot, which is care-
fully to be taken away, then wash the body and roots
-with strong brine, which you will repeat now and then
in the spring and summer." In the course of conver-
sation, he remarked on the noxious infiueace of salt,
fsal. marin.J upon insects generally: and observed, that
by tying a small bag of salt round the body of a tree,
no insect would crawl up it. He said he had practised
192 On Peach Trees.
this method on willows particularly, and never failed
to free them from those crawling tribes, to which they
are so liable.
ISothing else occurs to me on the subject of your
letters. I wish you great success in your investigation ;
and shall be glad to know when your volume is pub-
lished.
With great respect, I am.
Dear Sir, your friend
and humble Servant.
James Tiltqj;.
Richard Peters es(^, '
[ 193 ]
Improvement of Land.
Read December 8th, 1807.
Chester county^ November 2Qth, 1807,
Friend Vaughatiy
Agreeably to your request, I now inform you how I
have improved my farm. The first three years I could
only keep two horses and two cowsj and seldom had more
than four tons of hay : though the last six years, I have
growai from 20 to 25 tons a year. Had I taken your ad-
vice when I first took the farm, it would have thrown
much in my way ; that was, to use lime on my land. — -
When I determined to try it, I first got 200 bushels, and
laid it on nine acres, planted with indian corn, and had a3
great a crop as had been ever seen growing : my neigh-
bours came far and near to see it: the year after I made a
fallow of the land, put in wheat on three acres, and the
rest in rye, and had a good crop : in the spring, I sowed it
with clover and timothy, and put two bushels of plaister
of Paris on an acre, and had as great a crop of clover as
could grow ; it laid three weeks before the time of mow-
ing; the lime and plaister did all this, for no land could
be poorer before : there are ten acres in the field, and
not being used to spread lime, I laid it on nine acres;
where I laid no lime I got no clover, although I put on
the plaister. I have limed all my land, and plaistered it
every year and never fail of clover. I think two bushels
of plaister are enough on one acre. In one field I have
put on four bushels on half, and two on the other half
-md I find it no difference in the produce. There is ano-
N n
194 Improvement of Land,
ther thing in vvhich I was wrong in not taking your ad-
vice, viz. not keeping oxen instead of horses: this
spring all my horses became sick, and I was forced to
buy a pair of oxen. I svipposed I should be tired of
them, but on the contrary 1 am tired of horses, as I find
that with my t^vo oxen, I can do more work, than I
could with four horses, and with half the expence. I
have worked horses for forty years, and if I had used
oxen in their place, they would have put 500 pounds
in my pocket. My oxen go to the lime kiln once
a week, twenty one .miles in the morning, and return
the next day in the forenoon ; after resting two hours,
they go to work, horses cannot do this. There is ano-
ther thing I find advantage in, I cut all my corn stalks
and carry them to the barn yard for litter, when well
trodden, I cover them with lime, and then add another
layer, then more lime, and so on until all the stalks are
used. In the spring, the stalks are all rotted, and I have
no trouble in turning them up; last spring I had 176
loads of dung : the first three years if I had 20 or 25
loads, it was a great thing. My neighbours thought
me crazy to buy lime, and to be at such expence, but
now they are all falling into the same weiy.
I plough all my land in the autumn for corn, and in
the spring lay on the lime, plough it all over, harrow it
dov/n and never am troubled vv^ith cut worms or weeds,
I find the fall ploughing is a great advantage.
your affectionate friend,
\ William AsHFORn.
John Vaughax,
Member Agrie.
Improvement of Land, 195
The foreg-oing- letter is published, for the encourag-emcnt of those who
live on worn and exhausted lands- Some persons thus situated have late-
ly written to the society ; some in the part of the country wherein Mr. A.
lives, and most probably on the same kind of land. They alledg-ed that
they could not procure dung-, that plaister would not operate, and that
//wiewastoo dear Let them follow the example of their ye/Zotu coj^«fr}'-
onan. But the mixing of lime while the vegetable substances are putrefy-
ing-, is a mistake. It had better be put on the land ; or if it must be min-
gled with the manure, let it be after the fermentation is over. The de-
sponding-correspondents of the society, w^ere advised to adopt the follow-
ing epitome of good husbandry. Some of Mr. A's cornstalks might have
been cut by a machine now much used, and given to the stock.
The advice given to these farmers of worn land, is familiar to every
careful husbandman.
1. If no water be in your barn yard— dig a well ; and confine your stock
from Novemj^er to May : never permitting- them to wander after water, or
the provender of the stalk field, or miserable fogg of the fields, in which
they empty themselves and scatter their dung, instead of filling them-
selves either for profit or oeconomy. Let not a hoof unnecessarily leave
your yard.
2. Haul into the yard, every putrescible substance you can get ; and
when proper, clean up the yard, and have a pen for your manure, both from
the yard and stables, inaccessible to cattle or horses ; whose poaching or
treading pi-events fermentation, and is highly injurious. Mix earth with
your litter, rather than iime.
3. Plough your fields in the fail, seven inches deep. But plough no more
than you can manure ; and let the rest lia waste, till you can do it justice.
Buy lime .-—if you cannot reach two acres, be content with one. Move
your fences, and plough up their sites Mix leaves, weeds and all putre-
liable substances, in long and low beds ; so as to be turned by the plough,
and become excellent compost. For this purpose also, go into your woods,
and, with leaves and wood soil, make beds of compost of tliese matcrialsj
as well as of the mould in low places, into which it has washed, or has
been deposited by ponds of water, or rains and fioods.
4. Lime your fall ploughed fallow with forty bushels to the acre. Plant
Indian corn ; put covipost on the hills, unci plaister the corn.
5. After the corn is gathered ; cut your stalks, and haul them to yo\U'
yard. Plough again for a winter fallow. Your ploughing (except for seed)
should never be less than five to seven inches deep.
6. In the sprmg harrow in bucRvheat, to be rolled and ploughed in when
in full blossom, with an East Jersey plough without a coulter, or any other,
that will not choak.
7. Put on what dung you have made, and plough it in with your seed.
Your compost will now be fit for top dressing your wheat ,• which is to be
the crop of this year ; and sow no more than you can manure.
8. On the wheat sow clover seed— and the succeeding spring— plaister
the clover. All this can be accomplished in two or three years. When
you have perfectly learned this alphabet, you will get into habits that wiiJ
enable you to teach, instead of requiring instruction
9. When your old fields have inert vegetable matter (as is the case wit!)
most old fields) plaister them, to throw up pasture, and encrease your
stock by this additional subsistence.
10. Never sow in a foul or weedy fallow, to save a ploughing ; or on a wet
one to save time. Avoid oats and exhausting crops— and never stuhhle in,
or let one chaiiy-husked, or culmiferous crop immediately follow another.
11 Change your crops, aiid destroy weeds; or they will destroy you. Tuni
a foe into a friend, by turning them mto manui'e. Explore your own, and
the neighbouring farms, for marie, clay, peat, earths, or substances for
experiment on your fields. Be not discouraged by failure, but persist in
essays, on a small scale, till you sticceed.
[ 196 3
Bebnont, January 20th, 1808.
Sir,
Observing, among our communications, none on
the subjects discussed in the one enclosed, I request
you to lay it before the society. Our association con-
sists of many, who are competent, by their talents and
information, to add to the means of effectuating our ob-
jects. I risk much, in m}^ endeavours to elicit from
others, the assistance we want. It is due to myself,
however otherwise unimportant, to declare, that it is
the leading motive with me, to set an example, which
others, whether in or out of the society, may follow,
with more beneficial results. It was part of the terms^
on which I accepted the honour of the society's chair,
that I should receive the assistance of the members,
who have it in their power to render it. Should I
find myself disappointed, those we mean to serve, will
sufier privations, which will add to my regret. The
only consolation I shall experierxe, by bringing into
the view of the society, a variety of subjects for others
to improve upon, will be that of having attempted, how-
ever unsuccessfully, to keep my part of the engage-
ment; to make every practicable effort, for the re-ani-
mation of an eminently useful and disinterested insti-
tution, which had become torpid by neglect.
I am. Sir,
Your very obedient Servant.
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Agric, Sqc, PhilacL
[ 197 3
On the Thickness^ Cement^ and Materials of JFalls of
Farniy and other Buildings, By Richard Peters.
Read March 8th, 1808.
Sometime ago, I took down a thick wall ; and observ-
ed the interior rotten and friable, (crumbly) although
it had been built 60 years. Had the mortar been pro-
perly composed; time would have rendered it perfectly
solid. But I found that it had been overcharged with
lime ; and that sandy loam had been used, instead of
pure sand. The masons of this day know better ; but
they waste lime, by mixing an undue proportion with
their mortar, because it works more freely under the
trowel; and thus, for their own ease, add to the expence
of their employer. I consider walls to be thick; when
they exceed 18 inches.
Thick walls^ are not, in general, the strongest. A
mistake of this kind was made, w^hen the Philadelphia
prison was erected. The interior cement was not indu-
rated, for many years after the erection ; owing to the
thickness of the walls, in part ; and also to a defect in
the quality of the materials, and the composition of the
cement. Whether the sand was obtained where the
water of the Delaware, at certain seasons of long
drought, is brackish, I know not. Marine salt is depo-
sited, in such seasons, higher up the tide waters of large
rivers, than is generally imagined. This may be ascer-
tained by filtration and decomposition ; and by the ap-
pearance of sea fish, at such periods, in places higher
than those of their usual resort. I have known sea fish
193 Thickness^ Cement aiid Materials of J falls,
(both scale and shell) caught in the cove at Wiccacoa^
in dry seasons, and on the opposite shores : and some-
times much higher up the river. Whether or not, ma-
rine salt was mixed in the mortar of this building; it is
always prejudicial to cement. The muriatic acid (one
third of the composition of marine salt) forms, with cal-
careous matter, imiriat of lime, which, being deliques-
cent, will not indurate. Its strong affinity for xvater^
attracts and retains the humid vapour of the atmos-
phere : as I have mentioned, on some former occasion*
In thick walls, the masons, if not watched, fill in rubble ;
and the offals of the stone, in the interior. Some of the
latter are necessary in all walls; but an over quantity is
highly injurious.
in 1779 or 80, there were, in the Philadelphia prison,
1000 British prisoners of war, at one time ; and, in other
years, great numbers. Escapes were perpetual ; though
the commissary of prisoners and the keeper were, with-
out rigour, always on the alert. By the permission of
the War Department, in which I then was, the keeper
(Elijah Weed, a firm but humane character) walked out
daily, with squads of the prisoners, to afford them air
and exercise. Few or no escapes occurred in these
excursions ; they having been restrained by a point of
honour ; and additionally, because it had been announc-
ed that if escapes took place, the indulgence w^ould be
discontinued. When locked up, they were under no
such honourable, or cautionary obligation. Having
been frequently called to an attention to this subject, by
the reports of the commissary; I had an examination
made of the souterrain of the whole fabrick ; and was
surprized by the result. I found that the cells in the
Thickness, Cement and Materials of TVaUs. 199
ground story, were arched over with brick. The arches
were either 9 or 14 inches thick ; and a shght pine floor,
was laid over the crowns of these arches. Through
this, access was easy to the cavities, between the
crowns and springs of the arches. The bricks could
be worked loose, out of these Aim zy arches, with a knife,
or any pointed instrument; and access to the cellars
afforded.-^
The trap doors, or apertures in the floors of their
apartments, made by the prisoners, were covered from
view by blankets: and most commonly, by those off
fatigue, lyirJg over them. With common cord wood
sticks, hardened by partial burning, the detachments
of sappers and miners, under the floors, and in the cel-
lars, worked loose the inner crust, or face, of the wall;
pulled out with their hands, without the aid of tools,
the interior materials, and displaced the external ma-
sonry. Thus passages for escapes were afforded,
through a long period, before discovery: and the affair
was conducted with generalship. So that only a few
eloped at a time, lest a detection should blow up the
scheme too suddenly. The last fugitive always closed
^ The mortar of these arches was so overcharged with lime,
that it could be crumbled to pieces by the fingers of several
people who examined it. It is to be hoped, that time has
cured this defect. The absorbent quality of brick, permits
richer, and requires more fluent mortar ; but this is often
overdone. Contract builders think they stint the mortar, to
save lime, when they involuntarily hit the right point. But
they do not fill the joints ; and injuriously save in quantit\''.
They should be obliged by the contract, to grout the work*
200 Thickness^ Cement and Materials of Walk,
the breach in the wall, on the outside. We put an end
to these nocturnal sorties, by directing the barrack mas-
ter, to cause a large trench to be dug along the walls,
outside ; and whariF logs to be laid therein, from the
foundations, to the surface of the ground. This was
effectual ; though the masonry opposed a feeble barrier
against the efforts of these involuntary tenants of this
dreary mansion. This instance strongly proves the
mistake I have mentioned, made by even intelligent
builders. This goal was built by Robert Smith, and
John Palmer, The one the most celebrated architect,
and the other among the best masons and bricklayers,
of that day. I do not recollect the thickness of the
walls, but believe they exceed three feet, in the ground
story. The stones in general were not sufficiently large,
though many were so ; the mortal' was too rich, and the
wall unnecessarily thick. Nor were there a sufficient
number of ashlars of size, on the faces; or headers^ run-
ning through the walls, transversely. To guard against
such defects, the materials must be sound, and the
stones reasonably large, for every part of thick walls.
So much time has elapsed since the facts relating to the
Philadelphia prison occurred, that the mortar has un-
questionably indurated; and the building become com-
petent to all its purposes.
The haixlest stone is not the most eligible : softer
stones, easier worked under the hammer, or chissel, and
of clean grit, are by far the best. They indurate suffi-
ciently in the air or sun, are tenacious of the cement,
and absorb and conduct the damp vapour, instead of
repelling it, as do hard stone, by which constant mois-
ture is retained on the walls. When this moisture
Thickness y Cejnent and Materials of Walk, 201
cannot enter the stone, it is called, vulgarly and impro-
perly, sweating; though it is occasioned by the texture
being impervious, and not permitting the damp to en-
ter. Faults and cellars^ to be dry, should be built with
soft, and clean gritted stone. Hard stone aie thought
best, to withstand attempts at breaches in jails; and for
forts, and other works requiring strength; or subject to
forcible assaults. However true this may be to a cer-
tain point, the idea is generally extended too far. A
soft, tough, curly stone, will not break nearly as easy
under the sledge ; or separate by means of the wedge,
or gad. It will stand battering by cannon balls, far
better than hard or flinty stone. It is the same with
timber. Hard wood will soon be shattered, broken,
riven and destroyed, by a batteiy of cannon: whereas
the palmetto^ and other such woods, being spongy and
soft, defy the attacks of the heaviest balls. Fort MouU
trie, in South Carolina, was during our revolutionary
war, an incontrovertible proof. Hard stone resists, and
is shocked and broken throughout. But the balls
make holes in their passage through soft stone, or wood,
very little larger than their diameters ; if they do not
bury themselves therein, which sometimes hapf^ens.
This fact can be ascertained ; and I have seen sundry
proofs of it. Some spongy wood will nearly again
close the perforation.
If Anderson'' s ideas be correct, the soIidifyin,§' of mor*
tar depends on the coating and crystalHzacion of the
lime, on the surface, and in tb^ cavities, of every grain
©f sand: which he says, is die better, the more it is sili^
cious and rough ; and /lirnished with comers and protu^
berances, eucreasing the surface. He prefers rivef
o o
202 Thickness, Cement and Materials of Wails.
sand: and next to this pit sand; on these accounts. But
pit sand is generally smoother, smaller and less angu-
lar; and more mixed with loam, or earth. Sea sand is
more subject to these objections as to its form ; if it were
otherwise proper ; and those who build near sea coasts,
should use pit sand in preference ; as it is rougher, and
has no saline mixture. More lime, than will plentifully
coat the surface, is worse than unnecessary; as it cannot
crystallize beyond a certain point; and the extra quan-
tity having no sand, or substance, around which it can
cr3^stallize, repels, or prevents, the approaches of the
grains of coated sand; so as to obstruct their adhesion^
and forming, by general crystallization, a solid mass.
With a view to this theor}^, as it w^as warranted by ex-
perience, the common mortar of the masonry of the
Schuylkill bridge, wTtS composed of three parts sharp,
clean, coai'se sand, and one part lime. The sand was-
thrown into a bed of thin wash, of slacked lime, and
agitated till every grain was coated; and then, additions
of sand were made, till the proper consistency was ac-
qiiired. The proportion was less than a bushel to the
perch ; though no ver}^ exact attention was paid to this
circumstance. Even the interior mortar and grout, of
the thickest walls and piers, so far as they could be ex-
amined, were found perfectly indurated; after being
covered by water, for a few months only. Rich mortar y
is therefore one couse of the loose texture of thick walls.
The sand, for the bridge masonry, was obtained, by
water transportation, fro-cn Peters' s island, high up the
river, and far above all mai^hy and foul bottoms, or
shores. Near 12000 cart loads of this sand were used.
It had every quality recommended by Anderson, and
Thickness, Cemejtt and Materials of Walls. 203
pthers who say, that the bodies around which the lime
cr3^stallizes, should be sound, and incapable of being
crushed. On a comparison with some Delaware tide
water sand, and some pit sand, its superiority was so
striking, that the mason would use no other ; after a fair
and long trial of the qualities of this. It assisted the
crystallization of the cement in a greater degree, and in
less time, than any other sand, within reach of the work.
It was pure, and free from any foreign mixture of
loam or mud. All alloys of the latter kind, are injuri-
ous ; because they are crushed, and cannot resist, but
yield to, the pressure of crystallization. The place from
which it was brought, ensured its being free from any
saline particles. For pointing, it required no washing ;
being of itself sufficiently pure.
This specification is not given, as a character pecu-
liar to this sand ; compared with that material in similai'
situations. But it is mentioned, with a view to recom-
mend to all who build where the best cement is essen-
tial, and river sand attainable, to procure it from the
highest accessible parts of streams. The deposits of
floods, in these places, are of pure silicious (flinty) mat-
ter, brought from pebbly and clean bottoms ; with no
mixtures, collected from foul and marshy shores, or
muddy beds of rivers.
In walls washed by the sea, or streams ; or made to
contain water: in thick masonry oi fortifications, mills,
and other water works, basons, or other stone work,
either constantly or occasionally wet, rich mortar should
be invariably shunned. It is believed by many, that
mortar, in thick walls or piers, only affords a bed ^or the
stone ; and never indurates. But this is known to be
u04i Thichiess, Cement and Materials of JValls^
Otherwise * as has been observed in the instance (though
it is not singular) of the stone work of the Schuylkill
bridge; which will long afford, under our own view,
facts, proofs and examplesj for most of the operations,
and component parts of strong and massive masonry.
It has been the over richness of the mortar, that has
suggested this mistaken opinion.* The cement will
sohdify, if properly composed, wherever there is a?r.*
and it is well known, that this subtile fiuid pervades all
matter* If it were not otherwise proved, as it often has
been, both philosophically and experimentally ; the in-
stances of toads and Jfogs, found in perfect animation,
in the midst of solid blocks of marble, and granite,
would be sufficient, ^ir must be inhaled for respira-
tion, and mustexist (as it is essential to life) in the stone;
and communicate with, and circulate through, the com-
mon atmosphere, so as to bring fresh supplies, and car-
ry off the mephitic; or these animals, thus isolated,
would soon perish , if they could begin their existence ;
though they are said to require a less portion of air^
than others, t There is no recess so retired, as to es-
* A decided proof of this, is mentioned in one of the re-
ports of the committee, who superintended the building of
this bridge ; in the account of the masoniy intended for a
pier; but abandoned, as to its use, in that capacity. See
Statistical Accoujit, Page 41.
f Like all reptiles and amphibious animals, they can live
with less air, than is usually required by others ; yet it does
not follow that they can exist without it. Some have doubt-
ed their being furnished with the organs of resp'ration. But
I have, while attending experiments with the air pump^ seen
them die in an exhausted receiver.
TMchiess, Cement and Materials of Walls, 205
cape its penetration. It brings along with it, the ingre-
dients of which it is usually composed ; and crystalli-
zation is perfected in the interior lime, though more
time be occupied in the process. But before all, the
stone, in size and texture, being proportionately large
and sound, constitutes the principal strength of any ma-
sonry, well and faithfully put together. Therefore a
thinner wall of sound and large stone, is far preferable
to one composed of small stone ; however in thickness
it may exceed. Loriofs theory of walls, has already
become obsolete. Time indeed gives opportunity, in
any walls, for the lime to recover its Jixable air; and
again to petrify. But in those whereon pressure is im-
mediate, and strength at once required, time cannot
be afforded.
Fise walls, composed entirely of common earth,
plumb, and well packed, rammed and consolidated, are
stronger and better, for ordinary purposes, than those
of stone, indifferently built, and composed of inefficient
materials. For some uses, they are as good as stone
walls. It would be well to select, and publish for in-
formation, a concise account of this cheap and excel-
lent mode of erecting walls. For most farm buildings
they would be perfectly competent. — See Johnson'' s Rn-
ral (Economy, for an account of Pise walls.
The great mistake made by rough casters, is that of
using mortar over rich. I have experienced the folly
of this practice ; and know the advantages of its oppo-
site. Where gravel, from which all other matter has
been screened ; and w^here that and small pebbles are
dashed in; the mortar will bear more lime. Because
the gravel and pebbles afford surfaces, around which
the extra quantity of lime crystallizes. In the common
206 Thickness^ Cement and Materials of Walts*
way, I have rough casting, free from, any defects, com-
posed oifive parts sand (river sand from my island) and
one of hme. The first coat should never have less than
four parts sand, and one of lime. And the second,
should not be much richer than three to one. On a
north wallof my house, rough casting, thus composed,
IS now perfect, after a lapse of fifty years. ^
^ Bullock'' s blood ^Yid smith^s^ or furnace^ cinders pulverized^
mixed with the mortar for rough casting or pointings in a
small proportion, are knowni to be highly beneficial. The
reason may, probably, be ; that they contain oxygen^ and car-
ban y these are also found, plenteously, in our common air ;
which, though it consists chiefly of the former and nitrogen^
in a gaseous state ; yet in it are found all the substances ca-
pable of existing in an aeriform state, at the common tempe-
rature of our globe. Oxygen and carbon, form the carboiiic
acidy ox fx able air ; which immediatelv operates, to crystal-
lize,, or harden the cement, by its affinity for lime. This acid
probably exists, ready combined by combustion, in the cin-
^dT*/ and produces, at once, its effects on the lime; which
must otherwise harden, or crystallizCy by the more tedious
process of collecting the acid, or its component parts, from
the atmosphere. Whether this theory be or not chj-mically
correct, the effects of these additions to the cement, are prac-
tically known ; and it requires practice, to ascertain the pro-
poi-tions. Pointing, or rough cast, j orced, to harden too quick,
cracks, and will not adhere. They should never be laid on
in very hot weather; which dries away the moisture neces-
sary to ciystallization. Frost injures mortar of any compo-
sition ; if it occurs before induration. Ignorant or conceited
workmen, think liming high is a safeguard. Those who (too
commonly) have more work than they can faithful!}' perform
in the season, put off the pointing till it is too far advanced ;
and vainly endeavour to repair the inconveniencies of delay,
by over liming, or forcing.
Thickness, Cement and Materials of JValls. 207
The JRoma?is were attached to the system of thick walls^
formed in various modes. Some of them were faced with
large stone, tied by headers, or binders, in proper pla-
ces; filled, in the middle, with pebbles or small stones;
and embodied by pouring in grout, or thin mortar. —
Much discussion has been had on the subject of their
masonry ; as well as on the nature and qualities of the
JRoman cement, Loriot thought he had discovered the
mode of building ; and the cement of the ancients. But
•none succeed by pursuing his plans, or recipe, in large
works. He proposed erecting walls, between two
frames placed at the distances required, boarded up ;
tight, and capable of holding grout or cement of a cer^
tain composition. Pebbles and stones, of any shape,
or size, were to be thrown in these cases, at random-
The grout v/as to be poured in, from time to time
to fill the interstices : and the frames were to stand, till
the wall was dry and consolidated. In small baths j cis-
terns, and vats, something like his mode has succeeded
here. Not having seen his book for many years, I have
not a perfect recollection of his plan, or composition.
It appears to be most probable, and it is now gene-
rally conceded, that the cement of the ancients, has ac-
quired its celebrity by the help of time; which has af-
forded the opportunity, through ages, to the lime, to at-
tract and recover the Jixable air; and thereby the mortar
has been again turned into stone. Time, in this case,
out of its usual course, strengthens ; and supplies the
deficiencies of human art.
The mortar of the old Irish castles, built before the
^ra of Irish history, and dispersed through that king-
dom ; is as perfectly consolidated, as can be any Romany
208 Thickness, Cement and Materials of Walls,
or other ancient cement. I have seen, at the old city of
Cashel, m Ireland tht fragments of a stupendous ruin,
covering several acres. I saw many large and small
pieces of masonry, broken up for transportation, with
sledges, and other tools. It was more easy to split and
break the stones than the mortar, which appeared to me
to be composed of common lime and sand. I have seen
such ruins, m^ore or less preserved, in several other parts
of Ireland; and they are all of similar composition. The
walls are very thick ; but the stones are most commonly
large, and so far as I could judge by the appearance of
the mortar, it had not been originally composed of a great
proportion of lime. Its appearance was often dusky ;
but L'ish lime is not so clear and, I beUeve, has not near
the strength our lime possesses. Our land, of equal
quality, and measure, would be ruined, with half the
lime they allow to an acre.
The astonishing frequency of these castles, in most
quarters of their island, furnishes numerous recordSj
preserved from the remotest ages, of the early capacity
of the L'ish, in the mechanic arts. But they remain mo-
numents, and should be warnings, to evince, that the
arts of peace have never been durably established there.
No countrj' is more capable, by nature, of the highest
improvement in agriculture, and all the prosperity of
which it is the source. The uncultivated state of a great
portion of it, is therefore the more deplorable. It is
devoutly to be wished, that we may "learn to be wise
by others harms." — Ireland, for aught we know, once
possessed as much freedom as we enjoy. The foun-
dations of these strong holds may have been laid on the
ruins of liberty.— TYz^/r vvdld theorists, who build airy
Thickness^ Cement and Materials of Walls. 209
castles, may have engendered, and produced by disu-
nion, the distractions and contests, which immoveably
fixed these real fortresses, for usurpation and povven
The desolation of the country, and the vassalage of
the people, followed of course. — The lordly chieftains,
who held these once formidable citadels, have long
before them, mouldered into dust; and left these evi-
dences of their greatness, more durable than them=
selves, or their dominion. But it is questionable whe«^
ther the condition of the great mass of the descen-
dants of their vassals, when compared with that of their
ancestors, is yet am.eliorated, in any important degree.
At Cashel (22 years ago) I ascended a perfectly well
preserved' circular stair way. of cut stone; in a round
tower wonderfully strong and lofty, and of neat mason-
ry. It was, I think, 100 feet high; and in good preser-
vation; though neither tradition, or history, relates the
time of its erection, with any certainty. It was cover-
ed with a dome roof of immense cut stone ; and there
were at various heights, apertures for light, probably
also for annoyance of assailants, and loop holes for ar-
chery. There were platforms at such openings, con^
nected vrith the stair way. The prospects, from these
look outSy were singularly extensive, diversified, and
interesting. But the bald and bleak m^ountains, small
streams, desert w^astes, and sombre bogs, oi Irelajid;
though parts of that country afford scenes of novelty j,
curious, and often grand and picturesque; cannot be
otherwise than dreary and unpleasant to an American ;
accustomed to boundless and stately forests, large ri-
vers, woody vales, wavy heights richly clad, and the
variegated products, of nature in her prime
pp
216 Thickness, Cement and Materials of IValls.
.—— ■ <
This ancient and respectable kingdom, in the route
of my hasty passage through several parts of it, was not
then so much desolated and distracted, as it has since
been. Fine improvements in the country, and magni-
ficent structures, now much encreased, in their cities,
Were not then rare. Hospitality to strangers, it behoves
me to say, was not confined to particular grades in so-
ciet3\ The lowliest cottager or peasant, shai^ed, if it
were accepted, his very humble fare. In the kindness
of the host, was forgot, the mud and straw built cabbin;
which admitted of no dissertation upon masonry and
materials. It would be well for those of our country-
men, who are even the w^orst lodged, and the most dis-
contented, to compare their lot, with that of an Irish
peasant: who would, nevertheless, be contented, cheer-
ful, and happy, under all his burthens, and regardless
of all his privations ; if he were not too willingly rouzed
and stimulated by others, to ruinous measures of ferocity
and rage. Happiness, quietude and plenty, are, here^
within the reach of every industrious member of soci-
ety. And all mi ght enj oy these blessings — ' ' sua si bona
7iorint,^^
Richard Peters.
Belmonty January 20th, 1808.
i 211 ]
0?i Orchards,
Head March, 8th, 1808.
Belmont, February llth, 1808.
Sir,
I send to }'ou, that it may be communicated to the
"society, an excellent letter from W. Coxe Esq. of Bur-
lington, of whom I requested the favour of his informa-
tion on the subject of it. He is judiciously, and with
spirit, prosecuting an extensive plan of nurseries and
orchards, unrivalled in this country. One sheet of such
com.munication of actual practice, is more instructive
than a qUire of theory. His orchards have not yet ar»
Tived at sufficient maturity, to determine, whether the
.practice he is pursuing w^ill be beneficial, when they
are in full bearing. For young trees, there is no doubt
of its great advantages. But I still have my doubts,
whether enriching and constantly cultivating old or-
chards, will be found advantageous. Occasionally
ploughing an old orchard is serviceable, to promote the
health of the trees. But manuring and loosening the
^oil too much, I fear cause them to overbear, and by
forwarding the fruit too soon, to drop before the sea-
son for gathering to keep, or for cyder« In the south-
ern part of our state (New Garden, New London, ^c.J
they have large orchards, on lands absolutely worn out ;
and fit for little else. Their fruit remains till the pro-
per season ; and they gather abundant crops. There is
something, no doubt, in the change of the product; for
I know that trees will grow wonderfully, on fields where
grain has ceased to thrive. But their soil is naturally
.^oor.
212 On Orchards.
I have- tried several of Mr. Coxe's modes. I was
JDersuaded to adopt the mode No. 5, of deep holes, to
supercede the necessity of stakes ; and under the idea
which I am told is adopted in east Jersey, viz. that the
growth would be accelerated. But I did not mix lime
with the dung; for I know this to be a sure way of ren-
dering parts of the dung inoperative. Many of my
trees died, eaten by vermin ; or perished by other mis-
fortunes. The shallow planting (and if any thing is
put in the holes, it should be the surface mould, well
rotted compost, or rich native earth) always succeeds
the best. Top dressing far exceeds any other applica-
tion of manure : in this 1 include plaister. My old TFii''
temberg gardener, who lived many years in the Duke's
service at Stutgard^ is the most lucky in planting trees,
of any one I have known. This branch of his trade
seems to be his fort. He always plants shallow, and
gives a top dressing. Some of my deep planted trees
are, however, very flourishing; after dwindling at first.
Whether or not they shoot out roots near the surface,
I do not know. Wheat will do this, if planted too
deep ; and what is below tlie roots thus sent forth, will
perish. But trees are diiferently organized.
Mr. Coxe's No. 9 reminds me of a fact forty years
old. I had a fine nursery then of my own ; as the bu-
siness of nursery men, was not then followed as it is
now. I determined to plant a tolerably large orchai'dj
which is now in good condition. I selected the most
thriving, clean barked, and healthy apple trees, from my
own nursery ; and they were really handsome and heal-
thy trees. I procured some equally good, from a Ger-
man neighbour; w^ho thought that every thing should
Dji Orchards, 213
be invariably planted in the same kind of soil, in which
the plant, or seed, originally grew. I very early in life
disbelieved this, as I do now. That a fair trial might
be made, I sent to a Henry Maag, in the neck below
the city, who had a nursery on a stiff clay soil; mine
being light and loamy. He sent me, I think, fifty trees,
and at least half of them apparently worthless. The
roots were hacked and lacerated, and the stocks risrid
and mossy. Only the necessity of filling up my orchard,
and the desire to try the experiment, induced me to
pkmt them. For the first year they retained their ap-
pearance; and mine out grew them. But the second
season of growth surprised me. They took the start
of all the other trees, held their advantage, and I think
they are now the best trees in my orchard. Their kinds
are similar to those of the other trees. • So that I con-
ceive Mr. Coxe need not fear bringing trees from a
clayey, stiff soil, to his well attended light ground. The
clay farmer, will be benefitted by getting his trees from
Mr. Coxe, as will also farmers and horticulturists on
every kind of soil; if he continues to prosecute his bold
and highly meritorious undertaking. The change of
locality will be as serviceable on similar soils, as the
changes from one to another, on soils difFerentiy com-
posed. I do not mean to say that changes are alway.^
necessary. Or that certain species of trees and plants
do not generally thrive best, in soils wherein they are
indigenous. That position would be against expe-
rience ; and as much too broad, as its direct reverse
would be too narrow. But trees or plants brouglit
from a worse to a better soil, always improve ; as they
do taken from a cold or inhospitable climate, and plant-
214 On Orchards,
rd in one more genial and temperate. General Lincoln
gave me a very mean ear of indian corn, brought from
!5ome place far north; I think, beyond Michilimachi^
nac. I had, from this seed, ameliorated young corn
on my table, before it appeared in the market of Phi-
ladelphia; where it is brought very early. Plants or
trees raised in a good soil, will thrive better on one worse
or bad, if transplanted, than those of its own produce;
if the soils are not too widely different in quality. But
the reverse of this practice is the most certain. The
corn I mention (and in other similar instances) conti-
nued to come early, for two or three years. It mended
progressively in size, and finally became naturalized;
and mixed with my field crops. I have experienced
this, with several other grains and seeds. My friend
Colonel Johnston, w4io was a commissioner of this state
to negotiate with the northern Indians in 1784, reminds
me of his having furnished to me, in that year, a curious
car of indian corn, brought from the north west of De-
troit: It was cojiical, and the rows 2\\ spiral, running
thus from the bottom to the tip of the cob. It was an
early corn for several years ; encreased from a small to
a full and large grain ; but gradually ceased to come ear=
ly, though always planted distant from other corn. It
became a field corn, and continued spiral, in some de-
gree, for several years ; till it gradually mixed with the
common corn ; and the distinct species was lost.
Last season I obtained five grains of corn ; brought
by Captain Lewis, from the borders of the Pacific ocean,
I forgot to plant it in time ; so that it was not put in the
ground till the last of June. I had seven complete ears,
the grain was much more plump and larger than that
On Orchards. 215
planted, and it was fit for boiling or roasting in six
weeks. I am satisfied we can have two crops of this
divarf corn^ in one season. I have sent one of the ears
to Maryland, This corn will, in a course of time,
change its nature, and assimilate with our o^vn. I never
had any seed that did not change, with all the care I
could take. The fact is so with me, whatever be the
cause : be it soil, climate, or mixture of the farina fe-
cundans of other corn. One must be isolated, to try
this experiment, far from any grain of tl"ke same specieso
T\\Q farina is wafted by winds, to great distances.
22c/ February, 1808,
I have examined my deep planted apple trees, in dif»
ferent parts of the young orchard, by digging down as
low as the original roots; 2 feet and 2 1-2 feet deep. — -
I find they have sent forth numerous roots, in all direc-
tions ; from those planted with the trees, about 6 or 7
years ago, to those in the surface mould ; which are the
most vigorous. A^ature takes her own course; and
thus directs where we should place the roots of trees
transplanted. Fibrous roots are frequent on the stocks ;
and are larger or smaller, according to the kinds of sub-
strata, they have to penetrate^ On part of this orchard,
I raised my heavy crop of wheat, the last season. In
it there are 200 trees of various kinds, all grafted ; a few
excepted, but not all planted deep. The surface is very
well dressed and tilled, and in high order. I found the
old surface in a brown or black stratum (turned down
by the trench plough many years ago) affording a fine
nourishment to the roots. But the lower roots are ge-
nt^ rally mean, in comparison with those shot out in
216 On Orchards.
the surface mould. This accounts for many of my
trees, especially the largest, dwindling at first, and be-
ing now in remarkable vigour. They wanted healthy
and genial supplies, till the upper roots shot forth in
the surface mould, and near the sun and air. My old
gardener, who never liked my scheme, thinks these
lower roots ''giff^t ziehers;^^ th^th, ''poisoTi suckers.''^
On perusing ^'Bucknars orchardisf 1 find he is an ene-
tny to deep planting; and recommends top dressing,
and loosening the soil for young trees; and says that
planting potatoes, in young orchards, for /zo^^ to root
out, is his-hlv beneficial. He asserts, that *' whenever the
• ' roots penetrate into the under strata^ and are still tend-
■ ' ing downwards, they are apt to draw a crude indi-
■'gestible fluid, which the organs of the more delicate
^' fruit bearing trees are incapable of con veiling into
''such balsamic juices as to produce fine fruit." It seems
dierefore, that placing the roots purposely, where he
points out the injury of their arriving accidentally, is
palpably improper. He goes so far as to advise those,
who will plant trees in unkindly soils, to raise mounds
of good earth above the surface, for them to grow in.
His mode of root pruning^ and his practice of pruning
orchards, ought to be generally kno\^'n. We always
cut off iki^ tap root; but I believe few, if any, of us
prune the roots afterwards. He directs the superfluous
branches to be cut close, and the part brushed over with
tar, and a small mixture of sublimate, or even verdi-
grease, to destroy or keep off insects, with a little whit-
ing or chalk, to give it consistency. The bark soon
grows over the wound ; but where projections, or snags,
are left, it never does. His Qlirections are so m.uch es-
On Orchards. 217
teemed in England^ that he received several p)remiums.
It is to be wished that this work were reprinted here ;
that every one having even the smallest orchard migh^
possess it. It might probably be reprinted, and sold
at a price one third, or perhaps one half less than that
obtained by importers of the copy from England.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient Servant,
Richard Peters.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Jgric, Soc. Philad.
Burlington, February 5 thy 1808.
Dear Sir,
The opinion that clover possesses some property
injurious to the growth of apple trees, had been suggest-
ed to me by several men of observation and practical
information previous to the receipt of your letter of last
spring. Some of my own experiments in the planting
of orchards had not succeeded to the extent of my ex-
pectations, and their failure was ascribed to the culti-
vation of clover, I was well convinced of the benefi-
cial effects which had been derived to the agriculture
of our country from the introduction of clover, and be-
ing desirous of availing myself of its ameliorating pro-
perties in the improvement of my farm, I was alarmed
by an apprehension of its interference with a favourite
scheme I had in contemplation; that of enriching my
vieighbourhoocj and improving my own property, by
q q
218 O-n Orchards.
the introduction of the finest table and Uquor fruits of
Europe and America, into an extensive orchard estab-
lishment on my lands in the vicinity of this towTi. 1
therefore determined to ascertain the truth of the opinion
by a series of experiments. These I have executed
with care ; and the result has perfectly convinced me^
that young orchards thrive in proportion to the good-
ness of the soil, and the degree of cultivation bestowed
on them ; that the injury they sustain from grass or
gi'ain, depends on the extent to which the particular
growth or nature of that grass or grain, may prevent
the communication of moisture and nourishment to the
roots of the trees from the earth or atmosphere : that
so far as clover produces this effect, it is injurious ; but
that it has nothing in its nature peculiarly deleterious.
On the contrary, its long tap roots penetrating and di-
viding the soil encreases very much its capacity to
nourish the roots of the trees ; and did it not afford an
inviting food to field mice and moles, it would be found
less pernicious to orchards than any permanent grass,
or any species of grain which shall be permitted to ar-
rive at full maturity on the ground, buckv/heat alone
excepted. The point of most importance in the plant-
ing of young trees, is to preserve the roots so near the
surface of the eaith, that by keeping the soil around
them in a loose and mellow state, free from weeds,
grain or grass, they may feel the salutary influence of
the sun, air and rain ; the last of which in our dry cli-
mate is particularly essential to their success, for seve-
ral years after planting ; for this reason all kinds of fal-
low crops, such as potatoes, vines and Indian corn, par-
ticularly the last, ai'e peculiarly adapted to the first and
On Orchards. 219
second year's cultivation of orchards. An opinion pre-
vails among our farmers that lye is a more pernicious
crop for orchards than any other grain ; for this I can
see no sound reason. I am induced from my o\x\\ ob-
servation to believe, that all grains are injurious, in pro-
portion to their proximity to the tree, their power of
exhausting the moisture, and from their colour or even
surface producing a great proportion of intense reflect-
ed heat. I am so fully convinced of this truth that I
have the last summer caused a circle of three to six feet
diameter, to be dug at two several times round every
tree in my orchards, not under the plough, whether
among wheat, rye, oats or grass ; and although this ope-
ration when extended to several thousand trees, which at
present compose my orchards, necessarily is produc-
tive of much expense and trouble, I am repaid fourfold
in the increased vigor of my trees, and still more in their
preservation from our summer droughts. Although I
pretend to the merit of no new discovery in the culti-
vation of orchards, I may claim that of sparing no pains
or expense in planting, pruning and cultivating them.
That you may be enabled to judge of my mode of
treating them, and the foundation for the opinions I
have ventured to ofier, I have taken the liberty of ex-
tracting from my books the notes of several of my ex-
periments, which I can venture to assert were made
with care and recorded with accuracy. I have for ma-
ny years derived a great degree of pleasure from the
pursuit of this subject ; it is in its nature calculated to
afford much rational enjoyment to an active mind, and
if I am not much deceived, will prove a source of sub-
stantial comfort and profit to the prudent practical far-
220 Ofi Orchards.
mers of our countr}\ If my exertions can in any de-
gi'ee add to the numerous inducements which already
exist, to urge our landed gentlemen to improve their
estates by plantations of the finer kinds of table and li-
quor fruits, I shall be amply rewarded for the time and
tnoney I have expended in the pursuit.
Experiment No. I.
In the fall of 1794 — 5, I commenced the plantation
of an orchard on a good loamy soil and in a favourable
situation. Being a novice in the business, and having
no correct information, for at that time a young or-
chard w^as a perfect novelty in my neighbourhood ; the
holes w^ere dug very deep and narrow, with the mistak-
en expectation of its being necessary to support the
trees. The ground was for several years kept in clo-
ver, and part of it being rather stiff, the natural green
grass prevailed over the clover, so as to injure the trees
iextremely. The trees grew slowly ; many of them
have since been taken up and replaced by others plant-
ed in shallower and wider holes ; the latter plantations
have gained fast upon the first ; and since I have had
the ground around the trees dug or ploughed, the whole
orchard containing about three hundred and forty trees,
grows vigorously, and has an uniform appearance.
jYo, II.
In the fall of 1802, I began another orchard, which
in the two following seasons was enlarged to about three
hundred and forty trees. These trees were large and
vigorous. The holes Avere dug wide, and the ground
around them manured highly with stable dmig the fol=
On Orchards. 22 i
lowing winter. The ground being in clover remained
uncultivated for two years. The drought of the two
following summers killed many of the trees, and the
field mice which found a comfortable winter shelter de-
stroyed many more. The orchard did not flourish in
a manner which the goodness of the soil and my gi'eat
care led me to expect. I determined therefore to plough
it thoroughly, and to break in upon my established
course of crops for the purpose of recovering the trees
by cultivation. The event has fully answered my wish-
es ; the trees now flourish with uncommon vigour and
at present exhibit a promising appearance, being now
so large as to be com^pletely established and out of dan-
ger.
JVo. III.
In the fall of 1803, I planted forty, five trees in a lot
adjoining to No. 2. The trees were not large, but the
ground being under constant cultivation they grew ra-
pidly. None of them (one excepted) died by the
drought of the following summer, which proved so de-
structive to their neighbours in the clover ground. It
was my observation of these trees which first led me to
change my mode of treating my young orchards.
j\o. V.
In the fall of 1804, 1 planted four hundred and eighty-
four trees in a clover field. The holes were dug four
feet wide, two spits deep ; the lower one thrown awa}%
and its place supplied by a compost manure, composed
of stable dung, a small portion of river mud and a large
proportion of lime, about a waggon load of the mixture
was applied to six trees : in some instances it vras mix-
222 On Orchards,
ed in the holes with the earth in planting, in others it
was thrown around the tree on the surface after plant-
ing. The ground remained in clover unploughed and
undug the whole of the following summer. The trees
put out ^vell the first spring, but the drought of the suc-
ceeding summer prevented their gi'owth, those which
did not perish ^vere nearly stationary. I replaced one
hundred and thirty of them the following fall, since
which I have replanted nearly one third more, and have
kept the ground in corn for two successive years, by
which means the surviving trees have perfectly recover-
ed, and together with the replanted trees at present ex-
hibit an uniform and vigorous appearance, promising
in every respect to be a fine orchard.
No. VL
In November 1805, I planted three hundred and
eleven trees adjoining to No. 5. The holes prepared
in the sam.e manner, manj^ of the trees large, transplant-
ed a second time ; I mJxed no stable dung with the
compost, which was composed of river mud and ashes
with a small portion of lime. This I put round the
trees on the surface, a waggon load to ten of them.--^-
The ground had been previously planted with corn. —
Although generally deemed an exhausting crop, I have
continued it in corn foi' three successive years ; ex-
cept part which has been constantly occupied (to adopt
the language of this part of New- Jersey) in a truck
patch. These trees have grown with a vigor I never
saw equalled. In two years but one has died, and that
Vvas lately destroyed by the field mice ; and the or^
0// Orchards. 223
chard is allowed to be the handsomest in this part of
the countr) \
Ko. VII.
In November 1805, at the same time with the pre^
ceding experiment, I planted two hundred and fifty-
two trees on a com fallow ; the holes prepared as .in
No. 6. I applied stable manure, hauled out the pre-
ceding spring, in about the same proportion around
the trees. In the following spring the ground which
was in high order, having been manured with about
three hundred bushels of leached ashes per acre, was
sown with oats : the oats grew finely, and the trees
put out very beautifully. They gi'ew well for some
time, but as the oats by their growth exhausted the
moisture from the earth (which had not been dug) the
trees withered, and by the time the oats ripened about
forty of the trees had perished. As soon as the oats
were cut I had the ground ploughed. This checked
the destruction of the trees : those which had not pre-
viously perished soon recovered in some degree a
healthful appearance, and took a second growth in the
autumn. The trees replanted and the survivors of the
original plantation have been dug round twice in the
last season, and although the ground has been sown
with wheat and is now in clover, they generally look
well and promising, but in no degree to be compar-
ed Vvdth those manured with the compost of mud, ash-
cs and lime, and kept under cultivation.
No, VIII.
In October 1806, I planted part of an orchard oftwr^,
hundred and ten trees, which I completed in the follow
224 On Orchards,
ing December ; the ground prepared and manured with
ashes for a corn crop ; the trees planted and manured
with stable dung hauled out the preceding spring. In
the spring of 1807, the ground was sown with oats. All
the trees planted in December, and dug after the oats
had attained to some size have gi'own well. Of those
planted on the 24th of October, one third part perished
in the following summer, which I attribute to their be-
ing transplanted before the sap had ceased to flow.—
This remark applies particulai'ly to the Hewe's Crab,
which continues to grow later in the fall than any other
apple tree. Some kinds did not suffer at all, while the
greater part of others perished. The comparative ef-
fects of the dung and mud are observable in this plan»
tation.
No, IX.
In the month of October 1806, at the same time
witli the preceding experiment, I planted about one
hundred and eighty apple trees on a piece of ground
ploughed for, but not sowed with, oats the preceding-
spring. The holes were dug, and the trees manured
^^'ith stable dung, precisely in the same manner with
No. 8. The soil was much sandier than either of the
fields mentioned in numbers 7 and 8. The ground was
full of weeds and very rough. In the following spring
it vvas manured with ashes, and planted in corn. For-
ty of the trees had been procured from a distant nurse-
ry, the soil of .which was so stiff as to cause much inju-
ry to the roots in digging or rather grubbing them ;
they were extremely short so as to leave me little ex-
pectation of their gTOVving in my light soil. Notwith-
standing all these obstacles the ti'ces though planted on
Oil Orchards. 225
the 24th of October, from being under cultivation have
generally grown finely, and at present exhibit a favoura^
ble appearance, few of them having perished, and
those few principally from the field mice ; but the dif=
ference between the mud and dung is here also very per^
eeptible.
