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FOR  THE  PEOPLE 

FOR  EDVCATION 

FOR  SCIENCE 


LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  AMERICAN  MUSEUM 

OF 

NATURAL  HISTORY 


MEMOIRS    AND    PROCEEDINGS 

OF 

THE    MANCHESTER 
LITERARY    &    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY. 


[  '"  CENTRA' 
MEMOIRS'  Al^tb    PROCEEDINGS 

OF  s    , 

THE    MANCHESTER 

LITERARY  &   PHILOSOPHICAL 
SOCIETY 


FOURTH   SERIES 


SECOND     VOLUME 


MANCHESTER 
36    GEORGE    STREET 


NOTE. 

The  authors  of  the  several  papers  contained  in  this  volume  are 
themselves  accountable  for  all  the  statements  and  reasonings 
which  they  have  offered.  In  these  particulars  the  Society  must 
not  be  considered  as  in  any  way  responsible. 


CONTENTS 


MEMOIRS.  PAOE 

Incompleteness  of  Combustion  in  Gaseous  Explosions.  By  Prof. 
Harold  B.  Dixon,  F.R.S.,and  H.  W.  Smith,  B.8c 2 

A  Decade  of  new  Hymenoptera.  By  P.  Cameron,  F.E.S.  Communi- 
cated by  John  Boyd,  Esq II 

A  New  System  of  Logical  Notation.  By  Joseph  John  Murphy. 
Communicated  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Harley,  M,A.,  F.R.S., 
Corresponding  Member    ...         ...  ..  ...         ...         ...         ...     22 

Notes  on  Some  of  the  Peculiar  Properties  of  Glass.  By  William 
Thomson,  F.R.S.Ed,,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  42 

On  the  British  Species  of  Allolrina,  with  descriptions  of  other  new 
species  of  Parasitic  Cynipidiz.  By  P.  Cameron.  Communicated 
by  John  Boyd,  Esq 53 

On  the  unification  in  the  measure  of  time,  with  special  reference  to  the 

contest  on  the  initial  meridian.     By  C.   Tondini  de  Quarenghi. 

Communicated  by  F.  J.  Faraday,  F.L.S 74 

Hytnenoptera    Orientalis ;    or    Contributions    to    a    knowledge    of    the 

Hymenoptera  of  the  Oriental  Zoological  Region.     By  P.  Cameron. 

Communicated  by  John  Boyd,  Esq o  I 

On    the    equation    to    the    Instantaneous    Surface     generated    by    the 

dissolution  of  an   Isotropic   Solid.     By  James  Bottomley,  D.Sc.   154 

On  the   Vitrified    Cement  from  an   ancient  fort.      By  G.   H.    Bailey, 

D.Sc.  Ph.D 185 

Notes  on  a  form  of  Plantago  viaritima  [L.]  new  to  Great  Britain  : 
/  Piimila  (Kjellman).     By  James  Cosmo  Melvill,  M.A.,  F.L.S.   189 

Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies  :  being  an 
investigation  into  the  Physical  Cause  of  Colour  in  natural  and 
artificial  bodies  and  the  Nature  of  the  Structure  producing  it.  By 
Alexander    Hodgkinson,    M.B.,    B.Sc.      With  Coloured  Plate.  193 

On  Leaves  found  in  the  cutting  for  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  21  feet 
under  the  surface,  and  on  Green  Colouring  Matter  contained  therein. 
By  William  Thomson,  F.R.S.  Ed.,  etc.     With  Plate 216 


PAGE 
On  Sound  propagated   through  an  atmosphere,  in  which   the  surfaces  of 
constant  density  are  parallel  planes,  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
these  planes.     By  Ralph  Holmes,  B.A 221 

Notes  on  Seedling  Saxifrages  grown  at  Brockhurst  from  a  single  scape  of 
Saxifraga  Macnahiana.     By  William  Brockbank,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.  227 

On  the  Green  Colouring  Matter  from  Leaves  found  in  one  of  the  Cuttings 
for  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal.  By  Edward  Schunck,  Ph.D., 
F.R.S 231 

On  an  Old  Canoe  recently  found  in  the  Irwell  Valley,  near  Barton,  with 
observations  on  Pre-Historic  Chat  Moss.  By  Mr.  Alderman  W.  H. 
Bailey.      With  Two  Plates 243 

PROCEEDINGS. 

Bailey  Charles,  F.L.S.— On  the  decrease  of  Entomologists     90 

BOTTOMLEY  James,  D.Sc,   B.A.,   F.C.S.— "Note  on  the  behaviour  of 

Iodine  in  the  presence  of  Borax." 40 

On  Smoke  Abatement      72 

Cameron  P. — "On  the  excessive  abundance  of  Aphis  dianthi,  Schr., 
round  Manchester  in  September,  1888."  Communicated  by 
John  Boyd,  Esq 9 

Clay  Charles,   M.D. — "On   the  results  of   some  calculations  with  a 

certain  class  of  figures. "        215 

Dawkins,  W.  Boyd,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  &c. — "The  Permanence  of  Oceanic 

Basins."  36 

Faraday,  F.  J.,  F.L.S.,  &c. — "An  historical  account  of  the  spectro- 
scopic evidence  in  support  of  the  hypothesis  that  oxygen  exists 
in  the  sun,  with  special  reference  to  M.  Janssen's  recent  researches 
on  telluric  oxygen  and  aqueous  vapour  lines  and  bands." 38 

On  the  Study  of  Mathematics  in  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and 

particularly  in  Lancashire 20 

On  the  proposed  Paris  Conference  on  the  unification  of  time 153 

Gee,  W.  W.  Haldane,  B.Sc  — "Electrolysis  under  Pressure." 21 

GwYTHER,  R.  F.,  M.A. — "An  account  of  Hertz's  experiments  showing 
the  propagation  of  electrical  vibrations  in  direct  accordance  with 
Maxwell's  theory  of  light  as  an  electro-magnetic  phenomenon. "       i 

Holden,  Henry,  M.Sc.—"  Electrolysis  under  Pressure."        21 


PAGE 

HoDGKiNSON,  Alexander,  M.B.,  B.Sc— On  the  iridescence  of  chlorate 

of  potash  crystals       ...         ...          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  70 

On  the  colour  of  humming-birds 213 

On  the  physiological  phenomena  of  colour  sensation    ...           215 

On  the  colours  of  fish 220 

On  the  luminosity  of  eyes  in  the  dusk.   ...         ...         ...         ...         ..  224 

Johnson,  W.  H.,  B.Sc. — On  commercial  and  laboratory  copper 90 

Melvill,  J.  Cosmo,  M.A.,  F.L.S. — On  Zisyphimis  haliarchus 183 

Nasmyth,  James,   F.R.A.S. — Letter  on  an  accompanying  photograph 

of  his  original  drawing  of  the  solar  surface 71 

Reynolds,    Osborne,    M.A.,   LL.D.,    F.R.S.,    President.— Notice   of 

Professor  Rudolph  Clausius I 

On  the  quantity  of  water  passed  through  the  condensers  of  the  "  City 

of  New  York  "  Steamship    ...  73 

On  the  recent  earthquake  at  Manchester  184 

The  death  of  Richard  Peacock,  M.P 192 

Schuster,  Arthur,  Ph.D.,    F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.— On  Lord  Rayleigh's 

colour-mixer   ...  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  220 

Springer,  Alfred,  Ph.D. — "On  the  Fermentation  Theories."     Com- 
municated by  William  Grimshaw,  Esq.  236 

Williamson,  W.  C,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. — "The  Permanence  of  Oceanic 

Basins."  33 

The  Krakatoa  eruption  Report    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...     41 

General  Meetings  33,  73,  90,  226 

Annual  General  Meeting  234 

Meetings  of  the  Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section  : — 

Annual         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  224 

Ordinary      8,  38,  70,  89,  183,  213 

Meetings  of  the  Physical  and  Mathematical  Section  : — 

Annual        214 


Ordinary      ...         

Report  of  the  Council,   April,    1889,   with  Obituary  notices  of 
Peacock  and  Rudolph  Clausius 

Report  of  the  Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section  ... 

Report  of  the  Physical  and  Mathematical  Section 

List  of  the  Council  and  Members  of  the  Society 


...     20 
Lichard 

...  252 
...  267 
...  214 
...  270 


ERRATA. 

In  Mr.  Cameron's  paper   on   Hynienoptera   Orientalis.     In   the   penultimate 
paragraph  of  the  Introduction  on  p.  92 

for  Sittaghui  read  Tittaghur. 
,,    Ishapue  read  Ishapore. 
,,    Serampue  read  Serampore. 
,,    Chandauague  read  Chandanagore. 
,,    Gusery  read  Goosery. 
,,    Port  Cauumy  read  Port  Canning. 
,,    Mussourie  read  Mussoorie. 
„    Nischindepue  read  Nischindipore. 
,,    North-West  Province  read  North-West  Provinces. 
On  p.  138  for  Tachytes  Virchu  read  T.  vischnu. 

In  Dr.  Bottomley's  paper  on  "  The  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid  "  : — 
Page      line 


163,       I,    forCD  readQ,T>. 

163,     11,    for[-^yead[—^y 

165,  23,     The  expression  in  this  line  should  be  multiplied  by  2. 

166,  2,    for  dz  read  dZ. 

167,  I,    for 

d(p                                                              cd^ 

^  cdyi              ^  ^                    dx 

^/(S)'-(^)'•^(i)■' 

Page      line 
167,        2,     for 

^-4 

cdp 

dV 

^m 

Page     line 
167,       3,    for 

^-'dz 

^m 

MY'^m'^®'"''' 

v©^(^)^ 

-(sT 

167,  24,    forj^read^^ 

168,  3,    for  r2  read  c^. 

173.  15.    fory„-y„^x,x&z.Ay^-x^  +  x. 

174.  IS.    for  x=x  read  x  =  x^. 
1 76,       9,    for  xd  read  dx. 

I79>       i»    f°^  750  ^^<^  760. 

ill^v 


MEMOIRS    AND    PROCEEDINGS 

OF  / 

THE    MANCHESTER    LITERARY    AND 
PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  October  2nd,   1888. 

Professor    OsBORNE     REYNOLDS,    M.A.,    LL.D.,    F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Reference  was  made  by  the  PRESIDENT  to  the  death  of 
Professor  Rudolph  Clausius  of  Bonn,  elected  an  honorary 
member  of  the  Society  in  1886,  to  whom,  with  Rankine 
and  Sir  William  Thomson,  following  Dr.  Joule,  belonged 
the  honour  of  developing  the  dynamical  theory  of  heat. 

Mr.  R.  F.  GwvTHER,  M.A.,  gave  an  account  of  Hertz's 
experiments,  showing  the  propagation  of  electrical  vibra- 
tions in  direct  accordance  with  Maxwell's  theory  of  light  as 
an  electro-magnetic  phenomenon. 

Professor  H.  B.  DixON,  F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on  "Incom- 
pleteness of  Combustion  in  Gaseous  Explosions." 


Prof.  Dixon  and  Mr.  Smith  on 


Incompleteness  of  Combustion  in  Gaseous  Explosions. 
By  Prof.  Harold  B.  Dixon,  F.R.S.,  and  H.  W. 
Smith,  B.Sc,  Dalton  Chemical  Scholar,  Owens 
College. 

(Received  October  26th,  1888.) 

In  the  course  of  an   investigation,  in   which  we  were 
engaged,  on  the  rate  of  propagation  of  gaseous  explosions, 
it   was   noticed    that   when    a    mixture  of   hydrogen   and 
oxygen,  in  the  proportions  in  which  they  combine  to  form 
water,  was  exploded,  there  remained  an  explosive  residue  in 
addition  to  the  unavoidable  slight  excess  of  one   or   the 
other  gas  due  to  inaccuracy  in  mixing.     The  mixture  was 
exploded  in  a  leaden  tube  100  metres  long  and  9  mm.  in 
diameter ;    after   the  explosion    the  tap  at   one   end    was 
opened,  and  air  allowed  to  rush  in.     Air  was  then  pumped 
in  by  a  bellows,  and  the  other  tap  was  then  opened.     On 
applying  a  light  to  the  out-rushing  gases,  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  whether  the  hydrogen  or  the  oxygen  was 
in  excess  in  the  original  mixture,  the  gas  at  first  driven  out 
proved   to   be    rich    in    oxygen — supporting    combustion 
vividly — and  then  the  succeeding  gas  burnt  with  a  series  of 
sharp  cracklings,  and  finally  there  was  a  flash  down  the  tube. 
From  this,  it  appeared  that  even  in  a  mixture  of  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen,  containing  a  slight  excess  of  oxygen, 
the  hydrogen  was  not  completely  burnt.     If  the  mixture 
had  contained  an  excess  of  hydrogen  it  might  have  been 
reasonably  supposed  that  the  explosive  residue  was  made 
up  of  the  excess  of  hydrogen  and   the  air  admitted  after 
the  explosion.     This  explanation  could  not  be  admitted  in 
tiie  present  instance,  as  the  mixture  contained  an  excess  of 
oxygen.     A  similar   phenomenon   was   observed  when  a 
slight  excess  of  hydrogen  was  employed,  and  the  residue 
was  swept  out  of  the  tube  by  a  stream  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 


Gaseous  Explosions.  3 

Led  by  these  experiments  we  began  the  investigation, 
an  account  of  which  is  given  in  the  following  paper.  Our 
object  was  to  determine  the  conditions  affecting  the  amount 
of  this  explosive  residue — especially  the  influence  of  the 
surface  exposed  to  the  exploding  gases. 

Mixtures  containing  slight  excess,  ist  of  hydrogen,  and 
2nd  of  oxygen  were  employed,  and  in  all  cases  the  residues 
were  collected  and  analysed.  The  first  series  of  experiments 
was  made  with  the  tube  mentioned  above,  which  was  100 
metres  long  and  9  mm.  in  diameter,  the  surface  exposed  to 
the  gases  being  about  29,000  sq.  cm.  After  each  explosion 
CO2  was  admitted  at  one  end  of  the  tube  until  the  pressure 
was  equal  to  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  then  1  litre  was 
driven  out  and  collected  over  caustic  soda  solution  at  the 
other  end  of  the  tube.  It  was  found  that  the  first  litre  driven 
out  contained  practically  all  the  gas  left  after  explosion.  The 
amount  of  residue  varied  from  100  to  250  cc,  according  to 
the  accuracy  of  the  mixture  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen  as 
impurity  in  the  original  gas,  and  of  air  in  the  CO2.  We  give 
below  the  mean  results  of  analysis  of  a  considerable  number 
of  residues  ;  those  given  under  A  resulting  from  a  mixture 
containing  an  excess  of  hydrogen,  whilst  in  those  given 
under  B  and  C,  the  original  gas  contained  oxygen  in 
excess. 

I. 
Explosions  of  Hydrogen  and  Oxygen. 

(Capacity  of  tube  8,100  cc.  ;  diam.  9  mm.  ;  internal 
surface  29,000  sq.  cm.). 

Mean  composition  of  residue  : — 


Average  Residue. 

A. 

B. 

c. 

A—  150  cc. 
B-160CC. 

H2 ... 

CO... 

■■■}54-3 

29-5 

5-1 

20-5 

5-8 

C-220  cc. 

0.  .. 

...     19-4 

38-1 

327 

N2  ... 

...     26-3 

27-3 

41-0 

lOO'O 


Prof.  Dixon  and  Mr.  Smith  on 

of  original  detonating  gas  unburnt : — 

Maximum        ...  ro8 

•92 
Minimum "69 

Mean         '88 


V07 


With  regard  to  the  calculation  of  the  amount  of  unburnt 
detonating  gas,  a  slightly  different  method  is  employed,, 
according  as  the  original  gas  contains  excess  of  oxygen 
or  hydrogen.  All  the  residues  contain  a  certain  percent- 
age of  nitrogen,  part  of  which  is  due  to  inleakage  of  air,, 
and  to  air  in  the  CO2,  used  for  sweeping  out  the  tube,  whilst 
part  exists  as  impurity  in  the  original  gas,  being  chiefly 
derived  from  the  water  in  the  gas-holder.  It  is,  however^ 
impossible  to  determine  accurately  how  much  is  due  to  each 
cause.  In  calculating  the  percentage  of  unburnt  detonating 
gas,  a  maximum  and  minimum  are  taken  in  the  following 
way.  Firstly,  assume  all  the  nitrogen  was  present  in  the 
original  gas,  and  calculate  all  the  oxygen  as  belonging  to 
the  unburnt  residue.  This  gives  a  maximum  value  for  the 
percentage  unburnt.  Secondly,  assume  that  all  the  nitro- 
gen got  in  (as  air)  after  the  explosion,  and  from  the 
percentage  of  oxygen,  deduct  the  amount  of  oxygen 
corresponding  to  the  nitrogen  (as  air).  In  this  way  we  get 
a  minimum  value  for  the  amount  of  unburnt  detonating 
gas,  and  the  true  percentage  must  lie  between  these  limits. 
If  there  is  a  sufficient  excess  of  oxygen,  we  get  only  one 
value  for  the  unburnt  residue,  viz.,  i  j^  times  the  residual 
h37drogen.  It  will  be  observed  that  each  of  the  residues 
contains  a  small  percentage  of  carbonic  oxide.  Part  of 
this  is  probably  due  to  the  grease  used  for  the  taps,  and 
part  may  be  due  to  hydrocarbons  derived  from  the  zinc, 
used  in  the  preparation  of  the  hydrogen  (except  in  cases 
where  electrolytic  gas  was  used).  The  carbonic  oxide, 
being  a  combustible  gas,  must  be  taken  into  account  in 
calculating  the  residual  detonating  gas.     When  there  is  an 


Gascons  Explosions.  c 

excess  of  oxygen,  the  carbonic  oxide  is  liable  to  get. 
burnt,  and  therefore  should  be  considered  as  a  portion  of  the 
detonating  gas  left  unburnt.  When  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
oxygen,  the  carbonic  oxide  may  be  classed  with  the  excess 
of  hydrogen  left  over,  and  whether  it  affects  the  amount  of 
unburnt  detonating  gas  depends  upon  the  quantity  of 
oxygen  remaining. 

To  determine  the  influence  of  the  amount  of  surface 
exposed  to  the  gases,  a  tube  4  mm.  in  diameter  was  next 
employed.  The  length  was  about  170  metres,  and  the 
internal  surface  25,000  sq.  cm.  the  capacity  being  2,750  cc. 
The  method  of  procedure  was  the  same  as  before.  Under 
A,  in  the  following  table,  is  given  the  mean  of  several 
analyses  of  residues  from  mixtures  containing  an  excess  of 
hydrogen,  and  under  B,  the  mean  result  from  mixtures 
containing  an  excess  of  oxygen. 


CO 
O2 

N2 


Average  Residue 

%  of  original  detonating  gas  unburnt : — 

Max 1-34  2-27 

Min -84  1-55 

Mean    109  ipi 

The  %  unburnt,  under  A,  does  not  differ  much  from  that 
obtained  with  the  wider  tube.  Under  B  we  see  a  rather 
larger  percentage.  In  the  next  tables  are  given  the  means 
•of  analyses  of  residues   obtained  with  a  tube   19  mm.  in 


[I. 

A. 

B. 

46-1 

38-6 

14-9 

12-4 

16-3 

25-4 

227 

236 

lOO'O 

loo-o 

75 

cc. 

82  cc. 

6  Pkoi'.  Dixon  and  Mr.  Smith  on 

diameter  (III.),  and  lastly  (IV.),  with  an  iron  bomb  made 
out  of  an  ordinary  mercury  bottle  attached  to  a  firing 
tube.  In  the  latter,  there  are  only  about  i,6oo  sq,  cm.  of 
surface  exposed  for  a  volume  of  3,075  cc.  ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
surface  only  iV  as  great  as  that  exposed  in  the  4  mm- 
tube,  the  capacities  being,  however,  nearly  equal.  From 
the  analyses  it  would  appear  that  although  the  amount  of 
surface  exposed  to  the  gases  has  some  influence  on  the 
amount  unburnt,  the  influence  is  not  very  great,  and  there- 
fore it  seems  improbable  that  the  incompleteness  of 
combustion  is  due  to  the  cooling  action  of  the  surface  of  the 
vessel. 

III.  IV. 


C=  14,000  cc. 

C 

=  3,075   CC. 

d=  19  mm. 

d 

=  100  mm. 

S  =  28,000  sq.  cm. 

S: 

=  1,600  sq.  cm. 

'\verage  residue  235  cc. 

100  cc. 

Mean  composition  of  residue  :- 

- 

H,    44-2 

8-2 

CO   i8-o 

1-2 

0.     227 

31-1 

N,     I5-I 

59-5 

loo-o 

1000 

^  of  detonating  gas  unburnt : — 

Max.  1. 1 6 
Min.     -86 

•46 

I -01 

A  number  of  experiments  were  made  with  a  mixture 
of  carbonic  oxide  and  oxygen. 

In  the  first  series  of  experiments  the  9  mm.  tube  was 
employed,  and  in  the  second  series  the  iron  bomb.  The 
mean  results  are  given  below. 


Gaseous  Explosions.  y 

Carbonic  Oxide  and  Oxygen. 

I.  II. 

C  =  8, loo  cc.  C  =  3,075 

d=g  mm.  d=  100  mm. 

S  =  29,000  sq.  cm.  S  =  1,600  sq.  cm. 

Average  residue  205  cc.  55  cc. 

Mean  composition  of  residue  : — 

CO     26-0  41-4 

H,         17  67 

Oi      302  27-1 

N2      42-1  24-8 

lOO'O  loo-o 

°/^  unburn!  : — 

ro6  Max.  i"i7 

Min.    I -or 

Mean  rog 

In  this  case,  therefore,  we  have  also  about  1%  of  the 
original  detonating  gas  left  unburnt.  The  surface  here 
does  not  appear  to  have  much  influence,  the  percentages 
unburnt  being  almost  the  same,  although  the  surface 
exposed  to  the  gases  was,  with  the  tube,  about  3^  sq.  cm. 
for  each  i  cc.  of  gas  burnt,  against  "5  sq.  cm.  per  i  cc.  of  gas 
burnt  with  the  bomb. 

The  fact  that  the  incompleteness  of  combustion  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  explosive  wave,  and  is  not  observed  in  the 
ordinary  combustion  in  a  Eudiometer,  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  theory  proposed  by  Berthelot,  to  explain  the 
mode  of  propagation  of  the  explosive  wave,  and  also  seems 
to  confirm  the  observation  made  by  Mallard  and  Le  Chate- 
lier,  that  the  rate  of  cooling  in  this  method  of  combustion  is 
much  more  rapid  than  in  the  ordinary  combustion. 


Proceedings. 


\_Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section?^ 

Ordinary  Meeting,  October  8th,  1888. 

Mr.   J.  Cosmo  Melvill,  M.A.,   F.L.S.,  President   of  the 
Section,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  J.  Arthur  Hutton  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Section. 

Mr.  Thomas  Rogers  exhibited  a  small  collection  of 
shells  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Brisbane,  Queensland, 
Australia. 

Mr.  P.  Cameron,  F.E.S.,  communicated  some  notes  on 
the  excessive  abundance  of  Aphis  dianthi,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Manchester  in  September. 

He  also  read  a  paper  describing  ten  new  species  of 
Hymenoptera. 


Proceedings. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  October  i6,   1888. 

Professor  OSBORNE  Reynolds,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  John  Boyd  communicated  the  following  note  by 
Mr.  P.  Cameron  on  "The  excessive  abundance  of  Aphis 
dianthi,  Schr.,  round  Manchester  in  September,  1888"  : — 

The  extreme  abundance  of  Aphis  dianthi  in  the  Man- 
chester district  in  September,  calls  for  some  remark.  My 
own  experience  of  it  has  been  chiefly  in  Cheshire,  where  it 
occurred  in  such  numbers  as  to  be  a  perfect  nuisance,  through 
•getting  into  the  eyes  of  travellers.  Near  Wilmslow  I  came 
across  a  swarm  which  formed  a  black  cloud.  In  various 
places  I  have  noticed  them  congregating  in  heaps  on  plants 
and  walls,  so  as  to  blacken  the  surface  on  which  they  rested. 
In  the  city  they  appeared  in  great  swarms  on  many  days. 
It  does  not,  of  course,  follow  that  these  were  bred  in  the  city 
or  suburbs  ;  for,  when  these  insects  appear  in  such  dense 
clouds,  they  are  driven  about  by  the  wind  in  all  directions 
and  to  great  distances.  Great  numbers,  too,  must  have  been 
brought  into  town  on  the  market  garden  waggons,  on  the 
clothes  of  passengers,  and  in  other  ways.  This  is  not 
the  first  occasion  on  which  Aphis  dianthi  has  come  forth 
in  swarms.  Gilbert  White,  in  one  of  his  letters,  alludes  to 
them  under  the  name  of  "  smother  flies,"  and  notes  them 
as  forming  clouds  which  "  almost  obscured  daylight."  In 
1834  they  spread  over  Belgium  in  countless  swarms,  and 
Morren,  who  records  their  presence,  states  his  belief  that 
they  were  blown  over  from  England.  The  species  feeds 
on  a  very  large  number  of  plants.  In  this  country  it  is 
always  more  or  less  injurious  to  turnips  (hence  it  was 
named  Aphis  rapi  by  Curtis),  potato,  cabbage,  and  mangold. 


lO  P  ROC  KK  DINGS. 

Frequently  it  damages  garden  plants,  such  as  crocus,  fuchsia, 
oleander,  Dianthus,  &c.,  &c.  In  the  autumn  it  has  been 
known  to  infest  the  peach  and  nectarine.  Altogether  it  is 
known  to  feed  on  over  sixty  plants,  not  even  passing 
over  Atropa  belladonna.  As  for  the  origin  of  the  Cheshire 
and  Lancashire  swarms,  my  own  observations  lead  me  to 
believe  that  the  vast  bulk  came  from  the  turnip  and 
mangold  fields.  At  the  same  time  the  aphides  were  un- 
doubtedly injurious  to  many  garden  plants  ;  and  in  my 
own  garden  they  were  abundant  on  the  sun  flowers. 
Not  unfrequently,  when  aphides  are  excessively  nume- 
rous, the  lady  birds  {Coccinelld),  which  feed  on  them,  also 
swarm  ;  but  I  did  not  notice  any  unusual  quantity  of  these 
useful  creatures.  A  species  of  ApJiidiits  (an  ichneumon 
which  destroys  aphides)  was,  however,  exceedingly  abun- 
dant. 

A  discussion  ensued,  during  which  it  was  suggested  that 
the  phenomenon  might  have  a  causal  relation  with  the 
excessive  rainfall  of  the  year,  or  the  early  migration  of  the 
birds. 

Mr.  John  Boyd  also  communicated  a  memoir  by  Mr. 
P.  Cameron  on  "A  decade  of  new  Hymenoptera." 


A  Decade  of  New  Hyvienoptera. 


A  decade  of  new  Hymenoptera.    By  P.  Cameron.,  F.E.S. 
Communicated  by  John  Boyd,  Esq. 

(Received  October  i6th,  1888.) 

PROCTOTRUPID^. 

Epyris  BREVIPENNIS,  Sp.  nov. 

Niger,  fere  apterus,  iiia?idibulis,  thorace,  genicidis 
tarsisgiie,  rufis.     Long. :  6  mm. 

Hah.  Gibraltar  (/./.  Walker,  R.N.) 

Basal  joint  of  the  antennae,  curved,  longer  than  the  second 
and  third  joints  united  ;  the  second  joint  more  than  three- 
fourths  the  length  of  the  third  and  longer  than  the  fourth.  The 
scape  piceous  and  thickened  towards  the  middle,  tapering 
towards  the  apex.  Head  sparsely  haired,  strongly  punc- 
tured ;  the  eyes  rather  small,  oblong,  and  situated  a  little 
behind  the  middle  of  the  head  ;  the  antennal  tubercles  and 
mandibles  rufous.  Prothorax  rather  broad,  longer  than 
broad,  obscurely  punctured,  the  sides  slightly  excavated  ; 
the  furrow  in  the  centre  deep,  complete.  Mesonotum  finely 
punctured  ;  scutellum  shining,  impunctate ;  parapsidal 
furrows  broad  and  deep,  sharply  converging  posteriorly. 
Metanotum  finely  rugose,  with  a  very  stout  central  and  two 
lateral  keels  in  the  centre  ;  the  sides  keeled  ;  the  apical 
tubercles  blunt,  short ;  metapleurae  shining,  longitudinally 
striolated.  Apical  segments  of  abdomen  sparsely  covered 
with  longish  white  hair.  Legs  covered  rather  closely  wath 
stiff,  white  hair  ;  the  femora  incline  to  dull  rufous  on  the 
underside. 

A  rather  closely  allied  species  to  E.  hispanicus,  Cam. 
(Mem.  &  Proc.  Manch.  Lit.  &  Phil.  Soc,  1888,  p.  169),  but 
that  differs  from  it  in  having  the  metathorax  black,  the  apex 
convex,  with    the    sides   projecting  into    stout    teeth  ;    the 


12  Mr.  Cameron  on  a 

vertical  part  rugosely  punctured  ;  while  in  IFrtZ(vr/ the  apex 
is  concave,  with  indistinct  lateral  tubercles,  the  perpendicular 
part  not  rugosely  punctured.  The  wings  hardly  reach  to 
the  end  of  the  metathorax,  and  seem  to  be  infuscated  in 
the  middle. 

Betyla,  gen.  nov. 

Eyes  hairy.  Antennae  15-jointed;  the  basal  joint  as 
long  as  the  six  following  united  ;  joints  2 — 7  longer  than 
broad  ;  joint  8  thicker  than  7th,  nearly  longer  than  broad  ; 
the  9th  still  thicker  ;  9 — 14  much  broader  than  long  ;  the 
15th  twice  longer  than  broad;  sharply  conical.  Head 
forming  a  broad  snout  before  the  antennse  ;  narrowed  before 
and  behind  the  eyes.  Thorax  narrow,  ant-like,  narrowed 
between  the  meso-  and  metathorax  ;  the  former  bearing  in 
front  a  stout  tooth  on  either  side,  the  scutellum  not  defined ; 
parapsidal  furrows  absent ;  metanotum  without  keels  or 
furrows..  Apterous.  Abdomen  much  broader  than  the 
thorax,  the  petiole  longer  than  broad,  stout ;  the  second 
segment  very  large,  occupying  dorsally  the  greater  part  of 
the  entire  abdomen,  and  with  a  distinct  margin  at  its  junction 
with  the  ventre.  The  third  and  fourth  segments  together 
the  length  of  the  petiole.  There  are  apparently  five  ventral 
segments.  Petiole  on  lower  side  projecting  into  a  large, 
stout,  tooth-like  process.     Femora  clavate. 

This  genus  belongs  to  the  Belytidce.  The  only  genus 
with  which  it  could  be  confounded  is  Miota,  which  has  an 
abdomen  with  three  dorsal  segments,  of  which  the  second  is 
very  much  lengthened,  and  reaches  near  to  the  tip.  Miota 
is  winged,  has  only  three  dorsal  segments,  and  no  mention 
is  made  of  any  peculiarity  in  the  form  of  the  thorax  ;  nor 
of  the  absence  of  ocelli.  In  fact,  Foerster's  analytical 
tables  are  hardly  capable  of  being  used  for  the  identification 
of  the  extra  European  genera  ;  and  so  far  as  I  know  the 
type  of  Miota  has  never  been  described. 


Decade  of  Nezu  Hyinenoptera.  1 3 

Betvla  fulva,  sp.  nov. 

Fiilva  ;  nitida,  iinpunctata,  capite  abdoniineqite  huge  albo 
hivtis;  thoracc  sparse  fitsco  hirto.     Long. :  fere  4  mm. 

Hab.  Greymouth,  New  Zealand  {Helms). 

The  mesothorax  is  almost  glabrous,  and  much  more 
shining  than  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  abdomen  is  haired 
all  over,  but  not  very  thickly,  and  the  hair  is  longish,  and 
whiter  towards  the  apex.  The  tibiae  and  tarsi  are  covered 
with  short,  stiff  white  hairs,  the  femora  more  sparsely  with 
longer,  soft  hair.  At  the  apex  the  metanotum  is  convex, 
projecting  into  sharp  teeth  at  the  sides,  and  is  very  closel)- 
united  to  the  petiole,  which  is  longer  and  a  little  narrower 
than  it. 

Malvina,  gen.  nov. 

Metanotum  with  a  spine;  parapsidal  furrows  obsolete; 
scutellum  bifoveate  at  base ;  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  abdominal 
segments  subequal.  Antennc-e  13-jointed,  the  club  6-jointed  ; 
the  second  joint  not  much  shorter  than  the  third,  and  longer 
than  the  fourth.  Petiole  as  long  as  the  hind  coxae.  Wings 
reaching  to  the  apex  of  the  petiole,  fringed  with  long  hair. 

The  only  genus  of  BelytidcB  with  a  spine  on  the  meta- 
notum is  Oxylabis,  Foerster.  It  differs,  however,  from  the 
genus  here  described  in  having  the  antennae  15-jointed,  and 
in  the  parapsidal  furrows  being  distinct. 

Malvina  punctata,  sp.  nov. 

Nigra ;  fortiter  piuictata,  sparse  pallida  hirta ;  anten- 
narmn  articulis  \ — j  pedibusqiie,riifis.     ?.    Long.  3^'  mm. 

Hab.  Greymouth,  New  Zealand  {Helms). 

The  front  is  shining,  impunctate,  and  broadly  keeled  ; 
the  occiput  clearly  margined.  Pro-  and  mesopleurs  shining, 
impunctate,  slightly  convex  and  narrowed  towards  the 
sternum,  metapleurae  rugose.  Apex  of  metanotum  ending 
in    a    spine    on   either  side.      Petiole   shining,   keeled,  and 


14 


Mr.  Cameron  on  a 


densely  haired.  Abdomen  shining,  impunctate,  the  apical 
segments  pilose.  Legs  covered  sparsely  with  pale  hair  ;  the 
coxEE  usually  black  ;  sometimes  the  femora  are  more  or  less 
fuscous  ;  these  are  clavate.  The  joints  of  the  club  are 
broader  than  long  and  become  gradually  broader  to  the 
penultimate  ;  the  last  narrower  than  preceding  and  broadly 
rounded  at  the  apex. 

CYNIPID/E. 

EUCOILA  CLARIPENNLS,  Sp.  IIOV. 

Nigra,  flagello  antennaruni  pedibusgiie,  rufis  ;  a  lis  dare 
hyalinis,  nervis pallide  fiiscis.  $.     Long.:  3-5  mm. 

Hab.  Mexico,  Vera  Cruz  :  in  January.  (//.  H.  Smith), 
Antennae  one  half  longer  than  the  body,  the  third  and 
fourth  joints  nearly  equal  in  length,  straight.  Pronotum 
raised  into  a  sharp  margin,  projecting  in  the  middle  above. 
Scutellar  foveae  large,  wide,  and  deep  ;  sides  of  scutellum 
rugosely  punctured  ;  the  cup  horse-shoe  shaped,  shallow, 
depressed  at  the  apex.  Apex  of  metanotum  semi-perpen- 
dicular, bicarinate,  hardly  pilose.  Abdomen  shorter  than 
the  thorax  ;  compressed,  the  hair  fringe  narrow,  griseous. 

EUCOILA   MEXICANA,  Sp.  nov. 

Nigra,  niiida  ;  pedibus  testaceis,  alis griseo  Jiyalinis,  nervis 
fiiscis.  $  .     Long. :   i  y^  mm. 

Hab.  Mexico,  Orizaba,  in  December  (//.  H.  Smith  and 
F.  D.  Godmaii). 

Antennae  about  one-fourth  longer  than  the  body ;  rather 
stout ;  the  third  joint  thickened  and  curved,  and  about  one- 
fourth  longer  than  the  fourth.  Cup  of  scutellum  distinctly 
raised  ;  the  centre  excavated  rather  deeply ;  the  apex 
projecting ;  sides  of  scutellum  finely  rugose.  Edge  of 
pronotum  margined.  Abdominal  hair  fringe  slight,  dull 
griseous.  Radial  cellule  twice  longer  than  broad  ;  the 
second  abscissa  straight,  three-fourths  of  the  length  of  the 


Decade  of  Neiu  Hynienoptera.  1 5 

third,  which  becomes  curved  towards  the  apex  ;  the  costal 
nervure  thick.  Cubitus  complete.  The  femora  are  lined 
with  black  towards  the  middle  ;  the  hind  tibiae  are  tinged 
with  fuscous. 

EUCOILA   MARGINICOLLIS,  Sp.  nov. 

Nigra,  nitida,  pedibus  rufis  ;  alls  dare  hyalinis,  nervis 
pallide fuscis.$      Long.:   1-5  mm. 

Hah.  Mexico,  Orizaba,  in  December  {H.  H.  SniitJi  and 
F.  D.  Godman). 

Antennae  longer  than  the  body ;  the  four  basal  joints 
dull  rufous  ;  the  joints  becoming  gradually  but  slightly 
thicker  towards  the  apex  ;  the  third  and  fourth  joints  the 
longest  and  thickest  ;  the  third  a  little  longer  than  the 
fourth.  Pronotum  distinctly  raised  above  the  mesonotum 
having  a  clear  broad  margin  ;  the  centre  slightly  depressed. 
Scutellar  cup  shallow,  oval,  the  apex  flat,  not  projecting ; 
sides  of  scutellum  rugose.  Abdominal  hair  fringe  slight, 
fuscous.  Radial  cellule  wide  ;  the  second  abscissa  of  radius 
about  one-fourth  shorter  than  the  third,  which  is  roundly 
curved  towards  the  apex;  cubitus  completely  obsolete. 

GkONOTOMA  GRACILICORNIS,  sp.   nov. 

Nigra,  nitida  ;  pedibus  rufis  ;  alis  hyalinis,  nervis  fuscis. 
Long.  \y2  mm. 

Hah.  Mexico,  Orizaba,  in  December  (//.  H.  Smith 
and  F.  D.  Godman). 

Antennae  slender,  longer  than  the  body,  becoming  but 
very  slightly  thickened  towards  the  apex  ;  the  apical  three 
joints  shorter  than  the  preceding,  but  not  forming  a  club  ; 
the  third  joint  slightly  curved,  and  a  little  longer  than  the 
fourth.  Pronotum  not  distinctly  margined.  Scutellar  fovea: 
large,  deep  ;  the  cup  without  a  very  distinctly  raised  margin, 


i6  Mr.  Cameron  on  a 

oval,  moderately  deep.  Metapleura:  densely  covered  with 
Ion"-  white  hair  ;  metanotum  oblique.  Abdomen  com- 
pressed, somewhat  lenticular.  Wings  pilose;  the  radial 
cellule  twice  longer  than  broad,  the  third  abscissa  of  the 
radius  about  three-fourths  longer  than  the  second  ;  cubitus 
completely  obsolete. 

In  having  converging  parapsidal  furrows,  a  closed 
radial  cellule  and  no  abdominal  hair  fringe,  this  species 
ao-rees  with  Gronatoma,  but  the  pleurae  are  finely  aciculated 
and  the  metapleurre  glabrous. 

LARRIDyE. 

PlAGETIA  FASCIATIIPENNIS,  Sp.  nov. 

Nigra  ;  ore,  antennis  (basi  et  apice  flagelli  nigris),pro- 
thorace,  tegulis,  metapleiiris,  petiolo,  pedibusqiie,  rufotestaceis  ; 
clypeo  bidentato  ;  alls  hyalinis,fascia  sidistiginatili  fusca.  $ . 
Long.  7  mm. 

Hab.  Ceylon  {George  Lezuis). 

Head  opaque,  granular,  covered  with  a  short  microscopic 
pile.  Eyes  at  the  top  separated  by  about  the  length  of  the 
second  and  third  antennal  joints  united.  Vertex  broadly 
depressed,  a  wide,  but  not  deep,  furrow  leading  down  from 
the  centre  of  the  depression.  Front  and  clypeus  covered 
with  short  silvery  pubescence  ;  three  broad  furrows  on  the 
former.  Clypeus  projecting,  broadly  carinate  in  the  middle ; 
the  apex  ending  in  two  large  projecting,  somewhat  triangu- 
lar, teeth.  Tips  of  mandibles  black.  Scape  of  the  antennae 
as  long  as  the  following  two  joints  united  ;  the  third  three 
times  the. length  of  the  second,  and  a  little  longer  than  the 
fourth.  Thorax  opaque,  almost  granular,  covered  with  a 
microscopic  pile,  the  apex  of  metathorax  with  longish  white 
hair ;  the  metanotum  finely  transversely  rugose  ;  the  apex 
irregularly  striolated,  and  with  a  wide  furrow  (narrowed  at 
the  base  and  ape.x  in  the  centre).     Abdomen  shining,  the 


Decade  of  Neiu  Hymenoptera.  17 

apex  whitish  pubescent ;  pygidial  area  rufescent ;  margined 
distinctly  at  base  and  apex  ;  the  latter  transverse.  The 
apical  ventral  segment  is  also  margined  laterally,  and  is  for 
the  greater  part  rufescent.  Tibiae  and  tarsi  covered  with  a 
silvery  pile.  The  base  of  the  four  hind  coxae,  a  line  on  the 
femora  beneath,  the  greater  part  of  the  four  hind  tibiae 
behind,  the  calcaria  and  the  basal  two  tarsal  joints,  more  or 
less  black.  The  tibial  spines  are  few  in  number  and  pale 
in  colour  ;  the  metatarsal  brush  is  short  and  whitish  ;  the 
apices  of  the  tarsal  joints  end  in  stiff  white  stout,  sharply 
pointed  bristles.  The  longer  spur  of  the  hind  tibiae  is  more 
than  three-fourths  of  the  length  of  the  metatarsus.  Femoral 
spine  at  the  base  nearly  as  broad  as  the  total  length  ;  the 
apex  ending  in  a  blunt  tooth. 

Three  species  oi Piagetia  have  been  described,  namely:. 

P.  Ritsemcs,  Ritzema,  Ent.  M.  Mag.  IX.,  p.  120.     Java. 

P.  odontostoma.  Kohl,  Verh.z.-b.  Ges.,  Wien,  1883,  p.  31., 
Arabia. 

P.  lVoerde;ii,  Kitzema,  I.e.,  p.  121.     Congo,  South  West 
Africa. 

P.  RitsemcE  differs  from  it  in  the  wings  having  a  cloud 
which  extends  from  the  second  cubital  cellule  to  the  apex  ;; 
theflagellum  of  the  antennae  is  entirely  black,  this  being  also 
the  case  with  the  metathorax,  and  the  base  of  the  abdomen 
is  not  fulvous  ;  there  is  also  a  central  longitudinal  line  on  the 
metanotum,  which  is  absent  in  fasciatiipennis.  The  form  of 
the  clypeus  and  spine  in  hind  femora  is  quite  different,  but 
as  this  may  be  a  sexual  character  (the  $  of  Ritsenice  is 
unknown)  no  great  reliance  can  be  placed  on  these  points. 
P.  odontostoma  differs  in  the  clypeus  having  four  teeth,  and 
no  central  keel ;  the  body  is  almost  entirely  black,  and  the 
wings  are  clear  hyaline.  The  African  Woerdeni  has  not 
the  clypeus  ending  in  two  large  teeth,  and  differs  in  the 
colour  of  the  body,  &c. 
B 


i8  Mr.  Caimkron  on  a 

CRABRONID^. 

RlIOPALUM    BUDDHA,  Sp.  UOV. 

Nigrum,  opacuni,  flavo-maailatum  ;  metathorace  riigoso  ; 
alis  hyalinis.     Long.  9  mm. 

Hab.     Poona,  India.  {R.  C.  Wrougkton.) 

Scape  clear  yellow,  flagellum  closely  covered  with  a 
silvery  pubescence.  Head  opaque,  alutaceous,  the  vertex 
sparsely  pilose  ;  the  antennal  depression  and  clypeus  densely 
covered  with  silvery  hair.  Ocelli  in  a  curve  ;  the  clypeus 
carinate  in  the  middle  ;  mandibles  clear  yellow,  the  tips 
blackish.  Eyes  with  very  course  facets.  Thorax  opaque, 
alutaceous  ;  the  excavated  side  of  the  pronotum  coarsely 
obliquely  striolated  ;  the  metathorax  obliquely  rugosely 
punctured,  sparsely  covered  with  a  silvery  pile,  especially 
thick  and  close  on  the  pleuree  ;  two  broad  lines  on  the 
pronotum,  two  below  the  tegulse,  and  two  on  the  scutellum, 
clear  yellow  ;  tegulae  piceous.  Basal  part  of  the  petiole 
shining,  covered  with  long  white  hair,  the  apial  part  opaque. 
The  rest  of  abdomen  almost  opaque,  with  a  plumbeous  hue ; 
the  sides  and  apex  covered  with  a  white  pubescence  ;  an 
interrupted  band  on  the  base  of  the  third  segment,  and  a 
short  lateral  band  on  the  succeeding  segments,  clear  yellow. 
Legs  covered  with  long  white  soft  hair  ;  the  apex  of  cox«, 
the  trochanters  beneath,  a  broad  band  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  four  anterior  femora,  and  the  tibiae  and  tarsi,  yellow  ; 
there  is  a  black  line  behind  on  the  tibiae,  and  the  tarsi  are 
reddish  towards  the  apex. 

The  North  Indian  RJiapalum  flavopictinuni.  Smith,  differs 
from  the  present  species  in  having  "  an  impressed  oblique 
channel  running  down  from  each  of  the  posterior  ocelli," 
the  first  scutellum  and  the  petiole  are  yellow  ;  there  is  "  an 
enclosed  shining  subcordate  space  at  the  base  of  the 
metathorax,  which  has  a  longitudinal  impressed  line  from 
the  base  to  the  apex,"  &c. 


Decade  of  Nezv  Hymenopteva.  19 

ANTHOPHILA. 

Stelis  JAPONICA,  Sp.  nov. 

Niger,  abdoinine  rufo,  basi  niger ;  alls  violaceis,  basi  fere 
hyalinis  ;  apice  scutelli  excisa.     Long,  fere  12  mm. 

Hab.     Japan.     {^George  Lezvis). 

Scape  sparsely  covered  with  pale  hair,  the  flagellum 
microscopically  pilose ;  the  tip  obscure  rufous.  Head 
rugosely  punctured  ;  the  sides  of  the  face  thickly  covered 
with  long  white  hair ;  the  vertex  and  mandibles  more 
sparsely  haired  ;  mandibles  rugosely  punctured,  but  not  so 
coarsely  as  the  head,  the  apex  shining,  impunctate.  Thorax 
rugosely  punctured  ;  the  scutellum  with  larger  punctures 
than  the  mesonotum  ;  shortly  pilose ;  the  metanotum 
covered  with  long  white  hair.  Mesonotum  with  a  distinct 
furrow  down  the  centre.  Scutellum  with  the  apex  pro- 
jecting over  the  metathorax,  margined,  with  a  slight  but 
distinct  waved  incision  ;  at  the  base  there  is  a  deep  curved 
furrow  in  the  middle.  Abdomen  shining ;  punctured, 
rugosely  punctured  towards  the  apex  ;  the  segments  im- 
punctate at  their  junction,  and  depressed  at  base  and  apex ; 
the  apial  dorsal  segment  with  a  distinct  raised  margin  and 
slightly  incised  in  the  middle.  The  femora  coarsely 
punctured,  closely  covered  with  pale  to  blackish  hair ;  the 
tarsi  thickly  covered  with  fulvous  hair  on  the  lower  side  ; 
and  sparsely  with  pale  hair  above  ;  calcaria  brownish. 

The  late  Mr.  F.  Smith  records  {Trans.  Ent.  Sac,  1873? 
p.  204)  Stelis  abdominalis,  a  species  described  by  himself 
from  Celebes  {Proc.  Liin.  Soc,  1858,  p.  7),  from  Japan.  It 
is  of  course  possible  that  he  may  have  had  the  true  Stelis 
abdominalis  from  Japan,  but  it  appears  to  me  that  the 
species  I  have  just  described  cannot  be  abdominalis,  in  as 
much  as  the  latter  differs  from  it  in  several  respects ; 
namely,  in  being  nearly  two  lines  smaller  ;  in  the  abdomen 
being  entirely  ferrugineous,  in  the  "  posterior  margin  of  the 
scutellum  being  rounded,"  and  the  wings  are  uniformly 
coloured. 


20  Proceedings. 

{^PJiysical  and  Mathematical  Section.'] 

Ordinary  Meeting,  October  24th,  1888. 

Dr.  James   Bottomley  in   the   Chair. 

Mr.  Faraday  read  extracts  from  a  letter  from  George 
Harvey,  F.R.S.L.  &  E.,  communicated  to  the  British  Associa- 
tion, at  its  first  meeting  fifty-seven  years  ago,  on  "  the  very 
remarkable  circumstance  of  the  geometrical  analysis  of 
the  ancients  having  been  cultivated  with  eminent  success 
in  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and  particularly  in 
Lancashire."  So  far  as  Mr.  Harvey  was  aware,  the  true 
cause  of  this  singular  phenomenon  of  men  in  humble 
life,  surrounded  by  conditions  which  might  have  been  ex- 
pected to  develope  a  taste  for  exclusively  mechanical 
combinations,  becoming  familiar  with  Porisms  and  Loci, 
Sections  of  Ratio  and  Space,  Inclinations  and  Tangencies, 
subjects  confined  amongst  the  ancients  to  the  very  greatest 
minds,  was  not  known.  Mr.  Faraday  suggested  that  the 
Section  should  endeavour  to  collect  information  with  a  view 
to  the  full  historical  elucidation  of  the  phenomenon.  Men 
in  advanced  years,  who  might  be  able  to  furnish  information, 
are  constantly  passing  away,  and  as  their  knowledge  on  the 
subject  is  unrecorded,  it  is  lost.  Mr.  Faraday  urged  that  a 
circular  letter  should  be  issued,  asking  for  information,  and 
that  the  materials  thus  collected  should  be  arranged  by  a 
committee,  or  some  one  mathematician  nominated  by  the 
Section,  and  presented  as  a  memoir  to  the  parent  society. 

Dr.  Bottomley  made  some  remarks  on  a  problem  of 
maxima  and  minima  values. 


Proceedings.  21 

Ordinary  Meeting,  October  30th,  1888. 

Professor  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

A  paper  on  "  A  new  system  of  Logical  Notation,"  by 
Mr.  J.  J.  Murphy,  communicated  by  the  Rev.  Robert 
Harley,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  was  read. 

Mr.  W.  W.  H ALDAN E  Gee,  B.Sc,  gave  an  account  of 
some  experiments  that  he,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Henry 
Holden,  M.Sc,  had  made  on  "  Electrolysis  under  Pressure." 
The  experiments  were  begun  with  the  view,  firstly,  of 
ascertaining  the  influence  of  high  pressures  on  electrolytic 
polarisation,  and  secondly  of  designing  a  method  whereby 
high  pressures  could  be  readily  produced  by  means  of 
electrolysis.  The  experiments  were  at  first  conducted  in 
sealed  glass  tubes  in  which  dilute  sulphuric  acid  was 
electrolysed,  the  electrodes  used  consisting  of  platinum. 
As  the  evolved  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gases  accumulated, 
the  pressure  gradually  increased  up  to  the  explosion  of  the 
tubes,  which  took  place  generally  at  pressures  between  50 
and  100  atmospheres.  Under  these  conditions  the  polarisa- 
tion was  found  to  be  very  little  affected.  On  attempting  to 
obtain  pressures  as  high  as  500 — 600  atmospheres  by  use  of 
a  very  strong  gjt7z  metal*  cylinder,  the  authors  encountered 
the  diflficulty  arising  from  the  violent  explosive  combination 
of  the  mixed  gases.  Accordingly,  in  the  latter  experiments 
the  pressure  was  produced  by  means  of  a  hydrostatic  pump, 
and  dangerous  accumulations  of  the  mixed  gases  were  thus 
prevented.  Determinations  of  the  polarisation  with  this 
apparatus  are  as  yet  incomplete,  but  they  show,  so  far  as 
they  have  been  conducted,  that  the  influence  of  pressure  on 
polarisation  is  but  small. 

*A.s  the  apparatus  was  in  the  first  instance  designed  to  study  some  magnetic 
effects  under  pressure,  which  the  late  Prof.  Balfour  Stewart  wished  the  authors 
to  examine,  the  cylinder  was  constructed  of  gun-metal  instead  ot  steel. 


Mr.  Murpiiv  on  a 


A  New  System  of  Logical  Notation.  By  Joseph  John 
Murphy.— Communicated  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Harley, 
M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Corresponding  Member. 

{Received  October  .23rd,  1888.) 

In  the  present  state  of  the  science,  no  apology  is  needed 
for  offering  a  new  system  of  logical  notation.  The  use  of 
notation  in  logic  is  not  to  work  problems,  but  to  illustrate 
principles  ;  and  for  this  purpose  the  more  systems  of  notation 
we  have  the  better,  so  long  as  they  are  not  absurd,  and  not 
mere  reproductions  of  other  systems. 

The  chief  feature  of  the  notation  now  proposed  is  that 
the  signification  of  all  the  literal  symbols  is  purely  qualita- 
tive, unless  they  are  expressly  quantified  ;  so  that  x  does 
not  mean  "all  .r"  or  "  every  ;r,"  but  only  "some  .r"  or  "  an;t'." 
Consequently  the  equation 

x=y 

means  "some  x  (or  some  one  x)  is  j',"  provided  that  both  x 
and  y  are  the  names  of  things  having  real  existence : — if 
either  is  non-existent,  the  proposition  has  no  significance. 

For  all,  Boole's  symbol  i  is  used  ;  consequently  \x  is 
the  expression  for  "  all  (or  every)  x " ;  and  "  all  x  is  y "  is 
written 

ia"=_y. 
The  inverse  of  this  is  given  by  transposing  the  coefficient 
of  quantity  and  assigning  to  it  a  negative  index,  when  we  get 

that  is  to  say  "only  y  is  x"  or  "nothing  but  y  is  x."  The 
expression 

IX  =  i~V 
would  mean  "  all  x  is  nothing  but  j,"  and  would  be  true, 


Nciv  System  of  Logical  Notation.  23 

but  redundant  in  this  place,  though  we  shall  find  occasion 

for  it  further  on. 

The  form 

i.r  =  jy 

asserts  the  equivalence  of  x  and  y,  and  is  Sir  William 
Hamilton's  equation  "  all  x  is  all  j/,"  which  he  regards  as 
the  fundamental  form  of  proposition.  A  possible  expression 
for  equivalence  in  this  notation  would  be 
\°x=y,  or  jc=  i*'_y. 
Contraposition  is  expressed  with  equal  facility,  by 
changing  the  signs  of  the  terms  and  transposing  the  co- 
efficient without  change  of  index  : — thus,  all  the  following 
four  forms  of  proposition  are  equivalents  of  each  other. 
The  inverses  are  one  above  the  other,  and  the  contrapositives 
in  the  same  line — 


ix=^y. 

iy  =  x. 

1  -Ij;  =  X. 

i-'^x^-y. 

These  are  in  language  : — 

All  X  is  y. 

All  not  7  is  not  x. 

Only  y  is  x. 

Only  not  x  is  not  y. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  equation 

1-1=1, 
which  is  true  in  arithmetic,  is  not  generally  true  here. 

The  most  important  application  of  this  notation  is  to 
the  "  logic  of  relatives,"  that  is  to  say  the  theory  of  pro- 
positions containing  terms  which  signify  relations.  In  what 
follows,  "absolute  terms"  or  the  terms  between  which 
relations  subsist — the  terms  of  the  old  logic — are  expressed 
by  Roman  capitals,  and  relative  terms  by  Italic  capitals  ; 
and  the  corresponding  negatives  are  expressed  by  the 
corresponding  small  letters,  as  in  De  Morgan's  notation. 
"  Of"  is  expressed  by  the  sign  of  multiplication  ;  thus,  let 
A  and  B  be  the  names  of  individuals,  and  let  R  mean  the 
relation  of  teacher,  then 

A  =  i?xB 


24  Mr.  Murphy  on  a 

will  mean  that  A  is  a  teacher  of  B  ;  or  let  B  mean  boys, 
then  its  meaning  will  be  that  A  is  a  teacher  of  a  boy  or 
boys.  According  to  Boole's  plan  of  indicating  the  co- 
existence of  attributes  by  the  juxtaposition  of  their  literal 
symbols,  7?B  means  a  teacher  who  is  a  boy. 

The  conversion  of  such  a  proposition  as  the  above  is 
effected  by  transposing  the  relative  term  with  change  of 
index,  when,  if  both  A  and  B  are  the  names  of  individuals, 

the  transposed  form 

B  =  i?-ix  A 

means  that  B  is  a  pupil  of  A.  Let  A :  B  mean  the  relation 
of  A  to  B,  then  the  following  four  propositions  are  mutually 
equivalent ; 

A:B  =  7?  B:A  =  i2-^ 

A  =  7?xB  B  =  i?-A. 

The  same  is  true  if  i?  be  a  numerical  ratio,  and  A:B  means 
the  ratio  of  A  to  B. 

In  converting  a  compound  relative,  the  order  of  the 
terms  is  reversed,  thus 

{R  X  S)-^  -  S-^  X  R~^. 
For  instance  :  if  R  means  husband  and  5  daughter, 

will  be  the  symbol  for  son-in-law,  and  its  converse 

S-^  X  i?-i 
for  father  or  mother-in-law.  This  rule  for  conversion  is 
well  known,  but  we  have  to  show  that  it  is  true  of  our 
coefficients  of  quantity  as  well  as  of  symbols  of  relation.  If 
A  and  B  are  individuals  as  before,  and  R  means  teacher, 
then  "  A  is  the  only  teacher  of  B "  (or,  as  it  might  be 
expressed,  logically  though  not  quite  grammatically,  "  A  is 
all  the  teacher  of  B  ")  will  be  written  in  symbols 

A=ii?xB 
and  the  converse  of  this  is 

B  =  A'-ix  i-iA 


New  System  of  Logical  Notation.  25 

that  is  to  say  "  B  is  a  pupil  of  none  but  A,"  or  "  of  A  only," 
Let  5  mean  child,  then 

will  mean  "  A  is  a  teacher  of  all  the  children  of  B,"  and  its 
converse 

B  =  ^'-ix  i-»^x  A 

will  mean  "  B  is  the  parent  of  none  but  pupils  of  A."  Thus 
I  means  "all,"  or  "only"  with  an  adjective  sense:—  i~^  means 
"  none  but,"  or  "  only  "  with  an  adverbial  sense. 

The  simplest  forms  of  this  kind  occur  when  A  and  B  are 
individuals.  When  they  are  classes — if  for  instance  the  A's 
are  the  teachers  and  the  B's  the  pupils  of  a  particular 
school — the  proposition 

A  =  i2xB 

asserts  only  that  "  some  A's  teach  B's,"  and  is  a  partial 
proposition.  In  the  present  essay,  nothing  more  is  said  on 
the  theory  of  partial  propositions.     The  proposition 

iA  =  RxB 

is  singly  total ;  it  asserts  that  "  all  A's  teach  B's,"  or,  what 
is  better  English,  "every  A  teaches  a  B  or  B's."  The 
proposition 

iA=/?x  iB 

asserts  that  "  every  A  teaches  every  B,"  and  is  doubly  total. 
A  doubly  total  proposition  is  defined  in  the  system  here 
expounded  as  one  where  the  two  terms  A  and  B  are  both 
quantified  by  the  coefficient  i  or  i~\  In  a  singly  total 
proposition  only  one  of  them  is  so  quantified  ;  in  a  partial 
proposition,  neither.  A  doubly  total  proposition,  however, 
as  De  Morgan  has  remarked,*  is  one  proposition,  not  the 
resultant  of  two  propositions.     "  Every  A  teaches  every  B," 

'  "  On  Ihe  syllogism,  No.  IV.,  and  on  the  logic  of  relations." — From  the 
transactions  of  the  Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  Vol.  X.  Part  II, 


26  Mr.  Murphy  on  a 

and  "  every  B  learns  from  every  A,"  which  is  thus  expressed 
in  our  notation 

iA  =  i?x  iB,  iB  =  i?-'x  lA 

is  manifestly  only  one  proposition  in  two  equivalent  and 
converse  forms.  Its  doubly  total  character  is  visible  to  the 
eye  as  printed  above,  but  this  is  not  so  under  all  its  transfor- 
mations.    It  may  be  stated  in  the  form 

«=  ir X  B 

i.e.  "  not-As  are  the  only  not-teachers  of  Bs  ; "  but  this 
again  is  shown  to  be  doubly  total  by  writing  below  it  the 
equivalent  form 


i.e., "  not  =  Bs  are  the  only  not-pupils  of  As." 

De  Morgan,  in  the  paper  already  quoted,  states  three 
elementary  forms  of  proposition  containing  a  single  relative 
term.  These  are,  when  stated  in  our  notation  and  with  our 
examples  : — 

iA  =  i?xB,  iA  =  ^xiB, 

iA  =  i2x  i-^B, 
that  is  to  say  : — 
Every  A  teaches  a  B,  Every  A  teaches  every  B, 

Every  A  teaches  none  but  Bs. 
But  as  Prof  Peirce  has  shown,*  the  symmetry  of  the  system 
requires  a  fourth  form,  which  in  our  notation  is  thus  sup- 
plied. 

A  teacher  of  every  B  is  necessarily  a  not-teacher  of 
none  but  not-Bs  ;  and  the  converse  is  also  true.  This  is 
expressed  by  the  equation 

ii?x  iB  =  irx  i-V;; 

*"0n  the  Algebra  of  Logic,"  by  C.  S.  Peirce,  reprinted  from  the 
Avc\enc7i.n  /oiivjial  of  Mathematics,  Vol.  III. 


N'ezu  System  of  Logical  Notation. 


27 


Consequently,  we  may  write  the  second  and  third  of  the 
above  three  forms  thus  : — 

iA  =  i?x  iB, 
-^-xi-V;, 

iA  =  ^x  i-iB, 
=  ry.  lb. 
The  fourth  form,  obviously,  ought  to  be  related  to  the  third 
as  the  first  to  the  second  ;  so  that  the  completed  system  is 
constituted  by  the  following  four  propositions,  whereof  two 
are  singly  and  two  doubly  total. 


A  =  i?xB, 


I A 


That  is  to  say^, 
Every    A    is    a   teacher    of 
some  Bs. 

Kvery  A  is  a  not-teacher  of 
some  not-Bs. 


iA  =  ^=iB, 

=  ;'  X  i~^b, 
iA  =  Iix  i-^B, 

=  rx  lb. 

Every  A  is  a  teacher  of  ever)^ 

B,   and    a    not-teacher   of 

none  but  not-Bs. 
Every  A  is  a  teacher  of  none 

but  Bs,  and  a  not-teacher 

of  all  not-Bs. 


The  two  forms  of  proposition 

iA=Sx  iB, 

ma}'  be  called  the  complements  of  each  other,  or  comple- 
mentary to  each  other.  Their  equivalence  is  self-evident  ; 
nevertheless  it  is  worth  while  to  show  it  symbolically. 

iA  =  J?xiB 
becomes  by  conversion 

iB  =  i?-ix  lA, 
which  becomes  by  contraposition  and  inversion 

1-1/'  =  ^"^  X  I  A, 
and  this  again  by  conversion 

iA  =  ?-  X  i~^^. 


28  Mr.  Murphy  on  a 

It  is  to  be  observed  that,  somewhat  as  in  the  common 

logic  a  total  proposition,  such  as  "  every  A  is  B,"  contradicts 

and  is  contradicted  by  a  corresponding  partial  proposition, 

such  as  "  some  A's  are  not  B  "  ;  so  that  one  of  the  pair  must 

be  true  and  the  other  false, — so  in  the  logic  of  relative  terms 

the  same  relation  of  contradiction  subsists  between  a  doubly 

total  proposition  such  as  "  every  A  is  a  teacher  of  every  B  " 

and  a  singly  total  proposition,  such  as  "  every  A  is  a  not- 

teacher  of  some  B." 

The  proposition 

iA  =  i?x  iB 

admits   of  the   following    equivalent   forms.       It   will   be 
observed  that  they  arrange  themselves  in  pairs  of  converses. 

iA  =  i2xiB  iB  =  ;?-^xiA 

i~-'«  =  /'xB  i~-'(^  =  r~^A 

iA  =  /-x  i"^^  iB  =  ?-"^xi"^« 

a=  i^-x  B  h=  ir~^  X  A 

.iArxB  =  o  iBr^'^  X  A  =  o 

lAR  X  i-^b  =  o  iBR~'^  X  i-^a  =  0 

All  that  has  been  yet  stated  is  equally  true,  whether  the 
relation  is  transitive  or  not.  A  transitive  relation  is  such  a 
one  that 

if  A  =  7?  X  B  and  B  =  A^C,  then  A  =  i^C, 
or  more  briefly 

RxR=R,  ox  R^  =  R. 
This  is  the  algebraic  expression  of  the  common  "  syllogism 
in  Barbara."  But  it  expresses  nothing  except  the  transi- 
tiveness  of  the  relation,  and  is  not  restricted  to  relations  of 
identity  and  co-existence.  As  De  Morgan  says  in  the 
paper  already  quoted,  "  The  law  which  governs  every 
possible  case  (of  Syllogism)  ...  is  this  : — Any  relation 
of  X  to  F,  compounded  with  any  relation  of  Y  to  Z,  gives 
a  relation  of  X  to  Z."  The  following  is  a  valid  syllogism  : — 
"  Abraham  was  the  father  of  Isaac  ;  Isaac  was  the  father  of 
Jacob  ;  therefore  Abraham  was  the  grandfather  of  Jacob." 


N'ew  System  of  Logical  N'otatioii. 


The  notation  explained  in  the  present  paper  is  appro- 
priate to  a  set  of  propositions  stated  by  De  Morgan  in  the 
paper  ah'eady  quoted,  but  without  detailed  demonstration. 
The  present  writer,  trying  to  improve  on  De  Morgan,  is  but 
a  dwarf  on  a  giant's  shoulders,  or  rather  a  dwarf  with  his 
feet  on  the  shoulders  of  two  giants,  De  Morgan  and  Boole  ; 
but  it  may  be  maintained  with  much  plausibility  that  giants 
were  made  in  order  to  carry  dwarfs  ;  and  I  think  it  will 
be  found  that,  for  the  present  purposes  at  least,  my  notation 
is  clearer,  less  arbitrary,  and  more  appropriate  than  De 
Morgans.  The  theorems  are  as  follows  ; — they  arrange 
themselves  in  pairs  of  converses. 

Every  ancestor  is  an  ancestor     Every  descendant  is  a  des- 


of  all  descendants  (of  his 
descendants),and  adescen- 
dant  of  none  but  their  an- 
cestors ;  a  non-ancestor  of 
none  but  their  non-descen- 
dants, and  a  non-descen- 
dant of  all  their  non- 
ancestors. 


cendant  of  all  ancestors 
(of  his  ancestors),  and  an 
ancestor  of  none  but  their 
descendants ;  a  non-des- 
cendant of  none  but  their 
non-ancestors,  and  a  non- 
ancestor  of  all  their  non- 
descendants. 


Every  non-ancestor  is  a  non- 
ancestor  of  all  ancestors, 
and  an  ancestor  of  none 
but  non-ancestors. 


Every non-desce4idant  isa  non- 
descendant  of  all  descen- 
dants, and  a  descendant  of 
none  but  non-descendants. 
Writing  ancestors  E,  and  descendants  conversely  E"'^  ;  non- 
ancestor  e,  and  non-descendant  conversely  c~'^ ;  these 
theorems  are  thus  written  in  our  notation  : — 


I. 

iE  =  Ex  iE-\ 

2. 

=  E-'xi-'E, 

3- 

=  ex  i-h-\ 

4- 

=  6"^  X  IC, 

5- 

\.e  =  ey.  \E. 

6. 

^Exy-h' 

lE- 


—  E  X  I 


lE. 

-1 

iE-\ 
:  i~'e 


30 


Mr.  Murphy  tm  a 


These  arc  very  simple,  and  are  self-evident  as  soon  as 
understood,  yet  very  unfamiliar;  they  are  like  no  generally 
recognised  logical  forms.  They  are,  however,  easily  de- 
ducible  from  the  property  of  transitivcncss,  by  application 
of  the  principles  already  stated. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  two  sets  of  converse  pro- 
positions are  identical  in  their  formal  properties,  differing 
only  in  the  indices  being  reversed.  It  will  consequently  be 
necessary  to  give  the  demonstrations  of  those  of  the  first 
column  only. 

Proposition  i  is  proved  by  combining  the  definition  of 
a  relative  term  with  that  of  transitiveness.  It  belongs  to 
the  definition  of  any  possible  relative,  that  it  stands  in  the 
specified  relation  to  all  its  correlatives.  Thus  any  ancestor 
E  is  ancestor  of  all  his  own  descendants  ;  which  is  expressed 
in  our  notation  by 

E'  =  Ex  lE-^xE' ; 
combining  this  with 

iE^E  =  E, 
we  get 

iEy.E'  =  Ex  lE-'x  E\ 

that  is  to  say  every  ancestor  of  E'  is  ancestor  of  all  the 
descendants  of  E'  ;  or,  more  briefly, 
iE  =  ExiE-\ 

which  asserts  that  every  ancestor  (of  any  man)  is  an  ancestor 
of  all  descendants  (of  that  man). 

Proposition  2  is  directly  derived  from 
iExE  =  E, 
which  may  be  written 

iExE=i-'E, 
whence  by  transposition 

iE  =  E-'xi-'E. 


Nexv  System  of  Logical  Notation.  31 

Propositions  3  and  4  are  the  complements  of  i  and  2 
respectively.  Proposition  5  is  obtained  by  the  contraposition 
of 

for,  as  we  have  seen  above,  the  negative  oi Ex E — ancestor 

oi  any  ancestor — is  ^x  \E — non-ancestor  oi  every  ancestor  ; 

so  that  the  contra-position  of  the  above  equation  gives 

\e  =  e  y.  \E. 

And  Proposition  6 

\c  =  E  y.  i~^e 

is  the  complement  of  proposition  5, 

We  have  worked  these  out  with  De  Morgan's  examples, 

derived  from  the  relation  of  ancestor  and  descendant.     But 

they  are  true  of  any  transitive  relation  whatever,  such  as 

before  and  after,  and  cause  and  effect  (if  we  so  define  cause 

that  a  cause  of  the  cause  is  a  cause  of  the  effect) ;  and 

among  others,  of  the  relation  of  whole  and  part,  which  is 

the  fundamental  relation  of  the  common  logic  when  the 

terms  are  interpreted  in  extension  ;  so  that  if  E  is  taken  to 

mean  the  relation  of  a  part  to  the  whole, 

ExE^E, 

means  that  a  part  of  a  part  is  a  part  of  the  whole  ;  or,  as  I 

propose  to  express  it,  an  enclosure  of  an  enclosure  is  an 

enclosure  ;  and  conversely 

E~^xE-'  =  E-\ 

or,  an  includent  of  an  includent  is  an  includent.     Then 

e  and  e~'^ 

will  mean   respectively  non-enclosure  and   non-includcnt ; 

and  the  expressions 

A  =  EB,  B  =  E-A, 

A  =  ^B.  B  =  ^-^A, 

will  mean  respectively 

A  is  (included  in)  B.  B  includes  A. 

Some  A  is  not  (included  in)  B.     B  does  not  include  all  A. 


32  A  New  System  of  Logical  Notation. 

Consequently,  all  Do  Morgan's  theorems,  as  stated 
above,  admit  of  interpretations  in  the  common  logic. 

The  old  logic,  as  perfected  by  the  schoolmen  and  revived 
by  Whately,  appeared  to  be  a  complete  science,  though 
lying  in  a  very  narrow  compass.  But,  as  Mill  remarks, 
quoting  from  some  unnamed  writer,  "  on  all  great  subjects 
much  remains  to  be  said  " ;  and  the  science  of  logic  is  no 
exception  to  this.  The  old,  or  common  logic,  is  only  one 
corner  of  a  vast  and  probably  infinite  field. 


Proceedings. 


General  Meeting,  November  13th,  1888. 

Professor  ARTHUR  SCHUSTER,  F.R.S.,  Vice-President,  in 
the  Chair. 

Dr.  G.  H.  Bailey,  of  Owens  College,  and  Mr.  A.  C. 
Adams,  of  the  Hulme  Grammar  School,  were  elected 
ordinary  members. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  November  13th,  1888. 

Professor  ARTHUR  SCHUSTER,  F.R.S.,  Vice-President,  in 
the  Chair. 

Professor  W.  C.  WILLIAMSON,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  opened  a 
discussion  on  "  The  Permanence  of  Oceanic  Basins,"  by 
pointing  out  the  fundamental  ideas  of  some  modern  geolo- 
gists, viz.,  that  our  large  oceanic  areas  had  been  much  like 
what  they  now  are,  throughout  all  geological  times  ;  that 
our  continents  were  chiefly  built  up  by  the  accumulation  of 
shore  deposits,  formed  in  what  were  virtually  shallow  Waters. 
He  was  not  prepared  to  accept  these  as  postulates.  In  the 
first  instance  there  could  be  no  doubt  that  the  hills  and 
hollows  of  the  earth's  surface  were  primarily  the  result  of 
the  cooling  of  its  crust,  and  as  a  result  of  that  cooling,, 
shrinkage  in  the  size  of  the  sphere  :  not  being  elastic,  such 
shrinkage  must  have  produced  ridges  and  furrows  on  various, 
scales  of  magnitude.  These  changes,  being  accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  reduction  of  the  temperature  of  the 
earth's  atmosphere,  in  which  much  heated  vapour  must 
have  been  held  in  suspension,  would  be  followed  by  the 
C 


34 


Proceedings. 


deposition  of  water  on  the  earth's  surface,  which,  flowing 
down  to  the  lowest  levels,  would  form  streams,  lakes,  and 
seas  ;  and  these,  by  their  erosive  action,  would  produce  the 
earliest  sedimentary  deposits, — resting  upon  the  hollow 
depressions  of  the  hardening  crust.  There  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  these  agencies  did  not  operate  in  varying 
degrees  on  every  part  of  the  globe.  But  further.  Some 
geologists  believe  that  the  thirty  thousand  feet  of  Archaian 
Laurentian  rocks  in  Canada,  and  the  smaller  layers  of 
rocks  of  apparently  the  same  age  in  the  Hebrides,  represent 
the  cooled  and  hardened  crust  to  which  reference  has  been 
made ;  in  other  words,  that  these  never  were  aqueous 
deposits,  like  the  more  modern  strata  occurring  everywhere 
on  the  Continent.  In  all  probability  we  can  now  identify 
no  part  of  the  ancient  and  primeval  crust.  Whatever  it 
was,  it  has  most  probably  been  melted  and  re-melted  by 
the  subterranean  heat  which  has  also  fused  the  older  strati- 
fied beds  ;  the  primitive  line  of  junction  between  the  two 
being  thus  wholly  obliterated.  The  contraction  of  the 
earth's  crust,  due  to  the  causes  already  referred  to,  has 
probably  not  entirely  ceased  even  now.  The  marvellous 
inflections  of  the  contorted  strata  of  the  Alleghanies  and 
of  the  Alps,  affecting  Cretaceous  and  Oolitic  rocks,  have 
in  all  probability  been  due  to  similar  agencies,  causing 
lateral  pressure ;  we  find  that  these  disturbing  forces  have 
operated  more  or  less  throughout  every  portion  of  what 
is  now  dry  land,  all  of  which  has  been  more  or  less 
frequently  under  water ;  this  has  been  the  case  with  even 
the  mountainous  parts  that  now  rise  thirty  thousand  feet 
above  the  sea-level  from  which  they  have  been  uplifted  ; 
hence  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  whilst  such  changes, 
due  to  cosmical  causes,  were  taking  place  on  the  great 
continents,  the  corresponding  areas  now  occupied  by  our 
largest  oceans  were  resting  in  a  state  of  undisturbed 
tranquillity.     Dr.  Williamson  said  it  seemed   to  him   that 


Proceedings.  35 

whilst  two-fifths  of  the  globe  were  thus  being  alternately 
raised  and  depressed,  the  remaining  three-fifths  must  have 
been  similarly  affected  ;  the  deepest  seas  thus  finally 
balancing  the  loftiest  elevations,  and  producing  the  equi- 
librium of  the  earth's  crust  which  we  now  observe. 