From the result of the foregoing experiments I infer,
that trees planted without manure in the holes, and tli^
roots covered with the surface earth with an external
covering of mellow mud or rich mould, is the best
mode for the first year. That if the ground is poor,
stable manure is the least proper kind to be used, being
from its nature least able to resist the destructive eft'ects
of our summer droughts, and affording a shelter to ver~
min equally pernicious in the winter, particularly in
light soils ; that rich earth or river and meadow mud
ameliorated by frost or putrefaction, either in its simple
state, or mixed with ashes, lime or perfectly rotten
dung, is of all others, after the first year, the best dres-
sing, to be spread on the surface and ploughed in. — ^
That cultivation is essential to the growth of orchards^
which thrive in proportion to the degree of it which
they receive.
I have, under a full conviction of the correctness of
these opinions, this fall planted another orchard of four
hundred and eighty trees, one half of European and the
other half of American kinds, in a light, sandy soil, with
two cart loads of meadow mud, spread in a circle of about
10 feet diameter round each tree on the surface of the earth »
This ground I mean to cultivate in corn and other faL
low crops for two years, when I hope the trees will be
sufficiently established to admit of winter grain and q\o-
R V
226 0)1 Orchards.
Ver. This is the mode I prefer from my past expe-
rience, and I have little doubt of its complete success,
especially if the further precaution of digging once or
twicie round each tree in each season is attended to
(whether the ground be sown with grain or clover) for
two or three yeai*s. It may not be amiss here to men-
tion, that I do not include buckwheat in the pernicious
list of grains, because it keeps the ground in a loose
state, and ripens at a season of the year when no inju-
ry is produced by it to the trees ; and from its peculiai*
growth and color, I doubt whether buckwheat ripen-
ing even in July, would produce a sufficient degi^ee of
reflected heat to be injurious to an orchard,
I am, dear sir,
With sentiments of esteem and respect,
Your obedient servant,
Wm. Coxe,
Richard Peters, Esx^.
L 227 ]
t)n coarse Flour, brown Bread, and the Force of Habit,
as it relates to Esculents, By Richard Peters,
Read March 8th, 1808.
In execution of out* plan to tlirow out thoughts and
facts on a variety of subjects, as themes to elicit from
others more valuable information, I send the following;
as the subject does not appear to have been mentioned
in any communication. I have seen it scientifically and
ably treated, in some foreign books, to which I have
not now access. I have long practised on the opinion
I state; but if the opinions of others are different, I shall
not eat my house-hold bread, or brown biscuit, with the
less zest, or contentment. I am so little refined in my
palate, that I prefer good and w^ell raised ri/e bread, to
any other. So that I have no great chance of success,
in either my precepts or example. If those who can
get no other bread are to be found in this country, I should
be happy to comfort them, in a situation which is to
isfie a matter of choice. I have always accounted a good
common ship biscuit a treat; and prefer it to those sup-
plied for the cabbin. However home spun this propen-
sity may be deemed, it has been one to me gratifying,
and promotive of health.
It has always appeared to me that the preference
given to bread made of supeffiie flour, was a mistake in
our dietetic system.
Grain consists of mucilage or starch, and animalized
matter; called by the French chymists vegeto-animaL
Of the former there are three, and of the latter two
528 On coarse Flour, ^c.
fifths, in good wheat ; and this latter (with resin and
sometimes oil) is contained in the outer coat, or skin;
which is called offal., by those who, by every means
in their power, detach it in the manufacture of fine
flour. Yet good and well made bread depends on the
admixture of both these substances, in due propor-
tions. In such proportions they must exist, to consti-
tute wholesome and good meal or flour. They exist
in the grain, in a state of mechanical mixture; and not
of chymical union. This union is accomplished in
gi'ain, by the process of germination, or malting. The
result is saccharine matter, or sugar; which, until this
union, was not possessed perfectly by either of the parts.
The operations of fermenting, and baking the flour so
as to form it into good and wholesome bread, produce
the like union, and effect. This account and analysis
are taken from celebrated writers.
By this statement it seems to me, that the more the
vegeto-animal part is detached, in refining the flour, the
more the necessary proportions are destroyed, and the
less nutritive and healthful, this esculent becomes.
There is the less of the materials necessary to form su-
gar, which of itself is highly nutritious. Crews of ships
in distress, have been sustained on sugar alone, for a
great length of time. Nature has provided all the parts
of the grain to connect the qualities of each other; and all
to assist in the uses designed. The finer the flour, the
more of the aliment is deficient; and the more must be
required of the residuum for sustenance.* After the
* An Infusion of bran or offal of grain, is highly nutritive ;
and the longer it is macerated, so as to avoid acidulating, Ihc
On coarse Flour, £i>V. 229
grade of perhaps the best middlings, all the other and
extra manufacture is to gratify prejudice of education,
and habit. It is questionable whether those who value
themselves on being '■'■ sworn at High gate'''' gain, in this
over refined gratification, any solid advantages. I am
well aware that nothing I can say, will induce them to
violate their oath.
The old king oi Pi'iissia'' s soldiers ate, on a campaign,
little of any thing farinaceous, except ammunition bread.
Tliis was made of the grain triturated or ground, but not
bolted ; being passed through hand sieves, which de-
tached no great proportion of the coat of the grain.
The Dutch sailors were supplied with such bread ; and
chiefly made of rye^i Since our flour mills have gain-
better. But sour food is the most grateful and alimentary to
swine. One gallon of sour zvash goes farther than two of
sweet. -Z^ry rotten xvood should be constantly in the pen ;
that the hogs, when confined lor fatting, may eat it at plea-
sure. Nature points out this absorbent (or whatever it may
be) as a remedy or preventive. They will leave their food
to devour the rotten wood, when they require it. I have not
lost a fatting hog for more than 30 years, when I used it ;
but have suffered by neglecting it. Some of my neighbours
met with frequent losses of fatting hogs, till I informed them
of my practice ; of which I was told by a woman from East
yersey, before our revolutionary war. She said it was then
known and practised there.
^ Although the Dutch ship bread is, in appearance dis-
gusting, yet I risque the disapprobation of those of better
taste, by saying that it is by no means so to the palate, if ate
without prejudice ; as it is by those for whose use it is made.
A ludicrous accident (which I relate meo pericidoj made
230 On coarse Flow\ ^c,
ed such high perfection in their capacity to manufac^
ture superfine flour, the ship bread (in my estimation)
is, by no means so sweet and nutritive, as that made of
the ship stuff of former times. The oil and animahzed
matter of the coat or skin, correct the costive qualities
of the starch, or mucilage, and add to the aiimentan
this discovery to me, some years ago. I was investigating
into a controversy brought before me, on the admiralty side
of the district comt, by some American seamen, who com-
plained against their captain, under the act of Congress giv-
ing one day's pay to eveiy mariner unnecessarily put on short
allowance during a voyage ; which in this case was from Am-
^erdam* The principal allegation was that of having no
bread, wholesome, or fit for the sustenance of the crew.
Specimens were produced, by the seamen, of Dutch ship
bread; which, being such as we are not accustomed to see,
looked very forbidding. Curiosity induced me to taste one
of those which seemed the best. My attention was engaged
in, and my mind occupied by, an argument on the construc-
tion of a clause in the law. Unconscious' to my self of the
circumstance, I continued eating the bread, till the small
pieces exhibited were consumed. The counsel intermitted
his argument, on perceiving that the testimony had, unluckilv
for his client's allegation, disappeared. A sailor stepped
forward, under the apprehension of a discomfiture, with what
he called another witness ; — another piece of bread, probabh'
selected for the purpose. The mouldy and carbonaceous
appearance of this specimen, would have gone far to prove
the allegation. But having been before satisfied by other
circumstances, that the v/hole complaint was vexatious ; and
that the bread was generally such as was usually supplied to
the Dutch seamen ; I put an end to the ridicule of the trans-
action, as well as the controversy, by dismissing the suit*
On coarse Flour, £s?t\ 231
properties. Wliether more of these are now in the fine
flour, and, of course, less in the ship stuff; or whether
they are banished from both, I cannot, from any know^
ledge of the fact, assert.
My much lamented, most intelligent, and worthy
iriend, the late -Saro/z Steuhen, was educated, in his mi-
litary profession, under the eye of the great Frederick;
having been one of his aids, and spent, in the Prussian
service, much of his valuable life. He was (as we all
know, who knew him) singularly well informed on such
subjects. He has often told me, that the peculiar
healthfulness of the Prussian soldiers was, in a great
measure, to be attributed to their ammufiition bread;
which was accounted the most wholesome and nutri-
tious part of their ration. The Baron added with his
usual naivete, that this bread w^as only good for die
health of soldiers; but gentlemen would prefer being
sick on better bread.
When, during the revolutionary war, I had an anx-e
ious, laborious, and often perplexing share, in conduct-
ing the War Department, I was advised to direct the
.mixing more of what is called the offal, with the flour
for the troops, in a time of great scarcity. But I knev/
the danger and difiiculties in precarious times (and in-
deed any other) of encountering common prejudices,
A wholesome and very considerable supply of smoked
herrings, and dried clams for soup, had been provided as
substitutes, in part, for flesh. Many drums and fifes
of the Penitsylvania line (on the first or second issue of
these articles) were employed by the soldiers, in escort-
ing out of camp under the rogues march, these parts
of the ration suspended on poles; in grotesque proces-
232 Oyi coarse Flour ^ ^c.
sioii. — If the speckled fiourhsid been furnished, it would
have accompanied them; and possibly the discontents
would have reached other lines. Yet many of the Penn-
sylvania soldiers were Irishmen, to whom, in their own
country, a herring would have been a treat, and a clam
a curiosity. Though convinced that the measure sug-
gested as to the flour, would have been a beneficial and
healthy supply, this janiza?'!/ hint was sufficient to forbid
the step. Any other kind of grain, prepared in the cus-
tomary way, would have less violated the habits of our
people. — From the commander in chief (who never
feasted while others suffered ; though Indian bread was
always provided for him at his table, as he preferred it
to any other, through his life,) to the lowest follower of
the army, indiaji corn^ at one distressing period, was the
sole esculent they possessed. The bad roads had in-
terposed difficulties to the transportation, and prevent-
ed other supplies arriving at camp ; yet no serious evils
ensued. A committee of field officers of one of the
state lines, waited on the general, to represent the dis-
tress and discontents of their troops. Dinner at head
quarters was nearly ready to serve up; and he, vAiki
his usual complacency and politeness, asked them to
dine, before they received a final opinion as to their
mission ; whereof he had been apprized. Indian corn
in various preparations, much of it parched^ and no-
thing else, composed the banquet for a large company ;
and the liquor was as humble as the esculent. The
committee partook, with cheerfulness and admiration ;
and never renewed the subject of their mission. The
dinner was a sufficient answer; and their report of the
occurrence, gn their return, silenced every murmur.
On coarse Flour, ^c, 233
The Prussian discipline and tactics would have created
less discontent, than issuing coarse wheat meal or flour,
even under privations of other supplies ; — ^to say nothing
about serving out ammunition bread.
Habit is, according to the trite adage, a second na-
ture. A singular instance of this, occurred in 1776.
When our military systems were unfortunately calcu-
lated for temporary expedients; the objections to a
permanent army of our own, had nearly brought us
and our affairs, within the power of that of our enemy.
A body of troops, intended to consist of 10000 men,
was formed of a kind of militia, engaged for a few
months, composed chiefly of country people, unaccus-
tomed to a military life ; and collected in what was call-
ed '' the flying camp*'' in which they assembled in Neiu
Jersey, The police of a camp, including regulations
of diet, cooking, and cleanliness, were unknown, or lit-
tle attended to. Indeed before the department of in-
spector general was created, and placed under the di-
rection of the Baron Steuben, more of our troops fell
by the filth, originating the diseases of the camp, than
by the swords of the enemy. On this part of our army,
the mortality was truly destructive. On the return of
the remnants of this corps, on their way to their homes
(where one half of them never arrived) the roads exhi-
bited frequent, and melancholy spectacles of the dying
and dead. They had indulged themselves on green
corn ; and had been fed on fresh m.eat, with little or no
salt, and wheat flour. Many of them were from the
southern states, and not accustomed to this diet : these
took the route through Philadelphia ; where the hospi-
tals were crowded with the sick. Diarrhaeas^ dyssen*
s s
234 On coarse Flour, ^c.
teries^ and fevers^ carried them off in great numbers.
Many died in the streets, and in the markets ; yet every
medical aid, and every possible comfort were afforded
to them. They loathed, and many refused, the soups
and provisions offered by the kindness of the citizens^
or provided in the hospitals. General Stevens^ who
had been bred a physician, and resided in Virginia^
called at the war office, on his way to join the army ; and
the distressing calamity was detailed to him. He said
we did not know how to treat the maladies of Virgini-
ans and Mary landers. The director of the military
hospital, and the commissary of provisions, were sent
for, and came. The general desired, and orders were
accordingly given, that all the bacon and iftdian corn,
that could be immediately procured, should be purchas-
ed ; and the corn ground into meal 7'ather coarse. The
troops were at once put on this diet; it operated like
magick ; and accomplished what the medical art could
not effect. Those who loathed every thing else, would
if caution had not been used, have greedily, and dan-
gerously, devoured these ailicles ; which had been, at
home, their habitual fare. In a very short time, there
was scarcely a dangerous case to be found ; those thus
fed, having generally recovered. Many of them told
me, that as soon as they smelt the rashers and hoe cake^
they felt, as they expressed themselves, ""quite lively,'^-
and w ere confident of getting home well ; to which, no
doubt, this fortunate persuasion, in no small degree,
contributed.*
-^ Dr. Rush informs me, that (in 1777) while he had the
(direction of a military hospital at Morris Town, he cured
On coarse Flour ^ ^c.
Kiln dried grain is the least nutritious, probably be-
cause the oil and animalized matter are detached, by a
degree of combustion, in the operation. This process
is said to be indispensable, to fit Indian corn meal for
exportation; but this does not prove its salubrity. Let
swine be fed with indian com meal thus prepared, a.nd
those who make the experiment will not attempt it again.
Any kiln drying dissipates the oil and vegeto-animal
matter, in a greater or less degree ; but if carried no far-
ther than merely to destroy its vegetating principles, it
is said not to injure its alimentary qualities.
Lord Dundonald recommends malting the grain on
which horses are fed ; to form and fix the saccharine
CjUality.
Colonel Koxvatch^ who, in our service, commanded
the infantry of FiilasHs legion, had been an old parti-
zan officer, in the north of Europe ; and had command-
ed a large corps of irregular horse, — either Cossacks,
Croats, or Pandours. He fled hither, after the troubles
of Poland. He told me, that they often baked th^ chop-
ped or ground grain, for their horses j having previously-
formed it into portable cakes. It was fermented, or
raised, in an expeditious and simple way, by a kind of
leven. With this, they sometimes used oil cakes. He
said baked provender went twice as far as raw" meal, or
grain. The saccharine quality was, no doubt, produc-
ed by this process; and its alimentary properties en-
ihe same diseases by a like change of diet. The rations of
fresh meat, were exchanged with the farmers, for salt pork
und bacon*
236 On coarse Flour ^ ^c.
creased.* General Pulaski had a favorite charger^ to
whom he often gave bread: which the animal seemed
to enjoy far beyond any other food. In Holland it is a
common practice to give horses rye breads or baked
provender. — The late sheriff Penrose, who had a fine
team of working horses, was in the habit of buying
condemned ship bread, as the most nutritious, and
cheapest horse feed. He said that others knew, and
profited by its advantages.
* Kowatch spoke a barbarous Latm, which he said was
the common language of parts of the north of Europe ; and
particularly of Hungary or Bohemia, in one of which districts
of that region, he was bom. He wrote the Latin tolerably
pure ; but spoke with an accentuation very different from
that to which we are accustomed : so that I with difficulty
understood his conversation. He spoke German and some
French; both tinctured with his Hungarian accent. He
thought our pronunciation vitiated, and asked me whe-
ther we ought not to yield to them, who had, from the time
of the Romans, spoke Latin as a vernacular tongue ? We, he
said, derived our pronunciation from those, among whom
it was a dead language-
[ 237 -]
Herbage mid Shrubs spontaneously produced, after Forest
Timber burnt, by firing the f Foods. By Richard Feters.
Read March 8th, 1808.
Belmont, February lOth, 1808-
Sb\
In the paper you communicated, as a supplement
to that with which I troubled the society, on the '■''chan-
ges of timber and plants,'''' I perceive that you quote
*''' Hearne^s journey to the northern ocean'''' for corrobora-
tory facts; which are similar to some I should have
mentioned, had they not then escaped my recollection.
On the tract in which I was interested, and noticed, in
Northampton county, as I was informed by ancient peo-
ple in its vicinity, strawberries were thro^^Tl up, in most
extraordinary profusion, after the combustion of the
pine timber; so as to cover a very great proportion of
this tract (which contained near 800 acres) where the
land was not moist; for parts of this tract consist of mea-
dow ground. The people of the towns, and others,
from distances of more than 20 miles, were accustomed
to gather and carry off these strawberries, in quantities
almost incredible. They continued in the greatest
abundance, for several years, while the new growth of
timber was progressing, and until it finally banished
these plants ; wherof I saw few, when I attended the sur-
vey and division, in 1797. The visitants of this then
curious spot, were additionally attracted by some small
but deep lakes of spring water, which then afforded,
and now contain trout, in uncommon plenty. The tract
238 Herbage and Shrubs spontaneously produced,
appearecj to me to have been, at some veiy distant pe-
riod, the bottom of a lake, rimmed by ridgy and varie-
gated hills, and formed by a large stream which skirts
one of its sides; the channel whereof seems evidently
to have been changed. White and grey pebbles, and
shells of aquatic animals, ai'e found in vai'ious parts of
its area, distant from the stream. There are now im-
penetrable thickets of flourishing white thorn; through
which passages were cut, before the lines could be run.
These were not known to have been on the land, when
the pines were standing ; nor ai^e they common in the
neighbourhood. Nothing will grow under pines thick-
set. In places to which the sun had access, was found
a plentiful growth of the herb called here catnip. —
Whether it be the same also called catmint (nepetaj I
am not certain. It grew with singular vigour, where the
strawberries had been precedently. The thorn and cat-
nip designate (as this for the most part is) good land;
and delight in soils, loose and inclining to sand and loam.
But strawberries^ though they flourish in soils of similar
texture, yet, if productive, do not generally indicate fer-
tility. In rich soils, either natural or artificial, they run
to vine, and set false fruit; though they blossom pro-
fusely, and those bloom the most which produce no fruit.
But the barren and prolific blossoms, are easily distin-
guishable.
The old neighbours dwelt much on the exuberant
plenty, and general cover of the strawberries; which,
they said, could be scented, when perfectly ripe, from
a great distance. Some of them described the vast
surface and waste of flowers, when the plants blos-
somed, in a stile, that, if the fact had not been \\&^
Herbage and Shrubs spontaneously produced. 239
'■■■'■^ -• - —
attested, would have appeared fiction. This inimitable
gala dress of nature, and the immense numbers of
bees, with their ''busy hum^'^'' frequenting the blos-
soms and fruit; ^vith the rugged and diversified moun-
tains on its borders, would have furnished a scene of
pastoral imagery, for poetic description.
The county of Northampton is remarkable for pro-
ducing abundance of honey. I have counted 120 straiv
bee hives near one farm house ; and have been told that
others of those rude apiaries, exhibit much greater
numbers. The farmers there sow buckwheat, as a sub-
stitute for better grain, more extensively than in any
other district of countr}'. The blossoms aiford a pa-
bulum for their bees. They are forced into this cul-
ture, by the injuries done, in many parts, to their crops
of Avinter grain by frosts.
There is such a coincidence in some of these, and
the facts related by Hearne, that I think they not only
support each other, but unite in proving the tendency
in the system of nature, to changes and successions of
the products of the earth.
Richard Peters*
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Agric, Soc. Phdad,
[ 2A0 j
On Trench Ploughing, By Richard Peters-,
Read March 8th, 1808*
I did not take sufficient notice of a part of a valuable
communication, by Mr. Kirk ; entitled " a substitute
for trench ploughing y'''^ in which he condemns the sub-
ject, for which it is given as a substitute, until I saw it
printed off. It is my habit to overlook what does not
please me, and enjoy the satisfaction arising from a-
greeable, and instructive, or practically useful informa-
tion. But as the society has offered premiums for trench
ploughing, and culture on grounds thus . prepared ; I
think it a duty, to give my practical knowledge on the
subject, as concisely as possible. And this, without
the least intention to disapprove of Mr. Kirk'^s apparent-
ly next best method. That trench ploughing has some
disadvantages, and will not apply in all soils, is certain-
ly true. But where is the operation in husbandry to be
found, of which the same obser^^ations may not as tru-
ly be made ? Let it be recollected that deep and trench
ploughing, are very different operations, both as to mode
and effect.
The burying the old soil, exhausted of every fertiliz-
ing quality, filled with the seeds of pestiferous weeds,
and indestructible stocks and roots ; with the bulbs
and seeds of garlic, St. John's wort and the daisy ; and
other such otherwise unconquerable hosts of foes to my
culture of profitable crops ; was my motive for trench-
ing progressively, at least fifty acres of my farm. Tur-
ning down fertile vegetable mould, and bringing up
On Trench Ploughing, 241
earth, to receive from the air and artificial applications
and processes, what the surface precedently possessed,
would be a most unnecessary and reprehensible opera-
tion. It is therefore only to worn and infested fields,
that I ever recommended the application of this prac-
tice.
Many years ago I gave an account of .my process,
and its results. It was not theory, but the actual pro-
duct of repeated and successful practice. I brought
my fields into a fertility, and cleanness of crop, which
amply rev/arded me ; and surprised those who had
known those parts of my farm in their apparently hope-
less state of exhaustion. My success was attributed to
expenditures of money, which could not be afforded by
common farmers ; — to abundant quantities of manure,
which could not be obtained in a common course — to
my ground exactly suiting the operation ; — in short,
to any thing, but the true cause. My example was
therefore, not followed by my neighbours ; and I have
known of but few others, who have adventured on this
method ; from some of whom I have heard unfavoura-
ble accounts. On examination, I perceived they were
in too great haste for their profit ; and had not given
fair play toih^ experiment. Ihave, for many years, leas-
ed my farms on shares ; reserving a small part for my
owTi culture, and amusement. On this I always fai' ex-
ceed my tenants, in products ; because I do well, what
I perform ; and confine myself to small fields. I find
the exigiium colito, far surpasses the ingentia rura. I
never could prevail on a tenant to trench plough ; though
he enjoyed the advantages of my labour and expence.
I am, therefore, neither surprized or mortified, by Mr,
T t
242 On Trench Ploughing,
XirFs disapprobation. There is such a general preju-
dice against this mode, that I have ceased to combat
it. Many of my fields, which had been trenched,
have, in the hands of my tenants (comparatively good)
regained their cover of weeds and nuisances, from
neglect, and the seeds brought from some of my own,
and the fields of my neighbours. So that this, like all
human arts, has its limit : and weeds infest ail my
rented fields ; owing to the culpable neglect of the te-
nants.
It can easily be perceived, that Mr. Kirk''s method
does not bury the bulbs and roots of weeds ; so as to
put them beyond the power of vegetation. Let any
person attend to the mode detailed in our list of pre-
miums. It will be perceived that the sod of the old
surface is entirely covered, by the accession ofthe^z/^-
stratiim thrown over it. Whereas the edges of the sods^
in ploughing ever so deep, are always exposed to ve-
getate anew. So that my preference for this practice, is
founded in the reason Mr. Kirk assigns for condemn--
ing it. And it does not appeal^ that he has had any ex-
perience in it, to warrant a practical opinion, to which
I should certainly pay every reasonable degree of re-
spect. I have not a trenched field, which is not
now the better for the operation. I never kept a bur-
thensome stock of working cattle, or horses. A pair
of oxen, and four horses, were generally all I had, for
a large farm. With these I could trench 2i\\d. fall plough,
as much as I required.* I am positively certain that
"^A pah' of horses in the paring plough, and a pair ol
suong, active oxen, in the trench plough, are generally siif-
On Trench Ploughing. ^4^
trenched ground requires, after it has, by lying over a
winter in fallow, received its supplies from the air, less
manure^ than that ploughed in any other w^ay. I say
not this dogmatically; but from practical conviction.
I am as ready, on all occasions, to acknowledge an er-
ror, as I am to support a truth,
Plaister does not operate till animal, or vegetable
putrefied substances are restored, to trenched soils.
My course was, in four years —
1. In the autumn to trench,
2. A crop o{ Indian corn — sometimes />^«^(? ; or on part
flax — also carrots^ scarcity roots, potatoes, pumpkins,
and such crops ; in which I had great success. I ap-
plied lime ; never exceeding eighty bushels per acre ;
but commonly fifty. The com, plaistered, yielded
abundantly ; but it required shovelings, or some dung,
in the hills, to give activity to the plaister.
3. Ploughed in the usual way- dunged, with
about twelve to fifteen cart loads, (two oxen and an
horse in the team) to the acre. Wheat — whereof I have
had from twenty-five, to forty bushels to the acre, per-
fectly clean— the former not uncommon, on fields which
before yielded seven to ten ; and that mixed with gar-
lie, most disgustingly.
iiclent. In stiff soils the more strength of draft, the less the
animals are fatigued ; and the business is the sooner per-
formed. Those who have not horses or oxen competent to
the operation, are the least likely to adopt or approve it.- — ^
And few of those who could accomplish it if they were so
inclined, will permit themselves to believe in its usefulness.
244 On Trench Ploughing.
4. Clover, sown on the grain, early in the spring,
or in winter.^ Parts of some fields, in eight or ten years^
were trenched again ; and the old sod was perceived
to be entirely decayed ; and become a manure, with
no pests. Lime, put on after the first trenching, was
found in the greatest depth the plough turned up.
In the fall of 1787, 1 trenched (among others) a small
field of three and one quarter acres. Cinque-foil, gar-
lic, daisies, twitch, and such vile vegetation, were its
cover. A sandy loam, mixed with 7Jiica, or isinglass,
composed its soil. Its surface, after trenching, look-
ed like the earth of iron, or half-burnt brick clay ;
though its texture was loose.
In 1789, in the spring, being then in the legislature,
I selected from the members, a company of the best
farmers of Lancaster and York counties, to dine ; wuth
a view to shew^ them this forbidding soil, as vvdl as to
enjoy their society. They asked me what I intended
to sow in it. I told them hemp. Some were silent —
conceiving I v/as amusing myself with their credulity.
Others supposed me an enthusiastic theorist, and did
not spare me, in their observations. I always join in
pleasantry ; though it be excited at my own expence.
The year preceding, I had laid on about sixty
bushels of lime, and sixteen cart loads of dung, to the
"^I have seen a publication condemning this practice,
which is common among us. I can saiely aver, from long
experience, that there cannot be a better mode of ensuring
a clover crop. I have repeatedly mov/ed my fields, and
had abundant crops. Failures more frequently occur, where
clover is sown yvith spring grain. Ti7nGthy, orchard, herd,
and such grasses, succeed best, when sown in the autumn.
On Trench Ploughing. 245
acre ; and planted potatoes ; of which I had an abund-
ant crop. I sowed hemp^ and plaistered it. In August,
of the same year (1789) I asked the same company ;
and they viewed, with surprize, my hemp. It was even,
thick, well grown, and seven feet high. The labour-
ers were then pulling it ; and these gentlemen, some
of whom were hemp farmers, declared they had never
seen a better grown, or finer crop, on their best lands.
I lost some of the hemp, by injudicious management ;
but had, I think, 2,500 weight. x\fter the hemp, I sow-
ed wheat ; wiiereof I sold- 1 10 bushels, heavy and ex-
cellent. Clover was sown on the winter grain ; and I
cut luxuriant crops for several seasons. The field lay for
twelve years, without any other manure, save plaister ;
and threw up plentiful crops of grass. I ploughed it
four or five years ago, in the usual way. It produced,
with a slight dressing of well rotted compost and dung,-
a crop of wheat exceeding the former. It is notv in
good heart ; but I intend ploughing it, the approach-
ing season. I have selected this little field, because the
facts relating to it, are most within my recollection.
Ribbing, or bucking up furrows, in the fall of the
year of fallow crops, is highly useful. Every mode
should be practiced, Vvhich exposes surface to the in-
fluences of the atmosphere. No person should adven-
ture, extensively, on any new plan, A\itliout first making
^Such manure throws up short straw and long, well filled,
and heavy heads. There is no greater mistake, than that of
ploughing in fresh dung for wheat. This always produces
smutty crops, and long straw. It is not the less clijection-
ablc for having many advocates.
245 Oh Trench Ploughing,
a trial on a small scale. It is certain that all soils arc
not proper for this operation ; though more are so.
than is generally supposed. Some have told me it did
harm on such soils as mine ; which is generally a light
loam : yet, I conceive, such soils are the best, for this
process* Roots, stumps, stones, &c. ai'e equally ob-
structions to trenching, and the process adopted by Mr,
Kirk,^
Mr, David Lancfrethy \\\\o was then my garden-
er, above twenty years ago, trenched (and none un-
derstood it better) a piece i-n my garden ; two spits
deep, with the spade. It entirely altered the nature of
the soil ; so that a German gardener, -who is yet with
me, was much prejudiced against it. He did not suc-
ceed in his crops on this ground : and it really ap-
peared to me to be harsh, subject to bind, and crack ;
and the worse for the operation. I changed the crops,
from leguminous, and tap rooted plants, to those of the
brassica, or cabbage, tribe ; and they succeeded w^on-
derfully. So that this must be attended to, before a
judgment is finally formed. This ground is now oc-
cupied by about one hundred grape-vines ; and they
thrive so remarkably, that an intelligent foreign Figne-
roriy who has been so kind as to assist me in their cul-
ture, assures me, I could not have chosen a more pro-
pitious soil.
Although I may indulge opinions deemed too fa-
vourable to the practice ; I have stated what has fallen
under my notice, both as to facts and opinions. I
cheerfully^ therefore, leave the subject to those who
*For Mr^ Kirk's paper, see page 85.
On Ti^ench Ploughing, 5^47
must encounter the same degree of risk in the expe-
riment, to which I was exposed.
The last harvest, I iiad an hundred shocks to each
acre of wheat off an old trenched, small held, which
\vas w^ell attended ; and manured, moderately, with
dung and compost. It is now threshing ; but uncom-
monly injured by rats. I shall have more than thirty-
five bushels to the acre, imder all its misfortunes- I
have lost, as it now appears, one third of my crop^
by these vermin.*
Belmont, Febriiarij 1th, 1808.
* On this field I have a fine, young, and hitherto flourish-
ing orchard. This spring, I directed it to be trimmed ;
and have made an unpleasant discovery. The canker-
worm (as I conceive it to be) is committing the most de-
structive ravages. Many of the trees will be victims ; and
those planted either deep or shallow are alike affected. The
person who pruned it, informs me that this worm appears
generally through the neighbourhood, in ruinous number,
hitherto unknown ; and in trees of all ages, soils, and ex-
posures. Some orchards (he says) are not worth the price
of trimming them, I observed several trees of the same
kind of apple, free from the worm ; and I intend to notice
them hereafter. I have not heard of any remedy or pre-
ventive, or made enquiries ; as the misfortune is new to me.
I have seen accounts of these worms in New- York, and the
eastern states. But do not recollect to have read of reme-
dies. It would be well for the societv, to promote enquiries ;
and obtain information upon the subject. My ^iince trees
are in the road to ruin, occasioned by these worms. A
neighbour informs ne, they destroy young chesnut, and
other succulent iovt^tXxtt^, I will endeavour to find out from
248 On Trench Ploughing,
March 1808, I had thirty-nine bushels to the acre ;
weighing sixty-four pounds the bushel : this is men-
tioned only to prove, that those Avho conceive that
trenching ruins land, are much mistaken. I am con-
vinced that if it had been threshed soon after harvest,
the produce would have exceeded fifty bushels to the
acre.
whence the worms originate ; by confining some in boxes or
vials, to pass through their changes. I discovered in this
way, the wasp from which the peach worm originates. Some
other and better mode may be used, by those intelligent in
such investigations. It might lead to a discovery of reme-
dies, or preventives. They are found in the roots, body,
and even in the heart of the trees. Pear trees are not yet
injured ; though many are intermixed, in the orchard, with
the apple trees in which worms are found. I do not per>
ceive them in plumb trees. In my old orchards I have dis-
covered only one tree infested by the worms : this I shall
grub up and burn.
[ 249 3
Hemlock for Live Fences. By Richard Peters.
Read March 8th, 1808.
While my attention was turned to the subject of live
fences^ on a great scale, for our Jielcls, it never occurred
to me, that I had some of the best specimens of hedges,
in my garden. These have been planted, at least sixty
four years. I have some, planted about six years.
They are composed of what is here called hemlock
spruce, but it is the hernlock of our forests. It is to be
found in plenty on the fFissahiccon ; and also on the
rough borders of our other creeks, whose courses run
through a hilly country. The old hedges are now as
vigorous, as they could have been in the first years of
their being set out. They are close, strong and im-
pervious; and never, like the cedar, die at the bottom.
They have outgrown the dimensions within which I
formerly wished to confine them; being about six feet
in thickness, and five feet in height. They are clipped
once a year, (in June, after they have blossomed) with
the garden shears; and can be formed into any figure
or shape, as was the fashion in my father's time. Balls,
pyramids, arches, ai^e here displayed, in the antiquated
taste of former days. They were the acquaintances of
my childhood; I keep them as I found them, and as
contrasts to the wildness of nature within view of them.
These hedges bear plashing, cutting and clipping with-
out injury; and nothing of the kind can be neater, than
their appearance when newly clipped. They retain
their verdure, through the winter, far beyond most ef
tr u
250 Hemlock foT Live Fences.
the resinous tribe; none whereof are subject to be eat-
en by mice, or other vermin, or browsed by cattle, as
are deciduous trees and shrubs. Mine are clipped per-
pendicularly at the sides, and horizontally on the tops.
A small part of one hedge is of cedars; but the appear-
ance is gloomy, as if they were scorched; and the
branches neither thick or regular, though equal pains
are taken Avith it. The hemlock hedges were planted
in a single roAv. The stocks are at distances of about
one foot from each other; and were set out in the same
year Avith very large trees, in a grove or walk near them,
of the same species. The clipping has stinted them, but
has not lessened their verdure, or vigour. They permit
weaving or training, in any way ; being hardy, pliant and
tough. They grow quicker than the ced^ir, as I have
frequently experienced; and can be raised, with little
trouble, from the cones. I have enough to plant a large
extent of hedge or fence, growing spontaneously under
the old trees. They thrive in the shade far beyond cedar.
I never saw any other evergreen hedge equal to one of
hemlock. When in blossom, it is the handsomest of
all its tribe. The limbs are horizontal ; and grow much
longer than those of cedar. Layers will strike root and
fill the bottom.
My young fence looks well; but if I had sooner be-
gan to plash, cut and train it, I should ha^e had it much
closer, and better in every respect. One part has been
sadly ruined by horned cattle ; against Avhom it ought
to have been protected. This young fence, I have cut
down to five feet high, but it should have been kept
much lower; by beginning to cut, plash and form it,
after the first year. This Avas partially done, but atten
Hemlock for Live Fences, 251
tion was not sufficiently paid to it. Nevertheless it has
a promising, and very healthy appearance ; and it has
shewn that it will bear neglect. I shall dress and shape
it wide at bottom, and tapering, so as to be narrow at
the top ; according to the mode recommended by Mr.
Maiii, of George town, Potomac. The juniper^ very
common through our country, is excellent for filling
the bottoms of live fences. It is hardy, prickly, grows
as fast as cedar or hemlock; spreads and keeps low ; and
stands cuttmg without the least injury.
Beer quite as healthy, and much more agreeable than
that brewed with the Canada or Halifax spruce, is made
by the infusion of hemlock branches, with the materials
of which bur common spruce beer is composed. It
has been substituted for spruce, for many years in m}
family ; and we think it preferable in flavour to the Ca-
nada or Halifax spruce.
Although as a substitute for thorn ^ I prefer the hem-
lock for fences or hedges, to any other of its kind, I do
not mean to depreciate the cedar ^ where hemlock cannot
be had; the former being more generally attainable.
I have planted great numbers of both ; and have had the
best luck with the hemlock. The spring is the best
season for planting resinous trees; and Mr. Taylor^ s
mode is superior to any other, for removing young
evergreens, of any kind or description.*
* On the grounds of a college at Oxford (England J I be-
lieve Trinity College^ there is a whimsical idea executed.
A row of large trees are connected, by limbs engrafted. The
extreme of a limb of one tree, is engrafted into the stock of
the other ; and have thus joined the trees on a lon|j walk*
[ 252 3
Utility of the Italian Mulberry Tree^ and on making
Wine. By Joseph Cooper,
Read March 8th, 1808.
Cooper's Point, Feb, 22d, 1808.
Respected Friend,
I received your note of 16th, two days past. I
searched but cannot find a copy of the piece concern-
ing the Italian mulberry tree, but still remain of opini-
on, that the bark would answer well to make paper of
a superior quality, as the trees if properly trimmed will
produce a great number of shoots from 3 to 10 feet long,
the first summer, which may have the bark stripped off,
rotted like hemp or flax, and reduced into a matter re-
This may be tried on the stocks oi hedges, at no great trou-
ble or expence. If it succeeds, it will effectually guard
against the entrance of horses, or cattle. On the Schuylkill,
near Reading, I have seen large Button-xvood trees thus con-
nected. Whether tortuitously, or not, I cannot say. I have
a large hemlock, consisting of two distinct trees, which I
planted when a youth, in the same hole ; and twisted around
each other. They have completely embodied ; and appear
like one stock ; save that the spiral junction can be perceiv-
ed, on close examination. I have no doubt of its being
practicable to connect the plants of an whole hemlock hedge,
by approach-grajting of some of the limbs, in imitation of
the Oxford experiment. In deciduous trees, there is more
probability oi success. One horizontal string of limbs thu'?
engraited, would be sufficient.
On making IFine, 253
sembling silk, and full as soft and fine, as I formerly
shewed you.*
As to the time the grape vine in my garden, was taken
from the original, I cannot recollect i but think it was
previously to the British army possessing Philadel-
phia; [1777] that vine taking so long a time to come
to its present size, need not discourage persons from
propagating the native grape vine, as 10 or 12 plants
would cover as large a space, and produce as much fruit,
in a tenth part of the time if properly cultivated. You
are possessed of an account of the produce ; and I will
endeavour to send a sample of the wine to the Agricul-
tural Society, and if they should coincide with me in opi-
nion, of the practicability and expediency of encourag-
ing the cultivation of the native grape in our country,
they will address the public on the subject. I would
not discourage the propagation of the best and hardiest
kind of foreign grapes, yet must give the native the pre-
ference, as they are proof against the hardest winters,
grow spontaneously in almost every part of our coun-
try, and are so various in kind and quality, that every
person may be furnished with plants by taking them
from vines that produce the most and best fruit, in their
neighbourhood, by which means they will be certain of
such as are adapted to the soil and climate.
A circumstance ought to be considered respecting
grapes : they will produce fruit from the seed in a fourth
part of the time that an apple or pear will ; and from a
^ Mr. William Young of Delaware, made some years
since, a very good brown paper from the roots of the red
mulberry tree.
254 On making' Wme.
cutting, as soon as a peach from the stone; as to graft-
ing I never tried it till the last year; ha-ring a vine in my
garden producing grapes not to my liking, I grafted it
with the " Powell"* grape, and instead of claying, plais-
tered it with a composition of bee's wax, talloAv and ro-
sin; two scions grew and produced six bunches of
grapes the same summer, some of the branches grew
more than 20 feet in length, and the two scions have in
one summer formed a top sufficient, if but reasonably
fuli to produce a bushel of fruit.
The method I have found best for making wine from
grapes, is to let them hang on the vines till fully ripe,
then to gather them, when dry, throw away rotten ones
if any, open the cider mill so as not to mash the stems
or seeds, put the pummice (or mashed grapes) on some
clean long straw, laid on the cider press floor, lap it in
the straw, press it well, then take off the pummice, add
some water, and after it has soaked a while press as be-
fore : the latter will make as good wine by adding sugar
as is commonly done in the countr}^ but I prefer mak-
ing it of the juice without water.
The last autumn I tried several ways of making
wme : one cask of 34 gallons that first run from the
press, I set to ferment in its then state, expecting to
make that without sugar; another of the same size
had 17 pounds white Havanna sugar added, the re-
mainder was mixed with the second pressing, and had
the same proportion of sugar ; the first ceased ferment-
[* This is also called the " Bland" grape, from the gentle-
man v/ho brought it from Virginia, and gave it to Mr. Pow-
ell of Philadelpliia.l
On making TV hie, -255
ing in half the time of the others : when the fermenta-
tion subsided, I drew them off', (one cask at a time) in-
to a tub and rinsed the cask with water and fine gravel,
then put in about l-8th of the quantity, of French bran-
dy (good apple brandy, will make the wine as good,
but not so like foreign wine,) and having burnt a sul-
phur match, (about half as much as would kill a hive
of bees) after the match was burnt out, I stopt the bung
again, shook it to incorporate the liquor with the smoke,
and finally filled the cask.
The first cask when racked I found too tart, I believe
ow^ng to the wet summer, on which account I added
sugar as above, and the like proportion of brandy; in
about a month I racked all again, and found this last
mentioned cask far better and clearer than the others,
from which I conclude it is best to let grape wine first
ferment, and when racked, to add sugar to the palate^
by which means wine may be made palatable from sweet
or sour grapes.
Taking into consideration with what ease and expe-
dition grape vines may be propagated; the great ex-
pence and uncertainty of being supplied from foreign
countries, and the base and dangerous practice of adul-
teration by many of the venders of wine, I am induced
to urge the propagation of grape vines in preference to
other fruit, especially in such places as shades are want-
ed, as they may be trained in such manner as fancy or
convenience may direct, and more speedily than any
durable fruit bearing tree, and if properly trimmed -Mid
trained, will exceed the same kind of \'ines which grow
256 On making W
ine.
on trees, in production of fruit in quantity, size and
flavour, beyond most people's imagination.
Your friend,
Joseph Cooper.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Agric. Soc. PhilacL
P. S. I make no doubt but that numbers in the
U. States have more knowledge on these subjects; mine
is only experimental, and undoubtedly very imperfect;
therefore if the publishing any part of the foregoing,
should bring such knowledge to public view it will have
a good effect. J. C.
[ 257 3
On a three Furrow Plough. By TFilliam BakewelL
Read March 8th, 1808.
Fatland Ford, Montgomery Co. Feb. 7, 1808,
Dear Sir,
You expressed a wish to be informed of the pur-
poses to which I apply my three furrow plough, and I
with pleasure communicate the account to the agricul-
tural society, having found it useful on many occasions^
especially on my lightest soils, and such as are free
from large stones or other impediments.
I say nothing of the construction of this plough, as it
is described by Mr. Cartwright in the communications
to the British board of agriculture ; but to those who
have not that work at hand, it may be necessary to ob-
serve, that it consists of three shares and three mold
plates of iron, fixed in a frame, so as to follow each other
at nine inches distance, by which means twenty seven
inches of land are ploughed at one time. It is drawn
by three horses abreast, and has two wheels to regulate
the depth.
After a clover ley has been once ploughed deep, by
a common plough, the three furrow plough will answer
extremely well for skimming the surface, preparatory
to sowing with wheat. I have sometimes used it for
ploughing in the seed. I also use it on fallows to de«
stroy weeds, and between rows of indian corn, in which
case, a single plough should first pass close to the com.,
and as the rows are with me eight feet apart, the three
furrow plough, following the other, completes the spac^
between two rows at one 'bout.
X X
258 On the three Furroxv P long Ju
Potatoes may be planted in the furrow after this im-
plement, the land having been previously ploughed and
manured. The distance between the rows (27 inches)
is however too small for the deep horse hoeings, which
potatoes require : but for turnips, this plough succeeds
admirably, and in lieu of the turnip drillhig machine. I
had the last season, an excellent crop of turnips, on six
acres of wheat stubble, by the following method.
Immediately after the gi'ain was cut, the soil was
turned up by the single plough, to the depth of six
inches : the manure was then laid in heaps on the land,
and a glass phial prepared for the turnip seed, by hav-
ing a small quill inserted into its perforated cork.
The first cloudy day, the manure was spread equally
over the ground ; the triple plough, set to the depth of
tliree inches, covered the manure, and in the furrow, (or
rather half way between the bottom of the furrow and
the surface) the seed was dropped from the phial. A
lieht roller was then drawn over the whole, in the direc-
tion of the plough.
The rows of turnips are thus 27 inches asunder, in
wliich space a small plough, drawn by one horse, can
readily pass to destroy the weeds, and to earth up the
plants ; the hand hoe is used to cut up the weeds, and
superfluous turnips in the rows.
I have no doubt, but that on a light sandy soil, this
kind of plough might be used for every purpose, even
for turning over a sod. It is calculated, that in plough-
ing an acre, with a furrow of nine inches, the plough-
man travels 11 miles; v/ith this implement he ploughs
three acres in travelling the same distance, and with
more ease, for the \^'heels will keep this plough in the
On the three Furrow Plough, 259
p' ojicr position, if the ground is of a tolerably even
suif.tce.
I could have wished to state to the agricultural soci-
ety, an account of the application of my turnips in fat-
tening cattle and sheep, but not having conveniencies
for weighing the cattle at certain periods, I am unable
to speak on this point with any degree of accuracy; I
can however venture to assert their general utility for
that pui-pose, (of which, in this climate, some doubts
had been suggested) and I hope to furnish the society
with more specific and decisive information on this sub-
ject at a future time.
I remain with regard, dear sir,
Your friend and servant,
William Bakewell
Dr. Mease.
[ 260 ]
On Spelt z. By James Mease ^ m. d.
Read March 8th, l808i
This variety of wheat is much cuhivated in the mid-
die counties of Pennsylvania, and is highly prised.
In answer to some queries which I sent to Caleb Kirk,
of York county, I received the following statement.
*' The speltz I have concluded to send by the mail
stage. Thou wishest to know the qualities of it which
induce the farmers to cultivate it, I therefore inform
thee, that it does much better than wheat, in flats of cold
ground, not being so subject to freezing out in the win-
ter, and I have often known it sown in a part of the
field which was esteemed too poor for wheat, but whe-
ther it succeeds better than wheat in very poor land, I
am not quite able to determine. One thing I am fully
convinced of, namely, that it will do well in land that is
too rich for wheat.* When shelled, it produced from
40 to 50 per cent : It then yields flour well, as the bran
is thin. The flour is somewhat more yellow than that
of wheat, and of course w^ould not suit for merchant
^ Europeans who have formed their opinions of American
agriculture from the misrepresentations of British tourists
among us, will be surprised at the remark made respecting
land being too rich for wheat in the United States ; and yet
nothing is more familiar than the (act, to the farmers of Penn-
sylvania. In the western counties of this state, wheat sown
upon such land, will lodge before maturity ; and hence it is
necessary to take more than one exhausting crop of hemp,
or Indian corn to prepare the land for wheat.
On Speltz, 261
flour, although it is in all respects as good for house
use, and is by many persons preferred to wheaten flour
for bread and pastry, more especially for puddings.
The common product when shelled, I think is about
equal to wheat. Our mills have generally a pair of
stones for the purpose of shelling, with a fan under the
bedstone to blow away the chaff. The quantity sown
is at the rate of 2 or 2 1-2 bushels per acre."
This grain is not cultivated in the immediate vicinity
of Philadelphia, but its valuable properties certainly en-
title it to attention. "In Thuringia, according to Dn
Willich, it is generally sown about michaelmas (21st
Septr.jin stony, mountainous lands, which are other-
wise only fit for oats. In France, Swabia, Franconia,
and on the banks of the Rhine, it is more extensively
cultivated, even in better soils. It is well known, in
commerce, that the incomparable Nuremberg and
Franckfort starch and flour, are solely obtained from
speltz wheat. We must however remark, that this ex-
cellent grain cannot be divested of its husks by thresh-
ing, and that it requires the operation of a mill for that
purpose, but it ought to be sown with the husks."*
* Domestic Encyclopedia, article " wheat."
[ 262 ]
On Draining. By Samuel Dickey, Communicated to
John Miller.
Read March 8th, 1808.
East Nottingham, Chest. Co. Feb. 18, 1808.
Dear Sir,
As you have expressed an opinion that the experi-
ment I have made in draining, might be worth commu-
nicating to the agricultural society, the following state-
ment is at your service, to be presented, if you think
proper.
In 1803, from some observations in the proceedings
of the agricultural society of New York, on swamp mud
as a manure, together with some accounts of the great
fertility of drained sw^amps, in the New England farm-
er's dictionary, I was induced to undertake the drain-
ing of two small ones in my possession. With both
I have succeeded equal to my expectations. But while
engaged with these, I became so fully persuaded of the
value of such kind of land, that a purchase was made of
a large fiat of swamp containing ten acres, adjoining
my own land. It was covered with bushes, principal-
ly the diiferent kinds of alder, swamp sumack, maple,
8cc. very wet in every part, and in some places danger-
ous for cattle to go upon. The black mud upon its
surface, was from one to four feet in depth, in different
places, and evidently formed through a long course of
time, of decaying vegetables, mingled with fine parti-
cles of earth, washed from the ground above. The stra-
tum next belovv% was mostly clay, but in some places
On Draining. 26^
gr-avel, and clay and gravel mixed. Scarcely one place
could be distinguished where the water appeared to
spring up more than another : almost the whole swamp
seemed to be a seep. The water flowed off in a current
down the middle of the swamp. But no water passed
through it, except what sprung up in it.
The first step with this ground, was, with a strong
scythe to cut off the bushes. This measure, by afford-
ing a view of the whole flat of gTound at once, gave a
better idea of the places where the di'ains ought to be
made. A drain quite round it was cut at the distance
of a rod, and in some places a little more from the fast
ground. This drain was three feet and one half wide
at top, and two feet and one half at bottom, and mostly
three feet deep. As the upper stratum so near to the
bank, was not so deep as farther in, this drain went
some depth, generally, into the clay or gravel below.
The sods and earth taken out, w^ere thrown on the out-
side of the drain, to be spread on the rough, uneven
ground, between the bank and the drain, for the pur-
pose of levelling it. For cutting this drain, two spades
Avere used, of the common form, and made of the best
steel ; the one for cutting the extremely tough upper
spitt, was kept sharp as an ax. This was easily done, as
there was not the appearance of a stone in the whole
upper stratum. Thus far was accomplished in the latter
part of the season 1803.
In 1804 it was evident more drains were necessary.
Accordingly one down the middle and two others pa-
rallel with It, (one on each side, and equally distant from
the middle and outside drains) were made. These
drains were nearly of the same size as the first, but the
264 On Draining,
upper stratum being deeper than at the outer drain, they
seldom extended farther than through it. The swamp
was now divided into long beds of about sixty feet
across ; some hands w ere set to work with long scalping
hoes, broad at the edge and very sharp, to tear off the
tussocks, but from a great press of other business, little
progress was made that season.
In 1805, 1 found my self disappointed, by the ground
still continuing too wet. The draining was commenced
with the idea that water sprung up principally at the
bank, and that it was only necessary to carry of this
water by a drain, in the proper place. But the incor-
rectness of this opinion was now evident, as the ground
along the edges of the drains only, was dry. The ex-
periment was tried, of digging near the head of the
swamp, that if possible it might be the means of giving
vent to the under water, which from some cause appear-
ed to spread itself over the whole swam.p, and spring up
in almost every spot. But its effects if any, were very
small, as the ground still rem^ained w^et within a few
yards of it. A narrower drain than the others, but of
the same depth, was now made between each of the
other drains which left the beds only ten yards across
from drain to drain. The business of tearing the tus-
socks was again renewed, and the sods turned upside
down to promote their drying. About midsummer
they became dry enough to burn on being heaped with-
out the assistance of any other fuel. The sods thrown
out of the drains, the two preceding summers were so
much decayed, as to allow their being spread)* with
some labour in breaking them) over the intervals be-
tween the drains. AMiere the ashes ma,de from bnrn
On Draining. 265
ing the tussocks could not be carted off, they were
spread over the surface, and the ground thus prepared,
was sown with herd grass, except a small piece which
was sown with timothy and clover mixed.
In 1806, the crop was generally good, though in at
number of places a little water springing up and tena-
ciously retained by the very spungy soil on the surface,
was evidently injurious to vegetation. In other places
the water had formed little subterraneous currents, be-
tween the upper stratum and the clay below, and so
passed off by the drains ; where this was the case, the
grass was best.
In 1807, the crop was considerably better. In some
places equal to any thing I have seen. Time appears
to have a good effect in forming these little subterrane-
ous currents, that convey the water into the drains, as it
seeps through the clay, below the upper stratum, and
as this takes place, putrefaction progresses on the vege-
table matter, in the soil above, and its productiveness
is in proportion promoted.
With regard to the expence, nothing accurate can.
be stated, as no account was kept at the time. From
cai'eful estimation, it may be safely set at about jS 25 per
acre, including every thing. This is certainly conside-
rable, but it is only in few cases, where expence to such
an amount will be necessary, as this piece of ground
was in every respect among the worst to reclaim I have
ever seen. But in fact, a few dollars of expence are
of no moment, in recovering a piece of ground, that is
expected to be permanently productive, and that in a
high degree, without the addition of any yearly expen-
Y V
266 Ofi Draining.
diture. I entertain no doubt of receiving on this ex-
pence, with the original cost of the ground, which was
jS 5 per acre, (a great deal more than it was worth in
its natural state) not less than 40 per cent yearly. In
places where the ashes made from burning the tussocks
can be carted off, a part of the expence will be repaid
by the value of these ashes, as a manure. I have found
them little inferior to wood ashes. The most profitable
application of them appears to be, as a top dressing on
grass. They are of little value, returned upon the
ground, whence the tussocks were taken; for if this
kind of soil is only made dry, and properly prepared
to receive the seed, nothing farther seems wanted to
render it productive. It does not seem proper that
cattle should by any means be allow^ed to pasture on
this kind of ground, not only because they would injure
the drains, but their trampling also, would too much
consolidate the loose spongy soil, and render cultiva-
tion necessary to renew the grass. A kind of grass that
would continue long without requiring to be renewed,
would be a great acquisition. The herd grass possesses
the first quality, but wants the latter. Clover, from the
experiment I have made, does admirably, but we know
it will wear out in a few years. From the experience
I have had, I think it probable, the after growth of herd
grass may be profitably fed off by sheep put up to fat-
ten in the fall of the year. The drains are all yet open
except a small one, which was covered nearly two years
ago by brush being laid in the bottom, and the sods
and earth taken out of the drain, spread over them.
This appears as yet to ansvrer well, and is very cheap.
On Draining. 267
and easy of performance. Whether as the brush rots,
the earth may fall in and choak the drain, time only will
determine.
Respectfully I remain,
Sir, your's, Sec.
Samuel Dickey.
Mr. John Miller.
[ 268 ]
Observations on making and fining Cyder ^ and on Peach
Trees. By Timothy Matlack^ Esq,
Read March 8th, 1808.
Lancaster^ 1th Marchy 1808.
Dear Sir,
A visit a few days ago from the reverend doctor
Muhlenbergh of this borough, and a communication
of a paragraph of your letter to him, for which I thank
you, brings in review your letter of last fall, which
came to hand when there was little probability of my
ever being able to acknowledge the receiving of it. —
The error in the size of Mr. Cooper's vine^ has hap-
pened on the most favourable side, and it is fortunate
that it is so : for the measure, as given, is quite large
enough to obtain credit. He has little reason to thank.
me for the publication, since it has occasioned him so
many troublesome visits, from persons who sought
only to gratify an idle curiosity, and he has no other
compensation to hope for, than the pleasure it must
afford him to see, that it has also drawn the attention
of some gentlemen whose object is public improve-
ment, and that it has tended to encourage them in their
laudable pursuits.
The making and fining of cyder, so as to produce
that excellent liquor in the perfection it is capable of,
w^ould no doubt be a great public benefit, and I con-
[* This alludes to a publication of Mr. Matlack's, respect-
ing a native vine of Mr. Coopers, which covers an area of
2877 square feet.]
On ma king and fining Cyder, 269
fess that I once thought seriously, of publishmg the
observations I had made on that subject ; but on con-
sidering the fixed prejudices which a performance of
that kind would have to contend against ; that the suc-
cess depends mainly on fermentation, the theory of
which, you know, is less understood than any other
branch of chymical science, and consequently the great
difficulty of communicating intelligibly, what little I
knew on the subject in practice, I was deterred from
an attempt which promised so little advantage to any
body, and threatened so much vexation to myself, from
the blame which want of success in those who might
pretend to have followed the practice I should recom-
mend, would perhaps, but unjustly, bring upon me. It
looks very like vanity to say, that I knew too much of
the matter to hope for success in the undertaking. —
But, in support of this opinion and to justify it, permit
me to say, that I knew there was a much greater dif-
ference in the must of cyder than would be credited by
our cyder makers ; and that the degree of fermenta-
tion each would bear depended on its degree of strength,
and that, therefore, there was very little probability
that they w^ould succeed under any possible directions
I could give : for example, I knew that a pint of Van-
dever juice weighed but eleven penny weights in a pint,,
more than rain water, when in the same season a pint
of juice from Cooper's sweet russett, w^eighed twenty-
foirr penny weight heavier than the same water ; and I
knew also that the juice of the same kind of apples dif-
fered greatly in its specific gravity in different seasons,
dry seasons producing a heavier and wet seasons a light-
er must. These facts led me to suppose, that its;
270 On making and fining Cyder,
strength depended on the quantity of saccharine mat-
ter contained in it, and that consequently its specific
gravity would shew its real strength, and my practice
was founded on this supposition and very generally
was attended with considerable success ; but, meeting
with the must of the Virginia crab, so famous for its
cyder, I learned that this was, at least, an exception to
that principle ; for its specific gravity was, as near as I
remember (for my notes are in the city) rather below^
the mean weight of our common cyder apples ; and its
cyder is not below our best cyders. This taught me
that there was some other principle, less open to detec-
tion, on which the excellency of cyder must depend.
I however proceeded in my usual mode of fermenta-
tion, and soon found that this must had much less a
tendency to extreme fermentation, than that of our com-
mon apples of equal weight ; and consequently, re-
quired less judgment to restrain it than others. The
importance of this fact needs no comment : It gives
a decided superiority to that apple for cyder, above
all others. ^
The cyder you mention as so much approved by the
French minister, was from the Virginia crab. I think
in the year 1777 or '78. Cyder being then ver}^ scarce
in Philadelphia, I had obtained but a single hogshead,
directly from the press, and the fermentation was con-
ducted with more than common care, and consequent-
ly became spontaneously not merely fine, but perfectly
bright, and exhibited that appearance of bounding up
of small drops to the height of six or eight inches, so
highly pleasing in the finest Champaign wine, without
any appearance of froth on the top of the glass, and re-
On making and fining Cyder, 271
tained all the deHcacy of flavour which distinguishes
that apple, free from the slightest degree of acidity. —
In conducting this fermentation attention was paid to
every change in the weather ; especially where the
change was from cool to warmer degrees. You will
see then, how difficult it must be to give precise di-
rections for conducting so nice a process, in a climate
so extremely variable as ours, and where our best cel-
lars are too warm, in the cyder making season, to con-
duct it with certainty of success in the best of them ;
and may conceive how reluctantly it will be undertaken
by any one who has feeling enough to be careful to
avoid even unmerited censure. The too rapid fermen-
tation I have restrained, by a small quantity of recti-
fied spirits of wine, the empyreuma or burnt taste of
which had been destroyed by powdered orris root, (an
ounce to a pint. ) A single spoonful to a hogshead is
as much as can be used with safety, at any one time,
and that should be laid on the surface of the c} der when
the cask is full to the bung hole.
Where no great error in the fermentation has been
committed, the fining of cyder is a very plain business;
but it is indispensably necessary, that at the time of fin-
ing, there should not be the least degree of fermenta-
tion; of course, it must be done before the spring fer-
mentation commences, (which generally happens about
the last of March,) or be delayed until that fermentation
ceases, at which time, it most frequently has acquired
a degree of acidity, that renders it not worth fining.
The common staple isinglass, is, perhaps, the safest
fining; about five staples to two hogsheads. It is to be
dissolved in the liquor intended to be fined, after being
272 On making and filling Cyder
pounded and broken into threads. To dissolve it com-
pletely, it is necessary to beat the cyder containing it
well, several times a day, for two or three days, and then
to strain it through a flannel bag. The best general prac-
tice is, to pour your fining into the empty cask, and
then draw ofF your cyder and pour it on the fining.
This leaves behind, a great part of the sediment, checks
insensible fermentation, and mixes intimately the cyder
wdth the fining. — Then the cask being quite full, pour
on the spirits of wine, on the surface. It will generally
become quite fine and bright in six or eight days, and
should then immediately be drawn off, and bunged up
close, or bottled. But if it has not been sufiiciently fer-
mented, it will break your bottles. If drawn into casks
they should be bunged close, and waxed over the bung
to keep the air entirely out. To do this efiectually,
after the bung is carefully driven in, you must bore a
gimblet hole near the bung hole, and leave it open until
you have covered your bung ^vith the cement; other-
wise you will co\'er the bung, and leave open the small
Iioles on the side of the bung ; the warmth of the ce-
ment encreasing the quantity of the air below, will
throw up a blister through the air hole, and forever dis-
appoint the attempt to close it. The gimblet hole ad-
mitting the warm air to pass, the cement keeps its place
and closes the aperture, and when the cement is cooled
and hardened, the gimblet hole is completely stopped
by driving a white oak square plug into it.
Another strong reason for declining the task, was,
that too much is expected from cyder. The best Ma-
deira wine will not keep with less than eight gallons of
brand V in the hundred, and twelve is more commonly
On making and fining Cyder. 273
used : how then, can it be expected that the juice of the
apple, without aid, should stand through our summer's
heat? Brandy mixes its taste with the wine, in a course
of years, so as not to be perceived on the palate ; but
cyder exposes even the smallest mixture of the best
brandy, or any known spirits, more readily than any
other liquor. The concentration of cyder by frost, in
our coldest weather, if it has been previously duly fer-
mented, affords a delicate bottled liquor, that will stand
for years, and improve by time ; but the concentration
of the must, by long boiling, renders yeast absolutely
necessary to ferment it to a degree, suitable for drink
at our tables; and I have never met with any, that my
stomach did not com.plain of, after even a moderate
draught of it: whether owing to its being boiled in
t^opper vessels, or some other cause, I cannot venture
to say.
Ofi Peach Trees.
Doctor Muhlenberg requests me to give you the
manner in which my peach trees are treated, and espe-
cially as it relates to the worm so destructive to that
tree. This I the more readily comply with as he is a
witness of my complete success, and his judgment to be
relied on. This mode is, indeed attended with some
labour and requires some attention ; but let it be re-
membered, that the price of good fruit was fixed by the
deity himself when he created man and placed him in
the garden of Eden. Even then, and in that virgin soil,
the condition was that he ''dress the garden and keep
it,^'' and one may venture to say, that since then the price
has never been abated.
z z
274 071 Peach Trees.
A simple plain history of a single tree, will give you
the best idea of my practice, and a comment or two will
be sufficient to express my reasons for that practice
where it differs from common usage.
The peach stone with others, during the winter, lay
covered with earth about four inches deep, and about
the 20th of March was laid upo?i the ground, on its side,
and covered about two inches deep with good garden
mould, in the place where the tree was intended to stand.
When it rose high enough to shoot out side branches,
they w^ere cut off near to the main stem, taking great
care not to injure the leaf that stood at the base of each
side shoot. On the preservation of those leaves I relied
for a vigorous growth in the young tree ; having ob-
served, that where those leaves were destroyed, the
growth of the tree was stopped for about two weeks ;
whereas when the branches were cut off and the leaves
were preserved, the growth was not only uninterrupted
but was evidently accelerated. In August of the same
season, a bud was taken from the Madeira free stone
peach tree, and set in the young tree at about eight
inches above ground.^ The bud was set thus early in
the young tree from a settled opinion, that a fruit bear-
ing tree could, by this means, be procured sooner, than
by deferring the moculation until the next year ; and it
was secured by a bandage of woolen yam capable of
yielding to the growth, without bearing too hard upon
the bai'k of so young a shoot. In four weeks, or less,
the bandage was removed, to prevent its injuring the
^ Later experience has shewn, that setting the bud within
5;2einchof the ground, would have been more advantageous.
071 Peach Trees. 275
tree, which by a longer continuance it would certainly
have done. To guai'd against the worm there was now
laid round the tree about a pint of coarse sand, so as to
cover the roots and the tenderest part of the bark.^
The same care to preserve the leaves was continued
through the fall, and in the spring about the last of
March, the tree was cut off about five inches above the
inoculation ; and about a quart of the same coarse sand
was put round the root of the tree, in the same mannen
The shoot from the bud was treated through the next
season, precisely as the original stock was treated the
first season, with the same care to preserve the leaf at
the base of each side shoot, taking off the side shoots,
from time to time as they shot out, until the tree rose
to about four feet high; and then the next four side
shoots were left to grow to their full length ; the centre
shoot being cut off in September, and adding in the
month of August, a small quantity of sand round the
root. In the following spring a further guard against
the fly became necessary, and for this purpose an earth-
en cylinder open at both ends, and about five inches
wide and five inches high, was procured. In March
this cylinder was passed over the top of the tree, and
rested on the ground, and then filled with coarse sand,
so as to cover the tender part of the bark near the
ground ; and the stock cut off close to the inoculation,
^ The fly that produces the worm, lays its frst eggs early
in April, and the fly appears from those eggs early in August.
The worm produced irom this second set of eggs, continues
in the tree until the April following, and then renews the
attack.
276 On Peach Trees.
care being taken not to wound the shoot nor tear the
bark of the stock. When the heavy rains of the spring
had closed the surface of the ground, it was loosened
with a dung fork (made strong for the purpose and
having the lines square) so as to let in the air without
disturbing the roots, and this process was repeated
about the middle or last of August, after the first fall
rains. The spring following the sand in the cylinder
was loosened Avith the point of a trowel, to keep it
from binding too hard upon the tree; to do which
with much nicety required a full half minute. From
this time forward, until the tree grew too large for the
cylinder, no other cai^e was required than the usual
trimming, and the breaking of the ground as above
mentioned; except that the body of the tree was wash-
ed quite clean ever}^ March; sometimes with simple
water, and at other times with soap suds, urine &c. as
they occasionally were conveniently had ; but the differ-
ence in the effect of these is not easily seen, otherwise
than that the soap suds cleans the tree with the least la-
bour; and of the importance of this difference you may
judge when I tell you, that with water only a woman of
more than fifty years of age washed for me, last spring,
upwards of sixty trees in one day. When the air was
damp, and consequently, the dirt on the trees was moist,
a coarse cloth dipped in the water was put half round
the tree and drawn back\vard and forward a few times,
and continued upwards as high as she could reach.
This washing has been continued at least once a year
to this time, and the consequence is that the bark of the
tree continues smooth as that of a young chtrrj tree ;
and the effect is the same in all the peach trees in
0;z Peach Trees, 277
my garden. The cylinder was broken, when the tree
grew too large for it, and from that time, every spring,
about two quarts of sand was thrown round the roots,
to fill up the interstice between the tree and the earth,
occasioned by frost during the winter, so as to cover
the tender bark of the root. And by this means it has
been so effectually preserved, that there has never been
a worm in it, in any part of the tree, during its exist-
ence; and this has been, generally, the case with all my
trees. There are, however, a few exceptions that de-
serve to be mentioned as proof of the real efficacy of
this method. I had hired a man two years ago, to re-
new the sand round my trees, and having shewn him
what to do left him. The sand w^as to be brousrht, in
a barrow, about 150 yards, and to save himself this
trouble, he threw round the trees a shovel full of loam
and covered it with sand, so as to deceive me, and
lead me to suppose my orders were complied with. —
But the first heavy rain that fell, washed away the loam
and formed a gutter on the lower side of every leaning
tree, so as to lay bare some of the tender parts of the
root ; and in every tree thus exposed there was a worm
in a few weeks after; and there was not a worm in any
other tree in my garden. To this fact there are very
many witnesses ; and one or tw^o of the trees so killed,
are now standing; left for the purpose of shewing the
fact to those who may enquire concerning it. I am
aware that the fly is sometimes found in the body of
the tree ; but they are found only where the bark has
cracked open, so as to expose the inner tender bark, in
wounds recently healed and not covered, and in the
forks of the tree, where that bark has become exposed
278 On Peach Trees.
to them ; none of which circumstances happeh to my
trees.
All my trees are treated on the same principles, and
have the same appearance of that above mentioned ;
and notwithstanding their vigour of growth, have borne
an abundance of fruit, in the highest perfection, until
last summer when peaches generally failed ; and even
then, I had an abundant supply for myself and for my
friends, until after the 5th November. The tree above
spoken of was not removed ; but had it been so, it
would have been transplanted in the blossom time after
one years growth from the bud, and have been set about
four inches higher in the ground, than where it grew,
well watered at the time of planting and the earth then
raised two or three inches above the height at which
the earth had before covered it ; but after that time it
would not have again been watered, as I conceive the
watering of trees in hot weather rots the young fibres,
and does irreparable injury.
The tree of which I have given the history, is now
seven years growth from the bud, it measures at nine
inches from the ground, twenty three inches round,
and three feet higher up, it measures twenty two and
a half inches. Two of the four branches fork within a
foot of the body of the tree, and the mean height of those
six branches, is full twenty one feet, and they cover a
space of twenty two feet in diameter ; and every part
of it appears to be in the most perfect health and vi-
gour. The earth in which it stands is a red loam about
a foot thick, and under it is a bed of common yellow
clay. There has been a cellar dug at the distance of
about two hundred feet from the tree, and there, next
On Peach Trees, 279
below the clay, was thrown out a brown flaky earth,
having the appearance of slate, in a state of partial de-
composition. The situation of my garden is on the
summit of the hill on which the borough of Lancaster
stands, and is fully exposed to the north west winds,
and the extremely cold winter before the last, injured
some of the branches on the north west side of two or
three trees that were most exposed ; all the rest of the
trees have rather an uncommon degree of health and
%igour.
The gi'afting of peach trees has not been very com-
monly practised, owing to the ragging of the bark, in
splitting open the stock. This inconvenience is reme-
died, most effectually, by cutting the bark with the
point of your knife, through the outside circular bark,
at least, in the direction of the cleft you mean to open
in the stock. This leaves the bark smooth, so as to
meet the bark of the cion as perfectly as is done in seed
fruits. This may sometimes save a year in the gi'owth
of your trees, and it has this important advantage, that
the cions may be brought in the winter season, from
almost any distance, and be used with success in the
spring.
Sensible of the great advantage to the public, to be
derived from the exertions of the agricultural society,
I wish the zeal of its members, may long continue to
increase.
and am yours and their,
most obedient servant,
Timothy Matlack.
Dr. James Mease,
[ 280 ]
On Hedges.
[ The following postscript to the paper on hedges by
Mr Taylor, xvas not received in time for insertion m the
proper place, — See page 102.]
I have chiefly confined this memoir to the actual
process of the experiment, but I will add two altera-
tions, I purpose to make, with the reasons for them.
One is, to forbear to cut oft' any boughs, six inches
from the stem, to weave them into the hedge, as they
become long enough, for which their pliancy, whilst
young, is peculiarly adapted, and to confine the prun-
ing to the object of keeping the hedge low enough, un-
til it is suflticiently close. The other is, to manure
wdth live boughs of cedar or pine, in place of dead stuiF,
having found them by far the richest manure, and that
by packing live boughs in a line three feet wide, or
eighteen inches on each side of the row of young cedars,
so as to cover the earth completely ; it is probable that
grass and weeds will be smothered, the ground mellow-
ed, some culture saved, and the growth of the plants
accelerated.
Firgifiia^ Carolifw Co. Aug, "Ith, 1807.
[ 281 ]
Ileinarks on the Plan of a Stercorary, described in the
Note, Page 153. By Richard Peters.
Read April 12th, 1808.
Fig. 1. The sizes of the timber must be regulated by
the strength required by the weight of the roof. — The
posts are mortised into the sills.
Fig. 2. There should be a gang way cleated or strip-
ped, for the poultry to walk on. The pump may be
made as here represented, or as in Fig. 3. where it is
elevated, to throw the drainings the higher; with shifting
troughs to lead it over the heap. These ends, as far as
occupied {or pigeons or poultry, may be floored with oak
laths, and openings left, for the ordure to drop through,
Fig. 1, A for pigeons. Fig. 2, B for poultry. The space
not thus occupied, maybe otherwise usefully employed.
Fig 3. Is a side view, as are Fig. 1 and 2, of the ends.
Carts may be loaded without entering the stercorary;
and for this purpose the bars above the wall, may be
made to unship at proper places. The side of the gut-
ter, next the entrance, must be elevated with large
stone on edge, to prevent leakages there. The roof
may be shingled, or thatched. The dimensions or
height may be fixed at pleasure, as this plan is only of-
fered for consideration. I think if the square of the
frame were two feet lower, it would be better. The sun
should be excluded, as much as is consistent with the
admission of air. This must be governed by the quan-
tity of manure, likely to be contained in the stercorary.
Fig. 4. A, The bed paved something like a Phila-f
delphia street ; the walls serving as curb stones. Or
A 3
^82 Remarks on the Plan of a Stcrcorary,
it may be formed of good sound loam or clay. To rise
two feet at the centre, or crown; dripping each way
to the gutters. This avoids the evil attendant on muck-
lying in hollows, in which the over-abundant moisture
obstructs putrefaction. It is more simple than the
plan of an English stercorary, with a concave bed and
multiplied drains, always liable to choak.^ B. B. B.
gutters ; two feet wide, paved witli flat stone, or pitched
with small pebbles; to decline or drip six inches, i. e.
two inches in ten feet, gradually from the back part, to
the cistern. These gutters must not be paved so as to
make the angles at the walls too acute. Faggots should
be placed next the walls in the gutters, to keep open
a passage, or hollow drain. The cistern or well need
not be deep ; but must be clayed at the bottom and
sides, to prevent leakages. The pump may be cheap
and simple ; made like a ship pump, with a wooden
brake. A wooden spear might answer the purpose;
and not be liable, like iron, to corrode, and be injured
by the salts, or tartar, in the drain in gs.
None but those who have had the means of ascer-
taining it by a reservoir, can tell the loss accruing by the
escape of the drainings. Above 70 hogsheads of drain-
ings have been returned on the dung heap of a moderate-
ly sized farm, in one season. Each hogshead of rich
drainings is at least equal, in efficiency, to a load of dung,
as atop dressing. Here is a gain of manure, for four or
five acres of ground. The loss by evaporation, caused
by the sun, for want of a roof or cover, is incalculable.
* All the drafts of English stercoraries I have seen, are cuxular ; afigurr,
wbichl think inconvenient and expensive, precluding: additions.
Jiemarks on the Plan ofu Stercorary, 283
Let those who will not incur the expence of a pro-
per stercoriiry, fence or pen their clung heaps; having
(as I have clone profitably for many years) formed the
bed in the manner directed. Let drains, leading into
a clayed vat, or even a liogshead sunk in the earth, be
made. The heap may be covered with a straw roof,
supported b3/ posts set in the ground. The rudest
step towards the object, is better than our present mis-
management. Dung or muck, lying light, and not
trodden by cattle, ferments and puti'efies quickly and
equally.
Cattle should be confined at nights, in summer. —
When they will not feed in the day, owing to flies and
extreme heat, they should be fed at night with cut
grass ; and their dvmg composted, or thrown into the
stercorary. Summer dung is generally lost in the
fields; being either rendered v/orthless by exposure, or
carried away by beetles.*
Plaister of Paris ^ strewed on the layers of dung, pro.
motes fermentation and putrefaction; whereas limey
especially before it is slacked, impedes them, and con-
sumes putrescible substances, forming v\ith the resi-
duum, which is carbonc^ an insoluble compound. —
The gi/psufn mixed in composts is found highly bene,
ficial, and far preferable to lime, which should not be
admitted while the fermentation and putrefaction are
in progress; or afterwards, until it is slacked. The
muck should be considered only as a means of impreg-
nating other matter, and not a dependence in chief. —
Good surface mould, or common earth, thrown from
time to time on the muck heap, becomes a manure ;
and adds to the fertilizing qualities of the dung. It
284 Remarks on the Plan of a Stercorary*
imbibes the juices, and impedes their escape ; as well
as prevents loss by evaporation. Those who will not
erect a proper stercorary, should always cover the heap
with mould, or earth. To those who adopt the kind of
stercoral*}^ here recommended, the intermixture of earth,
or soil, will be highly beneficial.
It is questionable, whether very old dung, reduced
to its elementar}^ basis, carbone^ is of any use in vege-
tation. By far the greater part of all dung, consists of
this insoluble and indestructible substance. Like coin
locked up, till antiquated, it depreciates. Its value de-
pends on its currency, and quick circulation.^
To our farmers in general, a building for a muck
heap, appears whimsical and strange. They will find
it, however, the sure and all essential means of increas-
ing the numbers and sizes of their barns, and all other
buildings. They should value it, as the miser does his
strong box. They should gifasp after and hoard ma-
nure, as gi'eedily and anxiously, as he seeks for and
accumulates treasure. But far different must be the
results of their endeavours. This hoard of the farmer
as not to be locked up uselessly. It must be expended
liberally, without extravagance, for the benefit of him-
self and his countrj'.
* I think dung begins to deteriorate, nfter it is one year old. I have put
it on after lying several years, without any perceptible benefit. But the
practice of ploughing in hot and fresh dung, has often been to me a sub-
ject of regret. It not cniy produces smutty crops, in parts over stimulat-
ed, but cannot be equally spread, or covered. So that much straw and
little grain, appear in spots, which often lie down; and in others, scarcely
any advantage is dei-ived. Muck composted, will keep the longest, with-
out injury to its fertilizing qualities. Dung and nitick in confined places,
from which free air and moistm-e are excluded, undergo a degree of
combustion ; and become dry-rotten^ mouldy and worthless.
PLAN AND ELEVATION OF A STERCORAR^,
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
SO Feet.
t 286 ]
Account of native Thorns. By Thomas Main.
Read April 12th, 1808.
Near George Town, Potomac y Oct. 15, 180T.
Sir,
Yours of the 8th inst. came to hand last night.
I am sorry that your request concerning my transmit-
ting you specimens of the several sorts of the Ameri-
can haw thorn, which are to be found in this neigh-
bourhood, has been deferred so late in the season. —
This forenoon I went out to gather them, and find that
the most of them have shed their leaves, and what they
still retain, are partly in a state of decay, or so easily
detached from the sprigs, that it was with much diffi-
culty I could get any, in any tolerable state of fresh-
ness.
In this district, there are only four species. The first
3s the cockspur, which I suppose is equally common
in Pennsylvania ; of this species, there are several vari-
eties, some with broad, large, thick leaves, and some
with narrower leaves, one of them however, seems to
be dwarfish, and bears yellow berries, but otherwise,'
the same as the rest. The second is not very plenti-
ful, it has pretty large, round leaves, and varies also a
little, almost in every plant; the third is a species of
the maple leaved, and is common in various parts of the
continent. There is in this sort a gi'eat diversity in
the taste and shade of the fruit, some of them being
very pleasant to eat, and of a light red ; others indiffer-
ent, -and some extremely sour, ill tasted and harsh. The.
Account of native Thorn. 287
fourth sort is the species which I have named the Ame-
Tican hedge thorn; it has no varieties that ever I have
met with, either in the foliage or fruit. The first and
the last are the only two haw thorns which I would
chuse to plant for live fences, the last however, is pre-
ferred by every one that has ever seen my hedges. —
Its regular gro^vth, lively foliage, and upright aspect,
determines the choice of a spectator at once. It is of
free growth, extremely healthy, never infested with the
plant louse, and retains its leaves longer than all the
others. The plants in my nursery, are now as green
as in July, I shall therefore send you some complete
specimens of them, root and all, in a preserved ^xy
state. ^
I remain. Sir,
Your obedient servant,
Thomas Main.
Dr. James Mease.
[*The difference in the colour of the American hedge
thorn^ when compared with the other specimens, was very
apparent, in those sent by Mr. Main to the society. The
species named by Mr. M. is the Crataegus Cordata Lin.]
[ 288 3
Growth of Thorns from Cuttings of the Roots*
By James Mease ^ m. d.
Read April 12th, 1808.
In the twenty third volume of the Transactions of
the London Society of Arts, Mr. Taylor of Moston,
near Manchester, has given an account of his success in
the propagation of thorns by cutting the roots into
lengths and planting them. In two years they became
as good thorns as the average of those he had purchased,
and planted at the time. The thorns were three
years old when he got them. In April 1802, he liad
occasion to move a fence, [hedge] from which he pro-
cured as many roots of thorns as made upwards of two
thousand cuttings, of Vv'hich he did not loose five in the
hundred.
The method of raising the thorns from roots is as
follows.
" Purchase the desired number of thorns, and when
three years old, take them up and trim the roots, from
each of which ten or twelve cuttings will be ob=
tained: plant these cuttings in rows half a yard asun-
der, and about four inches from each other in the
row. They ought to be about four inches long, and
planted with the top one fourth of an inch out of the
ground, and w^ell fastened, otherwise they will not
succeed so well. April is the best time to plant the
cuttings. The thick end must be planted upper-
most. The advantages of this mode are, first, in case
any one has raised from haws, a thorn with remarkably
Growth of Thorns, ^c. 289
large prickles, of vigorous growth, or possessing any
other qiiahfication requisite to make a good fence, he
may propagate it far better and sooner, from roots, thaa
any other way. Secondly, in three years he may raise
from roots a better plant, than can in six years be raised
from haws, and with double the quantity of roots. It
%vould not be a bad way, in order to get roots, to plant
a hedge in any convenient place, and on each side to
trench the ground two yards wide, and two grafts deep;
from which, ever}^ two or three years, a large quantity
of roots might be obtained, by trenching the ground'
over again and cutting away what roots were found,
which would all be young and of a proper thickness."
As I knew that Mr. Kirk of Brandywine, had com-
menced a thorn fence on his farm, I sent him Mr. Tay-
lor's publication, with the expectation, that the infor-
mation contained in it, would shorten his labour. The
next time I saw him, he told me, that the fact of the
vegetation of the thorn root cuttings was not new to him,
having been informed of it by his neighbour Mr. Ar-
mor, who had discovered it, when trimming the roots
of some old thorns v/hich he was about to transplant.
Those cuttings being thrown carelessly under some
earth, began to grow vigorously, and many of the plants
were set out. He observed that those which were
placed on the south side of a rail fence, did not succeed
so well as those set on the north side, owing to the ^eat
heat reflected from the rails. Neither Mr. Armor nor
Mr. Kirk however, follow the practice of propagating
thorns in this way, as a particular species of thorn (cratce-
B 3
290 Groxvth of Thorns, bV.
gus cordata) cultivated by Mr. Main of George Town^
Potomac, grows without difficulty.*
The editor of the "Retrospect of discoveries," Lon-
don 1806, says "we have long ago practised the plant-
ing of shoots which came up plentifully from the fibres
of the roots left in the ground, after stocking up white
thorn hedges. We can also add that the best way of
renovating a wom-out white thorn hedge, is to bare the
earth, and chop off the large old stools with a sharp axe,
near to, or below the lower fork of the stems : each
one of whose roots will afterwards be found to throw-
up vigorous shoots, and much thicken the future
hedge, if the same is thoroughly protected from cattle,
and kept clean from weeds." These facts are highly
encouraging to the commencement of hedge rows, and
should induce the American farmer without delay to
begin this important work. Land thus inclosed, will
prove a much better fortune to the child who may
possess it, than if the amount of the money which
the work may cost, had been put out at interest for his
account.
^ To those who have it not in their power to procure plants
of those thorns, which Mr. Main cultivates for sale, it will be
important to know, that by sowing the haws of the pear
leaved thorn, in ploughed ground in the spring, and spreading
gypsum and ashes on it, their vegetation will be promoted in
a most remarkable manner. The plants from haws thus
treated, in one case, grew two feet high the first year.
[ 291 j
l^escription of a Kitchen Stove. By Samuel Dickey.
Comniimicated to JoJui Miller.
Head April 12th, 1808.
Oxford, Chester County, Felruary '29th, 1808.
Dear Sir,
There arc few subjects on which the ingenuity of
man can be employed to better purposes than devising
the means of promoting oeconomy in the consumption
of fuel. Already our cities and their neighbourhoods,
feel the severe eftects of a scarcity in this article. But
the time is not far distant, when this scarcity will be
felt in a much higher degree ; and many parts of the
interior country that are yet hardly affected, will suffer
most of all as \v-ood is the only fuel there attainable, —
Though much has been done by the inventions of in-
genious men, much still remains to be done, and par-
ticularly in kitchens, where, it is the universal com-
plaint, that much the greatest consumption takes place.
My thoughts have been occasionally turned from the
direct pursuits of agriculture, to this subject, and some
experiments have been made which have terminated in
the invention of a kitchen stove or closed fire place,
which I flatter myself may be of service to society. —
To cover the expence incident to such in^'entions, and
which cannot ordinarily be reimbursed in any other
way, it has been thought necessary to secure the ad-
vantages (if any there may be) by a patent. As the en-
couragement of such inventions comes within the view
qF tliC association, I trouble you to present to the socie-
292 Desaiption of a Kitchen Stove.
ty, the following account of this stove or closed fire
place, with the drawing that accompanies it, which I
hope will make it sufficiently intelligible.
The general principles of this kitchen stove are —
1. Enclosing it with the pots connected with it, in
some covering that is a nonconductor of heat, by which
the speedy evaporation of the heat is prevented, and its
power concentrated more intensely upon the pots and
ovens used in cooking.
2. Drawing off the fire from the furnace of the stove,
through openings in the stove plates, that may be closed
at pleasure with sliding dampers, and by means of the
covering that surrounds the stove, conveying it round
pots set close to these openings, and returning it back
upon the ovens for the purpose of encreasing the heat
in them.
3. Allowing the fire to pass into the oven of the stove,
through an opening in the bottom plate of the oven im-
anediately above the fire, so as to bear ^vith all its force
on a tea kettle or any small vessel set hito the oven for
the purpose of boiling.
4. Receiving the heat into a large receptacle of sheet
iron placed above the stove, through v/hich it may pass
into the kitchen for the purpose of warming it.
The application of these principles will be easily un-
derstood from a more detailed account of the stove
with references to the drawing, which presents a front-
view, with the pots connected, inclosed in brick work,
the only covering that has yet been used as a noncon^
ductor.
A, B, C, D, is the front plate, which on all sides pro-
jects a little over the brick work that is built nearly
DcscriptiGii of a Kitchen Stove. 293
close to the stove. The expanding of the iron on be-
ing heated, would move the brick work out of its place,
if it were built against the edges of the plate. This
plate rises about a third higher than tlie stove itself
W'hich reaches only from A, B, to F, E, in order to al-
low a second oven of sheet iron to be placed about the
oven of the stove. The mouth of this oven appears
open at H. The stove has but two apartments. The
lower, the door of which appears shut, is the furnace in
which the wood is consumed, and is similar to il^e fur-
nace of a ten plate stove. The second apartment,
the door of which appears open, is used as an c^en for
baking or roasting, or for boiling a small vessel as
occasion ma}^ require. At I, appears the opening in the
bottom plate through which the iire is admitted into
this apartment. Over this opening a sliding damper
passes when it is desired to shut it, the handle of which
is seen projecting in front of the stove at K. There is
a corresponding opening in the plate over this apart-
ment, through which the fire passes out of it into the
flue above. This opening is also closed by a sliding
damper, the handle of w^hich projects at L. The brick
Vv'ork M, N, at the side of the furnace as appears in the
drawing, extends such a distance as to inclose a vacant
space sufficient to contain a pot set close to the side of
the furnace. Over the top of this inclosure of brick
work, is laid flat the cast plate O, P, in A^hich is an
opening Q, through which a pot of a cylindrical form
may be dropped close to the side of the stove. This
pot is supported by a perpendicular edge projecting
round the lip, and resting on the plate through which it
is dropped. Directly opposite the pot is a large open-
294/ Description of a Kitchen Stow,
ing in the stove plate, through which the fire passes
round the pot, and proceeds in a flue formed between
the brick and the stove plate up the back of the stove,
and thence into the Hue between the two ovens, and so
proceeds up the sides and over the top of the second
oven. The opening in the stove plate tlirough which
the fire passes to the pot is closed at pleasure, by a dam-
per sliding close to the outside of the stove plate, the
handle of which projects through the edge of the front
plate at R. On the other side of the stove is an ac-
commodation of brick work for another pot exactly
similar to what has just been described, only as ap-
peal's in the drawing tw^o pots of smaller size may be
used instead of one. At S, is a small door through
which a raker may be inserted for the purpose of clean-
ing the flue between the first and second oven. T is
the receptacle or drum of sheet iron, into w^hich tlie
smoke and heat is received on leaving the stove, for
warming the house. When this heat is not required in
the kitchen, the passage into the drum is closed by a
damper turning on centers, the handle of which a}>
peai's at U, and the smoke is directed in a flue in the
upper part of the brick work into the chimney. V, X^
is a cast plate that lies fiat on the top of the brick work,
for the purpose of strengthening it.
Every person w^ho thinks upon the subject, is sensi-
ble of the vast waste of fuel that takes place in cooking
at an open fire. The introduction of a ten plate stove
is certainly ceconomical, and adds much to the comfort
of the kitchen. But still there is both a manifest ex-
pense, and trouble in keeping up two fi.res. One ought
to serve all purposes. The stove or closed fire place
Description of a Kitchen Stove, 295
above described, does all the business of the kitchen
with one fire and a great saving of fuel as the same
heat that bakes and boils, is afterwards emitted to w^arm
the kitchen with nearly as good effect, as if it had per-
formed no previous service. Besides the saving of
w^ood, there is perhaps as great a saving of labour, by
the facility with which the cooking business can be ex-
ecuted. The ovens are always warm when there is
fire in the stove. The fire can be turned off and on the
pots in an instant, without the trouble of moving them ;
and the cook is never exposed to the scorching heat
of an open fire. This stove is set with the most ad-=
vantage in the fire place of the kitchen. The front of
it extending about twelve inches out from the breast of
the chimney so as to admit the apparatus for heating
the kitchen to stand out in front of the mantle. The
throat of the chimney should be stopped in winter, but
furnished with a sliding shutter to be opened occasion-
ally so as to allow the steam from the boiling pots to
escape without incommoding the kitchen.
With much respect,
I remain yours, Sec.
Samuel Dickey.
Mr« John Miller.
L 296 J
Changes of Timber and Plants, Races of Ainnials ex-
tinct. By lucliard Peters,
Read April 12th, 1808.
In a con\'ersation with Mr. Rembratidt Peale, who
adds to talents promising to render him greatly eminent
as a portrait painter, a knowledge of natur^il history, in
some of its most curious branches, the subject of changes
of timber was mentioned. He informed me of the cir-
cumsftances attending their search for the bones of the
mammoth^ in Orange and Ulster counties, in the state of
New York, in 1801. He was so kind as to gratify me,
by presenting to me two pamphlets; accompanied by a
letter, which I send for the perusal of the society. I
transcribe the passage he alludes to, relating to the
timber. I have been highly entertained and instructed
by the perusal of these pamphlets ; which I have now
for the first time read. They are worthy the attention
of every person, v.iio has a desire to know and admire
the wonders and stupendous works of nature. I find
that great bodies of marie (the deposits of Avaters) exist
in the country wherein the mammoth bones were discov-
ered. The exploration and difficulties attending it, as
well as the ingenuity and perseverance of his father and
himself in procuring the bones, are very amusively dis-
played ; and do both of them gi'cat lionour. I perceive
that some of the mammoth bones gave the first stimulus
to Mr. Peale the elder, to prosecute his succesful en^
deavours at establishing a museum of natural curiosities;
which has few rivals in any part of the world. It is in
Changes of Timber and Plants^ Esfc. 297
itself hiirhly interesting; but when it is considered that
the collection was made by an individual without for-
tune, or any important assistance from others in the first
stages of its progress, the result is really astonishing.
I shall, at some future period of leisure, draw toge-
ther some facts relative to the position I have taken, that
changes of race or locality, are necessary to prevent or
remedy the deterioration of animals. And this with no
desire to enter into controversy, or merely to support
an opinion ; but for the consideration of those interested
in such subjects.
I shall when treating on the subject, make use (inter
alia) of the following facts, furnished to me by Mr. Peale'^s
pamphlet. They will shew a tendency in nature to
changes, in the animal kingdom; by exterminating
whole races, or species of animals, to be succeeded by
others entirely different. I shall not deem it necessary
to enter into delicate questions, on this subject. It ^w\\\
be enough for m.y purpose that the haunts of these e:jt-
tinct animals are occupied by different species.
I find in Mr. PeaWs account, that *'four animals of
enormous magnitude have formerly existed in America^
perhaps at the same time, and of natures very opposite.
1st. The mammotlu carnivorous. 2nd. An animal
whose graminivorous teeth, larger than, and different
from, those of the elephant^ are sometimes found. 3d.
The great Indian bidl: and 4th. An animal probably of
the sloth kind, as appears, on a comparison with the
bones found in Virginia, and a skeleton found in South
America, and preserved in the museum at Madrid,^^
Mr. Peak cites an interesting memoir of M. Cuvier
** whose researches into this subject have been indefa-
G 3
298 Chafiges of Timber mid Plants^ <i^c.
tigable and profound;" and in it, "there are mentioned
no less than twenty three different species of animals which
are now extinct, but whose existence in former ages is
attested hy their fossil remains ; no recent production
of the sort having ever been authenticated."
I copy the passage relative to timber; page 36 of his
small pamphlet. '* Many of the cavities between these
knolls are dry, others are in a state of ponds, but an in-
finite number containing morasses, which must origi-
nally have been ponds, supplied by springs which still
flow at their bottoms, and filled in the course of ages
with a succession of shell fish and the decay of ve-
getables ; so that at present they are covered with timber.,
and have been so within the memory of man. An old
man, upwards of sixty, informed us that all the differ-
ence he could remark between these morasses now,
and what they w^rt fifty years ago, was, that then they
were generally covered with firs, and now with beach.
This was verified by the branches and logs of fir which
we found in digging ; many pieces of which had been cut
by beavers, the former inhabitants of these places, when
in the state of ponds. Scarcely a fir is ?iow to be foimd
in the country »^'*
My son Richard, who with Mr. Adlum, accompanied
me, in 1797 or 1798, on a tour into the wilderness in
Lycoming county, to view some of my new lands, re-
minds me that on these lands, invariably, the old de-
cayed timber long blown down, or fallen with age, was
of an entirely different species from that standing. We
found flourishing ash, 6 feet diameter, sugar maple, 6
'feet through; and we measured one button wood, on
some fine rich bottoms on the waters of th^ Loyakock.
Changes of Timber and Plants, ^c. 299
thriving and healthy, 1 1 feet 8 inches diameter. These
bottoms were covered with flourishing shell bark hick-
ory, wild cherry, white walnut, and an immense variety
o^ plumbs ; though the whole country, in other parts,
had no other timber than beach, sugar maple and hem^
lock', and some stately chesnuts on the ridges. My son
also brings to my recollection, that when we surveyed
the tract, called in old times, the pine tract, in North-
ampton county, a great number of ash trees, were inter-
mixed with the present growth of oak and hickory.
With no overweening zeal • but to obtain incontesti-
ble proofs of a fact I consider, as I believe now that it
is, very generally known here, though overlooked by
many very intelligent men, both here and in Europe,
I wrote to Dr. Caldwell; who is observant, and, I un-
derstood, well informed of facts on this subject. He
has politely favoured me with an answer ; for which he
is entitled to my thanks. I send his letter, that such
parts of it as apply to the general subject may be ex-
tracted. I have not ventured to give any opinion about
the immediate cause. I leave my practical conclusion
to the consideration of those for whom it is intendeds
I am satisfied that experience in practical agriculture
will incontestibly prove the position ; even if the means
I have taken to strengthen it, should not to others, be
so apparent in their application, as to me they seem.