But  further.  In  the  countless  ages  that  have  passed 
away  since  the  commencement  of  the  earth's  consolidation, 
aqueous  rocks,  many  miles  in  vertical  thickness,  have  been 
deposited.  These  rocks  contain  the  remains  of  the  successive 
forms  of  life  that  have  tenanted  both  land  and  sea  during 
these  successive  epochs.  According  to  the  modern  theory 
under  discussion,  if  these  great  oceans  were  then  such  as  they 
are  now,  representative  strata  corresponding  to  the  now 
known  vertical  series  seen  on  the  land  must  underlie  the 
present  ocean  beds.  The  oceans  under  which  the  known 
strata  were  formed  must  have  opened  into  these  larger  and 
supposed  persistent  ones  ;  and  though  accumulations  may 
have  taken  place  in  the  latter  more  slowly  than  elsewhere, 
they  cannot  have  been  absent.  In  like  manner  organic 
remains  must  exist  in  them.  How  far  they  became  sufficiently 
shallow  to  be  the  home  of  our  terrestrial  plants  and  shore- 
loving  animals  may  be  a  question.  But  just  as  our  modern 
sharks  and  huge  Cetaceans  now  traverse  the  deepest  oceans, 
so  the  huge  Saurians  and  primeval  Cephalopods  must  have 
done  the  same.  In  like  manner  the  innumerable Foraminifera, 
which  flourish  chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  near  the  surface  of  the 
sea,  exist  independent  of  depth.  We  know  that  they  lived  in 
primeval  time,  and  doubtless  under  the  same  conditions  as 
now.  We  have  proof  in  the  Nummulitic  beds,  which  in 
some  places  accumulated  to  a  thickness  of  several  thousand 
feet,  that  such  was  the  case,  just  as  the  Foraminiferous  ooze, 
or  that  which  is  a  Foraminiferous  residuum,  can  now  be 
found  in  most  parts  of  our  deep  oceans.  These  few 
fundamental  facts  suggest  that,  whilst  lofty  mountains  and 
seas  of  corresponding  depths  may,  and  probably  did,  always 


36  rROCEEDINGS. 

exist  during  the  past  geological  epochs— it  does  not 
follow  that  the  one  always  stood  and  the  other  flowed 
where  they  now  do.  In  the  case  of  the  former  we  know  that 
this  was  not  the  case.  The  recent  periods  at  which  the 
Alps,  the  Andes,  and  the  Himalayas  were  upraised  is  now 
well  known.  It  is  not  impossible  that  similar  mountain 
ranges  may  have  sunk  into  and  now  repose  in  the  undu- 
lating depths  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Prof  Boyd  Dawkins  held  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
permanence  of  oceanic  areas  is  only  true  in  a  very  restricted 
sense,  and  as  applying  to  such  deep  areas  as  those  over 
4,000  fathoms  north  of  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas  in  the 
North  Atlantic,  and  off  the  coast  of  Japan  in  the  North 
Pacific.  As  the  surface  of  the  cooling  globe  followed  the 
contracting  nucleus  it  must  have  been  thrown  into  folds,  in 
which  the  re-entering  folds  would  be  the  primeval  oceans,, 
and  the  salient  folds  the  land.  And  this  folding  of  the 
surface  would  only  be  intensified  along  the  old  lines  by  a 
still  further  shrinkage  of  the  nucleus.  From  these  a  priori 
considerations  he  held  that  the  main  centres  of  the  land 
and  the  sea  had  been  where  they  are  now  through  all  geo- 
logical time.  The  evidence  of  a  considerable  change  in  the 
relations  of  land  to  sea  is  proved  both  by  the  marine 
soundings  and  the  history  of  the  stratified  rocks.  The 
soundings  made  by  the  "Dacia,"  in  1883,  off  the  mouth  of 
the  Congo,  reveal  the  existence  of  a  vast  cailon  plunging 
from  the  100  fathom  line  into  depths  greater  than  the  i,ooa 
fathom  line  {see  Joiirn.  Soc.  Telegr.  Engineers  XVI.,  p.  479). 
It  is  a  submerged  canon  of  the  same  order  as  that  of  the 
Colorado  river,  and  has  been  cut  by  the  river  Congo  at  a 
time  when  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  in  that  district  stood 
more  than  6,000  feet  above  its  present  level.  This  is  merely 
one  out  of  a  vast  number  of  cases  which  might  be  cited  in 
proof  that  the  submarine  contours,  to  a  depth  of  1,000 
fathoms,  arc  due  to  the  operation  of  sub-aerial  agencies,  by 


Proceedings.  37 

which  the  hills,  and  valleys,  and  ravines  now  submerged 
have  been  carved  out  of  the  rock.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
witness  of  the  rocks  practically  amounts  to  this — that  there 
are  no  deposits  now  forming  dry  land  which  could  not  have 
been  formed  in  depths  of  i  ,ooo  fathoms.  Most  of  these  have 
been  accumulated  in  shallow  water  close  to  the  ancient  land. 
It  is  to  be  remarked  also  that  the  ancient  land  on  the 
margins  of  which  the  stratified  rocks  were  laid  down  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  is  the  polar  continent  which  Prof 
Dawkins  has  termed  Archaia,  now  represented  by  the 
Archaian  rocks  of  Labrador  and  Canada,  Greenland,  Scandi- 
navia, and  the  western  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  that  this 
has  been  land  from  the  close  of  the  Cambrian  age  to  the 
present  time.  The  impression  left  on  his  mind  by  these 
facts  is  that  the  great  depths  of  the  sea  have  probably  been 
where  they  are  now  from  the  very  beginning,  and  that  the 
central  nucleus  of  the  continents  has  also  been  in  existence 
also  from  the  beginning.  It  may  also  be  noted,  as  Agassiz 
and  others  have  observed,  that  the  low  temperature  of  the 
ocean  at  great  depths  would  lower  the  temperature  of  the 
rock  on  which  they  rest,  and  therefore  tend  to  stereotype 
the  oceanic  depths.* 

*  At  the  depths  of  4,000  fathoms  the  temperature  is  a  little  above  freezing, 
.at  a  depth  of  24,000  feet  the  temperature  of  the  roclc  is  about  422"  Fahr. 


38  Proceedincs. 

[Microscopical  and  Nixtural  History  Section?^ 

Ordinary  Meeting,  November  19,  1888. 

Mr.  J.  Cosmo  Melyill,  M.A.,  President  of  the  Section, 
in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  Theo.  Sington  exhibited  an  abnormal  growth^ 
or  concretion  of  some  hard  substance,  found  outside  the 
bowels  of  a  hen. 

Mr.  P.  Cameron,  F.E.S.,  read  a  paper  "On  the  British 
species  oi  Allotrincs,  with  descriptions  of  other  new  species 
of  parasitic  Cynipid(zr 

Dr.  Alex.  Hodgkinson  showed  a  new  form  of  electric 
lamp,  and  explained  the  diffraction  spectra,  and  the  advan- 
tage of  parallel  rays  of  light  in  microscopical  research. 

Mr.  E.  Pyemont  Collett  exhibited  a  specimen  of 
Trifolinin  siiffocahnn  from  the  sandy  sea  shore  at  Hastings, 


Ordinary  Meeting,  November  27th,  1888. 

Professor  OsBORNE  Reynolds,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,     . 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  F.  J.  Faraday,  F.L.S.,  gave  "  An  historical  account 
of  the  spectroscopic  evidence  in  support  of  the  hypothesis 
that  oxygen  exists  in  the  sun,  with  special  reference  to 
M.  Janssen's  recent  researches  on  telluric  oxygen  and 
aqueous  vapour  lines  and  bands,"  in  the  course  of  which 
he  pointed  out  that  the  two  absorption  spectra  of  Janssen, 
obtained  with  oxygen  in  long  tubes  at  different  pressures, 


Proceedings.  39 

added  to  the  four  luminous  spectra  obtained  by  various 
spectroscopists  at  different  temperatures  and  pressures, 
apparently  made  a  total  of  six  spectra  of  this  one  gas. 
Janssen  states  that  the  two  absorption  spectra  are  pro- 
ducible separately  and  independently,  one  being  the  line 
spectrum  in  the  A,  B,  and  a  region,  that  is,  in  the  red  and 
orange-red,  and  the  other  a  spectrum  of  bands  in  the 
red,  orange-green,  and  blue.  The  intensity  of  the  former 
spectrum  varies  simply  with  the  product  of  the  thickness 
of  gas  traversed  by  the  light,  and  the  density  ;  whereas 
the  intensity  of  the  band  spectrum  varies  according  to 
the  thickness  and  the  square  of  the  density.  From  the 
fact  that  the  assumed  corresponding  dark  lines  and  bands 
observed  in  the  solar  spectrum  seemed  to  obey  these 
laws,  when  examined  from  the  Grands  Mulcts  station  on 
Mont  Blanc,  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet,  the  bands 
being  absent  and  the  lines  weakened  proportionately, 
Janssen  infers  that  their  presence  and  relatively  greater 
intensity  in  the  solar  spectrum  when  observed  at  lower 
levels  are  undoubtedly  due  to  the  greater  thickness  and 
density  of  the  atmospheric  oxygen  traversed,  and  hence 
that  they  are  telluric  lines  and  bands  and  in  no  way 
indicative  of  the  existence  of  solar  oxygen.  Referring  to 
the  statement  that  Janssen's  absorption  bands  occur  in  the 
red,  orange-green,  and  blue,  Mr.  Faraday  pointed  out  that 
Plucker's  bright  oxygen  spectrum,  which  has  been  called  the 
"  compound  line "  spectrum,  of  which  a  corresponding 
reversal  spectrum  has  been,  it  is  believed,  identified  in  the 
solar  spectrum,  occurs  in  the  red,  green,  and  blue.  Professor 
Henry  Draper's  supposed  bright  band  solar  oxygen  spectrum 
was  photographed  in  the  blue,  and  there  also  are  the  dark 
absorption  lines  by  which  these  bright  bands  were  subse- 
quently found  to  be  traversed,  and  which  Professor  J.  C. 
Draper  suggested  might  be  the  reversal  lines  of  oxygen. 
Finally  in  the  red  and  orange-green  the  absorption  lines 


40  Proceedings. 

•due  to  the  presence  of  aqueous  vapour  are  most  abundant, 
and  with  regard  to  these  lines  it  must  be  noted  that 
Janssen's  observations  on  the  Grands  Mulets  were  made 
under  exceptionally  favourable  conditions,  the  air  being 
remarkably  dry  and  the  sky  unusually  clear.  For  all  these 
reasons  Mr.  Faraday  suggested  that  it  would  be  interesting 
to  test  the  spectroscopic  evidence  of  the  existence  of  oxygen 
in  the  sun  hitherto  advanced,  by  means  of  the  photographs 
•of  what  might  be  spoken  of  as  the  purified  solar  spectrum 
which  M.  Janssen  stated  that  he  had  obtained  at  the  Grands 
Mulets. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  December  ii,  1888. 

Professor  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Dr.  James  Bottomley  read  the  following  "Note  on 
the  behaviour  of  Iodine  in  the  presence  of  Borax"  : — 

In  the  journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  for  this  month 
there  is  an  abstract  of  a  paper  on  Boric  acid  by  P.  Georgievic 
(/•  for  Chem.  [2],  38,  11 8- 120).  The  paper  treats  of  the 
position  of  boron  in  the  classification  of  the  elements.  In 
reference  to  the  acid  character  of  boracic  acid  it  is  stated 
in  the  abstract  that  boric  acid  will  not  liberate  iodine  from 
a  mixture  of  potassium  iodide  and  iodate  or  nitrite.  Also 
that  boric  acid  is  liberated  from  borax  by  the  action  of 
iodine,  sodium  iodide  and  iodate  being  formed.  Some 
years  since  I  read  before  this  Society  a  Note  entitled  "On 
a  case  of  reversed  chemical  action"  {Proceedings  Lit.  and 
Phil.  Soc.,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  65),  treating  of  the  action  of 
iodine  on  a  solution  of  borax  ;  my  experience  was  as  fol- 
lows :  A  solution  of  borax  dissolved  iodine,  formine:  sodic 


Proceedings.  41 

iodide  and  iodate  ;  but  on  concentrating  the  solution  the 
reversed  action  took  place,  free  iodine  being  formed.  Also, 
on  the  addition  of  sodium  iodate  to  a  boiling  solution  of 
sodium  iodide  and  boracic  acid,  iodine  was  set  free. 

Prof  W.  C.  Williamson,  F.R.S.,  referred  to  the  recently 
published  report  of  the  Royal  Society  Committee  on  the 
Krakatoa  eruption,  and  a  discussion  on  the  meaning  of  the 
term  "smoke"  in  the  report  ensued. 

Mr.  William  Thomson,  F.R.S.E.,  F.C.S.,  read  a  paper 
•on  "The  crystalline  structure  developed  on  ordinary  glass 
by  the  solvent  action  of  fluorine  compounds,  with  notes  on 
Prince  Rupert's  drops." 

Mr.  P.  Cameron  read  a  paper  on  "The  British  species 
of  Allotrincs  with  descriptions  of  other  new  species  of 
parasitic  CynipidcB." 


42  Mr.  W.  Thomson  on  the 


Notes  on  Some  of  the  Peculiar  Properties  of  Glass. 
By  William  Thomson,  F. R.S.Ed.,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 

(Received  February  2.2nd,  i88g.) 

I. — On  the  Crystalline  Forms  produced  on  Glass  by  the  action 
on  it  of  Hydrofluoric  Acid  and  the  Acid  Salts  of  the 
Alkali  Fluorides. 

At  the  Southport  Meeting  of  the*  British  Association 
(1883)  I  read  a  paper  on  this  subject,  and  there  shewed 
pieces  of  glass  on  which  very  distinct  hexagonal  pyramids, 
cubical,  and  other  crystalline  forms  had  been  produced  by 
the  action  of  solutions  of  the  acid  fluorides  of  potassium, 
sodium,  and  ammonium,  and  anhydrous  hydrofluoric  acid 
on  the  glass.  Different  crystals  are  produced  on  different 
kinds  of  glass,  depending  on  whether  it  contains  potash, 
soda,  lime,  or  other  base.  Tessie  de  Mothay  and  Marechal 
examined  these  crystals  and  mention  that  they  are  com- 
posed of  the  fluorides  of  calcium  and  lead,  by  the  separation 
of  which  the  surface  is  rendered  more  opaque.  F.  Reinitzer 
in  a  paper  on  the  same  subject,  1886  {Dingl.  Polyt.  f.  262, 
pp.  312-320)  gives  sketches  of  the  same  crystals,  and  offers 
the  explanation  that  they  are  the  silico-fluorides  of  calcium 
sodium  or  potassium. 

The  Rev.  Professor  T.  G.  Bonney  examined  my  speci- 
mens, and,  whilst  he  would  not  venture  on  any  distinct 
theory,  suggested  that  they  might  possibly  be  due  to  the 
crystallization  of  free  silica  produced  by  the  action  of  the 
fluorides  on  the  glass.  Professor  Bonney  microscopically 
examined  them,  and  both  he  and  I  failed  by  the  ordinary 
means  to  find  that  they  polarized  light,  although  they  were 
sufficiently  large  to  be  seen  by  an  ordinary  pocket  lens. 


Peculiar  Properties  of  Glass.  43 

Both  Professor  Bonney  and  Professor  Zirkel,  with  whom  I 
also  conversed  respecting  them,  were  of  opinion  that  if  they 
did  not  polarize  light,  and  were  not  of  the  regular  system, 
they  could  not  be  regarded  as  crystals,  however  perfect  in 
form  they  might  be. 

Lately,  I  have  given  more  attention  to  this  subject,  and 
by  the  aid  of  Dr.  Alexander  Hodgkinson,  of  Manchester,  I 
have  been  able  to  demonstrate  that  these  crystalline  forms 
actually  do  polarize  light.  The  most  distinct  effect  pro- 
duced on  them  was  by  the  employment  of  circularly 
polarized  light.  When  the  microscope  stage  was  rotated 
with  one  of  these  crystals  in  focus,  the  regular  changing  of 
colours  was  very  distinctly  seen  on  each  crystal,  thus 
proving  that  the  crystalline  forms  developed  by  the  alkaline 
fluorides  possessed  also  the  polarizing  properties  of  the 
irregular  system  to  which  most  of  them  belong. 

It  is  remarkable  that  these  crystals  are  only  seen  near 
the  edges  of  etchings  by  the  alkaline  fluorides,  or  only 
where  the  immediate  surface  of  the  glass  has  been  removed. 
In  the  deeper  parts  of  the  etchings  an  irregular  surface  is 
presented,  resembling  to  the  naked  eye  a  crop  of  small 
crystals,  but  on  microscopical  examination  shewing  no 
distinct  crystalline  form.  It  was  somewhat  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  crystals  were  indentations  in  the 
glass  or  whether  they  stood  in  elevation,  but  after  careful 
microscopical  examination  both  Dr.  Hodgkinson  and  I 
came  to  the  same  conclusion,  that  they  stood  in  elevation. 
In  a  large  thick  glass  vessel,  capable  of  holding  ten  gallons, 
I  placed  six  or  seven  gallons  of  fluosilicic  acid  solution  con- 
taining a  little  hydrofluoric  acid.  After  some  months  the 
vessel  became  deeply  etched  and,  viewed  from  the  outside, 
the  surface  seemed  to  be  covered  by  a  crop  of  well-formed 
crystals  of  considerable  size.  This  vessel  cracked  in  different 
places,  which  I  find  usually  results  in  time  from  dissolving 
the  inner  surface  of  a  glass  vessel  by  hydrofluoric  acid  or  the 


44  Mr.  W.  Thomson  on  the 

fluorides.  On  breaking  this  vessel  I  found  the  inner  surface 
to  be  very  irregularly  etched,  shewing  what  appeared  to  be 
irregular  crystalline  forms  of  an  average  of  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  across  and  yi  to  j^  inch  deep  from  apex  to  bottom  of 
rough  crystals,  but  on  carefully  examining  these  by  the 
naked  eye,  by  a  pocket  lens,  and  by  the  microscope,  no 
distinct  and  definite  crystalline  forms  could  anywhere  be 
discovered.  The  observations  which  strike  one  regarding 
these  are  : — -First,  if  glass  possess  that  absolutely  homo- 
geneous or  colloid  or  gelatine  structure  which  it  is  generally 
supposed  to  have,  why  does  it  develope  these  curious 
irregularities  when  submitted  to  a  slow  solvent  action.  One 
would  expect  it  to  dissolve  like  a  surface  of  gelatine  when 
slowly  acted  upon  by  water  if  it  were  so  absolutely  colloid 
in  its  structure.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  be  presumed  to 
have  a  crystalline  structure,  one  would  expect  that  the 
surface  would  present  such  irregularities  as  it  actually  gives 
when  the  surface  is  thus  removed. 

With  regard  to  the  distinct  crystalline  forms  produced 
on  glass  by  the  action  of  the  alkali  acid  fluorides,  Tessie  de 
Mothay,  Marechal,  and  F.  Reinitzer  seem  satisfied  that  the 
crystals  \\dMQ:\iQQ.\\ produced  by  the  solvent  itself  combining 
with  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  glass  and  depositing 
crystals  therefrom.  The  following  is  an  extract  from 
Reinitzer's  paper  : — 

"  Fig.  I  represents  the  edge  of  an  etched  plate.  The 
"  crystals  are  hexagonal,  and  agree  with  those  of  silicon- 
"  sodium  fluoride.  There  are  also  a  few  of  a  longish  shape, 
"  which  are  very  like  those  of  silicon-calcium  fluoride.  It  is 
"  believed  that  alkali  fluoride  and  hydro-fluoric  acid  act  on 
"  the  glass,  forming  sodium-silicon  fluoride  and  silicon- 
"  calcium  fluoride  which  are  set  free  in  a  crystalline  form  ; 
"  whereas,  hydro-fluoric  acid  etches  the  spaces  between  the 
"  crystals.  Silicon  and  calcium  are  derived  from  the  glass, 
"  sodium  partly  from  the  etching  bath  and  partly  from  the 


Peailiar  Properties  of  Glass.  45 

"  glass.  On  etching  potash  glass,  tesseral  crystals  of  silicon 
"  potassium  fluoride  can  be  observed,  and  this  suggests  a 
"  simple  method  for  the  detection  of  potash  glass." 

There  is,  however,  a  simple  method  by  which  this  theory 
of  Reinitzcr,  and  also  of  de  Mothay  and  Marechal  can  be 
tested,  and  that  is,  that  sodium-silicon  fluoride,  calcium- 
silicon  fluoride,  potassium-silicon  fluoride,  and  also  lead 
and  calcium  fluorides  are  all  easily  acted  upon  by  sulphuric 
acid.  If,  then,  these  crystals  be  composed  of  the  above- 
named  compounds,  it  is  evident  they  should  be  dissolved  and 
removed,  or  destroyed  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid,  which 
attacks  with  facility  those  compounds.  I  have  made  the 
experiment  by  boiling  pieces  of  glass  on  which  these  crystals 
had  been  developed  in  sulphuric  acid  of  different  strengths 
up  to  prolonged  boiling  with  strong  vitriol,  but  on  washing 
the  glasses  after  such  treatment,  none  of  the  crystals  were 
destroyed  or  dissolved,  and  even  their  edges  were  not  in  the 
faintest  degree  affected.  Whatever,  therefore,  these  crystals 
may  be,  they  are  itot  crystals  of  the  sodium,  calcium  or 
potassium  silico  fluorides,  or  of  lead  or  calcium  fluoride. 
But  assuming  that  they  are  so,  then  one  would  expect  to 
find  them  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  etchings  as  well  as  near 
the  surface  and  edges  ;  which  is  not  the  case. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  these  crystals  existed  originally  in 
the  glass,  and  that  the  action  of  the  solvent  developed  them 
just  as  hydrochloric  acid  developes  the  crystalline  structure 
on  tin  when  a  weak  solution  is  washed  over  a  bright  and 
smooth  surface  of  it.  It  is  not  suggested  that  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  combines  with  and  produces  the  crystals,  it 
merely  dissolves  away  the  surface  of  the  tin  at  some  parts 
more  than  at  others,  so  as  to  develope  the  metallic  crystals ; 
and  if  the  etching  with  the  acid  is  continued,  the  crystals 
which  are  at  first  developed  disappear,  which  is  just  what 
happens  with  the  glass. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  the  crystals  developed  from  the 


46  Mr.  W.  Thomson  on  the 

glass  are  the  potassium  sodium  and  calcium  silicates,  which 
are  not  acted  upon  by  the  strong  sulphuric  acid  above 
mentioned,  and  which  are  developed  from  the  surface  of  the 
glass  by  the  slow  solvent  action  of  the  fluorides,  just  as  the 
metallic  tin  crystals  are  developed  from  the  surface  of  tin 
by  the  solvent  action  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  upon  its 
surface. 

The  objection  to  this  theory  is  that  glass  does  not 
polarize  light;  but  it  cannot  be  deduced  from  that  that 
glass  is  not  crystalline,  because  Pasteur  proved  that  although 
paratartaric  acid  does  not  polarize  light  it  is  still  crystalline, 
and  is  composed  of  crystals  of  the  irregular  system,  but 
that  the  crystals  or  molecules  are  so  arranged  that  the 
polarizing  influence  of  one  is  neutralized  by  the  reverse 
action  of  another  always  found  in  juxtaposition  with  it. 
Is  it  not  possible,  then,  that  glass  crystals  may  be  simi- 
larly arranged  to  each  other  so  that  the  polarizing  influence 
of  one  crystal  may  be  neutralized  by  the  reverse  polarizing 
influence  of  the  other?  And  this  seems  to  be  borne  out 
by  the  fact  that  whilst  small  sodium  and  potassium  silico 
fluoride  crystals  shew  distinct  polarization  when  viewed 
simply  by  two  Nicol's  prisms,  the  crystals  on  the  glass  do 
not  shew  polarization  by  that  means,  and  it  was  only  by  the 
employment  of  circularly  polarized  light,  produced  by 
passing  the  light  through  a  quartz  plate,  that  a  distinction 
could  be  observed  between  the  crystals  in  question  and 
ordinary  glass.  I  believe  that  these  crystals  are  then 
silicates  of  potassium,  sodium  and  calcium,  etc.,  and  that 
they  are  not  produced  by  the  combination  of  the  solvent 
with  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  glass.  Ammonium 
fluoride,  when  heated  on  the  surface  of  glass,  developes  a 
beautiful  fern-like  structure  on  it  resembling  hoar-frost  on 
a  window  pane. 


Peculiar  Properties  of  Glass.  47 

//. — On  Prince  Rupert's  Drops. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  Prince  Rupert  astonished  and 
amused  the  people  of  the  English  Court  by  producing  drops 
of  glass  with  long  tails  attached,  which  burst  into  small 
pieces  the  moment  the  tail  was  broken.  Since  his  time 
Robert  Hooke  and  others  have  made  experiments  upon 
them.  It  is  believed  that  the  explosive  power  of  these 
drops  depends  on  an  internal  tension  in  the  glass  of  the 
drop  due  to  the  red  hot,  and  consequently  expanded,  glass 
being  suddenly  cooled  and  solidified,  whilst  the  internal 
contents  have  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  rigid  and  ex- 
panded envelope.  These  drops  are  produced  by  allowing 
drops  of  molten  glass  to  fall  into  cold  water,  a  long  tail 
being  left  as  the  highly  viscid  molten  glass  falls.  As  a  rule, 
Rupert's  drops  contain  a  number  of  bubbles,  which  are  due 
to  vacuous  spaces,  but  there  are  some  drops  which  are  free 
from  such  bubbles,  and  when  the  tail  of  one  of  these  is 
broken  it  bursts  with  greater  force  than  a  drop  containing 
bubbles. 

That  these  bubbles  are  vacuous  I  proved  by  heating  the 
drop  to  redness,  when  the  bubbles  disappeared,  and  after 
cooling  the  drop  of  glass  appeared  quite  solid  and  trans- 
parent. 

To  determine  whether  the  Rupert's  drop  was  less  dense 
than  the  drop  after  annealing,  I  took  a  large  Rupert's  drop 
quite  solid  and  transparent  (free  from  bubbles)  which 
weighed  in  air  I70"30  grains,  and  in  water  102-66  grains. 
It  was  laid  on  a  piece  of  platinum,  placed  in  a  muffle 
furnace,  heated  to  redness,  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually. 
It  then  weighed  in  air  1 70*36  grains,  and  in  water  102-960 
grains.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  Rupert's  drop  was,  there- 
fore, 2-5177,  whereas  the  specific  gravity  of  the  drop,  after 
the  strain  had  presumably  been  removed  by  annealing, 
was  2-5276,  in  other  words,  100  volumes  of  ordinary  glass 


48  Mr.  W.  Thomson  on  the 

produced  ioo"392  volumes  of  Rupert's  drop  glass,  or  the 
volume  of  the  glass  of  the  Rupert's  drop  may  be  repre- 
sented as  having  increased  the  rssth  part  of  the  original 
glass. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  second  Rupert's  drop 
without  hibbles,  made  from  a  different  kind  of  glass,  was 
taken  before  and  after  heating  to  redness  and  allowing  to 
cool  slowly,  the  results  obtained  were — 

Sp.  gr.  of  the  Rupert's  drop     2-4762 

Sp.  gr.  of  the  Rupert's  drop  after  heating  to 

redness  and  allowing  to  cool  slowly        ...     2-4859 
100  volumes  of  the  ordinary  glass  used  for  making  this 
Rupert's  drop  produced  100-3902  volumes  of  Rupert's  drop> 
equal  to  an  increase  in  volume  of  2  Hth  part  of  the  original 
glass. 

I  determined  the  specific  gravity  of  a  Rupert's  drop 
containing  bubbles. 

Grains. 

The  weight  in  air  previous  to  the  removal  of 

the  bubbles  by  heating  was       34'830 

Weight  in  water     ...      20-536 
After  the  removal  of  the  bubbles   by  heating 

and  allowing  to  cool  slowly  it  weighed     ...      32-948 
Weight  in  water     ...       19-700 
(A  piece  of  glass  was  broken  off  in  removing 
it  from  the  platinum.) 

Specific  gravity  before  heating     2-4366 

After  heating 2-4870 

100  volumes  of  ordinary  glass  produced  therefore  102-027 
volumes  of  Rupert's  drop  with  bubbles. 

The  Rupert's  drops  with  bubbles  may  therefore  be  repre- 
sented as  having  expanded  rather  more  than  Ath  part  of 
their  volume. 

In  other  experiments  I  determined  the  specific  gravity 
of  a  glass  rod  and  found  it  to  be  2-5029. 


Peculiar  Properties  of  Glass.  49 

I  then  produced  a  number  of  Rupert's  drops  from  it  by 
melting  before  the  blowpipe,  allowing  the  drops  to  fall  into 
water  and  then  determining  the  specific  gravities  of  the 
drops  so  produced, 

100  volumes  of 

of  original   glass  Equal  to 

Specific  became  of  increase  of 

gravity.  Rupert's  drop  glass.  volume. 

{a)         2-451  102-073  

{b)         2-460         101-714         -h 

ic)         2-473         101-194         

One  drop  was  made  by  allowing  to  fall  into  heavy 
mineral  oil,  heated  to  80°  C,  instead  of  cold  water,  a  fused 
portion  of  the  rod.  It  produced  a  drop  with  one  large 
bubble  in  the  centre.  Its  specific  gravity  was  2-4475.  lOO 
volumes,  therefore,  became  102-213.  One  drop  of  molten 
glass  from  the  rod  was  allowed  to  fall  into  carbon 
tetrachloride.  The  liquid  seemed  to  assume  the  spheroidal 
condition  around  the  drops,  so  that  it  remained  red  hot  for 
a  long  time  under  the  liquid.  The  drop  thus  formed  was 
free  from  bubbles  and  its  specific  gravity  was  2*520,  thus 
shewing  that  under  those  conditions  100  volumes  of  the 
original  glass  contracted  to  99-317  volumes.  This  drop 
possessed  none  of  the  properties  of  the  Rupert's  drop,  and 
neither  did  the  ones  dropped  into  oil,  into  carbon  tetra- 
chloride, or  into  ether. 

The  drop  produced  in  ether  had  a  specific  gravity  of 
2-5018,  whilst  the  original  glass  had  a  specific  gravity  of 
2-4910,  thus  shewing  that  a  contraction  in  volume  had 
resulted  from  the  use  of  ether. 

To  find  whether  glass  altered  in  volume  on  being  heated 
to  redness  several  times,  I  took  a  small  piece  of  glass  rod 
and  heated  it  to  redness,  and  allowed  it  to  cool  slowly  in 
the  air  on  three  different  occasions,  the  specific  gravity 
being  taken  after  each  heating.  The  following  are  the 
results  obtained  : — 
D 


50  Mr.  W.  Thomson  on  the 

Specific  gravity  of  original  glass     2*4954 

After  first  heating 2-4964 

„      second      „    2-4981 

„      third         „    2-4986 

The  same  glass  was  then  fused  and  dropped 
into  cold  mineral  oil,  and  its  specific 

gravity  was 2-4694 

The  drop  in  oil  contained  vacuous  spaces  or  bubbles,  but 
the  drops  formed  in  carbon  tetra-chloride,  chloroform,  or 
ether,  were  all  free  from  vacuous  spaces.  The  drop  in 
water  ceased  to  shew  red-hot  after  i  to  2  seconds,  whilst  in 
ether  it  remained  red  hot  for  5  to  6  seconds,  and  in  air  for 
about  20  seconds. 

I  placed  a  Rupert's  drop  in  hydrofluoric  acid  till  all  the 
outer  skin  was  removed ;  when  the  tail  was  then  broken  the 
drop  remained  intact,  and  it  was  not  till  the  thick  part  of 
the  drop  was  broken  in  a  vice  that  the  whole  drop  broke 
into  pieces,  but  the  pieces  into  which  it  broke  were  much 
larger  than  when  broken  in  the  usual  manner. 

A  small  drop  was  placed  in  hydrofluoric  acid,  and,  after 
a  certain  amount  of  the  skin  had  been  dissolved,  an  even 
layer  of  about  iVth  of  an  inch  was  found  broken  into  small 
pieces  equally  all  round  the  drop,  these  pieces  remaining 
in  situ,  and  could  be  easily  removed  by  the  fingers,  whilst 
a  bead  of  glass  which  formed  the  core  came  out  clear  and 
transparent,  and  when  this  was  broken  in  a  vice  it  did  not 
break  throughout  into  small  pieces,  but  acted  like  an  ordi- 
nary piece  of  glass. 

Two  drops  were  taken,  one  was 
dipped  in  molten  paraffin,  so  that 
the  part  from  the  line  A,  shewn  in 
A  the  figure,  to  the  point  was  coated 

with  paraffin,  the  other  was  dipped 
so  that  the  part  from  the  line  A 
to    the   bottom    was   thus   coated. 


Peculiar  Properties  of  Glass.  51 

Both  were  placed  in  hydrofluoric  acid,  with  the  result  that 
the  acid  dissolved  away  the  surface  in  the  first,  whilst, 
in  dissolving  away  the  surface  from  the  bottom  the  whole 
drop  became  disintegrated  and  was  found  in  small  pieces. 

The  experiment  was  repeated,  and  this  time  both  top 
and  bottom  surfaces  were  removed  respectively  to  a  depth 
of  about  -iVth  of  an  inch  and  the  drops  remained  intact. 
When  the  tail  of  the  first  with  the  top  surface  removed  was 
broken  off,  the  drop  remained  intact,  and  it  was  only  when 
the  glass  was  broken  near  the  point  A  in  a  vice  that  the 
bottom  part  became  disintegrated. 

In  the  second  drop,  when  the  lower  surface  only  was 
removed,  the  breaking  of  the  tail  burst  the  whole  drop,  but 
the  lower  part  broke  into  much  larger  pieces  than  it  would 
have  done  if  the  surface  had  not  been  removed. 

According  to  Robert  Hooke  you  may  grind  away  the 
bottom  of  the  drop  without  producing  disintegration,  but  if 
this  be  attempted  from  the  point  downwards  the  drop  in- 
variably bursts.  From  the  above  experiments  one  is  led  to 
believe  that  the  drop  might  be  ground  from  either  end  if 
the  necessary  care  were  taken,  which  would  no  doubt  require 
to  be  much  greater  from  the  point  downwards  than  from 
the  bottom  upwards. 

The  explanation  of  the  bubbles  in  the  drops  seems  to  be 
that  there  are  very  minute  bubbles  of  air  in  the  glass,  which 
form  nuclei  for  the  formation  of  the  vacuous  spaces,  and 
where  none  of  these  nuclei  exist  the  drop  appears  to  form 
as  a  solid  transparent  mass  under  greater  tension  than  those 
in  which  the  bubbles  have  formed  ;  but  the  curious  thing  is 
that  whilst  the  Rupert's  drops  containing  bubbles  had  in- 
creased in  volume  over  2  per  cent,  those  free  from  bubbles 
had  only  increased  by  about  ^  per  cent.  One  would 
suppose  that  if  a  drop  of  molten  glass  were  thrown  into  cold 
water  its  external  surface  would  be  solidified  at  once  and 
that,  whether  or  no,  bubbles  formed  afterwards  in  the  centre 


52  Peculiar  Properties  of  Glass. 

of  the  drop  it  would  have  somewhere  about  the  same  specific 
gravity.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  and  the  bubbles  form 
such  a  very  considerable  volume  of  the  whole  drop  that  it 
is  difficult  to  imagine  it  possible  that  the  molecules  of  glass 
could,  as  it  were,  stretch  so  as  to  accommodate  themselves 
to  filling  such  spaces  with  a  continuous  solid  mass  of  glass. 
What  seems  to  take  place  therefore  is,  that  in  the  drops  in 
which  the  bubbles  occur,  the  solid  contents  and  surface  of 
the  drop  are  forced  outwards  simultaneously  with  the  cool- 
ing. It  seems  curious,  however,  that  drops  cooled  in  oil, 
although  increasing  in  volume  about  as  much  as  those 
cooled  in  water,  should  not  possess  the  bursting  properties 
peculiar  to  the  drop  formed  in  water.  It  is  true  that  the 
drop  cools  more  rapidly  in  water  than  in  oil,  and  a  remark- 
able thing  is  that  one  often  finds  bubbles  formed  from  the 
surface  inwards  in  drops  formed  in  oil,  whilst  I, have  never 
observed  that  in  water-cooled  drops. 

I  have  to  thank  my  assistants,  Mr.  H.  Bowes  and  Mr. 
J.  P.  Shenton,  for  much  of  the  work  contained  herein. 


British  Species  of  Allot rincs.  53 


On  the  British  Species  of  Allotrinae,  with  descriptions 
of  other  new  species  of  Parasitic  Cynipidae.  By 
P.  Cameron.    Communicated  by  John  Boyd,  Esq. 

{Received  November  22nd,  r888.) 

Neither  in  this  country  nor  abroad  have  the  Parasitic 
'Cynipidae  attracted  much  attention,  and  thus  our  knowledge 
of  the  species  is  comparatively  limited.  That  the  group  is 
numerous  in  species  there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  their  correct 
determination  is  a  work  of  some  difficulty,  chiefly  owing  to 
the  shortness  of  the  descriptions  of  Hartig,  who  is  the 
entomologist  who  first  studied  the  species  to  any  extent. 
Until  his  types  have  been  examined  by  the  aid  of  the  works 
of  Thomson  and  other  writers,  there  must  be  always  some 
doubt  regarding  many  of  them.  The  Allotrin?e  will  probably 
be  found  to  be  more  difficult  of  specific  discrimination  than 
any  other  section  of  Parasitic  Cynipidae,  from  the  absence 
of  much  difference  in  sculpture  or  great  variation  in  structure, 
while  also  they  are  very  numerous  in  species,  and  mainly 
distinguished  by  differences  in  colour,  in  the  form  of 
the  antennae  and  in  the  alar  neuration.  As  a  sub-family 
they  are  to  be  known  by  the  broad  radial  cellule,  the  areolet 
not  being  situated  opposite  its  base  :  the  first  and  second 
cubital  cellules  are  never  complete  and  the  cubitus  (when 
indicated)  issues  from  the  middle  of  the  transverse  basal 
nervure  ;  the  abdomen  has  the  second  segment  the  largest  ; 
the  body  (including  the  scutellum)  is  impunctate,  and  the 
hind  tibiae  have  only  one  spur.  One  of  the  most  recent 
writers  on  the  subject  (Mr.  W.  H.  Ashmead,  Trans.  Am. 
Ent.  Sac,  XIII.,  p.  64)  includes  yEgilips  Hal.  in  the 
Allotrincs  ;  but  the  entire  structure  of  that  genus  comes  so 
near  the  Figitince  and  especially  AnacJiaris,  that  I  cannot 


54  Mr.  Cameron  on  the 

look  upon  Aigilips  as  having  any  affinity  with  Allotria,  from 
which  it  differs  in  the  rugose  scutellum,  in  the  shorter  second 
abdominal  segment  (which  is  not  half  the  length  of  the 
abdomen)  and  in  the  cubitus  issuing  from  below  the  middle 
of  the  transverse  basal  nervure.  It  is  however  very  probable 
that  Aigilips  Ashmead  is  different  from  Aigilips  Hal. 
Certainly  that  genus  has  a  transverse  groove  before  the 
scutellum,  the  second  abdominal  segment  is  not "  longer  than 
the  others,"  and  the  parapsidal  furrows  are  not  parallel,  as 
stated  by  Mr.  Ashmead  to  be  the  case  with  his  Aigilips. 

According  to  our  present  knowledge  the  Allotrincs  are 
attached  to  aphides,  either  as  parasites  or  hyper-parasites 
of  the  ichneumons  which  destroy  the  plant  lice.  So  far 
I  am  acquainted  with  thirty-three  British  species  oi  Allotria. 
Those  with  the  wings  fully  developed  may  be  known  by 
the  following  table  : — 

1  (31)    Radial  cellule  closed. 

2  (10)    Thorax  (and  head)  more  or  less  red. 

3  (4)    Thorax  entirely  red  ;  wings  large,  antennre  and  legs  entirely  clear 

yellow.  Megaptera,  Cam. 

4  (3)    Thorax  not  entirely  red,  antennie  not  entirely  yellow. 

5  (6)    Pleurse  entirely,  and  base  of  abdomen  broadly  rufous  ;  legs  clear 

yellow,  nervures  yellow  ;  antenna;  with  the  apical  three-fourths 
dark  fuscous.  Pktiralis,  Cam. 

6  (5)    Pleurce  not  entirely,  and  base  of  abdomen  but  slightly  rufous ; 

nervures  fuscous. 

7  (8)    Lower  part  of  pleurae  piceous-red  ;  legs  rufo-testaceous ;  radial 

cellule  small,  one  half  longer  than  wide.  Rtificeps,  Cam. 

8  (7)    Pleurae  rufous,  the  centre  broadly  blackish,  legs  yellow ;  radial 

cellule  large,  twice  longer  than  wide.  RiificolUs,  Cam. 

9  (i)    Thorax,  head  and  basal  half  of  abdomen  castaneous ;  legs  tes- 

taceous ;  radial  cellule  elongated,  three  times  longer  than  wide. 

Collina,  sp.  now 

10  (21)    Thorax  black. 

11  (16)    Head  red. 

12  (13)    Antennce  uni-colorous  yellow  ;  legs  clear  yellow. 

Flavicornis,  ITtg. 

13  (12)    Antennae  fuscous,  yellow  at  the  base. 

14  (15)    Head  entirely  red  ;  radial  cellule  elongate.  FzV/r/jir,  West, 

15  (14)    Head  with  the  vertex  castaneous;   radial   cellule   moderate. 

Tscheki,  Gir. 


British  Species  of  Allotrince^  5g 

i6  (ii)    Head  for  the  greater  part  black  (entirely  or  with  the  oral  region 
piceous-red). 

17  (20)    Legs  clear  yellow. 

18  (19)    Radial  cellule  large,   elongated,   more  than  twice   longer   than 

wide  ;  the  femora  slightly  infuscated.         Cvcuviscripta,  Htg. 

19  (18)     Radial  cellule  small,  not  twice  longer  than  wide  ;  femora  clear 

yellow.  Minuta,  Htg. 

20  (17)    Legs  more  or  less  fuscous-testaceous. 

21  (28)    Radial  cellule  elongated  ;  the  second  abscissa   of  the  radius  at 

least  one  half  longer  than  the  first. 

22  (23)    Head   piceous-red,    radial   cellule   wide,    the   basal   abscissa  of 

radius  a  little  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  second. 

Curvicornis,  Cam. 

23  (22)    Head  black,    radial    cellule    elongate,    basal   abscissa  of  radius 

more  than  half  the  length  of  the  second. 

24  (25)    Length  scarcely  i  mm.  ;  basal  joints  of  the  antennte  clear  yellow. 

Dolichocera,  sp.  nov. 

25  (24)    Length  over  l  mm.  ;  basal  joints  of  antennre  fuscous  or  black. 

26  (27)    Head  piceous,  black  on  top  ;  the  4th  and  5th  joints  of  antennte 

deeply  curved.      $,  •  Ancylocera,  Cam. 

27  (26)    Head  black  ;  the  4th  and  5th  joints  of  the   antennae  but  slightly 

curved.  Longicornis,  Htg. 

28  (21)    Radial   cellule   minute,    not   much   longer   than  wide,  the   3rd 

abscissa  of  radius  curved. 

29  (30)    Head  black  ;  the  abdomen  strongly  compressed,  broadly  piceous, 

as  long  as  the  thorax.  Microcera,  Cam. 

30  (29)    Head  reddish,  castaneous  on  top  ;  abdomen  shorter  than  thorax, 

not  compressed.  Mullensis,  Cam. 

31  (i)    Radial  cellule  open. 

32  (49)  Thorax  black. 

33  (40)  Head  red. 

34  (35)  Radial  cellule  greatly  elongated.  Macrophadnus,  Htg. 

35  {34)  Radial  cellule  not  greatly  elongate. 

36  (37)  Collar  broadly  red.  Mactdicollis,  Cam. 

37  (36)  Collar  entirely  black. 

38  (39)  Base  of  abdomen   red  ;    antenna;  thickened  towards  the   apex, 

broadly  and  darkly  infuscated  ;  legs  reddish -testaceous. 

Basiinacula,  Cam. 

39  (38)    Base  of  abdomen  black  ;  antennae  hardly  infuscated  at  the  apex, 

legs  yellowish  testaceous.  Filicornis,  sp.  nov. 

40  (33)    Head  black. 

41  (44)    Radial  cellule  minute,  more  or  less  trapezoidal,  legs  clear  yellow. 

42  (43)    Antennae    clear    citron-yellow,    hardly  infuscated    towards  the 

apex ;    radial   cellule   twice   longer    than    broad ;    the    third 
abscissa  of  the  radius  not  distinctly  curved.       Citripes,  Thorns. 

43  (42)    Antennae  blackish,  yellow  at  the  base ;  radial  cellule  not  twice 

longer  than  broad ;  the  third  abscissa  of  radius  roundly  and 
distinctly  curved.  Trapezoidea,  Htg. 


56  ,     Mr.  Cameron  on  the 

44  {41)    Radial  cellule   elongated,    much   longer   than   broad;   legs  and 

antennse  not  citron -yellow. 

45  {46)    Legs  and  base  of  antennae  clear  testaceous-red  ;    radial  cellule 

elongated,    the  first  abscissa  of  radius  more   than   twice  the 
length  of  the  second.  UUrichi,  Gir. 

46  (45)    Legs  testaceous  with  the  femora  infuscated ;   radial  cellule  not 

elongated,  the  first  abscissa  of  radius  scarcely  twice  the  length 
of  the  second. 

47  (48)    Legs   reddish-testaceous,    the   femora   lined   with    fuscous ;    the 

second  abscissa  of  the  radius  twice  the  length  of  the  third  ; 
length  li  mm.  Perplexa,  sp.  nov. 

48  (47)    Legs  pale   testaceous ;    the   femora  fuscous  ;    the  joints   pallid. 

Crassa,  sp.  no?. 

49  (32)    Thorax    piceous-red    or    reddish-testaceous    (head    reddish    or 

castaneous). 

50  (51)    Legs  and  antennoe  fuscous-testaceous,  the  femora  infuscated  ;  head 

castaneous,  abdomen  broadly  rufous.  Cakdonica,  Cam. 

51  (50)    Legs  clear  yellow,  the  femora  not  infuscated. 

52  (53)    Head  castaneous,  abdomen  black,  reddish  at  the  extreme  base  ; 

radial  cellule  elongate.  Fkeomaculaia,  Cam. 

53  {52)    Head  reddish,  abdomen  broadly  reddish,  black  at  the  apex  or  base. 

54  (55)    Length   i^  mm.  ;  abdomen  reddish,   black  at  the  base ;  radial 

cellule  elongate,  narrow,  the  third  abscissa  of  the  radius  not 
distinctly  roundly  curved.  Testaceiis,  Htg. 

55  {54)    Length  i  mm.  ;  abdomen  black,  reddish  at  base  ;  radial  cellule 

short,  -wide,  the  third  abscissa  of  radius  with  a  distinct  rounded 
curve.  Nizriventris,  Thorns. 


Allotria  dolichocera,  sp.  nov. 

Black;  the  mouth,  the  base  of  the  antenna  (joints  i — 4) 
and  legs  pallid  testaceous  ;  castaneous  or  infuscated  broadly 
in  the  middle  ;  wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  fuscous.  An- 
tennae longer  than  the  body,  very  slightly  thickened  towards 
the  middle ;  the  third  and  fourth  joints  subequal  and  a  little 
longer  than  the  second  ;  the  last  joint  fully  one-half  longer 
than  the  penultimate.  Radial  cellule  wide  ;  the  second 
abscissa  fully  one  and  a  half  times  the  length  of  the  second, 
almost  straight.     ?. 

Length  ^  mm. 

What  is  probably  the  $  has  the  antennae  filiform,  one 
fourth  longer  than  the  body;  the  third  joint  curved;  the 
base  of  the  abdomen  rufous. 


British  Species  of  AllotrincB.  57 

A.  brevis  Thomson  comes  very  near  this  species,  but 
it  has  the  antennae  only  the  length  of  the  thorax. 

Hab.  Cadder  Wilderness  near  Glasgow,  Dumfries,  Peck- 
ham  {T.R.  Bilhips). 

ALLOTRIA  COLLINA,  sp.  nov. 

Black;  the  oral  region,  the  thorax  and  base  of  abdomen, 
castaneous ;  the  basal  four  joints  of  the  antennae  and  legs 
pallid  testaceous ;  the  femora  inclining  to  castaneous. 
Wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  fuscous.  Antennae  nearly  one- 
half  longer  than  the  body,  thickened  gradually  (but  not 
strongly)  towards  the  apex  ;  the  third  joint  not  much  longer 
than  the  second ;  the  last  longer  than  the  penultimate. 
Radial  cellule  elongate;  the  third  abscissa  of  radius  two 
and  a  half  times  the  length  of  the  second.     9. 

Length  ^  mm. 

Most  nearly  related  to  A.  dolichocera,  but  readily  known 
by  the  castaneous  thorax  and  base  of  abdomen,  by  the  more 
slender  and,  if  anything,  longer  antennae,  by  the  clear  colour 
of  the  legs,  and  by  the  more  elongated  radial  cellule. 

Hab.     Mugdock. 

Allotria  filicornis,  sp.  nov. 
Black  ;  the  head  red,  castaneous  on  the  top  ;  the  legs 
and  five  basal  joints  of  the  antennae  clear  yellow  ;  joints 
^ — 13  fuscous  ;  wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  testaceous  ; 
metathorax  and  base  of  abdomen  covered  with  long  pale 
hair.  Antennae  filiform,  not  thickened  towards  the  apex  ; 
the  third  joint  a  little  longer  than  the  fourth,  and  both  are 
longer  than  the  fifth;  the  last  joint  is  fully  one-fourth 
longer  than  the  penultimate.  Radial  cellule  elongate,  wide, 
twice  longer  than  wide  ;  the  first  abscissa  of  radius  three- 
fourths  of  the  length  of  the  second  ;  the  third  roundly 
curved,  two  and  a  half  times  the  length  of  the  second.  The 
6  has  the  fourth  and  fifth  joints  curved  ;  the  third  is  as  long 
as  the  fourth  ;  the  two  last  are  subequal. 


58  Mr.  Cameron  on  the 

Length  nearly  lYi  mm. 

Most  nearly  related  to  A .  inacrophadna  ;  but  it  is  smaller^ 
the  colour  of  the  legs  is  yellow,  not  reddish  or  reddish- 
testaceous  ;  the  wings  are  shorter,  the  radial  cellule  is 
shorter  and  narrower.  In  the  $  the  curvature  in  joints 
4  and  5  is  better  marked,  and  the  third  joint  is  longer. 

It  is  a  larger  species  than  A.  bnsimacula  ;  the  antennae 
are  of  a  paler  and  clearer  yellow,  not  dark  fuscous,  and  much 
stouter  and  with  the  fourth  and  fifth  joints  thicker  and 
more  curved  ;  the  legs  are  clear  yellow,  not  reddish  tes- 
taceous ;  the  abdomen  is  longer  compared  to  the  thorax 
and  the  radial  cellule  is  wider. 

Hab.  Cladich,  Loch  Awe,  Clydesdale,  Manual,  Linlith- 
gowshire, Moffat,  Dumfries. 

Allotria  perplexa  sp.  nov. 

Black  ;  joints  i — 5  of  the  antennae  and  legs  testaceous, 
the  femora  broadly  black  or  infuscated  in  the  middle ; 
wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  pale  fuscous.  Antennae  as 
long  as  the  body,  distinctly  thickened  towards  the  apex  ; 
the  third  joint  one-fourth  longer  than  the  fourth  ;  the 
last  one-half  longer  than  the  penultimate.  Radial  cellule 
moderate  in  length,  broad  ;  the  first  abscissa  of  radius  half 
the  length  of  the  second,  which  is  a  little  more  than  twice 
the  length  of  the  third,  the  third  slightly  curved.  The  hair 
on  base  of  abdomen  and  metathorax  very  dense.  The  $ 
has  the  antennae  filiform,  longer  than  the  body,  the  third 
joint  longer  than  the  body,  curved. 

Length  \y^  mm. 

There  are  two  species  described  which  have  the  femora 
darkened  and  with  the  tibiae  and  tarsi  testaceous  as  in 
perplexa  and  crassa,  namely  A.  aperta,  Htg.,  and  A.  fuscipesy 
Thomson  ;  but  both  differ  from  perplexa  and  crassa  in  having- 
the  antennae  shorter  ;  fiiscipes  having  them  scarcely  longer,, 
and  aperta  almost  shorter  than  the  thorax. 


British  Species  of  Allotrince.  59 

Hab.  Sutherlandshire,  Kingussie,  Clydesdale,  New 
Galloway,  Dumfries. 

Allotria  CRASSA,  sp.  nov. 

Black  ;  the  scape  fuscous,  joints  2 — 5  of  the  antenna, 
the  apex  of  femora  and  tibiae  more  or  less  and  the  tarsi, 
testaceous  ;  the  rest  of  the  legs  are  fuscous  ;  wings  hyaline, 
the  nervures  fuscous.  Radial  cellule  elongate,  narrow  ;  the 
basal  abscissa  of  the  radius  about  one-third  the  length  of 
the  second  ;  cubitus  short,  obscure.  Antennae  as  long  as 
the  body,  thickened  towards  the  apex,  the  third  joint  one- 
half  longer  than  the  fourth  ;  the  last  a  little  longer  than 
the  penultimate. 

What  is  probably  the  $  has  the  antennae  filiform,  longer 
than  the  body,  the  basal  three  joints  pale  testaceous,  the 
others  dark  fuscous. 

Length  i  mm. 

A  smaller  species  than  A.  perplexa  ;  the  antennae  are 
shorter,  the  head  inclines  to  piceous  in  colour  ;  the  radial 
cellule  is  more  elongated  and  has  the  second  abscissa  of  the 
radius  fully  three  times  the  length  of  the  third  ;  and  the 
legs  are  pale  testaceous,  not  reddish  and  are  especially 
pallid  at  the  joints. 

Hab.     Sutherlandshire,  Cladich,  Loch  Awe,  Dumfries. 

Kleditoma  LONGIPENNIS,  sp.  nov. 
Black,  shining ;  the  knees,  apex  of  femora  and  base  of 
tibiae,  piceous  ;  wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  piceous.  An- 
tennae as  long  as  the  body ;  the  third  joint  scarcely  one- 
half  longer  than  the  fourth;  the  3 — 8  joints  thin, twice  longer 
than  broad,  fully  half  the  width  of  the  club,  which  is  nearly 
as  long  as  the  preceding  six  joints  united  ;  the  5-jointed 
club  distinct,  abrupt,  its  basal  joint  not  much  narrower  than 
the  second  and  nearly  one-half  shorter  than  it.  Scutellum 
distinctly  striated,  the  cup  lanceolate.     Sides  of  metathorax 


6o  Mr.  Cameron  o7i  the 

opaque,  finely  punctured  ;  the  metanotum  with  a  gradual 
slope,  the  keels  distinct.  Abdomen  shorter  than  the  thorax, 
compressed  ;  the  hair  fringe  dense,  dull  griseous.  Wings 
ample  ;  the  radial  cellule  elongate,  its  width  twice  the  length 
of  the  widest  part ;  the  second  abscissa  of  radius  twice  the 
length  of  the  first ;  apical  margin  of  wings  incised,  densely 
ciliated.     9. 

Length  i^  mm. 

Hab.  Clober  Moor,  near  Glasgow. 

Kleditoma  elegans,  sp.  nov. 

Black  ;  the  trochanters,  apex  of  femora,  tibiae,  and  tarsi, 
testaceous  ;  wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  testaceous.  An- 
tennae a  little  longer  than  the  body  ;  the  third  joint  nearly 
as  long  as  the  fourth  and  fifth  joints  united,  the  4 — 7  equal 
in  length  and  thickness,  the  eighth  one-half  longer  than 
the  seventh  and  distinctly  thicker  than  it;  the  5-jointed  club 
abrupt,  the  ninth  joint  thicker  and  longer  than  the  eighth  ; 
the  joints  bear  some  moderately  long  hairs.  Wings  ample  ; 
the  apex  waved,  almost  truncate,  but  very  slightly  incised  ; 
radial  cellule  wide,  moderately  elongate  ;  in  length  nearly 
twice  the  width  of  the  widest  part  ;  the  second  abscissa  of 
radius  three-fourths  longer  than  the  first.  Abdomen  as 
long  as  the  thorax,  looked  at  from  the  side  almost  tri- 
angular ;  hair  fringe  dense,  griseous.     ?. 

Length  nearly  i^mm. 

Allied  to  K.  longipennis,  but  easily  known  from  it  by 
the  clear  testaceous  tibiae  and  tarsi,  by  the  incision  in  the 
wings  being  very  much  less  deep,  and  by  the  eighth  joint  of 
the  antennae  being  clearly  longer  and  thicker  than  the 
seventh. 

Hab.  Mugdoch  Wood,  near  Glasgow. 

Kleditoma  truncata,  sp.  nov. 
Black ;  the  legs  testaceous,  the  coxae  for  the  greater  part 


British  Species  of  AllotrincB.  6i 

black,  the  femora  black  in  the  middle  ;  wings  hyaline,  the 
nervures  obscure  testaceous.  Antennae  a  little  shorter  than 
the  body ;  the  third  joint  twice  the  length  of  the  fourth ;. 
the  4 — 8  subequal,  but  becoming  very  slightly  longer,  and 
of  equal  width,  and  about  one-half  longer  than  broad.  The 
5 -jointed  club  sub-abrupt,  the  ninth  joint  being  distinctly 
thinner  than  the  tenth,  and  shorter  than  it.  Scutellum  indis- 
tinctly striolated  laterally  ;  metapleurae  opaque,  pubescent. 
Abdomen  shorter  than  the  thorax  ;  the  hair  fringe  dense, 
griseous.  Wings  large,  the  apex  hardly  incised  ;  the  radial 
cellule  elongate,  more  than  twice  longer  than  wide ;  the 
second  abscissa  of  radius  twice  the  length  of  the  first. 

Length  ij^  mm. 

Compared  with  loitgipennis  the  antennae  are  shorter  and 
stouter,  the  club  sub-abrupt  and  the  wings  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  be  incised. 

Hab.  Bishopton. 

Kleditoma  Marshalli,  sp.  nov. 
Black ;  the  legs  testaceous,  the  coxae  and  base  of 
femora  lined  with  black  ;  wings  clear  hyaline,  the  nervures 
testaceous ;  the  apex  incised  but  not  deeply.  Antennae  as 
long  as  the  head  and  thorax  united  ;  the  second  joint 
sub-globose,  thick ;  the  third  one-half  longer  than  the 
fourth ;  the  rest  broader  than  long ;  the  3-jointed  club 
abrupt,  the  basal  joint  nearly  as  long  as  the  three  preceding 
joints  united,  and  a  little  shorter  than  the  second  ;  the 
third  joint  nearly  as  long  as  the  two  preceding  joints 
united  and  sharply  conical  at  the  apex  ;  the  club  nearly  as 
long  as  the  rest  of  the  flagellum.  Scutellum  strongly 
longitudinally  striolated  ;  the  cup  small,  acutely  pointed  at 
the  base.  Abdomen  longer  than  the  thorax,  the  hair  fringe 
interrupted  on  the  top,  clear  white.  Radial  cellule  elongate, 
narrow,  more  than  twice  longer  than  broad  ;  closed  at  the 
base  and  apex  ;  the  second  abscissa  of  radius  one-fourth 


62  Mr.  Cameron  on  the 

shorter  than  the  third  ;  the  apical  incision  broad,  short  but 
distinct ;  the  fringe  long. 

The  (J  has  the  antennae  one  half  longer  than  the  body, 
the  third  joint  curved,  not  much  longer  than  the  fourth. 

Length  ?  2  mm.  ;   c?   i  ^  mm. 

The  great  length  of  the  club  render  this  (for  the  group) 
large  species  easily  recognisable. 

Hah.     Barnstaple.  (Rev.  T.  A.  Marshall.) 

KLEDITOMA   FILICORNIS,  Sp.  710V. 

Black  ;  the  legs  pale  testaceous,  piceous  towards  the 
base  ;  wings  clear  hyaline,  the  apex  cordate,  with  a  long 
hair  fringe  ;  the  nervures  testaceous.  Antennae  filiform,  as 
long  as  the  body ;  all  the  joints  of  the  flagellum  twice 
longer  than  broad,  distinctly  separated ;  the  club  sub- 
abrupt,  the  joints  narrow  at  base  and  apex  ;  the  apical  one- 
fourth  longer  than  the  penultimate.  Abdomen  not  much 
longer  than  the  thorax  :  piceous  on  ventral  surface,  the  hair 
fringe  large,  white.  Radial  cellule  narrow,  elongate  ;  the 
second  abscissa  of  radius  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  third. 

Length  i  mm. 

May  be  known  from  K.  psiloides  by  the  longer  and 
thinner  antennae  of  which  the  joints  are  all  twice  longer  than 
broad,  by  the  thinner  less  abrupt  club,  and  by  the  longer 
and  thinner  radius. 

Hab.     Bishop's  Teignton.  (Rev.   T.  A.  Marshall) 

KLEDITOMA  LONGICORNIS,  Sp.  IIOV. 
Black  ;  the  trochanters,  femora,  tibiae  and  tarsi,  testace- 
ous ;  the  femora  broadly  lined  with  black  above  ;  wings 
hyaline,  the  nervures  dark  fuscous.  Antennae  as  long  as  the 
thorax  and  abdomen  united  ;  the  basal  part  of  the  flagellum 
thin  ;  the  third  joint  not  much  larger  than  the  fourth  ; 
the  tenth  joint  longer  and  thinner  than  the  ninth  and  about 
one-fourth    narrower    than    the    eleventh  ;    the     3-jointed 


British  Species  of  Allotrince.  63 

club  distinct ;  the  joints  moderately  elongate ;  the  last 
sharply  conical  at  the  apex  and  longer  than  the  others. 
Scutellum  laterally  opaque,  closely,  longitudinally  striolate  ; 
the  foveae  deep,  wide,  distinctly  separated  ;  the  apical  fovea 
small,  shallow,  circular ;  at  the  apex  the  scutellum  broadly 
projects,  narrowing  towards  the  bottom,  but  not  forming  a 
beak  as  in  the  section  Rhyncacis  ;  abdomen  longer  than  the 
head  and  thorax  united  ;  the  hair  fringe  dense,  large,  grise- 
ous.  Radial  cellule  an  elongate  triangle,  closed  at  base  and 
apex  ;  the  nervures  straight,  the  second  abscissa  fully  one- 
fourth  shorter  than  the  third  ;  cubitus  traced  ;  apex  of  wing 
roundly  incised.     9 

Length  slightly  over  2  mm. 

In  general  coloration  this  species  comes  nearest  to  K. 
Jilicornis,  but  differs  from  it  in  its  much  greater  size  ;  in  the 
projecting  apex  of  the  scutellum  (forming  a  transition  to 
Rhyjicacis)  in  the  longer  abdomen  and  in  the  clearly  indi- 
cated cubitus. 

Hab.     Barnstaple.  (Rev.  T.  A.  Marshall.) 

Kleditoma  gracilicornis,  sp.  nov. 

Black ;  the  knees  and  tarsi  piceous ;  wings  clear  hyaline, 
the  nervures  piceous.  Antennae  thin,  twice  the  length  of 
the  thorax  ;  the  third  joint  one-half  longer  than  the  fourth, 
the  4—8  wider  than  long ;  the  ninth  oblong,  thicker  and 
nearly  twice  longer  than  the  eighth,  and  three-fourths  of 
the  width  of  the  tenth  ;  the  4-jointed  club  not  very  abrupt, 
the  three  basal  joints  of  nearly  equal  thickness  and  length, 
oval ;  the  last  longer  and  sharply  conical  at  the  apex. 
Radial  cellule  subtriangular ;  the  second  and  third  abscissa; 
of  the  radius  subequal.  Scutellum  aciculate ;  the  basal 
foveae  longer  than  wide.  Abdomen  longer  than  the  thorax 
and  head  united ;  the  hair  fringe  moderate,  whitish.  Apical 
incision  in  wings  slight.     ?. 

Length  i  mm. 


64  Mr.  Cameron  on  the 

The  much  smaller  size,  the  thinner  and  longer  antennae, 
the  smaller  and  whiter  abdominal  hair  fringe,  sufficiently 
distinguish  this  species  from  K.  tetratoma. 

Hab.     Munton.  {Rev.  T.  A.  Marshall). 

KLEDITOMA  AFFINIS,  sp.  nov. 

Black,  shining  ;  the  trochanters,  knees  and  tarsi  piceous  ; 
wings  hyaline,  the  nervures  dark  piceous.  Antennae  longer 
than  the  head  and  thorax  united  ;  the  third  joint  not  one 
and  a  half  times  longer  than  the  fourth  ;  joints  4 — 8  dilated 
towards  the  apex,  longer  than  broad  ;  the  apices  truncated  ; 
the  ninth  distinctly  broader  than  the  eighth  and  a  little 
longer  than  it ;  the  4-jointed  club  abrupt,  distinctly  separated  ; 
the  joints  of  nearly  equal  thickness  and  becoming  gradually 
longer  towards  the  apex  ;  the  tenth  a  little  narrower  than 
the  eleventh.  Radial  cellule  rather  elongated,  closed  at  base 
and  apex ;  the  second  abscissa  of  radius  distinctly  longer  than 
the  first.  Pro-  and  metanotum  slightly  pilose  ;  abdominal 
hair  fringe,  dense,  griseous  ;  abdomen  as  long  as  the  head 
and  thorax  united  ;  scarcely  petiolated.  Scutellum  laterally 
finely  striolated. 

Length  i^  mm. 

Very  similar  to  K.  tetratoma,  Thoms.,  but  may  be  easily 
known  from  it  by  the  third  antennal  joint  not  being  twice 
the  length  of  the  fourth  and  by  the  shorter  abdomen. 

Hab.     Bonar  Bridge,  Sutherlandshire. 

Trybliographa  crassicornis,  sp.  nov. 
Black  ;  the  flagellum  of  antennse  and  legs  red  ;  the 
coxae,  the  trochanters  above  and  a  line  on  the  upper  side 
of  the  femora  towards  the  base,  black  ;  wings  hyaline,  the 
nervures  dull  testaceous.  Antennae  fully  one-half  longer 
than  the  head  and  thorax  united  ;  the  third  joint  one-fourth 
longer  than  the  fourth,  which  is  as  long  as  the  fifth  ;  the 
8-jointed  club  abrupt ;  the  sixth  joint  as  long  as  the  seventh 


British  Species  of  Allotrince.  65 

and  equal  in  breadth  to  it,  moniliform.  Scutellum  rugose 
at  its  sides  and  apex  ;  the  basal  foveae  deep  and  wide. 
Metapleurae  densely  covered  with  griseous  hair.  Abdomen 
compressed  laterally,  lenticular,  longer  than  the  head  and 
thorax  united  ;  piceous  towards  the  base  and  apex  ;  the 
hair  fringe  moderately  broad,  brownish,  griseous  at  the  apex. 
The  first  abscissa  of  the  radius  curved,  fully  one-half  the 
length  of  the  second,  which  is  also  curved  and  three-fourths 
of  the  length  of  the  third  ;  the  latter  straight ;  the  cubitus 
reaches  quite  close  to  the  apex  of  the  wings. 

Length  4^  mm. 

May  be  known  from  T.  scutellaris  by  the  shorter  an- 
tennae, which  are  also  thicker,  with  the  club  more  distinctly 
abrupt ;  the  third  joint  is  not  one-half  longer  than  the  fourth  ; 
the  sixth  not  longer  than  the  seventh  ;  the  wings  shorter 
and  clear  hyaline  ;  the  abdomen  longer,  being  longer  than 
the  head  and  thorax  united. 

Hab.     Cambuslang  on  the  Clyde. 

EUCOILA  SCOTICA,  Sp.  flOV. 
Black  ;  the  knees,  four  fore-tibise  and  tarsi,  piceous-red  ; 
the  hinder  tibiae  piceous-black  ;  wings  clear  hyaline,  but 
slightly  pilose ;  the  nervures  fuscous.  Antennae  nearly 
twice  the  length  of  the  thorax,  with  an  8-jointed  club  not 
clearly  separated  ;  the  third  joint  not  very  much  longer 
than  the  fourth ;  the  sixth  longer  than  the  seventh,  twice 
longer  than  wide  ;  the  other  joints  not  much  thicker  than 
it,  but  shorter  compared  to  the  width.  Cup  of  scutellum 
rather  small ;  the  foveas  at  apex  round,  deep  ;  apex  of  cup 
projecting  ;  scutellum  coarsely  punctured  ;  the  depression 
at  base  large.  Cubitus  indistinct,  not  much  traced  beyond 
the  angle  of  the  radial  cellule,  which  is  short  and  broad  ; 
the  first  abscissa  of  radius  slightly  curved,  one  fourth 
shorter  than  the  second.  Abdomen  a  little  shorter  than 
the  head  and  thorax  united  ;  the  hair  fringe  moderate. 
Pubescence  on  the  metapleurae  sparce. 
E 


66  Mr.  Cameron  on  the 

The  c?  has  the  antennae  longer  than  the  body  ;  the  third 
joint  thin,  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the  second,  and 
longer  than  the  fourth,  which  is  thicker  than  the  third. 

Length  2 — 3  mm. 

Hab.  Clydesdale,  Dumfries,  Colvend,  Carruber  Glen, 
Dairy,  Ayrshire. 

A  larger  and  stouter  species  than  T.  ciibitalis  ;  differing 
from  it  in  having  the  antennae  quite  black,  stouter,  and  with 
a  less  clearly  defined  club,  and  with  the  third  joint  not 
much  longer  than  the  fourth.  The  radial  cellule  also  is 
shorter  and  much  broader,  it  being  not  very  much  longer 
compared  to  the  greatest  width  ;  the  second  abscissa  is 
only  about  one  fourth  longer  than  the  third,  and  the 
nervures  are  dark  fuscous. 

EUCOILA  FORTINERVIS,  Sp.  nov. 
Black  ;  trochanters,  base  and  apex  of  femora,  tibiae  and 
tarsi,  red  ;  hinder  tarsi  inclining  to  fuscous  ;  wings  hyaline, 
with  a  decided  fuscous  tinge  ;  the  nervures  dark  fuscous  ; 
spurious  nervures  and  cubitus  stout,  testaceous.  Antennae 
one-half  longer  than  the  body ;  the  third  joint  a  little 
longer  than  the  fourth  and  thinner  than  it.  Prothorax 
striolated  in  front,  rather  densely  covered  with  fuscous  hair. 
Scutellum  coarsely  rugosely  punctured  ;  the  cup  twice 
longer  than  broad  ;  its  base  and  apex  depressed,  narrowed 
and  rather  sharply  pointed  at  the  base,  the  apex  rounded, 
pitted  along  the  sides ;  the  apical  foveae  round,  deep. 
Scutellar  fovese  wide,  deep,  extending  backwards  nearly 
to  the  middle  of  the  cup,  and  not  completely  separated  in 
the  middle.  Metapleurae  densely  pubescent ;  the  meta- 
pleural  keels  stout,  straight.  Abdomen  shorter  than  the 
thorax,  the  hair  fringe,  dense,  griseous.  Legs  densely 
pilose.  Radial  cellule  twice  longer  than  wide  ;  the  first 
abscissa  of  radius  about  one-fourth  shorter  than  the  second, 
which  is  straight  and  nearly  half  the  length  of  the  third  ; 


British  Species  of  Alloirince.  6y 

the  latter  is  curved  near  the  apex  ;  cubitus  thick,  extending 
to  the  apex.      S 

Length  3^  mm. 

Hab.     Gloucester. 

EUCOILA    PROXIMA,  Sp.  710V. 

Black,  shining  ;  the  flagellum  inclining  to  fuscous  ;  the 
apex  of  coxae,  trochanters,  femora,  tibiae  and  tarsi,  rufous  ; 
the  base  of  femora  hned  with  black  ;  wings  clear  hyaline, 
pubescent,  ciliated,  the  nervures  clear  testaceous.  Antennai 
nearly  as  long  as  the  thorax  and  abdomen  united,  without 
a  club ;  the  joints  becoming  very  gradually  and  slightly 
thickened  towards  the  apex  ;  the  third  joint  a  little  longer 
than  the  fourth,  which  is  of  the  same  length  as  the  fifth. 
Scutellar  foveae  longer  than  broad,  deep,  truncated  at  base 
and  apex  ;  the  sides  of  scutellum  punctured  ;  the  cup 
depressed  at  the  base  ;  and  apex  not  projecting  much,  with 
a  shallow  fovea  above.  Metapleurse  densely  covered  with 
griseous  hair.  Abdomen  a  little  longer  than  the  thorax, 
compressed,  lenticular ;  the  hair  fringe  dense,  griseous. 
Radial  cellule  elongate ;  the  second  abscissa  curved,  fully 
three-fourths  of  the  length  of  the  third,  which  is  nearly 
straight;  cubitus  not  extending  beyond  the  radial  cellule. 

Length  3  mm. 

Comes  nearest  to  E.  glottiana,  but  stouter ;  has  the 
antennae  stouter,  shorter,  and  quite  black  ;  the  scutellar 
foveas  are  longer  and  separated  by  a  stout  keel ;  the  cup  is 
somewhat  more  raised  ;  the  apex  of  the  scutellum,  looked 
at  laterally,  projects  more  and  is  rounded,  while  in  glottiana 
it  is  truncated.     The  wings,  too,  are  clear  hyaline. 

Hab.  ^en?LQ&i  {T.  R.  Bilhips). 

DiASTROPHUS   (?)   APHIDIVORUS,  Sp.  UOV. 
Black ;  the  antennae  testaceous ;  the  legs  rufo-testaceous ; 
the  tips  of  the  tarsi  black  ;  wings  almost  hyaline,  the  ner- 


68  ■  Mr.  Cameron  on  tJie 

vLires  fuscous,  thick.  Antennae  stout,  a  little  longer  than 
the  body,  stout;  the  third  joint  attenuate,  a  little  longer 
than  the  fourth.  Head  large,  a  little  wider  than  the  thorax  ; 
shining,  impunctate.  Prothorax  large,  finely  rugose  ;  semi- 
perpendicular  in  the  middle.  Mesonotum  shining,  ob- 
scurely striated  at  the  base  ;  the  parapsidal  furrows  distinct 
at  the  base.  Scutellum  rugosely  punctured,  depressed  in 
the  centre  ;  the  basal  foveae  large,  wider  than  long,  curved, 
united.  Metapleurai  rugosely  punctured.  Abdomen  shin- 
ing, the  second  and  third  segments  subequal,  apical  ventral 
segment  bluntly  plough-share-shaped,  not  projecting  beyond 
the  apex.  Hind  tibiae  curved,  the  metatarsus  twice  the 
length  of  the  second  joint  ;  claws  apparently  simple,  wings 
ample  ;  the  radial  cellule  open  at  base  and  apex  and  in 
front  ;  narrow  elongate  ;  the  third  abscissa  of  the  radius 
curved  ;  cubitus  nearly  complete.      $ 

Length  nearly  i  ^  mm. 

On  the  whole,  this  species  agrees  fairly  well  with  Diastro- 
phns,  and  it  is  certainly  distinct  from  either  of  the  two 
described  species,  but  these  are  true  gall-makers,  forming 
galls  on  Riibus  and  Potentilla,  while  the  present  species  was 
bred  from  the  aphis  of  the  nettle,  by  the  Rev.  T.  A.  Marshall. 
The  difference  in  habit  probably  indicates  a  generic  differ- 
ence, but  in  the  absence  of  the  ?  one  is  hardly  justified  in 
forming  a  new  genus  for  its  reception.  The  simple  claws,. 
the  confluent  scutellar  fovese  (which  form  a  curved  furrow),, 
and  the  depression  in  the  centre  of  the  scutellum,  are  three 
points  of  distinction  between  it  and  DiastropJuis. 

Bred  from  the  Nettle  aphis  by  the  Rev.  T.  A.  Marshall 
at  Barnstaple. 

The  following  new  species  of  Eiicoila  has  been  taken  in 
Trinidad  by  the  Rev.  T.  A.  Marshall,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 

EUCOILA   RUFIVENTRIS,   Sp.  IIOV. 
Black,  shining,  impunctate ;    the  legs  fulvous-red  ;    the 


I 


British  Species  of  Allotrince.  69 

ventral  surface  of  the  abdomen  rufous  ;  wings  almost 
hyaline ;  the  nervures  dark  testaceous.  Antennae  three- 
fourths  of  the  length  of  the  body,  without  a  defined  club, 
the  joints  becoming  gradually  thickened  from  the  second 
joint  to  the  apex ;  the  third  joint  about  one-fourth  longer 
than  the  fourth  ;  the  fifth  and  sixth  subequal  ;  the  other 
joints  moniliform,  longer  than  broad  ;  the  last  conical  at 
apex,  one-half  longer  than  the  penultimate  ;  the  basal  joints 
piceous  on  the  lower  side.  Prothorax  in  the  middle  in  front 
raised  above  the  mesonotum,  and  clearly  margined  above 
and  at  the  sides,  the  top  being  semi-circular  ;  at  the  sides 
of  the  pronotum  is  a  thick  tuft  of  white  hair.  Scutellum 
large,  the  apex  rugosely  punctured  ;  the  cup  large,  oval,  its 
apex  projecting,  and  with  a  shallow  transverse,  oval  fovea ; 
the  basal  foveae  large,  deep,  wider  than  long,  distinctly 
separated  ;  there  is  a  well  marked  transverse  furrow  in  front 
of  them.  Metanotum  excavated  deeply  in  the  centre,  with- 
out keels,  the  apex  punctured  ;  the  metapleurai  densely 
covered  with  white  hair.  Abdomen  a  little  longer  than  the 
thorax,  compressed  ;  the  hair  fringe  gray,  narrow,  distinct ; 
the  apex  and  ventral  surface  widely  rufous.  Radial  cellule 
elongate,  twice  longer  than  wide ;  completely  closed  ;  the 
second  abscissa  of  radius  distinctly  curved,  three-fourths  of 
the  length  of  the  third,  which  is  only  slightly  curved  at  the 
apex  ;  the  cubitus  complete. 

The  $  has  the  antennae  somewhat  more  than  twice  the 
length  of  the  body ;  the  third  joint  curved  and  a  little  longer 
than  the  fourth. 

This  is  a  true  Eucoila,  intermediate  as  regards  most 
structural  points  between  Eucoila  and  PsicJiacra,  Foerster, 

Length  (?  2,  ?  nearly  3  mm. 


70  Proceedings. 


{^Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section?^ 

Ordinary  Meeting,  December  17th,  1888. 

Mr.  J.  Cosmo  Melvill,  M.A.,  President  of  the  Section, 
in  the  Chair. 

Dr.  Alex.  HodgkinsoN  exhibited  under  the  micros- 
cope, crystals  of  chlorate  of  potash,  showing  iridescent 
colours,  and  explained  the  cause  of  these  colours. 

Mr.  Stirrup  exhibited  a  fruit  of  a  silver  fir,  Abies 
Douglasii,  from  Sir  U.  Kay  Shuttleworth's  estate  in  North 
Lancashire. 

Mr.  P.  Cameron  made  a  communication  on  Pj'ret/nmn, 
and  its  use  as  an  insecticide  ;  describing  its  cultivation  in 
California,  and  its  manner  of  use  in  America. 


Proceedings.  71 

Ordinary  Meeting,  December  27th,  1888. 

Dr.  James  Bottomley,  B.A.,  F.C.S.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  communication  from  Mr.  James  Nasmyth, 
F.R.A.S.,  &c.,  was  read  : — 

"  Hammerfield,  Penshurst,  Kent, 
"December  21st,  1888. 
"Dear  Sir, 

"  Under  the  impression  that  the  accompanying  photo- 
graph, taken  from  my  original  drawing  of  a  group  of  sun- 
spots  may  interest  the  members  of  the  Manchester  Philo- 
sophical Society,  I  have  much  pleasure  in  sending  it  for 
their  acceptance, 

"  The  remarkable  objects  seen  in  the  photograph  which 
form  the  light-giving  constituents  of  the  solar  surface,  were 
discovered  by  me  on  June  5th,  1864,  when  the  condition  of 
our  atmosphere  happened  to  be  in  a  most  favourable  con- 
dition for  my  observation  of  such  comparatively  minute 
details  of  the  sun's  surface. 

"  My  discovery  of  them  has  been  amply  verified  by  Sir 
George  Airey,  the  then  Astronomer  Royal,  as  also  by 
Mr.  Stone,  Chief  Assistant  at  the  Royal  Observatory, 
Greenwich,  and  by  Mr.  Warren  de  la  Rue,  and  others. 

"  Believe  me,  1  am, 

"  Yours  very  respectfully, 

"James  Nasmyth. 

"  To  the  Secretary  of  the 

"Manchester  Philosophical  Society." 


72  Proceedings. 

Dr.  BOTTOMLEY  introduced  the  subject  of  the  death- 
rate  and  recent  correspondence  in  the  local  newspapers  on 
smoke  abatement.  In  the  discussion  which  ensued  it  was 
suggested  that  if  the  adoption  of  smoke-consuming  furnaces 
were  to  be  accompanied  by  the  abolition  of  tall  chimneys, 
the  advantages  of  diminished  smoke  might  possibly  be  off- 
set by  the  invisible  deleterious  gases  being  concentrated  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  atmosphere,  instead  of  being  diffused 
at  an  altitude  where  they  would  be  unlikely  to  be  injurious. 
Mr.  R.  F.  Gwyther  raised  the  question  whether  a  smoke- 
less fire  might  not  give  off  carbon  monoxide,  and  asked 
how  this  gas  would  be  eliminated  from  the  atmosphere. 
Mr.  John  Angell  argued  that  the  apparently  perfect  com- 
bustion in  well-arranged  smokeless  furnaces  implied  the 
absence  of  the  monoxide  from  the  products,  but  admitted 
that  in  the  case  of  smokeless  house  fires  or  stoves  the  danger 
alluded  to  by  Mr.  Gwyther  might  exist. 


Proceedings.  73 


General  Meeting,  January  8th,  1889. 

Professor  OsBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  T.  W.  Brownell,  of  Manchester;  Mr.  CHARLES 
James  Heywood,  of  Pendleton  ;  and  Mr.  James  Rait 
Beard,  of  Longsight,  were  elected  ordinary  members. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  January  8th,   1889. 

Professor  Osborne  Reynolds,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  President  mentioned  that  he  had  found  by  a  calcu- 
lation that  the  quantity  of  water  passed  per  hour  through 
the  condensers  of  the  steamship  "City  of  New  York,"  with 
18,000  horse-power,  equalled  the  average  consumption  of 
water  per  hour  in  Manchester. 

Mr.  F.  J.  Faraday,  F.L.S.,  communicated  a  paper  by 
M.  C.  Tondini  de  Ouarenghi,  of  the  Bologna  Academy  of 
Sciences,  on  "The  unification  of  the  measure  of  time,  with 
special  reference  to  the  contest  on  the  initial  meridian." 


74  M.  TONDINI  on  the 


On  the  unification  in  the  measure  of  time,  with  special 
reference  to  the  contest  on  the  initial  meridian. 
By  C.  Tondini  de  Quarenghi.  Communicated  by 
F.  J.  Faraday,  F.L.S. 

(Received  December  zytJi,  iS88.) 

I. 

As  early  as  the  year  1862,  the  International  Statistical 
Congress  held  at  Berlin,  impressed  by  the  many  inconveni- 
ences and  delays  resulting  from  the  simultaneous  existence 
of  different  calendars,  approached  the  Imperial  Government 
of  Russia  with  the  following  representations  : — 

"  The  International  Statistical  Congress  professing  that 
"the  principal  object  of  its  meeting  is  the  improvement  of 
"  statistical  publications  undertaken  by  the  several  States,  as 
"well  as  the  unification  of  the  same,  in  order  that  their 
"  results  may  be  actually  compared  ; 

"  Considering  that  uniformity  and  unification  in  the 
"  measure  of  time  is  a  desideratum  of  the  highest  importance 
"  for  many  weighty  points  of  science,  such,  for  instance,  as 
"the  assessment  of  births  and  deaths  for  every  month  of 
'  the  year ;  meteorological  observations  ;  the  date  of  the 
"  appearance  of  epidemics,  and  their  exact  duration  ;  many 
"  and  various  medical  observations,  and  the  like  ; 

"  Considering  also  that  the  importance  of  that  measure 
"is  equally  evident  for  every  kind  of  international  relations; 
"  for  commerce  and  the  several  branches  of  industry  ;  for 
"  railways,  and  the  simplification  of  many  computations  ; 

"  Most  respectfully  expresses  a  wish  that  the  Govern- 
"  ment  of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  and,  in 
"general,  all  Christians  belonging  to  the  Greek  rite,  may 


Unificatioji  in  the  ineasitfc  of  time.  75 

"  adopt  for  the  measuring  of  time  the  Calendar  generally 
"  used  in  Europe."* 

If  the  writer  is  correctly  informed,  an  Imperial  decree 
had  been  actually  drawn  up  ordering,  in  compliance  with 
the  request  of  the  Berlin  Statistical  Congress,  the  general 
adoption  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar  throughout  the  empire, 
but  other  considerations  prevailed.  It  is  only  just,  however, 
to  observe  that,  in  1862,  the  year  of  the  emancipation  of 
the  serfs,  the  attention  of  Russia  was  diverted  by  more 
urgent  reforms,  which  that  of  the  Calendar  might  possibly 
have  endangered. 

II. 

On  January  26,  1888,  the  Royal  "  Institute  lombardo  di 
Science  e  Lettere"  of  Milan,  received  a  communication  "  On 
the  advantages  and  possibility  of  the  general  adoption  of 
the  Gregorian  Calendar,"  and  appointed  a  special  committee 
to  report  on  the  same.f 

In  March  of  the  same  year  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences 
allowed  a  Note  "  On  the  Unification  of  the  Calendar "  to 
be  read,  appointed  a  committee  to  study  the  question,  and 
published  the  note  in  the  Comptes-rendjis.\  Subsequently 
several  other  communications,  bearing  on  the  same  subject, 
were  brought  before  the  French  Academy. 

The  Paris  Geographical  Society,  besides  receiving  at 
their  meeting  of  April  6th  a  first  communication  :  "  On 
the  general  adoption  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar  in  its 
relation  to  the  universal  hour"  and,  on  March  i8th,  in  the 
presence  of  General  Tcheng-ki-tong,  the  Chinese  envoy  in 
Paris,  a  second  paper  :  "  On  the  Chinese  Calendar,  a  propos 
of  the  Unification  of  the  Calendar,"  which  were  printed, 


*  See  the  original  French  text  of  this  important  document  in  the  Coiiiptes- 
rendus  des  siances  de  V Accui&mie  des  Sciences  de  Paris,  19  March,  1888,  p.  813. 
t  Rendicoitti  del  R.  Institnto  lombardo,  Serie  II.,  Vol.  XXI.,  fasc.  II. 
X  Seance  du  19  mars,  1888.     T.  CVI.  No.  12,  p.  813. 


76  M.  Ton  DIN  I  on  the 

together  with  the  General's  Reply,  in  their  Comptcs- 
rendiis*  went  so  far  as  to  call  by  a  special  circular  letter, 
dated  June  2nd,  1888,  the  attention  of  all  other  geographical 
societies  to  the  above  communications,  expressing  the  wish 
that  they  would  support  the  unification  of  the  calendar,  "  as 
a  useful  simplification,  a  real  advance,  both  from  a  practical 
and  a  scientific  point  of  view,  and  a  step  towards  the 
desired  general  adoption  of  one  initial  meridian  and  the 
same  unit  of  time."  As  far  back  as  the  beginning  of  April, 
1888,  this  same  Society,  by  a  special  letter,  congratulated 
the  Bologna  Academy  of  Sciences,  on  their  intention  to 
profit  by  the  festival  of  the  eighth  centenary  of  the  Bologna 
University,  to  give  a  strong  impulse  to  the  unification  of 
time  and  promised  them  :  "  tout  le  concours  des  moyens 
dont  elle  dispose." 

An  analogous  step  was  taken  by  the  Royal  Academy 
•of  Belgium,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  report  of  M.  Folic,  the 
Director  of  the  Brussels  Observatory,  headed  :  "  On  the 
unification  of  the  Calendar,  proposed  by  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  the  Institute  of  Bologna,"  inserted  in  the 
Belgian  Academy's  Bulletin.  Speaking  of  Russia,  "There 
"is  a  nation,"  says  the  Belgian  Astronomer  Royal,  "whose 
"  assent  in  the  matter  would  constitute  the  most  valuable 
"  scientific  gift  made,  in  our  century,  to  science."-|' 

Coming  back  to  the  Bologna  Academy  of  Science,  as 
early  as  February  19,  1888,  a  special  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  consider  how  the  approaching  festival  of  the 
University  jubilee  might  be  turned  to  the  advantage  of 
science.  Professor  Santagata's  report  was,  on  April  15th, 
unanimously  approved,  and  a  special  memorandum  bearing 
the   title   "Unification    du    Calendrier,"   was   consequently 

*  Compies-rendits  des  Stances  de  laSocictidc  G&ographie,  1888,  pp.  218  and 
307. 

\  Bidklin  de  PAcadi/nie  royale  de  Belgiqite,  3me  serie,  T.  XVI.  No.  7, 
1888. 


Unification  in  the  measnre  of  time.  77 

printed  and  addressed  "Aux  savants  reunis  a  Bologne  pour 

la  commemoration  du  huitieme  centenaire  de  son  Univer- 

site."     A  little  later  the  same  Academy  addressed  to  all 

Universities  and  scientific  bodies  which  had  been  represented 

at  the  festival  of  the  centenary  a  note,  dated  August  2,  on 

the  progress  of  the  question  in  its  relation  to  the  universal 

hour,*   and  as  soon  as  their  attention  was  called  to  the 

impending   Bath  meeting   of  the   British  Association   for 

the  Advancement   of  Science,  I  was  requested    to   profit 

by  the  international  character  of  that  meeting,  and,  as  the 

Academy's  delegate,  to  do  all  I  could  "to  give  a  strong 

impulse  to  the  studies  connected  with  the  unification  of 

the  Calendar." 

III. 

The  Bologna  Academy  of  Science,  fully  aware  that  the 
first  condition  of  success  is  to  propose  to  one's  self  things 
reasonable,  has  declared  that  the  desired  unification  of  the 
Calendar  ought  to  be  urged  "  within  wise  limits."  "  This 
Academy,"  they  say,  "  beg  to  remark  that  the  Universal 
"  Calendar,  being  merely  intended  to  serve  international 
"  relations  and  scientific  purposes,  will  no  more  impede 
"  the  maintenance  and  use  of  national  calendars,  with  their 
"  own  particular  divisions,  than  the  universal  hour  will  be 
"likely  to  impede  the  maintenance  and  use  of  the  local 
"  hours.  The  abolition  of  the  national  calendars,  provided 
"  they  be  correct,  is  by  no  means  aimed  at  by  our  Academy, 
"  and  the  very  circumstance  of  the  festival  in  celebration  of 
"the  eighth  jubilee  of  our  University  witnesses  to  our 
"  respect  for,  and  profound  attachment  to,  the  traditions  of 
"  the  past.  Simplification  is  not  levelling,  and  it  would 
"indeed  be  a  poor  service  rendered  to  science  to  deprive 
"  people  of  the  means  of  understanding  their  past  history. 
"  The  very  fact,  moreover,  that  all  Christian  countries  employ 

*  Siir  les  derniers  pr ogres  de  la  question  de  runification  dti  Cakndrier,  dans 
ses  rapports  avec  Fheiire  imiverselle.     Bologne,  Gamberini,  1888. 


78  M.  TONDINI  on  tne 

"  two  calendars,  the  one  solar  for  civil  usages  and  the  other 
"  lunar  for  determining  the  epoch  of  movable  feasts  as  well  as 
^'  of  many  national  feasts  and  customs,  is  a  sufficient  caution 
"  against  unfounded  or  purposely  excited  alarms.  As  long 
*'as  there  shall  be  on  earth  Israelites,  tracing  the  origin  of 
^'  their  rites  to  Moses  and  Sinai,  the  Israelite  calendar  will 
"  not  cease  to  exist ;  as  long  as  there  shall  be  Christians 
*'  considering  the  Synagogue  as  an  image  and  preparation  of 
"  the  Church,  and  anxious  to  keep,  in  the  distribution  of  their 
"  solemnities,  the  order  of  those  of  the  ancient  law,  the  lunar 
"  calendar  of  the  Jews  will  always  be  used.  Let  the  same 
"  be  said  of  the  religious  and  national  feasts  of  Musselmans, 
"  Chinese,  and  other  people,  distributed  according  to  lunar 
"  calendars.  Experience  alone  will  by  and  by  lead  them  to 
"  consider  in  what  measure  it  would  be  for  them  more 
"advantageous  to  adopt  for  civil  usages  the  universal 
"  calendar.  But  before  deciding  on  this  point  they  must 
"  be  led  to  feel  its  necessity  or,  at  least,  become  aware  of 
"  its  utility,  and  this  of  course  depends  on  local  circum- 
"  stances  and  concerns  every  State  in  particular.  No 
"  reflecting  man  will  ever  expect  from  a  Chinese  labourer 
"  who,  living  in  the  interior  of  the  Empire,  does  not  come 
"  into  contact  with  foreigners,  and  who  also  feels  thoroughly 
"  satisfied  with  the  national  civilisation,  that  with  regard  to 
"  the  unification  of  time  he  should  partake  of  the  ideas  of  an 
American  or  an  Englishman."* 

IV. 

The  wisest  course  to  be  taken  for  hastening  the  said 
unification  is  to  support  the  general  existing  movement  in 
favour  of  the  so-called  "universal  hour"  or  "universal  day." 
A  Calendar  equally  universal  will  come  as  the  necessary 
result  of  the  adoption  of  a  universal  unit  of  time. 

"  The  Fifth  Resolution  of  the  Washington  International 

*  Unification  du  Calendrier. — pp.  14-15. 


Unification  in  the  measure  of  time.  79 

*'  Conference  of  1884," — thus  again  the  Bologna  Academy  of 
Sciences — "  proposes  as  *  universal  day '  the  mean  solar 
"day,  submultiple  of  our  solar  year.  But  neither  in  the 
"  notation  of  dates,  nor  in  international  relations,  nor  in  the 
"  determination  of  the  moment  of  scientific  phenomena,  can 
"  that  '  universal  day '  be  isolated  from  a  month  and  a  year 
"  perfectly  designated.  We  are  consequently  and  forcibly 
*'  in  presence  of  the  question  whether,  in  order  to  indicate 
"  that  month  and  that  year,  a  new  chronology  and  a  new 
"calendar  should  be  created,  or  we  should  resort  to  a 
"  chronology  and  a  Calendar  already  in  use.  No  one,  we 
"  believe,  will  seriously  think  of  creating  anything  new  :  the 
"least  inconvenience  of  such  a  scheme  would  be,  if  not 
"  entirely  to  break  with  the  past,  to  augment,  without  any 
"advantage,  the  difficulty  of  recurring  to  it.  Far  from 
"  hailing  such  a  creation  of  a  new  calendar  as  an  advantage 
"  for  science,  we  should  consider  it  as  disastrous.  Now,  the 
"  choice  among  the  existing  calendars  cannot  be  doubtful. 
"  Hence,  the  Bologna  Academy  of  Sciences  do  not  hesitate 
"to  express  their  conviction  that,  everything  taken  into 
"  account,  and  considering  the  advantage  not  merely  of  one 
"  particular  science  only,  but  of  the  whole  hiinianmn  scibile, 
"  the  frank  and  entire  adoption  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar 
"  is  the  measure  which  would  best  serve  the  interests  both 
"of  science  and  humanity.  A  more  regular  division  of  the 
"  number  of  days  for  every  month  should  be,  at  any  rate, 
"  the  maximum  reform  applied  to  our  Calendar."* 

The  same  opinion  is  expressed  as  the  result  of  a  critical 
examination  of  our  Calendar  by  Prof  Forster,  the  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Berlin  Observatory,  with  the  only  additional 
remark — which,  of  course,  is  already  admitted  by  the 
Bologna  Academy  of  Sciences — that  the  intercalary  day 
of  every  leap  year,  should  be  assigned  to  the  month  of 
December,  and  Dr.  Forster  seems  also  inclined  to  recommend 

*  Sur  les  derniers  progres,  etc. — p.  11-12. 


8o  M.  Ton  DIN  I  on  the 

what  he  calls  "  this  last  desirable  simplification  of  our  way 
of  measuring  time"  as  a  "compensation  (Gegengabe),"  offered 
to  the  members  of  the  Greek  Church  for  their  giving  up 
their  special  calendar,  and  thus  entering  into  a  complete 
agreement  with  the  civilised  world  in  their  way  of  dating 
time*  Alluding,  moreover,  to  the  many  projects  for  a 
more  perfect  way  of  intercalation,  Prof  Forster  makes  the 
following  truly  scientific  remark  : — "  The  agreement  of  the 
Gregorian  year  with  the  course  of  the  sun  is  now  sufficient, 
and  secured  for  a  length  of  time  beyond  which  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  constant  alterations  in  the  duration  of 
the  solar  year  is  not  able  to  reach."  In  other  words  :  it 
would  be  unscientific,  as  well  as  unwise,  to  make  provisions 
to  secure  the  above  agreement  for  a  time  before  the  coming 
of  which  we  may  be  obliged  to  alter  our  intercalary  arrange- 
ment again. 

It  is  indeed  satisfactory  to  have  to  announce  such  a 
perfect  agreement  between  the  representatives  of  science  in 
different  countriesf ,  and  to  make  it,  as  it  were,  even  more 
satisfactory,  owing  to  the  special  importance  of  the  question. 
Prof  Forster,  speaking  in  another  pamphlet,  of  the  "  uni- 
versal day,"  besides  assuming  as  needing  no  proof,  that  it 
will  be  dated  according  to  the  Gregorian  Calendar,  remarks, 
by  the  way,  that  "  Russia  will  thus  gain  the  advantage  of 
having  her  Julian  date  absorbed  {absorbirf)  by  the  Gregorian 
one."+ 

V. 

That  Russia  had  a  prominent  part  in  stirring  up  the 

*  FoRsrER  (Wilh.),  Ziir  Beurtlieilung  einiger  Zeitfras;en,  inshesondere 
gegen  die  Einfilhrung  emer  detitschen  Norinalzeit.  Inserted  in  the  Deutsche 
Revue  of  1881,  Berlin.     I.  Band,  p.  365, 

t  See  also  :  Bulletin  of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  IVashington  ;  Meeting 
of  January  30,  1875,  Vol.  II.,  pp.   29,  30.    Boletin  de  la  Sociedad  de  geografia 
estadistica  de  la  Repuhlica  Mexicava.    Teriera epocha,  Febrero  28,  1873.    T.I. 
p.  143,  etc.,  etc. 

X  Forster  (Wilh.).     Ort'cit  und  IVeltzeit,  Berlin,  1884,  p.  20. 


Unification  in  the  measure  of  time.  8 1 

question  of  the  universal  hour,  is  a  well-known  fact ;  and 
no  Power  gave  more  support  to  Mr.  Sandford  Fleming's 
initiative,  through  the  Canadian  Institute,  than  Russia  her- 
self As  far  back  as  February  4th,  1870,  Dr.  Struve  read 
before  the  Imperial  Geographical  Society  of  St.  Petersburg 
a  most  important  paper  concerning  the  initial  meridian,* 
and  his  verdict  was  so  authoritative  that  Prof  Forster 
and  other  scientific  authorities  referred  to  it  as  settling  the 
question.  Unfortunately  the  International  Geographical 
Congress  of  Venice  (188 1 ),  the  International  Geodetic  As- 
sociation of  Rome  (1883),  and,  finally,  the  International 
Meridian  Conference,  held  at  Washington  in  October,  1884, 
proved  equally  fruitless,  chiefly  for  want  of  agreement  on 
the  initial  meridian. 

That  things  are  now  no  more  advanced  than  before  the 
Geographical  Congress  of  Venice,  is  demonstrated  by  the 
message  of  the  late  President  of  the  United  States  to 
the  Congress,  dated  January  9,  1888,  recommending  the 
Government  "to  take  action  to  approve  the  resolutions 
passed  in  1884,  and  to  invite  the  Powers  to  accede  to  the 
same."  These  resolutions  are  consequently  not  approved 
yet,  not  even  by  the  Washington  Government,  nor  have 
the  other  Powers  acceded  yet  to  them.  Moreover,  the 
delegates  of  the  different  Powers  represented  at  Washington 
declared  from  the  very  beginning  that  their  presence  there 
was  only  ad  referendum^  and  could  not  in  any  way  bind 
their  respective  Governments.  What  these,  consequently, 
really  think  on  the  subject  of  the  initial  meridian  is  un- 
known, and  they  are,  at  any  rate,  still  at  liberty  to  give  or 
refuse  their  adhesion  to  the  Greenwich  meridian.  Other 
Governments  not  represented  at  Washington,  say  China, 
Montenegro,  Servia,  or  Roumania,  may  claim  a  right  to 


*  Struve   (Dr.    Otto)    O  pervoiit    meridiane    in    the    Geogyaphicheskia 
Invesiia,  etc..  No.  I,  March  15,  1870,  pp.  i  and  foil. 
F 


82  M.  TONDINI  on  the 

give  advice  which  may  equally  result  either  in  diminishing 
or  increasing  the  opposition  to  Greenwich.* 

It  is  alleged  that  the  Greenwich  meridian  is  now  used 
almost  everywhere  even  for  geographical  purposes,  and 
that,  consequently,  the  best  course  to  be  taken  is  to  let 
things  go  their  own  way,  until  France,  who  opposed  the 
adoption  of  the  Greenwich  meridian,  be  morally  compelled 
in  the  interest  both  of  science  and  humanity  to  give  in. 
As  for  the  assertion  that  the  Greenwich  meridian  is  now 
used  almost  everywhere,  even  for  geographical  purposes,  it 
should  be  carefully  verified.  At  any  rate  exceptions  are 
to  be  found  almost  everywhere.  This  said,  I  venture  to 
advance  that,  paradoxical  as  it  may  appear,  no  Power  is 
more  anxious  that,  with  regard  to  the  international  initial 
meridians  now  in  use,  no  change  be  made,  and  that  things 
should  be  allowed  to  "go  their  own  way"  than  France  herself. 
What  is  in  fact,  now-a-days,  the  general  practice  concern- 
ing international  meridians?  That  every  nation  is  at  liberty 
to  choose  for  their  marine  the  meridian  they  like  best,  and 
to  make  use  either  of  the  Nautical  Almanac  or  of  the 
Connaissance  des  Temps,  or  of  any  other  ephemerides,  just 
as  they  choose.  Now,  what  was  the  respective  attitude 
of  France,  on  the  one  side,  and  of  the  Powers  dissenting 
from  her  on  the  other,  at  the  Washington  Conference? 
While  France  advocated  for  navigation  and  astronomy 
the  maintenance  of  the  status  quo,  urging  the  application 
of  a  neutral  international  meridian  to  matters  to  which 
an  international  meridian  had  not  been  applied  yet,  the 
Powers  advocated  the  exclusive  use  for  the  marine  of  all 
nations,  of  the  Greenwich  meridian  and  the  Nautical  Almanac 
of  Greenwich.    On  which  side  was  the  proposal  of  a  change  ? 

*The  following  are  the  names  of  the  twenty-six  States  represented  at 
Washington  in  1884 :  Austria-Hungary,  Brazil,  Chili,  Columbia,  Costa  Rica, 
Denmark,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Guatemala,  Hawais,  Italy,  Japan, 
Liberia,  Mexico,  Netherlands,  Paraguay,  Russia,  San  Domingo,  Salvador, 
Spain,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Turkey,  United  States,  Venezuela. 


Unification  in  the  measure  of  time.  83 

Consult  the  proceedings  of  the  Washington  Conference,* 
and  the  official  Report  on  the  same  by  Dr.  Janssen,  the 
President  for  1888  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences.f 

It  is  customary  to  attribute  the  failure  of  the  Con- 
ference to  a  wounded  national  susceptibility  of  France. 
That  France  had,  after  all,  some  reason  for  feeling  wounded, 
is  the  impression  which  one  cannot  help  having  when 
carefully  perusing  the  above  documents  ;  yet  the  evidence 
of  facts  goes  to  prove  that  the  failure  was  not  due  to  this, 
but  to  a  motive  of  a  purely  scientific  nature  and  preceding  in 
point  of  time  the  debates  of  the  Washington  Conference. 

In  August,  1884,  consequently  two  months  before  the 
Conference,  the  French  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  ap- 
pointed a  special  committee  composed  of  standard  repre- 
sentatives of  science  and  men  having  a  special  competence 
to  give  advice  on  the  practical  side  of  the  question,  charging 
them  carefully  to  consider  the  proposals  which  were  to  be 
brought  before  the  Conference.  The  conclusions  of  the 
committee  are  given  in  a  remarkable  report  by  M.  Caspari, 
one  of  its  members :  \  "  For  navigation  the  question  is 
"  extremely  simple  ;  it  does  not  find  the  least  inconvenience 
"  in  the  statu  quo  ;  it  would  find  very  great  inconveniences 
"  in  its  modification.  .  .  .  We  may  say  in  conclusion  that, 

*  House  of  Representatives.  Executive  Document,  No.  14  ;  Forty-eighth 
Congress,  Second  Session,  December  4th,  1884. 

t  CoTnptes-rendtis  hebdoviadaires  des  Seances  de  P Acadimie  de  France. 
9  Mars,  1885,  pp.  706 — 726. 

+  Here  are  the  names  of  the  members  of  that  Committee :  MM.  Faye, 
President,  d'Abbadie,  Bouquet  de  la  Grye,  Senator  Dupuy  de  Lome,  Janssen, 
Vice- Admiral  Jurien  de  la  Gravi^re,  Ferd.  de  Lesseps,  Liewy,  Contre- Admiral 
Mouchez,  Perrier,  Vice-Admiral  Paris,  Tisserand,  Wolff,  all  members  of  the 
Institute  of  France.  Moreover :  MM.  Blavier,  director  of  the  Superior 
Telegraph  School  ;  Gael,  director  ingenieur  of  telegraphs ;  Caspari,  hydro- 
grapher  ingenieur  of  the  marine  ;  Charmes,  director  of  the  Secretaryship  at  the 
Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  ;  de  Chancourtois,  General  Mines  Inspector ; 
Clavery,  minister  plenipotentiary  director  at  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  ; 
Colonel  Goulier,  of  the  French  G4nie ;  Colonel  Laussedat,  of  the  French 
Ghtie,  and  director  of  the  Co7iservatoire  des  arts  et  m&tiers ;  Noblemaire, 
director  of  the  Railway  Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee, 


84  M.  TONDINI  on  the 

"  generally  speaking,  the  unique  initial  meridian  is  rejected 
"  by  astronomers,  geodetists,  and  navigators  ;  that  is  by  all 
"  those  for  whom  the  origin  of  longitudes  ought  to  be  traced 
"with  a  great  precision."  On  the  other  hand,  "For  general 
"  geographical  cartography,  especially  for  usage  in  the  schools 
"...  for  meteorology,  physics,  geology,  and  the  telegraph 
"service  (provided  it  be  without  prejudice  to  the  local  hour) 
"there  are  only  advantages  in  trying  to  have  a  common 
"initial  meridian.  .  .  .  France,  who  in  many  respects  has 
"  already  opened  the  way  to  such  international  agreements, 
"  cannot  stand  aloof  in  the  present  case  ;  she  can  and  must 
"  give  her  support  to  reforms  wisely  directed."* 

In  compliance  with  the  instructions  of  the  Committee, 
and  acting,  moreover,  on  his  own  scientific  convictions,  Dr. 
Janssen,  the  delegate  of  France  at  Washington,  did  all  he 
could  to  obtain  that  the  Conference  would  previously  discuss 
the  above  important  distinction.  "  Whilst  there  is  advan- 
"  tage,"  he  said,  "  in  increasing  the  number  of  Observatory 
"  meridians,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  as  far  as  possible  the 
"origines  of  geographical  longitudes.f     Now  it  is  evident 

*  The  original  French  runs  as  follows  : — "  Pour  la  marine  la  question  est 
des  plus  simples ;  elle  ne  trouve  pas  le  moindre  inconvenient  au  stahi  quo, 
elle  en  verrait  de  tres-graves  \  le  changer.  .  .  .  Nous  pourrons  dire  que,  d'une 
fa5on  generale,  le  meridien  initial  unique  est  repousse  par  les  astronomes,  les 
geodesiens  et  les  navigateurs,  c'est-a-dire,  par  tous  ceux  pour  qui  I'origine  des 
longitudes  a  besoin  d'etre  definie  avec  une  grande  precision.  .  .  . 

"  Pour  la  cartographic  geographique  generale,  et  surtout  pour  I'enseigne- 
ment,  il  n'y  aura  que  desavantages  a  tendre  vers  un  meridien  initial  commun.  .  . 
Nous  avons  fait  valoir  plus  haut  ces  considerations  ainsi  que  celles  relatives  a 
I'heure  universelle  pour  les  meteorologistes,  les  physiciens  et  les  geologues.  Pour 
le  service  telegraphique  aussi,  s'il  est  bien  entendu  que  I'heure  locale  sera 
conservee  et  si  Ton  obtient  la  transmission  d'office  de  I'heure  universelle  sans 
prejudice  de  I'heure  locale.  .  .  La  France  qui,  a  bien  des  egards,  a  ouvert  la  voie 
a  ces  ententes  internationales,  ne  peut  done  se  desinteresser  dans  le  cas  present  ; 
elle  peut  et  doit  preter  son  concours  a  des  reformes  sagement  conduites." — 
[^Rapport  Jait  au  nom  de  la  Commission  de  Punijication  des  longitudes  et  des 
hejires,  par  M.  Caspari,  ingenieur  hydrographe  de  la  marine.  Aout  1884, 
pp.  5,  6et  17.) 

+  Quoted  in  the  above  report  on  the  Washington  Conference,  1.  c.  p.  712. 
"  Tandis  qu'il  y  a  interet  a  multiplier  les  meridiens  d'Observatoires,  il  y  a  necessite 
de  r^duire,  autant  qu'on  le  peut,  les  origines  des  longitudes  en  geographie." 


Unification  in  the  measure  of  time.  85 

that  Dr.  Janssen  went  to  the  very  root  of  the  question  at 
issue,  and  that  a  statement  like  his  raised  a  doubt  which 
ought  previously  to  have  been  dissipated  by  a  fair  discus- 
sion. Instead  of  this,  the  choice  of  Greenwich,  for  all 
international  purposes,  was  carried,  as  it  were,  by  acclama- 
tion. Moreover,  whilst  Sir  G.  B.  Airy,  late  Astronomer 
Royal  of  Greenwich,  in  a  letter  dated  June  18,  1879,  to  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  said :  "  Nearly  all 
navigation  is  based  on  the  Nautical  Almajmc,  which  is 
based  on  Greenwich  observations  and  refer  to  Greenwich 

meridian I,  as  Superintendent   of    the   Greenwich 

Observatory,  entirely  repudiate  the  idea  of  founding  any 
claim  on  this";  and  whilst,  as  it  was  also  acknowledged 
during  the  Conference,  "  a  law  relative  to  the  unification  of 
time  notation  is  of  less  relative  importance  to  the  navigator,"* 
the  preference  given  at  Washington  to  Greenwich  was 
almost  entirely  based  on  the  argument  disclaimed  by  Sir 
G.  B.  Airy.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  after  all  this,  if 
Dr.  Janssen,  consistent  with  his  scientific  convictions,  wrote 
in  the  above  Report :  "  The  failure  is  not  for  France  but  for 
science,"  and  "  The  proposal  of  France  (of  a  neutral  inter- 
national meridian  except  for  astronomy  and  navigation)  still 
represents  the  impartial,  scientific,  and  definitive  solution  of 
the  question,  and  we  think  it  honourable  for  our  country  to 
have  defended  that  cause."f 


*  These  are  the  very  words  of  Dr.  Struve,  in  his  Report  on  the  Wash- 
ington Conference.  It  is  to  be  found,  together  with  the  letter  of  Sir  G.  B. 
Airy,  a  great  amount  of  useful  information  and  most  valuable  documents  on  the 
question  in  Mr.  Sandford  Fleming's  (C.E.,  C.M.G.),  Universal oi- Cosmic 
Time.  Proceedings  of  the  Canadian  Institute,  Toronto,  July,  1885,  Vol.  XXI., 
No.  143. 

t  "  Si  notreavis,  tout  scientifiqtie  et  desinteresse,  n'a  pasrallie  la  majorite, 
I'echec  n'est  pas  pour  la  France,  il  est  pour  la  science,"  1.  c.  p.  724. 

"  Le  meridien  propose  par  la  France  reste  toujours  comme  representant 
la  solution  impartiale,  scientifiqtie,  definitive  de  la  question.  Nous  pensons 
qu'il  y  a  honneur  pour  notre  paj's  d'avoir  defendu  cette  cause,"  p.  715. 


86  M.  TONDINI  on  the 

VII. 
On   both  sides,  then,  an    appeal    is    made  to   science. 
Now,  the  well-known  Italian  writer,  Alessandro  Manzoni, 
remarks  somewhere,  in  his  Promessi  sposi,  that  when,  in  a 
contest,  each  party  is  only  repeating  its  own  argument,  the 
contest  is  likely  to  go  on  for  a  long  series  of  generations. 
To  prevent  this  being  the  case  with  the  initial  meridian,  the 
Bologna  Academy  of  Science  has  recently  made  an  attempt 
to  conciliate  every  interest.     At  the  last  meeting  of  the 
British  Association,  held  at  Bath,  I  made,  as  delegate,  and 
in  the  name  of  that  academy,  the  following  suggestion  : — 
"  That  navigators  and  astronomers  being  at  liberty  to  go 
"  on  using  their  ozvn  initial  meridians,  another  truly 
"  international    meridian    be   chosen    for    all    other 
"purposes   for   which    the    unification   of    time    is 
"  required. 
"That,   moreover,   since    the   Jerusalem    meridian   has 
"already  the  suffrages  of  scientific   authorities,   its 
"appropriateness   to   serve   as  the  universal    initial 
"  meridian  be  seriously  taken  into  consideration."* 
This  suggestion  I  was  most  kindly  allowed  to  defend  before 
the  committee  of  Section  A  (Mathematical  and  Physical 
Science),  and  I  am  only  too  happy  to  express  my  thanks 
for  the  way  in  which  I  was  listened  to  and  the  encourage- 
ments I  there  received  in  my  endeavour,  not  indeed  to  have 
the  proposals  carried  through  by  all  means,  but  merely  to 
have  them  carefully  considered.     A  special  committee  was 
appointed  to  report  on  them. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  for  me  to  remark  that,  had  there 
been  any  serious  probability  at  hand  that  the  Greenwich 

*  This  suggestion  was  already  to  be  found  in  the  above-quoted  Note  of  the 
Bologna  Academy  of  Science.  ' '  Siir  les  dernios  progres  de  la  question  de 
Vtinification  dii  Caleiidrier  daiis  ses  rapports  avec  Vheia-e  Jiniversel/e,"  dated 
August  2,  1888.     pp.  12—14. 


Unification  in  the  measure  of  time.  87 

meridian  might  be  universally  adopted,  the  Bologna 
Academy  of  Science  would  never  have  thought  of  making 
the  proposals,  nor  would  I  have  accepted  a  mission,  which, 
owing  to  the  unavoidable  misrepresentations  usual  in 
matters  of  that  kind,  makes  me  appear  as  advocating,  "  the 
suppression  of  the  Greenwich  meridian  ! "  More  than 
enough,  and  I  speak  by  experience,  to  make  me  regarded  in 
England  as  a  kind  of  bite  noire. 

As  regards  the  choice  of  Jerusalem,  "where  every  form 
of  religion,  every  nationality  of  East  and  West  is  represented 
at  one  time,"*  the  Ottoman  Government,  which  has  been 
already  applied  to,  has  shown  the  most  favourable  dispo- 
sition.f  Moreover,  the  Jerusalem  antimeridian  would  cross 
the  land  of  Alaska,  where  the  change  of  date  was  already 
in  use,|  whilst  should,  as  it  was  suggested,  the  meridian  of 
Behring  Straits  have  the  preference,  the  interests  of  science, 
requiring  a  series  of  Observatories  of  various  kinds  and  at 
different  latitudes  along  the  initial  meridian,  would  cause  the 
Behring  one  to  be,  practically,  but  a  fiction,  and  the  real 
initial  meridian  to  be  its  antimeridian.  Now  the  Behring 
antimeridian  would  constitute  a  German,  Hamburg  o'' 
Halle,  initial  meridian — a  circumstance  deserving  con- 
sideration. Let  it  also  be  observed,  by  the  way,  that  the 
present  Jewish  Calendar,  reformed  in  the  ivth  century  by 
Rabbi  Hillel  Hanassi,  is  based  on  the  Jerusalem  meridian.§ 


*  CoNDER  (Claude  Reignier,  lieutenant),  R.E.  Tent  work  in  Palestine. 
London,  1885,  p.  162. 

t  See  in  the  Nouvelle  Revue  of  November  15,  the  report  of  Coumbary 
Effendi,  Director  of  the  Meteorological  Observatory  at  Constantinople, 
p.  440  :  La  Turquie,  k  Calendrier  tuiiversel,  et  le  nieridien  initial. 

X  See  Bulletin  of  the  Washington  Philosophical  Society,  Jan.  30,  1875, 
p.  38. 

§  See,  on  the  present  Jewish  Calendar,  Ideler  (Ludwig)  Handbuch  der 
mathefjiatischett  und  technischen  Chronologie,  2nd  edit.,  Breslau,  1883,  and 
Mahmoud,  sur  les  Calendriers  juddique  et  nnisulinan,  in  the  Memoires  des 
savants  etrangers,  couronnes  par  tAcadeinie  royale  de  Belgique.  T.  XXVI. 
and  XXVII. 


88  Unification  in  the  measure  of  time. 

The  longitude  of  Jerusalem  was  first  taken  by  Niebuhr, 
then  by  Seetzen*  and  Vignes.f  Lieutenant  Conder,  well 
known  for  his  survey  of  Palestine,  says,  in  the  Encyclopcedia 
Britannica  -^  "The  geographical  situation  of  Jerusalem  has 
now  been  determined  by  trigonometry  to  be  31°  46'45"N., 
and  35°  13'  25"  E.  long,  of  Greenwich,  taken  at  the  dome 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  church."  Now,  that  of  the  French 
Connaissance  des  Temps  is  32°  52'  51"  E.  Paris,  which  would 
make  35°  13'  y"  E.  Greenwich.  The  difference  is  too  great 
to  be  overlooked,  and  it  would  be  important  to  ascertain 
whence  it  comes. 

*  See  Zach  (Baron  von)  Monatliche  Correspondenz  XVIII.  Gotha,  1808, 
P-  537- 

t  See  Connaissance  des  Temps,  1868.  Additions,  p.  130.  Sur  la  table 
des  positions  geographiques,  par  M.  Darondeau. 

X  Encyclopedia  Britannica.     T.  XIII.,  p.  636.  Art.  Jerusalem. 


Proceedings. 


^Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section?^ 

Ordinary  Meeting,  January   14th,   1889. 

Mr.  Charles  Bailey,  F.L.S.,  Vice-President  of  the  Section, 
in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  C.  J.  Heywood  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Section. 

Mr.  George  Nash  Skipp  was  elected  an  Associate  of 
the  Section. 

Mr.  H.  Hyde  exhibited  specimens  of  wood  and  stone, 
perforated  by  PJwlas. 

Mr.  F.  Nicholson  exhibited  Pallas'  Sand  Grouse, 
both  sexes,  and  made  a  communication  on  its  recent 
appearance  in  England. 

Mr.  H.  C.  CtlADWiCK  showed  a  specimen  of  a  rare  star- 
fish, Goniaster  phrygiamis,  taken  by  a  North  Sea  trawler. 

Mr.  P.  Cameron  read  a  paper  entitled  "Hymenoptera 
orientalis,  or  contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  the  hymen- 
opterous  fauna  of  the  Oriental  zoological  region." 


90  Proceedings. 


General  Mectini:^,  January  22ncl,  1889. 

Professor    OsBORNE    Reynolds,    M.A.,    LL.D.,    F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Dr.  George  Bowman,  of  Old  Trafford,  was  elected  an 
ordinary  member. 


Ordinary  Meetin_c,^  January  22nd,    1889. 

Professor    OsBORNE    REYNOLDS,    M.A.,    LL.D.,    F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Johnson  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
commercial  copper  is  now  apparently  being  produced  of 
greater  purity  than  laboratory  "  pure  "  copper,  and  a  dis- 
cussion ensued. 

Mr.  P.  Cameron  read  a  paper  entitled  "■  Hynienoptera 
Orientalis,  or  contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  the  hymen- 
opterous  fauna  of  the  Oriental  zoological  region." 

During  the  discussion  which  followed,  Mr.  CHARLES 
Bailey  commented  on  the  fact  that  the  number  of 
entomologists  has  steadily  decreased  all  over  the  world, 
there  being  now  very  few  left  ;  a  circumstance,  Mr.  Bailey 
pointed  out,  which  is  the  more  surprising  as  no  department 
of  natural  history,  not  even  botany,  offers  so  wide  a  field 
of  research  and  so  rich  a  reward  in  the  discovery  of  new 
facts. 


Hymc7ioptera  Orientalis. 


Hymenoptera  Orientalis  ;  or  Contributions  to  a  know- 
ledge of  the  Hymenoptera  of  the  Oriental  Zoological 
Region.  By  P.  Cameron.  Communicated  by  John 
Boyd,  Esq. 

{Received  March  nth,  i88g.) 

Part  I. 
Introduction. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  number  of  our  countrymen 
who  reside  in  our  East  Indian  possessions,  our  knowledge 
of  their  insect  fauna,  even  of  the  Hindostan  peninsula,  is 
exceedingly  meagre  and  fragmentary.  A  good  beginning 
has  been  made  towards  the  study  of  the  Lepidoptera,  but 
the  same  can  hardly  be  said  of  the  other  orders.  As  regards 
the  Hymenoptera,  excellent  work  has  been  done  by  our 
distinguished  countryman,  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace,  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  Islands  ;  and  his  labours  have  been  recorded 
in  numerous  papers  by  my  late  friend,  Mr.  Frederick  Smith, 
of  the  British  Museum.  But,  with  all  that,  very  much 
remains  to  be  done  before  our  knowledge  of  the  Oriental 
Hymenoptera  can  be  fairly  stated  to  be  at  all  adequate. 
The  fact  that  less  than  2,000  species  have  been  recorded 
from  the  Oriental  region  is  sufficient  evidence  of  the  truth 
of  this  statement ;  and  of  the  need  of  the  attention  of 
Indian  residents  being  directed  to  such  a  promising  field 
of  entomological  study. 

My  own  attention  was  drawn  to  the  inquiry  by  Mr.  G. 
A.  James  Rothney  offering  to  place  at  my  disposal  for  study 
the  beautiful  and  extensive  collection  formed  by  him  during 
many  years'  residence  in  India,  chiefly  in  the  Calcutta 
district.     This   valuable    source   of  information    has    been 


92  Mr.  Cameron  on 

supplemented  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Cotes,  lending  me  the  material 
in  the  Calcutta  Museum  ;  by  a  large  collection  belonging 
to  the  Bombay  Natural  Society,  formed  by  Mr.  R.  C. 
Wroughton,  District  Forest  Officer  at  Poona;  and  by  various 
small  collections,  including  a  small,  but  very  interesting  one, 
made  by  Mr.  George  Lewis,  in  Ceylon. 

In  order  to  make  this  paper  as  useful  as  possible,  more 
particularly  to  Indian  residents,  I  have  given  : — 

(i)  A  catalogue  of  all  the  known  species,  with  their 
localities,  synonyms,  habits,  &c. 

(2)  Descriptions  of  rare  or  imperfectly  known  species. 

(3)  Descriptions  of  the  new  species. 

(4)  A  list  of  all  the  works  and  papers  relating  to  the 
Oriental  Hymenoptera,  and 

(5)  Observations  on  their  geographical  relations. 

Mr.  Rothney's  collecting  was  chiefly  in  the  Calcutta 
district,  namely,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  City ;  in 
Barrackpore,  Sittaghui,  Samnugga,  Ishapue,  Serampue, 
Chandauague,  Gusery ;  at  Port  Cauumy  to  the  south, 
Burdwan  to  the  north  ;  Nischindepue  to  the  north-east. 
Also  in  Tirhoot,  Bengal  ;  Mussourie,  North-west  Province 
(in  September  and  October),  in  Allahabad,  North-west 
Province ;  and  a  few  species  from  Dargeeling,  Madras, 
Bombay,  and  Ceylon. 

Mr.  Wroughton's  collecting  is  principally  from  Poona 
(Dekhan)  and  Bombay. 


SPHEGIDyE. 

Ammophila. 

Ammophila,  Kirby,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  IV.,  p.  195. 
Psammophila,  Dahlbom,  Hyin.  Ent.  I.,  p.  16. 
Parapsamnwpliila,  Taschenberg,  Zeits.  f.  d.  ges.  Natuviv. 
in  Halle.  XXXIV. 


Hyinenoptcra  Orieiitalis.  93 

List  of  species  of  ^i///;//^/////!??  known  fronn  the  Oriental 
region. 

(i.)  Petiole  2-jointed : 

1.  Atripes,  Smith,  Ann.  and  Mag.,  Nat.  Hist.  IX.,   1852, 

p.  46;  Cat.  Hymen.  Ins.,  IV.,  p.  217,  43. 
Hab.  India.     Common  in    Calcutta   district   {Rot/mej). 
Khandala  (Smith),  Sumatra,  China,  Shanghai. 

2.  BASALIS,  Smith,  Cat.  Hymen.  Ins.  IV.,  214,  17. 
Hab.  North  India,  Punjaub. 

3.  BUDDIIA,  Cam.,  infra. 

Hab.  Calcutta  district,  not  uncommon. 

4.  DlMiDlATA,  Smith,  /.  c.  216,  40. 

Hab.  India  (Bombay,  Madras,  N.  Bengal). 

5.  ELEGANS,    Smith,   /.  c.    216,   42. 
Hab.  North  India  (Punjaub). 

6.  FUSCIPENNIS,    Smith,     Trans.   Linn.    Soc.   Zool.    VII., 

p.  187(1870). 
Hab.  Mainpuri,  North-west  Province. 

7.  HUMBERTIANA,  Saussure,  Reise  d.  Novara,  Hyni.  25. 
Hab.  Ceylon. 

8.  L/EVIGATA,  Smith,  I.  c.  215,  39,  de    Saussure,  Reise  d. 

Novara,  Hyni.  23. 
Hab.    India  (Madras,  Guzerat),  Barrackpore  {Rot/uiey), 
Ceylon  (Cutchevilly). 

9.  LONGIVENTRIS,  Saussure,  /.  e. 
Hab.  Ceylon. 

10.  NiGRlPES,  Smith,  I.e.  215,  38. 

Hab.  India  (Madras),  Barrackpore  {Rothney). 

11.  PUNCTATA,  Smith,  218,  46. 
Hab.  Northern  India. 

12.  Orientalis,  Cam.,  infra. 

Hab.  Barrackpore,  Allahabad  {Rothney). 


94  Mr.  Cameron  on 

13.  Smithi  (Baly),  Smith,  I.e.  217,  45. 
Hab.  India. 

14.  SUPERCILLIOSA,   Saussure,  /.  c.  24. 
Hab.    Philippines   (Manila). 

1 5.  Taschenbergi,  Cam.   A  mmophila  erythropus,  Taschen- 

berg,  Zeits.  f.  d.  gesamnite  Naturw.  XXXIV.  434 
{non  Smith). 
Hab.  Java. 

16.  Vagabunda,    Smith,    /.  c.  p.   218,  47. 
Hab.    North  China,  North  India,  Sumatra. 

17.  ViSCHU,  Cam.,  infra. 

Hab.  Mussoorie  Hills,  North-west  Province. 

(ii.)  Petiole  zvith  one  joint  {P sammophila). 

18.  HiRTICEPS,  Cam.,  infra. 
Hab.  Gilgit  (Mus.  Calcutta). 

(iii.)   Tarsal  claws  with   tzuo   teeth   at  the  base  {Para- 
psammophila). 

19.  ViOLACElPENNis,  Cam.,  infra. 

Hab.  Sambhalpur,  Poonah  ( Wronghton). 

20.  Erythrocephala,     Fabricius.    Sphex  erythrocephala. 

Fab.  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  204,  23. 
Ammophila  erythrocephala,  St.  Fargeau,  Hist.  Nat.  Ins. 

Hyni.  III.,  385,  26. 
Hab.  North  India  (Punjaub),  Poona  ( Wroughton). 

A.  Mesothorax  transversely   striolated.     {Ammophila,  sensu 
sir.) 

Ammophila  buddha,  sp.  mv. 
Nigra,  fnsco  hirta,petiolo,  scapo,femoribus,  tibiis  tarsisqiie, 
rufis,  abdoinine  c(2ruleo;  alis flavo-hyalinis,  apiceferefumatis, 
nervis  testaceis.     Long.  25  mm. 

Antennae  short,  thick  ;  the  second  joint  two-and-a-half 
times  the  length  of  the   fourth.      Head    broad,  retreating 


Hynienoptera  Oricntnlis.  95 

behind  the  eyes,  which  are  large  and  almost  parallel ; 
covered  with  a  short  sparse  white  down,  and  sparsely  with 
longish  black  hairs  ;  front  and  vertex  obliquely  aciculated, 
the  former  only  excavated  immediately  above  the  antenn.'E 
and  without  a  longitudinal  furrow  ;  clypeus  sparsely  punc- 
tured ;  its  apex  almost  transverse  in  the  middle,  the  sides 
somewhat  oblique  ;  the  centre  slightly  incised  ;  mandibles 
obscure  reddish  towards  the  centre,  the  outer  side  broadly 
at  the  base  striolated.  Thorax  covered  with  a  fuscous 
pubescence  ;  the  tubercles  and  a  spot  on  either  side  of  the 
median  segment  silvery.  Pro-  and  mesonotum  strongly 
transversely  striolated,  the  striolations  rather  widely  sepa- 
rated ;  propleurae  obliquely  striolated  ;  meso-  and  meta- 
pleunie  longitudinally  rugosely  punctured  ;  metanotum 
transversely  rugosely  punctured  ;  scutellum  longitudinally 
striolated  ;  mesonotum  with  a  shallow  channel  in  the  centre  ; 
metanotum  not  elevated  in  the  centre  ;  a  shallow  indistinct 
furrow  below  the  spiracles.  Petiole  longish ;  the  second 
joint  usually  blackish  at  the  base.  Coxae  covered  with  a 
dense  moderately  long  silvery  pile  ;  the  trochanters,  tibiae 
and  tarsi,  with  a  shorter  and  thinner  one ;  hind  coxae 
coarsely  punctured  ;  tarsal  spines  black  ;  fore  calcaria  red  ; 
hinder  black,  reddish  at  base  ;  apex  of  tarsi  black.  Second 
cubital  cellule  at  top  a  little  wider  or  a  little  narrower  than 
the  space  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures  ;  third  cubital 
cellule  a  little  wider  at  top  than  at  bottom,  the  second 
transverse  cubital  nervure  bent  outwardly  at  the  bottom  ; 
tegulae  blackish  to  piceous. 

A.  humbertiaiia,  Saus.  from  Java,  seems  to  be  the  nearest 
ally  of  this  species,  but  it  has  the  metanotum  "postice 
oblique  in  V-formam  elevato-strigato,"  and  the  trochanters 
are  not  black.  A.  basalis  is  also  nearly  related  to  it,  but  is 
smaller  (15-17  mm.),  has  the  face  silvery  pilose,  densely 
so  on  the  clypeus  ;  the  head  smooth,  impunctate,  wings 
hyaline,  &c.     Barrackpore  ;  Allahabad,  N.  W.  Province. 


96  Mr.  Cameron  on 

Ammophila  orientalis,  sp.  nov. 

Nigra,  arge^iteo  Jiirta ;  femoribns,  tilnis,  f arsis,  petiolo, 
abdominisqne  segniento  i°  fere  toto,  rufis,  alis  Jiyalinis  vel 
fusco-hyalinis,  apice  fiimatis,  costa  testacea ;  nervis  nigris  ; 
abdomine  ccEndeo.  ?.     Long.   17 — 19  mm. 

Similar  to  the  preceding  species,  but  smaller,  with  the 
pubescence  shorter  and  sparser,  and  of  a  more  silvery  tint ; 
the  wings  without  such  a  decided  yellowish  tinge,  and  with  the 
nervures  blackish  ;  the  first  abdominal  segment  is  red,  except 
at  the  apex,  and  the  third  antennal  joint  is  shorter,  not  being 
twice  the  length  of  fourth.  Mandibles  broadly  red  at  the 
base,  which  is  striated  ;  clypeus  punctured,  densely  covered 
with  a  silvery  pubescence  ;  its  apex  with  a  broad  shallow 
sinuation ;  front  and  vertex  shagreened,  sparsely  and  shortly 
pilose.  Antennae  with  the  base  of  first  joint  testaceous,  the 
flagellum  covered  with  a  pale  pile.  Pro-  and  mesonotum 
strongly  transversely  striolated  ;  metanotum  more  closely 
and  not  so  strongly ;  scutellum  strongly  longitudinally 
striolated  ;  propleura  perpendicularly  striolated,  meso-  and 
metapleura  obliquely  rugosely  striolated  ;  the  raised  part  of 
the  metanotum  shield-shaped.  The  tubercles  and  the  sides 
of  the  middle  segment  densely  silvery  pilose.  The  second 
joint  of  the  petiole  is  black  above  at  the  base  ;  the  apex 
has  a  silky  pile  ;  the  hind  coxae  are  white  with  a  dense 
silvery  white  pubescence  ;  the  trochanters  are  red,  blackish 
towards  the  base  and  apex,  the  anterior  broadly  black  at 
the  base  ;  the  tips  of  four  anterior  tarsi  and  the  posterior 
from  the  base  of  the  second  joint  blackish  ;  spurs  blackish. 
Alar  cellules  pretty  much  as  in  y4.  biiddha.  The  ocelli  do 
not  form  a  triangle  ;  the  anterior  not  being  placed  very  far 
in  front  of  the  posterior. 

The  clypeus  and  tegulae  in  some  specimens  are  tes- 
taceous ;  the  apex  of  the  second  joint  of  the  petiole  may  be 
black  ;  the  basal  joint  of  the  antennse  may  be  testaceous, 


Hynienoptera  Oriental'is.  97 

and  the  middle  joints  may  show  a  tendency  towards  fuscous 
coloration.     In  size  there  is  some  variation. 


Ammophila  nigripes,  Smith. 
A  specimen  from  Barrackpore  agrees  with  Smith's 
description  so  far  as  it  goes.  It  is  fully  one  line  longer  ; 
the  hair  on  the  thorax  is  longish  and  tolerably  thick  ;  the 
clypeus  is  broadly  transverse  at  the  apex,  the  sides  being 
angled  ;  the  mesonotum  is  furrowed  in  the  centre  ;  the  legs 
are  thickly  pruinose ;  the  second  cubital  cellule  at  the  top 
is  about  one-fourth  shorter  than  the  third,  and  about  equal 
in  length  to  the  space  bounded  by  the  second  recurrent  and 
second  transverse  cubital  nervures  ;  the  third  cubital  cellule 
is  almost  equal  in  length  at  top  and  bottom,  and  the  third 
transverse  cubital  nervure  is  sharply  elbowed  a  little  below 
the  middle. 

Ammophila  atripes,  SviitJi. 
The  Barrackpore  specimens  of  this  species,  as  named  by 
Smith,  are  uniform  in  coloration — black,  the  second  joint  of 
petiole  is  red  beneath,  the  first  joint  black,  the  other  seg- 
ments steel-blue ;  the  wings  more  or  less  fuscous,  the 
nervures  black.  Face  and  clypeus  densely  covered  with 
silvery  white  pile  ;  apex  of  clypeus  transverse,  the  sides 
rounded  ;  vertex  and  front  with  scattered  punctures,  shining. 
Pro-  and  mesonotum  strongly  transversely  striolated ;  meta- 
notum  more  closely  and  not  so  strongly ;  scutellum  and  post 
scutellum  longitudinally  striolated  ;  pleurae  rugose.  The 
pubescence  on  the  thorax  is  short  and  cinereous ;  the 
abdomen  is  thickly  pruinose.  At  the  top  the  second  cubital 
cellule  is  about  one-half  the  length  of  the  third,  and  a  little 
more  than  the  space  bounded  by  the  second  recurrent  and 
second  transverse  cubital  nervures  ;  the  third  cubital  cellule 
is  nearly  equal  in  length  at  top  and  bottom  ;  the  third 
transverse  cubital  nervure  is  elbowed  near  the  middle.  The 
H 


98  Mr.  Cameron  on 

female  agrees  in  coloration,  punctuation,  and  clothing  with 
the  male. 

Differs  from  A.  nigripes  in  being  longer,  in  having  the 
hair  on  the  thorax  less  dense  and  shorter,  the  clypeus  more 
rounded  at  the  apex,  the  mesonotum  with  the  central  furrow 
less  distinct,  the  wings  darker,  and  with  black  nervures. 

Barrackpore — common. 

B.  mesoiwtum  punctured. 

Ammophila  Vischu,  j/.  nov. 

Nigra,  nitida,  punctata;  apice  petioli,  abdouiinisque 
segmentis  i — 2,  nifis  ;  alls  fuscis.     Long.  22 — 24  mm. 

Antennae  stout,  microscopically  pilose.  Face  and 
clypeus  covered  with  a  silvery  white  pubescence  ;  the  front 
and  vertex  bear  long  fuscous  hair.  Clypeus  broad,  flat,  the 
apex  margined,  truncated  ;  sparsely  punctured.  Front 
depressed ;  a  distinct  furrow  down  the  centre  ;  rather 
strongly  punctured  ;  the  vertex  with  the  punctures  more 
widely  separated.  Thorax  strongly  punctured,  the  pleura; 
and  metanotum  rugose ;  scutellum  with  the  punctures 
larger  and  closer  than  on  the  mesonotum  ;  post-scutellum 
rugose.  Mesonotum  with  a  distinct  furrow,  which  becomes 
wider  towards  the  apex,  where  it  is  nearly  filled  up  by  a 
keel.  The  pubescence  is  long  and  cinereous,  long  and  dense 
on  the  pleurse  ;  sparser  above.  The  tubercles,  an  oblique 
stripe  on  the  pleura;  and  the  middle  segment  laterally, 
densely  covered  with  silvery  pubescence.  Second  segment 
of  petiole  stout ;  the  extreme  base  black.  Second  segment 
above  wider  than  the  space  bounded  by  the  first  recurrent 
and  first  transverse  cubital  nervures  ;  the  third  cellule  much 
narrowed  at  the  top,  usually  there  not  one-fourth  of  the 
length  of  the  bottom.     Tegulae  black. 

The  male  has  the  clypeus  produced  and  rounded  at  the 
apex,  and  is,  as  well  as  the  face,  densely  covered  with 
silvery  pubescence. 


Hyuiciwptera  Or'ientalis.  99 

A.  punctata,  Smith,  is  apparently  closely  allied  to  this 
species  ;  but  no  mention  is  made  of  the  mesonotum  being 
furrowed,  and  the  metanotum  is  said  to  have  a  longitudinal 
carina  in  the  centre  ;  the  collar  has  "a  minute  tubercle  in  the 
middle,"  and  the  wings  are  hyaline. 

Petiole  cojuposed  of  one  joint  {PsamniopJiihi). 

Ammophila  HIRTICEPS,  Sp.  nov. 

Nigra;  longe  nigra  Jiirta ;  abdonmiis  segnioitis  2 — / 
riifis ;  alis  fere  hyalinis,  apice  funiatis,  nervis  nigris. 
Long,  fere  15  mm. 

Antennae  stout ;  pilose ;  the  third  joint  about  one 
quarter  longer  than  the  fourth.  Head  hardly  punctured  ; 
covered  with  long  and  black  hair  ;  the  face  and  clypeus 
densely  covered  with  silvery  pubescence  ;  apex  of  clypeus 
broadly  rounded,  almost  sinuated  in  the  middle ;  ocelli 
nearly  in  a  triangle  ;  the  posterior  separated  from  the  eyes 
by  about  the  length  of  the  third  antennal  joint ;  front  hardly 
depressed.  Thorax  somewhat  punctured  ;  the  scutellum 
apparently  indistinctly  longitudinally  striolated  ;  metanotum 
obliquely  striolated,  furrowed  down  the  centre,  and  with  a 
keel  in  the  centre  of  the  furrow.  The  one-jointed  petiole  is 
a  little  longer  than  the  second  segment,  and  is  covered  with 
long  black  hair,  the  fifth  segment  is  red  at  the  base.  Above 
the  second  and  third  cubital  cellules  are  sub-equal,  and  the 
former  above  is  about  three-fourths  of  the  space  bounded 
by  the  recurrent  nervures  ;  the  third  cellule  below  is  about 
half  the  length  of  the  second,  and  is  rounded  at  the  apex 
below  ;  the  third  transverse  cubital  nervure  bulges  outwardly 
on  the  lower  half,  then  retreats  towards  the  second  cubital 
nervure,  thus  making  the  third  cubital  cellule  wider  below 
than  above.     Claws  reddish. 

Owing  to  the  matting  of  the  hair  on  the  head  and 
thorax,  I  am  unable  to  make  out  the  sculpture  of  these 
parts  clearly.     The  species  is  a  true  PsamniopJiila. 


loo  •  Mr.  Cameron  on 

AmMOPHILA  ERYTHROCErHALA,  Fab. 
This  large  and  striking  species  is  a  Pa7-apsaininophila^ 
The  head  is  large  ;  the  eyes  reach  only  exactly  opposite 
the  level  of  the  hind  ocelli,  the  vertex  being  much  more 
developed  behind  them  than  usual ;  they  are  quite  parallel, 
not  converging  at  the  bottom  as  in  A.  violaccipennis  \  the 
antennae  issue  from  nearly  opposite  their  middle,  and  not 
so  high  up  as  in  the  latter  species  ;  the  clypeus  does  not 
project  in  the  middle,  and  is  truncated  at  the  apex.  The 
mandibles  are  very  large  and  projecting,  almost  as  in 
Ampulex.  The  neuration  of  the  wings  is  very  much  as  in 
Violaceipennis.  Antennae  black,  pilose  ;  the  3 — 4  basal 
joints  red,  the  third  is  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  fourth.. 

AmMOPPIILA   violaceipennis,  Sp.  1101'. 

Nigra  ;  scapo  antennaniin,petiolo  pedibusqne,  rufis  ;  coxis 
apiceqiie  tarsoruni  nigris,  alls  violaceis.    $      Long.  29  mm. 

Head  shining,  sparsely  punctured  ;  the  clypeus  and  face 
covered  with  silvery  pubescence  ;  the  front  and  vertex  with 
longish,  blackish  hair ;  clypeus  somewhat  projecting  ;  the 
apex  with  a  distinct  margin,  a  little  sinuated  ;  mandibles 
broadly  red  in  the  middle.  The  antennae  incline  to  fuscous 
beneath,  especially  at  the  base  ;  the  third  joint  is  longer 
than  the  first  and  second  joints  united,  and  about  one-fourth 
longer  than  the  fourth.  Thorax  densel}-  covered  with 
blackish  hair  ;  coarsely  punctured  ;  the  mesonotum  rugosely 
striolated  in  the  middle  at  the  apex  ;  scutellum  coarsely 
rugosely  striolated  ;  metanotum  coarsely  rugosely  punctured 
in  the  middle,  at  the  sides  obliquely  striolated  ;  the  pleurse 
coarsely  rugosely  striolated.  Pygidium  broadly  rounded, 
pilose.  Second  and  third  cubital  cellules  above  subequal  ; 
the  transverse  cubital  cellules  elbowed  towards  the  middle, 
thus  making  the  third  cubital  cellule  wider  in  the  middle 
than  at  top  or  bottom  ;  the  first  recurrent  nervurc  is  received 


Hyjnenoptcra  Oncntalis.  i.Oj 

before  the  middle  of  the  cellule  ;  the  second  at  nearly  the 
length  of  the  third  cubital  cellule  at  the  bottom  from  the 
apex  ;  at  the  top  the  second  cubital  cellule  is  as  wide  as  the 
space  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures. 

This  species  belongs  to  Parapsanunophila,  Taschenberg, 
which  is  chiefly  distinguished  from  Ainnwphila  and  Psani- 
:viophila  by  the  tarsal  claws  being  bidentate  at  the  base. 

Pelopoeus. 
Pelopoeus,  Latreille,  Hist,  Nat.  Ins.  XIII. 
C/ialybiofi,  Dahlbom,  Hyni.  Ent.  I.,  p.  21. 

Catalogue  of  the  oriental  species  of  Pelopoeus  : — 

1.  P.  BENIGNUS,  Smith,  P roc:  Linn.'  See.    II.,   loi,   i  nee 

P.Javaniis,  I.  c.  Vol.  III.,  15,  note. 
Hab.  Borneo,  Singapore,  Java. 

2.  P.  BENGALENSIS,  Dahlbom,  Hyni.  Eur.  I.,  433,  2. 
Hab.  India,  Philippines,  China,  Mauritius. 

3.  P.  BILINEATUS,  Smith,  Ann.  and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  IX., 

47  (1852). 
Hab.  Bombay. 

4.  P.  COROMANDELICUS,    St.    Fargeau,    Nat.    Hist.    Ins. 

Hyni.  III.,  302,  2. 
P.fuscus,  St.  Fargeau,  /.c  311,9. 
Hab.  Coromandel,  Bengal,  Central  India."" 

5.  P.  CURVATUS,    Smith,    Trans.   Linn.    Soe.    Zool.    VII., 

p.  187.' 
Hab.  Mainpuri,  North-west  Provinces. 

6.  P.  FERVENS,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soe.  II.,  loi,  2. 
Hab.  Java,  Borneo. 

7.  P.  Javanus,  St.  Fargeau,  Nat.  Hist.  Ins.  Hyni.  III., 

306,  9. 
Hab.  Java,  Malacca. 


102  Mr.  Cameron  on 

8.  P.  Madraspatanus,     Fabricius,    Syst.    Pierj.    203,    3. 
Hab.  Bengal,  Madras. 

9.  P.  RICTUS,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyiii.  Ins.  IV.,  231,  22. 
Hab.  India. 

10.  P.  SEPARATUS,  Smith,  Ann.   and  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  IX., 

47  (1852). 
Hab.  Bombay. 

11.  P.   SOLERI,    St.    Farg.,    Nat.    Hist.    Ins.    Hym.    III., 

318,   18. 
Hab.  India,  (Smith).       St.  Fargeau  gives  Guadeloupe 
as  the  Habitat  of  this  species. 

12.  P.  SPINOL.E,    St.    Farg.   /.  c.    307,    4. 
Hab.  Bombay,  Ceylon. 

13.  P.  SUMATRANUS,  Kohl,    VcrJi.  z.-b.    Ges.,    JVien    1883, 

P-  375- 
Hab,  Sumatra. 

14.  VIOLACEUS,  Fab.,  {SpJiex)  Ent.   Syst.   II.,   p.    201,   12; 

Lep.,  Nat.  Hist.  Hym.  III.,  p.  321  ;  Andre,  Species 

d»  Hym.  III.,  p.  loi. 
Pepsis  violaceo,  Fab.,  Syst.  Pie.z.  p.  211,  16. 
Chalybion  violaceiim.  Dbm.,  Hym.  Ent.,  p.  432,  i. 
Pelopoeiis  flebilis,  Lep.,  /.  c.,  p.  321,  22. 
Hab.  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe,  "  India,"  Java. 

PfiLOPOEUS   BENGALENSIS. 

This  is  an  external  builder,  erecting  its  nests  on  rough 
walls,  or  corners,  on  grass,  or  on  leaves.  When  on  a  grass 
stem  the  mud  is  continued  far  up,  thus  breaking  the  out- 
line of  the  cell,  which  is  in  consequence  not  so  readily 
observed.  A  solitary  cell  may  be  built,  or  over  a  dozen 
may  be  placed  side  by  side,  the  whole  being  then  covered 
well  over  with  mud.    (Home,  Trans. Linn.  Soc.NW.  p.  163). 


Hynienoptera  Orien talis.  103 

Pelopeous  madraspatanus. 

Of  this  abundant  species  (commonly  called  the  mud- 
dauber)  an  interesting  account  is  given  by  Home  {Trans. 
Linn.  Soc.  VII.,  p.  161 — 163).  In  May,  June  and  July  the 
females  are  found  congregating  by  small  puddles  near 
wells,  treading  the  mud  into  little  pellets  of  about  the 
size  of  buck-shot,  which,  when  ready,  are  brought  in  the 
mouth  of  the  insect  to  the  place  where  the  nest  is  to  be 
constructed.  This  is  in  the  most  various  situations.  In 
window-sills,  in  hollows  in  walls,  in  locks,  in  any  cavity 
between  the  wall  and  door-frame  ;  in  a  depression  on  the 
floor,  anywhere,  in  fact,  inside  or  near  a  house.  Home  relates 
how  one  individual  commenced  to  build  in  the  corner  of  a 
door-frame,  where  it  was  crushed  every  time  the  door  was 
opened.  Six  times  did  the  industrious  creature  commence 
its  habitation  only  to  have  it  crushed  every  time.  It  takes 
about  a  day  to  complete  a  cell ;  two,  or  three,  or  five  are 
built  together,  the  whole  being  then  covered  over  with  a 
smooth  coating  of  mud,  so  that  it  looks  like  a  dab  of  mud 
accidentally  left  on  the  wall.  When  the  cell  is  finished  it  is 
filled  with  small  spiders  to  the  number  of  twenty.  Spiders 
are  the  regular  prey  of  the  Pelopoeiis,  but  Home  has  also 
seen  it  store  small  green  caterpillars. 

In  the  pupa  state  it  remains  from  one  to  six  months 
according  to  the  season. 

Pelopeous  bilineatus. 

Unlike  P.  Madraspatamis,  this  form  does  not  frequent 
houses,  but  builds  on  hedges  and  trees,  a  favourite  position 
being  a  fork  in  the  bough  of  Lawsonia  spinosa.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  the  more  exposed  situation  chosen  for  its  nests, 
these  are  much  more  solidly  built. 

Smith  thinks  that  P.  bilineatus  is  only  a  form  of 
Madraspatamis. 


I04  Mr.  Cameron  on 

Pelopoeus  javanus. 