April Uh, 1808.
300 Changes of Timber and Plants^ ^c.
Philadelphia March 25th, 1808.
Dear Sir,
In my first publication on thq mammoth, page 36,
you will find an observation on a species of rotation of
timber, which is known to have taken place in Orange
and Ulster counties, in the state of New York. — Your
ingenious, philosophic and valuable application of this
fact, in the operations of nature on a great scale, to the
improvement of agriculture, in the rotation of crops,
deserves to be supported by concurring testimony;
especially as the facts which are here advanced so easily
admit of confirmation.
In addition to this paragraph I need only remark,
that these morasses contain abundance of pine burrs, ^
together with the trunks and branches of wood evide?itly
pine (specimens of both are now in the Museum, case
No. 4,) of which/ do riot remember to have seen a tree
growing in the neighbourhood, and that it is only from
the circumstance being so universally kno^vll by the
inhabitants that it is not often spoken of.
I remain, respectfully yours,
Rembrandt Peale.
^ This not only proves the pre-existence of a growth of
pine timber, on the lands now occupied by a species entirely
different ; but it goes much farther, in support of the analo-
gy between natural and artificial products. The " abundance
01 pine burrs ^"^ w^hich we know contain the seed, found on
these lands, is an indisputable evidence of there having been
seed in plenty to reproduce pine timber, if the land had not
been pine-sick: — to use a country phrase, applied to lands
which will no longer admit of a repetition of the same kind
of crop. R. Peters.
Changes of Timber and Plants^ ^c. 301
Philadelphia April 1st, 1808.
Dear Sir,
That nature delights in, and actually effects,
entire changes and successions in the vegetable pro-
ductions of the earth, (I mean circumscribed spots of
earth) is a Jaet which appears to have been familiar
to the obser^'ing part of mankind, as long ago as the
age of Pliny the elder. I believe, but of this I am
not certain, that the same thing is noticed in the wri-
tings of Aristotle, and is even brought forward by
that Avonderful man, as an argument in favour of the
doctrine of equivocal gene?'ation. Be this, however,
as it may, the fact does not need the authority of any
of the illustrious writers of either ancient or modern
times, for its permanent establishnient. It is already
established by nature herself, whose authority is para-
mount to every thing else, and must, in the present
instance, be regarded as final and conclusive. The
only thing extraordinary in the case is, that at this en-
lightened period, any one, who has an opportunity of
observing for himself, should entertain doubts of so
obvious a truth. I presume it is purely for v/ant of
such an opportunity, that the Edinburgh Reviewers
have taken exception at the narrative of Mackenzie.
For these writers appear by no means ignorant of facts
and subjects that lie within the sphere, of their own
observation.
Our own countr}' is unquestionably one of the most
favourable spots on the globe, for making correct ob>
servations, and thereby arriving at truth on the present
subject. The country being new, the progress of clear-
S02 Changes of Timber and Plants^ b\\
ing and cultivation cannot fail to make material changes
in the climate, the general state of the atmosphere, and
the soil. These changes naturally and necessarily lead
to corresponding mutations in the productions of the
earth. For, in my mind the productions of the earth
are the 7iative children of surrounding circumstajices. —
By some, I well know that this sentiment is reprobated
as profane and atheistical. With me, it is not so. I
deem it perfectly compatible with the existence and
the attributes of a God, who framed and governs the
universe, as the cause of causes, and not as the imme-
diate cause of every petty event. Viewing the Deity
in this most honourable and exalted of all possible
lights, I cannot but believe, that he has imparted to the
earth and other elements a power of peopling themselves,
(at least under certain circumstances) v/ithout his direct
and proximate agency.
In the countries of Europe, where a more advanced
stage of agricultural improvements has given a greater
stability to the state of the soil, the atmosphere, and
the climate, we can readily admit, that nature does not
now^ make such frequent and striking changes in the
vegetable productions of the earth, as she probably did
some centuries ago, or as she does in the United States
at the present time. This circumstance may perhaps,
explain to us, why many Europeans, even of the most
extensive observation and expanded intellect, are en-
tirely ignorant that such changes ever occur. Men
cannot incur blame for not being acquainted with facts
which they have never had an opportunity to learn. —
But there exists no apology whatever for the ignorance
of Americans on this subject. The mutations here re-
Changes of Timber and Plants, ^c. 303
ferred to are daily occurring before our eyes, and the
fact ought to be famiUar to every one of us. Indeed
I thought till lately that this was the case, and that it is
not so, must be attributed either to an entire want, or
to a very culpable inaccuracy, of observation.
Though never practically devoted to agriculture
myself, I passed my time, till my twentieth year, in an
agricultural and a new country. As the vegetable pro-
ductions of the earth were always objects of more than
common admiration and amusement to me, my ac-
quaintance with them began at a very early period of
my life. As to the point which constitutes the imme-
diate subject of this letter, the progress of my observa-
tion was as follows.
When my flither and other neighbouring farmers
contemplated the clearing of a tract of land for future
cultivation, it was their custom, during the mild wea?
ther of winter, to grub up the underbrush and throw
it together in what they called bi'ush heaps. The large
timber was afterwards felled, cut into sections of ten
or twelve feet long, and rolled together in large piles
called log heaps. Towards spring, when the timber had
become somewhat dry, these b7'ush heaps and log heaps
were set on fire and consumed. During the course of
the succeeding summer, I frequently, indeed almost
uniformly observed, that from among the ashes of these
piles of wood, there sprang up certain nexv plants, which
ivere not to be found, in any part of the surrounding
country, except in similar situations, where they had
also made their appearance, in the same spontaneous
jnanncr. The botanical names of these plants I do not
recollect, perhaps I never knew them, I well rem-em-
104 Changes of Timher and Plants^ l^c.
ber, however, that they were generally of a rapid and
luxuriant gro\\1:h. I further recollect, that at least,
some of them were lactescent plants. They always ap-
peared to me in the light of new productions.
It sometimes happened that the land, after having
been cleared of its underbrush and forest timber, was
not put under actual cultivation for two, three, or four
years. In this case it never failed to produce, during
the second or third summer, a crop of xvhite clover, al-
though not a sprig of that vegetable grew within many
miles of the place. This fact occurs not only in Vir-
ginia and North Carolina, \\'here I have myself witnes-
sed it, but also as I am well informed, in many other
parts of the United States. Indeed its existence can
be as well authenticated as the existence of the Allega-
ny mountain or the Chcsapeak bay.
In other parts of North Carolina, where the growth
of timber consists almost entirely of oak and hickory, if
this be removed, it will be succeeded in a few years
by a general and plentiful crop of young pines. Nor
is it necessary to the success of this experiment, that
the place cleared should be in a piney neighbourhood. —
The event will take -place with equal certainty, though
there be not a pine within m.any miles.
During the time of my residence in North Carolina,
as the farmers generally possessed large bodies of land,
they seldom made use of much manure. When the
soil of one field became exhausted, instead of manur-
ing and renovating it, their common practice was, to
turn it out to lie fallow for many years, and to proceed
to the clearing of another field. In this case the ex-
hausted fallow ground never failed to produce sooner
Changes of Timber and Plants^ ^c, 305
or later, a plentiful crop of a lofty gramineous plant, call-
ed in the common language of that country, broom grass.
Nor was it necessary that this plant should be previously
growing in the neighbourhood. It appeared to be the
native growth, of an exhausted and an exposed soil :
and from such a soil it seemed to spring without the
intervention of specific parentage.
To the truth of the foregoing facts, I can testify in
person. They have been familiarly known to me from
my early years. Of many other similar facts I havti
received such well authenticated accounts, that I can-
not for a moment doubt of their truth. The following
one I believe, to be w^ell known to many of the most
respectable inhabitants of New Jersey.
Certain tracts of that state are covered entirely with
forests of pine. If these be cut down, and the land not
put immediately under cultivation, they are succeeded
in a few yeai's by a plentiful growth of young oaks. —
I am told that in some parts of New Jersey, nurseries
of young oaks produced in this way are to be found in
the centre of extensive forests of pine. I will not vouch
for the truth of this fact. All I can say respecting it
is, that I received it from a very respectable source,
and that it perfectly comports in principle with what I
have myself seen.
In the course of the last century, the white pine sprang
up spontaneously in a place called Duxborough, in the
state of Massachusetts, without having been previously
a native of the neighbourhood. Between twenty and
thirty yeai's ago, there was a man still living who had a
perfect recollection of the first pine that ever made its
appearance in the township ; whereas, at present, that
T)3
306 Changes of Timber and Flatits, bV.
plant constitutes one eighth part of the timber of the
place. Though I can give no personal testimony in
support of this fact, I notwithstanding believe it to be
true.
In new settlements in the southern states, and I pre-
sume the same thing occurs elsewhere, the weeds and
gramineous plants which gradually and imperceptibly
introduce themselves into cultivated farms, are entirely
diiferent from the native productions of the surrounding
countr)'. This is a fact which is familiar to every one.
Now the question very naturally presents itself, whence
are these various plants derived? Are they introduced
by man or his domestic animals from foreign places?
If so, from what places, in v/hat manner, and for what
purpose? These are points worthy of consideration,,
and, in my opinion, difficult of solution. For my own
part, I cannot hesitate to believe, that tliese plants are
a new and spontaneous production of the farms where
they appear; and that they are brought into existence
by the new order or state of things, introduced into
these farms by the instrumentality of clearing and cul-
tivation.
Were it necessaiy to the purposes of this letter, I
could produce numerous instances of similar innova-
tions in the animal kingdom. But as these innovations,
though remotely, are not proximately connected with
agriculture, I shall forbear to swell, by dwelling on
them, a communication in which I have already too far
trespassed on your time, and I fear on your patience.
Before concluding, however, suffer me to remark,
that though we have both been in search of similar facts,
I suspect we have been collecting them for dissimilar
Changes of Timber and Plants, ^c. 307
purposes. You have in view the establishment of a
great practical principle in agriculture ; I, the establish-
ment of a mere theoretical principle in philosophy. In
this respect you tower above me. For good works are
greatly superior to abstract thinking, how correct so-
ever such thinking may be.
If the preceding facts and observations, sir, can be of
any avail in the promotion of your very laudable and
and important views, I shall feel happy in having aided
you in so good a cause. Agriculture forms the true
basis of oiu' national prosperity. Its enlightened and
industrious patrons and promoters, therefore, are justly
ranked among our soundest patriots.
Suffer me again to apologise for the length of this
letter, and to assure you of the sincerity, with which I
have the honour to be
Your obedient and
very humble servant,
Charles Caldwell.
The Hon. Richard Peters, Esq.
I add the following letter as a close to the subject.
Facts similar to those stated ai'e known, wheresoever
my enquiries have been communicated. Many instan-
ces of pine succeeding oaXr and hickory, and other tim-
ber, are well attested Several such facts are within my
own knowledge.
Richard Peters.
108 Changes of Timber and Plants^ ^c.
Dear Sir,
In compliance with your request I will now state a
fact, the occurrence of which I thought had been of such
notoriety that no one could possibly dispute it, until
you mentioned to me a few days ago, that some gen-
tlemen had thought you even chimerical in supporting
it. For some years past I have been in the habit of
visiting some estates which belong to our family, in the
county of Cape May, New Jersey, and have remarked
myself, and heard it as a common fact, that wherever
the pine timber is cut off, oaks invariably and hickories
very frequently will spring up, and this is also the case
where the timber has been taken off by fire ; the hunt-
ing grounds, which lay in the upper part of Cape May
and lower part of Cumberland counties, are set on fire
very frequently, in the spring, to burn the under brush,
to facilitate hunting in the autumn ; and although the
timber is altogether pine, yet no pine springs up after
the burning; while oaks and hickories invariably do.
On the Penn tract, lying a few miles below Bridgetoxvji
in Cumberland county, there have been for several years
straggling settlers, who have taken possession, and
cleared some parts they have tilled; and other parts
have suffered to grow up. Nearly the whole of this
tract was pine timber-, and wherever it has been cut,
oaks and hickories have groAvn up ; and for several miles
along the post road which runs through it, I have seen
black oaks stripped of the bark (for the purpose of tan-
ning &:c.) where I have been credibly informed there
was nothing but pine timber a few years since. If my
statement of tliis well kno^^^l fact will be of any service
Changes of Timber and Plants^ ^c. 309
to you, you have my free assent to use it as suits your
purpose, and in conclusion will observe that I am con-
^ Inced, there is not a man of any observation in the
counties of Cu?nberland, Gloucester and Cape May yhnt
will confirm what I have mentioned.
with great respect
I am dear Sir,
your obedient servant.
Thomas F, Leaming.
JlicHARD Peters Esqk
[ 310 ]
Gypsum; -whether it is found in the United States?
By Richard Peters,
Read April 12th, 1808.
Sir^
In my communication upon the subject of gypsum^
I mention, that ^'I have not been able to discover any
quarries o^ gypsum, proper for husbandry, in this or any
other of the United States. There are, in a variety of
places, gypseous substances," and I may add, fibrous
gypsum. I beg this to be understood as confined to my
own knowledge ; without impeaching that of others. In
your publication, entitled ''^A Geological Account of the
United States,'''' page 408, several instances are men-
tioned of gypsum discovered in sundry places ; and the
authorities for the facts are cited. Specimens have
been, at dift'erent periods, shewn to me, as being gyp-
sum, and great expectations were formed concerning
them. They for the most part turned out to be either
a species oi alabaster ; or lime stone: or, if really gypsum,
not likely to be profitably used in agriculture. The
former is a gypseous substance, being composed of the
vitriolic acid and calcareous earth. But it is not the
gypsum which we find so pre-eminently useful. The
alabaster is found in this and other states, in many
places ; and has no doubt some properties promotive of
vegetation. But I have not made any experiments with
it. Some of it was discovered in digging the proposed
canal from Norriston to Philadelphia, Some lime stone
of uncommon appearance, at or near BilVs or Eickel
hergefs tavern, on the great road from York to Carlisle.
On Gypsiwu 311
was believed to be gijpsum ; but experiment soon dis-
covered the mistake. There is there a fine body of
marie; which I have tried by the common tests. It Ues
neglected in a country much in need of it, because some
injudicious attempts have been made with it. One
failure is enough to terrify most farmers ; many of whom
have yet to learn the peerless virtue of perseverance in
laudable pursuits.
Wishing to ascertain whether the kind of gypsum in
common use, existed within the United States, I listened
to all information I could obtain on the subject. I mis-
took the name of the river where I say *'it is found on
the Altamaha^ I should have said— the river Alabama ,
I wrote to Daniel Clark, Esq. of A'ew Orleans for in-
formation ; knowing that no person could give it to me
with more certainty. He has been so obliging as to
write to me, in answer to my inquiries, as follows : —
'"'• I have been informed by persons worthy of credit,
that a cliiF of gypsum skirted the Alabama river, for
nearly the extent of two miles. The Alabama and Tom-
higbee form the J^Mtile river ; but I cannot precisely say
in what place the cliff is. I have myself seen various
specimens oi gypsum taken from some lands I own on
the Ouachita river, a few miles west of the Mississippi;
and it is the general belief that there is an immense
quantity of it there, extending, as it is believed, for
some miles. This fact is well known at Neiv Orleans,
Vvhere the gypsum has been frequently made use of. I
know nothing of the marble in that quarter.'' He also
informed me in conversation, that a person who had
seen the rocks of gypsum on the Alabama, on both sides
of the river, told him they were of vast height; and
312 ^ On Gypsum.
that the river appeared, by sundry circumstances, to
have once ran over them, in a cataract of gi'eat eleva-
tion. Tlie stream, or some convulsion, must have
forced a passage, which is now navigable. The ex-
pence and difficulty of transportation, forbid much ex-
pectation of benefit to iis^ from this discovery.
I have always been desirous to be assured, that we
could obtain among ourselves, a substance become so
es'sential to our husbandry; and not remain liable to the
caprice of other nations for a supply. I am not, how-
ever, over anxious on such subjects. It is a wise ar-
rangement of providence, that nations should depend on
each other for supplies for natural wants, comforts, and
even luxuries. This promotes intercourse and inter-
changes; which bind them by the most durable ties —
interest and necessity. An agricultural and commer-
cial country, should be the last to complain under this
dispensation. Enquiries and explorations, for disco-
very of this valuable commodity, are nevertheless well
worthy the constant attention of our society ; and of all
others engaged in similar associations to promote the
prosperity of our country.
I have procured from an authentic source, an account
of the quantity of plaister imported into this port in
1807. This was originally obtained from Nova Scotia^
though much of it v/as brought coastvrise from Passa-
maquoddif, Portland and Boston ; and amounts to Jour-
teen thousand tons. From this State, all the improve-
ment produced by gypsum originally emanated. It
affords to me peculiar satisfaction, and should be an
encouragement to all who begin agricultural experi-
ments, however discredited or novel, to look back on
On Gypsum,
the small beginnings of which I have given a detail;
and contrast the present amelioration of onr husbandry,
with the situation of our agriculture, when the use of
this substance commenced. What quantities of Euro-
pean plaister have been imported here ; or how much of
the gypsum has been brought into other states, I have
not been able, with any degree of accuraoy, to ascertain.*
^ It will appear in a former communication, that the first
important application of the plaister was made, several years
before the revolutionary war, on a city lot, by Mr. Barge.
In the country, I began with one bushel : and a few bushels
had then been strewed to the northward of the city. When
the 20 tons, mentioned to have been brought as ballast by
Captain Falconer, were procured and ground, I strewed part
of it over about five acres. This appeared a bold effort ; and
by many it was deemed fanciful and nugatory. The effects
were the more surprising, as they so decidedly contradicted
all forebodings of failure. The increase of this operation
in husbandry has now arrived at such extent, that at two
bushels to the acre, 175000 acres may be fertilized by one
year's importation into this state. On an average, a ton
pulverised produces 25 bushels. Some grind it closer, so as
to produce 30 bushels to the ton ; but this is in favour of
the seller, and prejudicial to the farmer. Some strew three
bushels, more two, (and others one bushel annually) to the
acre. But as two bushels are most generally deemed suffi-
cient, the calculation was made on this quantity.
The European plaister imported, is not included, as the
quantity could not be ascertained. What is used in the arts
and manufactures will not amount to the quantity of Europe-
an plaister brought here.
It is believed, by those who have attended to the subject^
that the quantity used in agriculture in other states, added
E 3
314 On Gypsum.
It appears in professor Barton'' s Medical and Physi-
to that imported here, will annually amount to 20000 tons.
With this quantity 250000 acres may at this time be manur-
ed. The immense advantages derived in a long course of
years, by the progressive use of the plaister, may be conceiv-
ed, to be of great magnitude, but cannot be accurately cal-
culated. To say that by a process begun on txvo acres, txvo
7nillions of acres have been ameliorated irom the beginning
of its application, would not perhaps be extravagant*
These circumstances are mentioned to encourage experi-
me'frts, and persistance in applications oi substances likely to
become useful in husbandry ; without regard to prejudices or
partial disappointments. Who can now tell, whether we may
not have among ourselves, some substances, perhaps pass«d
over every day without notice, which may turn out as won-
derfully productive and useful, as the plaister is now indis-
putably proved to be ? And these may be as little believed in,
or supposed as little likely to succeed, as the gypsum origi-
nally appeared. R. P.
Since this communication was put to press, I am inform-
ed by a friend who lately conversed with professor Barton ; —
That the Doctor " had lately received a letter from his bro-
ther in Virginia^ stating that genuine gypsum has recently
been found in three different parts of that state. In two of
these places, however, the Doctor has already hinted that he
believed it probably existed."
In his oration (page 56) delivered before the Linnean So-
ciety on the 10th of June, 1807, he says, " That important
substance, gypsum^ or plaister of Paris, is now known to exist
in various parts of the United States. I have found it in
great abundance at the Falls of Niagara, It is likewise found
upon the same slope, at the Falls of the Jemsseia river ; and
On Gypsum. 315
cal Journal, Vol. I. that gypsum is found upon one of
the head ^vaters of the Staunton about 25 miles from
Fincastle^ in Virginia: on the 9 mile creek, or outlet of
the Oxvasco lake. Also at the falls of the Genesee river ;
and at the falls of Amgara on the Canada side.
According to Dr. Mitchell, it is found at St. Mary^s
between the Patuxent and Potomac in Maryland and
in the town of Marcelhts, in Nexv York, Fibrous gyp^
su?n is found in great quantities near Lexington in Xe?!-
tucky. Whether this substance has, in any successful
experiments, been applied in agriculture, or to what
extent, I am not informed.
I am. Sir,
your obedient servant,
Richard Peters^
April I2th, 1808.
Dr. James Mease,
Secretary Agric, Soc, Philad,
I have received fine specimens of it from the outlet of the
Oxvasco lalve, in the state of New TorL No doubt large
quantities of this substance, will be found among the lime
stone of our countiy, particularly, perhaps, in the counties of
Lancaster and Dauphin in Pennsylvania. And in the great
valley of Berkley in Virginia, where, along with the common
carbonates of lime, we discover immense quantities of cubic
Pyrites-, and Pyrites in other shapes."
If these actual discoveries, or the conjectures realised, should
be productive of x\iQ gypsum proper for agriculture ; the coun-
tries distant from the sea board will receive a most valuable
accommodation. For us, we must still depend on the present
sources of supply.
316 On Gypmm.
POSTSCRIPT,
As this may probably be the last time I shall trouble
the society on the subject of the gypsum^ I take the oc-
casion to mention, that Judge JVashington informs me
of his having strewed the plaister with success on his
grass grounds, in other parts of the Aloimt Vernon farm,
than those on which General JVashington had failed.
These parts are high and mixed with gravel. Mr,
Lawrence Lewis^ who holds part of the Mount Vernon
estate, has lately perceived a luxuriant produce of white
clover on com hills on the low lands, which, had in the
general's time, shewn no signs of being benefitted by
the plaister put on by him, and which now operates,
though applied many years ago. It \\\\\ be seen in a
note, in my collection of facts in 1797, that the general
informed me of his failures, in every mode taken by
him to use the gypsum on his fields, especially on the
low lands.
No plaister was sown in England or France^ though it was
strewed in Germany^ before its use was extensive, and its
efjftcacy proved, in America* We have thus made some re-
turn, lor the agricultural information received from Europe.
[ 317 ]
Observations on the Pea Fly or Beetle^ and Fruit CuT'^
culio. By jniliam Bartram.
Read July 14th, 1789.
The pea fly, Bruchiis pisi^ is a small beetle of that kind
which we call wevel, but is more than twice their size,
of an ovate form and brownish colour, particularly their
upper side or elytron, which is uniformly besprinkled
with specks, and strokes of a light colour, as likewise
the back or upper part of the thorax, near the suture or
joint. The bill is short, depressed, and armed with a
hair of serrated forceps, the under side and legs are
black, or of a very dark, dusky colour, the femora arc
armed with a sharp tooth, or acute projection at the
knee joint, and the whole insect is covered with fine
hair.
They feed when in the caterpillar or grub state, on
the green garden or field pea, as soon as the pods (le-
gumes) have arrived to a state of maturity, sufficient to
shew the peas which are within them: in the evening,
or on a cloudy day, the female deposits her eggs on the
outside of the pods, these eggs or nits soon hatch, and
the young larva or worm eats directly through, and en-
ters the tender young pea, where it lodges, and remains
feeding on its contents, until it changes to a chrysalis,
and thence to a fly or beetle, before the succeeding
spring, but do not eat their way out until the colds and
frosts are past, which is about the beginning of April,
when we generally begin to 'plant peas; and if they
should open a door they do not choose to leave their
318 Observations on the Pea Fly^ %^c,
old habitations until the peas are planted, unless the
peas are purposely exposed to the hot sun beams, when
most of them break through, creep out and fly off, and
conceal themselves under proper shelter, from the arid
heats of the noontide sun, and chills of the night, until
the new crops of peas are ripe enough to invite them
forth to the active scenes of life, as well as to fulfil the
duties enjoined them by the author of creation, to in-
crease, and multiply. After they have disseminated
their eggs, they perish ; scarcely a pea amongst a thou-
sand escapes them.
But that which is surprising and difficult to account
for, is, that the worm leaves the rostellum or sprout un-
touched or at least uninjured, for almost every pea ve-
getates and thrives vigorously, notwithstanding the cor-
culum^ and plumula seem to be consumed. Whe-
ther the sprout is of a disagreeable taste to them, or of
a noxious quality, or whether tliey are apprised of the
evil consequence of destroying the sprout, which in the
txA^ would exterminate the race, and thus by a won-
derful continence and perseverance in rectitude, set us
211 example of virtue, worthy of imitation, I know not»
Tlie pea fly is a troublesome, mischievous insect, for al-
though they do not destroy the green pea, or diminish its
quantity or nutritive qualities, yet it certainly contami-
nates and renders them disgustful to a delicate palate; for
when a fine dish of them is served up, we know there is a
^ Corculum is the rudiment of the young plant. Plumula
rs, the first apparent expansion^ of the infant plant upwards,
which appeai'3 above ground, after the seed or pea has
sprouted.
Observatmis on the Pea Fly, ^c. 319
maggot in every one, the morbid speck sufficiently betrays
it, though yet so small, as scarcely discernable with the
assistance of a microscope, and perhaps whilst the peas
are very young, do not lessen thoir native peculiar de-
licious taste ; but when they are full grown, the latent
evil becomes too apparent, and when quite ripe, there
is little more than the fair superficial appearance of a
pea, a mere shell enveloping a fat chrysalis.
I can suggest no method of destroying this voracious
insect, unless the planters who suiler by their ravages,
would consent to consume in the autumn, of one and
the same year, all their peas when dry ripe, by feed-
ing them off to their cattle, and import a new stock
of seed from Europe. The method would, if not
exterminate them, at least diminish their numbers,
for in the autumn there is not one alive but the young
rising generation, in the bowels of the peas which
would individually be cut off by this process.
I believe these insects, since the importation and culti-
vation of the gi'een pea from Europe, have avoided
every other kind of vegetable and confnied themselves
entirely to this, on account of its superior delicacy.—
They do not meddle with any of our native pulses, that
I have observed ; such as the caravances, dolichos, pha-
seoli, lupini, vicia, &:c. yet there is in Carolina, a smaU
ler yellowish species of this insect, which is, if possible,
more numerous and voracious; they are destructive
to all kinds of esculent legumes, particularly so to all
species of caravances, and these, in the manner of the
common little black w^evel, lay their knits on the dry peas,
which hatch and propagate continiially, the year round,
and devour perpetually wiuie there is a pea remaining
320 Observations on the Pea Fly^ ^c'.
for them. The common black wevel (curculio piceiis)
in Carolina and Florida, are particularly destructive to
the mayz, (indian corn) and oryza (rice) after it is di-
vested of its huskj and prepared for exportation ; then
there is no way of saving it, not even in casks, for any
length of time, but is entirely safe in the husk, or in the
rough, as the planters term it*
'Curculio oblongus rufo-testacius^ Coleopteris angulato tU"
berculatis notatis, proboscide lo?iga, deorsum arcuata.
This insect is of the genus we call wevel, but is much
larger than the common black one which infests gi'ain
in our granaries. They are of an oblong form, and of
a brown testaceous colour, yet varied with spots or
clouds of yellow or white, and the elytron or shell which
covers the wings, is studded with pointed tubercles, as
are the thighs, legs and thorax. The proboscis is trun-
cated, and terminates with a serrated or toothed forceps,
with which they gnaw the green fruit : near the extre-
mity of the proboscis, are two articulated antennae, the
eyes are placed near the base or origin of the proboscis;
the legs are six in number, two of which are placed on
the thorax, near the joint, and the other four are on the
sides of the body near the abdomen ; the whole insect
is covered with hair.
This is the mischievous insect which destroys all
our stone fruit, plumbs, pears, nectarins, cherries &:c.
and I believe apples, the European walnut, and other
fruits. But it is not in the fly or beetle state that they
Observatioiis on the Pea Fly^ ^c, 321
do this mischief, but in that of the caterpillar or worm.
In the spring when the yomig fruit is about half grown
or younger, the female is furnished with a sharp spatula
or gauge at the extremity of her abdomen, somewhat
like the point of a lancet, with which she pierces the
rind of the tender green fruit, at the same instant depo-
siting an ^^^ or knit just under the raised cuticle of the
wound, which is like to that made by the nib of a pen.
This ^g^ soon hatches, and the little larva immediately
eats inward, descending to the stone or kernel of the fruit,
round about which it feeds, between it and the pulpy-
rind, or enters the kernel, which is yet very tender and
delicate ; but in this last circumstance, the destroyer ge=
nerally falls a victim to his own intemperance and' glut-
tony, for such fruit generally drop before they are half
ripe, and consequently before the metamorphosis of the
grub, but such as feed only on the interior pulp round
about the stone, continue on the tree until the ripening
of the fruit, and thus live out their time. When the fruit
drops off, the worm creeps out, enters the earth, and the
following spring becomes a beetle or curculio. About
the time of the setting of the young fruit, they creep
out of the earth, ascend or fiy into the trees, copulate,
and are then attentive only to the work of generation.
Such is the prolific nature of this insect, that each
female lays many hundred eggs, and a few flies are abun-
dantly sufficient to destroy the fruit of a large tree.
Many methods have been thought of and practised
to remedy the evil, but none have as yet been attended
with success, perhaps through want of perseverance.
During my travels southward, (from Pennsylvania to
Florida,) I had sufficient opportunities to observe that
r 3
322 Ob servatiom on the Pea Fly^ ^c\
the fruit trees on the sea coast and brackish water^ were
free from the ravages of this destructive insect ; this^
suggested to me an idea, that the sahne vapours were
pernicious to them, and hence I imagined, that if we
were to go to the trilling expence of showering our
choicest fruit trees with a weak sohition of common sea
salt, once or twice a week, it might answer the same
end of preserving the fruit, and by persevering farther
in a little more expence, in extending the same care to
our orchards, we might in a few years expel them.
But this is only a conjecture, having never made the
experiment.
[January 1808. The foregoing paper being found
among the papers of the society, was sent to Mr. Bar^
tram for the purpose of revision, and to enable him to
add such* additional facts, as might have occurred to
him. He returned it with the following note..]
" I have nothing more to add, but that the spring
following, I put the experiment of showering a plum
tree on tryal, with a weak solution of sea salt dissolved
in w^atery but being too strong of salt, most of the leaves
and fruit fell off in consequence of it, otherwise the ex-
periment might have produced the desired effect, as
what fruit remained were not touched by the insect,
though small and disfigured by the strength of the brine;
yet a few arrived to their natural size and ripened, so
that I am induced to believe, that with care in temper-
ing the solution, it will be found to be the best and
cheapest remedy against the ravages and encrease of
those pernicious insects yet discovered. It should be
so weak a^ just to taste of salt.
Ohservatiom on the Pea Flij^ ^c. 323
I have lately reason to recommend fresh oyster shells,
pulverized in the manner that plaister of Paris is pre-
pared for manure, put about the roots of peach and plum
trees &:c. as eftectual in keeping oflf the peach Zt/gce'na^
and also Cerambix which destroys apple trees.
Quere, ^\■hether o}'ster shells powdered, would not
be found to be as good a manure, as plaister or lime?
perhaps more lasting, and less expensive as they could
be prepared with less labour and expence,"
W. B.
[ 324 ]
[(tT° Although we are under the necessity oi closing our
present Volume, we cannot withhold the following memoir
from our valuable correspondent John Taylor 'Esq, o^ Ca-
roline^ Virginia, A boldness of design, and spirit of execu-
tion, mark the undertakings of this intelligent agriculturist ;
whose means are fortunately equal to their accomplishment.
Our views are to invite and promulgate information from
others ; under a conciousness that we shall thereby serve the
interests we wish to promote, far better than by any efforts
we of ourselves are capable of making. The subject is of the
first importance ; and has been seldom discussed. It is hop-
ed that this publication of Mr. TaijlGr''s ideas and practice,
will invite others to communicate their thoughts and expe-
rience. We have received some theoretical observations, in
some points, similar to those in this memoir. But we have
postponed them for the present, as we prefer actual practice,
in all cases. They will be noticed hereafter, if this our first
essay to revive and extend the usefulness of our Institution,
meets with the assistance and encouragement, essential to
warrant a continuance of our well intended endeayours.]
Memoir upon Clearing Land. By John Taylor, Esqr.
of Caroline, Virginia.
The objects to be kept in view are profit and im-
provement. These will comprise the speediness and
amount of income, the effectiveness of labour, the
preservation and improvement of land, and the saving
of wood and timber.
Whatever will bring most land, in the shortest space,
under cultivation, will contribute to all these ends.
It expedites and increases income. It extends the
On clearing Land. 325
powers of labour to their utmost degree. It opens
a sufficiency of land for the introduction of improve-
ment, by rest, successive crops and meadows, before
a part is exhausted ; and it saves the wood and timber
devoted to destruction, by a necessity for cutting down
new ; to supply the place of exhausted land, during a
slow course of clearing.
If a tract of 400 acres, would, in its most perfect
state, consist of 300 in fine heart and cultivation, and
of 100 in wood and timber ; the more rapidly it can be
brought to that state, the better. If 30 years are em-
ployed in clearing the 300 acres, it will never arrive at
that state. Much of the land will be impoverished by
severe cropping for want of room, and at the end of
thirty years, the hundred acres reserved for timber
and wood, must be invaded, to compensate for the land
destroyed. Nor can the profit of labour be consider-
able during the whole period, because it will be partly
lost for want of room, partly by the cultivation of w^eak
land, and partly by the annual expence of clearing ten .
acres. Whereas an instant reduction of the 300 acres
to a state fit for cultivation, would place within the
reach of the proprietor the most perfect system of
culture, in respect to the speediness and amount of
income, the effectiveness of labour, the improvement
of land, and the preservation of wood and timber.
Therefore the most powerful, is probably the best
agent to employ in clearing land. No agent operates so
powerfully on wood, as fire. Julius Caesar has, I think,
commemorated its usefulness towards the object under
consideration, in his account of the ancient inhabitants
of Britain.
326 On clearing Land,
The residue of this Essay is a Detail of Experiments,
Woods are cut down in June, July, August or Sep-
tember, and not in the winter, unless they consist of
pine or cedar. Because wood is then softest, the leaves
drying on the boughs are fuel for the subsequent fire,
and the wood will become dry enough for burning by
the following fall or spring.
The labourers cut in pairs, each pair taking a breadth
of twenty yards, and working either to right or left,
that distance asunder. This, with invariably falling the
trees backwards, whenever they will so fall, prevents
danger, and mutual interruption. They cut down all
trees and bushes, working together on the opposite
sides of trees large enough to admit it, for the sake
of the emulative or musical invigoration arising from
an alternation of strokes. Not a bough is cut from the
trunk, or a grub taken up. A man ^\l\\ cut down ten
times as much landin this mode, as he can clear in the
common way ; topping, cutting up trunks, grubbing,
and collecting and burning brush.
The woods thus cut down, first lying until they are
considerably seasoned, are burnt during the same fall^ or
the following spring, after the buds appear, during dry
weather and a brisk wind ; and produce a fire which
kills nearly all the small stumps, and most of the large ;
and consumes in a few minutes, should the ground be
well covered, every thing except lai'ge logs ; many of
these will burn up, and the few which are left, being sea-
soned and roasted, are easily burnt by collecting three or
four together. If rails, wood, or timber, are wanted from
the ground, the burning is deferred to the spring, and
On clearing LamI, 3i27
they are gotten out by narrow roads, or from the sides
during the winter.
Indian corn is the crop which follows the burning,
being planted in holes made with a hoe, immediately
after it, if done in the spring. Very little grass will ap-
pear, and two slight hoeings, keeping the stumps shrub-
bed will produce a better crop, than grubbing, couL
tering, and ploughing united, without burning. The
second year the plough and coulter w ill bring up all the
grubs killed by the fire, and a second cultivation,
nearly or quite kills the few live stumps left. The
value of the ashes as a dressing to the land, is evident
from the crops.
Care should be taken, to give the fire a direction
which will prevent it from doing mischief, as the more
violent it is, the better. And if the ground cut down
be inclosed during the winter with a wooden fence, a
space of twelve feet wide should be cleared of com-
bustibles adjoining it. The labourers should be nu-
merous on the day of burning, and be armed with
gi'een pine or cedar boughs, if to be had, if not, witli
such as will retain leaves longest, to beat out the fire,
if it trespasses.
If land be sufficiently covered with inferior growth,
to insure a thorough burning, the business of clearing
is expedited by belting the largest trees. This is
sometimes the case in wet lands. These are drained,
if necessary, by opening the water course, or by a small
ditch, just sufficing in dry weather, to remove any ob-
stacle to the burning from moisture. Then a suffici-
ency of the gro^vth to produce a good cover and severe
fire, is cut down, and the very large trees belted* The
;28 On clearing Land.
land being opened to the view by the burning, the per-
manent ditches are more judiciously made. If it be full
of roots, as will be the case where bushes abound, it is
kept inclosed the following yeai' and certainly throws
up a great growth of weeds and small bushes. These
when dry, furnish food for a second fire.^ And after a
second burning, however matted with roots the land
may be, it will if properly drained, produce a fine crop
of com. The roots, being dead, break easily to pieces ;
and the stumps and grubs are all killed, if the fires have
been severe, and nearly so, if they have barely burnt
over the ground. This mode of clearing is applied to
boggy small streams, with great advantage, as it saves
the expence of digging up masses of interwoven roots.
I have made between 40 and 50 bushels of corn to the
acre on such land, when the whole surface seemed to
be a bed of dead roots, by a culture with the hoe, barely
sufficing to keep under the weeds, and the few bushes
which appear after burning.
Hitherto these observations relate to clearing new
land. In the southern states it is often necessary to clear
old, once exhausted, and grown up in pine and cedar.
As it has not recovered its virgin fertility, but univer-
sally remains steril, there could be no advantage, in
bringing it back to cultivation in this state, either rapidly
or slowly. Without combining enrichment with clear-
ing, a mean crop or two is all it can yield, and will not
repay the expence of the latter, however reduced.
About twelve years ago, having a field which required
enlargement, bordered by old, barren, broken, and gul-
lied land, well covered with a growth of pine and cedar,
except in the paits galled, which abounded j I cut down
On clearing Land, 329
about twelve acres, and covered one half with the bushes
and rubbish of the whole, in stripes across the field of
tw enty }'ards wide, leaving intervals twenty yards wide
also. These intervals I leisurely manured well by cow-
pening. They were left to diminish the labour of re-
moving the brush, and to diversify the experiment by
extending it to every quality of the ground. The land
remained covered and inclosed for four years, the stripes
were burnt, and with the manured intervals being then
put in culture, have since produced two very good crops
of corn and two of Avheat, lying in clover ungrazed,
when not in cultivation. Last year, the clover would
have made a saving crop of hay; this, the land goes
again into corn. It has been difficult from the begin-
ning to discover, whether the ground manured, or that
left covered four years with the brush, was most en-
riched. The latter seemed at first to have, the pre-
ference, but the stripes and intervals cannot now be dis--
tinguished. The v/hole is probably richer than in its
virgin state, and its fertility is increasing, owing, pro-
bably, to inclosing, clover, and plaistering.
I have done something towards this experiment every
vear from its commencement. If there are no galled
places or gullies, the stripes are burnt at the end of
four years, if there are, the rubbish, too large to plough
in, being collected by forks and rakes, is accumulated
upon such places, which it enriches, by lying quiet four
years more.
After the first four years, the annual repetition of the
experiment, began annually to furnish some acres of
land highly improved by brush. It has been suffered
to remain five vears, with increased benefit, A com-
330 On clearing Land.
plete exclusion of the hoof and the tooth, has attend-
ed the experiment from the beginning. This year,
about five acres, the residue of the land necessary to
enlarge my field, are cut down. Considerable portions
are yet lying covered with the brush. Those in which
the process is terminated, furnish of corn field, to be
followed by wheat and clover, about fifty acres, twelve
years ago worth nothing, and now though the most hilly,
among the best I have.
From these clearings, stakes and brush for fencing in
considerable portions, and all logs large enough for fuel,
have been draw n during the process ; and this necessity
both protracted the experiment, and diminished its be-
nefit, by diminishing the materials for covering the land.
Experience has convinced me that green bushes, with
their leaves, enrich considerably beyond dry.
The success attending this mode of clearing exhaust-
ed land a second time, has induced me to apply all spare
brush to the galled or weak spots of adjacent fields. A
thin cover fertilizes them in four years to an equality
with, or beyond the rest of the field. By an annual re-
petition of this practice, these humiliating evidences of
bad culture, are rapidly obliterated.
By the mode of clearing new land, the labour of grub-
ing, loping, heaping and burning brush, and of a hard
and difiicult cultivation the first year, is saved ; the crop
IS better; and the several benefits of a rapid extension
of tillable space, are obtained. By that of clearing worn
out land, groA\ n up in pine and cedar, one half is made
to enrich the other, and the primary object in the coun-
tries where such lands are found, namely, an extension
of fertile space, is thus promoted. The slov/ and gra-
On clearing Land, 331
dual mode of clearing is the cause, which reduces die
fertility of new countries below that of the old ; the first
mode of clearing is leveled at it; the second is one
among the numberless means by which new countries
may repair the evil, if it should have taken place. *^
April lOth, 1808.
^ In Mr. Taylor'' s letter inclosing the foregoing memoir y
dated April 10th, 1808, he writes. — I have kept a flock of
frojn 100 to 400 sheep^ on the farm whereon I live, of our
common breeds, with some care. The result is doubt, whe-
ther they suit our climate and soil. We are able on any rich
land, to make 150 pounds of cotton to an acre. My calcu-
lation is, that this acre in cotton wool, produces 15 times more
clothing, than it would do in sheep's wool. In a different
climate the calculation would be different. However, from
several considerations, I persevere in the experiment ; having
now, on the same place, 220 sheep ; and should be glad to
get a ram, and 3 or 4 ewes, of pure Jllerinos,
He is pursuing his extensive plan plan of live fences ; and
^'- has planted several thousand young cedars^ this spring.'''^
He writes to Dr. Mease^ requesting to be informed of a
good mode of preparing the gypsum for the mill ; as "* he
intends gradually to encrease the use of it to 100 tons an-
nually,'''' Last year he sowed 200 acres with gypsum, one
i)ushel to an acre, and planted corn, also rolled in gypsum,
at the rate of one bushel, to one of seed corn, — The land
was old, and had never produced 15 bushels to an acre
within his memory. Thus treated, it produced above 25 :
iDUt the year was uncommonly favourable.
He says, that his memoir on clearing land " contains ac-
tual experiments and results ;" and professes to be " more
of a practical, than a speculative farmer."
A few such spirited and " practical" farmers, would soon
render the husbandry of this country, an object of emulation
to any of the agriculturists, in either the old or the new world.
APPENDIX.
SELECTIONS.
On Smut in Wheat.
The opinion advanced by Mr. Somerville and others ^
of the animalcular nature of the disease called smut in
wheat, is supported by Robert Harrup in Nicholson's
Philosophical Journal, Vol. 13, p. 113. "The black
dust, he remarks, consists of globules, which are hea-
vier than water, with which they readily mix, but soon
subside, suffering no change by being kept in that fluid.
In the beginning of September, I infused some of the
pow^der in water in a watch-glass. A few hours after,
I discovered by the microscope, in a drop of the fluid,
a few animalcuise. Upon examination, next day, every
drop of the liquor contained innumerable animalculas,
generally very minute, but some a size larger. After
standing exposed some days, the water evaporated, and
an hour or two after the addition of fresh water, every
part swarmed with animalculae, moving nimbly in all
a^
On Smut in Wheat.
directions. While viewing them in the microscope,
they suddenly became motionless, owing to the evapo-
ration of the drop of liquid ; on adding a drop of fresh
water, they instantly revived, and began the same lively
motion. A quantity of salt sufficient to saturate the
water was then added to the mixture. Upon exami-
nation about twenty hours afterwards, I was much sur-
prised to find the animalculse as numerous and lively^
as before the addition of the salt."
*'The watch-glass with its contents, after standing
neglected, on a shelf exposed to the effluvia of a variety
of drugs, till the latter end of November, was again fill-
ed with water, and placed near a fire, placing at the same
time by it a similar glass, containing smut-powder and
fresh water. They w^ere both frequently examined for
some days, but without discovering any animalcul^e.
My attention being called off, they remained unnoticed
about eight days. The glass which contained the infu-
sion with simple water, was quite dry, and only a small
quantity of fluid remained in the other. A drop being
examined with the microscope by a single lens of high
magnifying power, was found to swarm with animal-
culse. Both glasses were now filled with fresh water,
and placed under inverted jars. Being examined two
days after, each of them swarmed with lively animal-
culae. While viewing them, a small particle of lime
water was added to the drop, which proved instantly fa-
tal ; at least, all motion ceased instantaneously, and was
not renewed.''
Mr. Harrup by a comparative experiment, shews the
efficacy of steeping seed wheat in brine, and afterwards
On Smut in Wheat.
liming it, in preventing smut, as recommended in a
paper formerly read to the society.^
On Blight,
The following judicious remarks on blight in wheat
by Mr. Marshall, deserve particular attention, on ac-
count of the mode recommended of checking the pro-
gress of the disease. An experiment of the practice he
recommends, is certainly worthy of trial.
"That the operation of the disease is carried on by
the fungus tribe, evidently appears from the labours of
botanists. t But fungi it is equally evident, are an ef-
fect, not the cause of the disease. They are the vermin
of the more perfect vegetables; and fasten on them,
whether in a dead or in a diseased state, but seldom, I
believe, while they are in full health and vigour. Their
^ Mr. Wimpey in a paper published subsequent to that re-
ferred to page 55^ adduces some facts to shew that this disease
in grain, arises solely from the influence of the weather. To
the objection to his theory arising from the remark, that in the
case of two adjoining fields, one shall be free and the other
infected, he replies, "that malignant currents of air, are fre-
quently confined to a small space, and affect those objects
only that stand in their way : that it is not uncommon to see
trees and plants blighted on one side only : and that he has
often seen the east and south sides of a field of wheat very
smutty when the north and west, and the other parts of the
field, have been little affected by it, and sound and smutty
ears growing from the same root, and even sound and smutty
grains at the same time, in the same ear. He says also,
that clean grain will produce a smutty crop, and smutty grains
yield a clean produce. This last fact, agrees with the expe-
riment of Sir John Call mentioned page 56.
I See Sir Joseph Banks' paper on blight and rust.
4- On Blight in Wheat,
minute and volatile seeds may be said to be every
where present, ready to produce their kind, wherever
they may find a genial matrix. Such at least appears
to be the nature of the fungus, or fungi, of wheat ; for
it may be liable to the attack of more than one species.
In a warm drj^ summer, which is well known to be fa-
vourable to the health, vigour, and productiveness of
the wheat crop, the seeds of fungi are harmless, so long
as the fine weather continue. On the contrary, in a
cold wet season which gives languor and weakness to
the wheat plants, few crops escape entirely their de-
structive effects. A standing crop not unfrequently
escapes, while plots that are lodged in the same field,
especially in pits and hollow places, become liable to
their attack. Even strong healthy crops may in a few
days or perhaps in a few hours, be rendered liable to
be assailed, not progressively, as by infectious disease,
but at once, as by a blast or blight. In the state of the
atmosphere we are to look for the cause of the disease
in a standing crop ; and nothing is so likely to bring on
the fatal predisposition of the plants, as a succession of
cold rains while the grain is forming. The coldness
necessarily gives a check to the rich saccharine juices
which are then rising towards the ear, and the moisture
may, at the same time, assist the seeds of the fungi to
germinate and take root." In support of his opinion,
Mr, Marshall adduces the following facts. "In 1804
(a very dry season) the disease was almost universal in
England, except in two counties. The cause of the
disease, in the county in which he had the best oppor-
tunity of observing it (Caermenthshire) appeared very
0)1 Blight in TFJieat,
evidently, to proceed from cold rains which fell about
the middle of August. Before that time wheat crops
in general looked healthy, and were beginning to change
to a bright colour. But presently, after a few cold wet
days, the malady became obvious to the naked eye.*"
The straw lost its smooth varnished surface, being oc-
cupied by innumerable specks, which changed in a few
days, in less than a week, to a dark or blackish colour,
giving the straw a dusky appearance. Another instance
of the blight of wheat succeeding rain, was observed in
the same county in 1794. Another equally obvious,
in 1785, in the midland counties, as may be seen in the
*' Rural CEconomy" of that department, minute 74."