Wallace  states  {Jour.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool.  XL,  p.  296)  that 
this  species  enters  houses  where  it  constructs  small  earthen 
cells,  which  it  stores  with  paralysed  spiders  as  food  for  its 
young.  According  to  Maurice  Maindron  {Ann.  Soc.  Ent. 
Fr.  1878,  p.  390)  the  largest  nests  are  7  centimetres  long 
by  5  in  breadth  ;  contain  five  cells  and  are  made  of  treaded 
mud,  almost  black  in  colour,  but  covered  in  parts  by  a  layer 
of  white  earth.  The  largest  and  external  cell  is  incomplete 
and  is  formed  of  a  whiter  earth  than  the  others.  In  form 
the  nests  are  irregular  and  arched  ;  and  Wallace  (/.  ^.) 
mentions  that  they  may  be  plastered  over  with  mud  in  an 
irregular  manner,  so  that  the  shape  is  completely  hidden. 
The  cocoon  is  Je  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  of  a  delicate 
brown  colour. 

P.   COROMANDELICUS. 

This  species  has  frequently  the  scutellum  and 
metanotum  without  the  reddish  spot.  The  clypeus  is 
reddish  towards  the  apex,  which  is  incised  in  the  middle. 
The  mesonotum  is  transversely  striated  ;  the  scutellum 
finely  longitudinally  striated,  but  not  nearly  so  strongly  as 
the  mesonotum  ;  the  pronotum  is  depressed  in  the  middle  ; 
the  second  cubital  cellule  is  not  much  narrowed  above 
compared  to  the  bottom,  and  is  broad  compared  to  the 
length ;  the  first  recurrent  nervure  is  received  a  little 
before  the  middle. 

Sphex. 

SpJiex,  Fabricius,  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  p.  198. 

CJilorion^  Latreille,  Hist.  Nat.   Crnst.  et  Ins.  IV.,  p.  57 
{partivi). 

PronceuSy  Latreille,  loc.  cit.  IV.,  p.  56  ;  Saunders,  Trans. 
Ent.  Soc.  III.,  p.  58. 

Priononyx,  Dahlbom,  Hyni.  Ent.  I.,  p.  28. 

Harpactopiis,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyni.  Ins.  IV.,  p.  264. 


Hyuicnoptera  Orientalis.  105 

I.  Tarsal  clazvs  witJi  a  single  tooth  near  the  middle.  =  Chlorion, 

pt.  Latr.,  Hist.  Nat.  des  Crust,  et  Ins.  III.  ;  Proiueus, 
Saunders,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  III.,  p.  58  (i 841). 

1.  Sphex   CHRYSIS. 

Sphex  ccBridca,  Christ,  {non  Drury)  Natiirg.  Ins.  p.  308, 

tab.  30,  fig.  6. 
Sphex  chrysis,  Christ,  I.e.,  p.  310,  tab.  30,  fig.  7  ;  Kohl, 

Termes.  Filzetek.  IX.,  p.  173. 
Chlorion  lobatum,  Fab.,  Ent.  Syst.   II.,  p.  206,  30  ;  Syst. 

Piez.,  p.  217,  I  ;  Dahlbom,  Hyni.Eur.  I.,  p.  24,  i  ; 

St.  Fargeau,  Nat.  Hist.  Hym.  Ins.  III.,  p.  330,  3  ; 

Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  IV.,  p.  237. 
Chlorion   azureum,    Lep.    et  Serv.,    Encycl.    Meth.    X., 

p.  451,  2  ;  Lep.,  Nat.  Hist.  Hvm.  Ins.  1 1 1.,  p.  329. 
Common  in  India  all  over  ;  also  in  Burmah,  Singapore, 
'Ceylon,  China  (Hong  Kong)  Penang  and  South  Africa. 

2.  Sphex  splendida. 

Chlorion  splendidujn,  Fabricius,  Syst.  Piez.,  p.  218,   5  ; 

Smith,   Ann.   and    Mag.   Nat.   Hist.    VII.,  p.  32 

(1851). 
Sphex pulchra,  Lep.,  Nat.  Hist.  Hym.  Ins.  III.,  p.  355. 
ProncBus  Campbelli,  Saunders,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  III.,  p.  58, 

tab.  5,  fig.  I. 
Hab.  North  India,  Burmah,   Bombay  (Mus.   Calcutta), 

Poona  ( Wroiighton). 

3.  Sphex  Melanosoma. 

Chlorion  melanosoma.  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  p.  238  ; 

Magretti,  B71IL  Ent.  Ital.  XL,  p.  578. 
Hab.  Pondicherry  ;    Kassala  (Magretti). 

4.  Sphex  rugosa. 

Chlorion  rngosnm,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  p.  239. 
Hab.  Sumatra. 

II.  Tarsal  claws  bidentate  ;  second  cubital  cellule  narrozved 

tozvards  the  radial,  higher  than  long. — Harpactopns, 


io6  Mr.  CAxMERON  on 

5.  Sphex  .egyptia. 

Sphex  (sgyptia,  Lep.,  Nat.  Hist.  Ins.  Hym.   III.,  p.  181  ; 

Kohl,  Termcs.  Fiizetek  IX.,  p.  181  ;    Taschenberg,. 

Zeits.  f.  d.  ges.  Natnriv.  XXXIV.,  p.  412  ;  Andre, 

Species  d.  Hym.  III.,  p.  147. 
Sphex  soror,  Dahlbom,  Hyin.  Ent.  I.,  p.  436. 
Sphex  grandis,  Radosz.,  Hor.  Ent.  Ross.  XII.,  p.  132,  2. 
Harpactopus  crudelis.  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  p.  264,. 

i.,  pi.  vi.,  fig.  4. 
Hab.  Eastern  Europe,  Syria,  Egypt,  Mauritius,  Madras. 

6.  Sphex  Nivosa. 

Harpactopus  nivosus,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  p.  265,  4. 
Hab.  North  India. 

III.   Tarsal  claws  zvith  three  teeth — Ejiodia. 

7.  Sphex  albisecta. 

Sphex  albisecta,  Lep.,  Nat.  Hist.  Ins.  Hym.  III.,  p.  358  ,^ 
Kohl,  Termes.  Fiizetek,  p.  185  ;  Andre,  Species 
d.  Hym.  III.,  p.  130;  J.  H.  Fabre,  Souvenirs 
Entomologiqnes  (1879)  p.  174. 

Sphex  albisecta,  Lep.  et  Serv.,  Encycl.  MetJi.  X.,  p.  462,  2. 

Sphex  trichargyra^  Spinola,  Am.  Soc.  Ent.  Fr.  VII.,. 
p.  466,  II. 

Enodia  albisecta,  Dahlbom,  Hym.  Ent.  I.,  p.  28  and  438  ; 
Costa,  Fauna  Reg.  Napoli  p.  12,  PI.  i,  fig.  3. 

Hab.  South  and  Eastern  Europe  ;  Africa,  from  Algiers 
to  the  Cape.    India. 

8.  Sphex  pubescens. 

Sphex  fervens,  Fab.,  Syst.  Ent.  I.,  p.  346  {nee  Linne). 
Pepsis pubescens,  Fab.,  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  p.  205. 
Enodia  canescens,  Dahlbom,  Hym.  Ent.  IV.,  p.  28. 
Enodia  fervens,  Dahlbom,  /.  c.  p.  439. 
Parasphex  fervens.  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  p.  267. 
Sphex  pubescens.  Kohl,  Termcs.  p.  188  ;  Andre,  Species. d^ 
Hym.  Ill,,  p.  130. 


Hyincnoptera  Orten  talis.  107 

Hab.  Eastern  Europe,  Algeria,  Guinea,  Sierra    Leone, 
Gambia,    Cape    of  Good   Hope ;    India,  Madras, 
Tirhoot  {Rothney),  and  North  Bengal ;  China. 
IV.   Tarsal  claws  ivith  two  teeth.  (Sphex  sejisti  str.). 
9.  Spiiex.  apicalis. 

Sphex  apicalis,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyni.  his.  IV.,  p.  253  {non 
Smith,  /.  c.  p.  262). 

Hah.  Sumatra. 
TO.  Sphex  argentata. 

Sphex.  argcntifrons,  Lep.  Nat.  Hist.  Lis.  Hym.  III., 
p.  337  ;  Kohl,  Termcs  Fiizetek  IX.,  p.  196. 

Sphex  argentata,  Fab.  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  p.  196  ;  Dahlbom, 
Hym.  Ent.  I.,  p.  25.  Andre,  Species  d.  Hym.  III., 
p.  143  ;  Smith, /^/^r.  Linn.  Soc.  (1869),  p.  361. 

Sphex  albifrons,  Lep.  Nat.  Hist.  Ins.  Hym.  III.,  p.  337,  $ . 

Sphex  metalica,  Taschenberg,  Zeits.  f.  d.  ges.  Nat.,  Halle. 
XXXIV.,  p.  414. 

Hab.  Eastern*  Europe,  North  Africa,  China,  Japan, 
India  (all  over),  Ceylon,  Java,  Amboina,  Celebes, 
New  Guinea,  Aru,  Ceram,  Morty  Island  ;  Africa, 
from  Egypt  to  Senegal,  Sierra  Leone,  Angola, 
Gaboon,  Guinea. 

11.  Sphex  aurifrons. 

Sphex  aurifrons.  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  III.,  p.  1577,  3. 
Hab.  Java,  Celebes,  Aru,  Africa. 

12.  Sphex  aurulenta. 

Sphex  aurulenta,  Fab.,  Ent.  Syst. ;  Kohl,  Termes.  Fiizetek 

IX.,  p.  194. 
Pepsis  seficea.  Fab.,  Syst.  Pie::;.,  p  211. 
Sphex  sericea,  Dahlbom,  Hym.  Ent.  I.,  p.  26,  7  ;  Lep., 

Nat.  Hist.  d.  Ins.  Hym.  III.,  341,  12. 
Sphex  fabrecii,  Dahlbom,  /.  c.  p.  27  and  438. 
Sphex  ferruginea,    Lep.,   Nat.   Hist.    Ins.    Hym.    III., 

p.  345,  18. 
Sphex  lincola,  Lep.  /.  c.  p.  353,  27,  $. 


io8  Mr.  Cameron  on 

Sphex ferox,  Sn\\\\\  Jour.  Linn.  Soc.  IV.,  p.  55. 

Sp/iex  Lepeletierii^  Saussure,  Reise  d.  Novara,  Hyiii. 
p.  40,  8. 

Sphex  Godeffroyi,  Saussure,  Stett.  Ent.  Zeit.  XXX.,  p.  57. 

Hab.  China,  India,  very  common  in  Bengal  {Rothney), 
Poona(  W^r^??/^///^;/), Ceylon,  Java,  Borneo,  Sumatra, 
Celebes,  Amboina,  Manilla,  Malacca,  Ternate, 
Waigion,  Bachian,  Ceram,  Aru,  Timor,  Floris, 
Australia,  Cape  York. 

13.  Sphex  erythropoda.  Cam.,  infra. 
Hab.  India  {Mns.  Cal.). 

14.  Sphex  flavo-vistata. 

Sphex JIavo-vistata,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyni.  Ins.  IV.,  p.  253,  56. 
Hab.   India. 

15.  Sphex  nigripes. 

Sphex  nigripes,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.   IV.,  p.  253,  56; 

Kohl.  T emu's.  IX.,  p.  197,  32. 
Hab.  Hong  Kong,  Java,  Kaschmir. 

16.  Sphex  Rothneyi,  Cam.,  infra. 
Hab.  Allahabad  ;  Mussourie  Hills. 

17.  Sphex  rufipennls. 

Sphex  ntfipemiis,  Fab.,  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  p.  201,  10  ;  Kohl, 
Ternies  Fiisek.,  p.  198,  33  ;  Andre,  Species  d.  Hyni. 
III.,  p.  149  ;  Lep.,  Nat.  Hist.  Ins.  Hyni.  III.,  p.  334, 
I  ;  Dahlbom,  Hym.  Ent.  I.,  p.  436,  6;  Taschen- 
berg,  Zeits.f  d.  g.  Naturw.,  Halle,  XXXIV.,  p.  41 1. 

Pepsis  rnfipefinis,  Fab.,  Syst.  Pies.,  p.  210,  12. 

Sphex  diabolicus,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  II.,  p.  100,  3. 

Sphex fiilvipennis,  Mocsary,Magy.  Ak.  Terin.Ertek.  XIII. 

Hab.  North  Africa,  India ;  not  uncommon  in  Bengal. 

18.  Sphex  vicina. 

Sphex  vicina,  Lep.,  Nat.  Hist.  Ins.  Hyni.  III.,  343,  16. 
Hab.   India. 


Hymenoptera  Orien talis.  109 

19.  Sphex  zanthoptera,  Cam.,  hifra. 

Hab.  Barrackpore,  Mussourie  Hills  {Rothney). 

Sphex  splendida,  Fab. 

Rjtfa,  abdoviine  negro-cccnileo  ;  alls  flavo-hyalinis,  apicc 
fwnatis,  nervis  nifo-testaceis.     Long.  17  mm. 

Scape  of  antennae  on  lower  side  bearing  short  black, 
bristly  hairs  ;  the  second  joint  curved  inwardly  on  the  inner 
side  ;  the  third  thin,  more  than  one-half  longer  than  the 
fourth.  Head  almost  shining,  sparsely  covered  with  black 
hairs  ;  the  front  and  vertex  closely  punctured  ;  the  face  and 
clypeus  more  shining,  imperceptibly  punctured  ;  the  labrum 
and  clypeus  fringed  with  short  black  hairs,  the  latter  with 
two  short  stumpy  teeth  on  either  side  of  the  middle  ;  a  thin 
furrow  runs  down  from  the  vertex  to  the  ocelli ;  the  central 
part  of  the  vertex  slightly  raised,  but  not  forming  a  distinct 
field.  Mandibles  bearing  long  black  hairs  ;  and  some  stout 
furrows  towards  the  middle  tooth ;  the  apex  is  black. 
Palpi  reddish.  Thorax  shining,  sparsely  covered  with  short 
black  hair ;  the  pronotum  strongly  striolated  ;  the  top 
shining,  impunctate,  and  with  a  wide  and  deep  furrow  in  the 
centre.  Mesonotum  with  scutellum  very  shining,  almost 
glabrous,  sparsely  and  minutely  punctured.  Median  seg- 
ment striolated,  depressed  in  the  centre  and  with  a  furrow 
along  the  sides  above;  the  apex  rounded, semi-perpendicular, 
and  bearing  long  black  hair  ;  the  oblique  furrow  on  pleura 
is  wide  and  deep,  and  is  divided  at  the  top  by  an  oblique 
raised  projecting  part.  Abdomen  shining  ;  sparsely  punc- 
tured ;  pygidial  area  covered  with  long  black  hairs.  Legs 
longish  ;  the  hinder  row  of  spines  on  the  hind  tibiae  black  ; 
the  others  reddish,  and  there  is  a  tuft  of  black  spiny  hair  on 
the  apex  of  the  hinder  femora.  Tarsal  spines  thick  and 
stout ;  metatarsal  brush  short,  thick,  reddish.  There  are 
some  stiff  black  hair  on  the  hinder  tarsi  before  the  claws. 
Second  cubital  cellule  a  little  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at 


no  Mr.  Cameron  on 

the  top,  which  is  a  little  longer  than  the  top  of  the  third 
cellule,  the  latter  being  very  much  narrowed  at  the  top,  the 
bottom  being  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the  second 
cellule,  and  its  apex  reaches  near  to  the  apex  of  the  radial 
cellule.  The  first  recurrent  nervure  is  received  a  little 
beyond  the  middle  of  the  cellule  ;  the  second  quite  close  to 
the  second  transverse  cubital  nervure. 

Sphex  aurulenta,  Fab. 

A  variable  species.  The  commonest  Bengal  form  is 
the  var.  aiumlenta  Fab.  =  Fabricii,  Dbm.  ^  femiginea, 
'Le^.=godefroyi,  Saussure.  The  var.  sericea,  \^q'^.  =  Lepele- 
tierii,  Sauss.  also  occurs  ;  but  I  have  not  seen  any  Indian 
specimens  that  could  be  referred  to  the  var.  sericea  Fab.= 
ferox  Smith,  a  form  chiefly  distinguishable  from  var.  Lepc- 
letierii  by  the  hair  on  the  pleurae  and  middle  segment  being 
blackish-brown.  The  S  from  Bengal  is  the  typical  lincola 
Lep.  The  hair  on  the  head  and  thorax  is  hoary  white; 
the  wings  are  hyaline,  smoky  at  the  apex  ;  the  abdomen 
black,  the  base  and  the  segments  at  the  apices  above  and 
beneath  reddish  ;  the  tegulae  and  legs  are  blackish.  A  $  var. 
also  is  met  with  ;  it  has  the  legs  red,  except  at  the  base  and 
the  tarsi :  the  tegulae  are  red  ;  the  hair  cinereous  ;  and  the 
abdomen  may  be  red  from  the  petiole,  or  red  only  at  the 
base  as  in  the  typical  Hneola.  This  does  not  quite  agree 
with  the  description  of  >Sf.  velox,  Smith,  which  has  the  hair 
fulvous. 

Sphex  erythropoda,  sp.  iwv. 

Nigra,  fusco  pitbescens ;  pedibiis  rufis ;  basi  apiceqiie 
tarsortun,  nigris ;  alis  flavo-hyalinis,  apice  fninatis.  Long. 
15 — 18  mm. 

Antenna  of  the  usual  length  ;  covered  with  a  sericeous 
pile  ;  the  third  joint  not  much  shorter  than  the  fourth  and 
fifth  united.     Head  shining,  bearing  a  scattered  punctua- 


Hyinejioptera  Orientalis.  1 1 1 

tion  ;  the  front  and  vertex  sparsely  covered  with  longish 
blackish  hair  ;  the  cheeks,  face,  and  clypeus  densely  covered 
with  silvery  pile  and  with  longish  fuscous  hair.  Eyes 
slightly  converging  beneath  ;  the  ocelli  hardly  forming  a 
triangle  ;  a  furrow  along  their  side,  the  furrows  meeting 
into  a  V-shaped  depression,  which  has  a  sharp  raised  pro- 
jection in  its  centre,  Clypeus  broadly  rounded,  the  apex 
depressed  and  with  a  short  incision  in  the  centre.  Thorax 
sparsely  covered  with  a  fuscous  to  black  pubescence  ;  the 
pubescence  on  the  middle  segment  dull  fulvous.  Pro- 
notum  with  a  distinct  and  broad  depression  in  its  centre  ; 
the  mesothorax  is  also  slightly  depressed  in  the  centre, 
and  the  scutellum  and  post  scutellum  are  distinctly 
and  broadly  furrowed.  Median  segment  transversely  and 
regularly  striolated  ;  a  wide  and  deep  furrow  in  its  centre 
at  the  apex,  and  there  is  an  elongated  pear-shaped  depres- 
sion on  the  upper  part.  Abdomen  shining,  with  a  plum- 
beous tint ;  the  petiole  covered  with  long  black  hair,  and  a 
little  longer  than  the  coxae  ;  the  pygidial  area  shagreened, 
and  with  a  few  scattered  punctures.  Legs  with  the  coxae, 
trochanters  and  four  apical  joints  of  the  tarsi  and  the  spines 
on  the  hinder  tibiae,  blackish. 

In  the  colour  of  the  body  and  pubescence  this  species 
comes  nearest  to  ^.  ntfipennis,  but  is  readily  known  from  it 
by  the  reddish  legs.  It  can  hardly,  I  think,  be  an  extreme 
variety  of  8.  mtmlenta,  from  which,  apart  from  the  dif- 
ference in  coloration  of  the  head  and  thorax  and  their 
pubescence  (comparing  the  females),  it  differs  in  having 
the  pronotum  more  distinctly  raised  above  and  separated 
from  the  mesonotum,  besides  being  broadly  furrowed  in  the 
centre ;  the  mesonotum  and  scutellums  are  also  broadly 
furrowed,  and  the  median  segment,  instead  of  having  three  or 
four  raised  ridges,  is  uniformly  and  regularly  striolated. 

The  amount  of  black  on  the  tarsi  varies,  as  does  also 
the  colour  of  the  spines  and  wings,  the  latter  in  one  specimen 


112  Mr.  Cameron  on 

having  the  j-ellow  tint  very  feebly  developed.     The  tegular 
are  for  the  greater  part  black. 

I  have  seen  four  females  in  the  Calcutta  Museum  col- 
lection. 

Sphex  rufipennis,  Fab. 

This  species  appears  to  be  a  common  one  in  India. 
The  colour  of  the  wings  varies,  the  base,  especially  in  the 
form  diabolicus.  Smith,  being  more  or  less  blackish,  and 
the  yellow  tint  is  something  suffused  with  fuscous. 

S.  rufipennis  has  been  recorded  from  South  America, 
but  inasmuch  as  the  $  genitalia  differs  considerably 
from  that  of  the  Indian  form,  it  is  probable  that  the 
American  form,  notwithstanding  its  almost  identity  in 
coloration,  size,  &c.,  really  represents  a  different  species, 
which  I  have  provisionally  named  *S.  erytJiroptera  (Biol. 
Cent.  Am.  Hynn.  II.,  p.  30).  The  form  of  the  scutellum 
varies  in  being  more  or  less  deeply  furrowed.  The  S. 
rnfipennis.  Kohl  (Ternies.  Fnrjetek,  IX.,  p.  198),  is,  as  I  am 
informed  by  Kohl,  a  different  species  from  rufipennis.  Fab. 
—  Inteipennis,  Mocsary,  the  latter  differing  from  nifipennis, 
Kohl  in  having  the  post  scutellum  bituberculate,  the 
antennae  thinner,  and  the  wings  black  at  the  base. 

Sphex  argentata. 

This   large    species    is    common    all  over  the  Oriental 

region,  extending  also  into  the  Australian   Islands  of  the 

Malay  Archipelago.     It  is  stated  by  Wallace  (Jour.  Linn. 

Soc,  XI.,  p.  296)  to  be  common  in   the  sandy  streets  of 

Dobbo,  in  the  Aru  Islands,  and  also  at  flowering  shrubs  in 

Celebes, 

Sphex  Rothnevi,  sp.  nov. 

Nigra;  capite  et  thorace  dense  et  longe  argenteo  pilosis; 
abdoniine  pedibusqite  riifis ;  coxis,  trocJiantcribus  basique 
femorum,  rnfis  ;  alis  Iiyalinis,  apice  fumatis  ;  clypeo  inciso. 
Long.  22 — 24  mm. 


HyDienoptera  Orientalis.  .IJ.3 

The  face  is  densely  covered  with  long  silvery  white  hair  ; 
the  front  and  vertex  densely  pubescent  and  covered 
sparsely  with  long  gray  hair  ;  clypeus  rounded.  The 
central  incision  narrow  ;  eyes  slightly  converging  towards 
the  bottom  ;  mandibles  reddish  ;  black  at  base  and  apex. 
Antennai  pubescent  ;  the  third  joint  fully  one-half  longer 
than  the  fourth,  which  is  a  little  longer  than  the  fifth. 
Thorax  densely  covered  with  a  silvery  pile  ;  the  pronotum 
above,  the  metathorax  and  the  pleurae  thickly  covered  with 
cinereous  hair  ;  a  thick  line  of  silvery  hair  along  the  tegulaj 
on  the  mesonotum  ;  finely  punctured ;  the  scutellum  shining,, 
bearing  distinct  punctures,  and  furrowed  down  the  centre. 
Median  segment  with  some  stout  transverse  furrows, 
opaque ;  rounded  and  narrowed  at  the  apex  and  nearly  as 
long  as  the  mesothorax.  Petiole  black,  covered  with  grey 
hair ;  and  one-half  longer  than  the  hind  coxae.  Abdomen 
shining,  indistinctly  punctured,  elongate,  sharply  punctured 
at  base  and  apex  ;  the  apical  segments  more  distinctly 
punctured.  Legs  longish  ;  broadly  black  at  the  base  ;  the 
tibial  spines  red  ;  the  tarsal  reddish  in  part ;  the  calcaria 
black,  red  at  the  extreme  apex.  The  second  cubital  cellule 
is  oblique,  of  equal  width  at  top  and  bottom  and  receives 
the  recurrent  nervure  a  very  little  beyond  the  middle ;  the 
third  cellule  is  longer  at  the  bottom  than  the  second,  but  at 
the  top  is  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  length  ;  the  recurrent 
nervure  is  received  before  the  middle  of  the  cellule. 

The  $  does  not  differ  in  coloration  or  sculpture  from 
the  $.  The  tegulae  are  reddish.  The  form  of  the  cubital 
cellules  and  the  position  of  the  recurrent  nervures  vary. 

In  form  this  species  approaches  closely  to  S.  piibescens  ; 
but  the  black  legs  of  that  insect  distinguish  it  at  once. 

SpHEX   XANTHOrXERA,  Sp.  nov. 
Nigra,  argenteo  sericeo  pubescens  ;  facie,  plenris,  pronoto 
metathoracegtie,  longe    cinereo  pilosis  ;    alis  flavo-Jtyaliiiisy 
apice  fumatis.     Long.  17 — 18  mm. 
I 


114  M^-  Cameron  on 

Head  closely  and  minutely  punctured  ;  the  pile  close  ; 
the  hair  on  the  face  and  clypeus  long  and  thick  ;  clypeus 
projecting  in  the  middle,  not  incised  ;  roundly  arched  in 
the  male,  which  has  the  hair  golden  ;  the  hair  on  vertex  and 
front  longish,  sparse  and  pale.  Mandibles  reddish  in  the 
middle.  Thorax  finely  punctured  ;  the  metanotum  trans- 
versely striated.  The  pile  is  close  and  dense ;  on  the 
pronotum  above  ;  the  mesonotum  at  the  sides  ;  and  on  the 
metathorax  the  hair  is  longish  and  dense  ;  on  the  meso- 
pleurae  it  is  scarcely  so  thick.  Petiole  a  little  longer  than 
the  hind  coxae,  densely  covered  with  silvery  white  hair  of 
moderate  length  ;  abdomen  sericeous,  bluish  towards  the 
apex.  Legs  :  coxae  densely  covered  with  long  silvery  hair  ; 
the  femora  and  tibiae  sericeous  ;  the  latter  thickly  spinose  ; 
the  claws  armed  at  the  base  with  two  stout  longish  teeth. 
The  tibiae  with  some  stout  spines.  The  second  cubital 
cellule  is  a  little  longer  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  and 
receives  the  first  recurrent  nervure  at  its  extreme  apex  ; 
the  third  cubital  cellule  at  the  top  is  one  half  of  the  space 
bounded  by  the  first  transverse  cubital  nervure  and  the 
second  recurrent. 

The  male  differs  in  having  the  hair  longer  and  the  pile 
denser ;  the  clypeus  more  projecting  and  broadly  rounded 
at  the  apex  ;  the  abdomen  is  longer. 

TRIROGMA. 

Trirogma,  Westwood,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Ill,,  223. 

I.  Trirogma  cceriilea,  Westwood,  /.  c.,  225,  t.  12,  f  3  c?  ; 
Arc.  Ent.  II.,  66,  t.  65,  f  4?. 

Hab.  Barrackpore  {Rothney),  Poona  (  Wronghton),  Nor- 
thern India,  Madras, 

Ampulicid.e. 
Rhinopsis. 
'    Rhinopsis.  Westwood,  Arcana  Ent.  II.,  68. 


Hyvienoptera  Orien talis.  115 

RJdnopsis  is  chiefly  distinguished  from  Ampulex  by  the 
wings  having  only  three  cubital  cellules,  the  first  and  second 
being  confluent,  and  by  the  body  not  being  metallic  green 
or  blue. 

Rhinopsis  RUFICORNIS,  sp.  nov. 

Niger,  antennis,  ore,  thorace,  petiolo,  tarsisqiie,  rufis  ;  alis 
hyalinis,  fnsco  bifasciatis  ;  nervis  sordide  testaceis.  ?  Long. 
•10  mm. 

Antennae  shorter  than  the  thorax  ;  the  basal  joint  curved, 
as  long  as  the  third,  which  is  two-thirds  longer  than  the 
fourth.  Head  coarsely  alutaceous,  almost  punctured  ;  the 
front  keeled,  but  not  distinctly,  the  keel  being  interrupted 
at  the  base  and  apex  ;  eyes  parallel.  The  keel  on  the 
clypeus  projects  at  the  apex  into  a  stout  sharp  tooth,  and 
there  is  a  shorter  and  blunter  tooth  on  either  side  of  this. 
Prothorax  a  little  shorter  than  the  head  ;  the  top  part  raised, 
narrowed  and  separated  from  the  lower,  and  deeply  fur- 
rowed in  the  centre  ;  the  prosternum  and  extreme  base  of 
pronotum  black.  Meson otum  shorter  than  the  prothorax, 
parapsidal  furrows  slightly  diverging  at  the  base,  and 
there  is  an  indistinct  furrow  between  them.  Meta-  longer 
than  the  meso-thorax ;  the  metanotum  with  a  broad,  shallow, 
somewhat  oblique,  depression  on  either  side ;  in  the 
centre  (between  the  depressions)  are  three  keels,  the  central 
straight,  the  lateral  converging  towards  the  apex  ;  but  none 
of  them  reach  the  apex  of  the  metanotum.  The  meta- 
pleurae  are  smooth,  shining,  impunctate  ;  the  rest  of  the 
metathorax  strongly  transversely  striolated,  running  in  parts 
into  reticulations.  The  apex  is  rounded,  margined  ;  a  blunt 
tooth  on  either  side,  and  the  apex  roundly  and  shallowly 
incised.  The  apex  is  almost  perpendicular,  broadly  fur- 
rowed in  the  centre,  and  covered  with  a  moderately  long 
white  pubescence.  Pro-  and  mesonotum  coarsely  aciculated, 
sparsely  covered  with  a  white  pubescence.  Petiole  smooth, 
shining,  clavate  at  the  apex  ;  second  abdominal  segment  as 


ii6  Mr.  Cameron  on 

long  as  all  the  succeeding  segments  united  ;  the  latter  above 
(especially  at  their  junction),  as  well  as  the  sides  of  all, 
covered  with  a  short  pale  pubescence.  Legs  covered  with  a 
white  pubescence,  the  femora  thickened  in  the  middle,  the 
second  cubital  cellule  is  narrowed  towards  the  top  ;  the 
transverse  cubital  nervures  are  straight.  Wings  not  much 
longer  than  the  thorax. 

This  species  is  closely  related  to  the  European  R.  rufi^ 
collis,  Cam.,  but  is  much  larger,  the  antennae  and  tarsi  are 
red,  the  metanotum  is  entirely  red,  the  wings  are  shorter 
and  not  so  broadly  infuscated  in  the  middle,  and  with  the 
nervures  for  the  greater  part  testaceous  ;  and  the  apex  of 
the  petiole  is  much  narrower,  thinner,  and  more  club-like. 

1.  Ampulex  compressa. 
Ainpulex,  Jurine,  Hyin.  134. 

Sphex  compressa,  Fab.,  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  206,  32. 

Ampulex  compressa,  Dahlbom,  Hym.  Eur.  I.,  p.  29  ;  Lep. 
Nat.  Hist.  Lis.  Hym.  III.,  p.  325,  i  ;  Smith,  Proc. 
Linn.  Soc.  (1869)  p.  ^i^^)- 

Chlorion  compressum,  Fab.,  Syst.  Pies.  p.  219,  7  ;  West- 
wood,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  III.,  p.  227. 

A  common  species,  generally  distributed  over  the  region. 
It  preys  on  Blattidse. 

2.  Ampulex  hospes. 

Ampulex  hospes,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Lis.  IV.,  p.  272,  12;^ 

Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  II.,  p.  981. 
Hab.  Borneo. 

3.  Ampulex  smaragdina. 

Ampulex  smaragdina,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  II.,  19,  3. 
Had.  Singapore. 

■4.  Ampulex  insularis. 

Ampulex  insular  is,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  II.,  p.  99,  4. 
Hab.  Borneo,  Malacca. 


Hymicnoptera  Orientalis.  Wj 

5.  AmpidexiJ)  annulipes,  Motsulsky,  Bull.  Mosc.  XXXVI., 
(1863). 
Hab.  Ceylon. 

Waagenia. 
Waagenia,    Kriechbaumer,   Ztett.   Ent.    Zeit.    XXXV., 
1874,  p.  51. 
I.  Waagenia    sikkimensis,   Kriechbaumer,  /.  c. 
Hab.  Sikkim. 

LARRIDAE. 

The  specific  discrimination  in  this  family  is  at  the  best  a 
work  of  some  difficulty,  and  the  identification  of  Smith's 
species  is  rendered,  in  many  instances,  almost  impossible 
from  the  absence  in  his  descriptions  of  any  details  of 
structure.  Pending  an  opportunity  of  studying  his  types  I 
have  left  over  for  future  study  various  species  of  Notogonia 
and  allied  genera. 

PiSON. 
Pison,  Spinola,  Ins.    Lig.,    II.,  255  ;    Kohl,    Verh,   z.-b, 
Ges.  Wieii,  1884,  180. 
1.  P.  (Parapison)  agile. 

Parapison  agllis,  Smith,   Trans.  Ent.  80c.,  1869,  300,  4, 
Hab.    Ceylon. 

1.  P.  (Parapison)  erythropus,  Kohl. 

Parapison  riifipes,  Smith,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc,  1869,  299,  2  ; 

Tians.  Zool.  Soc,  VII.,  188,  pi.  xxi.,  fig.  \2i.  {non 

Shuck.) 
Hab.  Mainpuri,  North-west  Prov.  {Home). 

2.  P.  (Parapison)  obliteratum, 

Pisonoides   obliteratus,    Smith,  Jonr.   Proc.   Linn,   Soc. 

Zooly  XII.,  1857,  104, 
Hab.     Borneo  ( Wallace). 


ii8  Mr.  Cameron  on 

3.  P.  PUNCTIFRONS,  Shuckard,   Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  II.,  1837, 

P-  77,  5- 
Hab.  "  India  or  St.  Helena." 

4.  P.  (PISONITUS)  RUGOSUM,  Smith,  Gat.  Hym.  Ins.,  IV., 

313,  3- 
Pisonites  riigosns,  Smith,    Trans.    Zool.   Soc.Yll.,    188, 

pi.  XXL,  fig.  5a.     ?. 
Had.  Mainpuri,  North-west  Province  {Home),  Calcutta 
{Rothney),  Poona  ( Wroughton). 

5.  P.   SUSPICIOSUM.      . 

Pison    suspiciosns,    Smith,  Jonr.    Linn.   Soc.    Zool.    II. 

(1857),  104. 
Hab.  Singapore  ( Wallace). 

TRYPOXYLON. 

Trypoxylon,  Latreille,  Pric.  Car.  Gen.  Ins. ;  Kohl,   VcrJu 
z.-b.  Ges.  Wien.  (1884),  190. 

1.  TRYPOXYLON  ACCUMULATOR,  Smith,  Traus.   Ent.  Soc. 

(1875),  p.  38. 
Hab.  Barrackpore  {Rothney). 

2.  T.  BICOLOR,    Smith,    Cat.    Hym.    Ins.    IV.,    p.     ^:i'j7. 
Hab.  Singapore,  Java. 

3.  T.  Buddha,  Cam.  infra. 
Hab.  Barrackpore  {Rothney). 

4.  T.  CANALICULATUM,  Cam.  iiifra. 
Hab.  Barrackpore,  Mussourie  Hills. 

5.  T.  COLORATUM,    Smith,   Jour.   Linn.    Soc.   Zool.    II., 

(1857),  106, 
Hab.  Borneo  (  Wallace). 

6.  T.  GENICULATUM,  Cam.  i///m. 
Hab.  Barrackpore. 


Hymenoptera  Orientalis.  119 

7.  T.  INTRUDENS,  Smith,  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  VII.,  188. 
Hab.  Mainpuri,  North-west  Provinces  {Home),  Allaha- 
bad {Rothney\  Ceylon  {Lewis). 

8.  T.  JAVANUM,  Taschenberg,  Zeits.  f.  d.  ges.  Natiirw. 

XLV.,  378,  13- 
Hab.,  Java. 

9.  Nigricans,  Cam.,  infra.  \ 
Hab.,  Barrackpore  {Rothney). 

10.  T.  PETIOLATUM,  Smith,  Jour.   Linn.  Soc.  Zool.   1857, 

105. 
Hab.  Borneo  (  Wallace). 

11.  T.  PILIATUM,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyjn.  Ins.  IV.,  377. 
Hab.,  Madras. 

13.  T.  REJECTOR,  Smith,  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  VII.,  p.  189. 
Hab.,  Mainpuri,  North-west  Provinces. 

14.  T.  TINCTIPENNE,  Cam.  in/j^a. 
Hab.  Barrackpore. 

TRYPOXYLON  REJECTOR. 
The  habits  of  this  species  are  but  imperfectly  known. 
Home  found  the  cells,  which  are  formed  of  arenaceous  mud, 
and  appear  very  delicate  and  fragile,  but  from  the  strength 
of  the  cement  used  are  really  tenaceously  held  together. 
They  are  attached  to  straws  usually  under  cover  and  con- 
structed chiefly  in  September. 

Trypoxylon  Buddha,  sp.  nov. 
Nigrum ;  fusco   pilosum;    pimctatum  ;  fronte  fortiter 
punctata;     metanoto    transverse    striolato ;    alis  hyalinis ; 
Long.  9 — 5  mm. 

Hab.  Barrackpore  {Rothney). 

Antennae  subclavate ;  covered  with  a  close  pile ;  the 
third  and  fourth  joints  subequal.  Head  fully  broader  than 
the  thorax  ;  the  front  shining,  almost  bare  ;  the  clypeus  and . 


I20  Mr.  Cameron  on 

lower  part  of  cheeks  densely  covered  with  silvery  hair. 
Front  raised,  furrowed  down  the  centre,  bearing  large, 
distinct  punctures,  narrowed  before  the  antennae  into  a 
wedge.  The  eyes  at  top  are  separated  by  the  length  of  the 
second  and  third  antennal  joints  united  ;  ocelli  rather 
widely  separated  ;  clypeus  with  a  raised  margin,  sharply 
rounded  at  the  apex.  Mandibles  reddish  beyond  the  base. 
Thorax  shining,  covered  with  long  fuscous  hair  ;  mesonotum 
rather  strongly  punctured  ;  the  scutellum  and  fore  part  of 
the  mesopleurae  slightly  punctured  ;  the  hinder  part  of  the 
latter  impunctate.  Metanotum  strongly  transversely 
striolated,  the  strise  wide  apart ;  there  is  a  wedge-shaped 
depression  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  part  ;  the  depression 
with  a  keel  down  its  edges  ;  there  are  two  lateral  keels 
and  the  posterior  part  of  the  metanotum  is  widely  excavated 
in  the  centre ;  this  portion  having  a  gradual  rounded  curved 
slope.  Petiole  as  long  as  the  mesothorax,  clavate  ;  fully 
one-third  longer  than  the  second  segment ;  the  latter  is  a 
little  longer  than  the  third,  and  both  have  an  elongate  fovea 
on  the  top  at  the  apex.  At  the  apex  the  abdomen  is 
sparsely  pilose.  Femora  sparsely  haired  ;  tibiae  and  tarsi 
closely  pilose  ;  spurs  pale  testaceous. 


Trypoxylon  accumulator. 

In  this  species  the  front  is  not  much  raised  on  either 
side  of  the  central  furrow,  which  is  wide  but  shallow  ;  the 
eyes  at  the  top  are  separated  by  about  the  length  of  the 
third  antennal  joint,  at  the  bottom  below  the  antennae  by 
fully  more  than  the  length  of  the  third.  The  third  joint  of 
the  antennae  is  nearly  one-half  longer  than  the  fourth. 
Clypeus  broadly  carinate,  the  apex  projecting,  broadly 
rounded.  Petiole  longer  than  the  thorax,  rather  abruptly 
dilated  towards  the  apex  ;  the  second  segment  distinctly 
shorter  than  the  third. 


Hynte7ioptera  Orien talis.  121 

Trvpoxylon  tinctipennis,  sp.  nov. 

Nigrum;  abdominis  segmentis  2°^^"  rufis ;  calcaria  alius; 
clypeo  et  facie  dense  argenteo  pilosis  ;  tliorace  longc  albo piloso  ; 
alls  fere  hyalinis,  apice  late  fnscis.     9.     Long.  12  mm. 

Hab.     Barrackpore. 

Antennas  covered  with  a  silvery  down,  the  third  joint 
about  one-fourth  longer  than  the  fourth  ;  the  fourth  and 
fifth  slightly  curved  on  the  lower  side.  Front  and  vertex 
opaque,  finely  punctured.  Front  ocellus  situated  in  a  pit ; 
the  front  before  it  raised  on  either  side  into  a  roundish 
elevation,  the  two  being  separated  by  a  furrow,  at  the  end 
of  which  is  a  fine  straight  keel,  which  reaches  near  to  the 
base  of  the  antennae.  Eyes  at  the  top  separated  by  the 
length  of  the  third  and  fourth  joints  united  ;  below  reaching 
to  the  edge  of  the  clypeus  ;  below  the  antennae  they  are 
separated  by  about  the  length  of  the  second  and  third 
joints  united  ;  clypeus  slightly  concave,  the  apex  scarcely 
rounded,  being  straight  to  near  the  centre.  Palpi  testaceous 
at  apex  ;  mandibles  rufous  at  tips.  The  pubescence  on  the 
front  and  vertex  is  fuscous  and  very  short,  on  the  rest  of 
the  head  long  and  silvery  white,  being  especially  close  and 
thick  below  the  antennae.  Thorax  shining,  almost  impunc- 
tate  and  with  a  plumbeous  tinge  ;  the  mesonotum  bears  a 
sparse  short  pubescence  ;  the  pleurse  and  sternum  are  more 
densely  covered  with  longer  silvery  white  hair.  At  the  end 
of  the  metanotum  there  is,  in  the  middle,  a  bell-shaped 
depression  ;  the  median  segment  is  deeply  depressed  in 
the  middle,  the  depression  being  widest  at  the  base  and 
continuous  with  that  at  apex  of  metanotum  ;  its  sides  are 
striated.  Petiole  dilated  at  the  apex  and  nearly  as  long  as 
the  thorax,  and  considerably  longer  than  the  second  and 
third  segments  united.  The  second  segment  is  a  little 
shorter  than  the  third.  Legs  pruinose,  the  coxfe  bearing 
longish  silvery  hair  ;  the  femora  are  sparsely  haired. 


122  Mr.  Cameron  on 

Trypoxylon  canaliculatum,  sp.  nov. 

Nigrum  ;  palpis,  trocJianteribiis^  geniciilis,  calcaria,  tar- 
sisque  anterioribus,  flavo-alhis,  tibim  anticis  fiUvis ;  alls 
hyalinis,  apice  fere  fimiatis ;  tegtilis  rtifo-testaceis ;  apice 
petioli  abdominisgtie  segmentis  2  <?/ j  riifis.  Long.  9 — 10  mm. 

Antennae  covered  with  a  hoary  down  ;  the  scape 
testaceous  beneath  ;  the  flagellum  more  or  less  fuscous  ; 
the  third  joint  nearly  one-half  longer  than  the  fourth. 
Head  opaque,  closely  punctured  ;  the  clypeus,  face,  cheeks, 
and  eye  incision  covered  with  short  silvery  hair,  only  visible 
in  certain  lights.  Front  slightly  raised,  furrowed  in  the 
centre  ;  a  not  very  distinct  keel  at  the  end  of  the  furrow. 
Clypeus  bluntly  carinate  in  the  centre  ;  the  apex  gaping 
the  margin  slightly  curved  before  the  middle,  which  is 
rounded.  Eyes  at  the  top  separated  by  fully  the  length  of 
the  third  antennal  joint  ;  below  the  antennae,  by  hardly  the 
length  of  the  third.  Mandibles  rufous.  Pro-  and  meso- 
thorax  shining,  impunctate  ;  the  sides  and  breast  covered 
with  longish  white  hair.  Metanotum  shining ;  a  wide  de- 
pression in  the  centre,  the  depression  becoming  gradually 
widened  to  near  the  apex,  which  is  rounded  ;  on  either  side 
of  this  is  a  narrow  furrow,  of  nearly  equal  width  and  con- 
verging towards  the  apex  ;  both  are  transversely  ribbed  ; 
metapleurae  finely  obliquely  punctured.  Median  segment 
widely  furrowed  in  the  middle,  and  covered  with  white  hair. 
Petiole  as  long  as  the  thorax,  broadly  dilated  at  the  apex, 
and  tuberculated  at  the  basal  fourth  ;  the  second  segment 
distinctly  shorter  than  the  third  ;  sides  of  apical  segment 
distinctly  margined  laterally ;  indistinctly  keeled  in  the 
middle.     Legs  pruinose  ;  the  coxae  bearing  white  hair. 

Hab.  Barrackpore,  Tirhoot,  Mussoorie  Hills  {Rothney). 

Trypoxylon  piliatum. 
Several  specimens  from  Barrackpore  are  probably  refer- 


Hynioioptera  Ori en  talis.  123 

rablc  to  this  species.  The  antennae  bear  a  short  white  pile, 
and  have  the  third  joint  less  than  one-fourth  longer  than  the 
fourth.  The  cheeks,  eye  incision,  and  clypeus  are  densely 
covered  with  silvery  pubescence  ;  the  front  and  vertex  are 
shining,  minutely  punctured  ;  and  there  is  in  the  latter  a 
large  depression,  rounded  behind,  triangular  in  front,  with  a 
distinct  raised  margin  ;  from  the  middle  (at  the  angle)  a 
short  keel  runs  to  the  eye  incision  ;  and  from  the  apex  a 
stout  keel  runs  to  the  antennae.  At  the  top  the  eyes  are 
separated  by  the  length  nearly  of  the  second  and  third 
joints  united.  The  two  hinder  ocelli  are  placed  in  round 
depressions,  and  are  separated  by  a  margin  ;  the  front 
ocellus  is  placed  in  the  large  frontal  area.  The  meta- 
notum  is  strongly  transversely  striolated  ;  at  the  base  in 
the  centre  there  is  a  wide  furrow,  twice  longer  than  broad, 
surrounded  by  a  broad  margin  ;  and  on  either  side  of  this 
is  a  broad  furrow  which  unites  into  a  broad  furrow  running 
down  the  centre  to  the  apex.  The  metapleurse  are  much 
more  finely  and  closely  striolated.  The  mesonotum  is 
finely  punctured,  and  is  of  almost  an  olive  hue.  The 
abdomen  is  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the  head  and 
thorax  united.  The  petiole  is  nearly  twice  the  length  of 
the  second  joint.     The  calcaria  are  pale. 

The   peculiar   shield-shaped    depression    separates  this 
species  readily  from  the  others. 

Trypoxylon  intrudens. 
Smith  has  named  doubtfully  some  specimens  in  Mr. 
Rothney's  collection  as  this  species.  They  have  the  head 
rather  strongly  punctured  ;  the  front  furrowed  in  the  centre; 
the  eyes  at  the  top  separated  by  the  length  of  the  third 
antennal  joint ;  there  is  a  wide  furrow  in  the  centre  of  the 
metanotum,  with  a  curved  narrower  furrow  on  either  side  of 
it,  meeting  at  the  central  apical  furrow.  The  furrows  trans- 
versely striolated  ;  the  rest  of  the  metanotum  finely  punc- 


124  Mr.  Cameron  on 

tured.  The  petiole  is  more  than  half  the  length  of  the 
abdomen,  and  is  dilated  not  far  from  the  base,  and  clavate 
at  the  apex. 

On  the  whole  the  specimens  agree  fairly  well  with  Smith's 
description,  except  in  what  he  says  about  the  metanotum, 
which  has  "  a  deep  central  longitudinal  impression  ;  a  semi- 
circular enclosed  space  at  the  base  of  the  metathorax,  which 
is  transversely  striolated." 

T.  intriulens  was  bred  from  cells  constructed  by  Para- 
'pison  Tujipes. 

Larra. 

Larra,  Fabricius,  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  220;  Kohl,  Verh.  z.-b. 
Ges.,  Wien  1884,  233  {iion  Smith,  \N\i\c}a.  =  Stigmiis). 

Larrada,  Smith,    Cat.  Hyiii.  Ins.  IV.,  274. 

Smith  included  in  Larrada,  at  least  three  genera,  namely, 
Larra,  Notogonia,  and  Liris  ;  probably  also  Tachysphex. 
From  his  description  it  is  impossible  to  make  out  to  which 
of  these  groups  the  majority  of  his  species  belong,  as  he 
does  not  mention  the  structural  details  on  which  the  genera 
mentioned  are  grounded.  In  these  circumstances  I  have 
been  compelled  to  leave  over  for  future  examination,  by 
means  of  Smith's  types,  several  species  of  Notogonia.  At 
the  best  the  species  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  discriminate, 
the  points  separating  the  species  being  usually  minute  struc- 
tural details,  most  of  which  are  not  mentioned  by  Smith 
at  all. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Larra  sensic  lat.,  i.e.,  of  those 
species  which  cannot,  without  an  examination  of  the  types, 
be  referred  to  their  precise  genus,  and  which  may  belong 
to  Larra^  Notogonia,  Liris,  or  Tacky spJiex. 

I.  Larra    alecto,    Smith,  Jour.   Linn.   Soc.   Zool.    II., 
103,  6. 
Hab.  Singapore. 


\ 


Hymenoptera  Orientalis.  125 

2.  L.  CARBON  ARIA,  Smith,  /.  C.   I02,  2. 
Hab.  Singapore. 

3.  L.  CONSPICUA,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  276,  7. 
/2^(^^.  "  India." 

4.  L.  EXILIPES,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  278. 
Hab.  Northern  India. 

5.  L.  EXTENSA,  Walker,  An7i.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  (3)  V.,  504. 
Hab.  Ceylon. 

6.  L.  LABORIOSA,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  278,  12. 
Hab.  Philippines. 

7.  L.  MAURA,  Fab.,  Ent.   Syst.   II.,  212,   55,   Smith,   Cat.. 

Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  277,  9. 
//«^.  Tranquebar. 

8.  L.  POLITA,  Smith, /(?//?'.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool.  II.,  102,  4. 
/r«(^.  Borneo,  Sarawak. 

9.  L.  SYCORAX,  Smith, /(?;/;'.  Z/;/«.  5(9r.  Zool.  II.,  102,  3. 
i/^f7/;.  Borneo. 

10.  L.  TisiPHONE,  Smith, /^w.  Linn.  Soc.  Zool.  II.,  103,  5. 
Hab.  Borneo. 

11.  L.  TRISTIS,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  277,  10. 
Hab.  Borneo. 

12.  L.  VESTITA,  Smith,  Am.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  XII.,  11. 
Hab.  North  India. 

I.    Larra  simillima. 

Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,  275,  5. 

The  eyes  on  the  top  are  separated  by  the  length  of  the 
second  and  third  antennal  joints  united ;  the  vertex  has  a 
broad  curved  depression  behind  the  ocelli  and  along  the 
sides  of  the  eyes,  the  centre  being  raised  ;  there  is  an 
indistinct  longitudinal  furrow  in  the  centre  behind  ;  the 
clypeus  is  margined,  broadly  transverse  in  the  middle  ;  the 
front  excavated.     The  antennae  are  stout  :  covered  with  a 


126  Mr.  Cameron  on 

whitish  pile  ;  the  second  joint  is  half  the  length  of  the  third. 
The  pronotum  has  a  slight  incision  in  the  middle  behind  ; 
obliquely  excavated  laterally;  shining  and  finely  punctured. 
The  meta-  is  as  long  as  the  mesothorax,  and  is  strongly 
transversely  punctured  ;  the  puncturing  being  much 
stronger  than  on  the  mesothorax  ;  the  sides  of  the  meta- 
notum  are  somewhat  depressed  ;  the  pleurae  becoming 
narrowed  from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  Pygidial  area 
shining,  polished,  with  a  few  indistinct  scattered  punctures 
along  the  sides  and  apex  ;  the  sides  with  a  raised  margin 
and  with  a  furrow  on  the  inner  side  of  this  margin  ;  the 
apex  broadly  rounded,  almost  truncate. 

Oi  Larra  personata,  Sibi,  from  Celebes,  Smith  remarks, 
^'  This  is  probably  merely  a  variety  of  L.  siniillinia^  wanting 
the  black  apex  to  the  abdomen." 

Hab.  Tirhoot,  Bengal  {Rothncy) ;  "  Africa  "  (Smith  /.  c). 

2.  Larra,  Sumatrana. 
Kohl,  Verh.  z.-b.  Ges,  Wien,  1888,  354. 
Hab.  Sumatra. 

3.   Larra  fuscipennis,  sp.  nov. 

Nigra,  argenteo  pilosa,  abdominis  diniidio  basali  rufo, 
medio  nigro,  alis  fusco-fumatis,  hasi  sub  Jiyalinis. 

Long.  12 — 13  mm. 

Hab.  Tirhoot  {Roihney). 

Antennae  short,  thick,  tapering  perceptibly  towards  the 
apex  ;  the  second  joint  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  length  of 
the  third,  which  is  fully  one-fourth  longer  than  the  fourth. 
Head  shining,  strongly  punctured  ;  the  punctures  distinctly 
separated.  Ocellar  region  not  raised  and  separated ;  a 
broad,  transverse  curved  furrow  behind  it ;  above  the  front 
there  is  a  broad  margin.  Eyes  almost  parallel ;  at  the  top 
separated  by  the  length  of  the  third  and  fourth  antennal 
joints.    Clypeus  not,  or  hardly,  projecting  in  the  middle ;  the 


Hymenoptera  Orient  alls.  127 

apex  broadly  projecting,  and  with  a  distinct  incision  in  the 
middle.  Thorax  half  shining,  coarsely  punctured  ;  the 
metathorax  more  closely  punctured  than  the  mesothorax, 
and  densely  covered  with  white  hair  ;  pleurae  and  sternum 
shining,  the  punctures  widely  separated.  Pro-  and  meso- 
thorax closely  covered  with  dull  whitish  pubescence.  Pro- 
notum  in  the  middle  projecting  into  the  mesonotum,  which  is 
thus  incised  broadly.  Meta-  longer  than  the  mesothorax, 
the  apex  perpendicular,  indistinctly  furrowed  in  the 
centre.  Abdomen  as  long  as  the  thorax ;  covered 
closely  with  white  pubescence  (sparsely  on  the  top  of 
the  second  and  third  segments),  the  apex  rather  acutely 
pointed.  Pygidial  area  punctured  ;  covered  with  a  soft 
white  pubescence  ;  the  sides  not  keeled,  the  apex  incised. 
The  basal  two  segments  are  red,  broadly  black  in  the 
middle  ;  the  ventral  segments  are  pale  at  their  junction, 
Legs  covered  with  soft  cinereous  pubescence,  tibial  and 
tarsal  spines  white  ;  calcaria  black  ;  metatarsal  brush  pale. 
The  second  cubital  cellule  at  the  top  is  half  the  length  of  the 
third  and  hardly  the  length  of  the  space  bounded  by  the 
current  nervures. 

Hab.     Tirhoot,  Bengal  {RotJiney). 

4.     LARRA  NIGRIVENTRIS,  Sp.  710V. 

Nigra,  fere  nitida,  prjihiosa,  mctatJiorace  opaco,  striolato, 
fere  longiore  quain  mesothorace ;  alis  fere  fiavo-hyalinis ; 
apice  fuscis,  nervis  fiavo-testaceis.     Long.  12  mm. 

Antennae  the  length  of  the  thorax,  rather  stout,  covered 
with  a  silvery  pile  ;  the  second  joint  one-third  of  the  length 
of  the  third,  which  is  hardly  one-fourth  longer  than  the 
fourth.  Head  wider  than  the  thorax  ;  opaque,  alutaceous  ; 
eyes  at  the  top  separated  by  more  than  the  length  of  the 
third  antennal  joint ;  vertex  depressed,  a  wide  furrow  along 
either  side,  close  to  the  eyes  ;  a  shallow  and  less  distinct 
furrow  in  the  centre,  leading  to  and  from  the  ocellus  round 


128  Mr.  Cameron  on 

which  it  bifurcates,  becoming  wider  and  more  distinct  after 
leaving  it ;  the  presence  of  the  hinder  ocelH  is  not  indicated, 
and  the  anterior  is  elongated,  being  longer  than  broad,  and 
sharply  pointed  at  base  and  apex.  Face,  cheeks,  and 
clypeus  densely  covered  with  silvery  pubescence.  The 
clypeus  slightly  projects  towards  the  apex,  and  is  indis- 
tinctly carinate  down  the  centre  ;  the  apex  is  broadly 
rounded,  almost  truncate.  Base  of  mandibles  densely 
covered  with  short  silvery  pubescence  ;  the  apex  is  broadly 
red,  thorax  opaque,  alutaceous,  covered  with  a  sericeous 
short  pubescence  ;  pronotum  ending  in  a  rounded  part  in 
the  centre ;  mesonotum  truncated  at  base  ;  metathorax 
nearly  longer  than  the  mesothorax  ;  not  very  distinctly 
striolated,  except  at  the  sides  and  apex  ;  the  latter  semi- 
oblique,  furrowed  in  the  middle,  the  sides  densely  covered 
with  silvery  pile.  Abdomen  pruinose,  hardly  longer  than 
the  thorax,  the  apex  acute  ;  the  pygidial  area  very  shining 
and  bearing  a  few  punctures.  Radial  cellule  not  reaching 
to  the  apex  of  the  third  cubital,  wide,  and  very  sharply 
oblique  at  the  apex  ;  the  second  cubital  cellule  shorter  than 
the  third,  and  a  ver}'  little  longer  than  the  space  bounded 
by  the  recurrent  nervures.  Legs  densely  silvery  sericeous; 
the  spines  and  spurs  black. 

Hab.  Barrackpore,  Tirhoot;  Allahabad,  N.W.  Provinces 
{Rothnej'),  Poona  (  Wroiighton).     Not  uncommon. 


NOTOGONIA. 

Notogonia,  Costa,  Ann.  Mns.  Zool.  Univ.  Napoli  IV.> 
80  and  82  ;  Kohl,  VerJi.  z.-b.  Ges.  IVten,  1884,  249. 

Larrada,  Smith  =  Tachytcs,  Dahlbom,  St.  Fargeau, 
Saussurc,  Taschenberg. 

This  genus  apparently  contains  more  species  than  either 
Lai'va  or  Liris. 


Hymenoptera  Orientalis.  129 

I.    NOTOGONIA   PULCHRIPENNIS,  Sp.   IIOV. 

Nigra,  sericea;  inandibidis,  tegulis,  pedibus  (coxis  tro- 
chanteribusque  nigris)  abdoviinisque  bast  late,  nifis,  alls 
flavo-hyalinis,  apice  finnatis.     Long.  12  mm. 

Antennae  short,  moderately  thick  ;  the  second  joint  half 
the  length  of  the  third,  the  third  and  fourth  subequal. 
Head  almost  shining,  the  face  densely  covered  with  silvery 
pubescence  ;  the  vertex  with  a  sparser  and  shorter  pubes- 
cence, which  does  not  hide  the  surface  ;  alutaceous.  There 
is  a  somewhat  triangular  depression  behind  the  hinder 
ocelli  ;  a  wide  and  deep  furrow  runs  down  from  the  anterior, 
and  the  depressions  on  either  side  of  it  are  deep,  curved, 
and  broad.  Clypeus  not  much  convex,  the  apex  slightly 
depressed,  and  broadly  rounded.  Eyes  at  the  top  separated 
by  the  length  of  the  second  and  third  joints  united. 
Thorax  densely  sericeous,  alutaceous,  the  metathorax  trans- 
versely striolated,  coarsely  so  at  the  apex;  there  is  a  shallow 
furrow  in  the  centre  of  the  mesonotum,  and  there  is  a 
narrower  and  deeper  furrow  on  the  apex  of  the  metanotum. 
The  pile  on  the  mesonotum  inclines  to  golden  ;  the  meta- 
thorax bears  a  longish  white  pubescence.  Abdomen  longer 
and  narrower  than  the  thorax,  sericeous  ;  the  pygidial  area 
rufous  ;  longitudinally  punctured  ;  covered  with  a  silvery 
pubescence  ;  the  sides  keeled,  the  apex  rounded,  and  bearing 
stiff  bristles.  Legs  moderately  sericeous  ;  the  bristles  and 
calcaria  blackish  to  fuscous  ;  metatarsal  brush  silvery.  The 
second  cubital  cellule  is  one-third  the  length  of  the  third  at 
the  top,  and  somewhat  less  than  the  space  bounded  by 
the  recurrent  nervures. 
Hab.  Jeypore  {Rothney). 

2.     NOTOGONIA  JACULATOR. 

Smith,  Cat.  Hyni.  Ins.  IV.  p.  279. 

In  this  species  the  eyes  at  the  top  are  separated  by  the 
J 


I30  Mr.  Cameron  on 

length  of  the  fourth  antennal  joint  ;  there  is  a  longish 
shallow  A-shaped  depression  above  the  posterior  ocelli ; 
the  front  depressed  where  the  front  ocellus  is  ;  and  from 
the  apex  of  the  depression  a  short  wide  furrow  runs  ;  there 
are  three  wide  depressions  on  the  front  above  the  antennae, 
the  central  being  furrowed  down  the  middle.  The  clypeus 
is  almost  transverse.  The  basal  joint  of  the  antennae  is 
longer  than  the  second  and  third  united  ;  the  second  is 
about  one-third  the  length  of  the  third,  the  latter  not  being 
much  longer  than  the  fourth.  The  second  cubital  cellule  is 
about  one-fourth  shorter  than  the  third,  and  wider  than  the 
space  enclosed  by  the  two  recurrent  nervures.  The  pygidial 
area  bears  a  fulvous  to  cinereous  pile  ;  the  apex  is  broadly 
rounded.  The  $  has  the  wings  and  the  nervures  darker 
than  in  the  ?  ;  the  pygidial  area  has  a  soft,  short,  pale 
pubescence. 

Hab.  Barrackpore,  Mussoorie  hills  {Rot/mey),  Poona 
(  Wroiighton). 

3.  NOTOGONIA  DEPLANATA,  Kohl,    VevJi.  .'2.-b.  Gcs.  Wien, 

1883,  358. 
Hab.  Ceylon, 

4.  NoTOGONiA  SUBTESSELATA,  Smith.  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV., 

277,  II. 

Hab,  Barrackpore.  Common  {Rothney),  Poona  (  Wroiigh- 
ton), Sumatra,  Java. 

A  common  species. 

LIRIS. 

LiriSy  Fabricius,  Syst.  Piez.  227  ;  Kohl,  Verh.  z.-b.  Ges. 
Wien,  1884,  254. 

This  genus  contains,  so  far  as  is  known,  but  few  species. 
It  is  readily  known  from  Notogonia  by  the  absence  of  a 
notch  on  the  lower  side  of  the  mandibles.  The  pygidial 
area  is  clothed  with  short  hair  and  at  the  end  with  stiff 
bristles  ;  the  abdominal  segments  are  usually  clothed  with 


Hymenoptera  Orientalis.  131 

a   sericeous  pile,   and    the   fore   tibiae   are   spined    on    the 
outer  side. 

I.    LiRIS   H^MORRHOIDALIS. 

Pompilius  Jiaimorrhoidalis,  Fab.,  Syst.  Piez.  198. 

Liris  Savignyi,  Spinola,  Ann.  Soc.  Ent.  Fr.  VII.,  p.  476. 

Lyrops  aiLreiventris,  Guerin,  Icon.  regn.  aniin.  t.  III.,  440, 
//.  LXX.  f.  9.      $. 

Liris  oricJialcea,  Dahlbom,  Hyin.  Ent.  I.,  135. 

Tacky tes  illudens,  St.  Fargeau,  Nat.  Hist.  Ins.  Hyin.  III., 
249,  12. 

Larrada  JicemorrJioidalis,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyni.  Ins.  IV.,  280. 

Larrada  Jicemorrhoidalis,  Kohl,  Verh.  z.-b.  Ges.  Wien, 
1884,  256. 

A  widely  distributed  species,  being  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  Syria,  Egypt,  Senegal,  Gambia,  Sierra  Leone  ; 
Punjaub,  Poona  (  VVroiightoit).  Smith  (/. c.')  records  the  species 
from  the  Punjaub,  but  he  omits  it  from  his  general  Catalogue 
of  Indian  species  {Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  1869). 

2.  Liris  auratus. 
Sphex  aurata,  Fab.,  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  213,  64. 
Liris  ajirata,  Fab.,  Syst.  Pies.,  p.  228,  3.     Kohl,  Verh. 

z.-b.  Ges.  Wien,  1884,  241. 
Larrada  aiiridenta,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyin.  Ins.  IV.,  276,  6, 

pi.  VII.  fig.  5. 
Tacky  tes  opnlenta,  St.   Fargeau,  Nat.   Hist.  Ins.  Hyin. 

III.,  246,  7. 
Widely  distributed.      India  (common  in  Calcutta  dis- 
trict) ;    Borneo,    Sumatra,   Java,   Bachian,  Celebes,  China, 
Japan,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Gambia. 

3.  Liris  nigripennis,  sp.  nov. 
Nigra,  nitida,  punctata  ;  facie  clypeoque  argenteo  pilosis ; 
area  pygidialis  aurea  kirsuta ;  alis  fitsco-violaceis.      Long. 
?  18;   $   15  mm. 


132  Mr,  Cameron  on 

Antennae  stout,  as  long  as  the  thorax.     The  basal  jonit 
keeled  on  lower  side  ;  as  long  as  the  second  and  third  joints 
united  ;  the  second  joint  one-third  the  length  of  the  third, 
which  is  longer  than  the  fourth.     Head  as   wide   as   the 
thorax  ;  almost  opaque,  closely  punctured  ;  eyes  at  the  top 
separated  by  the  length  of  the  fourth  antennal  joint.     A 
triangular  depression    above   the  ocelli,  the  vertex  above 
this  being  indistinctly  furrowed  ;  there  is  a  wide  depression 
on  either  side  of  the  ocelli  close  to  the  eye  ;   and  the  space 
between  the  upper  and  lower  ocelli  is  widely  furrowed  in 
the  middle, the  furrow  being  continued  beyond  the  lower  ocel- 
lus.    The  front  above  the  antennae  is  widely  furrowed  along 
the  sides  of  the  eyes,  and  down  the  centre.    Clypeus  distinctly 
margined  at  the  apex,  slightly  waved  towards  the  centre. 
Mandibles  black  ;  somewhat  hollowed  and  finely  rugose  at 
the  base;  the  apex  piceous.     Thorax  finely  punctured  ;  the 
mesonotum  shining,  the  pleurae  opaque ;    metanotum  also 
opaque,  finely  rugose.    The  pronotum  is  brought  to  a  point  in 
the  middle,  and  its  edge  bears  a  covering  of  white  pubescence; 
the  mesonotum  is  a  little  depressed  in  the  centre  towards 
the  base  ;  the  mesopleural  furrow  is  almost  complete  ;  the 
■meta-  is  shorter  than  the  mesothorax  ;  its  apex  is  semi- 
perpendicular  and  transversely  striolated.    Abdomen  shorter 
than  the  thorax  ;  shining ;  the  segments  edged  with  a  pale 
short  silky  pile  ;  the  pygidial  area  densely  covered  with  a 
stiff  depressed — golden  at  the  apex,  fuscous  at  the  base — 
pile  ;  and  its  apex  bears  stiff  golden  spines  ;  its  surface  also 
-bearing   stiff  blackish   bristles.      At   the   top    the    second 
(Cubital  cellule  is  one  fourth  of  the  length  of  the  third  ;  the 
recurrent  nervures  are  almost  united,  and   are  received  a 
little  before  the  middle  of  the  cellule.     The  wings  are  pale 
across  the  cubital  cellules.     The  spines,  etc.,  on  the  legs  are 
black  ;   the  metatarsal  brush  and  the  brush  on  the  inner 
.spur  dull  fulvous. 

The  $  has  the  hair  on  the  face  and  clypeus  with  a  more 


Hynienoptera  Orientalis.  133- 

golden  hue  ;  the  second  cubital  cellule  is  longer  in  com- 
parison with  the  third  ;  the  recurrent  nervures  are  more 
widely  separated  ;  the  pygidial  area  is  less  strongly  pilose, 
and  wants  the  bristles  on  the  surface  and  apex,  being  also 
shorter,  broader,  and  with  the  apex  incised. 

Hab.  Bangalore  {Miis.  CaL),  Poona  {Wroughton). 

PIAGETIA. 

PlAGETIA,  Ritzema,  £■«/.  M.  Mag.,  IX,  120  ;   Kohl,  Verh. 
z.-b.  Ges.  Wien,  1884,  p. 
I.  Piagetia  Ritsenicc,  Ritzema,  Ent.  M.  Mag.  IX.,  p.  120. 
Hab.  Sourubuya,  Java. 

2.    PlAGETI    RUFICORNIS,  Sp.  IIOV. 

Nigra,  antennis,  ore,  clypeo,  prothorace,  metathorace  {medio 
metanoti  nigro')  petiolo  pedibusquc,  riifis  ;  alis  J lyalinis,  fascia 
substiginatali  fiisca ;  nervis  testaceis.  ?.  Long.  9  mm. 

Antennje  rather  slender,  almost  bare.  The  second  joint 
half  the  length  of  the  fourth,  which  is  shorter  than  the  third. 
Head  wider  than  the  thorax,  opaque,  finely  granular ;  a 
furrow  runs  down  from  the  ocellus  to  the  base  of  the 
antennae,  and  there  is  a  wider  curved  furrow  on  either  side 
of  the  front ;  clypeus  broadly  keeled  (the  keel  narrowed  at 
base),  densely  covered  with  a  silvery  pubescence,  the  apex 
with  an  incision  in  the  middle.  Eyes  at  the  top  separated 
by  the  length  of  the  third  antennal  joint.  Mandibles 
black  at  the  apical  half  Thorax  finely  aciculated, 
covered  with  a  close  silvery  pile  ;  the  metanotum  finely 
rugose,  with  a  shallow  depression  in  the  centre 
having  a  fine  keel  in  the  middle.  The  mesopleurai  and 
sternum  are  entirely  black  ;  the  mesopleural  suture  rather 
indistinct ;  the  mesonotum  is  broadly  rufous  on  either  side 
at  the  base.  Pygidial  area  almost  bare,  and  marked  all 
over  with  large  punctures.  The  second  cubital  cellule  at 
the  top  is  longer  than  the  third  ;  the  recurrent  nervures  are 


134  Mr.  Cameron  on 

received  not  far  from  the  base  of  the  cellule,  and  are  almost 
united.  There  is  a  short  black  line  on  the  top  of  the  middle 
femora  ;  the  posterior  femora  are  entirely  lined  with  black 
above  ;  the  hinder  tibiae  are  infuscated  behind  ;  the  coxae 
black  at  the  base  ;  the  femoral  spine  is  a  mere  thickening 
as  in  P.  ritsemce. 

May  be  known  from  P.  ritsenics  by  there  being  only  a 
fascia  in  the  wings  below  the  stigma,  the  entire  apex  not 
being  infuscated ;  by  the  antennal  being  entirely  red ;  the 
mesothorax  black,  &c.;  from  P.  fasciatiipmnis  it  differs  in 
being  larger;  in  having  the  antennae  entirely  red;  in  having  the 
mesonotum  broadly  red  in  front ;  in  the  mesopleurae  not  being 
entirely  black,  it  being  red  at  base  and  apex  and  under  the 
wings  ;  in  the  metanotum  being  only  black  in  the  middle^ 
the  apex  too  being  red  ;  in  the  second  abdominal  segment 
being  red  at  the  base  ;  the  pygidial  area  is  entirely  red  and 
much  more  strongly  punctured  ;  the  metathorax  can  hardly 
be  said  to  be  transversely  striated  ;  the  wings  are  not  so 
clearly  hyaline,  having  a  fuscous  tinge,  especially  behind 
the  stigma,  and  the  cloud  is  much  more  distinct  and  wider. 
There  is  of  course,  also,  the  difference  in  the  form  of  the 
clypeus  and  of  the  femoral  spine,  but  these  are  doubtless 
sexual  differences  which  cannot  be  compared  in  the  absence 
of  the  $  of  riificornis  and  the  ?  of  jasciatiipennis. 

Hab.  Poona  (  Wroiightoii). 
3.  P.  fasciatiipeimis.  Cameron,  Mem.  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc, 
Man.  II.  (4)  16. 

Hab.  Ceylon. 

TACHYTES. 

Tacky tes,  Panzer,  Krit.  Revis.  II.,  129  ;  Kohl,  VerJi.  z.-b. 
Ges.  Wien,  1884,  327. 

Like  Larra  this  has  been  split  up  into  three  genera,  and 
the  same  difficulty  is  experienced  in  elucidating  Smith's 
species. 


Hyumioptcra  Oricntalis.  135 

The  following  are  the  species  which  cannot  be  referred 
to  their  proper  genus. 

1.  Taciiytes  aurifex,  Smith, /t?«r.  Linn.  Soc.  II.,  loi. 
Hab.  Borneo. 

2.  T.  FERVIDUS,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyvi.  Ins.  IV.,  298,  11. 
Hab.  "  India." 

3.  T.  NOVAR/E,  Saussure,  Novara  Reise,  Hym.,  69. 
Hab.  Nicobar  Island. 

I.  Taciiytes  erythropoda,  sp.  nov. 

Niget\  nitidus^  argenteo  pubescens ;  mandibulis,  pedibits 
{coxis  nigris)  abdoniinisque  segjnentis  i — 3,  rufo-testaceis ; 
alls  hyalinis,  apice  fere  fumatis.  9.     Long.  8  mm. 

Hab.  Mussoorie  hills  {Rothney). 

Head  broader  than  the  thorax,  shining,  sparsely  punc- 
tured ;  the  vertex  sparsely,  the  cheeks  and  clypeus  densely 
covered  with  long  silvery  hair.  Antennae  short,  thick, 
microscopically  pilose  ;  the  second  joint  nearly  half  the 
length  of  the  third,  which  is  a  little  longer  than  the  fourth. 
Eyes  but  slightly  converging  at  the  top;  separated  there  by 
the  length  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  joints  united. 
Ocellar  area  longer  than  broad,  surrounded  by  a  furrow, 
and  furrowed  down  the  middle  ;  and  a  furrow  winds  down 
from  the  front  ocellus.  Lateral  prominences  indistinct  ; 
the  clypeus  slightly  projecting  in  the  middle  ;  the  apex  in 
the  middle  gaping,  roundly  incised.  Thorax  shining,  im- 
punctate  ;  the  pronotum  punctured  ;  the  metanotum  irregu- 
larly transversely  striolated  and  covered  with  long,  silvery 
white  hairs.  Abdomen  longer  than  the  thorax  and  narrower 
than  it,  shining,  covered  with  silvery  white  pubescence,  except 
on  the  basal  segments  in  the  centre  ;  pygidial  area  covered 
closely  with  stiff  fulvous,  mixed  with  white,  bristles;  the 
sides  keeled  ;  the  apex  rounded  ;  beneath  it  is  punctured. 
Femora  slightly,  tibiae  and  tarsi  densely  covered  with  white 


136  Mr.  Cameron  on 

pubescence ;  tibial  and  tarsal  spines  whitish ;  calcaria  rufous ; 
claws  for  the  greater  part  black.  Second  cubital  cellule  about 
one-fourth  longer  than  the  third  at  the  top,  and  one-half 
longer  than  the  space  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures. 

2.  Tachytes  monetarius. 
Tacky tes  monetarms,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyju.  Inst.  IV.,  298. 
The  largest  and  handsomest  of  the  Indian  species,  and 
readily  known  by  the  abdomen  being  covered  all  over  with 
silky  golden  pubescence.  The  antennae  have  the  third 
joint  longer  than  the  fourth,  and  four  times  the  length  of 
the  second.  Front  and  vertex  opaque,  closely  and  finely 
rugosely  punctured  ;  eyes  at  top  separated  by  a  little  more 
than  the  length  of  the  third  antennal  joint.  Clypeus  rounded 
at  the  apex.  Thorax  opaque,  closely  roughly  punctured  ;  the 
medial  segment  much  more  strongly  than  the  mesonotum 
and  finely  and  closely  transversely  striated  at  the  apex. 
Second  cubital  cellule  at  the  top  nearly  one-fourth  shorter 
than  the  third  ;  the  first  recurrent  nervure  is  received  about 
the  length  of  the  second  cubital  cellule  from  the  transverse 
cubital  nervure  ;  the  second  is  received  a  little  beyond  the 
middle  of  the  cellule. 