As early ripe crops, are least subject to the disease,
Mr. Marshall recommends early sowing as a preven-
tive. "Corn, (grain) he remarks, wdiich ripens under
the hot summer sun in July, is not so liable to cold
chilling rains, as that w^hich remains unmatured until
the sun begins to loose its power, and the nights to in-
crease in length and coolness." The truth of this theo-
ry is confirmed by what has occurred in our own coun-
try. The farmers in the fertile, but moist peninsula
betw^een the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, had suf-
fered for many years so severely by mildew, from con-
tinuing to sow the old wheats w^hich ripened late in Jul}-,
or in August, that many of them ceased to cultivate
Avheat. At length the introduction of the "Isbell" or
[* In Pennsylvania, we observe that the disease almost
constantly attacks grain, when frequent heavy fogs, or slight
showers, are succeeded by dead calms and a hot sun, about
the time of the. grain filling.]
6 O?! Blight in Wheat.
early wheat from Caroline county Virginia, which ripen-
ed the latter end of June or beginning of July, enabled
them to resume the cultivation of that species of grain.
To prevent the extension of the evil in the crop,
when once it has made its appearance, Mr. Marshall
strongly urges the propriety of "cutting the grain so soon
as we perceive it struck therewith ; it may lie he says,
on the stubble until the straw be firm and crisp enough
to set up in sheaves, without adhering to the bindhig
places ; allowing it to remain in the field, until the grain
sliall have received the nutriment which the straw may
be able to impart. Where wheat, he says, has been
grown on lammas land, and the ground to be cleared by
tlie first of August, he has known crops cut green
as grass, and to be carried and spread upon grass land
to dry. Yet the grain has been found to mature, and
always to afford a fine skinned beautiful sample. Ray
grass that is cut even while in blossom, is well known
to mature its seeds with the sap that is lodged in the
stems. Hence there is nothing to fear from cutting
wheat or other corn, before the straw be ripe.*"
" It may be asked, in what manner the remedy is thus
effected. But to the practical farmer the fact is all that
is required. If it shall appear, that the fungus of wheat
requires a free supply of air to keep it alive, or in a
state of health and vigour, the effects of cutting down
[* In confirmation of Mr. Marshall's theory it may be men-
tioned, that the ears of Indian corn, will harden and dry,
although the stalks be cut off three weeks before they are ripe,
provided they be set up in shocks in the field, or along the
fences.]
On Blight in Wheat,
the crop will be explained. It will perhaps be found by
experience, that the closer it is allowed to lie upon the
ground, and the sooner it is bound up in sheaves, (pro-
vided the natural ascent of the sap to the ear be not
thereby interrupted,) the more effectual and complete
will be the remedy. Further, it may be suggested,
on the evidence of attentive observation, that if wheat
which has been attacked by this disease be suffered to
remain in the field with the ears exposed, until it may
have received the ameliorating influence of dews or
moderate rain, (to soften, relax, and assist the natural
rise of the sap) the more productive it will become."
See minutes of agi'iculture, in Surrey. No. 4.
" And it may be added, that grain which is cut while
under ripe, is less liable to be injured in the field by
moist weather, than that which has stood until it be fully
over ripe.* ,
'^ Marshall's Rural CEcoaomy of west of England*
L 8 j
On the Flax Husbandry of Ireland^ from the Far me f 3
Magazine^ printed at Edinburgh, Vol, 7. — 1806.
Sir,
Having for several years been engaged in the cuL
ture of flax, I devoted a part of last summer, to a tom-
through the manufacturing districts of Ireland. Here
that branch of husbandry, has long been established
over a large extent of the country, and conducted \v ith
considerable success.
During my progress through Ireland, the several
processes of steeping, drying, and skutching were in
hand, and I think I found a peculiarity of management
in these, sufficient to affect the success of the whole
business, and to confer a decided superiority on the
produce of an acre of flax in Ireland over that in Scot-
land, both In quantity and value. It is no UUcommon
thing for a farmer, to sell a pait of his lint on the foot,
as it is termed, and for this he Vvill commonly receive
from thirty to forty guineas per acre.
1. The method of steeping. As soon as the crop has
attained the proper degree of ripeness, the flax is pul-
led, and carried to a stagnant pool, dug for the purpose
moderately deep. It is allowed to remain there only
from five to seven days, according to the temperatiu'e
of the weather. After the fermentation in the steeping
process has been carried to a degree sufficient to pro-
duce the requisite laxity of fibre, the flax is taken out
of the pool, and spread very thinly, on the stubble of the
hay meadow. There, instead of remaining till it is
merely dried, it is continued for three or four weeks,
On the Flax Husbandry of Ireland
till the grower conceives it ready for skutching. This
bleaching process, has many advantages ; the most ob-
vious one is, that it enables the farmer, every time he
examines it, to ascertain exactly, by rubbing on his
hand, the precise point at which the fermentation has
arrived, and thus to perceive the tenacity and strength
of his fiax ; while the adhesion of the fibre has been
sufficiently weakened, to admit of the skutcher clean-
sing it completely of the woody parts. It is, I am ap-
prehensive, only the practical flax farmer who is able
to judge of the importance, and delicacy of this part of
the husbandry. It is so remarkable, that of two acres
of flax, under precisely the same seed and culture,
and of equal fertility, it frequently happens that the
one shall yield a produce thrice the value of the other,
merely from superior accuracy in ascertaining the pro-
per line of continuing the steeping and bleaching pro-
cesses.
2. Smoking and drying. The Irish seem to possess
another advantage in their mode of drying their flax,
before they submit it to the skutcher or beater. After
the lint has remained a sufficient length of time on the
bleaching green, it is gathered up into sheafs, and seems
tolerably dry. In this state it is deemed by the Scots
growers fully prepared for the flax mill ; but far other-
wise by the Irish farmer, who never submits it to the
hands of the beaters, until it has undergone a thorough
smoking over a peat fire. For this purpose, he raises
at the back of a ditch, a small hurdle, thinly wrought
with osiers, and.places it on four posts of wood, at the
height of four feet above the level of the ground. A
pretty strong fire of peats being kindled below, the heat
b^
10 On the Flax Husbandry of Ireland,
and smoke pervades every part of the flax, which is
placed perpendicularly above the hurdle. This pro-
cess is continued, and fresh quantities of flax regularly
added, till the whole crop is brought to a state of dry-
ness, which in that moist climate, can never be effected
by the sun and the weather : by this operation, a degree
of bfittleness and friability is produced on the straw,
which greatly facilitates the ensuing work, and admits
of an easy separation of the fibre from the wood. It is
evident, that the less friction required in skutching, the
less waste and diminution must be occasioned in clean-
ing the flax, and consequently, the greater must be the
grower's produce from the mill. This part of the pro-
cess is equally delicate with that described above, and
requires, if possible, still greater attention on the part
of the workmen, since it is clear, that by a cai-eless ma-
nagement of the fire, the whole crop may be destroyed.
3. Cleansing and dressing. The flax husbandry of
Ireland derives no small benefit from the application
of hand labour in the beating and skutching of lint,
thus superseding the use of the mill. The most cai*e-
ful and expert workmen are not always able to temper
the velocity of machinery so exactly, as to preserve
flax that has been over steeped or bleached o excess;
while the steady and regulated impetus of the hand
skutching, can be easily modified, as the circumstances
of each case may require : a matter of obvious advan-
tage, because the best flax mills seldom produce an
equal quantity of lint, nor equally clean, with that which
is obtained by the hand.-
[ 11 ]
Change of seed not necessary to prevent degeneracy i
naturalization of plants ; important caution to secure per^
manent good quality of plants. By Joseph Cooper of
Gloucester county^ New Jersey*
[The following paper oh several important agricultu-
ral subjects, has already been published in the United
States, and in Europe; and has deservedly excited very
general attention. The writer is entitled to every de-
gree of respect, both for his practical knowledge, and
integrity of relation. His experience and opinions dif-
fer widely from those generally received. The results
produced, require the care and attention which few will
give. The merit of Mr. Cooper is therefore the great-
er. That both sides of a question, in which agricultu-
rists are highly interested, might fairly appear ; the so-
ciety have thought it right to add to their memoirs, this
important developement of the practice and success of
the writer. And this, not with a view to promote con«
troversy, but to encourage and invite ca,ndid enquiry. J
C 12 ]
Cooper's Point, April 17th, 1799,
Respected Friend,
Kind providence having placed me in a situation of
life, which obliged me to procure a living by industry,
and that principally in the agricultural line, it has caus-
ed me to be a strict observer of the works of nature,
with respect to such parts of the vegetable creation as
have come under my particular notice, and have been
greatly embarrassed at the opinion very generally en-
tertained by farmers and gai'deners, that changing seeds,
roots and plants, to distant places, or different soils
or climates, is beneficial to agriculture, such opinion,
not agreeing with my observations or practice. This
induced me to make many experiments on that
head, all of which, in more than forty years practice,
have operated to prove to my satisfaction, that the above
opinion is not well founded, and if so, must be extreme-
ly prejudicial to agriculture, as it turns the attention
of the husbandman from what appears to me one great
object, viz. that of selecting seeds and roots for plant-
ing or so^^^ing, from such vegetables as come to the
greatest perfection, in the soil which he cultivates.
What induced me to make experiments on the sub-
ject, was, my observing that all kinds of vegetables
were continually varying in their growth, quality, pro-
duction, and time of maturity. This led me to believe
that the great author of natiu'e, has so constructed that
wonderful machine, if I may be allowed the expression,
as to incline every kind of soil and climate to naturalize
all kinds of vegetables, that it will produce at any rate.
Change of Seed ujtnecessary.
the better to suit them, if the agricuhurists will do their
pail in selecting the most proper seed. In support of
this position, I will subjoin a few facts and experiments,
out of a great number, which have all combined to
prove the above, to my satisfaction.
In or about the year 1746, my father procured the seeds
of the long warty squash, which have been kept on the
farm ever since, without changing, and are now far pre-
ferable to what they were at first. Our early peas were
procured from London, the spring before Braddock's
defeat (1756) and have been planted successively every
season since, on the place. They have not been
changed, and are now preferable to what they were
when first obtained. The seed of our asparagus was
procured from New York, in the year 1752, and since
that time, I have not planted a seed, except what grew
on my beds ; and by selecting the seed, from the largest
stalks, I have improved it greatly.
A complaint is very general, that potatoes of every
kind degenerate, at which I am not -surprised, when
the most proper means to produce that effect is con-
stantly practised; to wit, using or selling the best, and
planting the refuse ; by which means, almost the whole
of those planted are the produce of plants the most de-
generated. This consideration induced me to try an
opposite method. Having often observed that some
plants or vines produced potatoes larger, better shaped,
and in greater abundance than others, without any ap-
parent reason, except the operation of nature, it induced
me to save a quantity from such only, for planting the
ensuing season, and I was highly gratified in finding
their production exceed that of others, of the same
14 Change of Seed unnecessary,
kind, planted at the same time, and with every equal
advantage, beyond my expectation, in size, shape, and
quantity; by continuing the practice, I am satisfied that
I have been fully compensated, for all the additional
trouble.
A circumstance happened respecting potatoes, which
may be worth relating : a woman whom I met in mar-
ket, requested me to bring half a bushel of sweet pota-
toes for seed, the next market day, which I promised
to do, but going through the market on that day, pre-
vious to her son's coming for the potatoes, I observed
tlie woman selling such as I had brought for her ; ^vhen
tlie boy came, I asked him the reason they wanted po-
tatoes for seed, while they were selling their own ; his
answer was, that his father said, if they did not get
seed from me, once in three or four years, their potatoes
would be good for nothing. Query, if he had used the
same means in selecting his potatoes for planting, as I
did, whether he would have profited by changing with
one who used the other method?
In discoursing with a friend who lived at a great dis-
tance from me, on the above subject, he mentioned a
fact in favour of changing seed. Some radish seed
which he had from me, produced radishes preferable
to any thing of the kind ever seen in that neighbour-
hood which was near 100 miles distant : but in two or
three years, the radishes degenerated so as to be no
better than what he had before ; I asked his method of
saving his seed; he said he had no other radishes in his
garden, and when they had pulled what was fit for use,
let the others go to seed. I then told him my method,
viz. — As soon as the radishes are fit for use, I dig up
Change of Seed unnecessary* 15
ten or twelve of those which please me best, as to co-
lour, shape, &c. and plant them at least 100 yards from
where any others blogm at the time they do ; this, I in-
formed him, was the best method I knew of to improve
any kind of vegetables, varying the process agreeably
to their nature ; I asked him if he thought I should be
benefited by exchanging with him ? his ansv/er was, he
belie^^ed I was the best gardener.
In or about the year 1772, a friend sent me a fe\^
grains of a small kind of indian corn, the grains of which
were not larger than goose shot, he informed me by a
note that they were originally from Guinea, and pro-
duced from eight to ten ears on a stock. Those grains
I planted, and found the production to answer the de-
scription, but the ears were small, and few of them ri-
pened before frost. I saved some of the largest and
earliest, and planted them between rows of the larger
and earlier kinds of com, which produced a mixture to
advantage ; then I saved seed from stalks tliat produced
the greatest number of the largest ears, and first ripe,
which I planted the ensuing, season, and w^as not a little
gratified to find its production preferable, both in quan-
tity and quality, to that of any corn I had ever planted.
This kind of corn I have continued to plant ever since,
selecthig that designed for seed, in the manner I would
Vv^ish others to try, viz. — When the first ears are ripe
enough for seed, gather a sufficient quantity for early
corn, or for replanting, and at the time you wish your
com to ripen generally, gather a sufficient quantity for
planting the next year, having particular care to take it
from stalks that are large at bottom, of a regular taper,
not over tali, the ears set low, and containing the great-
16 Naturalization of Plants ^ ^c.
est number of good sizeable ears, of tlie best quality ;
let it dry speedily, and from this corn, plant your main
crop, and if any hills should miss, replant from that first
gathered, which will cause the crop to ripen more re-
gularly than is common : this is a great- benefit.
The above method I have practised many years, and
am satisfied it has increased the quantity, and improv-
ed the quality of my crops, beyond the expectation of
any person who had not ttied the experiment. The
distance of planting com, and the number of grains in
a hill, are matters many differ in ; perhaps different soils
may require a difference in both these respects ; but in
every kind of soil I have tried, I find planting the rows
six feet asunder each way, as nearly at right angles as
may be, and leaving not more than four stalks on a hill,
produces the best crop. The common method of sav-
ing seed corn, b}^ taking the eai's from the crib or heap,
is attended with two disadvantages, one is, the taking
the largest ears, which have generally grown but one
on a stalk. This lessens the production ; the other is,
taking ears that have ripened at different times, which
causes the production to do the same.
A striking instance of plants being naturalized, hap-
pened by Colonel Matlack sending some water melon
seed from Georgia, which, he informed me by letter,
were of superior quality : knowing that seed from ve-
getables, which had grown in more Southern climates,
required a longer summer than what grew here, I gave
them the most favourable situation, and used glasses
to bring them forward, yet very few ripened to perfec-
tion ; but finding them to be as excellent in quality as
described, I saved seed from those first ripe ; and by
Naturalization of Plants^ £s?c.
continuing that practice four or five years, they became
as early water melons as I ever had.
Many admit the importance of a change of seed, from
the fact of foreign flax seed producing the best flax in
Ireland; but when it is considered that it is the bark of
the stalk only that is used in Ireland, and that this is in
the best perfection before the seed ripens, the argu-
ment fails when applied to other vegetables.
For many years past, I have renewed the whole seed
of my winter grain, from a single plant which I have
observed to be more productive, and of better quality
than the rest; a practice, which I am satisfied, has been of
great use ; and I am fully of opinion, that all kinds of
garden vegetables may be improved by the foregoing
methods, particular care being taken, that different
kinds of the same species of vegetables are not in bloom
at the same time, near together, as by this bad practice,
they mix and degenerate."*
* The above remark of an observant, practical agriculturist,
has so often been confirmed by the observations of others,
that no doubt can be entertained of its accuracy. The fact
is one of the most powerful proofs of the sexual doctrine of
plants, and is strongly confirmed by the familiar example of
the certain degeneracy of squashes and pumpkins if grown
near gourds ; the latter even com.municate an em'etic quality
to their neighbours. In like manner, melons will degenerate
if planted near squashes 'or pumpkins. A case, is recorded
in the law reports, of an action which was brought against
a gardener near London, in the reign of Charles 2, for selling
cabbage seed instead of caulifliower seed. On trial it appear-
ed, that both had been planted near each other, by the pur-
18 Naturalization of Plants^ ^c,
I am sensible the foregoing will meet with great .op-
position and contradiction, but as an experiment is safe
and easy, I hope it will induce persons of more leisure,
ability, and observation than myself, to make trial, as
a mean of improving the agriculture of our country.
Such is the sincere wish of thy friend,
Joseph CoorER.
chaser and to this error, the gardener contended the degene-
racy of the true seed which he had sold, was owing. But he
lost his cause in consequence of the prevailing ignorance of
the sexual doctrine of plants : posterity however has rescued
his memory from the imputation of a cheat. The fact quoted
by Mr. William Young in page 53, may be adduced as ano-
ther argument in favour of the propriety of attending to the
caution of Mr. Cooper.
This fact, and the consequences of it, shew that lawyers
should attend to agricultural and horticultural knowledge, as
well as to mere professional acquirements. In an agricultu-
ral countr}^, it is peculiarly incumbent on them : both for the
purposes of justice, and personal advantage to themselves.
i: 19 ]
Account of the produce of various grains^ planted Sep-
tember 18, 1787 and 1788. — By the late Jacob Hilt"
zeimer, of Philadelphia,
Cape wheat, 20 grains, produced 5050 grains.
White wheat, 13 grains, produced 6100 grains.
Winter barley, 19 grains, produced 17680 grains.
Summer barley, 48 grains, were planted on the 4th
of April, 36 came up, and two of them produced
smut ; 34 yielded 20200 grains.
Rye, 13 grains produced 29200 grains.
All the grains were planted in rows 12 inches apart,
and the grains 4 inches.
Produce of 1788.
Cape wheat, one grain produced 64 heads, which
contained 2816 grains.
White wheat, 40 heads, containing 2240 grains.
Winter barley, 65 heads, 3900 grains.
Yellow bearded wheat, 58 heads, 3016 grains.
Speltz, two grains together, produced 104 heads,
which contained 4368 grains.
The above grains were planted in the beginning of
September, 1788, and the first four about six inches
apart : the produce was presented to the society^ July
14, 1789.
[ 20 ]
Produce of Mr, Stojieburners land in 1787.
Twenty-one acres, produced 50 tons of hay.
Twenty -four acres,, produced seven hundred and
fifty dozen sheaves of winter grain. ^
Twelve acres, produced at a moderate computation,
four hundred bushels of oats.
Eight acres, produced one hundred and sixty-five
bushels of buckwheat.
Four acres, produced, one hundred bushels of In-.
dian corn.
One acre and a quarter, produced four hundred and
fifty bushels of potatoes.
Twenty head of cattle were fattened, and five milch
cows pastured,
Germantown, March 4thy 1788.
[Those who are acquainted with Mr. Stoneburner,
know the high character which he justly acquired and
maintained as a farmer. It is to be regretted that
measures were not taken to obtain from him, the par-
ticulars respecting the preparation of his lands for tlie
above crops. Mr. S, himself, (a German by birth,)
*This would now be a crop entided to no singular notice.
The Indian com and potatoes are the best. The hay crop is
good, but has been very often exceeded. Heavy, and over
abundant grass, does not produce the best hay.
Produce of Land, 21
was more of ,a practical than literary cast. He could
ha^e dictated, though he could not write a detailed
account ; and he was moreover, not well acquainted
with the English language. We are satisfied that the
notes of our farmers could furnish many statements
which would do equal credit to them, as the above does
to the memory of an excellent citizen. They are there=
fore requested to favour the society with them. A pow-
erful argument ought to stimulate them on the occasion,
viz. the character of our country : — it is only by the
publication of such accounts, that we shall undeceive
the Europeans with respect to the state of our agricul-
ture, which though giving much room for amendment^
yet furnishes as great instances of produce as any coun-
try can boast of. The foregoing crops of 1787, are now
frequently exceeded. A scale of progressive im-
provement could be formed, if additional facts, through
the last twenty years, were furnished.]
On Hedges. By Thomas Main ^ of George Town^ Potomac.
Miscellaneous Remarks,
*' Mankind are all disposed to take the shortest road
that leads to the object of their desires, though it is
frequently not the best ; and it may be expected that
many of those who have planted or intend to plant live
hedges in this country, will be impatient to have them
in perfection as soon as possible, or perhaps sooner
than nature, assisted by all the efforts of art, has de-
creed that they should be so gratified. For the purpose
of rendering half grown hedges fencible, many inge-
22 On Hedges.
nious contrivances will, no doubt be invented hereaf-
ter. Such ideas as have come across my imagination
to favour this end, shall now be freely communicated,
leaving others to add thereto at their leisure.*'
Method of rendering a young Hedge impervious to black
Cattle,
" Our cattle being accustomed to go at large, and
lised to pushing their way through brakes and thickets,
we can only expect to debar them by live fences,
through sheer strength of the plants which compose the
hedge, and if they possibly can divide it with the
help of their horns, some of them will undoubtedly, at
times try to force themselves through, without much
regarding the spines of the common haw-thorn, which
would do little more to a strong steer than to tickle his
tough hide, . but in order to check his progress, and
keep him on the outside, or keep him in if his owner
should choose to have him there confined, it will not be
difficult nor expensive to assist the young hedge in the
following manner."
"When a hedge is four years old, let the top of it be
trimmed at the proper season, to about three feet, or
three feet and a half from the ground, a number of
neat rails, or seasoned poles, sufficient to run the whole
length of the hedge being provided, these are to be
laid one after the other, singly along the top, exactly
in the middle thereof, their ends being lapped past
each other, and tied together with a piece of hickory
bark, or some such cheap and ready ligature, the stubbs
of the shoots will easily support them there until the
ne\y growth secure them in their place. The hedge
On Hedged, 23
being annually trimmed as usual, in two years the
rails will be found enclosed in the very center of it, so
that any animal of a large size that may attempt to push
its way through, will find it impracticable to divide the
hedge.''
Method for excluding Hogs,
'' When the old protective fence seems to be on the
decline, . while the hedge has not yet attained sufficient
strength or closeness to keep out pigs or hogs, that
are permitted to go at large without yokes, the hedge
may be strengthened to resist them by driving a short
stake about two feet long in the vacancy betwixt each
two of the plants ; if these stakes are sufficiently dura-
ble to continue firm for two or tliree years^ the hedge
will probably at that period, be strong enough itself to
keep hogs out."
''Another method to effect this purpose, maybe com-
menced when the hedge has completed its second
year, or when the stems of the plants nearest the
•ground, have attained the size of a person's thumb,
then just before the bud begins to open in the spring,
let the whole hedge be cut off by a saw, to within an
inch and a half of the surface ; the cultivation being
continued as usual, the shoots that will arise from these
stubbs w411 run up to four, five, or six feet the first
season, and will be so numerous and full of thorns,
that the hedge will in a few years be completely closed
at the bottom ; the trimming being annually attended
to as before directed under that article. But it is to be
observed that these strong shoots are at first easily dis-
jointed from the stocks, and therefore cattle of every
24 On Hedges. .
description must be carefully kept from them until
they are out of danger."
"A better way than either of these can be executed,
when the field enclosed, is incommoded with stones."
*^ Having the hedge- course ploughed and harrowed
level in the spring of the fourth or fifth year, the stones
are to be gathered from the land, and the largest ones
first laid along side of the hedge; having marked a
space in width, proportioned to the quantity that can be
had, oris capable of containing as many of them as are
deemed sufficient ; they are to be laid somewhat regu-
lar, so as to form a sort of loose pavement or diagonal
wall with its upright face about fourteen inches high,
bearing against the stems of the plants. The interstices
among the large stones may be filled up with the small-
er, so as to close every opening against the growth of
weeds or other perennial plants."
" This will not only .be an excellent barricade against
swine, but will also tend to enrich the soil and promote
the growth of the hedge ; but it must not be attempted
before the stems of the plants at the surface of the
ground, have acquired the size of a stout walking cane,
as the stones will harbour field mice, and other animals
that would gnaw th^ roots of small plants, but will liot
trouble such as are of the size m.entioned."
" Where stones cannot be obtained, another method
may be taken to close the bottom of a hedge. After a
course of flat rails, similai- to those that are used in post
and railing, are fixed along the inside, with their faces
bearing against the hedge and raised a few inches from
tTie surface — ^held in their places by small stakes or
other simple contrivances — a mound of earth is to be
On Hedges. ^5
piled up in a sloping bank to support them — having
first ploughed a narrow stripe at a little distance from
the hedge-course, the more easily to procure mould for
the purpose."
'' This mound would rather be of benefit than detri-
ment to the hedge, although if both its sides were to
be banked up to any considerable height, it might kill
it entirely ; for there are few plants that can bear to be
set much deeper in the ground than they grow natural-
ly, but when the earth is 'elevated on one side only, the
hedge will suffer no injury therefrom, and will thus ap-
pear planted on the side of a bank without any ditch."
Mode of Plashing Hedges. From Anderson'^s Rural Es-
says. See also American Edition of the Domestic En-
cyclop cedia^ Vol. HI. page 277.
" When a hedge has been neglected, and gaps are
formed, they must be filled by plashing. To do this,
stems are selected, to be left at proper distances, the
tops of which are all cut over at the height of four feet
from the root. Straggling side branches of the other
parts of the hedge ai'e also lopped away. Several of
the remaining plants are then cut over close by the
ground, at convenient distances ; and the remaining
plants are cut perhaps half through, so as to permit
them to be bent to one side. They are then bent down
almost to a horizontal position, and interwoven with
the upright stakes, so as to retain them in that position.
The operator begins at one end of the field, and pro-
ceeds regularly forward, bending all the stems in one
direction, so as that the points rise above the roots of
26
On Hedges*
the others, till the whole wattling is completed to the
same height as the uprights, after which it assumes the
appearance somewhat resembling that which is repre-
sented in the following cut.
All the diagonal wattlings continue to live, and send
out shoots from many parts of their stems ; and as the
upright shoots that rise from the stumps of those plants
that have been cut over, quickly rush up through the
whole hedge, these serve to unite the whole into one
entire mass that forms a strong, and durable fence."
\_The following extracts from Lord Dundonald'' s " Trea-
tise on the Connection of Agriculture with Chemistry'''' are
published to shew the easy modes, by which every atten-
tive farmer may gain important knowledge. They also
impress the necessity there exists for those who have lei-
sure and inclination, to study a?id promulgate at least so
much che?nical scie?ice^ as can be usefully applied to the
practice of agriculture.']
L 27 3
Extracts from Lord DundonakVs '* Treatise on the con-
nection of Agriculture with Chemistry. Page 150."
The simple earths, air, water, sahne bodies, vegetable
substances, Sec. &:c. having thus been considered, as
far as the properties of each relate to the present design,
it is now become necessary, previously to any further
discussion respecting the practical part, to give such
directions to the cultivators of the soil, as may enable
them to ascertain the nature and proportions which the
component parts of it bear to each other; and conse-
quently the value of the surface mould contained in the
different parts of their farms or estates; and how, by
this information, they may be enabled to apply with
most advantage the several ameliorating substances
herein recommended.
It has not been, nor would it be possible to avoid
making use of chemical terms, consistently with the
plan of a work, which has for its object the making
every farmer, to a certain extent, a chemist, so that he
may be enabled to understand the nature and proper-
ties of the several substances, in the management of
which he is daily engaged; and that in all his future
attempts to improve the soil, the success of his opera-
tions may no longer depend on guess-work, or on
chance, but be regulated by a proper knowledge of the
materials he may have to work with— how each may
best be applied or acted upon, and what effects will
ensue from their different combinations.
28 On the Analysis of Soils,
Cultivators of the soil should be able to distinguish,
by chemical tests, the proportion of the following sub-
stances in different soils, viz.
Clay, chalk, sand, magnesia, earth of iron, and vege-
table matter.
They should understand the properties and effects,
and superior affinities of alkalis and acids ; as well as
the names, properties, and compounded electrive at-
tractions attendant on the mixture of the different neu-
tral salts, and their effects on vegetation. They should
be well acquainted with the powers of lime, and should
clearly and distinctly comprehend the putrefactive and
oxygenating processes; as wtU as the consequences
resulting from the action of fire on the vegetable matter
contained in the soil.
The first step that a cultivator of the ground should
take, w4ien possessed of the above information, is to
ascertain by experiments, in what proportions chalk,
clay, sand, magnesia, and vegetable matter exist in the
soil, in the different parts of the farm he purposes to
cultivate; in order that he ma)^, from such information,
be enabled to administer to each part those particular
substances that it may require, to constitute it rich and
fertile mould. A soil of this description ought to con-
tain a due proportion of the simple earths, and of the
remains of vegetable and animal bodies. — To enable
him to make the requisite experiments, he should pro-
cure the following articles and vessels :
Two sets of small scales and weights, one to weigh
a few pounds at a time, and another smaller and more
accurate, for ounces and grains: some porcelaine glass,
or stone-ware vessels ungiazed, such as are called
On tfie Anahjsis of Soils, 29
Vauxhall ware : some muriatic acid, and mineral alka-
line salt. These beinc^ provided, the method of pro-
ceeding to ascertain the different proportions of the dif-
ferent substances in soils, is as follows :
The presence of calcareous matter is ascertained, by-
applying to the mould suspected to contain it, some
marine acid diluted with water. If it contain calcare-
ous matter, an effervescence will take place, and a neu-
tral salt, called muriat of lime, ^vill be formed. This
is to be separated from the earthy insoluble matter, by
a due proportion of water, and is to be evaporated to a
certain degree. Lastly, the calcareous matter i-^ to be
precipitated by mild mineral alkaline salt. When the
calcareous matter thus precipitated shall be collected,
washed, dryed, and weighed, the quantity contained in
the soil will be ascertained by the proportion it may
bear to the weight of the dr?j mould on which the ex-
periment had been made.
The same process and the same acid \^ill serve to
shew if magnesia be contained, and the proportion it
may bear to the soil. Magnesia is not in general found
in any very great proportion in siu^face mould, although
there is more of it contained in ground than is generally
imagined. It will for the most part, be found accom-
panied by calcareous matter; and as both these sub-
stances, when dissolved by the marine acid, are very-
soluble, and blended together, a separation is to be ef-
fected by the following process.
The earths of magnesia and calcareous matter are to
be precipitated by mild mineral alkaline salt. The pre-
cipitate, or earthy residuum, when washed, is to be dis-
solved by a due proportion of the vitriolic acid diluted
30 On the Analysis of Soils,
with water. With the calcareous matter it ^vill form
g}^psum, (a very insohible salt) whilst with the mag-
nesia it will form Epsom salt, a salt of great solubility.
These salts are to be separated by priority of chrystal-
lization, and their respective weights being ascertained,
when deprived of the water of chrystallization, and
brought to an equal degree of dryness, the quantity of
calcareous matter and magnesia in each may be ascer-
tained by Bergman's or Kirwan's tables of the pro-
portion x)f acid, alkali, earth, and water contained in dif-
ferent neutral salts. To those who are not provided
with such tables, it may suffice to say, that
Acid Cal. Matter Water
100 parts of g}-psum contain 48 34 18
Acid Magnesia Water
100 parts of Epsom salt contain Z^ 19 48
As both clay and sand, in different proportions con-
stituting either a clayey or sandy soil, are distinguish-
able by the ^ight and touch, there is no occasion for
giving any chemical test, to prove their presence. The-
proportion of the coarser parts of siliceous matter or
sand, in soils or mould, may be ascertained by washing.
The presence of vegetable or cai'bonaceous matter in
surface mould, when in any considerable proportion, is
apparent, either from its black colour, or from the ve-
getable matter, appearing in the soil in an undecayed
state. Chemical tests, in either of these cases, are un-
necessary. When it may be requisite, however, to
ascertain the presence or proportion of it in clayey or
other soils, in which, from colour or extreme division
of parts, it is less apparent, it is to be done in one or
other of the following methods i
On the Analysis of Soils,
By properly drying and weighing a certain weight of
mould, and then submitting it to such a degree of heat
as will consume the vegetable or carbonaceous matter
to ashes : at the same time, the heat must not be such
as will disengage the fixable air from any calcareous
matter or magnesia that may be contained in the mould
or soil submitted to trial. The difference in weight
between the dry mould, and that which is thus sub-
mitted to the action of fire, will be the proportion of
vegetable or carbonaceous matter.
It is likewise to be done by melting some salt-petre in
an iron ladle, bringing the salt-petre to a red fusion,
and then dropping into it, by little and little at a time,
the earthy matter, taking care previously to dry it tho-
roughly. The dropping in of the dried mould should
be continued until the complete deflagration of the salt-
petre is effected.
The practical observation to be deduced from the
above experiment, is, that the soil or mould which con-
tains the most vegetable or carbonaceous matter will
deflagi'ate the greatest quantity of salt-petre; or, in other
words, that it will require less mould to deflagrate a
given weight of salt-petre, in proportion as that mould
contains a greater proportion of imflammable matter.
The presence and proportion of vegetable and inflam-
mable matters in clay may, in some degree, be proved
and ascertained by the degree of blackness in the colour,
which the interior parts of the clay assume, when sub-
jected in the fire to a certain degree of heat.
The existence and proportion of most saline matters
in soils are to be discovered by lixiviation, Avith warm
water, and by subsequent chrystallization.
32 On the Analysis of Soils.
Gypsum is to be detected by boiling the earth with
alkaline salts; in which case, the gypsum will be decom-
posed, and the vitriolic acid of the gypsum will join
with the mineral alkali, forming Glauber salt, which is
very soluble. The quantity of gypsum previously ex-
isting in the soil is to be ascertained by weighing, when
properly dried, the calcareous matter which had been
precipitated by the alkali ; and by adding thereto, in
calculation, the proportion of vitriolic acid necessary to
constitute it gypsum ; having previously deducted there-
from the proportion of fixable air which the precipitated
chalk contains. The proportion of fixable air and vi-
triolic acid contained in chalk and in gypsum are in the
proportions as here stated:
Fixable Air Calcareous Matter
In chalk, 43 53
Vitriolic yield Calcareous Matter
In gypsum, 48 34
The following is given as an example of the method
of making this calculation :
Grai?2s.
Residuum of precipitated chalk, - * 480
Proportion contained therein of fixable air,^ 212
Calcareous matter, - - . . 268
Proportion of vitriolic acid necessary to consti-
tute gypsum with the calcai'eous matter, 554
Total quantity of gypsum, - - - 622
[ 33 1
Utility of Pyrites as a Manure,
The following account of the utility of pyrites as ^
manure, by Mr. Livingston, is alluded to in page 158.
"In an excursion, I have lately made into Flanders,
I observed, at some distance from the road, several
large beds of earth, that appeared to me, to emit smoke
and flame, which two men were tending. I stopped
the post chaise, and went to examine it, I found that it
was pyrites sufficiently impregnated with sulphur, to
burn when dry. This was laid in beds and set on fire.
They endeavoured to extinguish the fire, when the
ashes became of a red colour. If it burned longer, it
became black, and the quality of it not so good. This
earth so burnt, was easily reduced to powder by wood-
en mallets, and in this state was carried upon the backs
of asses forty or fifty miles as a manure, and was used
particularly for grass, at the rate of about six bushels
to the acre. The seed grain was also covered with it
as with gypsum in our country."
[Pyrites consist of sulphur and iron, crystallized
ill various shapes, frequently in cubes : and abound in
the United States, and especially in Pennsylvania. ][
[ 34 j
On the Fruit Ciirculw.
The following extracts are from the paper on the fruit
curculio, by Dr. Tilton, referred to by that gentleman,
page 189.
*' The manner in which this insect injures and de-
stroys our fruits, is, by its mode of propagation. — Early
in the spring, about the time when the fruit trees are in
blossom, the curculiones ascend in swarms from the
earth, crawl up the trees, and as the several fruits ad-
vance, they puncture the rind or skin, w4th their pointed
rostra, and deposit their embryos in the wounds thus
inflicted. The maggot thus bedded in the fruit, preys
upon its pulp and juices, until in most instances, the
fruit perishes, falls to the ground and the insect escaping
from so unsafe a residence, makes a sure retreat into the
earth : where, like other beetles, it remains in the form
of a grub or worm, during the winter, ready to be me-
tamorphosed into a bug or beetle, as the spring advances.
Thus every tree furnishes its own enemy ; for although
these bugs have manifestly the capacity of flying, they
appear very reluctant in the use. of their wings ; and per-
haps never employ them but when necessity compels
them to migrate. It is a fact, that two trees of the same
kind may stand in the nearest possible neighbourhood,
not to touch each other, the one have its fruit destroyed
by the curculio, and the other be uninjured, merely from
contingent circumstances, which prevent the insects
from crawling up the one, while they are uninterrupted
from climbing the other.''
On the Fruit Curculio. 35
" The curculio delights most in the smooth skinned
stone fruits, such as nectarines, plumbs, apricots, &c.
when they abound on a farm : they nevertheless attack
the rough skinned peach, the apple, pear, and quince.
The instinctive sagacity of these creatures directs them
especially to the fruits most adapted to their purpose.
The stone fruits more certainly perish by the wounds
made by these insects, so as to fall in due time to the
ground, and aiford an opportunity to the young mag-
got to hide itself in the earth. Although multitudes of
seed fruits fall, yet many recover from their wound s,
which heal up with deeply indented scars. — This pro-
bably disconcerts the curculio, in its intended course
to the earth. Be this as it may, certain it is, that pears
are less liable to fall, and are less injured by this insect
than apples. Nectarines, plumbs, &c. in most districts
of our country, where the curculio has gained an esta-
blishment, are utterly destroyed, unless special means are
employed for their preservation. Cherries escape bet-
ter, on account of their rapid progress to maturity and
their abundant crops : the curculio can only puncture
a small part of them, during the short time they hang
upon the tree. These destructive insects continue their
depredations from the first of May until autumn. Our
fruits collectively estimated must thereby be depreciated
more than half their value."
" We are unacquainted with any tribe of insects able
to destroy the curculio. All the domestic animals, how-
ever, if well directed, contribute to this purpose. Hogs
in a special manner are qualified for the work of exter-
mination. This voracious animal, if suifered to go at
large in orchards, and among fruit trees, devours all the
'36 On the Fruit Curcidlo.
fruit that falls, and among others the curculiones, m the
maggot state, which may be contained in them. Being
thus generally destroyed in the embryo state, there will
be few or no bugs to ascend from the earth in the
spring, tdTnjure the fruit. Many experienced farmers
have noted the advantage of hogs running in their
orchards."
" Even horned cattle and all sorts of stock may be
made to contribute to the preservation of our valuable
fruits. By running among the trees, they not only
trample to death multitudes of these insects; but by
hardening the ground, as in lanes, it becomes ver}^ unfit
to receive or admit such tender maggots as crawl from
the fallen fruits. Besides, the curculio is very timid,
and when frightened by the cattle rubbing against the
tree or otherwise, their manner is to fold themselves
up in a little ball and fall to the ground ; ^^here they may
be trampled and devoured by the stock, poultry, &c.
Col. T. Forest, of Germantown, having a fine plumb
ti'ee near his pump, tied a rope from the tree to his
pump handle, so that the tree was gently agitated every
time there was occasion to pump water. The conse-
quence was, that the fruit on this tree was preserved in
the greatest perfection."
" All the terebinthinate substances, with camphor
and some others, are said to be very offensive to insects
generally. Upon this principle, General T. Robinson,
of Naaman's creek, suspends annually little bits of
board, about the size of a case knife, dipped in tar, on
each of his plumb trees. From three to five of these
strips are deemed enough, according to the size of the
tree. The General commences his operations about
On the Fruit Ciirculio, 37
the time or soon after the trees are in full bloom, and
rene\\^s the application of the tar frequently, while the
fruit hangs on the tree. To this expedient, he attri-
butes his never failing success. Other gentlemen al-
lege, that common turpentine would be still better; be-
ing equally pungent and more permanent in its effects.
Some have sown offensive articles, such as buckwheat,
celery, &c. at the root of the tree, and have thought that
great advantages followed."
" Ahlaqueation^ or digging round the trees, and mak-
ing bare their roots in winter, is an old expedient of
gardeners for killing insects, and may answer well
enough for a solitary tree, a year or two ; but the cur-
culio will soon recover from a disturbance of this sort,
and stock the tree again."
*' There is no surer protection against the curculio
than a pavement. This, however, is only applicable to
a few trees. It may serve in town ; but ^vill not answer
in the country. [Flat stones may however be placed
round the tree, and v/here lime is at hand, they may be
cemented."]
*' Many other expedients, such as smoking, brush-
ing, watering, &:c. may be successfully employed, for
the protection of a favourite tree or two ; but it is ma-
nifest, from the preceding history, that a right disposi-
tion of stock, especially hogs, among the fruit trees, can
only be relied upon by a farmer, with orchards of con-
siderable extent. And that the stock, poultry Sec. may
perform the task assigned them, it is evident, that a pro-
per disposition of friiit trees is essentially necessary.
'' As the smooth stone fruits are the grand nurseries
of the curculio, special care should be taken, to have
S8 Oil the Fruit Curculio.
these effectually protected. Unless this can be done, a
farmer should not suffer them to grow on his plantation.
He will derive no benefit from them ; and thev will fur-
nish a destructive vermin that will ruin his other fruits.
Cherry trees, nectai'ines, plumbs, apricots, &:c. should
therefore be planted in lanes and hard beaten yards^ [or
paved yards,] the common highways of all the stock of
the farm, and not beyond the range of the ordinary do-
mestic fowls. Orchards of apple trees, pear trees, peach
trees, &c. should all be in one enclosure. The pear
trees and peach trees may occupy corners of the whole
design, so as occasionally to be fenced oft'. In large
orchards, care should be taken that the stock of hogs
is sufficient to eat up all tlie early fruit which fall, from
May until August. This precaution will be more es-
pecially necessary in large peach orchards : for, other-
wise, when the hogs become cloyed with the pulp of the
peach, they will let it fall out of their mouths, and con-
tent themselves with the kernel, which they like better ;
and thus the curculio escaping from their jaws, may
hide under ground, until next spring. Solitary trees
of one fruit or another, remote from the orchard, should
be regarded as nurseries of the curculio, and ought to
be cut down or removed to the common enclosure. A
young orchard should not be planted in the place of, or
adjacent to an old one ; that it may not be immediately
infested with the curculio."
A TABLE, BY PETER LEGAUX,
Of thcprog,-ess of Vegetation in Pennsylvania, compared with that of some of the famous wine countries of Europe. And also exhibiting the results of various Meteorologual observations.
*«* The variety of Grape-vine particularly noticed herein, is the Munier, commonly called Miller's Burgundy.
Philadelphia, in an open country exposure ; and, of course, later in every stage of its v'egi
GRAPE-VINES.
It
vegetati'
iJtivatedat Spring-Mill, 11 3-4 miles in a direct 1
. gress, than if growing in a sheltered and warmei
Beg. M.
.TO 17
M 51
.i9 20
78 O E
79 33 E
93 18 E
1794
1795
1796
Medium result
Spring-Mill.
At Champaigne
Paris, and
of
Burgundy.
AiTas,
Brussels.
Stockholm.
Guadaloupe.
Algiers.
Pondicherr;
OR BLEED.
part
14 May.
29 April.
22 do.
21 do.
25 May.
28 April.
6 May.
7 do.
10 do.
1 do.
8 do.
5 do.
29 April.
25 May.
17 June.
29 May.
3Ju
16 Ju
19 June.
19 do.
7 July.
20 do.
5 do.
27 do.
6 do.
30 June.
4 July.
10 July.
2 Sept.
16 Aug.
20 do.
10 Sept.
14 do.
6 do.
1 do.
3 do.
26 Aug.
1 Sept.
Oct.
^^
Temperatu
Do.
; of the whole ye
do.
4-lOths.
S-lOths.
Medium temperature of the whole year.
Medium temperature of the whole year, 65 7-lOths.
Do. do. 78 1-lOth.
above place, from the beginning of the year 1787, to the end of the year 1800,hav
' ■ settled weather, and 73 ol rain ; and x\\t average quantity of water which had fallen annually.
54 3
53 8
54 3
54 5
54 7
53 6
52 7
51 3
51 6
52 0
52 2
52 5
51 8
12 Ju
12 do,
10 do.
9 do.
27 Ju
9 July.
9 do.
6 do.
4 do.
2 do.
1 do.
31 June.
1 July.
4 do.
9 do.
8 do.
r do.
3 do.
27 July
13 July.
14 do.
10 do.
Aug.
22 July.
24 do.
26 do.
22 do.
18 do.
18 July.
6 Aug.
TEMPERATURE OF EACH YEAR.
Pretty dry and verj- vegetative.
Moist, variable and cold.
Variable and tolerably warm.
Sweet, agreeable and moist.
Ti and variable.
Warm and moist.
Very hot, dry and abundant.
Variable, moist and warm.
Moist and warm.
Variable and cold.
Variable, cold and moist.
Moderate, variable and moist.
Moderate, dry and abundant.
Agreeably warm, moist, abundant.
/Variable, moist, tolerably pleasant and
\ vegetative. Prevalent wind, WNW.
Cold&
, Pre\-alent winds, NE & SW.
seldom so overcast, as to obstruct the rays of the sun, for four days successively.
The most intense cold which we experienced in the year 1804 was on the" 25th of January, being 14 6-lOths below 0; the gr
degrees ; and the medium temperature of the whole year, resulting from ohserv-ations made on every day thereof, was 55 2-lOthi
In the year 1805, on the 12th and 25th of January, the mtrcury fell to 2 9-lOths below O ; on the 2d and 22d of August, it rose to 100 6-lOth:
these two years, was much greater than of any year from 1787 to 1800 inclusive.
THE most intense cold which we have had in Pennsylvania, between the first day of January
1787, and the first day of Februar)' 1 806, according to a regular series of observations made at Spring'-
Mill, every day at sun-rise and at two o'clock m the afternoon, the thermometer in the open air, suffi-
ciently shaded, about five feet from the surface of the ground, and out of the way of any extra reflec-
tion of the sun's rays, occasioned by w.-dls, pavements, &c. happened on the 2d of February 1789 ; the
;ury having fallen that tlay, to 17 S-lOths degrees below zero or O Fahrenheit ; and the gi-eatest
heat during that period was in July 1793, when the mercury rose to 104 5-lOths degrees. July is ge-
rally, our hottest month, and our greatest degree of heat, on an average of several years, may be
tiraated at about 99 5-lOths. January is, usually, our coldest month, in the course of which, we
may always expect a degree of cold, equal to 1 S-lOths below 0. ^Pentive obser^'ations, at the
medium for one year, 4 d.ays of Aurora Bore.ilis, 16 of thunder, 7 of tempestuous weather, 16 of snow, 249 of
be 39 inches, 9 lines, and ll-ieths of a line, English measure. Our atmosphere is gener.-dly clear, and
i observable that the medium heat oi each
the 4di of May and 9lh of July, being on each of tliese days
and the medium temperature of the whole year, was
xn grea
i ; the most intense cold, betwe
, to 3 4-IOths below 0 ; in the j
and the medium heat of the whole year, as established on the result of "
I 104, andin 1743,to99 5-10ths. The coldest month at that place is Jam
In Paris, the greatest summer heat is, ^fnfra»^,Detween 92 7-lOths and 95 degrees ; the most intense cold, between 9 5-1 Oths
years observations, 51 8-lOths. But in the year 1716 the mercurj
aiy, and the hottest August.
At Hoom, in Holland, in the year 1763, the mercury had fallen to 8 degrees, which is marked on some of the Dutch thermometeis, as a remarkable degree of cold.