The    $    has    the    antennae  stouter ;    the   third  joint   is 
distinctly  longer  than  the  fourth. 

Common,     Barrackpore  ;     Mussoorie    hills     {Rothney), 
Poona  (  Wroicghton). 

3.  Tachytes  modestus. 
Tachytes  modestus,   Smith,    Cat.   Hym.  Ins.    IV.,    299. 

Saussure,  Hym.  Novara  Reise,  72. 
This  is  a  larger  and  stouter  insect  than  T.  ornatipes ; 
the  legs  are  red,  except  the  coxae,  trochanters  and  base  of 
femora,  the  abdomen  is  shorter,  thicker,  and  more  ovate, 
that  of  T.  ornatipes  being  elongate  and  narrow  ;  the  wings 
have  a  more  decided  yellow  tint,  and  the  nervures  are  more 


Hymenoptera  Orientalis.  137 

decidedly  yellow  or  rather  of  a  ferruginous  colour,  but  in 
this  respect  the  wings  vary. 

Common.  Mussoorie  hills  {Rot/mey).  Shanghai  {Saus- 
siire). 

4.  Tachytes  ornatipes,  sp.  nov. 

Niger,  geniculis,  tibiis  tarsisqiie  anterioribus,  nifo-testa- 
€eis  ;  alls  fere  fiavo-hyalinis,  nervis  testaceis  ;  clypeo,  facie 
thoraceque  longe  fulvo-hirtis.     Long.  12  mm. 

Antennae  stout ;  the  third  joint  hardly  longer  than  the 
fourth,  and  three  times  the  length  of  the  second.  The  hair 
■on  the  face  and  clypeus  is  long  and  dense,  the  front  and 
vertex  sparsely  haired,  opaque  and  sparsely  punctured  on 
the  vertex,  which  is  depressed  and  furrowed  in  the  centre. 
Eyes  at  top  separated  by  the  length  of  the  third  antennal 
oint.  Mandibles  reddish  at  the  basal  half;  punctured  and 
covered  with  silvery-golden  hair  ;  palpi  reddish  testaceous. 
Thorax  opaque.  Clypeus  punctured ;  the  margin  depressed, 
incised  in  the  middle,  the  scutellum  distinctly  punctured  ; 
the  hair  moderately  long  and  thick  ;  the  pronotum  above 
with  a  fringe  of  silvery  pubescence.  Abdomen  shining  ;  the 
segments  bordered  (except  in  the  centre)  with  silvery 
pubescence.  Pygidial  area  densely  covered  with  stiff 
golden  hair  ;  sharply  narrowed  towards  the  apex,  which  is 
rounded.  Ventral  surface  (especially  towards  the  apex) 
thickly  covered  with  dark  brown  pubescence  and  with  some 
scattered  longish  hairs.  Legs  cinereous  pilose  ;  the  femora 
with  scattered  hairs  ;  the  anterior  tibiae  are  entirely  testa- 
ceous ;  the  middle  pair  are  broadly  blackish  in  the  centre  ; 
the  posterior  are  black,  testaceous  at  base  and  apex  ;  the 
hind  tarsi  black,  more  or  less  testaceous  at  the  apex  and  at 
the  apex  of  the  two  basal  joints  ;  the  spines  pale  testaceous  ; 
the  spurs  and  claws  for  the  greater  part  rufo-testaceous. 
The  second  and  third  cubital  cellules  are  subequal  at  the 
top ;  the  first  recurrent  nervure  is  received  at  a  little  more 


T3S  Mr.  Cameron  on 

than  half  the  length  of  the  top  of  the  second  cubital  cellule 
from  the  transverse  cubital  nervure  ;  the  second  a  very 
little  beyond  the  middle  of  the  cellule. 

Hab.  Barrackpore  {Rothney), 

5.  Tachytes  Virchu,  sp.  nov. 

Niger-,  femoribus  postecis  riifis  ;  capite  tJioraceqiie  dense 
ftilvo-hirtis  ; pedibiis  dense  argenteo  pilosis  ;  alis  ferehyalinisy 
nervis  fiiscis.  $.     Long.  8  mm. 

Hab.  Mussoorie  hills  {Rothney). 

Antennae  with  the  third  joint  a  little  shorter  than  the 
fourth,  and  twice  the  length  of  the  second.  Pubescence  on 
clypeus,  and  face  dense,  silvery  to  fulvous  ;  front  and  vertex 
bearing  long  pale  fuscous  hair ;  opaque,  alutaceous  ;  the 
vertex  rather  deeply  depressed  in  the  centre.  Clypeus  with 
the  apex  depressed,  rounded  and  shining;  thorax  with  the 
hair  dense  and  long,  opaque  ;  the  scutellum  finely  punctured  ; 
the  apex  of  median  segment  irregularly  transversely  striated 
and  deeply  furrowed  in  the  middle.  Abdomen  ovate, 
shorter  than  the  thorax,  shining  ;  the  segments  at  the  apex 
with  a  dense  broad  silvery  fringe  slightly  interrupted  in  the 
middle,  except  on  the  apical  segment.  Pygidial  area  not 
much  longer  than  broad,  densely  covered  with  depressed 
silvery  hair  ;  the  apex  broad,  truncated.  Ventral  surface 
punctured,  rather  densely  covered  with  dark  brown  pubes- 
cence. Femora  behind  densely  covered  with  silvery  hair  ; 
tibiai  and  tarsi  still  more  densely  with  a  silvery  pile.  Spines 
pale  ;  calcaria  fuscous,  testaceous  at  base  and  apex  ;  claws 
reddish.  Second  cubital  cellule  fully  longer  than  the  third 
at  the  top ;  the  first  recurrent  nervure  received  at  the 
length  of  the  top  of  the  second  cubital  cellule  from  the 
transverse  cubital  nervure  ;  the  second  a  little  beyond  the 
middle  of  the  cellule. 

Hab.  Mussoorie  hills  {Rothney). 


Hyvioioptera  Orientalis.  139 

6.   TxVCHYTES   ROTHNEYI,  Sp.  HOT. 

Niger,  dense  fnh'o-Jiirtiis  ;  abdominis  segnientis  argenteo 
fasciatis ;  tibiis  tarsisque  dense  fidvo-pilosis ;  alis  flavo- 
hyalinis^apicefercfnviatis;  tegulis  riifis.    Long.  16 — 18  mm. 

Head  and  thorax  opaque,  finely  and  closely  punctured  ; 
the  scutellum  distinctly  and  strongly  punctured  ;  the 
metanotum  at  apex  irregularly  striated  and  deeply  furrowed 
in  the  middle.  Face  and  clypeus  densely  covered  with  a 
longish  fulvous  pile  ;  the  vertex  sparsely  with  longish 
fuscous  hair  ;  the  occiput  with  a  silvery  pile  ;  the  mandibles 
at  base  with  golden  pubescence.  Eyes  at  top  separated  by 
the  length  of  the  fourth  antennal  joint.  Scape  of  antennae 
densely  covered  with  a  silvery  pile  and  with  some  long 
fuscous  hair  ;  the  third  joint  about  one  fourth  longer  than 
the  fourth,  and  three  times  the  length  of  the  second  ;  the 
fourth — sixth  joints  are  slightly  contracted  at  base  and 
apex,  bulging  out  broadly  in  the  middle.  Clypeus  broadly 
carinate  in  the  middle  ;  the  apex  rounded,  entire,  and 
depressed.  Mandibles  inclining  to  red  towards  the  apex. 
Abdomen  longer  than  the  thorax  ;  becoming  gradually 
narrowed  towards  the  apex  ;  the  basal  segment  covered 
with  fulvous  pubescence  ;  the  other  segments  broadly 
fringed  with  silvery  pubescence  (but  the  fringe  does 
not  extend  quite  to  the  middle)  at  the  apex.  Pygidial 
area  densely  covered  with  silvery — inclining  to  golden — • 
depressed  stiff  pile  ;  its  apex  truncated.  Ventral  segments 
punctured  and  covered  with  blackish  hair.  Tibise  and  tarsi 
densely  covered  with  fulvous  hair,  the  femora  much  more 
thinly ;  calcaria  and  spines  rufous.  The  second  cubital 
cellule  at  the  top  is  nearly  one-fourth  shorter  than  the  third 
but  at  the  bottom  is  longer  than  it ;  the  first  recurrent 
nervure  is  received  at  one-half  the  length  of  the  second 
cubital  cellule  at  the  top,  the  second  a  little  beyond  the 
middle,  the  distance  between  the  two  being  a  little  more 
than  the  length  of  the  third  cubital  cellule  at  the  top. 

Tirhoot,  Bengal  {Rothney) ;  Calcutta  {Al2ts.  CaL). 


140  Mr.  Cameron  on 

•J.  Tachytes  vicinus,  sp.  nov. 

Niger,  dense  cinereo  hirtus,  abdominis  segmcntis  apice 
pedibnsque  argenteo pilosis ;  facie  et  clypeo  longe  dense  argenteo 
pilosis  ;  alis  fere  flavo-hyalinis  ;  tegidis  piceis.  $ .  Long. 
13  mm. 

Scape  sparsely  covered  with  long  pale  hair  ;  flagellum 
opaque,  microscopically  pubescent :  the  third  joint  is,  if 
anything,  shorter  than  the  fourth,  and  not  much  more  than 
twice  the  length  of  the  second.  Eyes  at  the  top  separated 
by  nearly  the  length  of  the  second  and  third  antenna! 
joints  united.  Clypeus  equally  projecting  throughout ;  the 
apex  rounded,  hardly  depressed.  Vertex  opaque,  aluta- 
ceous  ;  sparsely  covered  with  longish  fuscous  hair ;  the 
front  bears  also  long  fuscous  hair,  and  laterally  a  dense 
silvery  pubescence.  The  silvery  pubescence  on  the  clypeus 
is  long  and  dense.  Clypeus  distinctly  punctured  ;  man- 
dibles still  more  distinctly  and  strongly  punctured  at  the 
base,  and  bearing  a  short  silvery  pile  ;  at  the  apex  they  are 
piceous.  Thorax  closely  punctured  all  over ;  at  the  apex 
transversely  striated.  The  hair  is  long  and  is  especially 
thick  on  the  metathorax.  On  the  sides  of  the  pronotum, 
and  on  the  mesonotum  in  front  of  the  tegulae  is  a  patch  of 
silvery  pubescence.  The  furrow  on  the  apex  of  the  meta- 
notum  is  narrow  and  shallow.  Abdomen  aciculate  ;  the 
base  with  sparse  fuscous  hair ;  the  segments  at  the  apex 
banded  with  silvery  pubescence,  interrupted  on  the  second 
and  third  in  the  middle.  Pygidial  area  with  the  silvery 
pile,  dense  and  very  bright ;  the  apex  roundly  incised. 
Ventral  segments  at  the  apices  bearing  a  dense  tuft  of 
longish  brownish  hair,  and  strongly  punctured.  Tibiae  and 
tarsi  densely  covered  with  silvery  pile  ;  the  femora  sparsely 
haired ;  the  calcaria  rufous  ;  the  tibial  and  tarsal  spines 
whitish. 

Had.  Tirhoot  (Ivot/iney). 


Hyvienoptera  Orientalis.  141 

8.  Tachytes  nitidulus. 

Crabro  nitidultts,  Fabricius,  Ent.  Syst.  II.,  294,  6  ;  Syst^ 

Pies.  309,  7. 
Tachytes  nitidulus,  Smith,    Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  IV.,   298  ; 

Dahlbom,  Hyiii.  Ent.  I.,  470. 
Tachytes  trigonalis,  Saussure,  Hym.  Novara  Reise,  72. 
Common,  Barrackpore  {Roth^iey),  Java. 

9.  Tachytes  tarsatus. 
Tachytes  tarsatus,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  296. 

A  specimen  from  Barrackpore,  and  another  from  Tir- 
hoot,  are  probably  referrable  to  this  species.  The  antennit^ 
are  covered  with  a  pale  microscopic  down  ;  the  third  joint 
is  a  little  longer  than  the  fourth,  and  three  times  the  length 
of  the  second.  Eyes  at  the  top  separated  by  the  length  of 
the  third  antennal  joint.  Vertex  and  front  almost  shining, 
finely  rugosely  punctured.  Clypeus  punctured,  the  apex 
depressed,  broadly  rounded,  entire.  Thorax  closely  punc- 
tured all  over  ;  the  median  segment  transversely  punctured,, 
the  apex  transversely  striated,  deeply  furrowed  down  the 
centre.  Abdomen  aciculated,  punctured  closely  and  finely 
towards  the  apex.  Pygidial  area  elongated,  sharply  pointed 
at  the  apex.  Ventral  surface  shining,  sparsely  haired,, 
aciculated,  the  apical  segments  punctured  laterally.  Wings 
yellowish  hyaline,  the  nervures  yellowish  testaceous  ;  the 
second  cubital  cellule  one-fourth  longer  than  the  second  ; 
the  first  recurrent  nervure  is  received  about  the  length  of 
the  top  of  the  second  cubital  cellule  from  the  recurrent 
nervure  ;  the  second  about  the  same  distance  beyond  it, 
and  before  the  middle  of  the  cellule.  The  tarsi  are  only 
red  at  the  apex. 

T.fervidus,  Sm.,  is  the  only  other  known  Indian  species, 
with  red  abdomen,  but  it  has  the  legs  reddish. 

Hab.  Tirhoot  {Rothney), 


142  Mr.  Cameron  on 

lo.  Tachytes  basalis,  sp.  nov. 

Niger,  dense  argenteo  pilosiis  ;  mandibiilis,  tegidis,  scapo 
antennariim,  abdomine  dimidio  basalt  apiceque  tarsonun, 
mfis  ;  alts  hyalinis,  nervis  rufo-testaceis.     ?.     Long.  lo  mm. 

Antenna  stout,  densely  covered  with  a  whitish  pile  ;  the 
third  and  fourth  joints  subequal,  and  about  three  times  longer 
than  the  second.  Head  almost  shining ;  the  cheeks,  face, 
and  clypeus  densely  covered  with  long  silvery  hair.  A 
narrow  but  distinct  furrow  runs  down  the  vertex  to  the 
front  ocellus,  going  through  the  raised  ocellar  region,  which 
is  shining  and  impunctate  at  the  sides  and  behind.  Clypeus, 
broadly  projecting,  becoming  sharply  turned  inwardly  be- 
fore the  extreme  apex,  which  thus  does  not  stand  on  the 
same  plane  as  the  rest  of  the  clypeus  ;  the  apex  broadly 
rounded  ;  eyes  at  the  top,  separated  by  about  the  length  of 
the  second  and  third  joints  united.  Mandibles  black  at 
base  and  apex  ;  the  base  densely  covered  with  silvery  pubes- 
cence ;  the  sides  bear  some  long  white  hairs.  Thorax 
finely  and  closely  punctured  ;  the  metathorax  finely  rugose  ; 
its  sides  and  apex  densely  covered  with  long  silvery 
hair ;  the  apical  furrow  rather  narrow.  Sides  of  meso- 
notum  bearing  close  to  the  tegulae  a  broad  band  of  silvery 
pubescence.  The  two  portions  of  prothorax  subequal  la- 
terally ;  the  sternum  projecting  in  front  of  the  fore  coxa;. 
Pleurae  and  head  densely  covered  with  longish  silvery  hair. 
Abdomen  shorter  than  the  thorax,  shining,  aciculate  ;  the 
segments  edged  with  a  fringe  of  silvery  hair.  Venter  bearing 
some  long  fuscous  hair.  Pygidial  area  elongate,  sharply 
rounded  at  the  apex  ;  covered  with  golden,  interspersed 
with  silvery  bristles  ;  the  sides  with  a  not  very  distinctly 
raised  margin.  The  coxse,  trochanters  and  femora  in  the 
lower  side  densely  covered  with  silvery  hair  ;  the  tibiae  and 
tarsi  densely  covered  with  silvery  pile  ;  tibial  and  tarsal 
spines  pale  white  ;  calcaria  rufous  ;  outer  row  of  tibial  spines 
rufous  ;  metatarsal  brush  pale  rufous. 

Hab.  Mussoorie  hills  {Rothney). 


Hymcnoptera  Orient  alls.  143 

TACHYSPHEX. 

Tachysphcx,  Kdh\  Ber.  Ent.  Zeit.  XXVI  I.,  166;    Verh. 
z.-b.  Ges.  IVie/i,  1884,  347,  =Tac/ij/Us  Auct. 

I.   TACHYSPHEX   ERYTHROGASTER,  Sp.  IIOV. 

Niger  ;  capite  et  thorace  dense  argenteo  pilosis,  basi  anten- 
naruni,  clypeo,  pedibns  abdoniineque,  rnfis,  alis  dare  hyalitiis, 
tegidis  pallide  riifis,  nervis  fiiscis.     ?.     Long.  13  mm, 

Antennse  short,  stout ;  the  third  joint  somewhat  shorter 
than  the  fourth.  Head  finely  rugose,  but  the  rugosity  hid, 
except  in  the  centre  of  vertex,  by  the  dense  pubescence  ; 
ocellar  region  raised,  broadly,  but  not  deeply,  furrowed  in  the 
centre  ;  eyes  at  the  top  separated  by  the  length  of  the  third 
and  fourth  antennal  joints  united.  Clypeus  with  an  oblique 
slope  at  the  apex,  which  is  truncated  ;  labrum  with  an 
incision  in  the  middle  ;  mandibles  red,  black  at  the  apex  ; 
the  base  covered  with  silvery  pubescence.  Mesonotum  and 
scutellum  punctured  ;  the  sculpture  of  the  rest  of  thorax 
hid  by  the  dense  covering  of  hair.  The  apex  of  metanotum 
furrowed,  perpendicular  ;  abdomen  longer  than  the  head 
and  thorax  united,  very  finely  aciculated  ;  the  segments  at 
the  apices  bearing  a  band  of  silky  pile  ;  pygidial  area  im- 
punctate,  narrowing  to  a  point  from  the  middle  to  the  apex ; 
the  sides  not  very  distinctly  margined.  The  second  cubital 
cellule  less  than  one-fourth  shorter  than  the  third,  and  of 
the  length  of  the  space  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures. 
Legs  sparsely  pilose,  the  spines  white,  the  spurs  red,  the 
claws  blackish. 

Hab.     Poona  (  Wroughton). 

2.    TACHYSPHEX   ARGYREA. 
Larrada  Argyrea,  Smith,  Cat.  Hyni.  Ins.  IV. 
The  eyes  at  the  top  are  separated   by  fully  half  the 
length  of  the  third  antennal  joint.     The  part  in  which  are 


144  Mr.  Cameron  oji 

the  ocelli  is  raised  ;  there  is  a  broad  transverse  depression 
behind  it ;  a  thin  furrow  is  on  the  top  of  the  vertex,  and  a 
wider  one  runs  down  from  the  ocelli.  Clypeus  bare,  shining^ 
impunctate,  pale  rufous  ;  the  apex  margined,  projecting  in 
the  middle.  Antennae  filiform  rather  than  stout,  densely 
covered  with  a  pale  pile ;  the  second  joint  is  one-third  the 
length  of  the  third.  Pronotum  rather  depressed,  having  an 
oblique  slope  from  the  top.  Pygidial  area  shining,  impunc- 
tate, bare,  the  sides  margined,  but  not  stoutly ;  the  apex 
rather  sharply  pointed  and  truncate.  The  abdominal  seg- 
ments bear  laterally  a  dense  silvery  pubescence  forming 
broad  bands,  which  do  not  reach  across. 

The  quantity  of  black  on  the  abdomen  varies,  some 
specimens  having  the  middle  segments  only  slightly  infus- 
cated,  while  others  have  broad  bands  on  the  third — fifth 
segments.  Smith,  it  may  be  added,  does  not  state  that  the 
clypeus  of  Argyrea  is  rufous. 

Hab.  Mussoorie  hills  [Rothney). 

3.  Tachvsphex  bengalensis,  sp.  nov. 
Niger,   nitidus,  pimctattis,    metatJiorace   riigoso-reticidato, 
breviore  qiiam  mesothorace ;  alis  dare  hyalinis,  nervis  fere 
nigris.  ?.     Long.  10  mm. 

Head  as  broad  as  the  thorax,  the  vertex  sparsely,  the 
cheeks,  face  and  clypeus  thickly  covered  with  silvery  hair ; 
rather  strongly  punctured  ;  the  eyes  at  the  top  separated 
by  the  length  of  the  second  and  third  antennal  joints  united ; 
ocellar  region  raised  ;  a  a  -shaped  depression  behind  them, 
with  a  short  longitudinal  furrow  leading  from  it,  this  furrow 
being  continued  through  the  ocellar  region  itself  Clypeus 
punctured  ;  margined,  and  almost  truncated  at  the  apex. 
Mandibles  covered  with  long  silvery  hair  at  the  basal 
half  Antennae  nearly  as  long  as  the  head  and  thorax 
united,  covered  with  a  dense  greyish  pile,  the  third  and 
fourth  joints  subequal.      Thorax  shining,  bearing  a  fuscous 


Hyinenoptera   Orientalis.  1 45 

to  silvery  pubescence  ;  the  metathorax  much  more  thickly 
than  the  mesothorax  ;  strongly  (especially  the  pleural) 
punctured ;  the  scutellum  not  so  strongly  as  the  mesonotum. 
Metathorax  shorter  than  the  mesothorax,  broader  than 
long,  almost  rounded  at  the  apex,  coarsely  rugose,  running 
into  reticulations  ;  the  apex  strongly,  nearly  transversely 
striolated.  Abdomen  as  long  as  the  head  and  thorax 
united  ;  shining,  obscurely  shagreened  ;  the  segments  edged 
with  silvery  bands  of  pubescence,  interrupted  in  the  middle ; 
the  apex  rather  acuminate ;  pygidial  area  very  shining, 
margined  along  the  side,  sparsely  punctured.  Femora 
sparsely,  tibiae  and  tarsi  densely  covered  with  white  silvery 
hair  ;  the  spines  and  claws  pale  ferruginous  ;  the  calcaria 
blackish,  reddish  on  the  lower  side.  The  second  cubital 
cellule  is  about  one-fourth  longer  than  the  third,  the  latter 
at  the  top  being  somewhat  longer  than  the  space  bounded 
by  t|je  recurrent  nervures.  The  apex  of  the  radial  cellule 
is  narrow,  not  sharply  angled  on  the  lower  part,  but  rather 
rounded,  and  reaches  near  to  the  apex  of  the  third  cubital. 
The  appendicular  cellule  is  narrow,  but  distinct. 
Hab.  Tirhoot  {Rothney). 

4.     TACHYSPHEX    AURICEPS,   Sp.    710V. 

Niger,  aureo-hirtus ;  pedibus,  abdominisque  segmentis 
I  et  2  rufis,  coxis,  trochanteribiis  basiqite  femorinu,  nigris^alis 
flavo-hyalinis.  ^  et  $ .     Long.  1 2  mm.  $,  9  mm.  $ . 

Antenna;  stout,  covered  with  a  short  white  pile  ;  the 
third  and  fourth  joints  subequal.  Head  as  wide  as  the 
thorax  ;  the  front,  cheeks,  face,  and  clypeus  covered  with  a 
golden  pubescence,  the  vertex  with  a  much  shorter  and 
thinner  fulvous  to  golden  pile  ;  finely  punctured  ;  the  eyes 
at  the  top  separated  by  the  length  of  nearly  the  second  and 
third  antennal  joints  united  ;  the  vertex  furrowed  in  the 
centre,  the  furrow  ending  in  a  short  A  -shaped  furrow  ;  ocellar 
region  raised,  a  wide  and  shallow  furrow  in  the  centre, 
K 


T46  Mr.  Cameron  ou 

continued  down  the  front  as  a  narrower  and  more  distinct 
furrow ;  clypeus  at  the  apex  with  a  distinct,  moderately- 
wide  margin,  rounded  and  with  some  small  irregular  inden- 
tations. Mandibles  with  a  red  band  towards  the  apex. 
Thorax  covered  with  a  short  golden  fulvous  pile,  much 
longer  and  thicker  on  the  sides  and  metathorax  ;  finely  and 
closely  punctured  ;  metanotum  irregularly  transversely 
rugose,  the  apex  tranversely  striolated.  Abdomen  longer 
than  the  thorax  ;  the  segments  with  a  broad  interrupted 
band  of  white  pubescence ;  aciculate  ;  pygidial  area  with 
a  raised  margin  along  the  sides  ;  the  apex  sharply  rounded, 
bare.  Legs  shortly  pilose  ;  the  tibial  spines  and  spurs  red  ; 
the  claws  fuscous  towards  the  apex.  Second  cubital  cellule 
at  top  half  the  length  of  the  third,  and  less  than  the  length 
of  the  space  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures,  which  are 
received  a  little  in  front,  and  a  little  beyond  the  middle 
respectively. 

•  The  (J  agrees  in  coloration  with  the  9,  but  the  golden 
pubescence  on  the  head  is  closer  and  thicker,  the  eyes  at 
the  top  are  separated  by  slightly  more  than  the  length  of 
the  fourth  antennal  joint ;  the  third  joint  is  shorter  than  the 
fourth  ;  the  metanotum  is  rugose  ;  the  two  basal  joints  of 
the  abdomen  are  banded  with  black  ;  the  wings  want  the 
yellowish  hue ;  the  second  cubital  cellule  is  longer  than  the 
third  ;  the  nervures  are  fuscous  ;  and  the  first  transverse 
cubital  nervure  is  more  sharply  angled,  below  the  middle. 

Had.  Poona  ( Wroiighton). 


GASTROSERICUS. 

Gastrosericus,  Spinola,  y3;/«.  Soc.  Ent.  Fr.   VII.,    480; 
Kohl,  Verh.  z.-b.  Ges.  Wien,  1884,  408. 
•    A  genus  of  small  extent,  only  three  species  having  been 
hitherto  described. 


Hymenoptera  Orient  alls.  147 

I.  Gastrosericus  Wroughtoni,  Sp.  nov. 

Niger,  albo  pilosns ;  tegidis,  abdominis  segmentis  i — 2 
apiceque  tarsoriivi,  rufis  ;  alts  hyalinis.     Long.  1 1  mm. 

Antennae  as  long  as  the  thorax,  densely  covered  with  a 
silvery  pile ;  the  third  and  fourth  joints  subequal,  dilated 
at  the  apex  ;  the  second  one-third  of  the  length  of  the 
third.  Head  fully  wider  than  the  thorax  ;  the  cheeks,  face, 
and  clypeus  densely  covered  with  a  silvery  pubescence  ; 
the  front  and  vertex  much  more  sparsely.  Eyes  at  the 
top  separated  by  fully  the  length  of  the  second  and  third 
joints  united  ;  there  is  a  shallow  indistinct  furrow  in  the 
centre  of  the  vertex  ;  ocelli  surrounded  by  a  deep  furrow  ; 
hinder  ocelli  shining,  curved,  elongated  ;  vertex  and  front 
coarsely  aciculated.  Apex  of  clypeus  truncated  ;  mandi- 
bles reddish,  black  at  the  apex.  Thorax  punctured,  densely 
covered  with  cinereous  pubescence  ;  metanotum  finely 
rugose  ;  its  apex  perpendicular,  almost  truncated,  but  with 
the  sides  rounded.  Abdomen  longer  than  the  thorax, 
shining,  aciculated,  the  segments  broadly  banded  with  a 
silvery  pubescence  ;  pygidial  area  bare,  except  at  the  apex, 
which  bears  long  depressed  fulvous  hair  ;  the  basal  portion 
with  scattered  punctures.  Legs  densely  covered  with  silvery 
pubescence,  especially  thick  on  the  tibise  and  tarsi ;  the 
anterior  tibiae  and  tarsi  are  for  the  greater  part  reddish,  as 
are  all  the  knees  and  spurs  ;  the  spines  are  whitish.  At 
the  top  the  cubital  cellule  is  somewhat  longer  than  the 
space  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures,  which  are  received 
in  the  basal  fourth  of  the  cellule  ;  the  second  transverse 
cubital  cellule  is  curved  to  near  the  top,  when  it  becomes 
angled  and  straight. 

2.  Gastrosericus  Rothneyi,  sp.  nov. 
Niger,   argenteo  pilosns,  punctatns  ;    geniculis  lineaque 
tarsomm,  albis  ;    alts  hyalinis,  apice  fere  fnmatis  ;    nervis 
fuscis  ;  tegulis  albis.     Long.  7  mm. 


148  Mr.  Cameron  on 

Antennae  with  a  silvery  pile;  the  third  and  fourth  joints 
subeqiial.  Head  closely  punctured  ;  the  face,  cheeks,  and 
clypeus  densely  covered  with  long  silvery  pubescence  ;  eyes 
almost  parallel,  at  the  top  separated  by  the  length  of  the 
second,  third  and  fourth  joints  united.  Ocellar  region 
raised,  roundish,  surrounded  by  a  furrow  ;  hinder  ocelli 
as  in  G.  Wroiightoni ;  a  narrow  indistinct  furrow  runs  down 
from  the  front  ocellus.  Clypeus  with  a  broad  truncated 
projection  in  the  middle  at  the  apex  ;  the  middle  keeled. 
Mandibles  reddish,  black  at  the  base.  Thorax  finely  and 
closely  punctured  ;  the  metanotum  finely  transversely 
striated,  its  apex  with  an  oblique  slope  and  furrowed  in  the 
middle.  The  pleurae  and  the  edge  of  the  pronotum  are 
densely  covered  with  silvery  pubescence  ;  the  pubescence 
being  especially  long  on  metapleurse ;  the  tubercles  are  white. 
Abdomen  aciculate,  the  segments  broadly  edged  with 
cinereous  pile  ;  pygidial  area  densely  covered  with  fulvo- 
golden  stiff  pubescence.  The  legs  are  pilose  :  the  knees,  a 
broad  line  on  the  tibife  behind,  the  apex  of  the  tarsi  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  claws  are  white.  The  second 
recurrent  nervure  is  joined  to  the  first  before  the  latter  is 
united  to  the  cubital ;  the  second  transverse  cubital  nervure 
is  not  so  sharply  elbowed  as  in  the  preceding  species. 

Hah.  Barrackpore  {Rot/mey). 

PALARUS. 

Palarus,  Latreille,  Hist.  Nat.  Crust,  et  Ins.  VII.,  336; 
Kohl,  Verh.  z.-b.  Ges.  IVien,  1884,  416. 

1.  Palarus  orientalis.  Kohl,  /.  c,  422. 

(?)  Palarus  interruptus,  Dahlbom,  Hyni.  Ent.  I.,  468. 
Hab.     Ceylon. 

2.  Palarus  interruptus,  Dahlbom,  Hym.  Ent.  I.,  468. 
Hab.  "  Ind.  Or." 

A  ST  AT  A. 

Astatus,  Latr.,  Precis,  des  caract.  gen.  des.  Ins.,  p.  1 14,  14. 


Hynienoptera  Orientalis.  149 

Astata,  Latr.,  Hist.  Nat.  Gen.  et part,  des  Crust,  ct  Inst. 
t.  III.,  p.  336. 

Over  thirty  species  of  this  genus  are  known  from  various 
parts  of  the  world,  but  more  particularly  from  America. 
Only  two  have  hitherto  been  recorded  from  our  region. 

I.  Astata  maculifrons,  sp.  nov. 

Niger,  f route  proparte  tegiilisqiie  flavis  ;  abdominis  seg- 
mentis  2 — 5  riifis  ;  alis  fiisco-Jiyalinis.    $.     Long.  9  mm. 

Antennas  thickened  towards  the  apex,  the  scape  and 
second  and  third  joints  covered  with  longish  hair ;  the 
second  joint  a  little  longer  than  the  third,  and  both  are 
perceptibly  thinner  than  the  succeeding  joints.  Front  and 
vertex  strongly  punctured,  almost  rugose  ;  the  clypeus  al- 
most impunctate  ;  the  apex  broadly  rounded  ;  mandibles 
rugosely  punctured  at  the  base  ;  the  apex  piceous-red.  The 
yellow  mark  on  the  front  is  broader  than  long,  and  is 
rounded  at  the  sides,  and  is  incised  in  the  middle.  Pro- 
and  mesothorax  shining,  sparsely  but  distinctly  punctured ; 
the  pleurae  more  strongly  punctured  than  the  mesonotum ; 
metathorax  opaque,  coracious,  striolated  at  extreme  base; 
the  central  part  separated  from  the  sides  by  a  curved  deep 
furrow  ;  there  is  an  indistinct  keel  down  the  centre,  and  the 
apex  is  rugosely  punctured.  Abdomen  red,  the  base  and 
the  apical  two  segments  black.  The  second  cubital  cellule 
is  about  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  third,  and  half  the 
length  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures  ;  the  first  recur- 
rent nervure  is  received  not  far  from  the  base  ;  the  second 
a  little  before  the  middle  of  the  cellule.  The  stigma  and 
the  nervures  beyond  its  base  are  testaceous  ;  the  apex  of 
the  wing  is  almost  hyaline.  The  legs  are  covered  with 
long  black  hair  ;  the  anterior  knees,  tibiai,  and  tarsi  in  front 
are  sordid  testaceous,  the  posterior  tarsi  have  the  apices  of 
the  joints  testaceous. 

Hab.  Mussooric  hills  (^Rothncj). 


ISO  •     Mr.  Cameron  on 

2.   ASTATA   AGILIS. 

Smith,   Trans.  Ent.  Soc,  1875.  39. 

Nigra,  facie  pleiwisque  longe  argenteo  pilosis  ;  abdominis 
segmentis  i — 3  rufis  ;  inetathorace  reticulato  ;  alis  hyalinis, 
apice  fumatis ;  tegiilis  piceis.  9.     Long.  9  mm. 

Antennae  with  a  close  glistening  pile  ;  the  third  joint  a 
little  longer  than  the  fourth.  Head  shining,  the  front 
closely  but  not  strongly  punctured  ;  the  occiput,  cheeks, 
face,  and  clypeus  covered  with  long  silvery  hair  ;  there  is  a 
short  furrow  below  the  front  ocellus  ;  the  clypeus  is  rounded 
at  the  apex  ;  the  mandibles  black,  reddish  in  the  middle 
and  on  the  lower  side.  Thorax  shining  ;  the  pro-  and  base 
of  mesonotum  closely  punctured,  the  rest  of  the  latter  and 
the  scutellum  with  scattered  punctures ;  the  pleurje  coarsely 
punctured  ;  metanotum  longitudinally  reticulated  ;  the 
metapleurse  strongly  obliquely  striolated ;  the  apex  coarsely 
rugose.  Abdomen  aciculate  ;  the  pygidial  area  finely  ru- 
gose ;  margined  at  the  sides,  sharply  pointed  at  the  apex. 
Second  cubital  cellule  half  the  length  of  the  third  and  of 
the  space  bounded  by  the  recurrent  nervures  ;  the  first 
recurrent  nervure  is  received  a  little  before  the  middle,  the 
second  at  a  somewhat  greater  distance  beyond  the  middle 
of  the  cellule.  Tibise  thickly  spined,  the  apices  of  the  tarsi 
fuscous. 

Hab.  Tirhoot,  Nischindepore  {Rotkney),  Poona  ( IVrough- 
ton). 
3.  AsTATA  ORIENTALIS.  Smith,  Cat.  Hyin.Ins.  IV.  p.  310, 
14. 

"  India." 

This  species  appears  to  be  closely  allied  to  the  preceding, 
but  it  differs  in  having  four  carinae  on  the  mesothorax,  the 
wings  are  flavo-hyaline,  clear  at  the  apex,  and  with  ferru- 
ginous nervures. 

Hab.  Nischindipore  (^Rothney). 


Hymenoptera  Orientalis.  151 

4.   ASTATA   ARGENTEOFACIALIS,  Sp.  nov. 

Nigra,  argenteo  hirstita,  subtilis^ne  punctata  ;  meianato 
rugoso  ;  abdomine  fusco  \  alls  hyalinis.  ?.     Long.  8  mm. 

Antennae  covered  with  a  white  microscopic  pile  ;  the 
third  joint  perceptibly  longer  than  the  fourth.  Head 
opaque,  coarsely  alutaceous ;  the  occiput,  lower  part  of 
front,  face,  and  clypeus  densely  covered  with  a  silvery 
pubescence  ;  clypeus  incurved  in  the  middle  at  the  apex  ; 
mandibles  piceous-red,  black  in  the  middle.  Thorax 
opaque,  coarsely  aciculated  ;  the  metanotum  finely  rugose, 
furrowed  down  the  centre,  near  to  the  apex  above  ;  the  apex 
oblique,  coarsely  rugose  ;  the  pleurae,  the  pronotum  (except 
in  the  centre),  the  sides  of  the  mesonotum ;  the  hollow  at  the 
side  of  the  scutellum,  and  the  sides  of  the  metanotum  densely 
covered  with  silvery  pubescence.  Abdomen  shining,  very 
finely  aciculate ;  the  segments  lined  at  their  junction  with  a 
silvery  pile  ;  the  basal  and  apical  segments  are  more  or  less 
blackish.  Legs  covered  with  a  silvery  pile  ;  the  spurs  and 
spines  white.  The  second  cubital  cellule  at  the  top  is  half  the 
length  of  the  third,  and  half  the  length  of  the  space  bounded 
by  the  recurrent  nervures  ;  at  the  bottom  it  is  not  much 
shorter  than  the  third ;  the  first  and  second  transverse 
cubital  nervures  are  straight ;  the  first  recurrent  nervure 
is  received  not  far  from  the  base  of  the  cellule,  the  second 
at  nearly  double  the  distance  from  the  apex. 

What  is  apparently  the  same  species  has  the  first  and 
second  abdomial  segments  clear  red,  and  the  others  quite 
black. 

Hab.  Barrackpore  {Rothney'). 

AST  AT  A    NIGRICANS,   Sp.   noV. 

Nigra,  nitida,  punctata,  longe  argenteo  hirta  ;  metanoto 

striolato  ;  alis  hyalinis,  nervis,  fiiscis.  $ .     Long,  fere  8  mm. 

Antennae  as  long  as  the  thorax,  microscopically  pilose, 


152  Hymenoptera  Orientalis. 

the  joints  dilated  slightly  at  the  apex ;  the  third  joint  slightly 
longer  than  the  fourth.  Head  (except  the  ocellar  region) 
densely  covered  with  long  silvery  hair,  moderately  punc- 
tured ;  the  apex  of  clypeus  rounded  ;  mandibles  piceous 
beyond  the  middle ;  the  palpi  fuscous.  Mesonoto  and 
pleurae  punctured,  the  latter  strongly ;  the  metanotum 
strongly  longitudinally  striolated,  and  irregularly  reticu- 
lated ;  the  hair  on  the  upper  part  moderately  dense,  on  the 
sides  long  and  thick ;  abdomen  of  the  length  of  the  pro-  and 
mesothorax  ;  shining,  aciculated  ;  the  sides  and  ventral 
surface  densely  covered  with  long  cinereous  hair ;  the 
segments  broadlydull  piceous,red  at  the  apices.  Legs  densely 
covered  with  long  cinereous  hair  ;  the  tarsi  piceous-red. 
Second  cubital  cellule  at  the  top  one  fourth  of  the  length  of 
the  third,  and  half  the  length  of  the  space  bounded  by  the 
recurrent  nervures,  which  are  received  on  either  side  of  the 
middle  of  the  cellule.  The  appendicular  cellule  is  incom- 
plete, the  nervure  ending  not  far  from  the  radial  cellule  ; 
the  third  transverse  cubital  nervure  is  angled  and  issues  a 
short  nervure  below  the  middle  ;  the  first  is  sharply  angled 
below  the  middle. 

Hab.  Poona  ( Wroughton\ 


Note. — The  reference  to  Pelopccus  violaceus  (p.  102)  should  be  deletecU 
I  now  believe,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Andre,  that  the  European  P.  violaceus 
is  not  found  in  India,  and  is  quite  distinct  from  P.  beugalensis. — P.C.,  April 
15th,  1889. 


Proceedings.  153 


Ordinary  Meeting,  February  5th,  1889. 

•  Professor  OsBORNE  Reynolds,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  F.  J.  Faraday  read  a  letter  from  M.  C.  Tondini  de 
Quarenghi,  stating  that  the  French  Minister  of  PubHc 
Instruction  had  informed  him  that  he  proposed  to  invite  a 
conference  in  Paris  this  year  to  resume  the  consideration  of 
the  question  of  the  unification  of  time  and  the  adoption 
internationally  of  a  common  meridian  for  scientific  purposes, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  take  up  the  work  of  the  unsuccessful 
congress  held  at  Washington. 

Dr.  BOTTOMLEY  read  a  paper  entitled,  "  On  the  equation 
to  the  instantaneous  surface  generated  by  the  dissolution  of 
an  isotropic  solid." 


54 


Dr.  J.  BOTTOMLEV  on 


On  the  equation  to  the  Instantaneous  Surface  gene- 
rated by  the  dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  By- 
James  Bottomley,  D.Sc. 

(^Received  February  ^th,  iSSp.) 

I.  T/ie  Subject  considered  geometrically. 
Although  the  phenomenon  of  dissolution  of  a  solid  is 
one  of  the  most  striking  in  chemistry,  it  does  not,  as  a 
general  problem,  seem  to  have  been  the  subject  of  exact 
enquiry  ;  nor  do  the  text  books  of  chemistry  supply  an 
answer  to  the  following  question  : — Given  the  form  of  an 
isotropic  solid  placed  in  a  menstruum  capable  of  dissolving 
it,  what  will  be  the  surface  at  any  subsequent  time  bounding 
the  undissolved  portion.  Considering  the  infinite  variety 
of  forms  which  the  primitive  solid  may  have,  whether 
bounded  by  continuous  or  discontinuous  surfaces,  the  subject 
might  seem  to  be  impracticable.  After  some  reflection  on 
the  matter,  two  propositions  occurred  to  me  which  seem  to 
be  of  sufficient  generality  to  include  every  case  which  may 
present  itself  The  first  of  these  propositions  is  as  follows  : 
If  lines  normal  to  a  curve  be  cut  by  a  second  ciirve  at  a 
constant  distance  from  the  first,  then  these  lines  will  be 
normal  to  the  second  cnrve.  The  proof  is  not  difficult ;  let 
X,  Y  be  co-ordinates  of  a  point  P  on  the  first  curve,  and 


The  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  155 

X,  y  co-ordinates  of  a  point  Q  on  the  second  curve,  let  PT 
and  PS  be  the  normal  and  tangent  at  P,  also  let  PQ  =  c  be 
a  constant,  then  we  have 

i^-xf^{Y-yf  =  <^  (i) 

c  being  constant,  and  all  the  other  variables  being  regarded 
as  functions  of  X,  we  get  by  differentiation 

(X-.4-^).(V-,)(g-|)  =  0  (.) 

but  \^  =  tanPQR  =  tanPTS  =  cotPST  = ; — %^  =  -^ 
X-x  ^  tan  PS  1  £Y 

dX 
by  substitution  in  (2)  we  get 

dx_^  f^_±\ 
dX    dVydX     dXj 
dX 
.dY_^^^  (3) 

••dX~dX    dx 
dx 
dX 
Hence  the  tangent  at  Q  is  parallel  to  the  tangent  at  P,  and 
PT  is  normal  to  the  second  curve  at  the  point  O.     This 
proposition  will  be  of  service  in  treating  of  the  dissolution 
of  cylindrical  solids,  and  surfaces  of  revolution.     The  co- 
ordinates of  the  curves  will  be  connected  by  the  following 

relationship  : 

x  =  X-  CCOSCj)  (4) 

J  =  Y  -  csin^ 

(p  denoting  the  angle  PTS.     If  for  the  angular  functions  we 

substitute  their  values  in  terms  of  the  co-ordinates  X,  Y', 

we  shall  obtain  equations  which  we  may  write 

.T=/,(X,Y/)  (5) 

y=MX,Y,c) 

and  from  these  we  may  obtain  equations  of  the  form 

Y  =  F,(^-j',^)  (6) 

X  =  F2{xj',c) 

if  the  primitive  equation  be  ^(X,Y)  =  0,  to  obtain  the  de- 
rived equations  we  must  substitute  for  X  and  Y  from  (6). 


/: 


156  Dr.  J.  BoTTOMLEV  on 

In  these  equations  <;  is  a  variable  parameter,  and  by  giving 
it  successive  values  from  0  until  we  exhaust  the  normals  to 
the  first  surface,  we  may  obtain  the  equations  to  the 
successive  derived  curves  from  the  commencement  of 
dissolution  until  its  completion. 

\i  s  and  S  denote  the  lengths  of  the  derived  and  primi- 
tive curves  measured  from  two  fixed  points  up  to  the 
common  normal,  we  may  deduce  from  (3) 

ds  _d^  (7) 

dx~dX' 
and  by  integration 

VS  d_x_  dX  (8) 

dXdX 

from  (4)  by  differentiation  we  obtain 
dx  .     dd) 

//  C  T 

also  -rf>=  -: —  ;  substituting  in  (8)  and  completing  the  inte- 
^^r     sm^ '  &      V  /  r         t> 

gration  we  obtain  the  equation 

s  =  S+C(j}  +  n, 
n  denoting  a  constant ;    to  find  its  value  suppose  that  in 
Fig.  I  MP  =  S  and  NO  =  j-,  then  we  shall  have  simultane- 
ously j  =  0,   S  =  0,   ^  =  -;    hence 
equation  may  be  written 

There  is  also  another  equation  which  may  be  deduced  from 
this,  which  will  be  found  useful.  Suppose  that  c  is  not 
greater  than  the  radius  of  curvature  at  any  point  of  the 
curve  MK,  and  that  OM,  OK  are  normals,  then  the  area 

MNLK  may  be  written    /  sdc,  if  then  we  multiply  (9)  by 

dc,  and  integrate  we  get 

MNLK  =  &-^(;-,f)  ('°' 


The  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  157 

In  the  figure  the  angle  at  O  is  a  right  angle,  so  that  in  this 
case  0  =  0.  From  the  last  equation  we  may  obtain  an 
expression  for  the  undissolved  area,  for  we  shall  have 

ONL  -  Oi\I  K  -  Sr  +  ^Y?"  -</.")  (11) 

when  for  0,  0  must  be  written,  if  as  in  the  figure  the  angle 
between  the  extreme  normals  be  a  right  angle.  As  a 
particular  example  of  the  foregoing  investigation,  suppose 
that  we  have  a  cylinder  of  which  a  section  normal  to  its 
length  is  the  parabola 

Y-  =  4aX 
From  the  two  following  equations 

along  with  the  equation  to  the  parabola,  we  obtain 
(.r-X)-^(X  +  «)  =  «^2 

X( 2^-  +  X  -  xY  ='ay-  (12) 

From  these  equations  we  may  deduce 


X-  2a         /y^  + , 


{x  -  2a)- 


3        y^        3  9 

substituting  this  value  of  X  in  (12),  we  obtain  the  following 
as  the  equation  to  the  curve  cutting  the  normals  to  a 
parabola  at  a  constant  distance. 


{~V- 


^j-c^     (x -  2ay-} 
3  9        I 


w^^^ 


(x -  lay    x  —  2a\ '-'     ,     ^ 
9  3     J 

This  equation  when  expanded  so  as  to  get  rid  of  radical 
forms,  is  of  the  sixth  degree  ;  it  will  also  include  an  external 
branch,  cutting  the  normals  produced  externally  at  a  distance 
c.  If  in  (13),  0  be  written  for  c,  it  will  be  found  to  include 
the  parabola  itself;  for  we  then  may  write  the  equation 
in  the  form 

(/  -  ^ax)\f-  +  (x  -  of)  =  o. 


158 


Dr.   J.    BOTTOMLEY 


In  the  present  enquiry  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  consider 
the  internal  portion  of  the  curve.  The  radius  of  curvature 
at  the  vertex  of  the  parabola  is  2a  ;  provided  c  be  not 
greater  than  this  quantity,  the  internal  curve  will  cut  all 
the  normals  to  the  parabola  in  the  first  quadrant  in  the 
same  quadrant,  but  if  greater,  it  will  cut  some  of  these 
normals  in  the  lower  quadrant,  as  in  Fig.  2,  where  EB  cuts 


all  the  normals  in  the  first  quadrant,  but  the  remaining 
portion  of  this  branch  of  the  curve  cuts  them  in  the  second 
quadrant ;  having  descended  some  distance  below  the  axis 
of  the  parabola,  this  branch  will  cease  to  cut  the  normals, 
but  at  the  point  A  there  is  a  cusp,  and  the  portion  AC  cuts 
the  remaining  normals  drawn  to  the  parabola  in  the  first 
quadrant;  hence  OC  the  intercept  on  the  axis  is  equal  to  c. 
From  symmetry,  we  may  infer  that  the  branch  AC  will 
be  continued  above  the  axis  of  x  to  a  point  D  where  there 
will  be  another  cusp,  and  that  there  will  be  a  branch  DF 
corresponding  to  AB,  and  passing  through  E,  which  will 
therefore  be  a  double  point.  The  position  of  the  cusps  is 
given  by  the  equations 


TJie  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  159 

if    in   (13)    y  =  ^   the   corresponding   values   of   x  are  ±t: 

and    a-\ — >    this    latter    quantity    will    be    the    distance 

OE  of  the  double  point  from  the  origin.  In  order  to 
assign  some  definite  volume  to  the  cylinder,  we  may 
suppose  it  to  be  bounded  by  two  planes,  of  which  the 
sections  by  a  plane  normal  to  the  length  of  the  cylinder 
are  the  lines  GL,  LH  ;  furthermore  let  these  lines  be  normals 
to  the  parabola  at  G  and  H,  let  also  the  planes  just  men- 
tioned, and  the  extremities  of  the  cylinder  be  covered  with 
some  insoluble  compound  so  that  dissolution  is  confined  to 
the  curved  surface.  The  first  stage  of  dissolution  will  be  to 
remove  a  thin  shell  in  the  element  of  time  dt,  this  shell 
having  everywhere  the  same  normal  thickness  dc ;  to  the 
new  surface  the  same  lines  will  be  normal,  and  in  another 
element  of  time  dt  a  second  shell  will  be  removed,  having 
everywhere thesameinfinitesimal thickness, and  sotheprocess 
will  continue  until  the  solid  be  exhausted.  Of  the  curve 
in  Fig.  2  the  portion  EAD  has  no  physical  existence  ;  the 
portion  bounding  the  undissolved  area  will  be  BEF  ;  as 
dissolution  proceeds  there  will  be  a  progression  of  the  point 
E  on  the  axis  of  x,  at  the  same  time  the  area  BEF 
diminishes,  and  the  length  of  c  increases,  hence  the  object 
of  the  enquiry  will  be  to  represent  this  area  as  a  function  of  ^, 
and  if  c  be  some  ascertainable  function  of  the  time,  we 
may  determine,  either  exactly  or  with  any  required  degree 
of  approximation,  the  area  of  BEF,  and  consequently 
the  dimensions  of  the  undissolved  cylinder  at  any  time. 
At  this  point  then  we  may  see  that  the  doctrine  of  solution 
consists  of  two  enquiries,  the  determination  of  the  volume  of 
the  undissolved  solid  as  a  function  of  c,  and  the  determina- 
tion of  ^  as  a  function  of  the  time,  the  first  is  a  geometrical 
question,  the  second  a  chemical  one,  to  be  decided  by  ex- 


l6o  Dr.   J.    BOTTOMLEY  071 

periments  in  the  laboratory ;  the  first  enquiry  may  be 
pursued  in  perfect  independence  of  the  latter.  In  the 
present  case  the  area  BEF  in  terms  of  c  may  be  obtained 
as  follows : 

BEF  -  2BEL  =  2(0GL  -  EBGK  -  OKE) 

Let  0  be  the  angle  OEK,  ^  the  angle  OLG,  then 
EBGK  =  arcKG.^  -  -  ( ^  -  </>),  KG  =  OG  -  OK 

OK  =  a  — ^  +  alog{tan^  +  v/  i  +  tan*^} 

OKE  =  4.W^  +  /i^^i£^ 
3  ^  2 

also,  we  have  the  following  equation  connecting  ^  and  c 

2a  =  ccos(p, 

from  these  equations  by  elimination  of  (j>  we  obtain 

area  BEF ^ A  +  ^     .^    '    -Yc+2adoe, ^~ 

ba  °  2a 


ria-cos-^") 


wherein  A  stands  for  the  area,  and  P  for  the  perimeter  of 
the  curve  GOH  ;  if  /  be  the  length  of  the  normal  LG,  then 
the  values  of  c  in  the  last  equation  will  extend  from  2^:  to  / ; 
in  the  latter  case  the  area  BEF  vanishes,  and  this  corre- 
sponds with  complete  dissolution  of  the  cylinder.  If^be 
less  than  2a  for  the  area  BEF  we  should  have  the  value 
A-Vc+rQ,. 

In  what  precedes  the  figure  has  been  supposed  to 
represent  a  section  of  a  cylinder,  if  we  suppose  the  figure  to 
revolve  round  OL,  the  values  of  x  and  y  deduced  from 
equations  (4),  and  the  equation  to  the  parabola,  intro- 
duced   into     the    expressions    V  =  tt  I  j/^dx,   would    serve 

to  find  the  volume  undissolved  at  any  time  of  a  surface 
of  revolution  generated  by  the  solution  of  a  paraboloid, 
the  action  being  restricted  to  the  curved  surface. 


Tlic  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid. 


i6i 


Next  consider  a  right  cylinder  of  which  the  section  is 
the  ellipse 

Also  let  us  suppose  that  the  action  of  the  solvent  is  confined 
to  the  curved  surface,  then  x,  y  being  co-ordinates  of  a  point 
on  the  instantaneous  curve  situated  on  the  same  normal  as 
the  point  X,  Y  we  have  the  following  relationship 

Y-y      fi'^X 

X-.x     «-'Y-^ 
whence 

^~a%x-X)  +  d-'X 
substituting  this  value  of  Y  in  the  equation  to  the  ellipse 
and  the  equation 

we  obtain 

X"{a''x  -  X{a'^  -  b"")  Y  +  a^b'^X^  -  d^{a-x  -  X(«2  -  //-)  }^  =  0 
(X  -  x)\ay-  +  {a\x  -  X{a'  -  b^)  Y]  -  c^a^-x  -  X{a^  -  F-) }-  =  0 
expanding  these  equations  in  powers  of  X,  we    may  for 
brevity  write  the  results  as  follows 

PX*-QX«  +  RX-  +  SX-T  =  0  (14) 

UX*-VX3  +  WX--YX  +  Z  =  0  (15) 

the  coefficients  of  the  different  powers  of  X  having  the 
following  values : 

Y  =  \]^{a^-b^f 
Q  =  2a'^x{a^-b') 

R  =  ayP  +  «*^2  _  ^2(^2  _  /,2)2 

S^2xa\a^-b') 
T  =  a'x^ 

Y  =  2x{a'"-b^){2a^~-b') 

W  -  a'i^.^  +/)  +  4«2^^(fl2  _  b^)  +  («2  _  //2)2(^2  _  ^2) 

Y  =  2{a'x{x^  +y-)  +  a-x{a^  -  b''){x-  -  c-)} 

Since  P  =  U,  if  we  subtract  (14)  from  (15),  we  obtain 

X\Q  -  V)  +  X'^W  -  R)  -  X(Y  +  S)  +  Z  +  T  =  0  (17) 

L 


(16) 


[  =0 


1 62  Dr.  J.   BOTTOMLEY   on 

If  wc  multiply  this  last  equation  by  PX,  and  subtract  from 
(14),  multiplied  by  Q  — V,  we  obtain 
-X«{Q(Q-V)  +  P(W-R)}+X2{R(Q-V)  +  P{Y  +  S)} 

+  X{S(Q-V)-P(Z  +  T)}-T(Q-V)  =  0 
eliminating  X^  between  this  equation  and  (17),  we  obtain 
the  following  quadratic  equation  for  determining  X  : 
X-^  1  (R(Q  -  V)  +  P(Y  +  S))(Q  -  V)  +  (Q(Q  -  V)  +  P{W  -  R))^ 
(W-R);-+x{(S(Q-V)-P(Z  +  T))(Q-V)-(Q(Q-V) 
+  P(W -  R))(Y  +  S)}  - T(Q  -  V)-  +  (Q(Q -  V) 
+  P(W-R))(Z  +  T) 

If  we  write  the  solution  of  this  equation  in  the  form 

2A     2A  ^ 

the   following   will   be   the   values  of  the  letters  A,  B,  C 
deduced  from  (16): 
A  =  (fl2  -  d"-y{x*{a"-  -  U'f  +  zx'iaY-ia'  +  U^)  -  {a"  -  U')\a'  +  ^^)) 

B  =  2{a-  -  b'fd-x'i^  x\a"  -  b~f  +  x-(a:y-{2a"  -  b')  -2(0^-  b'fiir  +  r)) 

+  {ay-  +  {d'-b-'){d'-r)y} 
C  =  {d'  -  b'fa'x-lx'id'  -  b')  +  .i--((2«-^  -  b')f  -  2{d'  ~  b''){d'  +  r)) 

+  (y  +  a-  -  r){dy  +  {a-  -  b-){d'  -  r))  } 
From  the  value  of  X  thus  obtained,  we  may  deduce  the 
value  of  Y  by  writing  in  the  formulae  b,  y,  x  for  a,x,y 
respectively  ;  these  values  of  X  and  Y  substituted  in  the 
equation  to  the  ellipse  or  in  the  equation 

{X-xf+{Y-yf^r 
will  give  the  equation  to  the  instantaneous  curve  generated 
by  the  dissolution  of  an  elliptic  cylinder.     It  will  also  give  an 
external  curve  cutting  the  normals  at  a  distance  c  from  the 
ellipse.     The  radius  of  curvature  at  the  extremity  of  the 

major  axis  of  the  ellipse  has  the  value  — ,  while  c  is  less  than 

this  value,  the  internal  curve  cuts  the  normals  drawn  in  any 
quadrant  in  the  same  quadrant,  when  c  is  greater,  the  curve 
becomes  more  complicated  and  assumes    the  form   repre- 


The  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  163-. 

sented  in  the  figure.     The  branch  CD  cuts  a  portion  of  the 


normals  to  AB  ;  at  D  is  a  cusp  and  the  remaining  normals 
in  the  first  quadrant  are  cut  by  HD  ;  the  normals  to  the 
lower  quadrant  are  cut  by  the  branch  FCEH,  there  being 
a  second  cusp  at  E,  and  C  being  a  double  point  ;  to  the  left 
of  the  axis  of  j  there  is  another  portion  of  the  curve  sym- 
metrical with  that  to  the  right.  Of  the  curve  thus  found 
the  portions  ECD,  LMK,  have  no  physical  existence,  the 
undissolved  area  at  any  time  will  be  represented  by  CGKF. 
The  position  of  the  cusps  is  given  by  the  equations, 


and 


^-±^jJTi^-l^^^^^ 


the  final  positions  of  the  cusps  corresponding  with  total  dis- 
solution of  the  cylinder  will  be  obtained  by  writing  b  for  c, 
they  will  be 

b 


The  position  of  the  double  points  is  given  by  the  equations 

In  order  to  trace  the  progress   of  the   dissolution  of  the 
cylinder  it  will  be  necessary  to  express  the  area  as  a  func* 


i64  Dr.  J.  BOTTOMLEY  on 

tion  of  c;  by  reference  to  Fig.  4,  it  will  be  seen  that 
B 


CEFG  =  4-OEC  =  4(0BHK  -  EBHC  -  CHK). 
X  being  the  abscissa  of  the  point  H,  we  have  the  following 
relations  (^  denoting  the  angle  HCA). 

EBCH  =  ^.BH-^'(7r-0); 


BH 


J  sir 


dX  , 

sin^' 


OBHK  =  ^|-^v^'''-^%'''sin-^L 
a  [^  2  2  a  j  ' 


X  = 


\/  a'  +  l^han-d 


Cos<p 


b    yJlr-C- 


c  \J  d-  -  b 
CHK=    cos(^sin(^. 
From  these  equations  we  obtain  by  elimination 

CEFG=  -^ P +  2rt/'sin  ^-a/  — — 77. 

b  by/    a-  -  b- 

_  4^^  f  ''^'  +  2ci--  _  sin-\  A5E^. 

bj  v/(aV-^*)(-^-<:-)  V2  cSf    a" - [^ 

This  formula  applies  from 

c=      to  c  =  o. 
a 

If  we  suppose  the   last   figure  to  revolve  round    the  axis 


TJie  Dissobitio7i  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  165 

of  ,1',  then  the  instantaneous  curve  will  trace  out  the  surface 
bounding  the  undissolved  portion  at  any  instant,  when  a 
prolate  spheroid  is  acted  upon  by  a  solvent ;  the  values  of 
X  and  y  substituted  in  the  formula  irj y^dx  will  give  the 
volume  of  this  undissolved  solid  ;  in  like  manner,  if  the 
figure  revolve  round  the  axis  of  y,  from  the  foregoing  in- 
vestigation we  may  deduce  the  value  of  the  integral  irj x~dy, 
being  the  volume  at  any  instant  of  the  solid  generated  by 
the  solution  of  an  oblate  spheroid. 

The  second  proposition,  before  referred  to,  which  enables 
us  to  investigate  geometrically  the  dissolution  of  all  solids  is 
as  follows.  //  a  surface  be  drawn  cutting  the  lines  normal 
to  a  given  surface  at  a  constant  distance  from  the  surface,  then 
these  lines  will  be  normal  to  the  surface  so  drawn.  Let 
X,  Y,  Z,  be  co-ordinates  of  a  point  on  the  given  surface 
0(X,  Y,  Z,)  =  0  and  ,r,  y,  z  co-ordinates  of  a  point  on  the 
instantaneous  surface  ;//(.r,  J',  r)  =  0,  then  c  denoting  a  con- 
stant we  have  the  equation 

(X-.rr  +  (Y-jO^  +  (Z-s^)  =  .l  (18) 

At  a  contiguous  point  we  shall  have 

(X  +  ^X  -  X  -  dxf  +  {Y  +  dY-y-  dyf  +  {Z  +  dZ-z-  dzf  =  c'^ ; 
expanding  and  eliminating  the  constant,  we  get 

(X  -  .t)(^  -  ^v)  +  (Y  -y){dY  -dy)  +  {Z-  z){dZ  -  dz) 

+  (^X  -  dxf  +  (^Y  -  dyf  +  {dZ  -  dzf  =  0; 

if  the  second  point  be  taken  indefinitely  near  to  the  first 
point,  then  neglecting  small  quantities  of  the  second  order, 
the  last  equation  may  be  written  in  the  form 

(X  -  .v)^X  +  (Y  -y)dY  +  (Z  -  z)dZ  =  (X  -  x)dx 

+  (Y  -y)dy  +  (Z  -  z)dz. 

since  the  line  is  normal  to  the  surface  0(X,Y,Z)  the  ex- 
pression on  the  left  vanishes.     Hence  we  have 
(X  -  x)dx  +  (Y  -y)dy  +  {Z-  z)dz  =  0, 
and  this  is  the  condition  to  be  fulfilled,  that  the  line  may  be 
a  normal  to  the  instantaneous  surface  (p(x,y,z). 


i66  Dr.  J.  BoTTOMLEV  on 

From  the  two  last  equations  we  may  deduce 


dz-- 
hence  we  have 


(j^>-m>-' 


dZ 

dY 

Y-y 
Z-z 

dZ 

dX 

X-x 

Z-z 

dz 
dx- 

X-x 

Z-z 

dz 

dy- 

Y-y 
~Z-z 

hence 


dZ      dz  dz     dz 

dX^dx  ^"^^  dY^'^ 


and  from  these  equations  we  may  obtain, 

the  expression  on  the  left  measures  the  inclination  of  the 
tangent  plane  at  the  point  X,  Y,  Z,  to  the  plane  of  xy,  and 
the  expression  on  the  right  measures  the  inclination  of  the 
tangent  plane  at  x,y,s,  to  the  same  plane,  hence  these  tan- 
gent planes  are  parallel,  therefore  the  line 

X-x_Y-y     Z-z 
c     ~     c    ~     c 

is  normal  to  both  surfaces.  If  a,j3, 7  be  the  direction  angles 
of  the  normal  to  the  primitive  surface  0(X,  Y,  Z,)  we  have 
the  equations 

vT  =  X  -  fCOSa 

J  =  Y  -  rcos/3  (20 

z  =  Z-  <rcosy 

which  may  be  written  in  the  form 


TJie  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  167 


^-'t 


A&hm<^y 

if  in  these  equations  we  substitute  for  the  differential  coeffi- 
cients their  values  in  terms  of  the  co-ordinates,  we  may  write 

x=MX,Y,Z,c)  (2  1) 

y=MX,Y,Z,c) 

z=MX,Y,Z,c) 

from  these  equations  we  may  deduce 

X  =  F,{x,y,z,c)  (22) 

Y  =  F,{x,y,z,c) 
Z  =  F3(^-,j',5,c) 
These  values  of  X,  Y,  Z  substituted  in  the  equation 
(/)(X,Y,Z)  =  0,  or  in  (18)  will  give  the  instantaneous  surface 
generated  by  the  solution  of  the  given  surface.  By  the 
variation  of  c,  we  shall  obtain  the  successive  surfaces  from 
the  commencement  until  the  completion  of  dissolution  ;  the 
equation  will  also  include  the  primitive  surface  if  we  write 
0  for  c. 

In  order  to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  above  reasoning, 
suppose  the  primitive  surface  to  be  the  sphere 

X"  +  Y'  +  Z'  =  r- 
then,  since 

dz  _      X        ^_^_  _Y 
dx~  ~  V       dY"      Z 
we  shall  have  the  additional  equations 


1 68 


Dk.  . 

].  Bottom li-:y  on 

X 

-x  +  (Z-s)|  =  0 

Y 

-j  +  (Z-s)|  =  0 

:c)  +(Y- 

-yf  +  {Z-zf  =  r; 

nay  deduce 

yr 

(X 


and  these  values  substituted  in  the  primitive  equation  give 
the  equation 

representing  two  spheres,  one  cutting  the  normals  to  the 
primitive  surface  internally,  and  the  other  externally,  a 
result  which  might  have  been  expected.  In  the  case  of 
solution  we  must  take  the  radius  r—c.  It  might  be  asked, 
what  is  the  interpretation  of  the  equation  with  the  ex- 
pression r+cfor  the  radius?  The  physical  interpretation 
is  this  ;  chemical  solutions  can  not  only  dissolve  but  also 
deposit  and  the  external  surface  corresponds  to  the  case  of 
deposition  ;  this  remark  will  also  apply  to  the  external 
surface  included  in  the  general  equation  to  the  instantane- 
ous surface  ;  hence,  dissolution  and  deposition  are  included 
in  the  same  mathematical  investigation.  In  the  present 
enquiry,  dissolution  alone  is  considered.  In  the  case  of  any 
isotropic  solid  dissolution  will  proceed  as  follows  :  in  the 
element  of  time  dt  there  will  be  removed  a  shell  having 
everywhere  the  same  infinitesimal  normal  thickness  ;  lines 
normal  to  the  original  surface  will  be  normal  to  the  new- 
surface  ;  along  these  lines  again  measure  off  the  elementary 
length  dc^  the  locus  of  the  extremities  will  be  the  new 
surface  bounding  the  undissolved  portion  ;  this  process, 
continued  until  we  exhaust  all  the  normals,  will  exhibit 
the  process  of  solution  from  its  commencement  until  its 
completion. 

The  relation  between  the  area  of  the  primitive  and  of 
the   instantaneous    surface    may  be   obtained    as   follows : 


The  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  169 

from  (19)  we  have 

d-a        d-A 
dydx~dYdX 
integrating  we  obtain 

changing  the  variables  from  x,  y  to  X,  Y  b}'  means  of  (20) 
the  last  equation  becomes 

n^A-cJ  J  .ecv(  -^    +  — -  j^V^X  +.-_/  J  sec,. 

fdcosa  dcosft     dcosa  dcosl3\ 

[-dx  -^Y~—dT^T'r^'^^- 

It  will  be  possible  to  assign  to  c  such  values  that  the  co- 
efficients of  c  and  c"  in  this  equation  do  not  contain  c.  If 
we  denote  these  coefficients  by  P  and  O,  multiply  both 
sides  by  dc  and  integrate,  and  denote  by  V  the  volume  of 
the  shell,  bounded  by  the  primitive  and  the  instantaneous 
surfaces  we  shall  get  the  following  equation 

V  =  Ar-^P-^^-Q  (23) 

a  result  which  will  be  frequentl}'  useful  in  the  theory  of 
solution. 

II.    Tlie  subject  considered  chemically. 

In  the  foregoing  investigation,  dissolution  has  been  con- 
sidered as  a  geometrical  question,  there  yet  remains  to 
consider  the  matter  as  a  chemical  problem. 

The  rate  of  diminution  of  a  solid  depends  on  a  variety 
of  circumstances.  If  the  acid  be  very  dilute,  the  action  is 
slow,  and  if  concentrated,  in  some  cases  the  action  may  be 
slow  also,  as  in  the  case  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  and  zinc. 
Solution  requires  not  onl)'  the  presence  of  an  agent  capable 
of  forming  a  soluble  compound  with  the  solid,  but  also  the 
presence  of  some  menstruum  which  continually  removes 
the  product  so  formed.  If  the  solution  be  heated,  there  is 
usually  an  acceleration  of  action  ;  hence,  if  there  be  an  evo- 


170  Dr.  J.  BoTTOMLEV  on 

lution  of  heat  during  the  solution,  this  will  have  some  effect 
on  the  rate  of  solution.  Also,  if  there  be  an  evolution  of 
gas,  the  adhesion  of  bubbles  of  gas  may  interfere  with  the 
contact  of  the  solid  and  solvent.  Also  the  solid  may  be 
partially  soluble  and  like  cast  iron,  contain  carbon  or  silicon 
in  forms  not  soluble,  .so  that  a  crust  of  insoluble  matter 
may  accumulate  and  impede  the  rate  of  dissolution. 

In  what  follows,  the  following  conditions  are  supposed 
to  hold  :  1st,  that  the  mass  of  the  solvent  is  kept  in  such  a 
state  of  agitation,  that  at  any  time  it  may  be  considered 
homogeneous  ;  in  such  a  case  the  strength  of  the  acid  in 
contact  with  the  solid  will  be  proportional  to  the  total 
quantity  of  anhydrous  acid  remaining  uncombined.  2nd, 
that  the  temperature  remains  unaltered  during  solution  ;  if 
it  be  desired  to  keep  the  temperature  from  rising  we  may 
suppose  ice  or  some  appropriate  refrigerating  agent  applied 
to  the  exterior  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  operation  takes 
place,  so  that  the  flux  of  heat  outwards  shall  neutralize  the 
rise  of  temperature  due  to  chemical  action,  or  by  regulating 
the  external  application  of  heat  any  constant  temperature 
compatible  with  the  circumstances  of  the  experiment  may 
be  maintained  within  the  vessel.  3rd,  that  the  successive 
surfaces  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  .solvent  are  homogene- 
ous, in  which  case  the  action  of  the  solvent  along  every 
normal  to  the  surface  is  the  same,  so  that  the  thin  shell 
removed  in  an  element  of  time  has  everywhere  the  same 
normal  thickness.  With  these  suppositions,  it  seems  evident 
that  the  rate  of  dissolution  will  be  proportional  to  the  extent 
of  surface  exposed  to  the  solvent,  it  will  also  be  some 
function  of  the  unsaturated  acid.  Let  v  denote  volume  of 
solid  at  time  /,  let  a  denote  the  mass  of  unsaturated  acid 
(anhydride),  s  surface  of  the  solid  at  time  t ;  then  we  have 

the  relation 

dv^  -  ns(\^{a)dt  (24) 

where  n  denotes  a  constant  depending  on  the  temperature 


TJlc  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  171 

at  which  the  action  takes  place,  and  the  quantity  of  water 
holding  the  anhydride  in  solution,  also  on  the  chemical 
nature  of  the  solid  to  be  dissolved.  The  number  of  vari- 
ables in  (24)  may  be  diminished  as  follows.  Suppose  that 
during  the  solution  the  same  chemical  compound  is  formed, 
let  <7o  be  the  mass  of  the  anhydride  at  the  beginning,  vi^  the 
initial  mass  of  the  solid,  vi  the  mass  at  time  t.  Then  ing  —  in 
will  be  the  mass  of  the  solid  dissolved,  and  a^  —  a  will  be  the 
mass  of  the  anhydride  which  has  entered  into  combination 
with  it,  but  by  Dalton's  law  of  combination  the  first  of 
these  quantities  will  bear  to  the  second  a  constant  ratio 
depending  on  the  combining  weights  of  the  anhydride 
and  the  substance  to  be  dissolved,  hence  we  have 

Wo  -  m  =  h{a,^  -  a) 
w^hen  h  denotes  a  constant.     Hence  : 

in  +  ha„  —  m,„ 


h 
Also  if  e  denote  the  density  of  the  solid  ni  =  ev,  and  the 
equation  of  chemical  action  becomes 

dv=  -  ns<^[  J- °-  \dt. 

The  form  of  the  function  f  has,  I  think,  not  yet  been 
determined  experimentally  in  a  satisfactory  manner  ;  subject 
to  previously  mentioned  conditions,  I  think  it  not  unlikely 
that  the  rate  of  dissolution  will  be  found  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  the  anhydride  remaining  uncombined  at  any 
instant.  With  this  hypothesis  the  last  equation  may  be 
written  in  the  form 

-^=-lsdt  (25) 

Z'  +  r 

where  r  has  been  written  for  ~—Vo  and  /  for  ^.  Wehave 

e  h 

now  three  cases  to  consider  depending  upon  the  values  of 

r.     (i)  Suppose  that  the  quantity  of  acid  is  just  sufficient 

to  combine  with  the  solid  then  r=0  ;    (2)  suppose  that  the 


172  Dr.  J.    BOTTOMLEY  on 

mass  of  the  solid,  is  greater  than  that  required  to  saturate  the 
acid,  then  r  is  negative  ;  (3)  suppose  that  the  mass  of  the 
solid  is  less  than  that  required  to  saturate  the  acid,  then  r 
is  positive.  The  expressions  obtained  by  integrating  (25) 
will  be  different  in  each  case.  If  we  suppose  r  negative 
and  integrate  (25)  in  its  present  form  we  obtain  the  equation 

which  may  also  be  expressed  in  the  form 

when  a  denotes  the  mass  of  the  unneutralised  anhydride 
at  any  time  ;  this  would  make  the  time  required  to  saturate 
the  acid  infinite,  if  the  mass  of  the  solid  be  just  sufficient 
to  combine  with  the  acid,  or  if  it  be  greater  than  the 
mass  required  to  saturate  the  acid  ;  this  would  seem 
contrary  to  experience,  but  practically  the  acid  might  be 
considered  to  be  neutralised  in  a  finite  time,  for  the  quantity 
remaining  unneutralised  might  be  too  small  to  be  detected. 
For  example,  suppose  the  area  of  the  surface  exposed  to 
the  acid  to  be  constant  so  that  we  may  write 
a  =  a^e-^''  ; 

if  the  quantity  of  acid  neutralised  in  one  hour  be  nine- 
tenths  of  the  initial  quantity,  after  the  lapse  of  ten  hours 

the  quantity  of  free  acid  would  be  only    of 

I 0000000000 

the  initial  quantity. 