Ice or snow mixed with kitchen salt, produces a degree of cold equal to zero or 0 of Fahrenheit. The point at which still water begins to freeze is 32, and is consequently, called the freezing point. Rivers
<.i' running waters, freeze at 20 7-lOths ; cider and vinegar at 1 1 7-lOths, and unadulterated wine M S degrees. The medium temneratiu-e marked on Botanical thermometers, as best adapted for the Pine-
Apple, IS 73 6-lOths i (or Melon-beds 69 1-lOth, and for an Orangery 57 9-lOths.
The constant temperature of the cellar of the Obser\atory at Paris,' is 54 5-lOths ; which is generally considered to be the same, in even' part of the globe, at the depth of about 400 feet beneath the surface.
I he most salutar)' temperature of the sick orpatient's room, is thought to be 72 2-lOths. The heat ol'the human blood, in the opinion of the Faculty oi Medicine at Paris, is 99 5-lOths : on the English ther-
mometers. It is marked 98 ; and on several thermometers made in Holland and other places in tfie north o: Europe, 96. Heat ol Hen's incubation I'OS 2-lOths. Fever heat 1 12. Rain or distilled water boils
at 212 degrees, when the mercur>' in the barometer stands at 30 inches. £ln evexy jear, eren in the same neighbourhood, a week's difference may be observed in tlie giain harvests, owing to early or late
d nature of ihc grain.]
sowing, qualities of the soil.
STATISTICAL ACCOUNT
OF THE
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE,
COMMUNICATED
TO THE
PHILADELPHIA SOCIETY
OF
AGRICULTURE,
1806.
PHILADELPHIA:
PRINTED BY JANE AITKEN, NO. 62,
NORTH THIRD STBF.ETo
1807.
THE following account of Schuylkill Permanent
Bridge, and the circumstances connected xvith it, was drawn
up, at the request of one o^ the proprietors of an extensively
useful publication, now in progress* It was found, that the
plan of the work did not admit of its being inserted under
any one article; and it was therefore withdrawn. In con-
formity with the design of our institution, it has been pre-
sented to the Society. A statistical viezv of an erection so
important to agriculture and the arts, is deemed worthy of
being communicated among the objects of our attention. The
interests of this great coynmercial city, and the accommodation
of all the inhabitants of this and other States, whose affairs
require an intercourse with it, through this approach, are
promoted by an enterprize completed with private funds, and
by the exertions of a few persevering individuals. Though the
facts of its history are local, many of them furnish instruct-
five lessons of general importance.
Philadelphia, 1806.
CONTENTS
OF THE
STATISTICAL ACCOUNT
OF THE
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE,
Sundry Bridges erected in Pennsylvania and on its borders*
Character of the river SchuylkilL Law for establishing
High street ferry ^ _ _ _ - _ _ 5
Floating Bridges^ an account of them. Projects informer
times for Bridges^ and remarks thereon^ - - 8
Commencement of plan of the present Bridge^ - - 18
Act of Incorporation^ and Organization of the Company^ 21
Plans for the present Bridge^ and its execution on the plan
adopted^ - ._-. _-24
Description of the Bridge^ - - - - 29
General Observations^ - - - - - -33
Recipe for Composition to i?nitate Stone, - - - 36
Dimensions of the Bridge, - - - - - 38
Amount of Toll. Names o^the O^fcers of the Company, 39
Extracts fro7n Reports of the Building Committee, - 40
Description of the Western Pier, . - - - 42
Communication respecting the Cover, . - - 43
Address of the President and Directors at the close of the
Work, 52
Statement of the situation of the Stock, in 1 806 and 1 807, 56
Coffer Dams and Piers, - - - - - 57
Remarks on single, or multiplied Arches, - - -73
Chronometrical Obelisk, and its Inscriptions, - - 76
Rates of Toll, established by Law ; and Rules respecting
Transportation, - - - - - - 82
I^Iatc of the Bridge prefixed.
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT
OF THE
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE,
THE State of Pejinsylvania has long been deser-
\?edly famed, for the multitude and excellence of its
bridges, over the various smaller streams, by which it
is intersected* But no permanent means of transport-
ation across the large and widely extensive rivers, flow-
ing in and through, or bounding, this fertile and flou-
rishing region, had, until a late period, been attempted.
That thrown lately over the Schuylkill, at the west end
of the High or Market Street of the city of PhiladeL
phia; one over the same river at Beading; those over
the Lehigh at Bethlehem, PFeiss^sftrrj, and one near its
discharge into the Delaxvare; have begun the career of
hydraulic architecture, which will increase the celebrity
of this State in that important branch of public improve-
ment. A bridge over the Delaware at Easton, con-
necting Pennsylvania with the State of A^ew Jersey, is
in great forwardness;* under the direction of Mr. T.
Palmer. One on a peculiar construction, and highly
necessary for the passage of the mails, and other con-
stant transportation, upon the great Post road of com-
* Since the account was drawn up, it is completed in its
Frame, which, alter the example of the Schuylkill bridge, h
covered.
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
munication, between the cities of Philadelphia and
New Yorky is recently finished. It is situated at Mor-
risville, and near Trenton on the Delaware; and also con-
nects the State of Fenmylvania and New Jersey, This
latter has been erected at the expence of a Company,
under the superintendance of Mr. Theodore Burr^ who,
as well as Mr. Palmer is a self taught and ingenious
American Bridge Builder, and has evidenced much ta-
lent as well as industry in this structure.
The success of the Schuylkill bridge, as far as it had
proceeded, was exemplary; and instigated the com-
mencement of this work, as well as encouragement in
its prosecution. All these erections are highly honor-
able to those who promoted, supported, and completed
them. But that over the Schuylkill^ is the only suc-
cessful undertaking of the kind, attempted and carried
to perfection in and over a deep tide water. It has been
attended with the most difficulty and expence ; and has,
in consequence, more particularly called forth the ta-
lents, exertions, and perseverance of those engaged in it.
The Schuylkill y which washes the western front of
the city of Philadelphia^ although it affords great advan-
tages, had long been attended with many serious incon-
veniencies. The frequent interruption of passage by
ice and floods ; and the inefficient and uncertain mode
of crossing heretofore practised, had, for a long course
of years, employed the thoughts and attention, of many
ingenious, and public spirited members of the commu-
nity. The character of this river is wild, and, in times
of floods, rapid and formidable; and, to any structure
of slight materials, ruinous and irresistable.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE.
Its borders, to an extent of one hundred miles, aie
skirted by precipitous mountains and hills. Its tribu-
tary streams, suddenly filled, in seasons of rains, or
melting snows, with the torrents rushing down their
sides, without notice or time for precaution, fill the ri-
ver with frequent floods, which no common works of
art within their reach, have heretofore been capable of
withstanding. Although these attributes, are not to
a certain degree uncommon, yet, in this river they are
peculiarly dangerous. They occur at irregulai* peri-
ods, and often at seasons of the year, when floods are
generally unexpected. These circumstances, at all
times created doubts of the practicability of any perma-
nent erection. The depth of the water opposite to the
city, added to the difficulties and apprehensions. The
expence in the early periods of its establishment, pre-
cluded any plan, requiring large expenditures by those
who then inhabited Philadelphia and its vicinity. In the
year 1723, March 30th, a law was enacted " by the Go-
vernor "Sir William Kcith^ "by and with the consent
"of the Freemen of the province, in General Assembly
"met," (which shews the then style of the laws,) entit-
led, " An act for establishing a ferry over the river
" Schuylkill^ at the end of the High Street of FhiladeU
'''-phia^'' granting to the then Mayor and commonalty,
the right to make and maintain causeways, on both
sides of the river, and to erect a ferry at the west end
of High Street, Certain tolls were then fixed ; which
the present rates do not, in any case far exceed, and in
many instances, i. e. for country produce and manure,
are much, and liberally reduced. No person or per-
sons (without violating that law) could then, or can now.
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
*' keep or use any boat or canoe, for transporting any
"person or persons, creatures or carriages, for hire or
"pay, over the said river, in any other place between
"these ferries, now called JRoacK's (late Ashtorrs now
Sherridme'^s) "and Blunston* s''^ (late Graifs) "Ferries
" on the said river, besides the Ferry thereby establish-
"ed." By virtue of this law, the corporation of the
city, have held and exercised this exclusive Franchise,
from the time of its being so granted, until their trans-
fer thereof to the present Permanent Bridge Company.
The Ferry was maintained, and generally used, until
the floating bridges were thrown over. In times of in-
terruption of the passage of those bridges, by ice and
floods, (which too frequently occurred) the boat was
resorted to, for temporary transportation, and always
kept in readiness for use.
In December 1776, when the British troops had
overran, and nearly subjugated the State of New Jer-
sey, General Washington , apprehensive of being forced
to retreat, with the shattered remnants of his patriotic,
but enfeebled army, wTote to General Putnam, then
commanding in Philadelphia, directing him to take
measures for the speedy passage of the Schuylkill, in
case of ursrent necessitv. Orders were at the same
time given to collect all the boats attainable at WrighVs^
and other ferries on the Susquehanna. No pontoons
existed, with which to comply with the orders of the
commander in chief. It fell to the lot of the individu-
al, who originated the project of the present Perma-
nent Bridge, and who then held a confidential ofiice
under the United States, to be consulted on the subject.
Having advised with some Ship -Wrights, a bridge of
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE,
boats was at first thought of; but finally one of ship car-
penter's floating stages, used for graving ships, was con-
cluded upon. This plan, on being suggested by him
to General Putnam, was instantly adopted and promptly
executed. The critical and masterly stroke, made on
the British auxiliaries at Trenton, superseded its mili-
tar}^ use at that period. It gave, how^ever, the first idea
of the floating bridges, over the Schuylkill, composed of
buoyant logs, for the support of a platform of planks;
two whereof now remain, at Gray's and Sherridine^s
ferries. There does not appear to be any express au-
thority by law for the establishment of these bridges.
The act of 1723 recognizes the two ferries of Roach
and Bliinston, An act passed since the revolution, re-
gulates and directs the low^ering the I'opes of ferries, and
opening the bridges (which had each Slip pieces ^or this
purpose) within a certain time, on notice, under a penalty.
This implied permission, appears to be the only warrant
for their continuance. The first of the log bridges was
erected by the Executive of the state. This was either
much injured or destroyed.
A bridge was constructed by the Biitish army in
1777, when in possession of the City, on pontoons or
large boats. But this not sufficiently answering their
purposes, another was thrown over, composed of planks
supported by floating logs after the pattern, and perhaps
with part of the materials of the one which had sue-
ceeded the bridge of Stages, and is probably the one
novv^ at Gray^s ferry. One of the pontoons, used by
the British, prolonged the hostility w^hich occasioned its
fabrication. Two of the piles of the coffer dam, sunk
for the erection of th€ western pier of the present per-
10
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
xnanent bridge, were obstructed by apart of one of those
boats which had been accidentally sunk in 1777, 28 feet
below common low water. It occupied part of the area
of the dam, with one end projecting under two of the
piles of the inner row; and had nearly rendered the erec-
tion abortive. It was first discovered on pumping out
the dam ,in 1802 ; and was perfectly sound, after a lapse
of 25 years. The iron work had not the least appear-
ance of rust, or the wood (which was common oak)
of decay. The taking this boat to pieces, the straining
the dam, and the leaks in consequence, were the chief
causes of an extra expenditure, by the company of more
than S 4000, hardly and perilously disbursed in pump-
ing (which alone cost from S 5 to 700 per week) and
other labour, during forty one days and nights, in the
midst of a most inclement winter !
The privations of supplies from the country on the
western side of the Schuylkill^ had always been causes
of regret, and too often of increased expence, to the in-
habitants of the City. These were most severely felt,
as the population increased. It would be perhaps irk
some, to attend to a recital minutely, of all the schemes
suggested, for a permanent passage, through a period of
near seventy years. It will be sufficient, shortly to men-
tion some of them. To those who have been actively
concerned in the present structure, most of these pro-
jects appear to have been impracticable, or unadvisable.
If they could have been executed; the funds were unat-
tainable.
Some would have the river filled with a dam and
causeway ; after a bridge had been built on the flats of
the fast land, and a channel cut through these flats.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. n
Some proposed a low stone bridge; to be used only when
the river was in its ordinary state; and when raised by
floods, the torrent should run over the bridge. Thus
intermitting its use, when it was most required. Some
would have, with any bridge, arches, turned from hill
to hill, and thus occupy with impediments, the low
grounds, which now aftord additional passage to the
overflow of the stream. The expence too, would re-
quire the funds of a state ; and never could have been
accomplished by private advances, with any prospect of
profit. Any buildings, or other obstructions, placed on
these flats, will confine, and, of course, redouble, the
force of the current. They would cause the accumula*
tion of the ice, and damming of the stream; the most for-
midable foes the bridge has to contend with. Some had
proposed a bridge on chains, stretched across the river^
and elevated by columns, of vast height, on its banks.
Adding to this visionary plan, some of its advocates
would have pillars, in the middle of the river, on a kind
of wharf, containing stone promiscuously thrown in. On
such an uncertain, shifting, and unstable foundation,
more modern projectors have contemplated erecting
wooden superstructures ; and are not yet persuaded of
their being dangerous and insecure. If such should
succeed in a river of tranquil current, and level bottom,
they are not calculated for one frequently impetuous m
the extreme ; in some parts of its bed, covered with
mud, in others uncommonly unequal and rocky. Still
more ineligible, in one, irregular in its depths ; which
suddenly vary, at small distances, so as to afford no en-
couragement to depend on any foundations, or supports
for abridge, but those of solid masonry; and this foun<
ded on the rock, which stretches acrofis its bottom.
J^2 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT aF THE
Without entering into controversy on tlie merits or
defects of these plans, which were proposed for the po-
sition of the present bridge, they are barely enumerated,
with some of the objections to their establishment.
Before the Revolution, at various periods, citizens of
intelligence and talents, had abandoned the idea of erect-
. ing a bridge, in the deep tide water, opposite the city.
They sought for situations, less difficult ; and higher up
the river. Applications were presented to the General
Assembly of the Province ; and surveys and accurate
examinations were made, under the directions of a com-
mittee of the Legislature. The places viewed, were
Peters' s Island^ and the Fording place ^ nearer the falls ;
which was, in early times, the most common passage
over the river. The road leading over it, is called, in
antient deeds and other wTitings, " The old Lancaster
ready A third site offered for the consideration of this
committee, was iht great falls of Schuylkill; where such
an erection \yas said to be practicable, directly across
the reef of elevated rocks, forming the obstructions in
that part of the stream. Maps and measurements of
these places, and their distances from the city, and par-
ticularly of Peters'' s Island^ (which was the place gene-
rally fixed on, as possessing the greatest facilities and
advantages, positive and relative,) were made, and are
yet extant. The route to Lancaster by this place,
thi'ough part of the Ridge or Wissahiccon road, is short-
er than that passing over the bridge opposite the city.
The distance by either place is not much greater. Al-
though a bridge may be erected, at either place, for a
sum not exceeding a fourth, and probably a fifth, of the
post of the permanent bridge at High street^ yet these
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 13
sites cannot rival the latter. They do not unite all in-
terests, by being so generally accommodatory to tra-
vellers and transportation, from all quarters, southerly
and westerly of the city. Their use will therefore be
paitial, and the object of a distant day. Coiiflicting in^
terests, and the disinclination of the Legislature, to af-
ford sufficient means out of the public funds, occasion-
ed the abandonment of the measure at that time. The
competitions ended in a lesson, which zealous schemers
never read; to wit; — Opposing advocates, for local and
clashing advantages, not unfrequently gain nothing;
and are sure to defeat the object of all.
Another project of a bridge over one of these places
was proposed, at the time when the canal from Norris-
town was first contemplated. The canal was tliought,
by many persons of intelligence, to be more easily and
ceconomically practicable, on the west side of the river.
It was proposed to erect, at one or the other of the pla-
ces last mentioned, an aqueduct bridge^ over which, the
canal should cross the river ; with a tow-path or passage
way, on each side of the channel for the water, for tra-
velling and land transportation. This is yet believed to
have been not only practicable, but also, that it could
have been nearly completed, with the sum expended on
that unfortunate, though highly desirable enteq^rize.
This is not mentioned with any view of censure ; be-
cause the obstacles occurring on the east side, ver}' ma-
ny vv'hereof w^ould have been avoided on the west, com-
pelled expenditures, not calculated upon or foreseen:
And pre -conceived opinions ai'e often found fallacious,
when brought to the test of practice.
j4 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
A little out of its order, is mentioned the last unex-
edited plan, for erecting a wooden bridge, over the
middle ferry, in the year 1767. A subscription for the
purpose was circulated, and many respectable citizens
agi'eed to contribute. But this, from various causes,
fell through ; and all efforts to accomplish the object
were suspended for many years. This bridge was
contemplated to be of one arch, with stone abutm^ents j
a plan still believed by some of its former advocates^
to be practicable and most oeconomical. The intended
span was to have been 400 feet: height from the
water 47 1-2 feet.
In theor}^, it seems reconcilable with principles, thai
an arch of wood or iron, may be extended to any length
of span, with sufficient elevation. The point of either
practicability or discretion, has never been precisely fix-
ed. In a modern proposal for a single arch of iron,
over the Thames^ in place of old London Bridge^ a project
is exhibited for an arch of 600 feet span. All agree
' in the theory^, but practical men shrink at the danger;
though there a.re respectable opinions of intelligent the-
orists, in favour of its principles. According to the best
opinions of practical men here, (among them Mr. JFest-
€71 and Mr. Pahner^) one of 200 feet begins to be criti-
cal and hazardous. The timber arch of Piscataway
bridge, erected by Mr. Palmer, spans 244 feet , but he
declared he would not again attempt one of similar extent.
The most intelligent among those who have gained ex^
perience in the late structure, believe, that the span in-
tended for the Schuylkill, in the last project, the draft
whereof has been often seen by them, was too extended
for this spot; and tliat it would most probably have faiU
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. ]^5
ed. The weight of transportation here is uncommon
and constant, and the friction of course incessant.
Strength, symmetry and firmness, are required here ; of
which one very extended arch is incapable. Although
wood or iron may be so framed, as to have the least
possible drifts or lateral thrust^ on the abutments or piers,
yet there is a point, beyond which it is dangerous to
pass. Of stone or brick it would be adventurous, be-
yond all common discretion, to risque an arch of such
a span. Nor is the undulatory motion of an extensive
arch, (however composed) an unimportant objection.
A bridge of so extended a span must have been (to
be safe) so much more elevated, that the filling would
have pressed the walls too dangerously. Some relief
might have been given by culverts, or reversed arches,
to save filling; but these are not without their disadvan-
tages. The pressure on the walls of the present west-
ern abutment and wings, is quite as much as masonry
on piles will bear ; and no other foundation could have
been had, but at an unwarrantable expence, the rock at
the site of the abutment, being covered with mud and
gravel 38 to 40 feet deep. It was deemed, and found
prudent, to sink the whole frame of the present struc-
ture, three feet into the piers, and imposts of the abut-
ments, as well to avoid over weight of filling, as to de-
press the platform, or travelling floor, to a point easy of
access. An approach of the abutments, for an ai'ch of 400
feet span, would have created a necessity (not kno^^n
when such a plan was proposed) for coffer daw^, and all
their dangers and expence. The present bridge enlarges
the passage for the v/ater, at least, a fifth. One for an arch
of 300 to 350 feet, would have diminished it in a greater
J5 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
proportion ; because the abutments must have approach-
ed each other, so as to occupy the position now open,
through the land or side arches.
No persons engaged in such difficuh works, should
risque any project to save expence of foundations, fof
piers or abutments. But on the other hand, coffer dams
should be avoided, if any other means can, with common
prudence, be adopted. Their expence is enormous,
and their success not always to be ensured. The great
proportion of the expenditures in the Schuylkill bridge,
has been incurred by the inevitable necessity for coffer
dams. The labour applied, and the difficulties encoun-
tered and overcome, will appear to the best informed
engineers, uncommon and singularly arduous, as will
appear by the short account of them subjoined to the
present statement. Every eifort was made to avoid
the necessity of these dams, but on duly weighing all
the projects suggested, none could be adopted with any
prospect of safety. The irregulai^ity of the bottom,
and depth of water, at once were found to forbid the
use of Batterdeaus, Floats were thought of, com=
posed of a platform of logs, on which masonr}^ should
be formed. These w^ere to be built on, with logs
at the sides, and others crossing the whole, bolted
like wharves ; filled in with masonry, and raised on as
they sunk, till having lodged on the bottom, they should
compose the foundation for masonry, from low water
mark. But no horizontal, or solid position could be
obtained for them. All the objections to batterdeaus
lay against them. A flood too, might have carried them
off in an unfinished state. This was proved, when a
few of the belts of the coffer dam (light and buoyant,
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. ^7
compared to these floats, and more easily secured) were
swept away by a summer fresh ; though they had been
supported by some piles, and moored with anchors and
cables, capable of holding a stout frigate. The levell-
ing the bottom, or making one artiiicially (as was done
by Semple at the Essex bridge in Dublin) was- found
impracticable, on account of the thick cover ( 13 feet)
of mud in some parts, and the total bareness and un-
evenness of the rock in others. It became a choice of
difficulties ; and the coffer daiii^ or no bridge, was the
alternative. Projects easily and cheaply to be accom-
plished in shallow streams, with level bottoms, or those
capable of being artificially made so, were all found im-
practicable, and to the last degree imprudent here. The
•modes pursued in New England^ either of piles,
wharves, log frames, or stones loosel}^ thrown into the
stream, were considered and condemned. The destruc-
tion of many of the bridges of that country vras predict-
ed ; but with a hope that this apprehension might pro^ e
unfounded, as the enterprizes of the people there were
admired and applauded. Sounds^ or arms of the sea,
sheltered from violent storms, broad rivers, capable of
holding piles, and affording extensive fiats, for overflows
and waste of floods ; will admit of slighter foundations,
though always exposed to danger, under uncommon
circumstances. Many of the sites of eastern bridges
are of this description.
The pressing necessity for some permanent structure,
called the attention of many citizens to the subject.
But none, for a long course of time, attempted any de-
cided measure, till the one whose endeavours where final-
ly crowned with success, in the acoompli'^hment of the
c ,
l^ A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
present erection, moved in this important desideratum*
It was contemplated, originally, to erect the bridge, at a
'imall distance above the upper, or RoacJi's ferry. One
<jbject in fixing on this site, was its supposed advanta-
ges in point of practicability. But no inconsiderable
motive^ was that of leaving the whole westeiTi front of
the City unobstructed by so great an impediment to the
navigation of the Schuylkill^ which has already she^v^.
itself to be of inestimable consequence. The improve-
ment of this western front, depending so much on the
navigation of the river, is already in great progress. It
will add to the evidence of foresight and sound calcula-
tion, possessed by its great founder William Penn., w^hen
he decided on the plan of our justly celebrated City.
At length however it was seen that a project of a bridge^
to be effectuated by private advances, could only be ac-
Gomplished in a spot, in which a majority of interests and
opinions where united. Endeavours, which, through
many difficulties succeeded, were therefore commenced,
for obtaining from the City corporation, the site of the
present bridge ; and forty thousand dollars (one half in
bridge Stock) were paid, as the consideration. The
General Assembly had, by a law, granted to the Bridge
Company, the right of the Commonwealth to a valuable
lot adjoining this site, on the eastern, and a purchase
had been made of property on the western side of the
river, which is now highly accommodator^^ It is un-
pleasant to mix the alloy of regret, with the purity of ap-
probation which must attach both to the site, and the
structure there established; yet it is to be lamented that
one half of the western front of the City, is deprived of
tiaviiz:ation on a G:reat scale. E'er lonf^ this river will
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. JQ
pour into the lap of commerce, abundant supplies for fo-
reign markets; and the land transportation passing over
it, is very considerable. Twelve feet water can be car-
ried over the bar at the river's mouth; and it is well
known, that a channel may be made, to escape the bar,
for lai'ge vessels, at no formidable expence. Four fa
thoms, on an average, may be carried, after passing the
bar, up to and along the whole City front. It is to be
most seriously hoped, that no obstacles to this important
navigation, will in future be added. One error proba-
bly unavoidable, which cannot now be rectified, com=
mitted in the zeal for a new and essential improvement
and accommodation is enough. Passages for vessels,
through draws, should be insisted on, if at any time other
bridges should be required, where they interfere with
the navigation. Posterity should never be disinherited,
to serve present and partial objects.
The impediment to the navigation of the Thames, by
old London bridge, has long been highly injurious. In^
somuch that it is said, in an estimate presented to the
British Parliament a few years ago, (1801) that the dii-
ference in the price o^ coals above, from that below bridge
would in a short time, pay for taking down the old, and
building a 72ew bridge, to admit large vessels, either un-
der, or through the bridge, by means of a draw. And
there is a great plan in progress for that purpose.
It is mentioned with no view to personal adulation,
but as a successful instance, for the encouragement of
persistance in commendable pursuits, too often thwarted
by opposite interests or opinions, that the " Act for in-
corporating a Company for erecting a Permanent Bridge
over the -River Schuiflkill, at or near the Qitv of P'vladcl-
220 ^ STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
phia " was obtained, after persevering efforts, during se-
veral vears by the exertions oi Richard Peters^ who was
elected President of the Company, formed in virtue of
that Act. He originated the project of the present
structure, and assiduously assisted in its execution, from
its comm_encement to its completion. In a pursuit, ge-
nerally deem.ed hopeless, though so obviously of public
utility, he A\'as left solely, to encounter, in its early stages,
strong prejudices and incredulity as to its practicability,,
and many local interests and objections, both as to the
place and principles of its establishment. Much oppo-
sition from several respectable quarters, was to be over-
come, before this law could be obtained. This wasthe
more difficult to combat, because it was grounded on laud-
able principles ; though it was foreseen, as the event pro-
ved, that their objects were unattainable ; and therefore
that no bridge would be erected, but one according to
the project effectuated by the present company. Twenty
one townships, on the western side of the river, repre-
sented by respectable citizens, combined to prevent the
scheme for a toll bridge; under the idea that they could
obtain one free of toll, and built by subscription, aided
by public support. But as this mode of raising funds,
could not be accomplished, the attempt, (the success
v/hereof was very much to be wished) was abandoned.
The Corporation of tlie City, were very commendably
anxious to erect a bridge on their property, under the
direction of the City Councils. This would have been
an appropriate and desirable object. But funds could
not be procured ; and their opposition was withdrawn.
The expensive and most extensively useful JFater
Works, had involved the City corporation in pecuniary
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 21
difficulties; and operated, in no small degree, to induce
a sale, of their ferry franchise, to the company incoi'po-
rated for erecting the bridge.
The Act before mentioned was passed the 16th of
March 1798. Its principle features are similar to all
such incorporating acts. A stock of 1^150,000 divided
into 15,000 shares, at SIO each, is established. To this
have been added 7, 500 new shares, to increase the funds;
the expenditures being necessarily far greater, than could
have been foreseen. A great proportion of the new-
shares, yet remain in the hands of the company undis-
posed of.
The usual arrangements for procuring subscriptions
prefatory to incorporation, are inserted. Three thou-
sand of the original shares, are reserved, for the pur-
chase of a site, and to establish a fund for freeing the
bridge. Sundry clauses relate to the incorporation, or-
ganization of the Company and its officers, and mode
of managem^ent of the funds. Power is given to the
Stockholders to fix on the site ; and, if necessary, to add
sharesj to encrease the funds. There is also a descrip-
tion of the kind of bridge to be built. The property
of the bridge (and of such other property as they shall
acquire for its purposes or convenience,) is vested in
the Company for twenty five years, after the same shall
be compleated; and the tolls to be taken ai'c ascertain-
ed with great encouragement to the transportation of
country produce and manure, and to the use of oxen for
draft. Penalties are laid on taking illegal tolls, as well
as on those who injure the bridge property or works, or
impede the passage. The bridge is not to be erected
*4n sycli manner, as to injure, stop, or interrupt the na-
22 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
"vigation of the said river, by boats, craft or vessels -with-
^^out jjiasts;^^ ''and when the tolls shall exceed fifteen
"per cent, nett annual profit; the excess shall compose
"a fund, for the redemption of the bridge, so as to ren-
"der it free, save that there shall always be a small toll,
"or other revenue, for keeping it in repair; this excess
*' shall be laid out in bridge Stock, or other productive
" funds, and the dividends, or annual product, shall be
''also added to this fund; and all private donations for
"freeing the bridge shall also be received and invested
*' in like mamier ; but if by the operation of the fund
"herein proposed, there shall be a sufficient sum to free
"the bridge, at a period less than the said twenty five
"years, then it shall be redeemed and become free, on
"the Stockholders being paid the appraised value there-
" of, and of the profits thereof for the residue of the said
"term of twenty five years which may be unexpired;
" and if the said fund shall not be adequate to the pur-
"pose last mentioned, the legislature may, at the expi-
" ration of the said twenty five years, declare it a free
"bridge, (providing at the same time the means of keep -
" ing it in repair) and the Company shall be obliged
^' to take such sum of money therefor, as shall be allow-
"ed on a fair appraisement by indifferent persons; the
"like appraisement shall take place, when the sinking
"fund is adequate to the redemption of the bridge and
"the establishment of a revenue, if a toll be not thought
"more eligible, for keeping the bridge in repair; but if
"the said bridge shall not be redeemed, and paid for as
"a free bridge, before or at the expiration of the said
"term of twenty five years, the said corporation may
"and shall continue to hold the same, on the terms of
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 23
*'this act, beyond the said term, and until the same shall
"be redeemed and paid for in manner herein directed."
As a general observation and interpretation of this
clause, we insert an extract from a report of the building
committee, 31st January 1803. "Our stock will bear
"a comparison with any other, either in point of securi-
" ty or duration. It is secured to us for twenty five years
" after the bridge is finished. A period long enough to
" gain a valuable profit. If it is made free, compensa-
"tion must be previously made, by appraisement, for
"both the bridge and its revenues. A circumstance,
"however desirable, not likely to happen. The Com-
" pany are to hold the bridge, after the twenty five years,
"until they are amply reimbursed. The duration of
"their tenure is therefore sufficient, and no loss of ca-
'•^pital can occur. The bridge will be elevated above
" all floods ; and the piers and abutments of such sti'engtli
**and solidity, as to place it out of all danger." And
this latter promise of that committee has, it is confi-
dently believed, been faithfully complied with.
In pursuance of this law, the then Governor, (Mifflin)
on the 27th day of April 1798, incorporated the Com-
pany; the number of subscriptions, previously requir-
ed, having been filled.
The Company was immediately organized ; and the
following named persons chosen according to lavv\
President^ Richard Peters.
Directors, John Perot, William Sheaff, Joseph An-
thony, John Dunlap, John Dorsey, John
Miller, M, C. Matthew M' Connell, Robert
Ralston, David Evans, junr. Wilham Binjr-
ham, Samuel Blodget, Nathan Sellers,
24 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
Treasurer, Richard Hill Morris.
The first Building Committee were
Richard Peters, George Fox, William Sheaff, John
Dunlap, and John Kean.
The general wish of the Stockholders, at the com-
mencement of the project, was strongly in favour of a
stone bridge. A draft of a stone structure, elegant,
plain, practicable and adapted to the site, with very
minute and important instructions for its execution, was
furnished to the President gratuitously, by William
Weston Esq. of Gainsborough m England: a very
able and scie^itific hydraulic engineer, who w^as then
here, and from friendly and disinterested motives, most
liberally contributed his, professional knowledge and
information, to promote the success of the Company.
The foundations of the present piers, and abutments
w^ere laid neai'ly according to his plan, though circum-
stances compelled a considerable departure from it, as
the work advanced. His communications were attend-
ed to with great advantage, Avheresoever they could be
applied. Having viewed the inefficiency of the eastern
coffer dam — in the same spirit of liberality, he furnish-
ed to the President, a draft for the western coffer daiUy
before his departure for England. This plan was origi-
nal, and calculated for the spot on which it was to be pla-
ced. It was faithfully and exactly executed under the care
of Mr. Samuel Robinson, who "svas then Superintendant
of the Company's work in wood. Mr. TVeston foresaw
great risques and difficulties, arising from the peculiar
character of the river, and the nature of its bottom, in
so great a depth of water. He declared, that he should
hesitate to risque his professional character on the event.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. ^5
thoaeh he was convinced that the whole success of the
enterprise depended upon, and required, the attempt.
Some idea of its magnitude may be formed, when it is
known that 800,000 feet (board measure) of timber,
were employed in its execution, and the accommoda-
tions attached to it. Sufficient in quantity for a ship
of the line.
But it was soon discovered that the expence of erect-
ing a stone bridge, would far exceed any sum, the re-
venue likely to be produced would justify. For this
reason alone, no farther progress was made in the stone
bridge plan. And though some other drafts, among
them a very elegant one by Mr. Latrobe^ were present-
ed, the board of Directors were under the necessity of
returning them, as being objects, however desirable,
too expensive to be executed with private funds. It
was therefore concluded to procure plans of a bridge,
to be composed of stone piers and abutments, and a su-
perstructure of either wood or iron. Mr. JVestoii at
the request of the President and Directors, sent from
England (after viewing most of the celebrated bridges
there, and adding great improvements of his ovvii,) a
draft of an iron superstructure, in a very superior stile;
yet with his usual attention to utility, strength, and
csconomy, accompanied by models and instructions.
Although highly approved, it was not deemed prudent
to attempt its execution. Ail our workmen here, are
unacquainted with such operations ; and it was thought
too hazardous to risque the first experim.ent.
The castings can be done cheaper here, than in En-
gland^ and with metal of a better quality, though the
amount of the erection would in the whole, far exceed
0(3 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
one of wood. Mr. JVeston's draft is preserved, and may
yet be executed in some part of the United States; and
it would do honour to those who could accomplish it.
Finally, the plan so successfully perfected w as agreed
to ; having been furnished by Mr. Timothy Palmer of
Newhuryport in Massachusetts^ a self taught architect,
who was employed to execute the work of the frame.
He brought with him Mr. Cair^ as his second, and four
other workmen from New England. They at once evin-
ced superior intelligence and adroitness, in a business,
which was found to be a peculiar art, acquired by habits
not promptly gained, by even good workmen in other
branches of framing in wood. Both the materials and
workmanship of this frame, are allowed to be remarka-
bly faultless and excellent. It is also an evidence of
prudence, in the President and Directors, in selecting a
plan already practised upon, and workmen accustomed
to its execution.
Previous to the decision upon the superstructure, the
piers, without a certainty of the stability whereof, no
superstructure could be attempted, were begun ; with
the intent, that when their completion was ensured, the
Stockholders might be justified, WTth confidence to pro-
ceed in the Svork. There being no general engineer ,
the President and Directors were under the necessity
of paying more attention, than is usually required in
such cases. The President, with the assistance of a
building committee, undertook the chai'ge of the exe-
cution of this arduous work, requiring much attention
as well in the outline as in its most minute details.
The President suggested, with the approbation of
the committee, important parts of the plans of the ma-
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE.
27
sonry, and modes of securing the dams; and several
improvements in the plan of the frame, which were
adopted by Mr. Palmer; and occasioned a material dif-
ference from those in New England^ and elsewhere,
erected on similar principles.
The President's proposition and general design of
the cover, were approved, and reported, by the com-
mittee. The opinions of a very great proportion o,f
the Stockholders were at first opposed to this measure ;
though when perfectly understood, it was unanimously
agreed to. Its novelty excited doubts and apprehensi-
ons, which time, and many violent assaults from storms,
have proved to have been groundless. It will long re-
main an example for future similar undertakings ; and
is the only covered wooden bridge in the world, a much
inferior one over the Li?mnat, in the north of Europe,
excepted.
Mr. Adam Traquair has merit in the draft of the co-
ver, which he assisted to delineate. It was executed
with singular fidelity and credit, by Mr. Otven Biddle,
an ingenious carpenter and aixhitect of Philadelphia;
who made additions to the design. He has published
an architectural work, entitled " The Young Carpen-
ter's Assistant;" useful as an elementary guide, and
which should be encouraged as an American production.
In it will be seen a plate of this bridge, and a concise
account of it ; some parts whereof are herein repeated.
The whole of the masonry was performed by Mr.
Thomas Vickers, who possesses not only integrity and
practical skill, but is firm, constant, and prudently bold,
in hazardous undertakings. His exertions were con-
spicuous on every emergency and casualty attending
28 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
the dams, and other dangerous and difficult parts of
the work.
Those who with the President, composed the build-
ing committee particularly, as well as the other members
of the boai d, and the Treasurer, meritoriously afforded
every requisite assistance ; as well when their aid was
necessary in the executive business, as in a laudable at-
tention to its pecuniary affairs. It always happens in such
associations, that some pay more attention, and thereby
gain and apply more useful intelligence than others.
It v/ould be unpardonable, not to mention the Stock-
holder s^ with high appj'obation. Their advances have
been great, and their patience under privations of profit,
triily commendable. The amount of expenditures is
nearly S 300,000, though the dividends will be made on
a much less sum, (about S 218,000) owing to the ap-
plication of the floating bridge tolls, to the expence of
the building. The company have evidenced a praise-
worthy mixture of public spirit, with a justifiable desire
of pecuniary advantages ; in which it is to be ai'dently
ivished, they will not be disappointed. Although these
advantages may be delayed, they are ultimately secured.
Not the least gratifying, must be the satisfaction aris-
ing from the accomplishment of a public improvement
eminently beneficial, as w^ell in its use as its example,
not only to those, who now enjoy its accommodation,
but to posterity.
Common justice to the subject has compelled so de-
tailed an account of this undertaking. Actuated by no
motives of mere personal complimxCnt, it is deemed of
public utility to record for imitation, individual exer-
tions, in cases w^herein great objects have been accom.-
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. > 29
plished by them, without any assistance from the pub-
lic funds ; and where the want of scientific and practical
knowledge, was supplied by the constancy and singular
attention of those, who possessed no more talents or
acquirements, than are called for in the common affairs
of life. Such successful examples are worthy of imita-
tion ; and will incite to perseverance, in laudable and
necessary enterprizes ; however apparently difficult and
untoward ; as many parts of this work have most un-
doubtedly been. Nor is it desired to recommend pro-
ceeding (where it can be avoided) in such hazardous
undertakings, without professional engineers, both sci-
entific and practical.
Few would have persevered under all the difficulties
attending this work; which in its execution (unavoida-
bly protracted by the embarrassments attendant on
building under water) occupied six years after the la^v
was obtained. Hovvever humble the merit of those
who engage in such undertakings may be considered,
they are far greater contributors to the happiness and
convenience of mankind, than those who, with victories
and triumphs, dazzle while they desolate, and ruin and
oppress the human race.
DESCRIPTION OF THE BRIDGE.
The masonry is executed on a plan suggested to the
mason, uncommon, if not new. The walls of the abut-
ments and wings, are perpendicular, without buttresses .^
and supported by interior offsets. These are found com-
pletely competent to support the pressure of the filling
(which gravitates in perpendicular lines) without bat-
tering or contreforts. The abutments are 18 feet thick.
5Q A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
The wing walls nine feet at the foundations, retiring
by offsets, till at the parapets, they are only 18 inches.
The eastern abutment and wing walls are founded on a
rock. Those on the western side are built on piles.
The inclined plane of approach to the bridge, is elevat-
ed at an angle of 3 1-2 degrees.
Although the western pier has attracted most atten-
tion, that on the eastern side of the river, was first erect-
ed; and was attended with difficulties appearing often
insurmountable. It is from 21 to 24 feet deep, below
the tide, to the rock, on which the lower course is laid
and bolted. The coffer dam was on a bad plan, though
constructed as well as that plan admitted. Its materials
were too slight and incompetent. Constant exertion,
and repeated remedies for defects, were incessantly call-
ed for by frequent accidents. Every thing was new to
all employed; but it was a school to teach experience.
The footing of the piles was secured, and the dam sav-
ed from impending destruction, by an embankment of
stone and sand, thrown around the bottom on its out-
side; and the latter washed in, and consolidated by the
current. The same means Vv'cre used at the western
dam, and their utility decidedly proved. Both piers are
of course, similar in their general configuration and
composition. The first stone of the eastern pier, was
laid September 5th, 1801. That of the western pier ^
December 25th, 1802. The time preceding Vv^as occu-
pied in procuring plans, gaining information, and pro-
viding materials. These precautions, (always essential
in great midertakings) forwarded the work, and ensured
against delay and disappointment.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 3^
The Jrame is a masterly piece of workmanship ; com-
bining in its principles, that of king posts and braces^
or trusses, with those of a stone arch. Half of each post
with the brace between them, will form the vousseur of
an arch ; and lines through the middle of each post,
would describe the radii or joints. There are three
sections of the frame, all similar. That in the middle,
divides the space into two equal parts, so that passen-
gers in opposite directions, are prevented from inter-
fering with each other.
The platform for travelling rises only eight feet from
an horizontal line, and the top, or cap pieces, ai*e paral-
lel to this. Of the sections, the middle one has the
most pressure, owing to the weight of transportation,
being thrown nearer to that section than towards the
sides; to which the foot ways prevent its approach.
These foot ways are five feet in width, elevated above the
carriage ways, and neatly protected with turned posts
and chains. It has been conceived that the foot way!=i
would have been more advantageously placed on each
side the middle section, to throw the weight of trans-
portation to the sides of the bridge.
Mr. Palmer (who is believed to be the original in-
ventor of this kind of wooden bridges) pei'mitted with
much candour, considerable alterations in the plan, ac-
commodatory to the intended cover, the design where-
of is original. These were so much approved by him,
that he considers the Schuylkill bridge superstructure
the most perfect of any he has built. It was finished
in one season; and declared open for passengers and
transportation, on the 1st day of January^ 1805.
32 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
■ ' '* ' ... , , ■ , . , — ^
The Schauffhausen bridge (which is now destroyed)
much eulogised in Europe, was by no means equal to
that on the Schuylkill Any candid and intelligent ar-
chitect, on inspecting the drafts of the one, examining
the other and the principles of both, would give a de-
cided preference to the latter. The design of this is
more simple, its strength is greater, its parts are better
combined, and more assistant to each other : and there
is no useless timber, in any part.
The timber of which boih the frame and the cover are
composed, (the roof, of cedar excepted) is of the best
white pine.
The flooring of the platform is doubled, and in the
whole 5 1-2 inches thick. The under course oi white
pine, 3 inches thick, is permanent, and well spiked and
secured. The upper course is of sap pitch pine, slightly
attached (2 1-2 inches thick) to be renewed as often as
worn, either partially or generally, and with this the joints
are broken. This mode of planking has been found, on
the floating bridges, highly advantageous and economi-
cal. The under course admits of two or three removals
of the upper, which wears before it decays. The floor-
ings of wooden bridges are generally of single planks.
The exterior of the cover is handsomely ornamented
and painted. The under w^ork imitative of stone, is well
executed, by dashing the paint while fresh, w^ith sand
and stone dust. This is performed with so much ease
and cheapness, that it is hoped it will introduce a like
mode of ornamenting and protecting the surface of other
wooden elevations. All apprehensions of scaling by
frost, are proved to be imaginary.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. ^g
A number of Conductors, properly disposed, secure
the superstructure from danger by lightning.
All that could be spared for ornament, was expended
on the exterior; as the interior neither admitted nor re-
quired it. The Pediments of the entrances were intend-
ed to be finished with Emblems of Commerce^ on the
east ; and of Agriculture, on the west. They are design-
ed, and were to be executed, by that eminent American
naval sculptor, William Rush of Philadelphia-, whose
works as an artist, are admired, in whatever part of the
world they are seen. It is desirable that this ^nwA, the
expence w^hereof will be small, should yet be added.
The Pediments require it ; to complete the design.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
The Schuylkill Bridge Plan may be varied according
to circumstances ; and its principles preserved. In what-
ever varieties, projectors of other designs may indulge
themselves, it is confidently believed that Mr. Palmer^ s
plan will be found on long experience, to be the best.
It is an unit in symmetry and movement ; and all its
parts support each other, like 2i phalanx in tacticks. In
some instances Mr. Palmer has placed the platform for
travelling, over the cap pieces and cross ties ; or rather
these latter become part of the frame of the platform.
The great body of the frame is of course below. But
this was not found eligible, where ice and floods were
likely to assault the haunches, when the frame was thus
depressed. The elevation of the abutments would re-
quire, for this plan, immense v/eight and expence of fill-
ing, and expose the walls to dangerous pressure. Nor
T.
34 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
would it be SO well calculated for heavy transportation. —
More important than all — it would be unfit for covering
to such advantage. Notwithstanding this great im-
provement, was highly approved by Mr. Palme?' it was
not in his contemplation, as to rnode^ until the outline of
the present cover was shewn to him ; although he said he
had repeatedly, but fruitlessly, urged the measure of co-
vering their bridges, in A^ezv England. It is hoped this
example will be followed, in all pontifical wooden struc-
tures of magnitude, hereafter. Bridges may, for most
situations, be less expensive in the frame ; the middle
section may be omxitted above the flooring ; nor need
they be more than 30 feet wide. This width was deem-
ed sufficient by Mr. TFeston^ for bridges in general;
though he considered that over the Schuylkill to require
more than comm.on space, for its constant and burthen-
some transportation. The Easton bridge, built under
Mr. Pfli/wer'^ directions, is 28 feet wide; and the frame
of the middle section does not rise above the platform.
Its situation does not demand a plan, or call for dimen-
sions, on a greater scale ; and it is erected according to
the improved work of the frame of the Sc/mi/lki II bridge.
Although the cover of the Schuijlkillhridge compelled
ornament, and some elegance of design, lest it should
disgrace the environs of a great City ; these would not
be necessary in such a degree, in other situations.
Neatness of elevation and taste in design, may be shewn
at a small expence ; and the \'7orkm.anship and materials
need be no more costly, than tliose for roofing and wea-
ther boarding common frame buildings. The Schuyl-
kill bridge roof required one hundred and ten thousand
shingles, of 3 feet long and 6 inches wide; and other
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 35
materials in proportion. Much of these may be saved,
in narrower frames. The painting or coating, with the
durable composition, in imitation of stone, which appears
on the exterior of the work, below the platform, (for
which a recipe is subjoined) may be done at a small
expence. Mineral paints are the worst, for coating ex-
posed to weather. The oil does not combine with the
mineral, as it does with absorbent earths : and being ex-
tracted by the sun, leaves the mineral particles without
adhesion, and they drop, or are washed away by rains,
dews, and moisture. All oils or fats, are knov/n, chemi-
cally^ to be alike composed ; and are better or worse, as
they are or are not mixed with foreign matter. Linseed
oil may be had every where, and fish oil is common.
Ochres for colouring, (far preferable to minerals) abound
throughout the country, and only require judicious ex-
ploration for their discovery. Clarihed turpentine is a
good substitute for oils; but a mixture of both is best.
The l^ssforcitig, to accelerate drying, the better. Though
inconvenient in some respects, the composition will be
more durable, the longer it is in drying ; but care should
be taken, that it be not so thin as to run; or not retain the
sand and paint. Sea sa?id, or earth mixed with marine
salt, should be avoided, as being hostile to compositions
or cements; and particularly when calcareous substances
are combined. Some of the Delaware stone-cutters sand,
used with the Schuylkill bridge coating, was found to be
liable to this objection. We have daily before us proofs
of this fact in our plaistering; where the hair o^salt hides
is used. Every moisture of the room, or atmosphere,
brings out stains and damp spots on our walls; to which
papering will not adhere, as it does on other plaistering,
35 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
into the composition whereof, salt hair does not enter.
Chemists may account for this: but to them it is not yet
clearly ascertained, from whence the muriatic acid is de-
rived; nor are its nature, and properties, accurately
kno\vn. Long and frequent experience has evinced,
that the least mixture of this acid, or common salt,^
with gypsum^ produces a tertium, which renders it unfit
for a cement; and also destroys its agricultural uses and
properties.
RECIPE FOR COMPOSITION TO IMITATE
STONE.
The w^ork should not be primed; though part of that
at the bridge was so done, before it was determined to
coat it with composition.
The paint used was common white lead and oil ; as
the painters preferred their own way, and the scaffolding
could not remain at risque, while experiments on other
paints were tried. It was conceded afterwards, that if
there had been time to prepare and use other paint, and
the urgency of dispatch had not precluded delay for dry-
ing, Jish oil and clarijied turpentine with ochresy would
have been more eligible.