In  a  former  part  of  the  paper  it  was  pointed  out  that 
from  an  isotropic  solid  there  would  be  removed  in  the 
small  element  of  time  dt,  a  shell  having  everywhere  the 
same  normal  thickness  dc,  also  that  the  volume  remaining 
undissolved  at  time  /  would  be  some  function  of  c  ;  hence  for 
dv  we  may  write  -sdc,  and  (25)  may  be  written  in  the 
form 


M^r 


The  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  173 

I  shall  now  consider  the  application  of  the  foregoing 
investigation  to  the  solution  of  some  of  the  more  familiar 
geometric  forms.  As  a  particular  case  consider  the  paral- 
lelepiped, of  which  the  lengths  of  the  edges  at  any  instant 
are  x,  y,  :y ;  then  the  volume  will  be  Ay::;,  and  after  the 
lapse  of  time  dt  the  volume  will  become  (x-  2  dx)  (j/-  2dy) 
{p-  2ds),  if  every  face  of  the  solid  be  equally  acted  upon  by 
the  solvent ;  also  the  area  of  the  surface  will  be  2  {xy  +  sy  +  xa). 
Neglecting  products  of  small  quantities  we  get  the  equation 

d7>  =  2{xydz  +  xzdy  +  zydx) 
and  as  the  rate  of  action  is  everywhere  the  same 

dx  =  dy  =  dz 
Integrating  these   equations,    and    denoting    by   z^^  y^,   a^ 
initial  values  we  get  the  equations 

y  ^Jo  -Jo  +  ^,  Z=^Z„-X^  +  X. 

Writing  /h  for  y„-\-So  —  2x„,  and  /h  for  (jo  — ,fj  (So-Xo)  the 

differential  equations  of  solution  becomes 

dx 

^ ~, 7 =  -  tdt 

jf  +  x'hi  +  x/i^  +  r 

an    expression    which  may  be  readily  integrated,  and  its 

value  determined  at  any  time  when  the  arithmetical  values 

of  the  constants  are  assigned.     If  either  y„=^o,  or  z„=:Xg, 

hi  vanishes  ;  if  both  the  equations  are  true  h^  vanishes  also. 

In  this  case  the   solid  becomes  a  cube,  and  the  integral 

becomes 

J  3  I 

c  -  r^n=Ao^-~^ '-  +  -—  tan 


6    -  x^^r        v/3  ^iv/3^ 

the  constant  to  be  determined  by  the  condition  that  when 
/=()  ,1'=^-" ;  the  time  required  for  dissolution  of  the  cube 
may  be  obtained  by  writing  o  for  x,  and  will  be 

If  r  be  negative,  the  relation  between  the  length  of  the 
edges  of  the  cube  and  the  time  which  has  elapsed  will  be 


174  Dl<-  J-   BOTTOMLEY  on 

given  by  the  formula 

If  the  quantity  of  acid  be  just  sufficient  to  dissolve  the 
cube,  the  equation  of  dissolution  becomes 

the  complete  integral  will  be 


\/  I  +  2ltx^ 
If  the  solid  to  be  dissolved  have  the  form  of  a  sphere,  x 
being  its  radius  at  time  /,  the  differential  equations  are 


^^=  -Idt 


3 

dx 
=  -Idt 

3 
the  integral  of  the  first  expression  is 

the  constant  to  be  determined  by  the  condition  x^x^  when 
/=() ;  the  time  required  to  dissolve  the  sphere  may  then  be 
found  by  making  ,r=0.  If  the  quantity  of  acid  be  insuffi- 
cient to  dissolve  the  sphere,  from  the  second  equation  we 
obtain  the  following  relation  between  the  radius  of  the 
sphere  at  any  time,  and  the  time  which  has  elapsed. 

\3A      6'°^\47r.--3r     V(4-)*^-(3'-)Vf 

/  2(47r)^a?+ (3r)4  _A^-^f^o-^^V'f\   ^ 

If  the  quantity  of  acid    be   just  sufficient  to  dissolve  the 


TJic  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid. 


sphere 

the  integral  become 

s 

3 

I  ' 

which 

we  may  also 

write  in 

the  form 

(- 

3 

f 

Next  suppose  the  solid  to  have  the  form  of  a  right  cylinder 
with  a  circular  section,  and  first  suppose  that  the  ends  of 
cylinder  are  covered  with  sealing  wax  or  some  other 
material  not  acted  upon  by  the  acid,  so  that  dissolution  is 
confined  to  the  curved  surface ;  the  three  differential 
equations  assume  the  form 


n-KX-  +  ?• 
dx 


-Idt 
-Idt 
-Idt 


mtx-  — 

7117,1 

n  denoting  the  length  of  the  cylinder,  and  x  the  radius  of 
the  base  at  any  time.  The  complete  integral  of  the  first 
expressions  will  be 

The  time  required  for  complete  dissolution  of  the  c}-linder 
will  be 

(tan-fi5Y.,)_J_,. 
V  \r )      Jl{mrrf 

The  complete  integral  of  the  second  expression  is 

2        t^'o  \/  niT  +  r'^     x^  iiTT  -  r^j 
If  the  quantity  of  acid  be  just  sufficient  to  dissolve  the 
cylinder,  the  complete  integral  is 

-  -       =  flirlt. 

As  a  variation  of  the  problem,  suppose  the  whole  surface 
of  the  cylinder  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  solvent. 


176  Dr.  J.  Bottom  LEV  on 

The  whole  surface  will  be  2Trx^-\-2ir.xy,.v  denoting  the  radius 
of  the  cylinder  and  j  its  length,  also  the  volume  will  be 
Tra-;'.  If  the  cylinder  be  isotropic,  and  dv  the  decrement  of 
the  radius,  dy  the  decrement  of  each  extremity,  we  shall 
have  the  relation  dx=-dy\  whence  j/  =  ,r+j/o—,t,„  and  the 
expression  to  be  integrated  become 
dx 


■KJ?  +  izx\yo  -Xo)  +  r 

dx 
■KK?  +  Trar(jo  -  x„)  -  r 
xd 


-Idt, 

-  kit, 

-  kit. 


TT^  +  Trx-{yo  -  Xg) 

Hence  in  each  case  the  velocity  of  the  action  is  expressible 
as  an  algebraic  function  of  the  variable  x ;  in  each  case  the 
determination  of  the  complete  integral  will  offer  no  diffi- 
culties when  the  arithmetical  values  of  the  constants  enter- 
ing into  the  equation  are  given.  If  the  length  of  the 
cylinder  be  equal  to  the  radius,  the  differential  equations 
differ  from  the  corresponding  equations  for  the  sphere  in 
haviner  tt  as  the  coefficient  of  x''  instead  of  — ,  and  the 
integrals  may  be  obtained  by  making  this  substitution  in 
the  corresponding  integrals  relating  to  the  sphere. 

As  another  example,  suppose  the  solid  to  be  one  of  the 
regular  solids  ;  then  x  denoting  the  length  of  the  edge  of 
one  of  the  plane  faces  bounding  the  solid,  for  the  volume  of 
the  solid  we  may  write  w,^-^  and  for  the  surface  nx' ;  the  para- 
meters jn  and  u  having  different  values  for  each  of  the  five 
regulai  polyhedra.  Differentiating  the  expression  for  the 
volume  with  regard  to  x,  and  substituting  in  the  general 
equations  of  solution  we  obtain 

5^^^-=-lndt 
mx^  +  r 

^^^f'  =-lndt 

mor  -  r 

^^=-lndt, 


TJie  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  177 

the  velocity  of  dissolution  is  therefore  in  each  case  a  simple 
algebraic  function  of  the  variable,  and  the  determination  of 
the  integral  will  present  no  difficulties  when  the  kind  of 
regular  polyhedron  is  specified.  In  the  previous  examples 
the  mass  of  the  solvent  has  been  supposed  to  be  finite  ;  but 
we  may  suppose  that  we  have  a  solvent  consisting  of  an 
infinite  amount  of  anhydrous  acid  mixed  with  an  infinite 
amount  of  water.  If  in  such  a  mixture  a  solid  of  finite 
dimensions  be  dissolved,  and  the  medium  be  kept  in  a  con- 
stant state  of  disturbance,  the  diminution  in  strength  of  the 
acid  due  to  neutralisation  by  the  solid  will  be  so  small  as  to 
be  negligible,  and  the  acid  may  be  considered  to  be  always 
of  its  initial  strength  ;  this  will  be  approximately  the  case 
when  a  small  mass  is  dissolved  in  a  large  mass  of  the 
solvent.  If  the  solvent  be  an  acid  solution  the  strength  of 
the  acid  will  depend  on  the  ratio  of  the  mass  of  the  anhy- 
dride to  the  mass  of  the  water ;  if  this  ratio  be  denoted  by 
q,  and  this  letter  be  substituted  for  ^{a)  in  (24),  the  dif- 
ferential equation  of  solution  becomes 

dv  =  -  7iqs(Jt, 
from    which    by    substituting  — i-rt'^   for   dv,  we  obtain  the 
equation  dc=-7iqdt, 

and  by  integration  c=ngt. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  time  required  for  the 
complete  dissolution  of  some  of  the  familiar  forms  of  solids 
becomes  a  simple  function  of  some  linear  dimension  of 
the  solid ;  for  instance  the  times  required  to  dissolve  spheres 
are  as  their  radii,  the  times  required  to  dissolve  cubes  are 
as  their  edges  ;  this  last  remark  also  applies  to  the  remain- 
ing regular  polyhedra.  By  substituting  for  c  in  the  instan- 
taneous equation,  we  may  also  determine  its  form  and 
dimensions  at  any  time,  and  by  substituting  in  (23)  we  may 
determine  the  mass  of  the  shell  removed  from  a  solid  in 
time  /. 

The  most  complete  series  of  experiments  which  I  have 

iVI 


178  Dr.  J.  BOTTOMLEV  on 

found  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  this  paper  are 
contained  in  a  memoir  by  Spring  and  Van  Aubel  in  the 
Annales  de  Chiviie  et  de  Physique  [6],  1 1.  They  there  give 
the  details  of  experiments  to  determine  the  velocity  of 
dissolution  of  spheres  of  zinc  containing  a  minute  amount  of 
lead  in  Hydrochloric,  Hydrobromic,  and  Hydriodic  acids  of 
different  degrees  of  concentration,  and  at  different  tem- 
peratures. They  found  that  the  maximum  velocity, 
measured  by  the  volume  of  Hydrogen  evolved,  did  not 
occur  at  the  commencement  of  the  reaction  ;  they  first 
noted  an  increase  and  then  a  decrease.  The  period  during 
which  the  velocity  is  increasing  they  term  the  period  of 
induction  ;  this  is  most  noticeable  when  the  acids  are 
dilute  ;  with  concentrated  acids,  the  maximum  velocity  is 
almost  simultaneous  with  the  commencement  of  solution. 
Unfortunately  their  results  are  not  strictly  comparable  with 
the  results  of  the  theory  announced  in  this  paper  ;  I  have 
supposed  that  the  mass  of  the  solvent  is  kept  in  such  a  state 
of  disturbance  that  at  any  instant  the  whole  mass  may  be 
considered  homogeneous.  This  condition  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  fulfilled  in  their  experiments  ;  the  evolution  of 
Hydrogen  when  brisk  would  no  doubt  tend  to  mix  the 
different  parts  of  the  solution,  but  when  the  evolution  was 
slow  this  agency  might  not  be  sufficient  to  secure  the 
supposed  condition.  Hence  we  might  expect,  on  comparing 
results  of  experiments  with  calculations  founded  on  the 
above  theory,  that  the  times  found  b}-  experiment  would 
depart  further  and  further  from  the  calculated  times  as  the 
solution  approached  completion.  The  calculation  applies 
of  course  only  to  that  portion  of  the  observations  which 
commences  at  the  completion  of  the  period  of  induction. 

The  numbers  in  the  following  table  are  taken  from  the 
memoir  above  cited  ;  they  show  the  results  of  the  action  of 
a  10  per  cent  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  at  the  tem- 
perature   15°  C.  on  a  sphere  of  zinc.     Complete  solution 


The  Dissohition  of  a7i  Isotropic  Solid. 


179 


would  furnish  1145  cc.  of  hydrogen  at  750  mm.  pressure 
and  15°  C.  The  sphere  was  acted  upon  by  sufficient  acid  to 
produce  this  quantity  of  gas. 


A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

0 

0 

600 

■   1573 

50 

301 

650 

1788 

100 

455 

700   .. 

2044 

150 

•    561 

750   •• 

2356 

200 

649 

800 

2746 

250   . 

731 

850   .. 

3283 

300   .. 

.    813 

900 

4018 

350 

899 

950   .. 

5082 

400 

995 

1000 

6748 

450   .. 

1 106 

1050 

— 

500   .. 

•   1239 

IIOO 

— 

550 

1392 

1145   .. 

— 

The  numbers  in  columns  A  are  the  cubic  centimeters 
of  gas  given  off,  the  numbers  in  columns  B  the  times  in 
seconds  required  for  the  evolution  of  the  corresponding 
volume  of  gas.  If  we  subtract  561  from  649,  the  difference 
is  88,  this  number  of  seconds  has  elapsed  while  50  cc.  of 
gas  were  given  off;  if  we  subtract  649  from  731  the  differ- 
ence is  82  ;  therefore,  in  this  interval,  the  velocity  has  been 
greater  than  in  the  former  one  ;  if  we  examine  the  succes- 
sive intervals  we  shall  not  find  a  greater  velocity  than  this. 
Suppose  then  that  we  commence  our  observations  after  the 
lapse  of  649  seconds,  we  then  derive  the  numbers  given  in 
columns  A  and  B  of  the  following  table. 


A. 

B. 

C. 

D. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

50 

82   . 

82 

82 

100 

..    164   . 

172 

167 

150 

250   . 

271 

256 

200 

346   . 

-    381   .. 

.    348 

250   . 

457   • 

505   •• 

445 

300   . 

590   . 

644 

546 

350   • 

743   •• 

803   .. 

•    653 

18© 


Dr.    J.    BOTTOMLEY   OH 


400 

929 

985   . 

766 

450 

..   1139   . 

..   1175 

886 

500 

••   1395   • 

1449 

1014 

550 

1707 

1749 

••   1153 

600 

2097 

2128   . 

..   1304 

650 

2634   . 

2607 

..   1470 

700 

3369   • 

••   3243 

..   1695 

750 

••   4433   • 

.   4140   . 

.   1872 

800 

..   6099   . 

•   5531   • 

2124 

850 

.   8055   . 

.   2446 

900 

•   14693 

.   2914 

945 

00 

•   4572 

Column  A  contains  the  quantities  of  gas  given  off ;  column 
B  has  been  formed  by  subtracting  649  from  all  the  succeeding 
numbers  in  the  corresponding  column  in  the  first  table  ;  it 
shows  the  time  which  has  elapsed.  The  total  volume  of 
hydrogen  which  the  sphere  could  furnish  by  dissolution, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  observations  recorded  in  the 
second  table,  will  be  1145  —  200  cc. ;  that  is,  945  cc.  In  a 
former  part  of  the  paper  the  following  expression  was 
obtained  for  the  radius  {x)  of  a  dissolving  sphere  at  time  t: 

This  formula  may  be  adapted  to  the  present  case  as  follows. 
Let  H  be  the  equivalent  in  hydrogen  of  the  mass  of  the 
sphere  at  any  time,  H^  the  equivalent  of  the  initial  mass  ; 
then  we  may  derive  the  equations 

3  3 

d  denoting  density  and  n  a  constant 
we  may  write  the  equation  in  the  form 

Ho 

k  denoting  a  constant.  If  h  denote  the  hydrogen  already 
given  off,  the  last  equation  may  be  changed  into 


Substituting  in  (26) 


H 


t{i^^-\ 


TJie  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  i8i 

from  this  equation  the  calculated  numbers  in  column  C  of 
the  last  table  have  been  derived  ;  the  value  of  the  constant 
employed  is  0'00045,  and  has  been  obtained  from  the 
observation  that  50  cc.  of  gas  were  evolved  in  82  seconds. 
In  several  cases  there  is  a  fair  agreement  between  the 
observed  and  the  calculated  time  ;  in  the  latter  stages  of 
the  dissolution,  the  observed  intervals  increase  more  rapidly 
than  the  calculated  intervals  ;  the  reason  may  probably  be 
the  one  previously  suggested,  that  there  was  not  sufficient 
disturbance  of  the  solvent  to  render  it  homogeneous.  The 
observed  rapid  diminution  of  evolution  of  the  gas  towards 
the  end  of  the  operation  would  also  harmonise  well  with 
the  theory  which  I  have  advanced,  which  would  require  for 
perfect  solution  an  infinite  time.  In  none  of  their  experi- 
ments have  the  authors  given  the  observed  time  of  the 
complete  dissolution  of  the  sphere  ;  they  only  carried  their 
observations  as  far  as  the  evolution  of  1,000  cc.  of  gas. 

The  authors  in  their  paper  give  the  following  equation 
to  denote  the  velocity  of  solution, 

V  =  KSo( A  -  C)IAi 
In  this  equation  V  denotes  the  velocity  of  the  solution,  S^ 
the  initial  surface  of  the  sphere,  A  the  initial  concentration 
of  the  acid  employed,  and  C  the  portion  of  the  acid   con- 
sumed in  the  operation,  K  denotes  a  constant. 

This  formula  does  not  appear  to  me  to  be  adapted  to  their 
own  results.  They  have  estimated  the  velocity  as  follows  : 
they  collected  the  gas  in  a  graduated  vessel,  and  the  time 
required  for  the  evolution  of  each  successive  50  cc.  of  gas 
was  noted  ;  this  number  divided  by  the  interval  of  time 
they  take  as  the  velocity  ;  but  this  will  not  be  a  correct 
expression  for  the  velocity  at  any  given  instant,  it  will  be 
the  mean  velocity  during  the  interval,  and  will  only  be 
suitable  when  the  velocity  varies  slowly.  If  k  be  the 
volume  of  hydrogen  evolved  at  time  /,  the  proper  expres- 
sion for  the  velocity  will  be  -!•     Let  H  denote  the  volume 


1 82  The  Dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid. 

of  hydrogen  corresponding  to  the  initial  strength  of  the  acid, 
//  the  volume  of  hydrogen  corresponding  to  the  acid  con- 
sumed ;  then  7i  denoting  some  constant  quantity,  we  have 

H  =  ;7A,         h  =  nQ, 
substituting  these  values  in  their  equation,  writing  /  for 
KSoAht^  we  obtain  the  following  differential  equation  : 

Integrating  and  determining  the  constant  by  the  condition 
//  — 0,  ^  =  0,  we  get  the  following  equation  : 

t  =  p{Hi-{U-m  (27) 

The  value  of  p  determined  by  the  condition  t=S2  //=  50  is 
465-9.  By  means  of  equation  (27)  the  numbers  in  column 
D  in  the  last  table  have  been  derived.  The  divergence  of 
the  observed  and  calculated  times  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
operation  is  very  marked.  Also  solution  ought  to  have 
been  completed  in  4572  seconds,  but  according  to  the  ex- 
periment it  was  not  completed  in  6099  seconds,  and  even 
then  there  remained  145  cc.  of  hydrogen  to  be  evolved  with 
a  rapidly  diminishing  velocity. 


Proceedings.  183 

[Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section^ 

Ordinary  Meeting,  February  nth,  1889. 

Mr.  J.  Cosmo    Melvill,   M.A.,  F.L.S.,  President   of  the 
Section  in  the  Chair. 

There  were  exhibited  : — 

By  Mr.  P.  Cameron  :  A  collection  of  European  Chry- 
sididcB,  containing  nearly  60  species. 

By  the  PRESIDENT  :  Zizyphimis  haliarchus,  a  new  and 
unique  species  of  Troclms,  described  by  him  in  the  current 
number  of  the  Journal  of  Conchology,  January,  1889. 
The  specimen  belongs  to  the  Museum  Collection  at 
Owens  College,  having  been  formerly  in  the  possession  of 
Mr.  Reginald  Cholmondeley,  of  Condover  Hall,  Salop.  It 
IS  the  fourth  or  fifth  in  size  in  the  genus,  most  of  the 
larger  species  being  natives  of  Australia  or  New  Zealand, 
From  the  former  country  the  Z.  haliarchus  in  all  probability 
•comes,  but  there  has  been  some  little  misplacement  in  the 
original  labelling.  It  differs  from  all  the  existing  species  in 
its  truly  conical  and  pyramidal  contour,  with  straight  sides, 
light  structure,smoothish  whorls,  being  very  minutely  beaded 
in  close  grained  lines,  the  graining  slightly  larger  and  coarser 
at  the  sutures,  colour  pale  fawn,  with  darker  brown  flames 
surrounding  the  periphery.  Specimens  of  the  nearest  allies 
to  this  new  species  were  exhibited  also  for  comparison. 
The  President  also  exhibited  a  form  of  Plantago  maritima 
new  to  this  country,  and  a  collection  of  other  species  of 
Plantago  for  comparison,  both  British  and  European. 

Mr.  H.  C.  Chadwick  read  a  paper  on  two  nematode 
worms,  Ascaris  mystax,  and  Ascaris  lunibricoides,  and 
showed  specimens  of  both  species. 


1 84  Proceedings. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  February  19,  1889. 

Professor    OsBORNE    Reynolds,    M.A.,    LL.D.,    F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Dr.  A.  HODGKINSON  and  Mr.  R.  HOLMES,  B.A.,  were 
appointed  auditors  of  the  Society's  accounts. 

A  coloured  representation  of  the  Roman  pavement  at 
Leicester,  part  of  which  was  uncovered  in  1832  and  the 
remainder  in  1885,  sent  by  the  Leicester  Literary  and 
Philosophical  Society,  was  exhibited. 

The  President  referred  to  the  recent  earthquake  in 
Manchester,  the  occurrence  of  which  at  Fallowfield  he  timed 
at  10.36  p.m. 

Dr.  G.  H.  Bailey  read  a  paper  "  On  Vitrified  Cement 
from  an  Ancient  Fort." 

Mr.  J.  Cosmo  Melvill  read  a  paper "  On  a  form  of 
Plantago  niaritima,  new  to  this  country." 


TJie  Vitrified  Cement  from  an  ancient  fort.  185 


On  the  Vitrified   Cement    from  an  ancient  fort.     By 
G.  H.  Bailey,  D.Sc,  Ph.D. 

{Received  March  ^th,  i88g.) 

In  October,  1882,  Dr.  Angus  Smith  described  before 
this  Society  a  vitrified  mass  of  stone  from  Glen  Nevis,  and 
gave  an  analysis  of  the  stone. 

In  the  Manchester  Museum  at  the  Owens  College  is 
also  a  mass  composed  of  fragments  of  gneiss  cemented 
together  by  vitrefaction  and  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
forts  of  the  Picts. 

Having  recently  visited  some  of  these  forts  in  the  High- 
lands, I  was  interested  in  this  specimen,  and  having,  by  the 
permission  of  Professor  Boyd  Dawkins,  obtained  a  sample 
of  the  stone,  I  asked  one  of  my  students,  Mr.  W.  B.  Hopkins^ 
to  make  an  analysis  of  the  vitrified  part.  The  points  of 
interest  seemed  to  me  to  be : — 

{a)  Whether  the  materials  which  had  been  converted 
into  the  molten  mass  had  been  selected  by  trial  in  order  that 
a  body  of  low  fusing  point  might  be  obtained  or  had  been 
taken  indiscriminately  ; 

{b)  whence  they  were  derived  ; 

{c)  what  temperature  would  be  required  in  order  to  bring 
about  the  fusion  ? 

The  vitrified  part  showed  locally  a  glazing,  and  had 
been  distinctly  fluid,  but  now  presented  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  lava,  being  honeycombed  with  air  spaces 
from  which  gases  had  apparently  escaped  during  the  fusion. 
Samples  were  taken  from  different  parts  and  mixed  together, 
and  partial  examination  was  made  of  the  different  samples 
with  a  view  to  detecting  variations  in  the  composition  of 


1 86  Dr.  G.  H.  Bailey  on 

the  mass.  No  considerable  differences  were  found,  except 
that  in  some  parts  the  iron  was  entirely  oxidised,  whereas 
in  others  it  still  remained,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  ferrous 
condition,  and  in  addition  to  this  there  seemed  to  be  rather 
more  alkalies  in  the  denser  parts  of  the  mass.  The  typical 
sample  gave  on  analysis  the  following  results,  the  sample 
analysed  by  Dr.  Angus  Smith  being  placed  alongside  for 
the  sake  of  comparison,  though  I  have  no  evidence  that 
they  are  identical  specimens,  and  indeed  the  analyses  them- 
selves would  certainly  indicate  that  they  were  not. 

Mass  in  Mass  from 

Manchester  Museum.  Glen  Nevis. 


Silica     

69*59 

68-88 

Alumina        

1112 

16-17 

Ferric  oxide 

13-01 

5-33 

Lime     

053 

373 

Magnesia       

0-32 

3-39 

Potash 

1-86 

1-83 

Soda      

1-49 

0-26 

Loss  on  ignition   ... 

I-I2 

0-92 

There  may  have  been  originally  more  alkalies  present  ;  the 
stone  is  of  such  a  porous  nature  that  these  would  be  partially 
dissolved  away  by  exposure  to  atmospheric  conditions. 

There  is  then  a  very  low  proportion  of  alumina,  prac- 
tically no  lime  or  magnesia,  and  little  alkali.  No  common 
mineral  or  rock  substance,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  shows  such 
a  composition. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  previous  writers  on  this  sub- 
ject that  basalt  was  added  to  clay,  or  some  such  substance, 
to  form  a  mass  which  could  be  fused  at  such  temperatures 
as  were  likely  to  be  at  the  command  of  the  builders  of  these 
forts.  Wood,  it  has  been  suggested,  was  the  fuel  used,  and 
indeed  in  one  case  wood  has  been  actually  found  in  situ 
between  the  layers  of  stone  constituting  the  wall. 

In  the  case  of  the  specimen  examined,  however,  no 
basalt  can  have  been  added,  for  though  the  large  proportion 


The  Vitrified  Cement  from  an  ancient  fort.  187 

of  iron  might  have  lent  some  colour  to  such  a  suggestion, 
it  is  absolutely  negatived  by  the  absence  of  calcium  and 
magnesia,  which  are  alv^ays  present  in  basaltic  rocks. 

For  the  same  reason,  and  because  of  the  low  percentage 
of  alkalies,  it  cannot  have  been  a  gneissose  or  granitic  base 
that  was  used,  nor  (consideringthelowpercentageofalumina,) 
can  kaolin  or  clay  have  constituted  any  considerable  portion 
of  the  material.  In  some  parts  of  Scotland  where  such  forts 
occur  there  are  beds  of  red  sandstone  (of  the  old  red 
sandstone  age  and  of  formations  older  than  this),  and  the 
essential  difference  in  composition  between  these  lies  only 
in  a  rather  lower  percentage  of  iron  and  of  alumina  and  a 
little  higher  percentage  of  silica.  These  rocks,  however, 
approach  nearer  to  the  vitrified  stone  than  any  other 
accessible  material,  and  with  the  addition  of  a  little  iron  ore, 
or  slag,  might  at  any  rate  be  brought  in  almost  exact 
agreement.  The  question  of  the  source  of  the  material, 
in  this  particular  case,  is  rendered  more  difficult  because  the 
actual  locality  from  which  the  mass  was  obtained  is  not 
known,  and  in  any  case  it  would  be  necessary,  in  order  to 
solve  such  a  question  satisfactorily,  to  analyse  samples  of 
vitrified  forts  from  different  districts,  and  to  take  the 
results  in  connection  with  the  rocks  found  in  the  district. 
With  regard  to  the  temperature  that  would  be  required 
to  bring  about  the  fusion  of  such  a  mass,  I  may  call  to 
notice  a  series  of  investigations  which  have,  during  recent 
years,  been  undertaken  by  Seger  {Thonindiistrie-Zeitnng, 
1886,  p.  135,)  with  a  view  to  determine  the  relation  of  fusibi- 
lity of  a  mixture  to  the  proportions  in  which  the  constituent 
parts  occur.  Seger  made  up  mixtures  of  silica,  kaolin, 
and  marble  in  different  proportions,  until  he,  by  means 
of  trials  in  a  pottery  furnace,  arrived  at  a  proximate 
idea  of  the  best  proportions  for  obtaining  low  fusibility. 
Having  found  this,  he  then  made  a  large  number  of  mixtures, 
varying  the  several  constituents,  whilst  keeping  others  in 


1 88  TJie  Vitrified  Cement  from  an  ancient  fort. 

the  proportions  established  by  the  prehminary  trials.  It  is 
already  known  that  the  presence  of  alkalies,  especially  soda, 
increases  the  fusibility  of  a  mixture,  and  that  oxide  of  iron 
acts  also  in  the  same  direction.  He  found,  however,  that  the 
keystone  to  fusibility  rested  with  the  relative  proportion  of 
alumina  and  its  relation  to  the  other  bases.  It  is  singular 
that  in  this  particular  the  vitrified  stone  agrees  very  nearly 
with  the  proportions  discovered  by  Seger. 

If,  therefore,  we  take  this  in  conjunction  with  the 
peculiar  composition  of  the  vitrified  stone,  it  would  cer- 
tainly seem  to  show  that,  in  this  case  at  any  rate,  the 
materials  used  were  an  artificial  mixture  of  natural  products, 
the  proper  constituents  of  which  were  arrived  at  by  a 
process  of  trial,  and  that  the  builders  of  the  fort  had  some 
acquaintance  with  the  behaviour  of  different  substances 
under  the  action  of  heat,  nor  indeed  can  it  be  thought  very 
remarkable  if  they  did  possess  some  such  knowledge.  It 
has  been  thought  that  in  some  cases  the  actual  stones  them- 
selves were  melted  together  by  heat,  and,  however  this  may 
be,  there  can  be  no  suspicion  of  this  in  the  example  before 
us.  The  schist,  of  which  the  fort  has  been  built,  shows 
no  marked  alteration,  and  certainly  nothing  approaching 
fusion.  The  temperature  of  fusion  of  such  a  mixture  as  is 
indicated  by  the  results  of  the  analysis,  would  be  about 
1,200°  C.  to  1,300°  C,  and  this  could  be  readily  attained 
by  means  of  wood,  in  the  manner  already  suggested  by 
different  writers  on  this  subject. 


Plantago  maritiina.  189 


Notes  on  a  form  of  Plantago  maritima  [L.]  new  to 
Great  Britain :  f.  Pumila  (Kjellman).  By  James 
Cosmo  Melvill,  F.L.S. 

{Received  February  21st,  iSSg.) 

On  20th  July,  1888,  the  ascent  of  Ben  Hope,  a  high  and 
imposing  mountain  in  north-west  Sutherlandshire,  was 
made  by  Mr.  Frederick  Hanbury,  F.L.S.,  and  myself.  Most 
of  the  mountains  in  this  district,  e.g.,  Ben  Hee,  Ben  Clibreck, 
Ben  Leoghal  (Loyal),  with  Ben  Hope,  stand  alone,  and 
these  four  form,  roughly  speaking,  a  quadrilateral,  situated 
some  ten  miles  apart  from  each  other,  Ben  Hope  being 
in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  quadrilateral  and  nearer  to 
Ben  Leoghal  than  to  the  others. 

The  botanical  riches  of  this  mountain  are  notorious  ; 
but  it  is  not  very  often  ascended,  owing  to  its  forming  part 
of  a  deer  forest,  and,  consequently,  being  strictly  preserved 
and  closed  to  the  public. 

The  primary  object  in  view  was  to  study  the  Hieracia, 
and  in  this  we  were  more  successful  than  our  most  sanguine 
expectations,  obtaining  one  or  two  probably  new  and  un- 
described  forms.  I  forbear  more  detail  on  this  subject  at 
present  as  the  plants  are  being  cultivated  by  Mr.  Hanbury, 
and  will  flower  this  summer,  and  till  then,  it  is  premature 
to  discuss  their  distinctness  or  otherwise,  suffice  it  to  say 
that  new  county  records  for  Hieracium  lingiilatum  (Back- 
house) and  H.  holosericeiini  (Backhouse)  were  established. 

We  ascended  by  the  west  face,  to  the  left  of  the  Altna- 
caillich  Waterfall,  and  passing  through  a  tract  of  boggy 
ground,  rich  in  Carices,  e.g.,  C.  pauciflora,  C.  vaginata,  etc., 
rounded  a  great  spur  of  the  mountain,  and  soon  came  to 


ipo  Mr.  Cosmo  Melvill  on 

plenty  o{ ArctostapJiylos  alpina,  Jiiniperiis  nana,  Betiila  nana,. 
etc.  Soon  some  Alpine  Hieracia,  and  Cherleria  sedoides 
were  displayed,  and  the  ground  became  very  barren  and 
stony,  with  spaces  of  pulverised  sand,  caused  by  the  small 
disintegration  of  the  boulders  strewn  everywhere  in  inex- 
tricable confusion.  Turning  towards  the  large  corrie  on 
the  south-east,  at  about  2,900  feet,  we  came  upon  patches 
oi  J  uncus  trifidus,  Lunula  spicata,  a  stunted  form  oi  Armeria 
maritima,  with  very  woody  roots,  and  large  heads  of 
flowers,  and  a  Plantago,  which  did  not  resemble  the  mass  of 
P.  maritima  we  had  gathered  at  lower  elevations.  At  the 
time  I  took  it  to  be  more  allied  to  P.  alpina{l..)  so  frequent 
in  the  mountains  of  the  Valais  in  Switzerland. 

This  plant,  which  I  now  exhibit,  has  been  submitted  by 
me  to  Mr.  J.  G.  Baker,  F.R.S.,  of  Kew,  to  Prof  C.  C. 
Babington,  F.R.S.,  of  Cambridge,  and  Mr.  Arthur  Bennett, 
F.L.S.,  of  Croydon,  and  the  following  notes  shew  what 
opinions  these  gentlemen  have,  at  present,  as  to  this  curious 
form  : — 

Mr.  Baker  wrote  on  2nd  January  : — 

"  We  have  a  Plantago  here  (in  the  Kew  Herbarium)  that 
exactly  matches  your  Ben  Hope  specimen,  among  the  plants 
of  the  Nordenskiold  Expedition  of  1875.  It  is  labelled 
P.  maritima  (L.),  var.  pumila  (Kjellman),  and  was  collected 
at  Cap  Grebenig,  Insula  Wajgatsch,  Scandinavia,  in  July, 
1875,  by  Kjellman  and  Lundstrom,  the  botanists  of  the 
expedition.  A  very  similar  form  grows  in  Teesdale  on  the 
sugar  limestone  of  Widdy  Bank  Fell." 

Prof  Babington  favoured  me  with  three  letters  on  the 
subject,  of  which  the  first  is  as  follows  : — 

"Your  Plantago  is  undoubtedly  difficult.  I  have  the 
dwarf  form  gathered  by  Mr.  Tate,  Bressa  Sound,  in  Shet- 
land, and  which  appears  quite  distinct  from  yours.  I  believe 
the  Bressa  plant  is  the  P.  maritima-hirsuta  (Syme)  = 
setacea-lanata  (Edmundstone).     I  do  not  look  towards  the 


Plantago  viaritiina.  19  r 

Alps  for  your  plant,  but  to  the  north,  and  if  Baker  clearly 
identifies  the  plant  (as  one  collected  during  the  Norden- 
skiold  Expedition)  that  must  be  enough." 

And  again,  in  his  next  letter : — 

"Without  seeing  specimens,  I  find  it  difficult  to  determine 
Lange's  P.  borealis.  His  description  in  Fl.  Dan.  (here 
follows  description)  is  not  your  plant.  It  has  very  short 
scapes,  not  rising  above  the  leaves.  This  was  gathered  by 
Sir  W.  J.  Hooker  in  Iceland,  at  Thingwellen,  and  it  is  the 
alpina  (?)  of  my  Flora  of  Iceland  {^Journal  Lmn.  Soc.  Botany 
1870,  p.  323]  and  is  very  near  the  niarithna-Jiirsiita  (Syme) 
\_E71g.  Bot.  t.  1 167].  My  final  conclusion  is  that  I  fear  your 
plant  must  stand  as  a  mountain  form  of  P.  viaritiina  at 
present." 

Mr.  Arthur  Bennett  writes  February  8th,  1889  : — 

"  Many  thanks  for  the  little  Plantago.  I  write  at  once 
to  say  that  Kjellman  did  not  call  it  a  var. — (but  a  form) — 
P.  viaritima  (L.)  f.  pinnila  (Kjelln.). — 'Vega'  Exped. 
'Vekuskaplajn  Arbeten,'  p.  324.  Found  near  Cap  Grebeni, 
Svenska  Exped.  1875." 

This  form  of  an  abundant  plant  throughout  our 
country,  especially  near  the  sea  coast,  mainly  differs 
from  the  type  in  the  shortness  of  the  leaves,  and  also 
their  not  being  at  all  fleshy,  the  isolated  growth  of 
individuals,  the  leaves  forming  a  rosette  round  the 
central  rootstock.  In  the  round  flower  spikes,  it  resembles 
P.  alpina  (L.).  Upon  examining  the  various  forms  of  P. 
maritima  with  the  continental  forms  of  P.  Crassifolia 
(Forster)  subulata  (L.),  serpentina  (Vill.),  recurvata  (L.), 
carinata  (Schrad),  alpina  (L.),  etc.,  one  cannot  help  being 
confused  with  the  mass  of  synonymy  and  entanglement 
that  has  arisen  :  and  though  none  of  them,  except  perhaps 
P.  alpina — and  there  is  some  doubt  about  this — is  Scandi- 
navian, very  likely  upon  our  southern  shores  some  of 
the  afore-mentioned  may  impinge,  and,  therefore,  I  would 


ig: 


Proceedings. 


keenly  advocate  large  gatherings  being  made  of  all  the 
forms  of  our  species,  and  what  is  more  important,  they 
should,  if  possible,  be  placed  under  cultivation,  before  any 
decision  be  attempted  as  to  their  specific  or  sub-specific 
merits. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  March  5th,  1889. 

Professor  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  L.L.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  President  referred  to  the  loss  sustained  by  the 
Society  through  the  death  of  Mr.  RICHARD  PEACOCK,  M.P., 
M.InstC.E. 

The  first  of  a  series  of  papers  entitled,  "  Colour  and  its 
relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies,  being  an 
investigation  into  the  Physical  Cause  of  Colour  in  natural 
and  artificial  bodies,  and  the  Nature  of  the  Structure 
producing  it,"  by  ALEXANDER  HoDGKINSON,  M.B.,  B.Sc, 
was  read  by  the  author. 


The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  193 


Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured 
Bodies;  being  an  investigation  into  the  Physical 
Cause  of  Colour  in  natural  and  artificial  bodies, 
and  the  Nature  of  the  Structure  producing  it. 
By  Alexander  Hodgkinson,  M.B.,  B.Sc. 

{Received  April  8th,  iSSg.) 

Introduction. 

Colour  has  always  been  to  me  a  subject  of  special  in- 
terest, and  as  far  back  as  I  can  remember  I  began  to  collect 
objects  characterised  by  striking  colour  effects  or  possessing 
some  peculiarity  of  appearance  produced  under  varying 
conditions  of  illumination.  In  the  course  of  years  my  col- 
lection became  extensive,  and  a  voyage  round  the  world 
some  twelve  years  ago  enabled  me  not  only  to  add  to  my 
collection,  but  also  gave  me  the  opportunity  of  personally 
obser\ang  many  natural  objects  of  great  beauty  not  to  be 
seen  under  the  same  favourable  conditions  away  from  their 
native  habitats. 

With  the  object  of  ascertaining  the  cause  of  the  colour 
of  these  various  bodies — animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral — 
they  have  been  submitted  to  different  methods  of  examina- 
tion. Miscroscopic  investigation  is,  of  course,  essential  for 
discriminating  the  different  parts  of  such  structures  ;  but 
alone,  and  as  a  mere  amplifying  appliance,  the  microscope 
is  inadequate  for  revealing  the  structural  cause  of  colour  in 
most  of  the  objects  under  consideration.  Nor  is  this  to  be 
wondered  at,  since  the  colours  of  all  objects,  whether 
natural  or  artificial,  are  due  to  the  suppression  of  certain  of 
the  rays  of  light  received  from  the  source  of  illumination, 
and  such  suppression  is  due  either  to  so-called  absorption 
N 


194  Dr.  a.  Hodgkinson  on 

or  to  interference.  Both  these  phenomena  are  known  to  be 
dependent  on  structural  arrangements  of  a  magnitude  com- 
mensurate with  the  wave-length  of  light,  and  light  tends  to 
break  down,  so  far  as  its  image-forming  capabilities  go, 
when  acted  on  by  structures  of  such  small  dimensions. 
Now  the  microscope  is  essentially  dependent  for  its  effect 
on  image  formation,  and  hence  the  possibility  of  its  inade- 
quacy under  the  above  conditions.  Failing  other  methods, the 
microscope  has  been  employed,  and  that  by  most  careful  and 
reliable  observers,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  cause 
of  colour  in  many  of  the  most  striking  colour-producing 
structures,  e.g.,  iridescent  feathers,  innumerable  species  of 
gaudy  insects,  opal,  mother  of  pearl,  and  the  like.  In 
the  varying  results  of  these  observations  we  have  one  of 
the  most  convincing  proofs  of  the  inadequacy  of  the 
microscope  alone  to  reveal  this  cause.  A  few  instances  of 
these  varying  results  may  be  cited  out  of  innumerable 
examples.  The  changing  colours  of  the  opal  are  by  one 
observer  attributed  to  a  structure  of  fine  lines,  by  another  to 
thin  plates,  whilst  a  third  holds  them  due  to  both  these 
causes.  Again  the  iridescent  hues  of  the  feathers  of  hum- 
ming-birds, sun-birds,  and  various  other  tropical  birds,  as 
also  the  brilliant  and  changing  tints  of  innumerable  insects 
are,  by  almost  all  observers,  considered  due  to  a  structure 
of  fine  lines.  In  some  of  these  instances,  as  for  example  in 
the  case  of  scales  from  the  wings  of  Lepidoptera,  and  from 
the  elytra  of  some  beetles,  and  various  parts  of  other  insects, 
the  fact  that  lines  andmarkingsdo  exist,  as  we  shall  presently 
see,  would  seem  at  first  sight  to  confirm  this  assumption. 
Whilst  fully  recognising  the  existence  of  lines  and  markings 
in  these  and  numerous  other  instances,  and  whilst  admitting 
that  the  most  brilliant  diffraction  colours  are  produced  by 
them,  facts  will  be  adduced  to  show  that  the  colours  pro- 
duced by  these  lines  and  markings  are  either  imperceptible 
in  the  natural  condition  of  these  objects,  or,  if  apparent,  so 


The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  195 

inconspicuous  as  to  play  no  part  in  the  characteristic 
colours  of  these  bodies.  Such  characteristic  colours  are,  as 
will  be  shown,  due  to  the  same  cause  as  the  colours  of  thin 
plates  in  all  these  structures  almost  without  exception.  The 
colours  of  these  bodies,  all,  therefore,  obey  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  change  of  tint  in  thin  plates  with  varying  obli- 
quity of  illumination.  Thus,  as  the  angle  of  incidence  of  the 
illuminating  light  increases,  or  the  direction  becomes  more 
oblique,  all  such  iridescent  objects  as  feathers,  butterflies, 
beetles,  flies,  opal,  mother  of  pearl,  &c.,  &c.,  change  in 
colour  from  red  towards  violet  in  the  order  of  the  colours 
of  the  spectrum.  Thus,  if  any  of  this  extensive  group  of 
iridescent  bodies,  whether  bird,  insect,  or  mineral  appears 
red  when  the  light  by  which  it  is  illuminated  falls  on  it 
and  is  reflected  from  it  at  a  certain  angle,  such  body  will 
appear  yellow  when  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection 
become  greater,  that  is  to  say  when  the  light  is  made  to  fall 
on  the  object  at  a  greater  obliquity,  and  if  these  angles  are 
still  further  increased  the  body  will  appear  green.  Examples 
of  this  are  seen  in  the  case  of  the  crimson  body  of  the  com- 
mon British  fly,  the  Ruby-tail,  Chrysis  ignita,  and  many 
other  members  of  the  same  genus,  the  curious  little  beetle 
Poropleura  bacca,  feathers  from  the  crest  of  the  humming-bird 
Chrysolampis  mosquitus  or  Ruby-crest,  and  innumerable 
other  natural  objects.  Again,  if  any  of  such  class  of  bodies 
appears  yellow  when  the  light  falls  on  it  at  a  small  incident 
angle,  it  will  change  to  green,  and  then  perhaps  to  blue  as 
the  incidence  becomes  successively  greater.  I  say  '  perhaps ' 
because  it  is  not  always  possible,  though  commonly  it  is  so, 
to  observe  three  changes  in  the  same  object.  Examples  of 
yellow  objects  changing  to  green  are  met  with  in  the 
cases  of  all  iridescent  feathers,  the  colour  of  which  is  yellow 
at  normal  incidence.  Thus  the  orange  throat,  or  gorget  as  it 
is  termed,  of  the  same  humming-bird  Chrysolampis  is  seen 
to  change  to  green    on    increasing    the    obliquity    of  the 


196  Dr.  a.  Hodgkinson  on 

illumination,  and  the  same  is  well  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  outermost  ring  surrounding  the  eye  of  the  peacock's 
feathers.  Various  golden  beetles  and  iridescent  flies 
are  examples,  as  also  various  iridescent  minerals,  fire 
marble  liunichella,  opal,  &c.  Examples  of  iridescent 
objects,  both  natural  and  artificial,  presenting  at  a  normal 
or  small  angle  of  incidence  some  shades  of  green,  are 
innumerable  ;  feathers  of  humming-birds,  sun-birds,  hosts 
of  tropical  beetles  and  flies,  and  butterflies.  In  the 
mineral  kingdom  may  be  mentioned  opal,  hunicJiella 
labradorite,  &c.,  and  of  artificially  prepared  bodies  thin 
films  of  mica  and  certain  crystals  of  chlorate  of  potash. 
On  inclining  any  of  these  bodies,  so  that  the  illumination  is 
more  and  more  oblique,  the  colour  is  seen  to  change  from 
green,  through  the  various  intermediate  shades  of  greenish 
blue,  to  blue,  and  then  possibly  to  purple.  Such  change  is 
well  seen  in  the  outer  ring  of  the  eye  of  the  peacock's 
feather.  Though  not  so  common  as  the  above,  both  natural 
and  artificial  iridescent  objects  exist,  which,  at  perpendicular 
or  normal  incidence,  are  blue,  and  this,  as  the  incident 
angle  is  increased,  changes  to  purple,  and  by  further  increase 
in  the  obliquity  of  the  illumination  such  objects  cease  tO' 
appear  coloured,  reflecting  white  or  colourless  lights.  Various 
insects,  more  especially  Lepidoptera  of  the  genus  Morphoy 
the  so-called  Glory-of-Brazil  butterflies,  belong  to  this  group, 
also  flies  and  beetles,  feathers  of  numerous  birds,  mother  of 
pearl,  and  various  mineral  bodies  as  labradorite,  specimens 
of  various  ores  covered  with  films  of  tarnish,  thin  films  of 
mica,  certain  iridescent  crystals  of  chlorate  of  potash,  &c. 
Lastly,  iridescent  objects  are  met  with  which,  even  at  normal 
incidence,  appear  either  violet  or  purple,  and  then,  as  the 
light  is  made  to  fall  on  them  more  obliquely,  simply  change 
to  a  higher  degree  of  the  same  tint  and  then  become  white 
or  colourless  as  the  incidence  becomes  still  more  oblique. 
Examples    of    this    are    met    with    in    the    case    of    the 


The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  197 

feathers  of  many  humming-birds,  e.g.,  tail  feathers  of 
the  blue-tailed  sylph,  Cyanthus  forficatus,  the  glossy  blue 
black  plumage  of  many  tropical  and  British  birds,  the 
purplish  blue  patch  (speculum)  in  the  wing  of  the  mallard, 
innumerable  flies,  dragon  flies,  beetles,  and  butterflies, 
and  many  minerals,  as  labradorite,  opal,  &c.,  mother  of 
pearl,  and  also  bodies  artificially  prepared,  as  thin  films 
■of  mica,  certain  crystals  (twin  crystals)  of  chlorate 
■of  potash.  It  is  needless  here  to  individually  specify  these 
various  objects,  because  in  their  appropriate  sections 
I  purpose  mentioning  striking  and  typical  examples  from 
the  various  groups  of  coloured  bodies  for  the  purpose 
of  drawing  attention  to  the  nature  and  properties  of  their 
colours  and  the  structures  producing  them.  The  above 
sequence  of  colour  phenomena  is  what  is  commonly  observed 
in  almost  all  iridescent  natural  bodies  in  which  the  colours 
are  due  to  thin  plates.  How  constant  this  change  of  colour  is 
maybe  inferred  from  the  fact  that,  keeping  in  mind  thesimple 
principle  which  governs  the  production  of  colour  by  thin 
plates,  I  was  able  to  predict,  without  a  single  mistake, 
the  sequence  of  changing  tints  that  arose  by  regarding  from 
different  points  of  view  the  numerous  specimens  constituting 
that  magnificent  collection  of  humming-birds  known  as  the 
Gould  Collection  at  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 

It  was  this  constancy  in  the  colour  phenomena  pre- 
sented by  thin  plates  that  naturally  suggested  the  inference 
that  if  such  colour  phenomena  zvere  really  constant  and  peculiar 
to  thin  plates,  sue  J L  appearances  might  be  accepted  as  proof  of 
the  existence  of  a  structure  of  thin  plates,  even  though  such 
structure  might  not  be  apparent  by  ordinary  microscopic 
investigation  alone.  But  the  fact  that  the  same  colours  and 
sequence  of  colours  are  observed  on  viewing  a  structure 
composed  of  a  series  of  fine  lines,  at  once  proves  that 
such  colours,  so  far  as  regards  their  composition 
or  tint,  and  also  as  regards  their  sequence,  are   identical : 


198  Dr.  a.  Hodgkinson  oh 

though  the  cause  varies,  the  effect,  so  far  as  regards  tint  and 
sequence,  under  var}-ing  incidence  of  Hght  is  the  same.  Hence 
the  reason  why  some  observers  have  inferred  thin  plates  as 
the  cause,  others  fine  Hnes,  in  the  same  object.  Though 
identical  in  tint  and  sequence  of  colours,  it  occurred  to  me 
to  ascertain  whether  there  were  not  some  features  in  the 
colour  phenomena  of  fine  lines  which  differed  from  the 
colour  phenomena  of  thin  plates,  because,  if  such  could  be 
found,  the  two  phenomena  could  be  distinguished  and  the 
correct  structural  cause  inferred.  To  answer  this  question — 
and  I  go  into  detail  on  this  point  to  serve  as  an  example  of 
methods  I  have  adopted,  with  the  necessary  modifications, 
in  other  instances — I  took  examples  of  both  these  struc- 
tures, thin  plates  and  fine  lines,  prepared  artificially,  so 
that  there  could  be  no  doubt  of  their  structural  nature.  For 
a  thin  plate  I  took  an  iridescent  film  of  mica,  for  fine  lines 
a  small  diffraction  plate  consisting  of  a  series  of  fine  lines 
engraved  on  silvered  glass  by  Zeiss.  These  I  examined  in 
the  following  manner  : — First  by  transmitted  light ;  placing 
the  diffraction  grating,  the  lines  of  which  were  of  course  suffi- 
ciently near  to  one  another  to  produce  diffraction  colours,  on 
the  stage  of  the  microscope,  I  illuminated  it  from  below  in  the 
usual  manner,  except  that  I  used  a  diaphragm  with  an 
aperture  made  by  a  fine  needle  point.  Employing  a  low 
power  ( I  in.),  I  focussed,  not  for  the  grating  but  for  this 
aperture,  so  arranging  the  grating  that  the  light  passed 
through  it  before  entering  the  objective.  On  observing  the 
result,  as  seen  through  the  eyepiece,  a  central  colonrless^ 
image  of  the  aperture  of  the  diaphragm  is  seen,  and  on 
either  side  of  this  central  image,  and  in  a  plane  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  the  markings,  is  a  series  (in  this 
instance  two)  of  spectra  of  this  opening  in  the  diaphragm 
having  the  violet  end  of  each  spectrum  towards  the  central 
opening.  If  the  grating  be  rotated  in  altitude  on  an  axis  in 
the  direction  of  the  Hnes,  the  colourless  imaee  still  retains 


The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  199 

its  central  position,  but  the  lateral  spectral  images  become 
individually  broader  and  more  distantly  separated  from  each 
other.  If  the  grating  be  rotated  in  azimuth  the  plane  of 
the  spectral  images  also  rotates  so  as  always  to  maintain  a 
direction  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  lines.  Apart 
from  the  distinctive  appearance  of  this  phenomenon  we 
learn  from  it  that  light  transmitted  by  a  structure  composed 
of  fine  lines  gives  rise  to  colour — diffraction  colours,  but 
the  light  m  the  axis  of  the  illuminating  beam  is  colourless. 

If  now,  adopting  precisely  the  same  arrangement  of  the 
microscope  as  in  the  previous  instance,  I  replace  the  series  of 
lines  by  a  film  of  some  material  sufficiently  thin  to  give  rise 
to  the  so-called  colour  of  thin  plates — say  a  film  of  mica — 
and,  using  the  same  objective  (lin.),  I  focus  for  the  small 
hole  in  the  diaphragm  with  the  film  in  such  a  position  that 
the  light  from  this  opening  on  its  way  to  the  objective 
passes  through  such  film,  on  viewing  such  opening  in 
the  ordinary  way  through  the  eye-piece  it  is  seen  as  a  single 
central  faifitly-coloured  image.  On  rotating  the  film  in 
altitude,  it  is  seen  to  change  in  colour.  Rotating  in  azimuth 
no  alteration  in  appearance  is  perceptible.  From  this  we 
learn  that  the  light  transmitted  by  an  iridescent  thin  plate 
is  only  in  the  axis,  or  parallel  to  the  axis,  of  the  illuminating 
beam  and  is  coloured.  The  colour  is  confined  to  the  direction 
of  the  illuminating  beam. 

From  these  two  results  we  learn  that  in  the  case  of  colour- 
producing  structures  composed  of  fine  lines,  thus  examined 
by  transmitted  light,  the  resulting  colour  is  absent  in  the 
axis  of  the  illuminating  beam,  whilst  in  the  case  of  a  colour- 
producing  structure  of  thin  plates,  the  colour  is  confined  to 
the  direction  of  the  illuminating  beam. 

Such  is  the  result  of  examination  by  transmitted  light, 
available  therefore  in  the  case  of  transparent  structures 
only.  Most  of  the  objects  under  consideration,  however, 
are  opaque  bodies,  and  therefore  only  admit  of  examination 


200  Dr.  a.  Hodgkinson  on 

by  reflected  light.  To  make  our  investigation  complete, 
therefore,  it  behoves  us  to  examine  the  manifestations  of 
these  two  colour-producing  structures,  fine  lines  and  thin 
plates,  by  reflected  light. 

Using  the  same  objects,  a  series  of  engraved  lines,  and  a 
film  of  mica,  I  will  first  consider  the  fine  lines. 

Placing  this  object  on  the  stage  of  a  binocular  micros- 
cope and  employing  a  i-inch  objective,  the  following 
method  of  illumination  is  employed  : — Removing  one  of  the 
eye-pieces,  I  substitute  a  mirror  so  arranged  that  a  beam  of 
light  may  be  reflected  down  the  tube  and  through  the 
objective  on  to  the  object  beneath.  If  now  the  plane  of 
reflection  of  the  object  is  normal  to  the  direction  of  this 
beam,  the  light  is  reflected  up  the  other  tube,  forming  an 
image  of  the  object  which  is  obscured  in  the  usual  way. 
Such  image  i?i  the  present  instance  is  seen  to  be  colourless. 
Rotated  in  altitude  at  any  azimuth,  the  image  disappears. 
From  this  we  learn  that  a  colour-producing  structure  of  fine 
lines  reflects  colourless  light  at  an  angle  equal  to  that  of 
incidence.  The  above  arrangement  ensures  incidence  and 
reflection  being  equal,  since  they  are  identical,  being  both 
normal  to  the  reflecting  plane. 

Replacing  the  fine  lines  by  an  iridescent  film  of  mica, 
mounted  on  black  velvet  so  as  to  avoid  the  reflection  of 
adventitious  light,  and  subjecting  it  to  precisely  the  same 
method  of  examination  as  in  the  last  instance,  a  striking 
difference  is  noticed  in  the  result.  Instead  of  the  colourless 
image  of  the  object  as  observed  in  the  previous  instance, 
the  image  of  the  film  appears  as  an  intensely  brilliant  object 
tinged  with  hues  which,  though  they  may  be  equalled,  are 
certainly  unsurpassed,  even  by  the  interference  colours  of 
polarised  light.  If  by  tilting  the  stage  the  film  is  made  to 
rotate  in  altitude  at  any  azimuth,  the  colours  immediately 
disappear.  From  this  we  learn  that  a  colour-producing 
structure  of  thin  plates  reflects  a  coloured  light  only  at  an 


The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  201 

■angle  equal  to  that  of  incidence,  a  feature  which  distinguishes 
it  at  once  from  a  structure  of  fine  Knes. 

We  see  from  these  experiments  that,  however  closely 
the  colour  manifestations  of  these  two  colour-producing 
structures  may  resemble  each  other  to  ordinary  observation, 
when  in  the  above  typical  form,  and  submitted  to  some  such 
method  of  examination  as  the  above,  the  resemblance  breaks 
■down,  and  we  have  presented  phenomena  so  markedly  dis- 
tinct as  scarcely  to  admit  of  confusion.  Could  we,  therefore, 
ensure  these  conditions  being  always  complied  with,  our 
investigation  would  be  a  comparatively  simple  matter. 
Such  is,  of  course,  not  the  case.  Whilst  our  method  of  exami- 
nation, being  adapted  for  opaque  as  well  as  transparent 
objects,  is  constantly  applicable,  infinite  variations  from  the 
typical  condition  of  the  structures  examined  exist.  In  the 
case  of  thin-plate  structures  we  shall  find  them  wonderfully 
constant  in  their  manifestations,  but  even  here  I  shall  draw 
attention  to  natural  and  artificial  bodies  in  which  colour 
phenomena  of  singular  interest  and  beauty  are  produced  by 
the  superposition  of  numerous  iridescent  plates,  seen  in  the 
case  of  most  iridescent  beetles  and  flies,  silvery-scaled 
fish,  and  certain  twin  crystals  of  chlorate  of  potash,  &c. 
When  other  methods  of  colour  production  co-exist  with  that 
of  thin  plates,  as  we  find  of  constant  occurrence,  the  appear- 
ances, though  more  complex,  still  admit  of  analysis  if 
properly  examined,  and,  each  phenomenon  having  its  own 
-Structural  significance,  the  results  of  examination  in  such 
instances  are  of  more  than  ordinary  interest.  Thus,  in  the 
case  of  mother  of  pearl  zcheji  groiDid,  we  have  an  example 
of  a  structure  composed  of  thin  plates  and  fine  lines,  and, 
accordingly,  this  substance  yields  colour  phenomena  bearing 
the  characteristics  of  both  these  structures.  As  shown  by 
Brewster,  the  diffracting  structure  of  this  substance  is 
communicable  to  wax.  I  shall  show  that  in  the  case  of 
mother    of    pearl,    however,    the    diffracting    structure    is 


202  Dk.  a.  Hodgkinson  on 

probably  caused  by  the  grinding,  thus  leaving  the  natural 
colours  of  mother  of  pearl  due  to  thin  plates  alone.  Again,, 
another  common  mode  of  colour-production,  absorption, 
may  co-exist  with  that  of  thin  plates,  constituting  a  method 
of  colour-production  not,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  before 
described.  From  the  mode  of  formation  of  this  class  of 
colours  I  shall  refer  to  them  as  the  Colours  of  TJiin 
Absorption  Plates^  and  under  this  title  I  have  devoted  a 
section  to  their  consideration.  This  mode  of  colour-pro- 
duction is  interesting,  as  affording  an  explanation  of  the 
reflected  and  transmitted  colours  of  metals,  aniline  colours 
and  iridescent  crystals  of  permanganate  of  potash,  and  some 
other  almost  opaque  bodies. 

Finding,  as  a  result  of  experiment,  that  these  two 
colour-producing  structures — fine  lines  and  thin  plates — 
when  in  their  typically  perfect  condition,  and  when 
examined  in  a  suitable  way,  produced  optical  effects 
peculiar  to,  and  therefore  characteristic  of,  such  struc- 
tures, and  noting  that  even  when  the  structures  were 
not  typically  perfect,  proportionately  characteristic  results 
were  obtained,  I  was  led  to  see  that  there  are  other  indi- 
cations of  structure  than  mere  image  formation ;  that 
there  are,  in  fact,  two  ways  in  which  minute  structure  may 
reveal  itself  by  the  agency  of  light ;  one  in  which  the 
illuminating  light  is  so  refracted  or  reflected  as  to  admit  of 
the  formation  by  means  of  one  or  more  lenses  of  an  appre- 
ciable image  on  the  retina.  This,  which  may  be  termed 
the  direct  method,  is  what  occurs  in  ordinary  microscopic 
observation  when  the  instrument  is  used  as  a  mere  magni- 
fying appliance,  and  in  this  instance  we  have  to  do 
with  an  image  of  the  object  identical  in  appearance  and 
differing  from  such  object  only  in  size.  In  the  second  or 
indirect  method  the  structure  so  materially  modifies  the 
light  as  to  reveal  itself,  not  in  the  form  of  an  image  or 
replica  of  itself,  but  b}-  the  production  of  some  other  optical 


The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  203 

effect,  such  as  reflection,  refraction,  absorption,  dispersion, 
interference,  diffraction,and  double  infraction,  or  polarisation. 
What  is  the  structural  significance  of  these  various  phen- 
omena, and  to  what  extent  we  are  justified  in  relying  on 
them  as  indications  of  structure,  I  have  considered  in 
detail  in  a  paper  on  "Ultra-microscopic  Structure,  and 
Methods  of  its  Investigation,"  which  I  hope  to  have  the 
opportunity  of  laying  before  the  Society. 

In  the  present  communication,  dealing  as  it  does  with 
coloured  bodies,  I  purpose  selecting  from  the  various 
divisions  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms, 
typical  examples  of  objects  characterised  by  striking 
or  peculiar  colour-production.  Having  drawn  atten- 
tion to  the  peculiar  features  of  such  appearances,  and 
the  modification  these  undergo  by  varying  conditions 
of  illumination,  I  shall,  so  far  as  I  am  able,  describe 
the  structural  or  physical  cause  of  these  colours.  This, 
the  main  object  of  the  communication,  was  in  the  first 
instance  my  sole  intention,  and  this  more  especially  as 
I  have,  in  the  previously  mentioned  paper,  considered  in 
detail  the  methods  for  investigating  ultra-microscopic 
structures.  It  occurred  to  me,  however,  that  without  some 
explanation  of  the  methods  by  which  I  had  arrived  at  the 
results  in  the  present  instance,  these  might  not  be  so 
interesting  or  acceptable  as  if  a  sufficient  reason  were  given 
for  them.  Accordingly  I  have  devoted  preliminary  sections 
to  the  consideration  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  colour, 
and  having  described  the  different  modes  of  colour-produc- 
tion, and  shown  the  relationship,  so  far  as  known,  to  the 
structures  producing  them — in  other  words,  their  structural 
significance.  I  have  considered  separately  each  of  these 
different  modes  of  colour-production  in  order  to  ascertain 
their  characteristic  features,  so  that  they  might,  by  exami- 
nation, be  easily  recognised. 

The  main  object  in  such  methodical  examination  has 


204  Dr.  a.  Hod(;kinson  on 

been  so  to  vary  the  relationship  of  the  various  natural  and 
artificial  bodies,  or  their  parts,  to  the  source  of  illumination 
^as  to  produce  characteristic  appearances,  or  colour  changes. 
When  such  colour  effect  has  been  found  to  agree  in  its 
nature  and  properties  with  one  of  the  known  modes  of 
colour-production,  it  has  itself  been  referred  to  such  group, 
and  the  same  structural  cause  has  been  inferred  to  exist  in 
it  as  characterises  the  group  even  thongJi  microscopic  and 
■other  methods  of  examination  fail  to  reveal  such  structure. 
Such  method,  which  is  only  a  part  of  a  more  extensive, 
but  similar,  method  framed  to  allow  of  the  investigation  of 
all  bodies,  whether  coloured  or  not,  vide  "  Ultra-microscopic 
Structure  and  Methods  of  its  Investigation,"  I  shall  speak 
of  under  the  title  of  "  Chromatic  Analysis,"  and  to  facili- 
tate such  method,  I  have  constructed  a  systematic  table,  by 
following  which,  the  different  colour  phenomena  may  be 
the  more  readily  grouped.  I  have  felt  justified  in  thus 
taking  colour-production  as  a  manifestation  of  structure, 
because  I  find  that  of  all  optical  phenomena,  excepting  of 
course  image  formation,  those  attended  by  the  produc- 
tion of  colour  are  the  most  significant  of  structural  con- 
formation. 

Examination  of  bodies,  according  to  the  plan  advocated, 
naturally  necessitated  some  modification  in  existing  instru- 
mental appliances.  These  I  shall,  as  occasion  arises,  bring 
before  your  notice.  On  the  present  occasion  I  will  only  call 
your  attention  to  a  microscope,  constructed  for  me  by 
Messrs.  Smith  and  Beck,  and  so  arranged  as  to  allow  of  great 
variety  in  the  relationship  of  bodies,  or  their  parts,  to  the 
source  of  illumination.  The  moveable  parts  are  all  graduated 
so  that  this  relationship  may  be  known  and  recorded. 
Without  some  such  appliance  as  this,  I  should  have  been 
quiteunableto  havedone  evenwhat  little  I  have  accomplished. 
In  the  preceding  cursory  sketch  I  have  attempted  to 
convey  some  notion  of  the  nature  of  the  enquiry   I   have 


TJie  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  205 

entered  upon,  and  have  alluded  to  the  necessity  of  employing 
some  method  other  than  mere  microscopic  examination  for 
carrying  on  such  enquiry.  According  to  their  action  on 
light  all  structures  may  be  divided  into  three  distinct 
classes  : — 

{a)  Structures,  the  physical  nature  of  which  is  such  as  to 
allow  of  a  visible  image  being  formed  of  them  by  reflection 
or  refraction  of  light,  and  these,  since  they  are  amenable  to 
ordinary  microscopic  examination,  I  have  characterised 
as  microscopic  structures.  As  examples  of  microscopic 
structures  may  be  cited  all  such  as  are  sufficiently  large  or 
coarse,  and  of  suitable  optical  density,  or  colour,  in  relation 
to  their  environment,  to  allow  of  the  formation  of  a  per- 
ceptible image.     Their  name  is  legion. 

{b)  Structures  which,  from  their  physical  nature,  are  in- 
capable of  so  acting  on  light  as  to  admit  of  the  formation 
by  reflection  or  refraction  of  a  visible  image  (or  replica) 
of  themselves,  yet  can  so  modify  light  as  to  produce  some 
optical  phenomenon  which  is  characteristic  of  the  structure 
producing  it.  To  this  group  belong  all  bodies  which  appear 
structureless  by  ordinary  microscopic  examination,  and  yet 
give  rise  to  some  optical  effects,  as  reflection,  refraction, 
absorption,  polarisation,  and  various  interference  pheno- 
mena. This  is  the  class  to  which  I  have  applied  the  term 
ultra-viicroscopic,  since  the  microscope  is  either  not  appli- 
cable for  their  investigation,  or,  if  employed,  is  merely 
used  as  an  aid  to  some  other  method  of  observation,  or  to 
observe  some  other  feature  of  the  object  than  its  ordinary 
image. 

Since  most  colour-producing  structures  belong  to  this 
group,  it  is  that  with  which  we  are  the  most  concerned  in 
the  present  inquiry. 

{c)  Finally  we  have  abundance  of  evidence  of  the  exis- 
tence of  structures,  the  physical  nature  of  which  is  such  as 
to  render  them  invisible,  and  incapable  of  producing  any  of 


2o6  Dk.  a.  Hodgkixson  on 

the  abo\'e  optical  phenomena,  and  therefore  to  belong  to 
neither  microscopic  nor  ultra-microscopic  group  as  defined 
above.  Films  of  mica  may  be  separated  so  thin  as  to  be  in- 
capable of  reflecting  light  of  any  colour  at  any  incidence,  and 
therefore  to  appear  black  under  any  conditions  of  illumina- 
tion. The  same  condition  is  met  with  in  the  case  of  the 
thin  film  constituting  the  central  spot  of  Newton's  rings. 
True  it  is,  that  in  these  instances,  the  invisibility  is  ascribed 
to  interference,  arising,  as  pointed  out  by  Young,  from  the 
loss  of  half  an  undulation  which  occurs  when  light  is 
reflected  at  the  surface  of  the  denser  of  two  media.  Still, 
even  though  this  loss  of  half  an  undulation  were  an  un- 
doubted truth,  the  fact  remains  that  transparent  films,  the 
thickness  of  which  is  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  wave-length  of 
violet  light,  neither  reflect  light  nor  give  any  other  positive 
optical  evidence  of  their  existence.  In  the  case  of  inter- 
ference from  thicker  films,on  the  other  hand, we  havereflected 
and  refracted  colours  of  the  most  varied  description.  Again,  a 
complex  arrangement  of  portionsof  such  invisiblefilms  would 
still  remain  invisible,  and  the  same  is  true  of  structures 
generally  when  composed  of  elements  too  thin  to  produce 
optical  effect.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  mica,  certain  crystals  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  and  other  minerals  which  exhibit  cleavage, 
we  notice  no  internal  evidence  of  arrangement  in  lamella;, 
and  yet  no  one  can  doubt  that  such  structural  arrangement 
does  exist,  but  the  lamella;  being  in  optical  contact,  that  is 
separated  by  intervals  of  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  wave- 
length, and  themselves  of  similar  dimensions,  fail  to  give 
optical  evidence  of  their  existence,  and  thus  the  mass  appears 
homogeneous.  Just  as  transparent  films  when  of  a  certain 
thinness  are  invisible,  so  must  transparent  particles  when  of 
the  same  diameter  be  invisible,  and  a  body  composed  of 
such  small  particles  would  appear  homogeneous  ;  and  just 
as  a  thin  invisible  film  which  gradually  increases  in  thick- 
ness when  illuminated  by  white  light,  first  reflects  those  rays 


The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  207 

•of  shortest  wave-length,  namely,  violet  or  blue,  so  do  small 
particles  always  first  reflect  light  of  the  same  colours, 
thus  producing  the  phenomenon  of  opalescence.  The 
blue  of  the  sky,  of  smoke,  and  of  steam  is  of  this 
nature.  That  such  transparent  particles  before  attaining  a 
certain  size  are  invisible,  is  well  exemplified  in  the  case  of  a 
jet  of  steam,  in  which,  in  immediate  proximity  to  the  nozzle 
before  the  particles  have  run  together  by  condensation  and 
thus  augmented  in  size,  they  are  invisible,  but  assume  a  blue 
colour  so  soon  as  the  diameter  of  the  particles  is  equal  to  a 
quarter  wave-length  of  this  colour.  Again,  in  the  case  of  a 
structure  composed  of  fine  lines.  Abbe  has  conclusively 
demonstrated  that  the  microscopic  image  of  such  structure 
is  constituted  by  the  superposition  of  the  ordinary  or 
dioptric  image  and  the  interference  images  formed  by 
diffraction,  and  that  when  the  diffraction  images  are 
■obstructed  by  diminishing  the  aperture  of  the  objective, 
or  otherwise,  the  appearance  of  such  object  may  be  modified 
so  as  to  present  the  most  varied  appearances,  or  to  present 
an  absolute  blank,  according  as  the  diffraction  images  are 
partially,  or  wholly,  excluded  from  taking  part  in  the  image 
formation.  Of  the  truth  of  these  facts  any  one  can  easily 
satisfy  himself,  since  Messrs.  Zeiss  and  Son,  the  opticians  of 
Jena,  supply  apparatus  of  the  most  simple  kind,  by  means 
of  which  the  part  played  by  diffraction  in  image  formation 
is  rendered  apparent.  This  variation  in  the  appearance  of 
such  objects  where  examined  by  the  microscope  has  called 
forth  the  opinion  expressed  in  a  recent  publication,  "  The 
Microscope  in  theory  and  pratice,"  Naegeli  and  Schwenderer, 
p.  235,  that  "under  these  circumstances  every  attempt 
to  discover  the  structure  of  finely  organised  objects,  as,  for 
instance,  diatom  valves,  by  the  mere  observation  of  their 
microscopic  images,  must  be  characterised,  is  wholly 
mistaken." 

Seeing  now  that  the  microscopic  resolution  of  structures, 


2o8  Dr.  a.  Hodgkinson  on 

e.g.,  a  series  of  fine  lines,  of  less  than  a  certain  degree  of 
fineness,  is  essentially  dependent  on  their  dififractive  action,, 
and  seeing  it  admits  of  easy  proof  that,  when  the  distances 
between  the  centres  of  the  lines  constituting  such  structures 
is  less  than  half  a  wave-length  of  light,  no  diffraction  can 
occur  even  with  light  of  any  obliquity,  it  is  evident  that  such 
structure  must  be  invisible  under  any  microscopic  power. 
Since,  moreover,  such  structure,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
fails  to  produce  any  optical  manifestation  whatever,  it  can- 
not be  classed  in  the  group  we  have  termed  ultra- 
microscopic.  To  take  one  more  example  : — Structures  of" 
the  same  optical  density  and  colour  as  their  environment 
yield  no  optical  evidence  of  their  existence,  and  belong,, 
therefore,  neither  to  microscopic  nor  ultra-microscopic 
structure.  A  slip  of  crown  glass,  for  example,  is  invisible- 
in  cedar-wood  oil,  and  the  same  is  true  of  other  structures 
of  the  same  refractive  index  and  colour.  So  far  as 
ordinary  light  is  concerned  such  structures  are  non-existent. 
On  this  fact,  indeed,  is  founded  the  homogeneous  immersion 
system  of  lenses. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  a  class  of  structures  exists- 
which  are  wholly  unsuited,  from  their  physical  nature 
and  that  of  light,  for  investigation  by  any  known  optical 
method.  Such  structures  might  be  aptly  termed  Hyper- 
photic,  since  it  seems  unlikely  they  will  ever  be  revealed 
by  the  agency  of  light.  With  such  a  group,  therefore, 
the  method  of  investigation  we  are  at  present  considering 
is  in  no  way  concerned,  since  an  essential  feature  of 
ultra-microscopic  structures  is  that  they  so  modify  light 
as  to  produce  characteristic  optical  effects.  It  remains- 
now  to  briefly  refer  to  the  relationship  of  such  method 
of  ultra-microscopic  examination  to  ordinary  or  unaided 
microscopic  investigation.  In  other  words,  can  we  attain, 
results  by  its  employment  not  to  be  attained  b}- 
means   of  the    microscope    alone?     And,   if  so,   are  such 


TJie  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.  209 

results  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  the  expenditure  of 
the  time  and  trouble  required  ?  The  answer  to  this  may- 
best  be  given  in  the  form  of  an  example.  For  this  purpose 
any  of  the  various  bodies  we  have  been  treating  of  might 
be  selected.  I  have  taken  an  iridescent  feather  from  the 
breast  of  the  humming-bird  Chrysolampis  mosquitus.  Placed 
on  the  stage  of  the  microscope,  and  examined  in  the  ordinary 
way,  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  central  shaft  or  rachis,  from 
the  sides  of  which  spring  the  so-called  barbs,  and  arranged 
along  the  edge  of  these  are  seen  numbers  of  elongated 
flat  bodies,  termed  'barbules,'  which,  towards  the  extremity 
of  the  feather,  overlap.  These  latter,  with  the  barbs,  con- 
stitute the  web,  and  the  two  webs  with  the  intermediate 
shaft,  the  vane  of  the  feather.  These  barbules  are  seen  to 
be  brilliantly  coloured,  they  constitute  the  colour  producing 
structure  of  this  iridescent  feather.  Here,  so  far  as  the  struc- 
ture of  these  barbules  goes,  microscopic  examination  ends, 
and  here  ultra-microscopic  investigation  steps  in.  Retain- 
ing the  structure  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope,  modified 
so  as  to  permit  of  the  necessary  adjustment,  the  object 
is,  by  suitable  movements  of  stage  and  illumination,  ex- 
amined by  light  falling  on  it,  and  reflected  from  it  at  varying 
angles.  It  is  seen  to  change  colour  from  a  higher  towards 
a  lower  order  of  tint  as  the  incident  light  becomes  more 
and  more  oblique  ;  in  other  words,  it  belongs  to  the  class 
of  iridescent  bodies.  Such  colours  might  be  due  to  disper- 
sion, polarisation,  diffraction,  or  interference  of  thin  plates. 
Polarisation  we  may  at  once  exclude,  since  the  object  is  a 
natural  body,  and  colour  by  polarisation,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  is  unknown  in  nature.  Examined  according  to 
the  method  already  alluded  to  for  the  distinguishing 
of  diffraction  colours  from  those  of  thin  plates,  it  is 
seen  to  belong  to  this  latter  group,  to  consist  of 
thin  plates.  But  the  theory  of  colour-production  by  thin 
plates  is  well  understood,  and  it  can  easily  be  shown  that, 
o 


2IO  Dr.  a.  Hodgkinson  on 

neglecting  the  effect  produced  by  variation  in  the  optical 
density  of  the  substance  composing  the  plate,  a  given  colour 
is  produced  by  a  given  thickness  of  plate.  That  is  to  say, 
if  the  colour  is  known,  the  thickness  of  the  plate  can  be  cal- 
culated. To  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  colour  we  employ 
the  only  reliable  test  of  colour  composition,  the  prism. 
Adapted  to  the  microscope  in  the  form  of  the  so-called 
microspectroscope,  this  shows  the  orange  light  reflected 
from  the  feathers  at  normal  incidence  to  have  a  composition 


■60  -515 


Spectrum  of  feather  from  breast  of  the  ' '  Ruby  and  Topaz  "  Humming-bird 
(  Chrysolampis  mosqiiilus). 

indicated  by  the  above  spectrum.  Such  spectra  are  readily 
mapped  out  on  blank  charts  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
Since  now,  as  remarked  above,  disregarding  optical  density, 
a  given  spectrum  is  peculiar  to  a  given  thickness  of  plate, 
it  only  becomes  necessary  to  compare  the  obtained  spectrum 
with  the  spectra  of  thin  plates  of  known  thickness  to  learn 
the  thickness  of  plate-structure  producing  the  spectrum 
in  question. 