* Common salt is compounded of the muriatic acid^ and
soda. The latter substance abounds in the ocean, and other
places, where co7nmon salt is found. The vitriolic acid oi gyp-
sum meeting with the muriatic^ in the salt^ expels it from the
soda of the salt ; and having a predominant affinit}^, forms suU
phat of soda^ or glauber salts. Good common salt should
contain two thirds of soda^ and one third of muriatic acid ;
and is seldom pure in its combination, as to proportion .; oi-
;<bsence of foreign matter. ^
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 3'^'
As fast as the painter proceeded in his work, an adroit
hand dashed on the sand and stone dust. This was
anixed in proper proportions, as to colour and con-
sistency, which is only to be known by preparatory ex-
periments; easily accomplished. It was thrown on
with a common tin dust pan. The sand and stone dust
must be free from moisture, or any tincture from ma-
rine salt. It was dried in the sun, or a large iron kettle
over a slow fire. A small proportion o^plaister of Paris ^
was mixed with the sand and stone dust. A long trough
containingthe sand and dust, was placed under the work ;
and caught what did not adhere, so as to be thrown up
again and prevent waste. The dispatch with which this
operation can be performed, exceeded expectation, both
as to facility and ceconomy. With marble dusty it may-
be made to imitate that stone. As soon as one coat is
dry, the other must be laid on. Two coats, well attend-
ed to, are sufficient. But this is left to the choice of
those, who think another coat is required.
The joints are imitated by convex strips, sprigged on
the weather boarding; and after the coating is put on,
they are penciled off, with white paint.
The following is a recipe much followed, and with in-
variable success, for barns and other buildings, in the
country : and being particularly applied to roofs, it is
called "-' Jire proof .'*''
Take 20 gallons offish oil ; boil it 4 hours over a slow
-fire; and skim it as the feculence rises. Put in it 12
pounds of rosin, or an equivalent proportion of clarified
turpentine. Before taking it off the fire, mix ten gallons
flax seed oil, boiled in the common way. Grind and
mix with the oil, a sufiicient quantity of ochre (of what
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
colour you please) to make the paint thick as can be well
brushed on. As you brush on the paint, have your com-
position ready to sift, or dash on. It is thus made. —
Take one bushel of ground plaister, calcined over a
fire in a dry pot, or kettle. When cold, mix with it 3
bushels of stone dust or fine sand, dry, and the more^nY-
ty or siliceous, the better. Sift or dash on, as fast as the
paint is laid on. When dr}^, the second coat is applied
in the same manner. Live coals, in quantities, have been
thrown on roofs thus coated, without injury. It does
not scale with frost, or melt with the hottest sun. The
above is sufficient for a large roof.
The whole expence of the preceding composition in-
cluding labour and laying on will not exceed S 50.
Feet. In.
Length of the bridge, - 550
Abutments and wing walls, - 750
Total length, - - - 1300
Span of small arches - 150
(three in the whole number,
including middle arch.)
^Ditto of middle arch, - 194 10
* The middle arch was originally intended to be only
160 feet, but the dam could not be placed on the spot contem-
plated, owing to the bareness and inequalities of the rock at
the bottom.
It is highly creditable to those concerned in the direc-
tion and executive branches of this work, that no delay ever
occurred through want of supplies, or prompt payment. Yet
one million and an half of feet (board measure) of timber, and
above 22000 Derches of stone, with all the subordinate and
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 39
Feet.
Width of the bridge, - 42
Curvature of the middle arch, 12 / The curvatures
ditto of small arches - 10 3 are catenarian.
Rise of the carriage way - 8
Height in the clear over carriage
way - - . - 13
ditto from surface of the river
to the carriage way, - - 31
Depth of water to the rock at the
western pier - - - 41
ditto at the eastern pier - 2 1 to 24
Amount of toll when the work began for 1799, S 5000
Present rate, (1805.) 13000
The company have established commodious wharves,
which were necessary for the safety of the abutments ;
and add greatly to the improvements of that front of the
citv.
i '
President and Directors at the close of the Work.
President. Richard Peters.
Directors. John Dunlap, John Perot, Ebenezer Hazard,
Thomas Savery, William Poyntel, Charles Bid-
die, Richard H. Morris, George Fox, Peter
Browne, John G. Wachsmuth, George Reinhold,
Anthony Cuthbert.
Treasurer. John Dorsey.
Building Conwiittee. Richard Peters, William PojTitel, An-
thony Cuthbert, John Dunlap, Peter
Browne, George Fox.
auxiliaiy materials required, were employed in this structure.
The labour, the cost whereof was a great proportion of the
expenditure, was obtained below the common rate, in most
instances; owing to the regularity and certainty of payment.
40 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
<■■■•■ -
Tim account ought not to be closed iv'ithout presenting for
information, as well as to gratfy curiosity, part of the
report of the building committee, dated July \Ath 1803.
Signed, Bichard Peters, John Dunlap, Peter Browne^
George Fox, Anthony Cuthbert.
" That it was thought proper to begin the work of this season
on the eastern side, by laying the foundation of the abutment,
and raising the eastern pier to the height required for the
first timbers of the wooden superstructure ; so that the whole
of |;he wood work will be elevated above all floods and sub-
stances which might injure it when floating on and carried
with violence b^v^ high freshes. The highest fresh ever known
having risen 12 feet 8 inches above high water mark, we have
elevated the masonry 16 feet 8 inches above high tide; to
guard against all deoiger. From five feet above the proposed
spring of the arches of a stone bridge, where our cut stone
ceases, we directed it to be carried up in range work, with
hammered stone, as a facing ; and the interior bonded with
large, long and heavy stone, except at the end of the pier,
up stream, where the cut stone is continued as high as any
floating ice will probably assail it. The vrhole of the work is
well filled, laid in common mortar and grouted, so as to com-
pose a solid mass, capable of resisting the most severe as-
sault from ice, floods or floating timber. The terras mortar
and clamping, cease with the cut stone, about five feet above
high water mark."
" When this pier arrived at its present height, the masonry
of the eastern abutment was proceeded in ; and so far com-
pleted, as to be out of all difficulty. We then directed the
workmen to commence the raising the zuestern pier. This
had been carried up, last v/inter, within eighteen inches of
low water mark. The dam having stood the winter without
much injury, though roughly treated by the ice, was pump-
ed out on the 27th day of May last. On examining the ma-^
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 4^1
sonry with much attention we found to our great satisfaction,
that there had not been the least aheration in the work by any
accident. It had not settled an hair's breadth ; but stood firm
on its foundation, which we can now pronounce perfectly good,
sound, and immoveable. We were agreeably struck with the
perfect state of the v/hole masonry ; which does great credit
to Mr. Vickers the master mason. The tarras mortar used on
the exterior is as hard as the stone ; and the common mortar of
the interior, as dry and indurated, though covered with water
four months, as any cement, exposed in masonry to the open
air for twelve months."
" We mention for the instruction of those who may have oc-
casion to build where water covers or flows round the work,
that rich mortar should never be used. Our common cement
is composed of three parts sharp, clean, coarse sand, and one
part lime. Sand is thrown into a bed of thin wash of slacked
lime, and agitated till every grain is coated with lime, it then
receives additions of sand till brought to its proper consist-
ency for use. The grout is fluid, but composed of the like
proportion of materials. The mortar used in the foundation
once intended for a pier, near the eastern toil house, but aban-
doned as a pier, and now usefully employed, as the end of our
wing walls, was covered more than a year with water. We
had occasion to take part of it up. The mortar, having been
improperly made rich, was friable, and had not the least tena-
city or binding quality. The tarras mortar is composed of one
part tarras, two parts lime and three parts sand."
" The western pier is now completed to the same height, and,
except in depth, of the same dimensions with the eastern pier.
The span between these piers is 187 feet 6 inches, from the
piers to each abutment the span will be 150 feet each. No
formidable difficulties have occurred in the work of the present
season ; and every thing has been conducted to our satisfac-
tion."
F
42 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
*' We think it proper to give a short description of this pier
(the greater proportion whereof is invisible) that its structure
may be known ; and its embarrassing, expensive and tedious
progress may be accounted for. We confine ourselves to the
masonry — a description of the dam will be hereafter presented
that it may be of service to others who may have occasion to
use such auxiliaries, in aquatic structures. The plan of the
dam, and instructions for its establishment, do much honor to
Mr. Weston who furnished them. Mr. RobiJison our super-
intendant, has great merit in faithfully executing this plan.
But many dangerous casualties and unforeseen embarrass-
ments baffled all previous arrangements ; and required the im-
mediate and unceasing efforts of the committee and the work-
men to combat them. The members of the Board, and others
of our fellow citizens, who voluntarily assisted us in endea-
vours to evacuate the dam of the obstructions which prevented
our totally baring the rock, have our thanks for their exer-
tions. These have afforded conviction that the plan we adopted
for the foundation, was indispensable. The result has unde-
niably proved its efficacy, competency and permanence ; and
leaves no doubt of its being in contact with the rock ; which
though somewhat irregular, rises at the interior circumference
of our dam and forms in the middle a tolerably regular cavity,
well calculated to prevent (if the weight on it were not suff.-
citnt) any injury to, or movement of the foundation."
DESCRIPTION OF THE PIER.
" Not being able to arrive nearer to the rock than three feet
six inches, without the most imminent danger of ruin, and
failure in our object, it was deemed (after every effort to eva-
cuate the dam had been tried) most adviseable, and dictated
by evident neccesity to lay a rough foundation, before the
masonry of cut stone commenced, about eight feet below the
common bed of the river. This foundation was accordingly
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE,
directed by the building committee ; and on the 25th of De-
cember 1802 began to be formed. It consists of large foun-
dation and smaller stone intermixed. Roach lime and sharp
sand cover and fill the interstices of each layer of these stone ;
which are all well rammed ; and, reaching the rock, compose
a solid mass, four feet thick, filling the whole interior of the
dam ; the area whereof is 42 feet six inches in breadth, by 92
feet in length. On this foundation, the cut stone was laid,
and the pier shaped to its proper dimensions ; which are here
30 feet in breadth, by 71 feet 6 inches in its extreme length ;
the ends being semicircular. It continues of these dimensions
to the first offset, about four feet from the foundation.— There
are six offsets to low water mark ; each diminishing the pier
about four inches ; so that at that point it is twenty six feet
eight inches in breadth and sixt}' seven feet two inches in length.
There are from this point, to 18 inches above high water mark,
three offsets, each diminishing the pier 10 inches. So that
the dimensions, at this point, are twenty one feet eight inch-
es in breadth, and sixty three feet two inches in length ; the
whole continuing semicircular at the ends. Frpm this point
the pier begins to batter and the cut stone ceases. The ham?
mered stone, in range work, begins, and rising sixteen feet,
lessens regularly to nineteen feet four inches in width, and in
length sixty feet ten inches. When finished it will be in
height fifty five feet nine inches from the rock, and will be
neatly surmounted with cut stone, at each end, formed in
the shape of a half dome. The cut stone are all clamped at
every joint, with iron clamps, well secured. The outer ash-
lers are all laid in tarras mortar. There are a proper number
of headers, dove-tailed in each course ; running into the pier
many feet. On these are laid vast rough stone, some where-
of are twelve tons in weight. — These large stones of various
sizes, are common in the interior of the pier, which is laid
in a workmanlike manner, in common mortar, and properly
filled with smaller stone ; the whole being grouted and form-
44 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
ing a solid mass. Six large and heavy chains, are worked into
the masonry, crosswise of the pier, at the foundation ; and a
large curb of timber, hooped with iron, surrounds the cut stone
at this point. Fifteen other massive chains, fastened at pro-
per places, with perpendicular bolts, well wedged, are dis-
persed in various parts of the pier, crosswise thereof, as high
as low water mark. The whole masonry of the pier, was
performed (including the winter w^ork with all its disadvan-
tages) in seventy four working days, after we had been seve©
months preparing and fixing the dam. Two months of this
period were employed in incessant pumping, clearing and
combatting casualties and impediments the most embarrassing;;
and expensive. The courses of cut stone vary in depth, the
least course being ten inches, and the largest two feet eight
inches in depth."
" The foundation is further secured by the embankment of
stone, intermixed and embodied with sand, thrown around
the dam, on the bed of the river, to the height of fourteen feet.
The interior piling will be cut off below low water mark, and
connected with the pier by chains. Building stone are thro^vn
in, between this piling and the masonry, about ten feet high,
the whole forming a strong barrier against any attacks on the
foundation*'^
'' Had we foreseen that so many casualties, difficulties, and
dangers would have attended our enterprise, we should pro-
bably not have hazarded the undertaking."
" We were convinced that the whole ^of our success de-
pended on compleating this pier ; and persevered against ca-
sualties and impediments, which frequently appeared insur-
mountable. It is at length accomplished, and the completion
of our whole work thereby ensured. We mention, not as it
respects ourselves, but for the emulation and encouragement
of others, who may be obliged to encounter similar circum-
stances, that by perseverance, we have prevailed over the most
discouraging obstacles. A pier of solid masonr}^ having
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 45
7250 tons on its foundation, which is twenty nine feet below
low water mark, and at high tide, 38 to 40 feet deep, was
began on Christmas day, in a severe winter, in a depth of wa-
ter uncommonly forbidding, and in forty days carried up from
necessity, during the inclemency of the season, to near low
water mark ; the point aimed at in our original design, for
the work of an earlier and more temperate period."
" We knew our work was difficult enough ; and the onl)^
structure of the kind in this country. But we did not know
that it was so singular a proof of the effects of persevering
industry in any country. In a letter from V/iUiam Weston Esq^
to Richard Peters^ he writes : — ^
" Gainsborovgh (In England)
4th 3Iay, 1803.
*' I most sincerely rejoice at the final success that has
crowned your persevering efforts, in the erection of the west-
ern pier ; it will afford you matter of Avell founded triumph,
when I tell you, that you have accomplished an undertaking:
unrivalled by any thing of the kind that Europe can boast of.
I have never in the course of my experience, or reading,
heard of a pier founded in such a depth of water, on an ir-
regular rock, affording little or no support to the piles. That
the work should be expensive — expensive beyond your ideas
— I had no doubt ; the amount thereof, with all the advanta-
ges derived from experience, I could not pretend to deter-
mine ; and if known, v/ould only have tended to produce he-
sitation and irresolution in a business, v/here nothing but the
most determined, unceasing perseverance, could enable you
to succeed. However, now " all your toils and dangers o'er'*
I heartily congratulate you on the result : not doubting but
the completion will prove as honourable to you as benefidiul
to the stockholders."
a ^^^Q give this extract for the satisfaction of the stock -
>.olders ; who must be convinced, that their money has been
applied to an object of great difficult}^ and magnitude; m
which expence was neither to be calculated or spared/'
46 ' A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
Nor should the following communication from the Presi-
dent he omitted: it contains facts and information^ which
xve hope will satisfy all who are hereafter engaged in
such structures^ of the necessity of covering them,
" After many fruitless attempts by others, to raise funds,
and institute plans for erecting a Permanent Bridge over the
Schuylkill, I wajs fortunate enough, through many difficulties
and much opposition, to obtain (owing to its own merit, urg-
ing on and assisting my perseverance) the law under which
the erection of the present structure has been effectuated. I
hold it therefore a duty peculiarly incumbent on me, who ori-
ginated, and have faithfully laboured in the execution of an
enterprize, in which so many have embarked their property,
to make an effort for the completion and safety of a work, on
which the value of their advances so materially depends. —
Qnder these impressions, I bring before you the subject of
covering the Bridge ; and herewith present several drafts of
covers, adapted to the frame. From the time of the first
idea of a wooden superstructure, I have never wavered in
my opinion of the indispensable necessity of the cover. I
was surprised (a long time after I had conceived it to be a
general sentiment) to find myself in a mhiority on this sub-
ject, though I was not entirely alone. I have reason now to
hope that the sentiments of several of the Directors and great
numbers of the Stockholders have materially changed ; or re-
turned to original impressions. I have been accustomed to
this situation in many of the most important parts of the
work, and subjects connected with it. I have now, as here-
tofore, waited for the candour of the Board and Stockhold-
ers to produce convictions ; and have generally been gratified
by the event. In some former communications it will ap-
pear, that I have never approved of painting or coating with
composition or resinous substances^ the surface of unseasoned
or massive timber. I gave my reasons for this opinion, v/hich
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 4,-^
comport with long experience and observation, however sin-
gular it may appear. I endeavoured to prevail on the Board,
or the building committee, to cause the straight timber to be
bored through the heart ; that the air might pass, and the sap^
there evaporate ; which, when confined, feculates, and soon-
er or later, rots all large timber. — Since this has not been
done, I am not displeased that the timber is splitting; and,
through crevices, giving opportunities oi escape to this intes-
tine and deadly foe. Cashing- of such timber with lead^ tin,
copper or woody in immediate contact, and thereby closing
the pores and preventing the emission of the feculating sap,
I have endeavoured to shew to have been found, in most in-
stances, worse than fruitless ; because mischievous. Nothing
has been proved so effectual, as covering the whole of a
frame, constructed of large timber, with a roof; and, at the
sides, excluding rain, without preventing an uninterrupted
circulation of air. The cover I propose is calculated to be
sufficiently strong for its own support; but if tempests, un-
commonly violent assail it, the covering may blow away be-
fore the frame can be inJLU*ed. The light sails may, by sud-
den squalls, be detached and yet the ship remain staunch.
These causes of apprehension, have, however, never struck
me with any force. Bare and improbable possibilities ought
not to be subjects of reasonable and sober calculation. What
is certain far over-balances conjectural prognostics, — The
bridge if left imcoveredy will most assuredly decay in ten or
twelve years. Experience is the best teacher in all cases. —
The modes of protection proposed in these drafts, have proof
to support them, drav/n from loiig and respectable experi-
ment. Among others the Schaaffhausen bridge was a strong
instance. It had been by its cover, effectually preserved
from decay for thirty eight yearsy and was perfectly sound,
at the time the French destroyed it. We have never heard
of its being injured by tempests, though in a situation much
exposed to them. In the eleventh report to the British Par-
43 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
liament, by the Commissioners of Land Revenue, dated Fe-
bruary 6th, 1792, it will be found stated, from settled facts,
that timber, secured in the manner here proposed, is of very
long duration :"
" Ships built under cover are the most durable. In Ve-
nice, ships have, for a long course of time been built and pre-
served imder cover. That practice has also been introduc-
ed into Sweden ; and is mentioned by Mr. Necker, in his
treatise on the finances of France. The Venetian ships of war
are built and preserved from the weather while building, un-
der sheds covered with tiles, resembling the roofs of houses ;
supported mostly by brick walls on each side, to defend the
workmen in winter, from the inclemency of the weather;
which walls are as high as the upper parts of the ships reach,
and secured by cross-beams, high enough to admit of ships
being launched under them. The sheds cover the ships com-
plctelij on both sides ; but are open at the stem and stem: on-
ly projecting a few feet farther out ; and there they have tem-
porary covers of boards to keep out the rain. Eighteen large
ships, some pierced for 80 guns, had been thus preserved, per^
fecthj sound (in 1792) for jifty nine years, under the sheds."
" I contrast with the foregoing facts, those I have collected
on the subject of timber generally ; and those relative to the
uncovered v/ooden bridges in America, particularly. It is
to be regretted that all these structures are thus destitute of
the means of preservation. I nov,^ confine myself to the ac-
count of them I recently received from Mr. Timothy Pal-
mer; in a letter dated the 10th of December last, in these
v/ords:" — " To some questions you put to me some time since,
relative to the durability of timber bridges, -without being co-
vered, sides and top, I answer, from the experience that I
have had in New England and Maryland — that they will not
last for more than 10 or 12 years, to be safe for heavy car-
riages to pass over. The bridge near Newburyport, over the
Merrimack, was built in the year 1792. It was repaired in
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 49
the year 1802. The bridge at Andover, across the same ri-
ver, was built in 1793. It was rebuilt in 1803. Piscataqua
bridge, near Portsmouth, (N. H.) was built in 1794. I be-
lieve there have been no repairs since, except the Draw, But
I have lately been informed it ruas much decayed^ and is to
be repaired next season. The bridge that I built over the
Potomac at Georgetown, in 1796, \s not safe for heavy teams
to pass over. Some have tried paint in the joints, others tur-
peiitine and ozV, but all to no great effect. I am an advocate
for weather boarding and roofing, although there are some
that say I argue much against my own interest. Notwith-
standing, I am determined to give my opinion as appears to
me to be right. And it is sincerely my opinion, that the
Schuylkill bridge w^ill last 30 and perhaps 40 ijears^ if well co-
vered,— You will excuse me in saying that I think it would be
sporting with property, to suffer that beautiful piece of archi-
tecture (as you are pleased sometimes to call it) which has
been built at so great expence and danger, to fall into ruins in
10 or 12 years r^ Need much be added on the subject gene-
rally, after these statements, and remarks of a practically intel-
ligent, and worthy man."
" Never then conceiving, that any objections would be made
to covering the bridge, I furnished several sketches for covers
(as no person better qualified would do it,) contemporaneously
with Mr. Palmcr''s drafting his plan ; and always considered
the cover as much a part of the plan, as the frame. Know-
ing the liability of timber uncovered to decay, I should not
have thought it justifiable to invite subscriptions to our stock,
unless I had taken it for granted, that the bridge would be
^protected by some cover. I prevailed on Mr. Palmer to suf-
fer me to alter his plan, in several important particulars ; with
a view to my design for a cover. To this he liberally con-
sented ; and now considers these alterations to be valuable
improvements ; and has declared his intention to adopt them
in all his future plans for bridges. The masonry too was
G
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
calculated by Mr. Vkkers^ agreeably to drafts furnished by
me, for a cover similar to that marked No. 1. delineated by
Mr. Adam Traqiiair from my sketches. I mention these
facts, not with any view to individual merit, but to shew con-
temporaneous opinions ; for I communicated every thing to
those with whom I acted, as I occasionally met them. I pre-
sented an estimate (as correct no doubt as those generally are)
calculated for this design : made at my request by Mr. Wil-
liam Garrigues and Mr. Samuel Robinson^ then superintendant.
It may be applied to any other with no great variation. It
amounts to eight thousand dollars, a sum bearing no impor-
tant proportion to the loss of capital, by the decay of the
structure on which it has been expended. No. 2 and 3, are
other designs for covers, which I have procured to be made.
No. 2 is an improvement on the first sketch, made with the
assistance of Mr. Dorseij and Mr. Traquair* Mr. Chven
Biddle furnished the sketch No. 3."
" It is a mistake, in my opinion, into which some respect-
able gentlemen have fallen, that the timber will be benefitted
by remaining, for a season, uncovered. The leakages during
rains, or the meltings of snows, percolating through almost
all the joints of the frame and the platform, sufficiently refute
this idea. Every week and month this finish to our work is
unnecessarily delayed, is an advance to ruin. No time should
therefore be lost in preparations for the cover, which I have
always considered as a part of the original plan ; and not a
new, or additional measure, though the exact de^gn, or ele-
vation, was not specially fixed."
" No person can regret more than I do, the unforeseen but
inevitable expenditures of the stockholders. None can give
them more credit than I do for their patience, under long and
unpleasant privations. These will, however, now, with the
success of our work, be remunerated. But it is their interest,
and our duty, to secure what, with uncommon difficulties, and
such heavy expences, has been accomplished. Their stock
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. ^l
will be appreciated, when the object of it is rendered in its
duration^ as well as other attributes, really permanent. It
would be a reflection upon their understandings, and, with
the knowledge we have on the subject, a breach of our trust,
to practice a dangerous and false oecononiy, and thereby in-
cur the penalty of certain destruction. I beg the excuse of
the board for giving my sentiments at length on the subject.
It is one on which I thought it my duty, whatever may be
the result, to be explicit."^
RICHARD PETERS.
* The following notes, omitted to be inserted in pago 40,
iire here added.
" Grouted,'''' Grout is mortar of the same proportions, in its
component parts, with that used in the common wav. But
this is in 2ijlidd state ; and, from time to time, poi^red on the
courses of masonry, as the work is in progress. It searches
out, and fills, every vacancy ; and completely embodies the
mass. All masonry, faithfully built, should be thus treated.
Contract work is too often slighted, to save the materials of
common cement ; brick walls as v/ell as those of stone should
be grouted. In large works it is peculiarly necessarv.
" Tarras''* is a species of I'lme^ procured from Holland
(called Dutch tarras) and several parts of the European Con-
tinent, It has the quality of becoming insoluble (or harden-
ing) under water; like common I'lme^ in atmospheric air. It
is a substitute for Puzzolan earth, found in Itcdy^ in the vici-
nity of Volcanoes; it being volcanic matter.
Welch Lime^ in a considerable proportion was used ; a suffi-
cient quantity of tarras not having been procured, and no
difference, in their qualities or effects, was perceived. This
lime is found on part of the coast of JVcdes ; and is said to be
thrown up by the sea^ on its shores. It is believed to have
calcareous matter (which abounds in the ocean, as well as in
the earth) for its basis, combined with Jiy:ed air or carbonic
52
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
Address of the Preside?} t and Directors at the close of
the work.
'■^ At the close of a work so important to you, and so ad-
vantageous to the community, as that or' the Permcment Bridg-e
which we now deliver over to our successors, in a state to
every useful purpose complete, it might be expected, that
some specific enumeration of its various difficulties, and the
impediments which rendered it dilatory and expensive, should
be given. But in the course of the undertaking, eveiy cir-
cumstance, worthy of notice, from time to time occurring, has
been detailed and published in the reports of our Building
Committee ; with an attention and constant regard to correct-
ness of representation, which has marked their conduct, from
the commencement to the end of this arduous enterprize.
The whole has been under the view of the Stockholders, who
have evinced their approbation, by continuing in the exercise
of the trust confided to them, the President and the major
part of the Directors, as they were originally chosen. This
mutual confidence has animated us in the discharge of a duty,
often laborious, frequently perplexing, and always exposing
us to responsibility for measures, taken under emergencies,
sudden, difficult, imperative, and requiring large and unlock-
ed for expenditures. The whole was new to us ; and some
parts of the work unexampled in any countn% We could
obtain, in exigencies the most pressing, no immediate assist-
acid; as is our common lime stone. But no analysis was
made ; its effects only being the objects. In the Spanish
West India Islands., they use marine productions in cement,
for coating or rough casting.^ impervious to water, or mois-
ture. They may, possibly, be of the nature of Welch lime:
and, with careful search, such useful substances may be
found on our shores ; or, in our country, tarras., or some
earth of similar qualities may be discovered. In Jamaica
thev have an earth, which answers every purpose, of either
puzzolan^, or tarras.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 53
Jince, from persons either scientifically or practically skilled,
in some of the most difFicult and dangerous portions of the
erection. We were therefore under the necessity oi proceed- -•
ing-, Avitli such auxiliaries as we could obtain (in which we
have generally been peculiarly fortunate) and risquing both
public opinion, and the funds of our constituents, on the re-
sult."
". In situations the most hazardous and untried, we had not
the encouragement or consohdioxi gi general opijiio?!. We
laboured with persevering industry against it ; knowing, as we
did, that our fellow citizens had even less experience to di-
rect their judgment, than ourselves. We were satisfied that
our object was worth the boldest attempt; and that without
the accomplishment of what really was, as it appeared in its
earliest stages, the most arduous part of our project, the work
must be abandoned. Success crowned our perseverance.
From this we claim no other merit, than that of having set an
example to others, who may be engaged in works so unpro-
mising ; attended with similar risques, and affording only a
choice of difficulties. In our situation, what in the common
course of things might be stiled ceconomy^ would have been
ruinous parsimony. Yet whenever real ccconomy could be
practised, we have regarded it with the most scrupulous atten-
'tion. A very great proportion of the expenditures, was for-
ced upon us by inexorable necessity. The fruits of them, are,
for the most pai't invisible; large disbursements having been
inevitably applied to the coffer dams, in all their variet"^/ of ca-
sualty and dangerous vicissitude — to the subaqueous, expen-^
sive, and difficult parts of the piers, and the foundations of the
abutments. Participating, ourselves, in either the success or
failure of the design, we relied on the candor oi' our fellovv'
Stockholders. Impressed with a conviction of having acted
from motives the most upright, we trusted, in every event,
in their sense, and our consciousness, of our''integritv of in-
tention, and unremitting regard to our duty. These are all
54 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
the observations we deem necessary, as they respect unavoid-
able expenditure. We have made them, as we shall make
others, not because we deem ourselves under any necessity
ef justifying our conduct ; but to recall to your recollection^
for your own satisfactioUy past circumstances, which have at-
tended the great work you have so meritoriously supported j
and to fix your attention to future prospects."
^ As to what regards the other solid, ^durable, and visible
parts of the work, and the mode of performing it, as well as
those which may be deemed ornamental^ these must be left,
for inspection, to the structure itself, which will furnish its
own eulog}^ We are happy to believe it meets with general
approbation. We have, throughout, studied simplicity,
strength, and durability ; and have expended on ornament no
more than our sense of propriety justified. We could not
suppose, that those who had so laudably suffered privations
of immediate profit, were so absorbed in calculations merely
pecuniar\', that they vrould have been contented with a fabrick
disgraced by savings unseemly and sordid. We considered
oui-selves bound to exhibit at the entrance of our city, a struc-
ture worthvofthe place of its establishment. We were sup-
ported in eveiy thing relating to the novel, but, in our opinion,
eleg-ant exterior of the cover, as well as in the measure itself,
by the express approbation of a most respectable meeting of
Stockholders. The draft by vrhich it was executed (some
necessarv additions, and indispensable, but not extensive alte-
rations excepted) was at that meeting, produced and examin-
ed. It fully answers our expectations : and appears to have
satisfied those v.ho originally entertained objections against it.
This finish not only adds beauty, but affords protection, to a
structure which will very long remain atnonument of public
spirit, as well as a testimony of persevering, successful, and
well directed private enterprize. It will also, at no distant
period, amply retribute all pecuniary advances. Our tolls
have already neiu-ly trebled in nett amount. They continue to
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 55
advance, from causes now in operation. From circumstances
only beginning to have influence, we are justified in calculating,
not only on a steady and customary increase, but on a pro-
gress accelerated in a flattering degree."
*' Apparently supplementary, yet essentially connected witla
our object, are the capacious and highly commodious zvharves^
we have deemed ourselves warranted in establishing, on both
sides of the river. On mature consideration, we found them
absolutely requisite to the security of our abutments ; espe-
cially that on the western side. On that side considerable
improvements and business are commencing. On the east-
ern margin of the river, and in its vicinity, a new, healthy
and incalcidably valuable front to this great and opulent cit}',
is rapidly rising into importance and extensive utility. Eve-
jy part of our undertaking, so successfully accomplished for
our own benefit, gives also a forcible impetus to the eiForts of
others. Their improvements add value to the bridge pro-
perty; and greatly encrease the revenues of the Com]iany.
Thus will the advantages resulting to others, from our spirited
labours and expences, most profitably reverberate on our-
selves."
" We lay before the Stockholders our accounts from the
commencement of the work ; classified in detail, as accurately
as the mass of matter, and the extensive range of the business ^
will permit. Our books and minutes are ready for inspec^
tion. Our time and anxieties have been occupied in the erec-
tion. A future ^(jar^f will have leisure and opportunity, and,
from the encreasing revenue, we trust, 7'neans^ of placing the
pecuniaiy affairs of the Company, on a footing profitable and
easy.
" W^ beg leaTc to present our sincere gratulations on the
success of an undertaking, commenced under circumstances
very discouraging ; and completed with every prospect of well
earned emolument. Of its stability, we have not the most
distant doubt. We knov/ its materials are so well selected;
56, A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
and its workmanship so faithfully executed, that, both the
quality of the one, and the excellence of the other, will bear
the test of the most critical and rigid examination.
Signed by order, and in behalf of the Board,
RICHARD PETERS, President,
December 26th, 1S05.
Thefolloxuing is a short statement , of the situation oftlic
Stock, 1806.
Original Stock. 15000 Share?
Additional 7500
22500
Shares authorized to be issued ; but
not used. 2000
24500
Whereof, are completed, and certifi-
cates issued. 19567
Remain on hand, not sold or subscribed 4933
24500
Stock issued, 19567 Shares at S 10 each, is S 195,670
So that a clear revenue of S 12000, will pay more than 6
per cent discount: and this will happen, when all the debts
are paid. These are now funded ; and interest paid regular-
ly. They mAist be gradually discharged.
A small proportion of shares forfeited, are unsold ; but
these go to the credit of the Company ; and lessen the aggre-
gate on which dividends are to be struck.
When, by tlie rise of the Stock in the hands of the Com-
pany, it can be disposed of, so as to commute the debt for
Stock ; or to pay it with proceeds of Stock subscribed for,
and delivered out of that remaining on hand j then the Capi-
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 57
tal on which dividends will be made, will encrease by the
addition so made. The sum mentioned in page 28 (218000)
as being the probable amomit, was conjectural, and is not ex-
act. The following is as correct a statement as can now be
made ; though it may not be entirely accurate. It is founded
on the probable result of the year 1807.
Number of Shares completed on w^iich dividends
will be made is 19567 at S 10. - - - » - S 195,670
The sum funded, or borrowed on loan, is S 42000
Interest at 6 per cent, is - - S 2520
The probable contingent expen-
ces of every description. - 2356 67
The Revenue for 1 807, will be
$ 14000, at least
Although the Revenue is fluctuating, according to circum-
stances annually occurring, yet it has, on an average, constant-
ly progressed in an encreasing amount. This will be seen by
recurring to the sum produced by the floating bridge, as here-
tofore mentioned, and that now arising from the tolls of 1807,
There is yet a small proportion of unliquidated debt.
COFFER DAMS AND PIERS.
It is almost impracticable to give an intelligible de=
scrip tion of a coffer dam, without technical language,
and a draft or model. It is calculated for excluding
the water of a river, in which a pier is to be erected on
a stable foundation ; and for this purpose, to give ac-
cess to the bottom, or bed, with safety; and, without
danger or impediment, to ensure the accomplishment
of the work. It is 2i fixture, and entirely different from
a batterdeau, which is a tight vessel or box, in which
the masonry is carried on as it floats; and, being at first
5g A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
calculated for the depth, or raised upon as it sinks with
the weight, it finally arrives on a level bottom, or bed,
(which is indispensable) or on 2i gratings (supported by
piles, driven into a pervious and deeply covered bed,)
accurately prepared for its reception, and permanent
station. When it is thus fixed, the sides of the box are
detached, and the masonry is exposed : the bottom of
the batterdeau remains under the masonry, either on the
bed of the river, or the grathig, prepared for it.
The coffer dam for the western pier, was composed
of two ranges of piles; some, much larger than others,
called ?nain piles ; and between these, less, ox sheet piles y
were driven. The ranges were nine feet from each
other; embracing, within the interior range, an area,
several feet larger than that of the lower course of the
masonry of the pier. They were connected by cross
ties placed horizontally ; and the space between them
Vv'as filled with loam, or earth, and called puddle; con-
solidated from the bottom, or bed, of the river, to a
height above the tide ; and forming an embankment of
this filing, so as to exclude and resist all access of wa-
ter. The piles were about 42 feet long; and, being
sharpened, and shod with iron, at the lower ends, were
driven (where the cover on the rock would admit) by
the heavy ram of a powerful pile engine. They were
neatly vrorked and jointed, and united with each other
by tongues and grooves. The ranges were secured by
horizontal frames of large timber, Avell strapped; called
belts, of the shape and figure of the dam ; which had six
sides. These belts, which were double, to receive the
piles between them, were alike in both ranges; and con-
nected Vv'ith each other, as v/ell as Avith the gratings and
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE, 5p
cross beams ^ which were horizontally placed inside the
dam, to resist the pressure from without, as the belts
were calculated to sustain that of the puddle; the whole
united together, like a floor of joists. The lower
belts and gratings were first sunk, as near the bed of
the river, as its inequalities would permit. The others,
to the number of five, or six, were sunk successively,
with the correspondent gratings, at proper heights or
distances from each other; secured, at first, by anchors
and cables, and finally fixed by main piles driven by the
7'am, so as to form a skeleton of the whole dam ; which
was thereafter embodied, by driving the sheet piles, and
filling in i\\Q puddle. After the dam was completed, the
water contained in it vvas pumped out ; and the pumps
continually kept at vv^ork, while leakages required. The
foundation was laid for the pier, as soon as the dam w^as
evacuated of miost of its contents. But a long course of
labour, danger, and apprehension, occurred, before this
was accomplished. As soon as the masonry arri\'ed at
the gratings, successively, the exact shape and size of
the pier were cut av/ay. The parts of the beams, and
other timber of the gratings remaining, bearing against
the stone work had their full effect in supporting, and
keeping the dam in its place.
The great desideratum, in such works, is to have some
pervious substance, as 3. footing for the piles, and sufiici-
ently sound and tenacious, to prevent bottom leakages,
or blowing, which are often fatal. The advantages of
suchfooting were denied, in many parts, by the bareness
of the rock, on v/hich the pier is founded. Owing to
this untoward circumstance, under leakages constantly
annoyed and threatened. A well intended, but mis-
gQ A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
taken endeavour, to evacuate all the silt and mud out
of the dam, ^vas arrested in time to save the whole from
ruin. The balance to the pressure of the exterior head
of water, was perceived to be on the point of being de-
stroyed : and the attempt at a total removal of the whole
contents of the dam, was fortunately discontinued.*
* The success attending the first, or eastern foundation, be-
ing laid and bolted on the rock^ inspired an ardent wish in all
interested in the work, to arrive at it, for the establishment of
the western pier. Difficulty and danger were overlooked ;
and only the object regarded- When the dam became inces-
santh' leaky, and the more so as the mud was evacuated, a Com-
mittee of experiment was joined to the Building Committee,
at their request. Nothing could exceed their joint exertions,
but the laudable zeal with which they were animated; and
several of the Stockholders voluntarily rendered their assist-
ance. But this zeal had nearly ruined tiie object of it ; a
considerable time before the close of these well intended
efforts, the President (who, by constant attention, was minute-
ly acquainted with the principles and construction, and, of
course, they^^r^ ^nd foible, of the dam,) became uneasy ; and
intimated to the mason, that the prosecution of the attempt,
at the total evacuation, was dangerous in the extreme. The
mason was convinced that the opinion was correct ; and the
superintendant declared he had long been apprehensive of the
consequences. Under the hope that this would be soon per-
ceived bv others, a plan of the present artificial foundation,
was communicated by the President to the mason ; and b}'
him digested. It was mentioned with candour and caution ;
but received Avith decided disapprobation, by the greatest
number. The industry and redoubled diligence of the Com-
mittee, were viewed with painful solicitude. At length, the
critical period arrived, when it appeared highly probable that
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE.
61
The under leakages were highly alarming and ceaseless.
another day^s work would have defeated the whole enterprize.
It was knov/n that nothing but actual perception of the con-
sequences, would bring conviction ; which all reasoning (re-
sisted by the strong desire to reach the rock) had failed to
produce. Several of the stoutest labourers were set to work,
with a view to dig a pit, to the rock ; v/hich was not more
than 3 or 4 feet from the then surface. They had not pierc-
ed the mud above half its thickness, before a column of wa-
ter, copious and alarming, suddenly gushed up. This pro-
duced an immediate conviction, of the unjustifiable hazard
of any farther attempt to bare the rock : and the factitious
foundation, being, witbout farther hesitation, agreed to, was
forthwith commenced. The principles on which this occur-
rence was predicted, appeared to be proved ; not only by this
specimen of the effect of admitting even partial avenues for
the water, but in the progress of the masonry. — After the
foundation was completed, the leakages lessened very percep-
tibly. As the work proceeded daily, the leaks decreased:
so that, in a few days, either Clijmer''sy or the chain pumps^
could free the dam ; and at length pumping was intermitted,
for long intervals, entirely. Thereafter to the close of the
work, the chain pump was sufficient; and only occasionally
employed. The water flowed round the work, during the
time of laying a few of the first courses of the masonry; but
afterwards it remained below, and was harmless and manage-
able.— Some advantage, no doubt, accrued, by the compactness
of the foundation filling the dam. But there ahvays had been
dangerous and constant leaks above this; which, until the
pressure of the external head of water was fairly conquered,
and entirely overbalanced, by the additional and daily en-
creasing weight of the masonry, never ceased to flow, copi-
ously and perilously. The exertions of the Committee were
not onlv meritorious in their motive, and fycilitated the la\ -
52 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
The dam could always be pumped out, as low as 30
or 33 feet, widi ease. Probably^ the column of air,
equal to the area of the dam in its base, assisted the sub-
stances remaining in the dam, to brJance and resist the
exterior pressure ; which could not be overcome to a
greater depth by any efibrts, until the puddle, and the
outward barrier of stone and sand (hereafter mentioned)
ing the artificial foundation, but proved, incontestibly, the
unavoidable necessity of the step. And this was a po:nt of
no small importance, in a work which depended so much on
public opinion, to induce farther advances for its prosecution.
The dam was so pressed, and became so critically debili-
tated, towards the last stages of the evacuation of the mud
and silt, that the breaking of a single cross bea?n, had nearly
wrecked it. This beam broomed and splintered ; and in its
dirupticn, with a loud and violent explosion, shook the dam
throughout. Another beam which resisted the pressure on the
failure of this, had been fortunately saved from being cut, to
admit a pump. The weakening, or cutting this, v/ould have
gone far to compleat the destruction. Thus perilously uncer-
tain are coffer dams, on the best construction, in deep water,
and with little, or partial footing for piles.
These circumstances are detailed, to shew^ the true state of
things, with which many Stockholders were unacquaint-
ed ; and were, in consequence", dissatisfied, because the first
course of masonry of the w^estern pier, was not laid on the
rock. They supposed, though experience has proved the con-
trary, that the artificial foundation would be found incom-
petent: and some yet conceive, the rock could have been
bared without danger.
The statement will also serve as a caution, to all who in
future engage in such diincult tasks, to avoid, however desi-
rable the object, the ruinous consequences of doing' too much.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 53
had acquired the last degree of consolidation and settle-
ment : and even then it was uncertain and hazardous ;
as appeared by the result of the attempt before stated.
During the erection of the pier, a great number of
workmen and labourers, were employed. Those en-
gaged within the dam, at the m.asonry, working without
apprehension of danger, sometimes by the light of many
lamps and lanterns, on the bed of a deep and often ra-
pid river, in an enclosure of complex and stupendous
construction, incessantly pressed by a form.idabie head
of water, exhibited, in connection with the busy scene
above — an interesting spectacle — curious — novel — and
entertaining: yet, at times, when dangers threatened,
or casualties occurred, not unattended Avith perplexing
and serious anxieties.
Extracts from a report signed by the super intendant
Samuel Robinson^ (who with the master m.ason Thomas ^
Vickers formed these reports) are subjoined; dated No-
vember ITlh 1801. There are several of these, con-
taining a curious history of difliculties and details ; som^e
whereof exhibit useful instruction. They will shew
some of the embarrassmerits, but by no means the whole,
attending the coffer dams. They will serve as guides^
in future undertakings of this kind, or beacons to avoid
their use, if it can be dispensed with, however here they
v/ere unavoidable. European engineers would have
startled at placing dams on rocks, vvhich, though par-
tially covered, were in many parts bare, or so scantily
overspread with mud, or any tenacious substance, as to
afford no footing for the piles. Yet they succeeded, in
untaught but persevering hands ; whose zeal knew not
professional caution, overlooked danger, and supplied
(34 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
the place of practical talents. The expedient of form-
ing an artificial embankment of stone and sand, promis-
cuously thrown around the footing of the piles, was
attended with compleat success. It saved the eastern,
and was essential to the security of the xvestern dam.
Many hundred perches of stone were used ; and great
quantities of sand ; which, ha\ ing been washed in by the
stream, consolidated the mass which now forms a perpe-
tual protection to the foundations. Both these dams
w^ere exposed to ruin ; by the cross ties connecting the
inner and outer walls, or ranges of piles. The space
between them was filled, or puddled, chiefly with loam,
found to be the best filling. The ties were horizontal,
and of large timber; permitting, under each of them, a
sinking or settlement of the puddle; which afforded
channels, or courses, for constant streams of heavy leak-
ages; which were, with great difficulty, kept under by
many pumps. These pumps were worked by horses,
and labour of men. They were ingeniously contrived ;
one of them (far superior to the best chain pump) Avas
made by George Clymer of Philadelphia, a self taught
mechanic; capable of throwing out 400 gallons per mi-
nute, and not subject to choak Avith sand, or even small
pebbles, chips or filth. This pump ^ oided nearly half
the water evacuated from the dam. Twelve hundred
gallons per minute have been (when hard pressed)
ejected by all the pumps ; commonly 600 to 800 gallons,
when the head, encreased by the tide, augmented the
leakages. The mischiefs attendant on the ties, were
the only faults experienced in Mr. JVestoii's, otherwise
perfect, and really admirable, plan of the western dam.
The eastern dam was quadrangular; the westei'n, liex-
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. gg*
agonal ; the salient angles acute ; and pointing up and
down the stream.*
The report also shews, how little service was afford-
ed by our most ingenious mechanics, out of the line of
their several trades. With the best dispositions, many,
as well mechanics as other citizens, suggested remedies
for misfortunes^ or supposed guards against them.
Some assisted in executing their ideas in both dams,
but not a solitary attempt succeeded. The Company
are not the less obliged ; nor is it any reflection upon
them, as they had as little experience in such undertak-
ings, as those whose duty compelled bold and hazard-
ous measures, on which, even professional men, versed
in hydraulic mechanism, w^ould not have risqued their
characters.
* Hemlock timber^ (P'lnus Abies Americana^ Lin.) had near-
ly defeated the eastern dam : much of it was used, on account
of its cheapness. But it always gave way, when hard pressed ;
and its failure, at several critical times, was nearly fatal. The
belts (which serve to a da??!., the same purposes as hoops to a
cask^ frequently broke ; owing to their being of this wood, and
flinty, or curly, in spots. Straight grained he}}ilock, entirely free
from curl orf hit ^ is seldom to be found ; though some varieties
are better than others. But this timber never should be de-
pended upon ; either for strength, or durability. It was ex-
cluded from the zvestern dam. Some hemlock is very durable ;
but the appearance of this wood, is so generally alike, that it
is imprudent to risque the chances of hitting on the kind re°
quired for lasting, or strength. Perhaps there may be some
stages of growth, or time of felling, as it is with other woods,
more or less favourable to durabilit}-.
I
55 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OP THE
These extracts are calculated to give a general idea
of the difficulties, unavoidable expence, and magnitude
of these all essential parts of the undertaking. A de-
tailed and accurate description would extend to a great-
er length, than is contemplated in this communication ;
though drafts and notes, for the purpose, are preserved.
EXTRACTS.
Schuylkill Permanent Bridge^ Nov, 17, 1801.
'' Gentlemen of the Building Committee,
" In compliance with your directions of the- 13th October, I
now lay before you a statement of the expence incurred in
erecting the (eastern) cq^er dam. At the same time I beg
your indulgence while I point out some of the difficulties
with which we had to combat. When Mr. L ," [the first
mason and superintendant, who misled the committee into an
inefficient plan of the dam] " was consulted with respect to this
dam, he could give us no useful information, or assistance.
But in this case, as upon all other occasions of difficulties, we
found great assistance from the acting members of the Build-
ing Committee. We explained to them our objections to
raising the dam, on the proposed plan, of the three rows of
piling, which were contemplated. We wished to throw off
one, as there was not sujj<cient hold at the bottom^ to resist the
great pressure of such a puddle ; we were alraid of its burst-
ing outward. A member of the committee, [the president]
proposed forming, at the bottom of the river, around the
sides of the dam, a ban-ier of common building stone and
sand, which when raised nearly to low water mark, he
thought would be of great service. The plan was approved
of and executed, and we found it to answer the purpose com-
pletely ; not only of keeping the dam in its place, while we
proceeded in finishing it -, but was of great use, throughout
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. Q'J
the whole progress of the work. When the dam was sunk,
notwithstanding all the precautions we took, it burst open at
the South West corner, we then had recourse to clamping it."