To  facilitate  such  comparisons  I  have  constructed  the 
accompanying  "  Spectral  Chart."  (See  coloured  plate.)  This, 
as  seen,  allows  of  the  immediate  determination  of  all  inter- 
ference colours  whether  due  to  polarisation  or  produced  by 
thin  plates,  from  the  ist  to  the  7th  order  inclusive.  We  shall 
subsequently  refer  to  the  construction  of  this  chart.  To  use  it, 
it  is  merely  necessary  to  slide  the  map  of  the  spectrum  of 
the  body  under  observation  up  the  spectral  chart,  beginning 
at  the  bottom,  until  on  a  level  with  a  tranverse  section  of 
the  chart  which  shows  the  same  colour  composition  as  the 


TJie  Structure  of  Coloitred  Bodies.  2 1 1 

map.  Opposite  such  points  in  the  right  hand  column  of 
figures  we  have  the  approximate  thickness  of  the  plate  in 
micromillimetres,  and  still  further  to  the  right  the  corres- 
ponding undecomposed  colour.  On  applying  the  map  of 
the  spectrum  of  the  breast  feather  of  our  humming-bird,  it 
is  seen  to  correspond  in  colour  composition  with  a  line 
crossing  the  spectral  chart  at  a  point  indicated  in  the  right 
hand  column  by  the  number  -485.  This  number,  therefore, 
represents  the  thickness  of  the  plate  in  question  in  micro- 
millimetres.  This  point,  moreover,  is  opposite  the  orange 
of  the  2nd  order,  and  we  thus  also  ascertain  the  position  of 
the  colour  examined  on  the  Newtonian  colour-scale. 

From  the  foregoing  example  it  is  obvious  that  something 
more  has  been  ascertained  regarding  the  structure  of  the 
objects  under  observation  than  can  be  determined  by  the 
microscope  alone.  The  barbules,  which  to  ordinary  micro- 
scopic investigation  appear  devoid  of  structure,  are  seen  to 
possess  the  property  of  colour-production.  Examining 
such  colour  phenomenon,  under  varying  conditions  and 
with  suitable  appliances,  it  is  seen  to  correspond  in  all 
respects  with  the  interference  colours  produced  by  thin  plates. 
We  are,  therefore,  justified  in  assuming  the  same  structure 
as  the  cause  of  the  colour  in  the  barbules,  and,  therefore,  of 
attributing  to  the  colour-producing  portion  of  the  feathers  a 
structural  arrangement  composed  of  thin  plates.  It  has 
been  pointed  out  how  an  approximate  measurement  of  the 
thickness  of  such  plates  is  indicated  by  the  position  of  the 
spectrum  on  the  chart. 

In  the  above  example  we  have  an  instance  of  a  structure 
exhibiting  a  marked  optical  effect,  namely,  the  production  of 
colour.  From  the  nature  and  properties  of  such  colour  we 
have  inferred  the  nature  of  the  structure  producing  such 
effect.  If  all  ultra-microscopical  structures  possessed  the 
property  of  colour-production,  and  if  the  structural  cause  of 
all  colour-production  were  known,  the  determination  of  the 


2 1 2  The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies. 

nature  of  ultra-microscopic  structures  generally  would  be 
a  simple  matter.  Such  is,  however,  not  the  case.  Though, 
as  we  shall  see,  structure  does  commonly  manifest  colour 
I)hcnomena,  in  numbers  of  instances  no  such  effect  is  ap- 
parent. In  other  instances  colour  is  produced  giving  rise  to 
appearances  of  the  most  distinctive  kind,  but  which,  owing 
to  our  ignorance  of  the  cause  of  such  colour-phenomena,  have 
for  us  no  structural  significance.  So-called  absorption  colours 
are  of  this  nature,  since,  though  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  explain  their  production  on  a  physical  basis,  they 
have,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  as  yet  had  no  satisfactory 
explanation. 

Colour  alone,  therefore,  not  being  a  universal  manifesta- 
tion of  ultra-microscopic  structure,  we  must  in  such  instances 
rely  on  other  optical  phenomena  as  indications  of  structure. 
Such  are  polarisation,  reflection,  opalescence,  &c.  These  I 
shall  subsequently  consider  and  endeavour  to  show  to  what 
extent  they  are  indicative  of  structure. 


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Proceedings.  213 

^Microscopical  mid  Natural  History  Section^ 

Ordinary  Meeting,  March  nth,  1889. 

Mr.  J.  Cosmo    Melvill,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  President  of  the 
Section,  in  the  Chair. 

There  were  exhibited  : — 

By  Mr.  H.  Hyde,  shells  of  various  species  of  ZizypJiinus. 

By  Mr.  P.  Cameron,  an  apparently  undescribed  species 
of  Athalia  from  Japan,  and  a  new  species  of  Saw-fly  from 
Gibraltar,  allied  to  Athalia,  but  with  the  antennae  20-jointed 
and  forming  probably  the  type  of  a  new  genus. 

By  Mr.  H.  C.  Chadwick,  a  piece  of  rock  of  a  remark- 
able hexagonal  honeycomb  structure. 

By  Mr.  Theodore  Sington,  a  number  of  specimens 
of  resin  from  the  East  Coast  of  Africa,  containing  insects, 
spiders,  &c. 

By  Dr.  HODGKINSON,  a  humming  bird,  Chrysolanipis 
inosqiiitits.  Dr.  Hodgkinson  drew  attention  to  the  fact 
that  in  this  and  most  other  humming-birds  the  brilliant 
colouring  is  situated  on  the  crest  and  gorget.  The  colour 
is  best  seen  when  the  position  of  the  bird  is  such  that  the 
light  is  reflected  from  those  parts  directly  to  the  front. 
The  intensity  of  the  coloured  light  thus  reflected  is  very 
great,  and  can  be  shown  to  be  sufficient  to  illuminate  very 
perceptibly  objects  on  which  it  falls.  It  would  thus  seem 
that  such  light  would  serve  to  light  up  the  dark  tubes  of 
flowers  which  the  bird  might  be  visiting  in  search  of  insects 
or  honey. 


214  Proceedings. 

\PJiysical  and  MatJicmatical  Section^ 

Annual  Meeting,  March  13th,  1889. 

Wm.  Thomson,  F.R.S.  Ed.,  F.C.S.,  F.I.C.,  Vice-President 
of  the  Section,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Treasurer's  accounts  for  the  year  1888-9  were 
presented,  and  showed  : — Balance  from  last  year  £^.  2s.  4d., 
cash  received  during  the  current  year,  ^4.  is.  8d.,  making  a 
total  of  £(^.  4s.  od.,  against  which  were  payments  during 
the  current  year  £^.  3s.  lod.,  leaving  a  balance  in  favour  of 
the  Section  of  ;^5.  os.  2d. 

On  the  motion  of  Mr.  J.  A.  Bennion,  seconded  by  Mr. 
Wm.  Thomson,  it  was  resolved  : — "  That  the  Treasurer's 
accounts  be  received  and  passed." 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  officers  of  the 
Section  for  the  ensuing  year  : — 

President— JAU^ES  BOTTOMLEY,  B.A.,  F.C.S.,  D.Sc. 

Vice-Presidejtts.—]AU¥.?,  P.  JouLE,  D.C.L.,LL.D.,F.C.S., 
F.R.S. ;  William  Thomson,  F.R.S.  Ed.,  F.C.S.,  F.I.C. 

Secretary.—].  A.  Bennion,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S. 

Treasurer. — ^JOHN  Angell,  F.C.S.,  F.I.C. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  members  and  associates  of 
the  section  : — 

Members.— ]o\i^  Angell,  F.C.S.,  F.I.C.  ;  James 
Bottomley,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.C.S. ;  F.  J.  Faraday,  F.L.S., 
F.S.S. ;  J.  P.  Joule,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S. ;  William 
Mather,  M.P.  ;  S.  Okell,  F.R.A.S.;  Wm.  Thomson, 
F.R.S.  Ed.,  F.C.S.,  F.I.C. 

Associate.—].  A.  Bennion,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S. 


Proceedings.  215 


Ordinary  Meeting,  March  19th,  1889. 

Professor  OsBORNE  Reynolds,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Dr.  Charles  Clay  read  a  paper  "  On  the  resuhs  of 
some  calculations  with  a  certain  class  of  figures  "  embody- 
ing some  arithmetical  calculations  bearing  on  the  problem 
of  the  squaring  of  the  circle. 

Mr.  W.M.  Thomson,  I^R.S.Ed.,  read  a  paper  "  On  the 
presence  of  green  colouring  matter  in  leaves  found  about 
21  feet  under  the  surface  in  an  excavation  connected  with 
the  Ship  Canal  Works,"  and  exhibited  specimens  of  the 
deposit. 

Dr.  Hodgkinson  read  the  second  of  a  series  of  papers 
*'  On  Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured 
Bodies  ;  being  an  Investigation  into  the  Physical  cause  of 
Colour  in  natural  and  artificial  bodies  and  the  Nature  of 
the  Structure  producing  it,"  treating  of  some  of  the  physio- 
logical phenomena  of  colour  sensation. 


2i6  Mr.  William  Thomson  on 


On  Leaves  found  in  the  cutting  for  the  Manchester 
Ship  Canal,  21  feet  under  the  surface,  and  on  Green 
Colouring  Matter  contained  therein.  By  William 
Thomson,  F.R.S.  Ed.,  etc. 

{Received  May  15th,  iSSg.) 

My  attention  was  drawn  by  Mr.  Alderman  Bailey  to 
these  leaves  which  had  been  found  in  the  cutting  for  the 
Ship  Canal.  On  further  enquiry  I  learned  that  they  had 
been  brought  to  notice  by  Mr.  Walter  Taylor,  one  of  the 
Company's  Engineers,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  the 
following  notes  respecting  the  position  in  which  they 
were  found.  I  went  to  look  at  the  deposit  on  the  19th  of 
March  last,  and  by  the  kindness  of  Mr.  W.  O.  E.  Mead 
King  and  Mr.  Taylor,  I  was  enabled  to  obtain  a  consider- 
able supply  of  the  leaves.  They  were  embedded  in  the 
sand  in  two  or  three  different  layers  of  one  to  two  inches 
in  thickness,  the  one  above  the  other ;  at  some  places,  with 
a  layer  of  sand  of  about  an  inch  or  two  in  thickness  between 
the  layers  of  leaves.  There  was,  however,  chiefly  one  layer 
of  leaves,  about  two  inches  in  thickness,  which  lay  in  a  bed 
curved  in  the  direction  of  the  width,  which  was  about 
40  feet  by  about  14  feet  long.  This  bed  of  leaves  was 
found  in  the  Partington  Coal  basin,  near  Irlam,  21  feet 
under  the  surface :  it  was  about  650  feet  from  the  present 
river,  and  50  feet  from  the  old  Mersey  river  course,  which 
had  been  filled  up  near  to  the  surface  with  mud  and  silt  and 
black  mud.  It  occurred  in  the  space  between  the  two  arms 
in  the  bend  of  the  old  river  known  as  Sandy  Wharps,  the 
whole  of  the  space  between  the  two  arms  of  this  bend  or 
knuckle  being  filled  up  with  loose  sand,  such  as  is  found  at 


Leaves  from  the  Ship  Canal.  217 

the  sea  side.  This  loose  sand  continued  on  either  side  of 
the  two  arms  of  the  river,  and  ended  in  a  layer  of  clay 
extending  from  the  surface  and  sloping  downwards  on 
either  side  towards  the  river  arms,  not  many  yards  from  the 
opposite  banks  of  the  ancient  river  course.  A  few  inches 
below  where  these  leaves  were  found  occurred  a  layer  of 
ballast,  and  in  order  under  that  boulder  clay,  6  feet  thick, 
coarse  gravel,  3  feet,  then  the  new  red  sandstone. 

On  further  opening  out  the  cutting  towards  Manchester, 
at  about  the  same  depth  from  the  surface  (24  feet  exactly) 
this  bed  of  leaves  occurs  more  or  less  continuously  for  more 
than  800ft.  It  is  in  several  layers  divided  by  thin  beds  of 
sandy  clay  ;  in  one  place  the  four  or  five  layers,  with  the 
clay  between,  reached  a  thickness  of  1 5  inches.  These  leaves 
differ  slightly  from  the  others,  in  that  they  contain  a  good 
percentage  of  moss  mixed  with  them,  but  are  evidently 
about  the  same  date,  being  at  the  bottom  of  the  deep  layer  of 
sand  under  the  top  soil  and  clay.  The  deposit  is  about  800 
feet  (nearer  Liverpool)  from  the  old  junction  of  the  Mersey 
and  Irwell.  The  accompanying  diagram  of  this  section  was 
kindly  provided  for  me  by  Mr.  Hunter,  another  of  the 
Manchester  Ship  Canal  Engineers. 

When  the  leaves  were  removed  from  the  sand  they 
were  very  damp,  and  possessed  a  dirty  olive-green  colour. 
They  lay  very  evenly  on  each  other,  so  that  they  could 
easily  be  separated  into  layers,  each  layer  showing  some 
perfectly  formed  leaves,  many  of  them  differing  from 
the  surrounding  ones  in  colour,  some  being  more  or  less 
touched  with  yellow  or  other  delicate  shade,  and  it  was 
remarkable  how  free  the}-  were  from  sand,  twigs,  or 
debris  :  there  was  mixed  with  them,  however,  the  fruit  of 
certain  trees  and  plants.  It  is  evident  from  the  remarkable 
state  of  preservation  of  these  leaves  and  fruit,  that  they 
must  have  been  suddenly  immersed  and  imbedded,  and  it 
might  be  assumed  that  this  took  place  somewhere  about 


2i8  Mr.  William  Thomson  on 

the  Autumn,   as  was   suggested   by    Mr.    Charles    Bailey, 
F.L.S.,  because  of  the  fruit  found. 

When  allowed  to  dry  the  leaves  became  more  brittle, 
and  they  could  then  be  separated  from  each  other  only 
with  much  difficulty.  These  leaves  and  fruit  have  been 
examined  by  different  botanists,  and  the  following  identified 
by  Mr.  W.  Carruthers,  F.R.S.,  of  the  British  Museum  ; 
Mr.  Scott,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,of  the  Science  and  Art  Department, 
South  Kensington  ;  Mr.  Cosmo  Melvill,  F.L.S.,  Mr.  Charles 
Bailey,  F.L.S.,  Mr.  John  Boyd,  and  Mr.  Leo  H.  Grindon,  of 
Manchester : — 

Aspen  {Pop7ilns  trevmla,  L.). 
Oak  {Qiierais  Robur,  L.). 
Shoreweed  {Litorella  lacnstris). 
Grey  Willow  {Salix  cinerea). 
Hawthorn  {Cratcegus  OxyacaiitJia). 
Osier  {Salix  vhnmalis). 
Fruit  of  the  Rose  (probably  Rosa  arvensis). 
Black  poplar  {Popiiliis  nigra). 
Sedges. 

Bramble  seeds. 
Buttercup  fruit. 
Potaniogeton  fruit. 
Dock  leaves. 
Acer  fruit. 

As  to  the  age  of  this  vegetation,  so  far  as  one  can  judge, 
it  must  be  at  least  some  centuries  and  probably  one  or 
more  thousands  of  years.  In  some  thin  layers  in  the  sand, 
about  the  same  depth  from  the  surface,  but  at  some  distance 
from  this  bed,  I  observed  a  number  of  bits  of  wood,  rounded 
pebbles,  a  few  rounded  bits  of  coal,  &c.  Mr.  Percy  F. 
Kendal,  of  the  Owens  College,  informed  me  that  horns  of 
the  red  deer  had  been  found  in  the  Ship  Canal  cutting, 
about  the  same  depth  underground,  and  that  fact  led  him 
to  put  the  viinimnni  age  of  this  deposit  at  from  300  to  400 


Leaves  from  the  Ship  Canal.  219 

years.  Not  far  from  this  deposit  was  subsequently  found  a 
rude  boat  (since  described  before  this  Society  by  Mr. 
Alderman  Bailey)  about  25  feet  underground.  This  boat 
lay  on  a  bed  of  leaves,  similar  to  the  one  above-mentioned, 
but  much  more  decayed. 

The  dark  olive  green  colour  of  the  leaves  first-mentioned, 
led  me  to  examine  them  for  chlorophyll,  by  the  method  em- 
ployed by  Berzelius,  Verdeil,  Schulze,  and  Mulder,  in  which 
acid  is  employed  in  the  separation.  By  thus  treating  these 
leaves  in  comparison  with  ordinary  grass,  I  obtained  by 
spectroscopic  examination  absorption  bands  which  were 
identical.  Dr.  Edward  Schunck,  F.R.S.,  however,  who 
must  be  regarded  as  our  greatest  authority  on  chlorophyll, 
subsequently  examined  the  colouring  matter  of  these  buried 
leaves,  and  in  his  most  interesting  paper,  given  before  this 
Society,  he  shows  that  it  is  not  really  chlorophyll  which 
exists  in  these  leaves,  but  modified  chlorophyll,  which  is  a 
very  much  more  permanent  colour,  produced  by  the  action 
of  acid  on  chlorophyll.  This  colour,  however,  permanent  as 
Dr.  Schunck  has  proved  it  to  be,  is  entirely  destroyed  when 
leaves  are  exposed  to  the  air  and  rain  and  sunshine  for  a 
few  months,  at  all  events  within  a  year,  and  it,  therefore, 
seems  an  interesting  fact  that  this  modified  chlorophyll 
should  have  remained  intact,  buried  in  this  wet  sand  for 
at  least  some  hundreds  of  years,  and  probably  for  one  or 
more  thousands  of  years.  I  examined  the  leaves  which 
were  supplied  to  me  by  Mr.  Taylor,  which  were  found  under 
the  boat  above-mentioned,  and  I  could  only  detect  in  them  a 
comparatively  very  small  quantity  of  the  green  colouring 
matter  (modified  chlorophyll)  found  in  the  others. 


Proceedings. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  April  2nd,  1889. 

Professor  OsBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Professor  SCHUSTER  described  Lord  Rayleigh's  colour- 
mixer,  for  testing  colour  sensations.  There  are  many  small 
peculiarities  in  colour  sensation  different  from  colour  blind- 
ness, but  certain  more  distinct  peculiarities  are  rare  and 
seem  to  run  in  families.  Persons  affected  by  these  greater 
diversities  agree  quite  well  among  themselves  in  their  judg- 
ment of  a  colour,  and  there  is  no  intermediate  class  between 
them  and  those  having  normal  sight. 

Mr.  Ralph  Holmes,  B.A.,  read  a  "  Note  on  the  Propa- 
gation of  Sound  through  an  Atmosphere  of  Varying 
Density." 

Dr.  HODGKINSON  read  a  third  communication  "On 
Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies  ; 
being  an  Investigation  into  the  Physical  Cause  of  Colour  in 
natural  and  artificial  bodies  and  the  Nature  of  the  Structure 
producing  it,"  describing  the  structures  which  cause  the 
silvery  sheen  of  the  herring  and  other  fish,  and  those  which 
produce  the  distinctive  colours  offish.  The  author  explained 
how,  on  drying,  these  scaly  structures  give  rise  to  the 
changing  colours  of  the  dying  dolphin. 


TJic  Propagation  of  Sound. 


On  Sound  propagated  through  an  atmosphere,  in  which 
the  surfaces  of  constant  density  are  parallel  planes, 
in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  these  planes.  By 
Ralph  Holmes,  B.A. 

{Received  May  8th,  i88p.) 

We  will  endeavour  to  obtain  a  solution  of  this  question 
when  the  law  of  change  of  density  is  any  whatsoever,  pro- 
vided this  change  is  very  small. 

With  the  usual  notation  let  /,  p  be  equilibrium  density 
and  pressure  at  any  point  x,  p  +p' ;  p  +  p'  what  these  become 
when  there  is  wave  motion. 

Then 

^_  ^  =  X 
p  dx     ^ 

I       d .  {p+p')  _^  _dn  _    du 

p  +  p'  dt  dt       dx 

Hence  to  first  order  of/',  p',  u,  we  have 

\  dp^ _p   d_l  ^  _du^  /jx 

P  dx     p2  dx         dt  ^'' 

Also  from  the  equation  of  continuity, 

^M-J^^  =  0   (ii.) 

dt        dx  ^    ^ 

Now,  whenever  we  have  compression  or  rarefaction  of 
air  due  to  a  wave  of  sound,  on  the  supposition  that  there  is 
no  ingress  or  egress  of  heat,  we  have  the  relation  that  the 
change  of  pressure  is  y  times  as  great  as  it  would  have  been 
had  there  been  no  change  of  temperature.     Thus 
I      ^•p+p''_    y     c.p  +  p'' 
p+p'       c  .  t        p  +  p'      ^  .  t- 
But 

^     d       d 
—  =  T-  +  ^(-1-- 
ht    dt      dx 


222  Mr.  Ralph  HoliMES  on 

Hence 


i[^^Jl\^yW^uf\ (iii.) 

p\dt        dx\     ^ydt       dxj  ^ 


P- 

Hence,  eliminating/,  p'  from  (i.),  (ii.),  (iii.),  we  obtain 
d'^u     yfi  (dhi  .  I  dp  dii^ 


yp/d'u     idp  du\     xld^_x  dp  4\  .    . 

p-ydx"-    p  dx  dx)     p\dx^     p   dx  dx)   ^    '' 


Supposing  that  the  changes  in  the  pressure  and  density 
are  so  small  that  we  may  neglect  their  second  differentials 
and  products  and  powers  of  differentials  above  the  first, 
the  equation  (iv.)  to  determine  ?/  becomes 

py  d'^ii     y  dp  du     d'u  ,  ^  ^ 

p  dx  '     p  dx  dx     dt' 

If/  and  p  were  constant,  a  solution  of  this  equation  may 
be  written 


K'vf)-"('v?) 


where  A  and  B  are  constants. 

Let  us  therefore  assume,  as  a  solution  of  equation  (v.) 

-('■/;b)-"("/;2) 

where  A  and  B  are  now  slowly  varying  functions  of  x,  such 
that  their  second  differentials  and  products  of  their  first 
differentials  with  the  first  differentials  of  p  and  p  may  be 
neglected.     We  have,  putting  q^=  ^'', 
du     dA  ^B^     ^  _ 

dhi 

^^,  =  A/"  +  BF' 

Substituting  these  values  in  equation  (v.),  we  have 
\     q  dx         q'-dx        pq  dxy        \q  dx         q^  dx       pq  dx) 


The  Propagation  of  Sound.  223 

So  that  to  determine  A  and  B  we  have  the  equations 

2  dK      .tdq      .'i-   dp 
- 'T^  +  A- -/ +  A— -7- -  0. 
q  dx         q-  dx        pq  dx 

=  0. 


2  ^B  ^  g  I  dq 

q  dx        q'^  dx 

"■^pqdx^ 

:.  a:-pY- 

--  constant. 

&B^/ip*  = 

=  constant. 

Thus 

we 

obtain 

A/- 


v-'/e-/»--'-t^/y^ 


9 

where  A  and  B  must  now  be  regarded  as  constants.  This 
result  holds,  whatever  be  the  law  of  variation  of  pressure 
and  density,  provided  that  their  variation  is  slow. 

If /<=«p'>',  which  is  the  case  for  convective  equilibrium  of 
the  atmosphere,  we  see  that  the  amplitude  of  vibration 

varies  inversely  as  the th  power  of  the  density. 

4 

If /o<:p,  we  see  in  the  same  way  that  the  amplitude  of 
vibration  varies  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the  density. 

In  the  case  of  a  constant  temperature,  where  the  varia- 
tion of  density  is  caused  by  a  constant  gravitational  force 
g,  the  terms  which  we  have  neglected  in  equation  (iv.),  viz., 


\dx:^     Q  dx  dx) 


p  dx  dx 
are  actually  zero. 


224  Proceedings. 

^Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section."] 

Annual  Meeting,  April  8th,  1889. 

Professor  W.  C.   Williamson,   LL.D.,  F.R.S.,   Vice- 
President  of  the  Section,  in  the  Chair. 

The  Secretary  read  the  Thirty-first  Annual  Report  of 
the  Council  of  the  Section,  and  the  Treasurer  submitted  the 
annual  balance  sheet  and  statement  of  accounts.   (See  p.  267). 

On  the  motion  of  Mr.  Charles  Bailev,  F'.L.S.,  seconded 
by  Mr.  R.  E.  CUNLIFFE,  the  annual  report  and  Treasurer's 
accounts  were  approved. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  officers  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Council  of  the  Section  for  the  ensuing  session  : — 

President: — J.  CoSMO  Melvill,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 

Vice-Presidents: — Charles  Bailey,  F.L.S.,  Alex. 
HoDGKiNSON,  M.B.,  B.Sc,  W.  C.  Williamson,  LL.D., 
F.R.S. 

Treasurer : — Mark  Stirrup,  F.G.S. 

Secretary : — John  Boyd. 

Other  Members  of  the  Council: — William  Blackburn, 
F.R.M.S.,  P.  Cameron,  H.  C.  Chadwick,  Robt.  E. 
CuNLiFFE,  R.  D.  Darbishire,  B.A.,  F.G.S.,  F.  Nicholson, 
F.Z.S.,  Thos.  Rogers,  Theodore  Sington. 

Mr.  A.  A.  MuMFORD,  M.B.  (Lond.),  M.R.C.S.,  L.R.C.P., 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  section. 

Dr.  Alex.  Hodgkinson  exhibited  specimens  of  dis- 
sections of  eyes,  showing  that  the  cause  of  luminosity  in 
the  dusk  is  due  to  the  existence  of  a  triangular  patch  of 
flat  colourless  cells  situated  between  the  retina  and  the 
pigmentary   layer  of  the  choroid.      In    the  centre  of  the 


Proceedings.  225 

reflecting  patch  the  cells  are  arranged  in  many  layers,  the 
number  of  such  layers  decreasing  toward  the  periphery.  At 
the  extreme  edge  the  cells  constitute  a  discontinuous  layer, 
consisting  in  fact  of  isolated  cells  on  a  dark  ground.  The 
cells  are  sufficiently  thin  to  produce  interference  of  the 
reflected  light.  The  rays  reflected  from  the  isolated  cells 
and  portion  of  the  patch  consisting  of  a  single  layer  are 
bluish,  nearer  the  centre  greenish,  whilst  still  more  centrally 
the  reflected  light  appears  yellowish  white.  Such  appear- 
ances may  be  observed  in  the  living  eyes  of  many  nocturnal 
animals  as  the  cat,  fox,  &c. 


226  Proceedings. 

General  Meeting,  April  i6th,  1889. 

Mr,  Charles  Bailey,  F.L.S.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  ordinary  members 
of  the  Society  :— Mr.  George  W.  Moultrie,  Bank  of 
England,  King  Street,  Manchester;  Mr.  GEORGE  NORBURY, 
Hillside,  Prestwich  Park,  Prestwich ;  Mr.  Herbert  S. 
Brooks,  Slade  House,  Levenshulme ;  Mr.  T.  B.  Wilson, 
C.E,,  IJ,  Arcade  Chambers,  St.  Mary's  Gate,  Manchester  ; 
Mr.  W.  J.  Robertson,  Hollins  Mount,  Heaton  Moor, 
Stockport. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  April  i6th,  1889. 
Mr.  Charles  Bailey,  F.L.S.,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  Wm.  Brockbank,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  read  a  paper 
entitled  "  Notes  on  Seedling  Saxifrages  grown  at  Brock- 
hurst  from  a  single  scape  of  Saxifraga  Macnabiana"  and 
exhibited  the  plants  referred  to. 

Dr.  Edward  Schunck,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.,  read  a  paper 
entitled  "  On  the  green  colouring  matter  from  leaves  found 
in  one  of  the  cuttings  for  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,"  and 
exhibited  specimens  of  chlorophyll  and  its  derivatives,  and 
their  spectra. 


Seedling  Saxifrages.  227 


Notes  on  Seedling  Saxifrages  grown  at  Brockhurst 
from  a  single  scape  of  Saxifraga  Macnabiana.  By 
William  Brockbank,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. 

{Received  April  i6th,  i88g.) 

Saxifraga  Macnabiana  is  considered  to  be  the  most 
showy  of  all  the  cultivated  saxifrages,  having  the  scape  of  5. 
Cotyledon,  but  with  the  petals  dotted  over  with  deep  carmine 
spots.  It  was  raised  at  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens,  Edin- 
burgh, in  1876,  when  Mr.  MacNab  was  the  curator,  and  was 
named  after  him.  Mr.  Lindsay,  the  present  curator,  who 
was  the  real  raiser  of  the  plant,  informs  me  that  nothing 
whatever  was  known  of  its  parentage,  but  that  vS.  uepalensis 
produced  the  seeds.  This  is  merely  a  garden  variety  of 
S.  Cotyledon,  which  occurs  in  the  wild  state  throughout 
Europe  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Lapland.  In  Lapland  it  is 
called  the  Fjeld  frier,  and  it  is  the  sweetheart's  gift  to  his 
lady-love  in  that  country,  where  it  produces  lovely  panicles 
of  white  flowers  two  feet  high.  Mr.  Lindsay  when  in  Nor- 
way, in  1877,  gathered  many  specimens  of  6".  Cotyledon  dif- 
fering considerably  from  the  type  in  flowers  and  foliage.  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  susceptibility  to  variation  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  plant  under  cultivation. 

When  5.  Macnabiana  was  raised,  the  only  plant  near 
5.  Cotyledon  was  5.  lingnlata,  a  species  of  dwarfer  growth, 
the  petals  spotted  with  pink,  and  the  foliage  edged  with 
encrusted  pores.  Mr.  Lindsay  therefore  believes  that  .S". 
lingnlata  was  the  pollen  parent,  and  this  is  probably  the 
case,  as  many  of  the  seedlings  are  like  this  species,  and  the 
dwarfer  habit  of  the  plant  may  also  have  been   brought 


228  Mr.  William  Brockbank  on 

about  by  this  cross.  5.  Macnabiana  seldom  exceeds  halt 
the  height  of  5.  Cotyledon.  Its  leaves  are  also  much 
smaller.  A  fine  flower  scape  will  number  over  a  hundred 
flowers.  One  fine  plant  of  5.  nepalensis,  in  flower  at  Brock- 
hurst  in  1883,  carried  44  branches  from  the  centre  stalk, 
each  having  from  12  to  22  flowers,  so  that  there  were  about 
750  flowers,  each  the  size  of  a  fourpenny-piece,  in  one  panicle 
of  bloom.  Now  as  these  flowers  occur  in  succession,  it  will 
be  clear  that  there  may  be  considerable  variety  in  the  time 
of  ripening  of  the  flowers,  and  thus  there  is  room  for  great 
divergence. 

In  1886  a  fine  scape  of  5.  Macnabiana  ripened  its 
seed  in  my  garden,  and  a  quantity  was  saved  from  it. 
This  was  sown,  and  produced  a  large  crop  of  plants.  It 
was  soon  noticed  that  there  were  great  differences  amongst 
the  seedlings,  and  these  increased  as  the  plants  grew.  The 
most  notable  were  therefore  separated,  and  were  grown  on 
in  small  pots,  and  of  these  1 10  varieties  are  now  exhibited  ; 
every  one  resulting  from  the  seed  of  this  one  single  scape. 
In  the  garden  where  the  plant  grew  there  were  nearly  all 
the  known  species  and  varieties  of  saxifrage,  at  least  150  ; 
and,  therefore,  it  is  possible  enough  that  pollen  from  a 
great  variety  of  saxifrages  might  be  carried  by  insects  to 
the  mother  plant.  Likenesses  are  evident,  amongst  the 
1 10  seedlings,  to  the  following  species  and  varieties  of 
Saxifraga: — lingulata,  Hostii,  crnstata,  pectinata,  elatior, 
carinthiaca,  Cotyledon,  Aiaoon,  and  Gnthreana. 

Here  then  we  have  a  remarkable  illustration  of  the 
multiplication  of  varieties  from  a  single  scape  of  bloom  ; 
and  it  affords  an  excellent  example  of  the  truth  of 
Darwin's  investigations  on  the  fertilization  of  plants  by 
insects. 

Sprengel  was,  I  believe,  the  first  to  point  out  that  many 
flowers  were  fertilized  by  insects ;  and  Andrew  Knight 
showed  that  in  no  plant  does  self-fertilization  occur  for  an 


Seedling  Saxif images.  229 

unlimited  number  of  generations.  Our  own  Dean  Herbert 
nearly  made  the  same  discovery,  as  he  found  that  advantage 
was  derived  from  the  seed  obtained  by  pollen  from  another 
individual  of  the  same  variety,  rather  than  its  own.  Darwin, 
however,  finally  showed  by  careful  investigation  that  plants 
were  improved  by  crossing  with  another  stock  ;  that  the 
application  of  pollen  to  the  pistil  of  the  same  flower  is  less 
efficient  than  pollen  from  another  individual.  He  also 
showed  how  frequently  self-fertilization  is  prevented  by  the 
relative  position  of  the  reproductive  organs,  or  by  their 
ripening  at  different  times.  This  subject  has  been  carried 
much  further  by  Miiller,  whose  book  contains  minute 
descriptions  of  the  reproductive  parts  of  every  class  of 
flower,  and  long  lists  of  the  insects  which  are  found  to 
frequent  each  flower  in  search  of  food.  Miiller,  however, 
does  not  appear  to  have  observed  the  saxifrages,  and  he 
gives  no  list  of  insects  frequenting  them.  He  merely  states 
that  Dr.  A.  Engler  investigated  38  species  of  saxifrages, 
and  found  them  all  to  be  proterandrous  ;  the  pollen-tipped 
stamens  moving  singly,  in  succession,  towards  the  centre  of 
the  flower.  In  this  way  the  pistil  became  fertilized.  This, 
I  find,  may  readily  be  observed  in  many  of  the  saxifrages, 
and  particularly  in  S.  oppositifolia,  and  there  is  but  little 
variety  in  this  class  of  self-fertilized  saxifrages.  Miiller 
then  remarks  that  in  some  Alpine  species  there  is  the 
peculiarity  that  the  anthers  are  withered  before  the  stigma 
has  ripened.  He  does  not  name  6".  Cotyledon,  or  any  species 
having  these  habits,  but  herein  we  have  the  key  to  the 
question  before  us. 

Julius  von  Sachs,  in  his  "Physiology  of  Plants,"  just  trans- 
lated by  Professor  Marshall  Ward,  describes  this  peculiar 
arrangement  under  the  term  "  Dichogamy,"  i.e.,  the  non- 
simultaneous  development  of  the  two  sexual  organs.  When 
this  occurs,  as  it  does  in  S.  Cotyledon  and  5.  Macnabiana^ 
insects  are  the  means  by  which  the  pollen  is  carried  to  the 
Q 


230  Seedling  Saxifrages. 

ripe  pistil,  and  thus  a  great  variety  of  pollen  may  be  carried 
to  the  individual  flowers  of  a  single  scape,  and  the  progeny 
will  be  varied  accordingly. 

The    no  varieties   of    Saxifrages    now   exhibited   are 
illustrations  of  this  curious  subject. 


Leaves  from  the  Ship  Canal.  231 


On  the  Green  Colouring  Matter  from  Leaves  found  in 
one  of  the  Cuttings  for  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal. 
By  Edward  Schunck,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 

{Received  April  2jtJi,  i88g.) 

At  the  Meeting  of  the  Society  held  on  March  19th,  Mr. 
William  Thomson  read  a  paper  on  a  deposit  of  leaves 
found  at  a  depth  of  about  21  feet  in  one  of  the  cuttings  for 
the  Ship  Canal,  near  Irlam.  Mr.  Thomson  stated  that  he 
had  been  able  to  extract  from  these  leaves  a  green  colour- 
ing matter,  the  solutions  of  which  showed  the  absorption 
bands  of  chlorophyll. 

Having  myself  paid  some  attention  to  the  subject  of 
chlorophyll,  I  feel  an  interest  in  any  new  fact  relating  to  it. 
Some  confirmation  of  Mr.  Thomson's  statement  seemed 
desirable,  since  chlorophyll,  as  everyone  knows,  is  one  of 
the  most  fugitive  and  easily  decomposed  of  natural  colour- 
ing matters,  and  it  seemed  improbable,  therefore,  that  it 
should  have  been  preserved  unchanged  within  the  vegetable 
tissue  during  the  long  period  that  these  leaves  are  said  to 
have  lain  underground. 

Having  expressed  a  wish  to  make  a  few  experiments 
myself,  Mr.  Thomson  very  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal 
some  of  the  material  employed  by  him,  and  an  additional 
quantity  was  supplied  to  me  by  Mr.  Mead  King,  engineer 
over  that  section  of  the  canal  where  the  deposit  was  found. 

My  examination  is  not  to  be  considered  exhaustive.  I 
merely  wished  to  ascertain  whether  the  colouring  matter 
referred  to  was  chlorophyll,  and,  if  not,  whether  it  was  in 
any  way  related  to  the  latter.  The  material  was  treated  at 
once  with  boiling  alcohol,  which  extracted  the  whole  of  the 


232 


Dr.  Edward  Schunck  on 


colouring  matter,  leaving  behind  the  cellular  tissue  of  the 
leaves  mixed  with  sand  and  debris.  The  extract  was  filtered 
boiling  hot,  and,  being  left  to  stand  some  time  so  as  to 
allow  fatty  matters  and  other  impurities  to  deposit,  was 
filtered  again.  The  extract  thus  obtained  did  not  show  the 
bright  green  colour  characteristic  of  solutions  of  pure  un- 
changed chlorophyll  from  fresh  leaves,  but  had  a  yellowish- 
green  tint.  Its  absorption  spectrum  also  differed  in  more 
than  one  respect  from  that  of  chlorophyll. 

a      B        C  D  E  F 


The  absorption  spectrum  of  chlorophyll  shows  four 
bands,  the  first  of  which  in  the  red  is  very  dark,  whilst  the 
fourth,  near  the  line  E,  is  faint.  The  alcoholic  extract  of 
the  leaves  from  the  Ship  Canal  deposit,  on  the  other  hand, 
showed  a  tolerably  dark  band  near  E,  while  the  third  band 
between  D  and  E  appeared  very  faint  and  further  away 
from  the  red  end ;  its  absorption  spectrum  coincided  in  fact 
with  that  of  so-called  "  modified  chlorophyll."  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  modified  chlorophyll  is  a  product  of  the  action 
of  acids  on  chlorophyll.  When  a  solution  of  pure  chlorophyll 
is  mixed  with  a  little  hydrochloric  acid  it  loses  its  bright  green 
colour,  and  soon  becomes  yellowish-green  ;  it  then  exhibits 
the  spectrum  of  modified  chlorophyll.  Weak  acids  produce 
the  same  effect,  but  more  slowly.  Hence  it  appears  probable 
that  in  the  case  of  the  leaf  deposit,  the  chlorophyll  had 
come  into  contact  with  some  acid  conveyed  possibly  by 
infiltration  from  above,  or  formed,  perhaps,  in  consequence 
of  the  oxidation  of  some  leaf  constituent  or  other,  and  thus 
become  modified.  Modified  chlorophyll,  like  all  derivatives 
of  the  colouring  matter,  is  much  more   stable   than   the 


Leaves  from  tJie  Ship  Canal.  233 

parent  substance.  Its  solutions  may  be  exposed  to  air  and 
light  for  a  considerable  time  without  undergoing  much 
change,  whereas  solutions  of  normal  chlorophyll,  on  ex- 
posure to  the  same  combined  agency,  are  rapidly  bleached, 
with  entire  destruction  of  the  colouring  matter.  The  cir- 
cumstance of  the  chlorophyll  having  undergone  modification 
in  the  leaves  of  the  deposit  may  serve  to  explain  its 
continued  presence  after  the  long  period  during  which  it  is 
said  these  leaves  have  lain  buried.  Still  the  fact  of  its 
remaining  unchanged  for  so  long  a  time,  even  in  the  modified 
state,  is  sufficiently  remarkable,  and  can  only  be  explained 
by  supposing  that  the  leaves  were  suddenly  and  completely 
buried  under  a  mass  of  material  which  to  a  great  extent 
preserved  them  from  the  action  of  light  and  air.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  the  leaves  of  the  deposit  are  com- 
paratively poor  in  colouring  matter,  yielding  far  less  than 
the  same  quantity  of  fresh  leaves  would  do. 


234  Proceedings. 


Annual  General  Meeting,  April  30th,  1889. 

Professor  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  Harry  Thornber,  of  Rookfield  Avenue,  Sale, 
Cheshire,  was  elected  an  ordinary  member. 

The  following  gentlemen,  nominated  by  the  Council  as 
honorary  members,  were  elected  : — Professors  G.  Halphen,. 
and  H.  Resal,  Membres  de  ITnstitut,  Paris  ;  W.  Hertz, 
Bonn  ;  D.  Mendeleeff,  St.  Petersburg  ;  Lothar  Meyer, 
Tubingen  ;  Ferdinand  Cohn,  Breslau  ;  W.  G.  Farlow, 
Cambridge,  U.S.A. ;  WiLHELM  RosCHER.Leipsic;  George 
Salmon,  Dubhn ;  Michael  Foster,  Sec.  R.S.,  Cam- 
bridge ;  Messrs.  Edward  John  Routh,  F.R.S.,  Cambridge; 
Ernst  Werner  Siemens,  Berlin ;  A.  W.  Williamson, 
For.  Sec.  R.S.,  London ;  Sir  JOHN  LuBBOCK,  M.P., 
London  ;  W.  H.  Flower,  F.R.S.,  British  Museum  ;  and 
W.  Carruthers,  F.R.S.,  British  Museum. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Council  was  presented  (see 
page  252),  and  it  was  moved  by  Dr.  SCHUNCK,  F.R.S., 
seconded  by  Mr.  Wm.  THOMSON,  F.R.S.Ed.,  and  resolved, 
"  That  the  Annual  Report  be  adopted  and  printed  in  the 
Society's  Memoirs  and  Proceedings^ 

It  was  moved  by  Mr.  Alderman  W.  H.  Bailey,  seconded 
by  Mr.  SAMUEL  Clement  Trapp, and  resolved,  "That  the 
system  of  electing  Sectional  Associates  be  continued  during 
the  ensuing  session." 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  officers  of  the 
Society  and  members  of  the  Council  for  the  ensuing  year  :— 

President: — OsBORNE  REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents : — William  Crawford  Williamson, 


Proceedings.  235 

LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Foreign  Member  of  the  Royal  Swedish 
Acad.  Sc. ;  Edward  Schunck,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S. ; 
James  Prescott  Joule,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S., 
Corr.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sc.)  Paris,  and  Roy.  Acad.  Sc. 
Turin  ;  ARTHUR  SCHUSTER,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S. 

Secretaries: — Frederick  James  Faraday,  F.L.S., 
F.S.S. ;  Reginald  F.  Gwyther,  M.A. 

Treasurer: — CHARLES  BAILEY,  F.L.S. 

Librarian  : — FRANCIS  NICHOLSON,  F.Z.S. 

Other  Members  of  the  Council: — J  AS.  BOTTOMLEY,  B.A., 
D.Sc,  F.C.S. ;  John  Boyd  ;  William  Henry  Johnson, 
B.Sc;  James  Cosmo  Melvill,  M.A.,  F.L.S. ;  Harold 
B.  Dixon,  M.A.,  F.R.S.;  Alexander  Hodgkinson, 
M.B.,  B.Sc. 


2%6  Proceedings. 


Ordinary  Meeting,  April  30th,  1889. 

Professor    OsBORNE    REYNOLDS,    M.A.,    LL.D.,    F.R.S., 
President,  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  Alderman  VV.  H.  Bailey  read  a  paper  "  On  the 
Ancient  Canoe  recently  found  near  Barton,  in  one  of  the 
cuttings  for  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,"  and  exhibited 
sections  and  diagrams. 

A  paper  on  "  The  Fermentation  Theories,"  by  ALFRED 
Springer,  Ph.D.,  of  Cincinnati,  U.S.A.,  was  communicated 
by  Mr.  WiLLIAM  Grimshaw.  The  author  called  at- 
tention to  the  following  points:  (i)  The  exciters  of 
fermentation  are  minute  organisms  reduced  to  a  single 
cell ;  (2)  Ferments,  like  all  other  living  things,  are  subject 
to  physiological,  or,  more  specially,  pathological  func- 
tions of  life  ;  (3)  They  are  so  sensitive  that  any  abnormal 
influence  either  changes  their  whole  mode  of  existence, 
or  destroys  it  altogether;  (4)  A  medium  suitable  to  the 
life  of  one  special  kind  is  changed  by  it  into  products 
which  cease  to  sustain  it,  but  can  nourish  a  lower  class  of 
organisms,  thereby  making  analyses,  made  at  different  times, 
vary  in  their  results.  We  cannot  class  such  reactions  with 
those  chemical  ones  taking  place  according  to  the  laws  of 
equivalents.  The  author  summed  up  Pasteur's  "oxygen- 
abstracting  theory"  of  fermentation  as  "life  without  free 
oxygen."  In  organic  cells  there  resides  a  special  force 
capable  of  producing  chemical  reactions.  This  force  reveals 
its  activity  by  decompositions  effected  upon  complex  mole- 
cules. It  is  motion  communicated  by  vital  force,  and 
dependent  upon  it.  Naegeli's  theory  that  "Fermentation 
IS  the  transmission  of  the  molecular  motion  of  the  different 


Proceedings.  237 

/Compounds  of  the  plasma  or  cell-contents  to  the  fermen- 
table material,  without  itself  being  affected,"  has  caused 
Liebig's  chemico- physiological  theory,  that  the  cause  of 
fermentation  is  the  communication  of  internal  molecular 
motion  of  matter  in  the  course  of  decomposition  to  other 
matter,  the  elements  of  which  have  a  feeble  affinity,  to  re- 
gain some  significance.  Schlitzenberger  repeated  Pasteur's 
experiments,  but  has  given  a  different  explanation.  He 
argues  that  if  the  decomposition  of  sugar  were  the  result  of 
a  respiration  of  the  cells  of  yeast  at  the  expense  of  com- 
bined oxygen  recruiting  the  free  oxygen,  it  seems  evident 
that  fermentation  ought  not  to  take  place,  or  at  least  ought 
to  be  sensibly  lessened,  in  the  presence  of  free  oxygen  ;  but 
the  reverse  of  this  is  the  case.  The  respiratory  power  of  yeast 
is  independent  of  the  quantity  of  oxygen  contained  in  the 
medium  in  which  it  lives  ;  it  only  varies  with  the  tempera- 
ture, and  the  more  or  less  favourable  conditions  of  nutrition, 
as  well  as  with  the  more  or  less  perfect  state  of  health  of 
the  cell.  The  respiratory  power  and  the  fermenting  power 
are  two  qualities  inherent  in  the  cell  of  the  SaccJiaroviyces 
which  are  not  the  two  variable  terms  of  a  constant  sum,  of 
which  the  one  vanishes  when  the  other  attains  its  maximum 
value  ;  on  the  contrary,  all  facts  tend  to  prove  that  these 
two  values  grow  weak,  are  destroyed,  or  attain  their  maxima 
at  the  same  time,  under  the  influence  of  the  same  causes. 
Pasteur  and  other  zymologists  have  set  down  the  following 
laws: — (i)  The  spores  of  the  Ascomycetes,  when  submerged 
in  a  fermentable  liquid,  require  a  certain  amount  of  free 
oxygen  in  order  to  bud  or  develop  into  yeast ;  when  once 
thus  developed,  they  can  abstract  the  requisite  oxygen  from 
the  compounds  contained  in  the  fluid,  thereby  fermenting 
the  same.  Actual  fermentation  begins  the  moment  the 
ascospores  have  developed  into  yeast  cells.  (2)  On  the 
total  absence  of  free  oxygen,  the  fermentative  action  of 
budding  yeast  may  continue  for  a  number  of  generations, 


238  Proceedings. 

but  after  this  the  action  becomes  weakened  and  the  ferments 
cease  to  hve  if  not  again  brought  in  contact  with  free 
oxygen.  (3)  The  number  of  generations  in  which  the 
ferment-organisms  can  exist  without  free  oxygen  has  not 
yet  been  definitely  determined  ;  but  it  seems  to  be  greatest 
with  SaccJiaroniyces  cerevisi(2.  Yeast  follows  the  general 
laws  of  digestion,  for  it  not  only  assimilates  bodies  from  the 
surrounding  liquid,  which  it  uses  for  its  nourishment,  but 
it  also  excretes  substances  into  it  which  are  of  no  further 
use.  After  a  cell  has  reproduced  several  times,  its  time  of 
life  expires,  but  the  cell  does  not  immediately  become 
inactive,  for  the  membrane  allows  fluids  to  pass  in  and  out 
of  it  until  equilibrium  is  established  between  it  and  the 
outer  liquid.  These  statements  explain  the  manner  of 
nourishing  and  multiplication  of  yeast,  but  do  not  explain 
the  cause  thereof  It  has  been  argued: — (i)  The  yeast 
cell  consumes  the  nutritive  parts  of  the  fermentable  liquid, 
and  excretes  alcohol,  carbonic  acid,  and  other  products. 
This  theory  assumes  fermentation  to  be  a  purely  physio- 
logical act ;  a  small  portion  of  sugar  is  used  for  the 
construction  of  new  cells,  but  the  greater  portion  is  thrown 
off  in  a  form  useless  to  the  ferment-organisms.  According 
to  this  idea  the  production  of  new  yeast  must  be  propor- 
tionate to  the  amount  of  fermentation  products.  (2)  The 
yeast  consumes  only  as  much  of  the  nutritive  parts  of  the 
fermentation  liquids  as  it  needs  for  its  nourishment  and 
reproduction ;  in  its  excretiaments  one  or  more  combinations 
are  formed  which  have  the  power  of  converting  sugar  into 
fermentation  products.  This  theory  is  purely  a  chemical 
one.  The  organisms,  and  the  reproductions  thereof,  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  fermentation.  The  function  of  the 
yeast  is  to  produce  that  body  or  bodies  which  act  as  fer- 
ments. If  these  real  ferments  could  be  artificially  produced 
without  the  intervention  of  organisms  the  theory  would  be 
fully  established.     (3)  The   yeast   cell  nourishes  itself  on 


Proceedings.  239 

the  existing  substances,  and,  after  vegetating  for  some 
time,  dies  off,  and  thereby  creates  a  fermentation  of  sugar. 
This  theory  is  a  pathological  one,  according  to  which 
it  is  not  the  normal  productive  yeast  which  acts,  but  the 
dying  one  :  that  is,  when  it  approaches  its  dissolution.  Its 
partisans  claim  that  if  sugar  is  consumed  by  the  yeast  and 
alcohol  ejected,  then  this  action  would  be  greatest  when 
it  reproduces  the  most ;  but  this  is  not  the  case,  for  the 
most  alcohol  is  produced  when  the  maximum  reproduction 
is  passed.  The  author  alluded  as  follows  to  the  question 
whether  a  ferment  organism  can  change  its  physiologic;^! 
action  when  placed  under  abnormal  influence : — "  I  have  made 
some  careful  examinations  in  this  direction,  but  cannot  con- 
scientiously affirm  that  the  ferments  sown  in  the  liquids 
were  pure.  For  instance,  if  a  quantity  of  starch  or  sugar, 
and  cheese  or  meat  is  sown  with  lactic  ferment,  butyric 
acid  is  formed  at  the  end  of  the  reaction.  If  now  we  take 
a  trace  of  the  butyric  ferment  out  of  the  liquid,  examine  it 
carefully  under  the  microscope  and  perceive  no  other 
ferment  present,  place  it  in  a  medium  like  the  above,  but 
which  has  previously  been  heated  so  as  to  destroy  the  exist- 
ing germs,  then  add  the  butyric  ferment  to  the  same,  and 
close  the  bottle  with  a  cotton  stopper,  lactic  acid  is  again 
the  first  formed.  Has  then  in  this  experiment  the  butyric 
ferment  changed  into  a  lactic,  or  are  the  germs  of  the  lactic 
so  small  that,  although  present  in  the  drop  containing  the 
butyric  ferment  sown  in  the  liquid,  they  escaped  micro- 
scopical detection?  It  seems  to  me  that  this  question 
can  only  be  satisfactorily  answered  when  an  antiseptic 
is  discovered  which  has  fatal  effects  on  one  and  none 
on  the  other.  Pasteur's  assertion  that  oxygen  kills  the 
butyric  ferment  must  still  be  taken  with  a  grain  of  salt." 
As  regards  the  bearing  of  fermentation  on  technology,  the 
principal  questions  to  be  studied  are,  how  to  make  the 
mediums  most  suitable  for  the  nutrition  and  multiplication 


240  Proceedings. 

of  the  desired  ferments  by  keeping  a  sufficient  supply  of 
the  necessary  ingredients  ;  and  secondly,  of  no  minor  im- 
portance, how  either  to  get  rid  of  the  excremental  matter 
by  separating  it  out,  or  combining  it  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  it  uninjurious  to  the  other  ferments.  Could  the 
alcohol  formed  during  alcoholic  fermentation  be  removed, 
the  yield  would  be  much  greater.  The  temperature  has 
great  influence  on  the  formation  of  certain  products  during 
fermentation.  When  a  mash  is  kept  below  65°  C.  starch  is 
converted  into  maltose  and  dextrin  according  to  the  follow- 
ing equation:  4C6H10O5  +  2H20  =  Ci8Hs40i7  + CeHwOs. 
Maltose  is  fermentable,  dextrin  only  slightly  so.  Should  the 
mash  be  kept  close  to  75°  C,  maltose  and  dextrin  are  formed 
according  to  the  following  equation:  6C6H10O5  + 2H0O 
=  C18H34O17  +  CcHioOe.  Schlosing  and  Miintz  have  shown 
that  nitrification  is  due  to  the  action  of  ferments.  Etard 
and  Olivier  assert  that  the  sulphates  of  arable  earth  are 
dissociated  by  bacteria.  The  author  had  the  pleasure  of 
showing  that  the  nitrates  of  dead  plants  are  dissociated 
by  ferments  and  the  nitrogen  returned  to  the  atmos- 
phere. It  has  been  claimed  that  the  growing  of  plants 
and  the  ripening  of  fruits  are  nothing  but  consecutive 
fermentations  where  special  cells  play  the  part  of  fer- 
ments. Pasteur  claims  that  the  power  of  resolving 
glucose  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid,  or  changing  it  into 
lactic  acid,  and  that  again  into  a  mixture  of  hydrogen, 
carbonic,  and  butyric  acids  does  not  belong  for  each  special 
fermentation  to  a  single  organism,  to  a  single  ferment,  or  to  a 
species  very  nearly  allied,  as  for  instance  the  Saccharoniyces, 
but  that  these  reactions  are  the  result  of  cell  life  in  general, 
when  the  organic  cells  are  placed  under  special  conditions. 
Lechartier  and  Bellamy  have  been  led  to  the  important 
conclusion  that  the  elementary  organs  of  plants  in  general 
are  endowed,  though  in  a  less  degree  than  the  cells  of 
yeast,  with  the  property  of  exciting  alcoholic  fermentation. 


Proceedings.  241 

The  ScJiyzoinycetes  differ  from  other  ferments  in  being  able 
to  accommodate  themselves  to  any  reaction  of  the 
fluid  and  almost  any  organic  nutriment.  Their  very 
simple  organisation  permits  them  to  assimilate  substances 
upon  which  higher  organisms  cannot  live.  They  can 
hve  without  free  oxygen,  and  if  carbonic  acid  is  passed 
through  a  putrefying  liquid,  it  does  not  check  the  process. 
They  can  withstand  high  temperatures.  Fluids  must  be 
heated  to  I30°C.  to  be  certain  that  they  are  all  killed.  All 
antiseptics  have  less  effect  upon  them  than  on  other 
ferments.  They  can  withstand  comparatively  large  amounts 
of  carbolic  acid  ;  but  bi-sulphide  of  carbon  and  sulpho- 
carbolic  acid  are  effective  in  destroying  them.  When  a 
fermentable  liquid  is  left  exposed  to  the  air  consecutive 
fermentations  take  place.  Thus,  when  fluids  are  attacked 
by  ferments,  the  highest  organized  first  make  their  appear- 
ance, as  the  mildews  ;  these  are  followed  by  the  Saccha- 
romyces,  and  these  again  by  the  lowest  organisms,  the  split 
fungi.  With  reference  to  antiseptics,  the  author  pointed 
out  that  they  do  not  act  with  equal  power  on  all  organisms. 
The  alcoholic  ferment  thrives  when  oxygen  is  passed 
through  the  fluid  in  which  it  is  submerged.  The  butyric,  on 
the  other  hand  (according  to  Pasteur)dies  under  the  same  con- 
dition. An  acid  medium  is  injurious  to  the  lactic  and  butyric 
ferments,  but  does  not  interfere  with  some  of  the  split  fungi. 
Gustave  Le  Bon  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  effect  of 
a  disinfectant  diminishes  with  the  progress  of  putrefaction. 
Further,  between  disinfectant  power  and  antiseptic  effects 
on  the  putrescent  agents  there  is  no  parallelism  ;  the  potas- 
sium permanganate,  which  is  the  most  powerful  disinfectant, 
does  not  in  the  least  affect  the  ferments.  Alcohol,  on  the 
contrary,  which  stuns  them,  is  but  a  weak  disinfectant. 
Neither  is  there  any  parallelism  between  the  power  of  pre- 
venting putrefaction  and  that  of  checking  it  when  once 
begun.     Alcohol  and  carbolic  acid,  which  are  powerful  pre- 


242  Proceedings. 

servatives,  do  not  have  much  effect  when  putrefaction  has 
once  set  in.  Le  Bon's  experiments  also  seem  to  show  that 
there  is  no  parallelism  between  the  poisonous  effects  of  a 
putrefying  body  and  that  of  the  volatile  products  arising 
from  it.  They  seem  inversely  proportional.  The  very 
small  amount  of  advanced  putrefaction  products  mixed 
with  air  breathed  by  an  animal,  which  is  sufficient  to  kill 
it,  shows  the  terribly  poisonous  character  of  the  volatile 
alkaloids.  In  conclusion,  the  author  suggested  the  desirable- 
ness of  a  revision  of  the  nomenclature  of  micro-organisms. 


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An  old  Canoe  from  the  -Irivell  Valley.  243 


On  an  old  Canoe  recently  found  in  the  Irwell  Valley, 
near  Barton,  with  observations  on  Pre-historic 
Chat  Moss.     By  Mr.  Alderman  W.  H.  Bailey. 

{Received  May  i^-th,  i88g.) 

Where  Found. 

The  old  Canoe,  which  I  will  endeavour  to  describe,  was 
found  a  few  days  ago  in  the  Irwell  Valley  in  the  sand  at 
the  cuttings  of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  exactly  one 
mile  west  of  Brindley's  Aqueduct  at  Barton.  It  is  some- 
what interesting  to  note  that  the  discoverer  was  Lady 
Egerton,  who  happened  to  be  passing  at  the  time  with  a 
party  of  friends  who  were  inspecting  the  works.  Her 
ladyship  called  attention  to  the  black-looking  object  in  the 
sand  which  a  steam  navvy  had  partially  uncovered,  and 
said  that  in  her  opinion  it  was  an  old  canoe.  This  surmise 
proved  to  be  correct,  and  it  is  only  proper  to  place  this 
fact  on  record. 

The  river  Irwell  is  400  feet  distant  from  the  site  of  the 
old  boat ;  the  river  bed  is  about  1 5  feet  above  the  level 
where  it  was  found  ;  the  boat  had  over  it  6  feet  of  surface 
soil,  and  about  20  to  22  feet  of  sand.  (See  section, 
Fig.  I.) 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  map  (Fig.  2)  that  in  the  vicinity 
the  river  has  a  very  tortuous  course,  and,  many  years  ago, 
in  order  to  improve  the  navigation,  the  two  feet  of  a  figure 
like  the  letter  "  M  "  were  coupled  together,  and  the  distance 
was  thus  shortened  by  what  is  called  "Stickings  Cut." 

It  will  also  be  seen  from  the  map  that  the  position  of 
the  canoe  was  about  halfway  between  Chat  Moss  and 
Carrington  Moss  from  North  to  South. 


244 


Mr.  W.  H.  Bailey  on 


Description  and  Dimensions  of  the  Canoe. 
Mr.  Ward,  the  photographer,  of  Oxford  Street,  Man- 
chester, has  taken  a  very  good  photograph  of  the  boat,  but 
in  order  that  we  may  have  an  exact  record  of  its  dimensions 
I  have  caused  four  mechanical  drawings  to  be  prepared, 
from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  boat  in  section  is  nearly 
an  exact  semi-circle  slightly  flattened  at  the  sides.     (See 


1 


J^ig-  3- 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  5- 


vy 


Fio.  6. 
Fig.  3.)  It  bears  internal  evidence  of  some  attempt  at 
design.  An  imaginary  line  drawn  right  through  the  centre 
from  one  end  to  the  other  becomes  the  true  centre,  that 
is  to  say,  there  is  as  much  boat  on  one  side  as  there  is  on 
the  other.  (See  Fig.  4.)  I  would  infer  from  this  that  before 
the  boat  was  made  it  was  designed,  and  that  it  was  not 
made  by  what    is  called    "rule  of  thumb."      The  inside 


An  old  Canoe  ffoni  the  Irivell   Valley.  245 

measurements  are  as  follow: — At  one  end  17^  inches 
deep,  becoming  deeper  to  the  centre  to  19  inches,  and  then 
gradually  decreasing  to  the  other  end  to  1 5  ^  inches.  The 
width  where  it  is  deepest  is  2  feet  9  inches,  gradually 
decreasing  to  2  feet  wide.  The  thickness  at  the  sides  is 
lYz  inches,  gradually  thickening  to  the  bottom  to  2^ 
inches.  The  thickness  of  the  stem  and  stern  is  6  inches. 
It  is  12  feet  4  inches  inside  measurement.  (See  Figs.  5 
and  6.) 

It  is  a  matter  of  opinion  as  to  which  is  the  bow  and 
which  is  the  stern,  because  both  ends  are  so  much  alike, 
except  that  one  is  shallower  than  the  other,  and  that  may 
have  been  by  design  or  by  reason  of  the  shape  of  the 
timber.  It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  the 
material  is  oak.  There  is  a  peculiar  strengthening  piece 
fastened  on  with  four  wooden  pegs  at  one  end  of  the  boat, 
and  the  projecting  wooden  nose  or  staple  at  the  other  end 
is  cut  out  of  the  solid  timber,  and  has  a  hole  1 5<(  inches  in 
diameter.  This  is  supposed  to  have  been  for  the  passage  of 
a  rope,  no  doubt  for  mooring  purposes. 

There  is  an  interesting  bit  of  patchwork  at  one  end  (see 
Fig.  4  at  A),  showing  a  place  which  might  have  been  for  a 
rudder,  or  it  is  possible  it  might  have  been  a  repair,  for  two 
holes  exist  into  which  wooden  pegs  have  been  driven  to 
secure  a  small  bit  of  timber,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
strengthening  piece  is  fastened  at  the  top  of  the  boat  at  the 
deep  end.  There  is  no  metal  of  any  sort  on  the  boat. 
There  are  tool  marks  distinctly  visible  all  over  the  boat 
inside,  but  whether  these  marks  were  made  by  iron,  steel, 
or  bronze  tools  it  is  impossible  to  say. 

Mr.  Knott,  a  relative  of  Mr.  Walker,  the  contractor  for 
the  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  who  has  charge  of  the  Salford 
docks'  section  of  the  canal,  informs  me  that  many  similar 
boats  have  been  dug  out  by  Mr.  Walker's  men  in  the 
excavations  for  improving  the  Ribble  at  Preston. 
R 


246  Mr.  W.  H.  Bailey  on 

The  old  canoe,  as  I  have  stated,  was  found  in  the  Irwell 
valley,  near  to  the  Chat  Moss  basin,  which  I  will  now 
describe,  adding  some  observations  on  the  causes  which  led 
to  the  formation  of  the  Moss. 

Pre-historic  Chat  Jlloss. 

Chat  Moss  is  in  the  Irwell  valley,  bounded-  on  the  north 
and  east  by  the  highlands  of  Patricroft,  Worsley,  and 
Astley,  on  the  west  by  the  river  Glazebrook,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  river  Irwell,  which  immediately  changes  its 
name  to  the  Mersey.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley, 
near  Partington,  is  Carrington  Moss,  and  similar  moss  lands 
or  lagoons  exist  extending  along  the  south  side  of  the 
valley  to  the  tidal  estuary  of  the  Mersey.  St.  Chad,  of 
Chester,  was  Bishop  of  Mercia  in  the  year  669,  and  had 
dominion  over  an  extensive  tract  of  country,  from  Man- 
chester to  Chester  and  all  lands  between  the  Mersey  and 
the  Dee  ;  and  it  has  been  said  that  this  is  the  origin  of  the 
name  Chat  or  Chatley  Moss. 

Most  writers  assert,  with  but  little  evidence,  that  the 
Moss  was  formerly  an  extensive  forest.  It  is  five  miles 
long  from  east  to  west,  and  about  three  miles  broad  from 
north  to  south. 

According  to  Baines,  the  forest  of  Chatley  must  have 
disappeared  before  the  Norman  conquest,  as  the  Doomsday 
Book  only  gives  in  the  Hundred  of  Salford  very  much  less 
forest  land  than  the  entire  of  Chat  Moss,  as  the  forests  of 
Horwich  and  Blackley  alone  were  equal  to  nine  miles  long 
and  five  and  a  quarter  miles  in  width,  which  is  about  the 
area  of  forest  lands  of  the  district  recorded  in  that  survey. 

Underneath  the  Moss  the  soil  is  of  a  sandy  nature,  and 
below  this  is  found  boulder  clay  ;  and  although  I  am  not 
in  possession  of  sufficient  information  to  lead  to  a  definite 
conclusion,  I  believe  that  a  forest  did  not  exist  on  Chat 
Moss  in  the  ancient  days.     We  have  sufficient  evidence  to 


Afi  old  Canoe  from  the  I  rive! I   Valley.  247 

show  that  it  was  formerly  a  great  lake,  probably  with  forest 
trees  on  the  margin,  and  that  it  was  fed  by  the  Irwell  and 
subjected  to  occasional  inundations  of  tidal  water  from  the 
Mersey,  and  that  the  outlet  of  this  inland  lake  in  course 
of  time  became  impeded  by  wind-blown  sand  driven  from 
the  Mersey  estuary  by  the  western  gales. 

This  wind-blown  sand  not  only  impeded  the  drainage  of 
this  inland  lake,  but,  from  time  to  time,  changed  the  course 
of  the  Irwell  as  well  as  that  of  the  Mersey.  The  enormous 
amount  of  clean  sand,  absolutely  free  from  pebbles  or 
boulders,  laid  bare  by  the  excavations  of  the  Manchester 
Ship  Canal  in  the  vicinity  and  immediately  below  Chat 
Moss,  is,  I  think,  convincing"  testimony  of  this.  This  sand 
would  effectually  impound  the  drainage  of  the  small  rivulets 
and  water-courses  from  the  upper  lands  of  Patricroft, 
Worsley,  and  Astley,  the  water  from  which  before  went 
into  the  river  through  the  lake,  which  would  probably 
extend  right  across  to  the  Carrington  side  of  the  river  to 
the  high  lands  of  Lymm,  and  would  be  in  shape  similar  to 
the  great  Mersey  Bay  lower  down  the  stream,  into  which 
the  Ship  Canal  enters,  and  which  I  will  call  Eastham  Bay. 

The  accumulation  of  rank  vegetation  would  increase  the 
impediment,  and  in  course  of  years  the  whole  district  would 
become  a  moss,  instead  of  a  great  lake.  That  the  river  bed 
was  formerly  much  deeper  we  have  evidence  in  the  discovery 
of  the  old  boat  I  have  described,  and  in  the  great  quantity  of 
old  forest  trees  found  even  at  much  lower  depths  in  the 
Ship  Canal  cuttings.  I  have  not  been  able  to  get  the 
exact  levels  all  over  the  Moss,  as  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  the 
information.  I,  however,  find  that  in  some  places  it  is 
150  feet  to  the  sand,  and  the  depth  varies  to  50,  ^o,  and 
25  feet.  The  greatest  depth  at  present  known  is  at  a  point 
not  far  from  Astley  station,  on  the  London  and  North 
Western  Railway  ;  indeed  at  one  point  in  that  locality  it 
is    180  feet  deep.      This   places  the  level  at    the   bottom 


248  Mr.  W.  H.  Bailey  on 

far  below  tidal  water,  as  even  a  depth  of  50  feet  places  it 
much  below  the  tidal  water  now  coming  up  to  Warrington. 

The  trees  found  in  the  Moss  may  have  grown  on  the 
banks  of  the  lake,  or  more  probably  may  have  been  washed 
down  from  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Irwell,  for  many  similar 
trees  are  continually  discovered  in  the  excavations  of  the 
Ship  Canal  along  the  whole  course  of  the  valley.  These 
trees  are  trunks  only,  having  no  small  timber  about  them, 
no  branches,  or  evidence  of  decayed  wood  near  them.  We 
may  infer  that  if  these  had  grown  in  situ,  branches  and 
roots  would  be  in  the  vicinity.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  these  bare  trunks  have  drifted  from  the  forests  of  the 
upper  lands   after  storms. 

It  may  be  of  some  interest  to  state  that  the  Moss  is 
subsiding  gradually  ;  the  farmsteads  built  on  piles  driven 
through  the  Moss  into  the  earth  beneath  are  in  some  cases 
now  10  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  land,  and 
those  built  upon  the  Moss  without  the  support  of  the  piles 
are  from  5  to  15  feet  below  the  surrounding  level. 

The  geological  formation  of  the  strata  at  Chat  Moss 
has  been  described  by  Mr.  W.  Brockbank,  in  a  paper  read 
before  this  Society  in  1866,  {Proceedings,  Lit.  and  Phil. 
Soc.  of  Man.,  Vol.  V.  p.  91.)  In  one  place  Mr.  Brockbank 
found  17  feet  of  peat  moss,  18  inches  of  sandy  clay  or  loam,, 
and  then  a  depth  of  26  feet  6  inches  of  boulder  clay,  and 
below  that,  soft  red  rock.  Generally  the  bed  of  the  moss  is 
sandy. 

In  consequence  of  the  imperfect  drainage,  after  long 
continuous  rains  the  Moss  became  so  full  of  water  many 
years  ago  as  to  cause  its  upper  surface  to  move. 

Leland  describes  an  accident  of  this  sort,  which  occurred 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  as  follows  : — 

"  Chatelay  More,  in  Darbyshire,  is  three  or  four  miles  in 
"  bredthe,  and  six  miles  yn  length  sum  way  brast  up  within 
"  a  mile  of  Morley  Hall,  and  destroied  much  ground  with 


An  old  Canoe  from  the  Iriuell   Valley.  249 

"  mosse  thereabout,  and  destroied  much  fresch  water  fische 
"  therabowt,  first  corrupting  with  stinking  water  Glasebrook 
*'  and  so  Glasebrook  carried  stinking  water  and  moss  into 
"  the  Mersey  water,  and  Mersey  corruptid  carried  the 
"  roulHng  mosse  part  to  the  shores  of  Wales,  part  to  the  Isle 
"  of  Man,  and  sum  into  Ireland.  In  the  very  toppe  of 
*'  Chateley  More  where  the  mosse  was  hyest  and  brake,  is 
"  now  a  fair  plaine  valley,  as  was  in  tymes  paste,  and  a  rille 
"  runnith  in  it,  and  peaces  of  small  trees  be  found  in  the 
^'  botom.  Syr  John  Holcrofte's  house  within  a  mile  or 
"  more  of  Morle  stoode  in  jeopardi  with  fleeting  of  the 
"  mosse." 

Also  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  Camden  describes  Chat 
Moss  as  a  swampy  tract  of  great  extent,  a  considerable  part 
of  which  was  carried  off  in  the  last  age  by  swollen  rivers 
with  great  danger. 

In  the  15th  year  of  Edward  II.,  the  Moss  is  placed  in 
the  manor  of  Manchester  ;  this  would  be  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord,  1322,  and  in  a  description  of  the  time  Chat  Moss  is 
of  the  soil  of  the  Lords  of  Barton,  Worsley,  Astley, 
Workedby,  and  Bedford.  "  The  tenants  of  these  Lords  had 
here  Common  Turbary  but  no  profit  can  be  computed, 
because  of  the  unfair  quality  of  it." 

Modern  Chat  Moss. 
The  success  of  the  works  of  the  Bedford  Level  Drainage 
on  the  East  Coast  caused  much  attention  to  be  paid  to 
similar  lands  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  this  great  work  was  begun  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.  Many  thousands  of  acres  of  land  have  been 
reclaimed  and  made  profitable  to  agriculture.  In  an  old 
book  I  bought  the  other  day,  a  poet  encourages  such 
undertakings  in  verses  of  which  the  following  are  a  sample. 
The  book  was  printed  by  Moses  Pitt,  at  the  Angel  in  St. 
Paul's  Churchyard,  in  the  year  1665  : — 


250  Mr.  W.  H.  Bailey  on 

After  long  Tillage,  it  cloth  then  abound 

With  Grass  so  plentiful,  so  sweet,  so  sound, 

Scarce  any  tract  but  this  can  Pastures  shew 

So  large,  so  rich,  And,  if  you  wisely  Sow 

The  fine  Dutch  Clover,  with  such  Beauty  spreads, 

As  if  it  meant  t'  affront  our  English  Meads. 