[Mr. i?— then proceeds to give a detailed account of the
means taken, with the advice ot the committee, for securing
the dam. It, however, burst again, and other remedies were
applied, so that they began to puddle* Preparations were
made for pumping, and caulkers were employed to caulk the
joints of the sheet pilmg, ^vhich was not only weak and with-
out substance of timber, but was not ploughed, tongue d, or
grooved. The leakages increased, and some of the puddle
was dug out, and the residue rammed ; yet the leaks conti-
nued along the pile ties^ which upon every trial were found
to be the cause in a great measure, of the misfortunes, from
the bad construction of the dam. Remedies were applied, but
still the evil prevailed. Caulking began to be efficacious, and
enabled them to pump out the water, and see the long looked
for bottom of the river.] " When the water was nearly out
of the lower side,' the dam suddenly gave way at the bottom,
caused by the pile-casing being cut square, and not accom-
modated to the rugged and uneven bottom." [The blowing
of the dam and bottom leakages were alarming. Plans to
counteract this evil were projected, and applied with great
labour and exertions. The chain pumps were worked by
horses. Expectation was raised, and suddenly disappointed.
The dam gave way, behind the chain pumps, which however,
^* were kept at work by the labourers with great resolution"
until the carpenters had secured this part of the work ; and
the chain pumps continued at work, and the difficulty was
overcome. He then states the reasons why the disasters oc-
curred ; which are attributed to the radically bad plan of the
dam, which was now amended " by throwing off the outside
row, and substituting' " the stone barrier in its room outside ;
and the puddle inside, which answered the purpose effectually.'']
The report proceeds to state that.
03 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT, Of* THE
" On the 5th September the first stone of the pier was laid.
This day we fortunately kept the water out all day ; the ma-
sons xvorked 13 hours without refreshment ; except a little
drink. We were now unanimously of opinion, that our diffi-
culties could be overcome ; nevertheless, we were obliged
to work night as well as day, when the tide answered," [the
leakages always increased, owing to the greater head of wa-
ter at high tide] " until we got above low water mark. We
were then at ease ; but little pumping afterwards. The wa-
ter shoots^^ laid in the dam, served to regulate the tide after-
wards on all occasions, until the masonry was finished."
* Water shoots were tubes, in the first, and truiiks in the second dam, fur-
nished with valves, or shutters, so as to permit the exit of water, but t®
repel its entrance, and to be opened, or entirely closed at pleasure.—
They were placed just above low water mark ; and while the dam was-
filling- with puddle, suffered to remain open for the flux and reflux of the
tide ; or shut when circumstances required. The dam could of course
be always emptied to low water mark, without pumping- ; and by clos-
ing the shoots, the tide was entirely excluded. But a great length of
time elapsed, while the puddle was filling, and consolidating, before it was
safe entirely to exclude the tide. The water, inside the dam, was a
great counter balance ; not only to the pressm*e without, but to that of
the settling puddle. None but those who have experienced it, can con-
ceive the almost resistless force of earth, while consolidating : and the
puddle of these dams consisted of several thousand cart loads. The ad-
mitting and excluding the water, required great care and judgment ; and
frequent trials were made, before the risque was encountered of the entire
exclusion of the tide. Before the earth of the puddle was sufficiently em-
bodied, to sustain itself, the work had to support not only its weight, but
tlie immense force and irregular protrusions and pressures, of parts differ-
ently composed, and settling faster or slower than others.
Every kind of earth, or substance, any wise proper, was tried for Jllling
or puddle.
Crude brick ov potter'* s clay, settled unequally, and cracked when other-
wise consolidated. Tempered clay was little better.
Miver mud was bad ; it had some of the properties of clay.
Gravel, was good for the filling- of the abutments ; but not proper fc?l'
*he dam. 3o was it with sand.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. ^9
" We would be ungrateful if we did not here express our
obligations to those members of the committee ; who by their
personal attention and counsel, wherever it was necessary,
contributed, in a principal degree, to the final success of our
undertaking ; which had all along been attended with great
risque ; and inconceivable difficulties. But from them, and
from our own discoveries, which were accidental, we derived
much assistance. The variety of schemes suggested by those
who occasionally gave their advice and opinion, though
gratefully attended to by us, were of no manner of service.
We mention this merely to shew, how little capable of judg-
ing are those, who only partially attend to such subjects ;
and are not practically engaged therein. In case of failure,
our having attended to every thing of this kind which have
seemed to be of any use, would have been a great consolation
to us."
The expence of erecting the eastern dam is detailed ; and
amounts to % 9491 38 cents.
(Signed) SAMUEL ROBINSON.f
SmitJi's OY furnace cinders were very useful in stopping ^rowW /ca/^.y;
but a sufficient quantity could not be procured.
After all these were carefully used, in every v\'ay, the common loam or
earth, free from roots, stones, or foreign matter, was preferred ; and found
perfectly competent. That under the vegetable mould, was the best.
f The eastern dam narrowly escaped being rendered abortive, and the
project stifled in its infancy. A most important beam, running longitudi-
nally (like a main girder, in a large building) and on which depended many
smaller ties, ramifying from it, was designedly, and wickedly, sawed near-
ly through, with a fine saw, on a Satm'day night, at a time of swift water, to
expose the dam to the dangers of the next day of intermission from work.
It was luckily discovered early the next morning, in time to guard against
the ruinous consequences. No discovery was ever made of the perpetra-
tor. It was known but to a few, and kept secret (among other reasons) to
preclude alarms in the stockholders ; whose apprehensions were sufficient-
ly alive from causes arising from common circumstances. Where advances
of money are required, by voluntary payments, no unnecessary terrors
need be raised^ Some thought tlie first loss would be the best, and suffer-
70 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
The plan and execution of the western dam^ were in
perfect contrast with those of the eastern. But the dif-
ficulties were also incalculably great, owing to the depth
of water, and magnitude of the work ; and the expence
^^^s in proportion. It would occupy too much room
and time to do justice to the subject; which would be
instructive, as well as monitory. The only hydraulic
carpenter of any experience, gave up the work, at an
early stage of it, as hopeless ; and disgracefully aban-
doned it, in despair. An ingenious machinist, who
had been the principal dependance for machinery and
work in wood, v/as killed, by unaccountably getting
under the ram^ of the pile engine of the western dam ;
ed their first instalments to be forfeited, prematurely foreboding the worst.
Some invidious and illiberal persons wished ill to the undertaking" ; as
had appeared on various occasions. In this age of speculation, many bets
were laid, for and against the final success of the enterprize.
The stroke was aimed at a vital part, if the expression be allowable,
and it was adroitly executed. Conjectures were suggested, but none
eould be verified. But whether it was done from mere mischief, or mo-
tives, illiberal or sordid, will never be known. It had however, the good
effect of producing caution. A guard was thereafter kept, and a watch-
man is yet employed, constantly to watch the work. This should not be
neglected in all such undertakings. Such malicious injuries are generally
committed, by the vilest members of society ; and none others could be
suspected. Slaves, depraved children, and cowardly offscourings, gene-
rally perpetrate secret mischiefs : and it is often indiscreet to take too
much notice of them ; as the hidden perpetrator may not be discovered,
and others may take the hint. This is no vv mentioned, because some have
thought, that more publicity should have been, at the time, given to the
circumstance. Its monitory uses, give now its only importance to this fact.
*This rain weighed about 750 pounds. One of almost double the weight
was, at first used. It was soon found, that a too ponderous ram defeated
the object of it. It broomed the heads of the piles, shook and weakened
the engine, took too much time in its movements, and shattered and split
with its own weight ; though composed of the best Ihe oak. The rams
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE,
which he had himself constructed. The building com-
mittee where thus left to struggle through every diffi-
culty, unaided by any person practically acquainted with
such work ; and with no scientific assistants. They de-
pended solely on the workmen, who had gained some
experience at the eastern dam, for the farther execution
and fortunate completion of the work ; which they faith-
fully performed. It is not surprising that the committee
should, after all other schemes were considered, and
found fallacious and impracticable, be fully sensible of
the risque and difficulty of attempting anew and untried
undertaking. In their report of the 3 1st December
1802 they thus express themselves.
used at the piling- of the foundations of the western abutment and wings,
were less ; being of about 500 pounds They moved quickly, did more
work, and required less power to move them ; but the piles were smaller.
The machinery of the engine at the dam, was moved in the usual way,
seen in large horse mills, by four horses, on a floating stage, anchored
near the dam. There were several parts, ingeniously, and uncommonly,
contrived. The ram was elevated by a 6 or 7 inch rope, which was 'vjhite ;
because tared yarn was found more inflammable, and otherwise unfit. The
friction (though the sheave, over which it moved, was of 18 inches diame-
ter) was so great, as to excite a heat, which consumed the hemp inter-
nally, when the surface appeared soimd, and felt cool: so that the best
rope soon failed; and chains, never so neatly formed, would not answer.
The ram could be drove to 60 strokes in an hour ; but 40, were found as
many as were, with prudence, admissible. The rope was worked by a,
vertical cyllinder; on the principle of the capstan and leading block. This
cyllinder was thrown out of gear, by a simple operation, produced by the
weight of the ram ceasing to act on it, when detached from the traveller
It then (being operated upon by the weight of the traveller) performed a
retrogade motion, so as rapidly to unwind the rope ; and the traveller in-
stantly followed the ram, in its descent. As soon as the tongs had seized
on the ram, the cyllinder was again in its place, and progressed in its dut} -.
The horses, relieved when fatigued, constantly proceeded, with a steady,
but somewhat quick pace.
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
" Our particular duty, as a committee, was to superintend
the execution of the plan. But as members of the board, we
cannot avoid lamenting that the dangerous character, of the
river, its extraordinaiy depth and rocky bottom, forbad any
other mode, to ensure the stability of the piers, than that which
riecessity compelled us to take. Every substitute we could
devise, or were informed of, even though some were only
plausible, or palpably visionary, were stated to Mr. Weston^
than whom there are few, if any, among hydraulic engineers
more competent to judge. He decidedly advised us to the
mode we have adopted; warning us of the difficulties we had
to encounter. He disinterestedly gave instructions, and fur-
nished the plan of the coffer dam^ w^hich is a pattern worthy
the imitation of all who engage in such enterprizes. After
experiencing the expence and difficulties in erecting our eas-
tern pier, we had no small apprehensions in undertaking the
present work. We were Jiattered by our success ; and our
experience was in no small degree, essentially useful. But
we foresaw additional danger and expence in our present ob-
ject. We even wished, if an iron or wooden superstructure
were intended, to propose avoiding the sinking the present
dam and erecting this pier, by adopting an extended arch,
comprehending the breadth of the river, which in theory,
seemed practicable. We know that no iron super structure of
such a span had been executed. We sent for Mr. Timothij
Palmer^ of Nervhury Port^ a celebrated practical wooden
bridge architect. He view^ed our site and gave us an t^-
cellentplanof a tt^ccr/d'/i superstructure. But he pointedly re-
probated the idea, of even a wooden arch extending farther
than between the position of our intended piers, to wit, 187
feet. He had at the Piscatawaij bridge, erected an arch of
244 feet ; but he repeatedly declared that, whatever might be
suggested by theorists, he would not advise, nor would he
ever again attempt extending an arch, even to our distance,
where such heavy transportation was constantly proceeding.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. ^3
We therefore found ourselves compelled to progress, on the
plan we have been executhig ; let the expence or difficulty be
never so discouraging. Happily we have thus far succeeded ;
but it is with some emotion, v.e look back at the dangers we
have escaped."
By a report of December 26th 1 803, it appears that (although
the work was not then finished,) " The whole of the stone
work from its commencement consisted of 105,780 feet of cut
and hammered stone, included in 15,131 perches of masonn-.
^Vhen it is considered that one half^ at least^ of this was erec-
ted under water ^ it is not extraordinary that the work should
have been tedious, difHcult and expensive."
The cut stone was very expensive ; though an expedient of
cutting the faces of those under xvater only at the joints, about
two inches broad, was suggested to, and adopted by the mason.
The eastern pier is 40 feet high from the foundation, and
contains 3635 perches of masonry.
The western pier is 55 feet 9 inches high from the foun-
dation, and contains 6178 perches of masonr5%
Seeing, then, that such difficulties and unavoidable
expenditures attend bridges erected on piers, especially
where batteixleaus^ or coffer dams are used, it is to be re-
gretted that the genius of hydraulic engineers and archi-
tects, or others, whose minds have been occupied in such
subjects, has not, in a long course of time both enlight-
ened and active, produced some practical specimens of
single arches, of such span as to supersede the use of
piers\ in deep and navigable streams, at least. This
not having been done, sufficiently proves, that (however
plausible the theory) the practice has not, though indu-
bitably desirable, been thought safe or justifiable. There
have been sundry plans proposed; but none accom-
K
74, A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
plished on an extensive scale. Every projector of such
arches or inventions, has an exclusive confidence in his
own project; and some of them pronounce phihppics and
denunciations, against bridges on piers. The expence
and difficulties attending these, ai'c too well known, to
be disputed ; or to require display and enumeration. But
actual experience, from the most remote times to this
day, has warranted their being employed ; preferably
to untried, however ingenious schemes. The advanta-
ges of single arches, for navigable streams particularly,
are obvious \ and experiments, on any feasible plan, are
devoutly to be -wished. It is easier, in man)' cases to
vault over, than to encounter, difficulties and dangers.
But the question is, who can affi^rd it, or will take the
risque of the first leap, in an expensive operation.
Hitherto no very extensive single arch has been hazarded
in practice ; unless the one at Weremouth^ be considered
as a decided example. Yet, at the timiC of erecting the ^
Schuylkillhri^^^^ there were great doubts of the stability
of the Weremouth arch, suggested by a respectable En-
glish Engineer, who went expressly to view it. Inso-
much that the inventor, and executor of that work, who
was conversed with, pointed out defects; and it appeared
had changed and improved his plans, in after erections.
It would have been unjustifiable, in those who had the
trust of other persons money, to put it at the risque on
a theory, however plausible. When engaged in a plan,
dictated by experience and former practice, they were
corapelled to hazard^ by necessity^ in the progress ; and
justified by success^ in the event.
Those who v/ish to indulge their curiosity, and exer-
cise their patience on such subjects, may have the op-
portunity afforded, by the perusal of the voluminous
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 75
reports of the ^''Select Committee''' of the British Parlia-
ment, '^iipon the improvement of the Port of London''''
printed in 1801. — The advantages and disadvantages,
and the theory and practice of arches, single and multi-
plied— the strength, application and quality of materials
— the uses and inconveniencies of piers — and all points
relating to a project for erecting the single arch before
mentioned, over the Thames^ will there be found, learn-
edly and ably discussed, by men of the first talents, both
professional and theoretical, in Great Britain,
In one of the reports there are two elevations of
bridges — one with a single arch of iron, 600 feet span^
calculated for vessels "^o pass under if — the other of
a stone bridge, of 9 aixhes, on piers, with an ingenious
plan of a draw, designed to exemplify a ''mode of ad-
mitting ships to pass through it, at all times; without
occasioning any interuption to the land communication
over it." The relative and positive merits of these and
other projects, are elaborately and scientifically discussed
and examined, in this, and several precedent reports^
yg A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
CHRONOMETRICAL OBELISK.
To complete the usefulness of this work, a pyramu
died Pedestal^ surmounted with four Dials ^ for the be-
nefit of passengers, is erected at the eastern entrance of
the bridge ; and on three of the Tablets^ the most pro-
minent facts and events, occurring in the construction,
are recorded. This small Obelisk (fifteen feet eight
inches in height from the foundation, and five feet square
at its Plinth) is of white marble ^ on a basement oifree-
stone^ and is of neat and sim^ple construction, in cha-
racter with the masonry of the bridge. The inscrip-
tions appear to be composed in conformity with a cor-
rect criticism on such subjects, as expressed by the
elegant pen of the late Dr. /. Beat tie. They are cal-
culated " to convey to the traveller^ not the wit of the com-
poser ^ but some authentic information in regard to the
object that draws his attention^ and is supposed to raise
his curiosity. "^"^ — " They are simple and true; and as con-
cise as the subject will admit. ' ' In imitation of the Greek
and Roman inscriptions ^^ mixtures of verse and prose""^
of '^foreign languages ^'^'' and of narrations too much
encumbered with abstract remarks,— have been avoided.
There will be also an Equation Table^ to shew the
diiference between tlie time marked by the apparent,
and that measured by the real^ motion of the sun.
With the aid of these accurate and curious Dials ^ and
the Table; which were delineated, with scientific pre-
cision, by Professor Patterson^ a complete Chronometer
is obtained. The same gentleman also obligingly fur-
nished, from careful observations, inscriptions of the
latitude and longitude^ and the variation of the compass.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 77
These objects have been long desh'ed, by astrono-
mical and philosophical characters. Their advantages
are obviously great, and highly creditable to the Com-
pany ; who have thus extended the public utility of this
establishment.
With copies of these inscriptions, taken from the
Tablets, and' the list of tolls established by law, this ac-
count will close. The statements and remarks ha^•e
been made \^ ith no other views, than to excite others to
constancy in necessary undertakings, under circum-
stances appearing never so difficult and forbidding.
If scientific or practical knovv^ledge be wanting; it is
proved, that persistance, with even common talents, can
effect the most valuable purposes. Nor is it intended
to hold up this work, as one singularly pre-eminent over
all others ; or vainly to display peculiar personal merit ;
though in some of its parts it was attended with unex-
ampled difficulties; v/nich were overcome by unre-
mitted exertions. If this communication should con-
vey any useful instructions, pr excite to similar perse-
verance, its end will be attained. If it should invite
others, to give publicity to their ideas on such subjects;
and to impart similar information, of the improvements
made in various parts of this prosperous country; —
rich in the spirit, industry and enterprize of its citi-
zens,— no small reward will be obtained, for the time
and pains bestowed.
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
WESTERN TABLET.
THIS BRIDGE
was erected
at an expence of
near 300.000 Dollars,
by a Company
Incorporated the 2rth of April,
in Virtue of a Law,
passed the 16th of March
1798.
The Coffer Dams,
Foundations,
and other subaqueous works,
consumed a great proportion
of the Expenditures.
It was commenced,
by laying the first stone of the
EASTERN PIER,
after many difficulties had
attended tiie Dam,
on September the 5th,
1801.
And completed for passage, January 1st,
1805.
The Cover Avas begun and finished,
In the same year.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 79
SOUTHERN TABLET.
Dimensions
of the
BRIDGE.
Length 550 feet.
Abutments
and wings 750
Total — 1300.
Span of smaller arches each 150.
of middle arch, 194 feet 10 inches
Width of the Bridge — 42.
Curvature of the middle arch, 12.
of the smaller arches 10.
The Curves are Catenarian,
Rise
of the Carriage way — 8 feet.
Height^
over the platform, to the
Cross ties — 13.
From the surface of the
River to the platform,
in the greatest elevation, 31.
Elevated
above all Floods
ever known
In this River,
Inclined Plane to Entrances ; 3 1-2 Degrees.
go A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
NORTHERN TABLET.
THE EASTERN PIER
was first erected ; in a
depth of water of 21 to
24 feet, in a CoJ^er Dam.
The lower course of.
iVIasom-y is bolted on the
Rock.
THE WESTERN PIER,
attended with greater dif-
ficulties, constant hazard and
unavoidable expense, avhs
commenced in the midst of
an inclement Winter, within
a Coffer Dani^ of original and
appro]3riate construction .;
in which 800.000 Feet of
Timber were employed.
The depth of Water from the
Rock is 41 Feet.
No Pier oi regular Masonry^
in so great a depth of Water, is
known to exist in any other part
of the World.
The Masonry of this Pier, was
begun on Christmas Day 1802:
And erected from the Rock to
low Water Mark, in 41 Days and
Nights ; after 7 Months had been
occupied in preparing the Dam,
and retrieving its Misibrtunes.
These Piers are in Length 71 Feet 6 Inches,
and in Thickness 30 feet at the
bottom ; battering to the top ; where
they are in Length 60 Feet 10 Inches; and in
Thickness 19 Feet 4 Inches.
The Height of the Eastern Pier from
the Rock is 40 Feet ; aad that of the
Western Pier is 55 Feet 9 Inches. The first contains
3635 Perches, and the latter 6178
Perches oJ Masonrij,
The Eastern abutment^ 18 Feet thick, and
its wings, are founded on the Rock. The West^
cm abutment^ of equal Thickness, and its Avings,
are built on a platform supported by Piles.
Splay of the wings, 60 Feet.
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE.
81
EASTERN TABLET,
THE BRIDGE
is in itself^
the most grateful
Reward^
expected from Its
Institution : —
A Recompense^
the most honourable to those,
who by liberal advances,
and long Privations of Profit,
unassisted by public pecuniary aid,
Encouraged and Supported:-^
And a Memorial^
the most acceptable to those,
who by enterprising, arduous,
and persevering exertions,
ACHIEVED,
This extensively beneficial
Improvement*
32 A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
Rates of Toll, according to Law, at the Schuylkill
Permanent Bridge.
For everif
Cents.
!• Foot Passenger, - - - - » - i
2. Horse or Mule, without Rider or Harness, (Halter
excepted,) -^^----1
3. The samey with Rider, , = - - - 3
4. Head of homed Cattle, not more than 20 to pass at
one time, -,»=--- i
5. Living Sheep, Swine, or Calf, = - - - ^
Carriages of Pleasure.
6. Four wheels, drawn by four horses, -^ - - 20
Additional Horse^ each, . - - - 4
7. The same, drawn by two horses, - - - 12
8. The same, drawn by one horse, - - - 10
9. Two wheels or Sleigh, with two horses, - - 10
Additional horse, ----- 4
10. The same, with one horse, - - - - 6
Carriages of Burden.
1 1. Four wheels drawn by four horses, loaded, r 17
Additional horse, each ----- 4
Add, to the additional horses,
If 3 tons, or above 2 tons, - - - 5
4 tons, or above 3 - - - - 15
5 tons, or above 4 - - - - 45
6 tons, or above 5, being the heaviest
weight allowed to pass, - - 135
12. Thesame^ with produce of the country, wood
and stone excepted, - - - - 12i
SCHUYLKILL PERMANENT BRIDGE. 33
Cents.
Additiojial horse^ each - - . - 3
13. The sa?ne, with manure or empty - - - 8^
Additio7ial horse, ------ 2
14. Four wheels, drawn by three horses, loaded, - 14
15. The same, with produce, except wood and stone, 104[:
16. The same, with manure or empty, - - 7
17. Four wheels, drawn by two horses, loaded, - 12
18. The same, with produce, except, &c. - - 9
19. The same, with manure or empty, - - - 6
20. Two wheels or sled, drawn by two horses, loaded, 10
Additional horse^ each ----- 4
21. The same, with produce, except, &c. - - 7^
Additional horse, ------ 3
22. The same, with manure or empty, - - - 5
Additional horse, - - • - - - 2
23. Two wheels, or sled, drawn by one horse, loaded, 6
24. The same, with produce, except, Ssic. - - 4-^
25. The same, with manure or empty, - - '•■
26. Oxen in draught ; 2 estimated as equal to 1 horse.
Sleds of heavy burden, to be estimated as four wheel
carriages of like burden.
RULES, ACCORDING TO LAW.
Persons, carriages, or cattle, of whatsoever description, /)a^T
^ing over the Bridge will keep to the right. Offence against
this Rule, by obstructing the Passage, will subject the Dri-
vers of Carriages to back out, and Drivers of Cattle to re-
turn, and enter on the proper direction, under penalty of thir-
ty dollars.
Carriages of heavy burden shall pay as loaded, which coiv
tain any thing more than feed for two days journey.
A STATISTICAL ACCOUNT, kc.
Carriages of light burden shall pay as loaded, if not whol-
fy empty.
Loading, if not wholly produce, is not entitled to diminu-
tion of toll. Loads of any description whatsoever, exceeding
two ton, their weight shall be truly declared by the driver,
previous to passing.
Injury done to any part whatsoever, of the property of the
Bridge Company, will subject the offender to forfeiture and
payment of thirty dollars, and of being liable to damages for
further torts. Evasion of tolls is injury of property.
Published by order of the Board of Directors.
J. DORSEY, Treasurer.
Philadelphia, December 31, 1804.
ERRATA,
Minor errors, both of Orthography^ Grammar^ and Functu-
atzouy are left to the reader to correct.
In page 7, after " Mayor and Commonalty" insert ^^and
their successors,^'*
In page 5Qj " 6 per cent discount" should be, " 6 per cent
dividend"
INDEX
A
Adlum, John, on change of forest timber, - - 42
Ambrosia elatior, eaten by sheep, - - - - j
Anderson, his theory on mortar discussed and elu-
cidated, - - - - 201,2
Rural Economy. Mode of plashing hedges.
Appendix, ------ 25
Animals, diseases of domestic, on the study of, - 1
Races extinct, and changes and substitutions of 296
Changes of race, species and locality, bene-
ficial, where animals deteriorated, - 33, 39
Apples, differ in strength of must ; and are more or
less valuable on this account, - - 115
kinds which produce the richest must. The
I Virginia crab an exception to the rule as to
rich must, - - - - 113, 114
Apple trees, attacked by worms, and enquiries con-
cerning them recommended, - 247"
It is the Cerambix, which is so injurious
to them, salt and water recommended,
to destroy them. Fresh oyster shells,
pulverised, put about the roots beneficial, 323
Querj% Would not spirits of turpentine, or mercurial
preparations, poured into the holes made in the trees,
destroy the worms, when carried up by che circu-
lation of the sap ?
Ashes and g)^'psum, forward the growth of haws, - 290
Ashford, William, on improving land, - - - 193
a t
INDEX.
B
Bacon, useful to convalescents ; especially when it has
been their accustomed food, _ . _ 234
Bakewell, William, on a three furrow plough, - 257
Banks, Sir Joseph, his opinion that light grain is good
for seed corn, ----- 32
parasitical fungi on mildewed or smutty grain, 66
Barberry bushes, not the causes of mildew in grain,
according to late experiments, - 67
Barge, Jacob, first used gypsum as a manure in Penn. 158
Barley, pearl, equal to imported, and cheaper, made in
Pennsylvania, . - - - - 57
Bartransi, William, on pea bug, - - - 317
on fruit curculio, - - - 320
on destroying apple trees.
Beer, made with hemlock instead of Canada spruce, 251
Bleeding, utility of in yellow water, - - 145
Blights and mildews, - - - - - 1 84
and see appendix, - - - 3, 4, 5
Blood, bullocks &c. and smith's cinders, beneficial in
mortar for rough casting or pointing, - 207
Botanico-meteorological table. See selections,
Bread as food for horses, - - - - 235
Bread, ammunition, part of the ration of Prussian
soldiers ; and its healthful and nutritious
qualities, - - - - 229-30-31
coarse, used for sailors of the Dutch fleet, - 230
habits of Americans respecting it, - - 232-3
ship bread, cheap and nutritious for horses,
when condemned as unfit for seamen, - 236
Bridge, ScWylkill, statistical account of,
Brine, an excellent steep for seed com, - - 58, 59
Bucknall, his mode of pruning, and his book entitled
" The Orchardist," recommended, - 217
INDEX.
C
Cabbage succeed intrench ploughed ground, - 246
Caldwell, Dr. Charles. His letter on changes and suc-
cession of timber, - - - - 301
Innovations in the animal kingdom, - 306
Camphor, pills of, efficacious for sheep tainted with the
rot, and for poultry diseased, - - 147
Capner, Joseph, on Sheep and their disease s, - 133
Castles, Irish, remarks on. They prove the effects of
time on the induration of cement and lime, 207
Catnip, spontaneous growth succeeding strawberries, 238
designates good land, - - _ . ib.
Cattle, on hoven, - > - - _ 5
should be confined at night in summer,
and their dung composted, - - 283
Cedar, for live fences, - - - - 102
Cement, on, for walls ; and its proper composition
and materials, - - - 197
Cerambix, destructive to apple trees. Salt water kills
them, _ . - - 323
pulverised oyster shells proposed to destroy
them, - . - - - ib.
Change of timber and plants in Pennsylvania, - 30
New York, - 298, 300
North Carolina Vir-
ginia & Mass. 303-4-5
New Jersey, - 308-9
Crops, importance of - - 34, 45, 246
Change of seed, plants and trees, and shifting or chang-
ing deteriorated animals recommended and
elucidated, - - - 38, 39, 212-13-14-15
Chemistry, its all important connection with agricul-
ture, - ... - - 173
and see extracts from Lord Dundonald,
in selections,
INDEX.
C
Clover, not injurious to orchards, - - - 217
new manure for, - - - - 93
sowing on winter grain, a sure and profitable
practice, . _ - . 244
Coates, Moses, on hay ladders, - - 131
Colt, P. on wheat insect, - - - - 127
Compost, preferable to dung for a wheat crop, - 245
Cooper, Joseph, on rotting flax, - - - 9
on peach trees, - - - - 11
on making wine, . _ - 252
on careful selection of grain and gar-
den seeds. Selections, - - 17
Paul, on cutting off the horns of bull calves, 25
Coxe, William, on peach trees, - - - 12
on orchards, - - - 217
Crops, Changes of, and also of deteriorated animals,
recommended, and the necessity proved by
the tendency to change evidenced by nature, 27
Curculio, injurious to peach trees, - - - 189
the pea fly or beetle described, - - 317
the weevel so destructive to our fruit, - 320
salt ajid water destroys it ; but the fruit is
injured if the brine be too strong, - 322
Tilton, Dr. on, see selections, - - 34
iQ** Tarred rags^ or pieces of shingles tarred^ suspended
on the limbs of fruit trees, have been found effec-
tual to expel the curcidiones ; as they dislike the
scent of tar. Probably tarring the stocks of apph
trees^ near the ground, would keep off the cerani'
bix^ or other insect or worm so destructive to them.
Cyder making, on, and refining, - - 111, 268
D
Dairy, on profits and expences of, - . - 95
Decay oi pine timber, cause of, in southern States, - 41
Dickey, Samuel, Description of a kitchen stove, - 291
INDEX.
D
Diseases of wheat, _ . , . 122
of sheep, - > . . 133
of peach trees, . _ - , 21
Dogs, their destructive qualities, and mode of killing
sheep described, - - - - 3
Draining, on, by Samuel Dickey, - - - 262
Dundonald, Lord, his book on the connection between
chemistry and agriculture, quoted, &c, 173-4
See selections, - . _ -27
Dung and Muck, stercorary for, - - 153, 281
should not be trodden or poached by
cattle, - - - - 28S
should be considered as a means of
impregnating other matter, and not
a chief dependance, - , - ib.
great benefit of returning the drain-
ings on the heap, _ - _ 282
plaister of Paris preferable to lime
for dung and compost heaps, - 283.
too old, its efficacy doubted, - 284
hot and fresh, produces smutty crops,
much straw, and small ears, - ib.
kept in confined places dries, moulds,
and becomes a caput mortuurn^ - ib.
E
Esculents, force of habit respecting them instanced, 233-4
F
Farming, concise directions for beginners in this art, 193-4
Fences, on live, and mode of planting and treating
those of cedar, - - - 102
of hemlock, - . -■. - 249
pruning and manure, _ _ _ 280
Fermentation, remarks on, - r - 112
Fires of the woods, reprobated, - - - 38
INDEX.
F
Flax, on rotting, - - - _ . g
husbandry of Ireland, see appendix, - - 8
Flies and insects injurious to fruit, destroyed by salt
and water, - - _ . _ _ 322
Flour, injured by too great refining, - _ > 228
Food, sour, grateful to swine, . - - . 229
Forest trees, rotation and succession of them, instances
proofs of, 41 & seq. 296-7 300-1 & seq,
Fothergill, A. on smut, mlldev/ and blight in wheat, 65
Frogs and Toads, found' alive in blocks of marble and
granite, are additional proofs of the
circulation of atmospheric air thro'
all matter, _ . . . 204
Fruit, insects destructive to it described. Salt water
recommended to banish or kill them, - 319,322
Mercurial ointment and spirits of turpentine to de-
stroy worms or eggs of insects deposited in iruit, 187
Crude mercury for the same purpose, - 186
Trees, best mode to plant, . - _ 225
G
Grain, selections from plants the most productive, and
of the best quality, use and advantages of them
Appendix, ' - - - - - - 17
Sir Joseph Banks's opinion that light and shri-
velled grain is proper for seed corn, doubted, 32
Grubs destroyed by salt and water, - - 172
Gypsum, on, - - - ---156
its origin as applied to agi'Iculture, 158-59-60-61
Chemical account of its operation ; and quan-
tity required for an acre, - " - 169
does not injure land by repetition, - 157
useful for leguminous crops, - - - 162
agrees perfectly with limed lands, ashes, rot-
ted dung and compost, giving to them great
activitv, - - - - - 158, 164
INDEX.
G
Gypsum, said to cure heaves in horses, - - - 166
does not cause hoving, - - - 168
remains long inert in land until dunged, 174
preferable to lime, in dung or compost heaps, 283
Avhether it be .ound in the United States and
facts relating thereto, - - - 310
quantity imported into the United States
in 1807, - - - - 312, 313
humble and unpromising commencement of
the use of this substance, contrasted with its
present flourishing and extensive situation, 313-14
several accounts and conjectures respecting
its existence within the boundaries of the
United States, - - - - 314-15
its success should encourage experiments with
other substances, and persistance in essays
to discover and apply them, - - 314
operates after lying many years inert in the
ground, - - - - 174^ 315
how to discover its existence in the earth :
and its analysis. See selections, - - 32
does not operate on trenched ground till ani-
mal or vegetable putrefied substances are ap-
plied, - - - - . - - - 243
H
Habit, influence of, as respects diet, - - - 233
Harrowing and rolling grain in the spring recommended, 88
Harrup, Mr. steeping and liming seed corn. Appendix, 2, 3
Harvesting, times of, in a course of years, if noted and
communicated, would be highly useful, 101
Hay ladders, improved, - - - 131
Haws, their growth forwarded by ashes and gypsum, 290
Heaves, in horses, generally incurable, but may be pal-
liated. Diet proper for horses with this disease, 167
INDEX.
H
Hedges, on, - - - - . 102, 249, 280
see appendix, - - - 21 to 29
Hemlock, for live fences, - - - - 249
Hemp, grows luxuriantly on trenched landj - - 245
plaister beneficial to a hemp crop, - - ib.
herbage, spontaneously produced after firing of woods, 237
Heston, Mr. his peach orchard, - - - 22
Hogs, beneficial to orchards, _ - - 216
rotten wood in pens to prevent diseases of, - 229
sour wash most beneficial for, - - - ib.
HoUingsworth, Z. on new disease of wheat, . - - 125
Horns of bull calves, on cutting off, - - - 25
Horses, the yellow water in, - - >■ 139
baked forage and coarse bread, highly nutri-
tive to them, _ - - - 235-6
Hoven cattle, on, - - - - - 5
symptoms and causes of hoving, - - ib*
remedies, - - - - - 6
Jerusalem wheat, - - - - - - 135
Improvement of land, on, and concise directions for
beginners in husbandry, - - - 193
by cover ; and burning worthless timber on old
and worn land, - _ - . 328-29-30
Insects, cause of their increase in grain, - - 63
[and it is believed fungi] found on blighted,
or mildewed straw or grain, are effects, not
causes, of the diseases therein, - - 184
Irregular winters, injurious to peach trees, - - 12
Italian mulberry recommended, - - - 252
Juniper, excellent for filling bottoms of live fences, 251
K
Keemle, John, on Jerusalem wheat, - - - 135
Kiln dried grain, little nutritious, - - - 235
INDEX.
K
Kirk, Caleb, on trench ploughing, ^ - 85
new mode of putting in wheat, - - 86
on live fences, ----- 92
on new wheat insect, - - - 125
L
Land, on improvement of, and an instance of it, - 193
clearing, see an excellent memoir on, - 324*
Learning, Thomas, facts relating to changes of timber, 308
Legaux, Peter, botanico-meteorological table by. Selections.
Lime, rolling wheat in prevents smut, - - 59
should be cautiously used, - - - 61
injurious to fresh dung, - - - 17t
slacked and mixed after dung has completely
fermented, is beneficial. It destroys insects
in the dung, - - - - 62, 6^.
improves land, - - - - 193
throws up white clover, on steril, mossy and
impoverished land, . . - 42
profitably applied on trenched ground, - 245
should be cautiously applied to steeped grain, 61
American, stronger than Irish, _ - - 208
Livingston, R. R. on pyrites as a grass manure, appendix, 33
Locust, white flowering employed for live fences, 92
M
Main, Thomas ; account of native thorns, - - 286
and see selections.
Manure, newly discovered mineral, for clover, •* 93
Marie, found in York county, Pennsylvania, - 311
in Ulster county, New York, - - 296
Matlack, T. on new pummice press, - - - 109
on cyder making, - - - HI? 268
on peach trees, - - - - 273
M'Kenzie, Mr. defended, - - - 41
Mease, Dr. on decay of southern: pine timber, - 41
b t
INDEX,
M
Mease, Dr. on rotation of shrubs and forest trees, - 42
smut in wheat, - - - - 54
Jerusalem wheat, - - - 137
large American trees, - - - 182
yellow water in horses, - - 153
speltz, - - - - 260
growth of thorns, . - - . 288
Mildew in wheat, on, - - - - 65
Mildews and blights, from what causes they proceed, 184
and see appendix, - - 3, 4, 5
Sir J. Banks in an ingenious essay attributes
them to parasitical fungi, and has given some
beautiful plates of them, - - 66, 67, 68
Mortar, remarks on, 201
over rich will not indurate, - - 199,202
theory of, according to Anderson,
and instances to prove it, - - . - 201
with over proportion of lime highly injurious, ib.
Mud, river, beneficial to fruit trees, _ - _ 225
Mulberry tree, Italian, useful to make paper, - 252
red, paper made from the roots, - 253
Museum, Peak's, commencement and accomplishment
of it singularly meritorious.
296-7
Must of apples, differs in strength,
N
Naturalization of plants, instances of it. Selections,
113
1&
Memoirs,
214-15
Northampton, Pennsylvania, remarkable for pro-
ducing honey, - - -
O
Oats, kills wild garlic, - - . - _
239
100
an exhausting crop j should not be sowed to
precede wheat, - - . -
ib.
Orchards, not injured by clover,
, 217
INDEX.
O
Orchards, injured by grain^ - - - - 219
apple trees injured by wonns, - - 247
practical instances as to planting ; and
remarks thereon, - - . 211&:seq.
top dressing of compost or other proper
manure, better than dung &c. put in the
holes, for young trees, - - _ > 212
injurious effects on trees deep planted, 215-16
deep planting condemned, - - 212
Oxen, superiority of, over horses for farm work, - 193
Oyster shells, pulverised, about the i*oots oi peach,
plum, and apple trees, proposed as ef-
fectual in keeping off the peach Zy^ce-
na^ and the apple Cerambix, - - 323
Query. Would not brine, or g^^sum be serviceable,
or as effectual ?
P
Palmetto, and other spongy woods, utility of to resist
balls, 201
Pea bug, on, .- = = . = _ 317
Peach trees, on, - - . = 11,15,120,273
various diseases and remedies ineffectual, 1 7, 2 1
have a favorite climate, account of
them in the southern country, and
question whether they are not here
forced ; and not indigenous, » 183&seq.
Peale, Rembrandt, his letter on changes of timber and
account of extinct animals, - - . 300
Pearson, John, on dimensions of American trees, 1 76
Peters, Richard, on hoven cattle, - - - 5
on peach trees, - - 11, 183
on the tendency in nature to change
its products, - - - 27, 296
on yellow water in horses, • - 139
INDEX,
P
Peters, Richard, on gypsum, _ - - - 156, SlO
on thickness, cement and materials
of walls, - - - 197
on orchards, - - - - 211
on coarse flour, bro-\vn bread, and the
force of habit,as it relates to esculents, 227
on new herbs and shrubs appearing,
after firing woods, - - - 237
on trench ploughing, - - 240
on hemlock, for live fences, - 249
remarks on, and plan of, a stercorary, 281
on changes of timber and plants. Races
of animals extinct, _ - _ 296
on gj^psum, whether it is found in the
United States ? - - - - 310
Pise walls, remarks on, - - - - 205
Pits and dung holes prevent fermentation. Receptacles
for muck under stables and barns censured, 153
Planting, shallow, best for fruit trees, - - - 212
Plants, tendency in nature to change them in succes-
sions on the same soil, - - - 27 to 46
Plashing hedges, mode of, with a cut, appendix, - 25-6
Plough, coulter, described, - - - 91
shovel, described, - - - - 98
three furrow, described, - - - 237
Ploughing, new mode of, described, - - - 87
often, deep and at proper times recommended, 100
in fresh dung improper for wheat, - 284
trench. Facts relating to it, and descrip-
tion of, - - - 240-1-2-3-4-5-6
Prison of Philadelphia, remarks on, - - 199
Pruning, Bucknal's mode as to branches and roots, 216
Pummice press, a new one described, - - 109
Pyrites, fertilizing effects of, when burnt, on grass
Appendix, - 33
INDEX.
R
Rag weed, eaten by sheep, - - •' - - 1
Reeve, Josiah, on new manure for clover, - - 93
Ribbing, or backing up furrows, for winter exposure of
surface, highly useful for trenched (or any
other) soil, - - - - - - 245
Ripper, described, - - - - 88
Robeits, Algernon, on dairy, - - - - 95
on produce of wheat and rye for
sixteen years, - - - 99
Robinia, pseudo-acacia, used for hedges, - - 92
Rolling and harrowing winter grain in the spring re-
commended, - - - - 88
Rot, heart, in timber, to prevent, - - - 29
Rotation of forest trees, - . - 41, 296, 301
Rotting flax, on, _ _ _ . _ « 9
Rough casting, remarks on, - _ _ 206
Rush, Dr. lecture on the diseases of animals, - xlix
S
Saccharometer, recommended for trying strength of
must for cyder, - - - - 113
Salt, common, its being a manure doubtful, - - 171
recommended for destroying worms, &c. 172
Salt and water, recommended to destroy insects infest-
ing fruit, _ - _ - 322
also for the destruction of worms,
snails, grubs, &c. - - - 172
marine, injures cement, - - - - 197
Salts, sundry others than the vitriolic useful to vegetation, 1 71
Sand, river, best for cement, _ > _ - 203
sea, to be avoided on account of
saline mixture, _-->•__ 202
Sayre, Dr. cures yellow water in horses, - - 154
Seed, change of, recommended, - - - 32
always liable to degenerate, - - - 215
INDEX.
S
Seed, improves by change, from a worse to a better
soil, or climate, - _ . . 213-14
brine an excellent steep for, - - 58^ 62
washing with simple water highly beneficial, 78
Selection, of grain from the best plants, highly useful.
Appendix, - - - - - 17
Sexual system, its principles unknown to lawy^ers in the
time of Charles 2d, instance of injus-
tice, selections, . - _ 17,18
Sheep, on, - - - - - - 1, 33
broad tailed (Barbary) introduced and propagated, 163
whether they injure pasture and the relative
consumption of it, - - - - 2, 3
in company with black cattle, are said to be pro-
tected by the latter from the depredations of dogs, 3
advantages of their manure over that of black
cattle, - - - - - - 4
require less dry fodder than black catde, - ib.
Smut in v/heat, on, - - - - - 47, 54, 65
grain washed Vvhen smutty, with clean water,
purified and fit for use, - - - - 66
in wheat, see appendix, - - - 1
Snails, destroyed by salt and water, - - - 172
Sommerviile, on smut in wheat, 55^ 81 and see selections.
Sowing, only when the ground is in a fit state, and
avoiding intermixture of crops of similar
species, recommended, - - 100
Speltz, on, - - - - . 260
Squashes and pumpkins, planted near gxjurds, degene-
rate, selections, - - - - 17
ruinous to melons planted near them, - ib.
Stabbing on left side, cures hoven cattle, - - 7
Steeping wheat in brine prevents smut, - - 58, 62
see appendix, - - - - 2, 3
Stercorar}'", improved one, described, - - 153
INDEX.
S
Stercorary, remarks on ; and plan and elevation, 281-2-3-4
English have all concave beds. Superiority
of this, - _ . _ 282
Stevenson, Dr. on yellow water of horses, - 155
Stone, hardest not best for building, - - 200
Stove, kitchen, described ; with a plate, - . . 291
Strawberries, spontaneous growth of, after burning
forest timber, - - - 238
T
Table, Botanico-meteorological, see appendix,
Taylor, John, on live fences, . . - 102, 280
postscript to his memoir thereon, - 280
on clearing land, _ - _ 324-
Thorns, on the growth of, from cuttings and roots, 288
spontaneous growth of, after forest timber
destroyed by fire, - - - 238
native, account of, - - _ _ 286
designate good land, - - . _ 238
the cockspur, and American hedge thorn, the
only eligible native thorns for hedges. The
latter is the best, - - - _ 287
Tilton, Dr. James, on peach trees, - - - 187
Timber, pine, in southern States, cause of decay, - 27
coating or covering before sap evaporated,
prejudicial, - - - - 28
heart rot in, how to prevent, - - 29
growth of, rapid in our country, - ib.
does not always designate quality of soil, - 31
and plants, changes of, and facts relating thereto, 296
Trees, American, sizes of, - - - 176
Trench ploughing, on, and facts relating thereto, 85, 240
Tunnps, mode or raising, - - - i>5S
INDEX.
V
Vegetables, different kinds of the same species mix
and degenerate if planted near each other
squashes and pumpkins near each other
or near melons, mix and deteriorate, Ap. 17, 13
seed selected from the best plants, great
benefits of, - - - - ib.
Veterinary, enquiries and institution of some means of
promulgating information on this subject
recommended, - - - 146
see list of premiums and Dr. Rush's lec-
ture prefixed to the memoirs.
Vine, grape, a fine one, _ _ _ _ _ 253
cultivation of native, recommended, - 255
W
Walls, thick, not generally the strongest. Instances to
prove this position. Depend for strength more
on materials than thickness, - - 197 & seq.
Washing, seed wheat to prevent smut, - - -53
Water, yellow, in horses, - - - - 139,154
Weeds, many are eaten by sheep, and prove the utility
of these animals on this account, - - 2
Weevel, a species of the curculio ; the insect so de-
structive to fruit, - - - 317
Wheat and rye, produce of in sixteen years, - 99
should never be sowed among Indian
corn, - - - -^ - 100
on smut in, - - - - 47, 54, 65
on Jerusalem, - - - - - -135
new disease in, - - - - 125
its analysis, so far as relates to its nutritive
qualities, - - . - - 227-8
Wimpey, Mr. facts produced and opinion as to blights.
Appendix, - - - - 3
Wine, of grapes to make, - . - 254
INDEX.
W
Winter Grain, new mode of putting it in, - - S6
harrowing and rolling in the spring
recommended, - - - - 88
Wood, dry rotten, useful for hogs penned for fatting, 229
soft and spong)^, resists batteries of cannon bet-
ter than hard and flinty timber, - - 201
Woods, firing of, reprobated, - - - - 38
Worms, in sheep, - - - - - 133
in peach trees, to destroy, - - 13
to prevent attacks of, - 27S
in apple trees, - - - _ . 247
destroyed by salt and water, - - 172
Y
Yeast, brewers, given to a horse in an hepatic disease, 143
Yellow water, in horses, on, > _ _ 139^ I54
Yellows, a disease in peach trees, - - - 23
Young, William, on smut in Wheat, - - - 47
Yucca aloefolia, used for fences in southern States, 92
Z
Zygsena, the insect destructive to peach trees ; salt and
water recommended to destrov them, 323
ERRATA.
Premiums, Page xxxix, line 2, after cover read will
MemoirS; 17, 12, yor wilderness rear/ wildness.
^ \2>,for had read has.
32, 31, for Systein read Systeme.
36, 11, ^or less destructive reat^ more destructive
104, lO, Jor patched rea^/ packed.
105, 21, for perviousness reac^ imperviousness^
146, 20, for disease read diseases.
156, 2^, for opinion read opinions.
159, 18, for Alataniaha read Alabaono.
164, 31,yor comprising read comprised in,
195, 6, for country- read county-,
200, '^O,for goal read gaol.
208, 32,/or build read built.
215, 2, after weeks read after the first dressings
228, 2, a/fer is contained read in due proportions,
245, 22, for bucking read backing.
308, 34, after have read been.
321, 4, /or gauge read gouge.
Selections^ 20, 23, q/fer indian corn reacf is not un<;ommon,.
Errors neglected to be noticed, arc left for correction, to the candour of
intelligent readers >
».;
H
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