Ye  busie  Gentlemen,  that  plant  the  Hop, 

And  dream  vast  gains  from  that  deceitful  Crop, 

Or  by  manuring  what  you  ought  to  Let 

Thrive  backwards,  and  too  dearly  purchase  Wit, 

Leave  off  these  Lotteries,  and  here  take  your  Lot  ; 

The  Profit's  certain,  and  with  ease,  'tis  got. 

Courageous  Merchants,  who,  confronting  fates, 
Trust  Seas  and  Pyrates  with  your  whole  Estates, 
Part  in  this  Bank,  methinks  were  far  more  sure  ; 
And  j-e,  whom  hopes  of  sudden  Wealth  allure, 
Or  wants  into  Virginia,  force  to  fly, 
Ev'n  spare  your  pains  ;  here's  Florida  hard  by. 

If  therefore  Gain,  or  Honour,  or  Delight, 
Or  care  of  Publick  Good,  will  Men  invite 
Into  this  fortunate  Isle,  now  let  them  enter 
With  confidence  ;  since  here  they  all  concenter  ; 
But  if  all  these  be  choakt,  and  drown'd  with  flegm. 
Let  them  enjoy  their  Sloth,  sit  still,  and  dream. 

The  success  of  the  Bedford  Level  undertaking,  and  in 
later  times  the  utilisation  of  other  moss  lands  for  agricul- 
ture in  the  fen  country,  caused  many  experiments  to  be 
made  in  this  district. 

Scroope  Egerton,  the  first  Duke  of  Bridgewater,  and 
Francis,  the  third  Duke,  commenced  operations  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Worsley,  and  were  to  some  extent  suc- 
cessful. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  century,  William  Roscoe 
the  poet,  philosopher,  and  banker,  the  grandfather  of  Sir 
Henry  Roscoe,  M.P.,  and,  to  use  the  words  of  Baines,  "  the 
elegant  historian  of  Leo  X.,"  was  a  very  busy  man.  His 
genius  was  many-sided,  for  in  the  midst  of  active  commercial 
pursuits  he  found  time  to  lecture  on  the  fine  arts  as  well  as 
on  the  national  importance  of  introducing  new  food  seeds, 
and  on  improved  methods  of  agriculture.     He  composed 


A /I  old  Canoe  from  the  Irzvell  Valley.  251 

odes,  psalms,  and  sweet  sonnets,  wrote  histories  which  are 
classical  to  the  student  of  Italian  literature,  and  as  an 
orator  and  essayist  he  influenced  the  public  conscience  in 
favour  of  the  righteous  work  of  his  friends,  Wilberforce  and 
Clarkson,  the  liberators  of  the  African  slave. 

We  also  find  him,  with  the  sanction  of  Parliament, 
engaged  in  improving  Chat  Moss,  dividing  it  into  farms, 
draining  it,  and  making  it  increase  the  food  supply  of  this 
country.  For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  this 
energetic  lover  of  utility  and  beauty  devoted  himself  and 
his  fortune  to  the  cultivation  of  this  morass. 

In  181 1  a  poet  pays  homage  to  his  achievements  : 

Koscoe  to  whose  patriot  breast  belong 
The  Roman  virtue  and  the  Tuscan  song, 
Led  Ceres  to  the  bleak  and  barren  moor, 
Where  Ceres  never  gained  a  wreath  before. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  was  through  the  work  of 
William  Roscoe's  steward,  Mr.  Stannard,  that  the  difficulty 
of  crossing  Chat  Moss  by  the  Manchester  and  Liverpool 
Railway  was  overcome,  as  Mr.  Stannard  took  the  contract 
to  make  the  railway  across  the  Moss,  and  it  is  possible  that, 
had  it  not  been  for  his  great  experience  in  moss  treatment, 
Stevenson  would  have  taken  the  railway  a  mile  and  a  half 
further  north  at  a  considerable  expense  to  the  Company. 

Mr.  Edward  Baines  continued  the  cultivation  of  Chat 
Moss,  commenced  by  Mr.  Roscoe,  and  there  are  now 
hundreds  of  acres  under  cultivation. 

Permit  me  in  conclusion  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
members  of  the  Society  to  the  opportunities,  which  should 
not  be  neglected,  now  presented  to  the  geologist,  the 
antiquary,  and  to  all  students  of  the  knowledge  of  causes,  for 
the  Ship  Canal  steam  navvies  have  opened  more  than  20 
miles  of  the  Irwell  valley,  and  those  who  study  the  story 
of  the  rocks  have  in  the  book  before  them,  the  records  of 
centuries  on  each  page. 


25-2  Annual  Report  of  the  Council. 


Annual  Report  of  the  Council,  April,  1889. 

The  Treasurer  reports  that  the  improvement  in  the 
Society's  finances,  which  was  referred  to  in  the  Annual 
Report  of  the  Council  for  1888,  has  been  fully  maintained 
throughout  the  current  year,  and  for  the  first  time  for  many 
years,  balances  remain  at  the  credit  of  all  the  accounts. 
The  general  balance  in  favour  of  the  Society  on  the  31st 
March,  1889,  as  represented  by  cash  on  deposit  at  the 
Society's  bankers,  is  ^335.  8s.  2d.  In  addition  to  this 
amount,  the  Society  holds  ;^i,225  preference  stock  in  the 
Great  Western  Railway  Co.,  the  interest  upon  which  is 
devoted  to  Natural  History  purposes  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  trust. 

The  accompanying  balance  sheets  will  explain  the 
sources  of  income,  and  the  expenditure,  of  the  Society 
during  the  session  now  ended,  and,  as  usual,  the  corres- 
ponding information  for  the  previous  session  is  appended 
for  purposes  of  comparison. 

The  Societies  which  are  accommodated  on  the  premises 
are  the  same  as  last  year,  viz. :  the  Manchester  Geological 
Society,  the  Manchester  Medical  Society,  the  Manchester 
Photographic  Society,  and  the  Manchester  Scientific  Students' 
Association,  who  have  paid  the  amounts  stated  in  the 
balance  sheet. 

A  special  item  appears  in  the  accounts  this  session,  viz., 
a  grant  of  £i^\.  os.  /d.  from  the  Local  General  Committee, 
and  Guarantors,  of  the  British  Association  Meeting  held  in 
Manchester  in  1887,  which  was  paid  over  to  the  Society 
in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  following  resolution, 
passed  at  the  Town   Hall,  Manchester,  6th  March,  1888, 


Annual  Report  of  the  Council.  253 

proposed  by  Mr.  Edward  Donner,  seconded  by  Mr.  Mark 
Stirrup,  and  carried  unanimously  : — 

"  That,   after   payment    of  all    expenses,    any    balance 
remaining  over  from  the  final  call  upon  the  Guarantee 
Fund  be  divided  between  the  Library  of  the  Owens 
College  and  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society, 
in  recognition  of  the  valuable  assistance  rendered  by 
them    in    granting   the    use    of  their    buildings    and 
rooms  ;  but  that,  previous   to  such   division,  a   copy 
of  this    resolution    be    sent  to   each   guarantor,  and 
.     his  proportionate  share  be  returned  to  any  one  de- 
siring it." 
Your  Council's  predecessors  acknowledged  this  kindness 
in  last  year's  report. 

There  are  few  items  in  the  Society's  expenditure  which 
need  any  special  reference.  The  index  to  the  whole  of  the 
Society's  Proceedings,  and  Memoirs  ist,  2nd  and  3rd 
Series,  has  been  completed  by  Mr.  Richard  Hargreaves, 
and  will  be  printed  in  the  course  of  next  session.  The  Bind- 
ing Fund  has  still  a  balance  of  ;^34.  i8s.  2d.,  but  works  from 
the  Society's  library  have  already  been  bound,  which,  with 
what  are  still  in  the  binder's  hands,  will  exhaust  this 
fund. 

The  Editor  reports  that  the  publications  of  the  Society, 
which,  as  will  be  observed,  include  a  more  numerous  list  of 
papers  than  last  year,  are  complete  up  to  March  5th,  and 
that  the  next  number,  which  will  complete  the  second 
volume,  will  be  issued  in  the  course  of  the  next  fortnight. 

The  Council  are  very  sensible  of  the  honorary  services 
of  the  Editor  in  preparing  the  Society's  Memoirs  and 
Proceedings.  The  new  form  of  publication  has  proved 
successful  in  respect  both  as  to  cost  and  as  to  promptitude 
of  issue. 

The  Librarian  reports  that  the  number  of  volumes 
received  in  exchange  from  other  Societies  during  the  last 


254  Annual  Report  of  the  Council. 

year  has  increased.  The  Library  now  includes  an  almost 
unique  collection  of  the  printed  issues  of  foreign  Societies, 
and,  amongst  other  works  recently  added,  contains  43 
volumes  of  "  Reports  on  the  Scientific  Results  of  the 
Exploring  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Challenger."  Authors' 
presentation  copies  have  been  received  from  Professor 
Cayley,  "  Collected  Mathematical  Papers  "  ;  Professor 
Prestwich,  "  Geology,  Chemical,  Physical,  and  Strati- 
graphical  "  ;  Professor  G.  G.  Stokes,  "  Mathematical  and 
Physical  Papers";  The  Council  of  the  Royal  Society,  "The 
Eruption  of  Krakatoa  and  subsequent  phenomena,"  and 
also  the  following : — "  Verdeeling  Der  Warmte  over  de 
Aarde,"  by  C.  H.  D.  Buys  Ballot ;  "  Notes,  &c.,  Sur 
L'Histoire  Generale  des  Pays-Bas,"  by  C.  Paillard  ; 
"  Tripolitania  Cirenaica  E.  Fezzan,"  by  F.  Borsari  ; 
"  Memoir  on  The  Winds  and  Monsoons  of  the  Arabian  Sea 
and  North  Indian  Ocean,"  by  W.  L.  Dallas  ;  "  Report  on 
the  Royal  Observatory,  Edinburgh,"  and  "  The  Edinburgh 
Equatorial  in  1887,"  papers  by  C.  P.  Smyth;  "The  Cause 
of  Electricity,  with  remarks  on  Chemical  Equivalents," 
"  The  Cause  of  Light,"  "  The  Planets  upon  Ccerdioides,"  by 
G.  T.  Carruthers,  M.A.  ;  "  Eskimo  of  Hudson's  Strait,"  by 
F.  F.  Payne;  "Treatise  on  Chemistry,"  Vol.  III.,  Part  5, 
by  Sir  H.  E.  Roscoe  and  C.  Schorlemmer.  These  have 
been  duly  acknowledged. 

Influenced  by  the  example  of  the  Royal,  Linnean,  and 
other  learned  Societies,  the  Council  decided  during  the  past 
session  to  arrange  for  a  conversazione  in  the  Society's 
house,  in  order  to  exhibit  some  of  the  more  interesting 
memorials  in  the  Society's  possession,  and  to  illustrate  the 
work  of  past  and  present  members.  A  doubt  having  been 
expressed  as  to  whether  the  Council  would  be  justified  in 
utilising  the  funds  of  the  Society  for  this  purpose  without 
a  special  resolution  from  the  members,  and  it  being  con- 
sidered undesirable,  taking  into  account  the  experimental 


Annual  Report  of  the  Council.  255 

character  of  the  project,  to  submit  It  for  discussion  at  a 
General  Meeting,  the  President  offered  to  defray  the  whole 
cost  of  the  gathering;  whereupon,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Council, 
it  was  resolved  unanimously  "  that  the  Council  thank  the 
President  for  his  generous  offer  to  defray  the  entire  cost  of 
the  conversazione,  and  gratefully  accept  it,  with  the  con- 
dition that  he  will  permit  all  members  of  the  Council  who 
may  desire  to  do  so,  to  be  associated  with  him  in  bearing 
the  expense,  and  that  the  invitations  be  sent  out  in  the 
name  of  the  President  and  Council."  The  conversazione, 
therefore,  has  involved  no  charge  on  the  funds  of  the  Society. 
It  was  held  on  the  evening  of  April  4th,  1889,  and  about  two 
hundred  ladies  and  gentlemen  responded  to  the  invitations 
issued.  A  copy  of  the  programme,  suitable  for  binding  with 
the  Memoirs  and  Proceedings,  has  been  sent  to  each  member. 
To  the  list  of  exhibits  described  therein  should  be  added 
a  special  collection  of  living  plants,  for  which  the  Council 
were  indebted  to  Mr.  William  Brockbank,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S., 
including  SyniJiiris  renifonniSy  a  North  American  plant 
introduced  by  the  exhibitor  to  Kew  in  1885,  and  described 
in  the  Bot.  Mag.,  Tab.  6860,  1886;  examples  of  the  Ajax 
section  of  daffodils  and  various  narcissi  collected  wild  in 
Portugal  ;'  and  examples  of  dwarf  Japanese  maples  with 
many  varieties  of  foliage  grafted  into  each  plant. 

The  Secretaries,  on  behalf  of  the  Council,  have  duly 
acknowledged  the  important  assistance  received  from 
various  members  and  friends  of  the  Society  on  the  occasion. 

The  Council  consider  it  desirable  to  continue  the  system 
of  electing  Associates  of  the  Sections,  and  the  usual  reso- 
lution for  the  approval  of  the  members  will  be  submitted 
at  the  Annual  General  Meeting.  The  Natural  History 
Section,  in  consideration  of  the  large  number  of  Associates 
connected  with  it,  has  resolved  to  increase  its  annual 
contribution  from  £2.  2s.  to  ^,^5.  5  s. 

The  number  of  ordinar}'  members  on  the  roll  on  March 


256  Annual  Report  of  the  Council. 

31st,  1889,  was  one  less  than  at  the  corresponding  date  last 
year.  Eight  new  members  had  been  elected,  eight  had 
resigned,  and  one,  Mr.  Richard  Peacock,  M.P.,  M.I.C.E.,  had 
died.  The  Society  has  also  lost  by  death  one  honorary 
member.  Professor  Rudolf  Clausius. 

Richard  Peacock  was  one  of  that  numerous  class  of 
"  self-made  "  engineers  who   have  been  connected  with  the 
Society.      He  was   the    seventh  child   of  a   working  lead 
miner,  and  was  born  in   Swaledale,  in    the  North  Riding, 
in  1820.     His  father,  Ralph  Peacock,  appears  to  have  been 
a   man    of  much  natural  ability  and  especially  ingenious 
in  mechanical  construction,  who  worked  his  way,  we  are 
told,    to    the    position    of    foreman    or    superintendent    of 
several  mines  in  the  dale  in  which  the  subject  of  this  notice 
was  born.    Richard  inherited  his  father's  taste  for  mechanics, 
and  his  future  career  seems  to  have  been  practically  de- 
termined by  the  bent  given  to  his  mind  in  consequence  of 
being  taken  by  his  father,  at  the  age  of  five,  to  see  George 
Stephenson's  "  No.  i  "  locomotive  running  on  the  Stockton 
and  Darlington  Railway,  opened  on  September  27th,  1825. 
In    1830,  the  elder  Peacock  removed  to  Leeds  to  fill  the 
position  of  assistant  superintendent  in  the  construction  of 
the  Leeds  tunnel  on  the   Leeds  and    Selby  Railway,   on 
which  line  he  continued  to  be  employed  for  the  remainder 
of  his  working  life.     Richard's  education  was  obtained  at  a 
Sunday  School  and  partly  at  the  Leeds  Grammar  School, 
and  at  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  apprenticed  to  Messrs. 
Fenton,  Murray  and  Jackson,  a  firm  employed  in  the  con- 
struction of  locomotives  for  the  Leeds,  and  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  Railways.      His  progress  in  mechanical  know- 
ledge is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  at  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
was  offered  the  position  of  locomotive  superintendent  on  the 
railway  on  which  his  father  was  employed.     Like  young 
Nasmyth,  ten  years  earlier,  however,  he  was  inspired  with 
a  desire  to  proceed  to  London,  and,  again  like  Nasmyth,  he 


Ainuial  Report  of  tJic  Council.  257 

went  thither  armed  only  with  useful  introductions  and  a 
readiness  to  engage  in  any  kind  of  work  in  connection  with 
his  special  proclivities.  An  interview  with  Mr.  (afterwards 
Sir)  Daniel  Gooch,  chief  engineer  under  Mr.  Brunei  on  the 
Great  Western  Railway,  resulted  in  an  engagement  on  that 
line.  "  Young  Peacock's  duties,"  says  the  writer  of  the 
obituary  notice  in  the  MancJicster  Guardian^  "  were  as  varied 
as  they  were  laborious.  Sometimes  he  superintended  a 
gang  of  navvies  ;  occasionally  he  took  charge  of  an 
engine  used  by  the  great  engineer  for  running  up  and 
down  the  line,  and  in  this  way  established  with  him  a 
friendly  relation  which  was  interrupted  only  by  Mr. 
Brunei's  death."  At  the  age  of  21  (in  1841)  Peacock 
obtained  the  appointment  of  locomotive  superintendent  on 
the  Manchester  and  Sheffield  Railway.  His  connection  with 
Manchester  dates  from  this  event.  He  witnessed  the 
arrival  of  the  first  engine  for  the  line,  and  continued  in  the 
company's  service  for  a  period  of  fourteen  years.  "  He  chose 
Gorton,"  adds  the  writer  already  quoted,  "  for  the  site  of  the 
locomotive  depot,  which  was  afterwards  erected  from  his 
designs.  This  led  to  the  rapid  development  of  Gorton  and 
of  the  adjoining  township  of  Openshaw,  and  of  the  great 
engineering  establishment  with  which  his  name  will  always 
be  identified.  It  was  at  his  suggestion  that  Mr.  Ashbury 
built  his  extensive  carriage  and  waggon  works  at  Open- 
shaw, of  which  Mr.  Peacock  laid  the  foundation  stone.  He 
also  recommended  the  late  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth  to  transfer 
to  the  same  neighbourhood  his  manufactory  of  guns  and 
mechanical  tools,  and  he  purchased  the  land  for  the  Midland 
Railway  on  which  that  company  placed  its  locomotive 
sheds.  Not  inappropriately  has  he  been  designated  as  the 
founder  of  the  trade  and  prosperity  of  these  two  townships." 
In  1854  Mr,  Peacock  entered  into  partnership  with  Mr. 
Charles  Beyer,  previously  manager  of  the  extensive  works 
of   Messrs.  Sharp  Bros,  (and  who,  it  may  be  mentioned, 


25 S  Annual  Report  of  the  Council. 

was  elected  a  member  of  this  Society  in  January  of  the 
same  year),  in  order  to  estabhsh  the  well-known  works  at 
Gorton,  with  which  Mr.  Peacock  continued  to  be  associated 
until  his  death,  officiating  as  manager  and  chairman  of  the 
Board  of  Directors  after  the  conversion  of  the  firm  into  a 
limited  liability  company  in  1883.  In  these  works  from  2,000 
to  3,000  people  are  employed,  and  about  200  engines  are 
annually  constructed.  Mr.  Peacock  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Society  in  its  centenary  year,  1881.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  educational,  economic,  and  political 
life  of  the  district  in  which  his  business  was  established  and 
in  which  he  lived,  promoting  the  formation  of  savings 
banks,  the  erection  of  new  schools,  and  presenting  to  it  a 
church  of  considerable  beauty,  built  from  designs  by  another 
member  of  the  Society,  Mr.  Thomas  Worthington,F.R.I.B.A. 
The  Brookfield  church,  Gorton,  was  built  in  1870,  to  take 
the  place  of  the  ancient  non-conformist  chapel,  which 
stood  in  the  old  burial  ground  on  the  low  land  below  the 
church,  through  which  the  Gore  Brook  flows.  The  site 
was  previously  a  most  uninviting  and  desolate  mass  of  clay 
pits,  and  was  raised  considerably,  with  the  adjoining  high 
road,  so  as  to  form  a  suitable  position  for  the  new  church  ; 
in  the  erection  of  which  Mr.  Peacock  took  the  liveliest 
interest.  The  church  is  a  structure  of  considerable  size, 
and  with  its  lofty  detached  tower  and  spire  forms  a 
land-mark  in  the  district.  It  is  in  the  early  Geometric 
style  of  the  13th  century,  and  the  tower  contains  a  peal  of 
eight  musical  bells.  Over  the  chancel  arch  a  choir  of 
angels  singing  the  Te  Deum  form  a  striking  feature  on 
entering  the  building,  and  the  general  scheme  of  decoration, 
with  the  polished  granite  columns  and  stained  glass  windows, 
gives  much  richness  of  effect  to  the  interior.  In  1885  Mr. 
Peacock  was  returned  as  the  first  representative  in  Parlia- 
ment of  the  Gorton  division,  and  was  re-elected  in  1886. 
He  died  at  his  residence,  Gorton  Hall,  on  the  evening  of 
March  3,  1889. 


Annual  Report  of  the  Council.  259 

.  Rudolf  Clausius,  who  died  on  August  24th,  1888, 
was  connected  with  us  even  more  by  the  close  relation  of 
his  distinctive  work  with  that  of  Dr.  Joule,  than  by  the  fact 
of  his  election  as  one  of  our  honorary  members.  He  was 
born  on  the  2nd  of  January,  1822,  one  of  the  youngest  of  a 
family  of  eighteen.  For  the  sake  of  his  younger  brothers, 
he  felt  himself  bound  to  discontinue  his  studies  in  Berlin 
and  gain  his  own  livelihood,  first  as  a  tutor,  later  as  a 
schoolmaster;  ultimately  graduating  at  Halle  in  1848.  In 
1855  he  was  made  Professor  in  the  Polytechnicum  at  Zurich, 
and  in  1857  in  the  University  of  that  town.  In  1867  he 
was  called  to  Wiirzburg,  and  in  1869  to  Bonn,  where  he 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  (declining  invitations  to  Strassburg 
and  Gottingen)  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  and  the  cease- 
less pursuit  of  his  studies.  The  establishment  of  the 
equivalence  of  heat  and  work  by  Joule  and  his  fellow- 
workers  was  the  great  scientific  advance  in  Clausius' student 
days,  and  it  decided  the  direction  of  his  life  work.  The 
material  theory  of  heat  had  led  to  no  scientific  result 
comparable  with  Carnot's  theory,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
material  theory  by  the  mechanical  had  left  this  important 
and  apparently  correct  result  without  support.  Recognising 
the  inherent  merits  of  Carnot's  work,  Clausius  undertook 
the  examination  of  it  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  new 
mechanical  theory  of  heat,  and  in  his  first  investigation  on 
the  subject,  presented  to  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1850,  he 
showed  that  a  new  and  independent  principle  in  thermo- 
dynamics was  necessary,  from  which  by  an  indirect  method 
he  deduced  Carnot's  Theory.  Considering  Joule's  Principle 
of  the  equivalence  of  heat  and  work  as  the  First  Law, 
Clausius'  Principle  of  the  equivalence  of  transfor- 
mations, in  one  of  its  various  forms,  is  accepted  as  the 
Second  Law  of  thermo-dynamics.  Clausius  has  himself 
stated  it  in  different  ways  ;  we  give  it  thus: — It  is  incon- 
ceivable   that    heat,    unaided    by    any    external    agency, 


26o  Annual  Report  of  the  Council. 

should  of  itself  pass  from  a  colder  to  a  hotter  body. 
This  essential  idea  he  further  developed  in  his  memoirs 
of  1854,  1862,  and  1865,  basing  on  it  a  great  mechanical 
principle,  as  Thomson  had  on  Joule's  Law,  and  enun- 
ciating them  together  at  the  end  of  the  last  named 
paper  ; — The  energy  of  the  universe  is  constant,  the  entropy 
of  the  universe  tends  to  a  maximum  :  principles  now  usually 
called  the  Conservation  and  Dissipation  of  Energy.  During 
this  stage  of  his  activity,  two  Englishmen,  Thomson  and 
Rankine,  were  working  in  the  same  direction  ;  it  is  no 
part  of  our  purpose  to  raise  small  questions  of  priority^ 
the  work  of  each  was  original  and  distinctive,  and 
the  new  science  of  thermo-dynamics  had  need  of  all. 
The  fundamental  ideas  of  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat 
called  not  only  Joule  and  Kronig,  but  also  Clausius  back  to 
Daniel  Bernoulli's  kinetic  theory  of  gases.  In  a  paper  on 
the  Form  of  Motion  which  we  call  heat  (1857)  he  deduced 
Boyle's  law  with  less  special  assumption  than  Joule  had 
employed,  arrived  at  the  conditions  under  which  Charles' 
law  holds  good,  and  established  the  law  of  Avogadro. 
In  a  paper  (1858)  on  the  mean  free  path  of  a  gas  molecule, 
he  developed  the  statistical  method  of  investigation  which 
the  character  of  the  problem  makes  necessary,  and  opened 
the  way  to  his  successors.  From  this  point  Maxwell  and 
Boltzmann  have  carried  the  method  to  its  fullest  extent. 
In  this  short  notice  we  can  only  allude  to  Clausius'  service 
to  Abstract  Dynamics  by  his  introduction  of  the  Virial,  to 
his  modification  and  development  of  W.  Weber's  electro- 
dynamic  theory,  and  to  the  papers  on  the  theory  of  dynamo- 
electric  machines,  which  occupied  the  last  years  of  his  life. 
Clausius'  papers  form  a  very  long  list,  and  are  characterised 
by  an  originality,  thoroughness,  and  breadth  of  view  which 
are  excelled  by  few.  He  was  active  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duties  as  a  professor,  and  that  he  performed  his  duties  to 
the  State  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  during  the  war 


Annual  Report  of  the  Council.  261 

of  1870  he  acted  as  bearer  in  the  ambulance  corps  of  Bonn 
students.  By  his  death  we  have  lost  one  of  those  who  have 
made  the  century  remarkable  for  the  progress  of  science. 

The  following  papers  and  communications  have  been  read, 
or  will  be  read  before  the  close  of  the  session,  at  the  ordinary 
meetings  of  the  Society  : — 

October  2ncl,  1888. 

"An  account  of  Hertz's  experiments  showing  the  propagation  of  electrical 
vibrations  in  direct  accordance  with  Maxwell's  theory  of  light  as  an 
electro-magnetic  phenomenon."     By  R.  F.  Gwyther,  M.A. 

"  Incompleteness  of  Combustion  in  Gaseous  Explosions.  By  Prof.  Harold 
B.  Dixon,  F.R.S.,  and  H.  W.  Smith,  B.Sc. 

October  i6th,  1888. 

"  On  the  excessive  aliundance  o^  Aphis  dianthi,  Schr.,  round  Manchester 
in    September,   i888."      By    P.  Cameron.      Communicated   by  John 
Boyd,  Esq. 
"A   decade  of  new    HyDtejioptcra.^''     By   P.  Cameron.     Communicated 
by  John  Boyd,  Esq. 

October  30th,  1888. 

"  A  New  System  of  Logical  Notation,"  by  Joseph  John  Murphy.  Com- 
municated by  the  Rev.  Robert  Harley,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Corresponding 
iSIember. 

"Electrolysis  under  Pressure."  By  W.  W.  Haldane  Gee,  B.Sc,  and 
Henry  Holden,  M.Sc. 

November  13th,  18S8. 

"  The  Permanence  of  Oceanic  Basins."  By  Professor  W.  C.  Williamson, 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  and  Professor  W.  Boyd  Dawkins,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  &c. 

November  27th,  1888. 

"An  historical  account  of  the  spectroscopic  evidence  in  support  of  the 
hypothesis  that  oxygen  exists  in  the  sun,  with  special  reference  to 
M.  Janssen's  recent  researches  on  telluric  oxygen  and  aqueous  vapour 
lines  and  bands."     By  F.  J.  Faraday,  F.L.S. 

December  nth,  1888. 

"  Note  on  the  behaviour  of  Iodine  in  the  presence  of  Borax."  By  James 
Bottomley,  D.Sc. 

"Notes  on  some  of  the  peculiar  properties  of  Glass."  By  William 
Thomson,  F. R.S.Ed.,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 

"On  the  British  Species  oi  AUotrina:,  with  descriptions  of  other  new 
species  of  Parasitic  Cynipidcv"  By  P.  Cameron.  Communicated  Ijy 
John  Boyd,  Esq. 

S 


262  Annual  Report  of  the  Council. 

December  aytli,  188S. 

"Letter  on  an  accompanying  photograph  of  his  original  drawing  of  the 
solar  surface."     By  James  Nasmyth,  P'.R.A.S.,  &c. 

January  8th,  18S9. 

"  On  the  unification  in  the  measure  of  time,  with  special  reference  to  the 
contest  on  the  initial  meridian."  By  C.  Tondini  de  Quarenghi. 
Communicated  by  V.  J.  Faraday,  F.  L.  S. 

January  22nd,  18S9. 

'■'' Hyine720ptera  Orieiitalis ;  or  Contributions  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
Hymenoptera  of  the  Oriental  Zoological  Region."  By  P.  Cameron. 
Communicated  by  John  Boyd,  Esq. 

February  5th,  1889. 

"  On  the  equation  to  the  Instantaneous  Surface  generated  liy  the  dissolu- 
tion of  an  Isotropic  Solid."     By  James  Bottomley,  D.Sc. 

February  19th,  18S9. 

"On  the  vitrified  cement  from  an  ancient  fort."  By  G.  H.  Bailey, 
D.Sc,  Ph.D. 

"  Notes  on  a  form  of  Plaiitago  viaritima  [L.]  new  to  this  country,  viz.  f. 
piimila  (Kjellman)."     By  James  Cosmo  Melvill,  F.L.S. 

March  5th,  1889. 

"  Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies,  being  an 
investigation  into  the  Physical  Cause  of  Colour  in  natural  and 
artificial  bodies,  and  the  Nature  of  the  Structure  producing  it."  Part  I. 
By  Alexander  Hodgkinson,  M.B.,  B.Sc. 

March  19th,  1889. 

"  On  the  results  of  some  calculations  with  a  certain  class  of  figures."  By 
Charles  Clay,  M.D, 

"  On  the  presence  of  green  colouring  matter  in  leaves  found  about  21  feet 
under  the  surface  in  an  excavation  connected  with  the  Ship  Canal 
Works."     By  William  Thomson,  F.R.S.  Ed. 

"  On  Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies  ;  being 
an  Investigation  into  the  Physical  Cause  of  Colour  in  natural  and 
artificial  bodies  and  the  Nature  of  the  Structure  producing  it. "  Part  II. 
By  Alexander  Hodgkinson,  M.B.,  B.Sc. 

April  2nd,  1889. 

"  Note  on  the  Propagation  of  Sound  through  an  Atmosphere  of  Varying 
Density."     By  Ralph  Holmes,  B.A. 

"  On  Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies  ;  being 
an  Investigation  into  the  Physical  Cause  of  Colour  in  natural  and 
artificial  bodies  and  the  Nature  of  the  Structure  producing  it." 
Part  II.,  continued.     By  Alexander  Hodgkinson,  M.B.,  B.Sc. 


I 


Animal  Report  of  the  Council.  263 

April  i6th,  1889. 

"  Notes  on  Seedling  Saxifrages  grown  at  Brockhurst  from  a  single  scape 
oiSaxifraga  Maaialnana."     By  Wm.  Brockbank,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. 

"  Some  remarks  on  the  Chlorophyll  obtained  by  Mr.  Wm.  Thomson  from 
leaves  found  in  cutting  the  Ship  Canal."  By  Edward  Schunck,  Ph.D., 
F.R.S.,  F.C.S. 

April  30th,  1S89. 

"On  the  position  of  the  ancient  canoe  found  in  cutting  the  Ship  Canal." 
By  Alderman  W.  H.  Bailey. 

"On  the  Fermentation  Theories."  By  Alfred  Springer,  Ph.D.,  of 
Cincinnati.     Communicated  by  William  Grimshaw,  Esq. 


2)r. 


MANCHESTER    LITERARY    AND 

Charles  Bailey,    Treasm-er,   in  Account  'with  the  Society, 
Statement  of  the  Accounts 


1889—  March  31st  :— 
To  Cash  in  hand,  ist  April,  i 
To  Members'  Contributions : 
Old    Members,  1886-7, 


New  Members, 


3  Subscriptions  at  42 


4  Half  „ 

8  Admission  Fees 


To  Library  Subscriptions  : — 

One  Natural  History  Associate  at  los. 
To  Contributions  from  Sections  : — 

Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Sect! 

Physical  Mathematical  Section 


18S8-9 


To  Use  of  the  Society's  Rooms  : 

Manchester  Geological  Society  to  31st  March,  1888 
,,  „  31st  March,  1889 

Manchester    IMedical  Society   to   30th  Sept.,  1888 
Manchester  Photographical  Society  to  30th  Sept.,  t888 . . 
Manchester  Scientific  Students'  Association  to  3olh  Sept.,  iSSS 


To  Sales  of  the  Society's  Publications,  1888-9 

To  Natural  History  Fund,  1888-9  :— 

Dividends  on  ^1225,  Great  Western  Railway  Co  Stock. 

To  Bank  Interest,  less  Bank  Postages,  1888-9 

To  Donation  from  Local  Committee,  British  Association 
To  Binding  Fund  Subscriptions 


£   s.  d. 

18S8-9. 
■;£  s.  d. 
218  5  7 

.887 
C    s 

1 

660 

37  16  0 

14    o     yji     S     o 


990 

30  0  0 

30  0  0 

25  0  0 

25  0  0 

900 

119  0  0 

4  13  3 

59  13  I 

2  :5  6 

51  0  7 

.3     9 


3.— April  I.     To  C.ish  in  Manchester  and  Salford  B.ink.  Limited 


i>lSi     I     0/503     5  II 


^335 


13 

17 

6 

2 

13 

10 

3 

5 

° 

28 

9 

9 

i6 

15 

4 

5 

2 

9 

4 

14 

3 

I 

10 

0 

— 



— 

'7 

10 

0 

6o 

19 

6 

II 

PHILOSOPHIC  AT.    SOCIETY. 

fivin  jst  April,   jS8S,  to  31st  March  i88g,  with  a  Comparative 
or  the  Session  1S87-TS8S.  Qi. 


1888-9.  1887-8. 

iS3q -March  3i.st:—  £   s.    A.      £   s.    d.      £   s.    A.      £ 

r.y  Ch.^rges  on  Property: — 

Chief  Rent  (Income  Tax  deducted)     .,         ..         ..         ..       12  it     5  12  10    7 

Income  Tax  on  Chief  Rent        063  074 

Insurance  against  Fire 13  17     6 

Repairs,  &c.  53^ 

Tablets  to  Portraits         

Pjy  House  Expenditure  : —  31  ; 

Co;il,  Gas,  Candles,  Water,  &.C.  ,.         ..         ..         ..       31     g     9 

Tea,  Coffee,  &c.,  at  Meetings  ..         ..         ..         ..         ..       10  14     3 

Cleaning,  Brushes,  &c 5  13  10 

Expenses  in  connection  with  British  Association     ..         

Step  ladder  for  Library 

By  Administrative  Charges :—  47  i 

Curator  and  Assistant  Secretary  

Clerk  and  Housekeeper 62     8     o 

Postages  and  Carriage  of  Parcels        21  16  10 

Stationery,  Printing  Circulars,  Receipts,  and  Engrossing       1504  12 

Distributing  '  Memoirs'  5  19    9  i 

Legal  Charges 1 

Advertising,  &c.,  for  Clerk  and  Housekeeper  i 

By  Publishing : —  105     4  11       ■ 

Printing  and  Binding  '  Memoirs,' old  series  ..         ..       31   10    o 

Printing  and  Binding  '  Proceedings '  . .         . .         33 

Printing  and  Binding  '  Memoirs  and  Proceedings,'  new 

ser'« 97  18    o  3 

Wood  Engraving  and  Lithography 6 

Preparing  Index  to  'Memoirs  and  Proceedings,'  all  the 

By  Library : —  134     8     o      

Books  and  Periodicals 14  18     3  16 

Assistant  in  Library        9  10    o  5 

P.ilaeontographical  Society  for  the  year  1889           ..         ..  i     i     o  1 

Ray  Society  for  the  year  1889 i     i     o  i 

Geological  Record  for  the  ye.ar  1879 o 

Zoological  Record,  Vol.  24.     ..         ...         ..         ..         ..  100 

By  Natural  History  Fund..  27  10    3        

Works  on  Natural  History 16  13     2  13 

Grant  to  Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section      ..  40    o    o 

Plates  for  Natural  History  Papers  in  '  Memoirs' ..         ..  14    o    o 

70  13     2        

By  Balance  3iPt  March,  18S9         ,  33S     8     2 


^7  ■is     I     o  /50J 


Audited  and  found  correct,  April,  ; 


ALEX.  HODGKINSON. 
R.  HOLMES 


266  Annual  Report  of  the  Conncil. 


^    s.    d.     c     s.    d. 

General  Account  : — 

Balance  against  this  Account,  ist  April,  1888         21-4 

Expenditure  during  the  Session  188S-9         346  19    8 

368     5     o 
Receiptsduring  the  Session  1S88-9 475     2     4 

Balance  in  favour  of  this  Account  31st,  March,  i8Sg         ..         106  17    4 

Compounders  Fund : — 

Balance  in  favour  of  this  Account,  ist  April,  188S  . .  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      151     5     o 

Balance  in  favour  of  this  Account,  31st  March,  1SS9         151    5     o 

Natural  History  Fund  : — 

Balance  in  favour  of  this  Account,  Tst  April,  1SS8         53     7     9 

Dividends  received  during  the  Session  1888-9         59  13     i 

113     o  10 
Expenditure  during  the  Session  1SS8-9         7013     2 

Balance  in  favour  of  this  Account,  31st  March,  1889         42     7     8 

Binding  Fund  : — 

Balance  in  favour  of  this  Account,  ist  April,  18S8  34  iS     2 

Balance  in  favour  of  this  Account,  31st  March,  1S89        34   18     2 

Cash  in  Manchester  and  Salford  Bank,  Limited,  31st  March,  1SS9  ^^335    8    2 


Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section.         267 


Annual  Report  of  the  Council  of  the  Microscopical 
and  Natural  History  Section. 

The  usual  meetings  have  been  held  each  month  during 
the  session,  and  at  most  of  them  interesting  papers  have 
been  read,  and  at  all,  numerous  specimens  and  objects  of 
interest  have  been  shown  ;  and  advantage  has  been  taken 
of  the  fine  set  of  microscopes  the  Society  possesses,  to  exhibit 
more  minute  preparations.  Some  very  valuable  original 
papers  have  been  contributed  by  Mr.  P.  Cameron, 
and  these  are  in  course  of  being  printed  in,  full  in  the 
Society's  Memoirs  and  Proceedings.  The  interest  in  the 
meetings  and  the  attendance  at  them  has  been  fully 
maintained. 

The  Council  have  felt  it  desirable  to  increase  the  annual 
contribution  to  the  funds  of  the  parent  Society  to  five 
guineas. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  members  and  associates  of  the 
Section  : — 

Members: — Thos.  Alcock,  M.D.,  J.  J.  Ashworth,  Chas. 
Bailey,  F.L.S.,  Walter  Edward  Barratt,  John  Barrow, 
Spencer  H.  Bickham,  Junr.,  John  Boyd,  Henry  Brogden, 
F.G.S.,  Alfred  Brown,  M.D.,  Samuel  Cottam,  F.R.A.S  , 
Edward  Coward,  Robert  Ellis  Cunliffe,  John  Dale,  F.C.S., 
R.  D.  Darbishire,  B.A.,  F.G.S.,  Prof.  W.  Boyd  Dawkins,  M.A., 
F.R.S.,  F.G.S,  Hastings  C.  Dent,  F.L.S.,  W.  K.  Deane, 
Frederick  Jas.  Faraday,  F.L.S.,  Chas.  James  Heywood, 
Alex.  Hodckinson,  B.Sc.,  M.B.,  Charles  Herbert  Hurst, 
J.  Arthur  Hutton,  Henry  Hoyle  Howorth,  F.S.A.,  M.P., 
Prof.  A.  MiLNES  Marshall,  M.A.,  M.D.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S., 
J.  Cosmo  Melvill,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  J.  E.  Morgan,  M.D.,  M.A, 
Francis  Nicholson,  F.Z.S.,  Edmund  Salis  Schwabe,  B.A., 
Prof.  W.  C.  Williamson,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 


268        Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section. 

Associates: — AVilliaim  Blackburn,  F.R.M.S.,  E.  S.  Bles, 
H.  S.  Brooke,  B.A.,  M.B,  Peter  Cameron,  Herbert  C. 
Chadvvick,  E.  Pyemont  Collett,  Peter  Cunliffe,  F.  R.  Curtis, 
G.  J.  Crosbie  Dawson,  H.  L.  Eari,  B.A.,  James  Fleming, 
F.R.M.S.,  John  Ray  Hardy,  Frank  Huet,  L.D.S.,  R.C.S., 
Henry  Hyde,  Leslie  Jones,  M.D.,  H.  L.  Knoop,  W.  Leach, 
A.  A.  MuMFORD,  M.B.,  M.R.C.S.,  L.R.C.P.,  John  Noton, 
F.R.M.S.,  J.  B.  Pettigrew,  J.  B.  Robinson,  F.R.M.S ,  Thomas 
Rogers,  George  Nash  Skipp,  John  Smith,  M.R.C.S.,  Mark 
Stirrup,  F.G.S.,  Theodore  Sington,  J.  Tatham,  B.A.,  M.D., 
W.  Ladd  Torrance,  Edward  Ward,  F.R.M.S ,  Sidney 
Young,  D.Sc. 

Total  29  members  and  30  associates,  against  28  mem- 
bers and  29  associates  at  the  corresponding  period  of  last 
}-ear. 


The  Microscopical  and  Natural   History    Section    of  the    Manchester  Literajy    and 

Philosophical  Society  in  account  luith  the  Parent  Society  for  Grant  f/o/n 

Natural  History  Finid. 


2)r. 


From  14th  April,  1888,  to  2nd  April,  iS8g. 


Cr. 


i883.  £    s.    d. 

Apl.  16.  To  Grant   by    Parent    Society 

per  Treasurer    40    o    o 

„  Balance  owing  to  the  Section     324 


April    4.  By    Balance    from    1887-8..  20  10     i 
July    6.     ,,     Challenger  Publications, 

Zoology,  Vols.  23-25..  734 

Aug.  30     ,,         Do.             .,       26,27..  368 

Nov.  30     „         Do.         Vol,  28    1     6     3 


Jan.  25. 
April  I. 
Jan.  17. 


Do.  ,,     29  (3  vols.) 

Do.  ,,     30  (2  vols. ) 

Dulau  &  Co.,  Durand, 

Inde.x   

Fowler's      Coleoptera, 

Parts  16-27  I12  parts) 


-^43 


2  10    o 
£43     2     4 


Mark  Sti 

Dr. 


rup.    Treasurer,  in  account  li'ith  the  Microscopical  and  Natural  History 
Section  of  the  Manchester  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society.  /j- 


Apl.  14.  To  Balance  in  Manchester  and 
Salford   Bank  (St.  Ann's 

Street) 17 

,,  16.  „  Grant  forBooks,  by  Parent 
Society  from  Natural 
History  Fund 40 

Dec.  20.    ,,   Interest  allowed  by  Bank.,     o 
1889. 

Apl.  2.  ,,  Subscriptions  and  Arrears 
received  during  the  Ses- 
sion   1888-9 26 


Examined  ar 
(Signed) 


6th  April  1SS9. 


d  found  correct, 

J.  B.  PETTIGREW, 
HENRY   HYDE. 


ptera,  I 
jour,  j 


Apl.  16.  By  Parent    Society  —  Sectional 

Subscription,  1887-8 2 

May  14.    ,,   Jas.    Collins    &    Co.,    Note 

Paper    o 

,,         ,,   J.  E.  Cornish,  Microscopical 

Journal  and  Naturalist   . .     o 
July    6.    ,,   \Yest,     Newman,     &     Co., 

Journal  of  Botany,  1888..     o 
,,         ,,   J.  E.  Cornish,   ''Challenger 

Reports,"  Zool.  Vol.  23-25     7 
,,         ,,   J.  E.  Cornish,  Fowler's  Cole- 
optera, Parts  16-17 o 

Aug.  10.    ,,    Do.  do.        Parts  18-20    o 

„         ,,    Do.       Naturalist,   April   to 

June o 

17.    ,,   C.   Simms  &  Co.,  Circulars    o 
31.    ,,   J.E.Cornish,  "Challenger 

Reports,"  Zool.,  Vol.  2r  . .     2 
,,         ,,    Do.  do.  Vol.  27 

Nov.  30.    ,,    Do.   Fowler's  Coleop 

Parts  22-23 

,,         ,,    Do.  Microscopical 
and  Naturalist  . . 
,,         ,,   Do.   "Challenger  Reports," 

Zool.,  Vol.28 _.. 

Dec.  14.    ,,    Do.     American     Naturalist 

for   18S9   

1889. 
Jan.  24.    ,,    Gurney  &  Jackson,  "Ibis," 

1889   

25.    ,,   J.  E.  Cornish,  "Challenger 
Reports,"    Zool.,  Vol.   29, 

3  Vols 

,,         ,,   Do.     Fowler's     Coleoptera, 

Parts  24-25 

,,         „    C.   Simms  &  Co.,  Circulars, 

Sep.  to  Dec 

17.    ,,   Dulau   &   Co.,   per    C.    B. 

Durand,  Inde.x 

Mar.  22.    „    Parent    Society  —  Sectional 

Subscription,  i88S-g 

Apl.     I.    ,,   J.  E.  Cornish,  Fowler's  Cole- 
optera, Parts  21,  26,  27. . . . 
,,         ,,    Do.  "  Challenger  Reports," 

Zool.,  Vol.  30,  2  vols 

Apl.     I.    ,,   Charles     Hargreaves,    Tea, 
Coffee,  ttc,  62/8,  Postages, 

&c.,^  30,'- 

2.    ,,    C.  Simms  ife  Co.,  Circulars 

,,    Balance   in   Manchester  and 

Salford    Bank   (St.     Ann's 

Street) 


s.  d. 
2     o 

6    6 

18     2 

12       O 


I     6 

5     6 


5  6 

16  o 

5  o 

12  6 


1889. — April  2.     To  Balance  to  Credit  of 

Section   £42 


270  The  Council. 

THE    COUNCIL 
AND    MEMBERS 

OF   THE 

MAxNCHESTER 
LITERARY     AND     PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY. 


April  30,  1889. 


OSBORNE   REYNOLDS,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Dia-^i'esibeut0. 

WILLIAM  CRAWFORD  WILLIAMSON,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 

Foreign  Member  of  the  Royal  Swedish  Acad.  Sc. 

EDWARD  SCHUNCK,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S. 

JAMES  PRESCOTT  JOULE,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S., 

Corr.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sc.)  Paris,  and  Roy.  Acad.  Sc.  Turin. 

ARTHUR  SCHUSTER,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,   F.R.A.S. 

(Sccr^titms. 

FREDERICK  JAMES  FARADAY,   F.L.S.,  F.S.S. 
REGINALD   F.  GWYTHER,  M,A. 

CHARLES  BAILEY,   F.L.S, 


FRANCIS  NICHOLSON,  F.Z.S. 

©thci-  Jftcmbers  of  the  (Eouucil. 

JAMES  BOTTOMLEY,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.C.S. 

JOHN   BOYD. 

WILLIAM  HENRY  JOHNSON,  B.Sc. 

JAMES  COSMO  MELVILL,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 

HAROLD  B.  DIXON,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

ALEXANDER  HODGKINSON,  M.B.,  B.Sc. 


Honorary  Members.  271 


HONORARY     MEMBERS. 

Date  0/  Election. 
1847,  April  20.     Adams,     John     Couch,     LL.D.,     F.R.S.,     V.P.R.A.S., 

F.C.r.S.,    Director  of  the  Observatory,  and  Lowndsean 

Prof,  of  Astron.  and  Geom.  in  the  Univ.  of  Cambridge. 

Cor.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sci.),  &c.      The  Observatory, 

Camhi-idge. 
1843,  April  18.     Airy,  Sir  George  Biddell,  K.C.B.,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 

Hon.     Mem.     R.S.E.,    R.LA.,    F.C.P.S.,  For.  Mem. 

Inst.   Fr.  (Acad.  Sci.),  &c.      The  White  House,  Crooiii's 

Hill,  Greenwich  Park,  S.E. 
1887,  April  19.     Armstrong,  Sir  Wm.  George,  C.B.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.    Neiv- 

castle-oii-Tyne. 

1886,  Feb.     9.      Baker,  Benjamin.      2,  Queen's  Square  Place,   Westminster, 

S.W. 
1886,  Feb.     9.     Baker,  John  Gilbert,  F.R.S.     Keiv. 
1886,  Feb.     9.     Berthelot,  Prof.  Marcellin,  For.  Mem.  R.S.      Paris. 

1886,  Feb.     9.     Buchan,  Alexander,  F.R.S.  E.     j  2,  Northumberland  Street, 

Edinburgh. 
i860,  April  17.     Bunsen,  Robert  Wilhelm,   Ph.D.,  For.  Mem.  R.S.,  Prof, 
of  Chemistry  at  the  Univ.  of  Heidelberg.     Heidelberg. 

1887,  April  19.     Buys    Ballot,     Dr.   H.  D.,  Supt.    of  the    Royal   iNIeteor. 

Institution.      Utrecht. 

1888,  April  17.      Cannizzaro,  S.  Professor  of  Chemistry.     University  of  Rome. 

1889,  April  30.     Carruthers,    William,     Pres.     L.S.,    F.R.S.       Keeper   of 

Botanical  Dept.,  British  Museum. 
1859,  Jan,    25.     Cayley,    Arthur,     M.A.,    LL.D.,    D.C.L.,    V.P.R.A.S., 
F.C.P.S.,   Sadlerian  Prof,   of  Pure  Maths,  in  the  Univ. 
of    Cambridge,   Cor.   INIem.   Inst.   Fr.  (Acad.  Sci.),  &c. 
Garden  House  Cambridge. 

1886,  Oct.    30.     Clifton,  Robert  Bellamy,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,F.R.A.S.,Professor 

of  Natural  Philosophy,  Oxford.     New  Museum,  Oxford. 
1S89,  April  30.      Cohn,  Ferdinand,  Professor  of  Botany.     26,   Schweidnitzer 
Stadtgrabett,  Breslau. 

1887,  April  19.     Cornu,  Professor  Alfred,  For.  Mem.  R.S.     Ecole  Polytech- 

nil] tie,  Paris. 

18S6,  Feb.     9.     Dawson,  Sir  John  William,  C.M.G.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  LL.D., 
F.  G .  S .     Mc  Gill  College,  Mojttreal. 

1888,  April  17.     Dewalque,   Gustave,  Professor  of  Geology.       University  of 

Liege. 

1889,  April  30.      Farlow,    W.    G.,   Professor  of  Botany.     Harvard  College, 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


272  Honoi'ary  Members. 

Date  0/  Eiccticm. 
18S9,  April  30.     Flower,  William  Henry,  C.B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.     Director 

of  Nat.  Hist.  Dept.,  British  Museum. 
1889,  April  30.     Foster,  Michael,  M.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Sec.  R.S.,  Professor 

of  Physiology.      Trinity  College,  Catnbridge. 
i86o,  Mar.    9.     Frankland,      Edward,     Ph.D.,    M.D.,     LLD.,    D.C.L., 

V.P.C.S.   F.R.S.,  Cor.    Mem.   Inst.    Fr.    (Acad.  Sci.), 

&c.      The  Vezas,  Reigate  Hill,  Reigate. 
1843,  Feb.     7.     Frisiani,  nobile  Paola,  Pros.,  late  Astron.  at  the  Observ.  of 

Brera.   Milan,  Mem.   Imper.  Roy.  Instit.  of  Lombardy, 

Milan,  and  Ital.  Soc.  Sc.     Milan. 

1889,  April  30.  Halphen,  Professor  G.  H.,  Membre  de  I'lnstitut.  I'j,  Rue 
Ste. -Sophie,   Versailles. 

1889,  April  30.     Hertz,  H.,  Professor  of  Physics.     Bonn. 

1848,  Jan.  25.  Hind,  John  Russell,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Nautical  Almanac.  Cor.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr. 
(Acad.  Sci.).   3,  Cambridge  Park  Gardens,  Twickenham. 

1888,  Feb.    9.     Hirn,  Gustav  Adolph.      Colmar. 

1881,  April  17.  Hittorf,  Johann  Wilhelm,  Professor  of  Physics.  Polytcch- 
7iicum,  Munster. 

1886,  Feb.    9.     Helmholtz,     Geheimrath    Hermann     von,     LL.D.,     For. 

Mem.  R.S.  Prasident  der  Physikalisch-technischen 
Reichsanstalt.      Berlin. 

1866,  Jan.  23.  Hofman,  A.  W.,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Cor. 
Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sci.),  &c,  10,  Dorotheenstrasse, 
Berli)!. 

1869,  Jan.  12.  Hiiggins,  William,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S., 
Cor.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sci. ).  90,  Upper  Tjtlse  Hill,. 
Brixton,  London,  S.  W. 

1872,  April  30.  Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,. 
P.  P.  R.S. ,  Plon.  Prof,  of  Biology  in  Royal  School  of 
Mines.  Cor.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sci. ),  &c.  4,  Marl- 
borough Place,  Abbey  Road,  N.  W. 

1852,  Oct.    16.     Kirkman,  Rev.  Thomas  Penyngton,  M.A.,  F.R.S. ,   Croft 

Rectory,  near  IFarrington. 
1SS6,  Feb.     9.      Kopp,  Prof.  Hermann.     Heidelberg. 

1887,  April  19.     Langley,   Prof.   S.    P.,  Alleghany   Observatory,    Pittsburg, 

U.S. 
1887,  April  19.     Laveleye,  Emile  de,  Liege  University. 
1887,  April  19.     Lockyer,  Norman,   F.R.S.,  Cor.   Mem.  Inst.   Fr.,   (Acad. 

Sci.).     Science  School,  Kensington. 

1889,  April  30.     Lubbock,  Sir  John,  Bart.,  M.P.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

IS,  Lombard  Street,  E.  C. 

1889,  April  30.     Mendeleeff,  D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry.     St.  Petersburg. 
1889,  April  30.     Meyer,  Lothar,  Professor  of  Chemistry.      Tubingen. 


Honorary  Members.  273 

Date  of  Election. 

1887,  April  19.  Newcomb,  Prof.  Simon,  For.  Mem.  R.S.  foluis  Hopkins 
University,  Balti/nore,  U.S. 

1844,  April  30.  Owen,  Sir  Richard,  K.C.B.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  V.P.Z.S.,  F.R.C.S.  Ireland,  Hon. 
M.R.S.E.,  For.  Assoc.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sci.),  &c. 
Sheen  Lodge,  Richmond. 

Pasteur,  Louis,  For.  Mem.  R.S.     Paris. 

Playfair,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Lyon,  K.C.B.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  F.R  S., 

F.G.S.,    M.P.,    V.P.C.S.,    &c.     68,    Onslozv    Gardens, 

London,  S.  W. 
Prestwich,  Joseph,   F.  R.S.,   F.G.S.,   Cor.    Mem.  Inst.   Fr. 

(Acad.  Sci.).     Shorehain,  near  Sevenoaks. 

Ramsay,    Sir   Andrew    Crombie    LL.D.,    F.R.S.,    F.(j,S., 

15,  Cronnvell  Crescent,  South  Kensington,  London. 
Rawson,  Rol^ert,  F.R.A.S.     Havant,  Hants. 
Rayleigh,    John    William    Strutt,    Lord,    M.A.,    D.C.L., 
(Oxon.),  LL.D.    (Univ.  McGill),   Sec.  R.S.,  F.R.A.S., 
Terling  Place,   Withani,  Essex. 
Rdmer,  Dr.  Fred.     Breslau. 
Resal,  Professor  Henri,  Membre  de  I'lnstitut.     Ecole  Poly- 

techniqite,  Paris. 
Roscher,  Dr.  Wilhelm,  K.  Geheimer  Rath,  and  Professor  of 

Political  Economy.    Leipsic. 
Routh,  Edward  John,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S.      Newnliain  Cottage, 
Cambridge. 

Sachs,  Julius  von,  Ph.D.      Wurzburg. 

Salmon,  Revd.  George,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,   F.R.S. , 

Regius  Professor  of  Divinity.  Trinity     College,  Dublin. 
Siemens,  Dr.  Ernst  Werner  von,  Geheimer  Rath.     Provost's 

House,  g4,  Markgrafenstrasse,  Berlin. 
Sorby,  Henry  Clifton,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S,  &c.   Broom- 
field,  Sheffield. 
Stokes,  Sir   George  Gabriel,  Bart.,   M.A.,  M.P.,  LL.D., 

D.C.L.,   Pres.    R.S.,    Lucasian    Professor   of  Mathem. 

Univ.  Cambridge,  F.C.P.S.,  Cor.  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad. 

Sci.),&c.     Lensfield  Cottage,  Cambridge. 
1 886,  Feb.     9.     Strasburger,  Professor.     Bonn. 
1861,  Jan.    22.     Sylvester,  James  Joseph,  M.A.,   D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Savilian  Prof,   of  Geom.  in  the  Univ.  of  Oxford,   Cor. 

Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sci.),  &c.     New  College,  Oxford. 

1868,  April  28.  Tait,  Peter  Guthrie,  M.A.,  PM-l.S.E.,  &c.,  Profes.sor  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  Edinburgh.  38,  George  Sijuare, 
Edinbitri^h . 


i886, 
1851, 

Feb.    9. 
April  29. 

i866. 

Jan.  23. 

1866, 

Jan.  23. 

1849,  Jan.    23. 
1886,  Feb.     9. 

1887,  April  19. 
1889,  April  30. 

1889, 

April  30. 

1889, 

April  30. 

1872,  April  30. 
1889,  April  30. 

1S89, 

April  30. 

1869, 

Dec.    14. 

1851, 

April  29. 

2/4  Honorary  Members. 

Date  of  Election. 
1851,  April  22.     Thomson,    Sir  William,  M. A.,   D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.S. 

L.  and  E.  Prof,  of  Nat.  Phil,  in  Univ.  of  Glasgow.  For. 

Assoc.  Inst.  Yr.  (Acad.  Sci.),  2,  College,  Glasgow. 
1872,  April  30.     Trecul,  A.,  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France.     Paris. 
1886,  Feb.     9.     Tylor,  Edward  Burnett,  F.R.S.,  D.C.L.  (Oxon.),    LL.D. 

(St.    And.    and    McGill    Colls.),    Keeper    of  University 

Museum.      Oxford. 
1868,  April  28.     Tyndall,    John,  LL.D.,    M.D.,   D.C.L.,    Ph.D.,   F.R.S., 

F.C.S.     Royal  Institution,  London,  W. 

1889,  April  30.     Williamson,  Alexander  William,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  For.  Sec. 
R.S.,  Corn  Mem.  Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sci.).    High  Pit/old, 

Shotterinill ,  Haslemere. 

18S6,  Feb.     9.     Young,  Prof.  C.  A.     Princeton  College,  NJ.,  U.S. 

1888,  April  17.     Zirkel,  Ferdinand,  Professor  of  Mineralogy.      University  of 
Leipsic. 


Corresponding  Members.  275 


CORRESPONDING   MEMBERS. 

Date  o/Ekction. 

i860,  April  17.     Ainswurth,     Thomas.        Clea'or    iMills,     near  Egre/iiouS, 
IVhileliaven. 

1861,    Jan.  22.     Buckland,  George,  Professor,  University  College,  Toronto. 
Toronto. 

1870,  March  8.     Cockle.   The  Hon.    Sir  James,  M.A.,   F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S., 
F.C.  P.S.       12,  St.  Steplieiis  Road,  Baysivater,  London. 

1866,  Jan.   23.     De  Caligny,  Anatole,  Marquis,  Corresp.  Mem.  Acadd.  Sc. 

Turin   and    Caen,   Socc.   Agr.   Lyons,   Sci.   Cherbourg, 
Liege,  &c. 

1861,  April  2.     Durand-Fardel,    Max,    M.D.,    Chev.    of    the    Legion   of 

Honour,  &c.     36,   Km  de  Lille,  Paris. 

1849,  April  17.     Girardin,  J.,   Off.   Legion  of  Honour,   Corr.  Mem.  Instit. 

France,  &c.      Lille. 

1850,  April  30.     Harley,   Rev.  I-iobert,   F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.      17,  Wellington 

Square,    Oxford. 
1882,  Nov.  14.      Herford,  Rev.  Brooke.     Arlington  Street,  Boston,  U.S. 

1862,  Jan.     7.     Lancia  di  Brolo,  Frederico,  Due,  Inspector  of  Studies,  &c. 

Palermo. 
1859,  Jan.   25.     Le  Jolis,  Auguste- Francois,    Ph.D.    Archiviste    perpetuel 

and  late   President  of  the  Soc.  Nat.  Sc.  Cherbourg,  &c. 

Cherbonrg. 
1857.  Jan.   27.     Lowe,  Edward  Joseph,   F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  F.G.S.,  Mem. 

Brit.  Met.  Soc,   &c.     Shirenewton  Hall,  near  Chepstow. 

1862,  Jan.     7.     Nasmyth,  James,  C.E.,    F.R.A.S.,  &c,     PensJnirst,   Tun- 
bridge. 

1867,  Feb,    5.     Schrinfeld,   Edward,    Ph.D.,    Director    of  the  Mannheim 

Ob.servatory. 


?76  Ordinary  Members. 


ORDINARY  MEMBERS. 

Date  of  Election. 
1888,  Nov.  13.     Adams,     C.    N.,    B.A.,    The    Htilme    Grammar    School, 

Alexandra  Road. 
1881,  Jan.    II.     Adamson,   Daniel,   M.   Inst.   C.E.,    F.G.S.,    The   Towers, 

Didshury. 
1861,  Jan.  22.     Alcock,  Thomas,  M.D.,  Extr.  L.R.C.P.  Lend.,  M.R.C.S. 

Engl.,  L.S.A.      Oakfield,  Ashton-on-Mersey. 
^"^ll)^   J^i''-      7-     Allmann,  Julius.     70,  Deansgate. 
1870,  Dec.    13.     Angell,  John,    F.C.S.,    F.I.C.     81,   Dmie  Grove,  Oxford 

Road. 
1861,  Jan.   22.     Anson,  Ven.   Archd.  George  Henry  Greville,  M.  A.  Birch 

Rectory,  Rtisholme. 
1885,  Nov.  17.     Armstrong,    Thomas,    F.R.M.S.       Brookfield,    Urmston ; 

Deansgate. 
1837,  Aug.   II.     Ashton,  Thomas,     -^.b,  Charlotte  Street. 
1881,  Nov.     I.     Ashton,  Thomas  Gair,  M.P.,  M.A.     36,  Charlotte  Street. 
1887,  Nov.  16.     Ashworth,  J.  Jackson.     35,  Mosley  Street,   City. 


1865,  Nov.  15.     Bailey,   Charles,   F.L.S.     Ashfield,  College  Road,  Whalley 

Rans;e,  Manchester. 
1888,  Nov.  13.     Bailey,  G.  H.,  D.Sc.  Ph.D..  The  Owens  College. 

1888,  Feb.     7.     Bailey,  Alderman  W.  H.      Szimmerfeld,  Eccles  Neiv  Road. 
1876,  Nov.  28.     Barratt,  Walter  Edward.      Kersal,  Higher  Brojighton. 

1867,  Nov.  12.     Barrow,  John.      Beechfield,  Folly  Lane,  Szvinton. 

1889,  Jan.      8.     Beard,  }.  R.,  Richmond  Grove,  Longsight. 

1 868,  Dec.  15.     Bickham,  Spencer  H.     Oakwood,  Alder  ley  Edge. 

1861,  Jan.    22.     Bottomley,    James,    D..Sc.,     B.A.,    F.C.S.       210,    Lower 

Broiighton  Road. 
1889,  Jan.    22.     Bowman,    George,   M.D.    Monifieth,    Stretford  Road,   Old 

Trafford. 
1875,  Nov.  16.     Boyd,  John.     Sandiway  House,  Palatine  Road,  Didshury. 
1855,  April  17.     Brockbank,  William,  F.G.S.,  F.L.S.     Prince's  Chambers, 

26,  Pall  Mall. 
1861,  April    2.     Brogden,  Henry,  F.G.S.     Hale  Lodge,  Altritichaiu. 
1844,  Jan.   22.     Brooks,    Sir  William  Cunliffe,  Bart.,  M.A.,  M.P.     Bank, 

92,  King  Street. 
18S9,  April  16.      Brooks,  Herbert  S.     Slade  House,  Levenshulme. 
i860,  Jan.     23.     Brothers   Alfred,    F.R.A.S.      12,  .Siuinton  Avenue,  JUan- 

chester. 
1886,  April    6.     Brown.Alfred,  M.A.,  M.B.    Claremont,  Higher  Broiighton. 


Ordinary  Members.  277 

1846,  Jan.    27.     Browne,    Henry,  M. A.    (Glas.),  M.R.C.S.  (Lond.),  M.D. 

(Lond.)-     Heaton  Mersey. 
1889,  Jan.     8.     Br'ownell,  T.  M.     School  Board  Offices,  St.  lames' Square, 

Manchester. 
1872,  Nov.   12.     Burghardt,  Charles  Anthony,  Ph.D.     35,  Fountain  Street, 


Christie,  Richard  Copley,  M.A.,  Chancellor  of  the  Diocese, 

The  Elms,  Roehampton,  S.  W. 
Clay,  Charles,  M.D.,  Extr.  L.R.C.P.  (Lond.).  M.R.C.S. 

(Edin.).       Tower  Lodge,  Poidton-le-Fylde,  Lane. 
Cohen,  J.  B.,  Ph.D.     The  Ozvens  College. 
Corbett,  Joseph.     9,  Albert  Sqtiare. 
Cottam,   Samuel,  F.R.A.S.,  F.R.   Hist.  .S.,   F.C.A.     49, 

Spring  Ga7-dens. 
Coward,  Edward.     Heaton  Met  sey,  near  Manchester. 
Coward,  Thomas.  ,  Higher  Downs,  Altrincham. 
Crowther,  Joseph  Stretch.     Endsleigh,  Alderley  Edge. 
Cunlifife,  Robert    Ellis.     The  Poplars,  Eccles  Old  Road, 

Eccles. 


Dale,  John,  F.C.S.     i,  Chester  Terrace,  Chester  Road. 
Dale,  Richard  Samuel,  B.A.      i,  Chester   Terrace,  Chester 

Road. 
Darbishire,  Robert  Dukinfield,  B.A.,  F.S.A.,  F.G.S.,  26, 

George  Street. 
Davis,  Joseph.     Engineer's  Offices,  Lancashire  and   York- 
shire Railway.  Hunt's  Bank. 
1869.  Nov.     2.     Dawkins,  William  Boyd,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.R.S., 
Assoc.  Inst.  C. E.,  Hon.  Fellow  Jesus  College,  Oxford; 
Professor  of  Geology  in  Owens  College.      The  Owens 
Colles;e. 
1861,  Dec.   10.     Deane,  William  King.     Almondbury  Place,  Chester  Road. 
1879,  Mar.  18.     Dent,  Hastings  Charles.  F.L.S.,   F.R.G.S.     20,    Thurloe 

Square,  London,  S.  W. 
1S87,  Feb.     S.     Dixon,  Harold  B.,  M.A,,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Chemistry. 

The  Owens  College. 
1886,  Mar.    9.     Dodgshon,  John.     Kingston  Road,  Didslniry. 


1883.  Oct.     2,     Faraday,  Frederick  James,  F.L.S.,  F.S.S.     Ramsay  Lodge, 
Slade  Lane,  Levenshulme. 


1886,  Feb.     9.     Gee,  W.  W.  Haldane,  B.Sc.      The  Owens  College. 
1 88 1,  Nov.     I.     Greg,  Arthur.     Eagley,  near  Bolton. 

T 


1854, 

April 

18. 

I84I, 

April 

30. 

1886, 

Dec. 

14. 

1884, 

Nov. 

4- 

1853,  Jan. 

25- 

1859,  Jan. 

25- 

1861, 

Nov. 

12. 

1849,  Jan. 

25- 

1876, 

April  18. 

1854. 

Feb. 

7- 

1871, 

Nov. 

8. 

1853,  April 

19- 

1878, 

Nov. 

26. 

278  Ordinary  Members. 

Date  0/  Election. 

1874,  Nov.     3.  Grimshaw,  Harry,  F.C.S.      Thornton  Viezu,  Clayton. 
1888,  Feb.     7.  Grimshaw,  William.     Stonelei^h,  Sale. 

1875,  F^^-     9'  Gwyther,  R.  F.,  M.A.,  Fielden  Lecturer  in  Mathematics, 

Owens  College.      77ie  Owens  College. 


1862.  Nov.  4,  Hart,  Peter.  Messrs.  Tennan/s  &^  Co.,  Mill  Street, 
Clayton,  N.,  Manchester. 

1873,  Dec.   16.     Heelis,  James.     71,  Princess  Street. 

1828.  Oct.  31.  Henry,  William  Charles,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  Haffield,  near 
Ledbury,  Herefordshire. 

1889,  Jan.      8.     Heywood  Chas.  J.,     Chaseley,  Pendleton. 

1833,  April  26.  Heywood,  James,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.S.A.  26,  Kensing- 
ton Palace  Gardens,  Lojidon,  W. 

1864,  Mar.  22.     Heywood,  Oliver.     Bank,  St.  Ami's  Street. 

1884,  Jan.  8.  Hodgkinson,  Alexander,  M.B.,  B.Sc.  1%  St.  /ohn  Street, 
Manchester. 

1846,  Jan.  27.  Holden,  James  Piatt,  3,  Temple  Bank,  Smedley  Lane, 
Cheetham. 

1887,  April  19.     Holmes,  Ralph,  B.  A.    Hiiliue  Grammar  School,  Alexandra 

Park. 
1882,  Oct.    17.     Holt,  Henry.      The  Cedars,  Didshnry. 
1873,  Dec.     2.     Howorth,    Henry    H.,    F.S.A. ,    M.P.      Bentcliffe  House, 

Eccles. 
1884,  Jan.      8.     Hurst,  Charles  Herbert.      The  Owens  College. 

1888,  April  17.     Hutton,  James  Arthur,     sg,  Dale  Street. 


1870,  Nov.     I.     Johnson,  William  H.,  B.Sc.     26,  Lever  Street. 

1878,  Nov.  26.     Jones,  Francis,  F.R.S.E.,  F.C.S.       Gramtnar  School. 

1885,  Dec.     I.     Jones,  Henry,  B.A.     Norman  Road,  Rusholme. 

1842,  Jan.  25.  Joule,  James  Prescott,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  r.R.S.,  F.C.S., 
Hon.  Mem.  C.P.S.,  and  Inst.  Eng.  Scot.,  Corr.  Mem. 
Inst.  Fr.  (Acad.  Sc.)  Paris,  and  Roy.  Acad.  Sc.  Turin. 
12,  War  die  Road,  Sale. 

1886,  Jan.    12.     Kay,  Thomas,  J. P.     Moorfeld,  Stockport. 
1852,  Jan.    27.     Kennedy,  John  Lawson.     47,  Mosley  Street. 

1862,  April  29.     Knowles,  Andrew.     Szvinton  Old  Hall,  Szvinton. 

1886,  Mar.  9.  Lamb,  Horace,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Mathematics 
at  the  Owens  College.     106,  Palatine  Road,  Didsbury. 

1863,  Dec.    15.     Leake,  Robert,  M.P.      The  Dales,  Whitefield. 

1884,  April  15.     Leech,  Daniel  John,  Professor,  M.D.      The  Owens  College. 
1850,  April  30.     Leese  Joseph.     Messrs.  S.  dj'  E.  Leese,  Fylde  Road  Mill, 

Preston. 
1884,  Jan.    22.     London,  Rev.  Herbert,  M.A.     Pocklington,   Yorkshire, 


Ordinary  Members.  279 

Date  of  Election. 
1857,  Jan.    27.     Longridge,    Robert    Bewick.       Ye7v-Tree   House,    Tabley, 

Kniitsford. 
1870,  April  19.     Lowe,    Charles,     F.C.S.     Suininerjield    House,    Reddish, 
Stockport. 


1866,  Nov.  13.     McDougall,  Arthur    B.Sc.      Clifton    Lodge,    Gore   Street, 

Greet  they s. 
1859,  Jan.    25.     Maclure,  John  William,  M. P.,  F.R.G.S.,     Whalley  Range. 
1875,  Jan.    26.     Mann,  John  Dixon,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P.,  Lond.      i6,  Si./ohn 

Street. 
1879,  Dec.     2.     Marshall,  Arthur  Milnes,    M.A.,   M.D.,    D.Sc,    F.R.S., 

Professor    of  Zoology,    Owens    College.      The     Oivens 

College. 
1864,  Nov.     I.     Mather,  William.     Iron  Works,  Salford. 
1873.  Mar.  18.     Melvill,  James    Cosmo,   M.A,,   F.L.S.      Kersal   Cottage, 

Prestwich. 
1879,  Dec.  30.     Millar,  John  Bell,  M.E.,  Assistant  Lecturer  in  Engineering, 

Owens  College.      The  Owens  College. 
1 88 1,  Oct.    18.     Mond,  Ludwig,  F.C.S.      Winnington  Hall,  Northwich. 
1861,  Oct.  29.     Morgan,    John  Edward,    M.D.,  M.A.,  F.R.C.P.  Lond., 

F.R.  Med.  and    Chir.   S.,    Professor  of  Medicine  in  the 

Victoria  University.     I,  St.  Peter's  Square. 
1889,  April  16.     Moultrie,   George   W.     Bank  of  England,    King   Street, 

Manchester. 

1873,   Mar.    4.     Nicholson,  Francis,  F.Z.S.     62,  Fountain  Street. 

1889,  April  16.     Norbury,  George.     Hillside,  Prestwich  Park,  Prestwich. 


1862,  Dec.   30.     Ogden,  Samuel.     10,  Mosley  Street  West. 

1884,  April  15.     Okell,    Samuel,    F.R.A.S.        Overley,     Langham    Road, 

Bowdon. 
1861,  Jan.    22.     O'Neill,  Charles,  F.C.S.,  Corr.  Mem.  Ind.  Soc.  Mulhouse. 

Glen  Allan,  Manley  Road,  Whalley  Range. 
1844,  April  30.     Ormerod,  Henry  Mere,  F.G.S.     5,  Clarence  Street. 

1 86 1,  April  30.     Parlane,  James.     Rusholine. 

1876,  Nov.  28.     Parry,  Thomas,    F.S.S.       Grafton   House,  Ashton-under- 
Lyne. 

1885,  Nov.  17.     Phillips,  Henry  Harcourt,  F.C.S.     18,  Exchange  Street. 
1854,  Jan.   24.     Pochin,  Henry  Davis,  F.C.S.     Bodnant  Hall,  Conway. 

1854,  Feb.     7.     Ramsbottom,   John,   M.    Inst.   C.E.      Fernhill,    Alderley 

Edge. 
1859,  April  19.     Ransome,    Arthur,    M.A.,      M.D.,     Cantab.,      F.R.S., 
M.R.C.S.     \,  St.  Peter's  Square. 


28o  Ordinary  Members. 

Date  of  Election. 

1888.  Feb.   21.     Ree,  Alfred,  Ph.D.,  F.C.S.      121,  Manches(e7  Road,  Mid- 

dle ton. 

1869,  Nov.  16.  Reynolds,  Osborne,  LL.D.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  M.  Inst.  C.E., 
Professor  of  Engineering,  the  Owens  College.  Lady- 
barn  Road,  Fallowfield. 

1884,  April    3.     Rhodes,  James,  M.R.CS.     Glossop. 

1880,  Mar.  23.  Roberts,  D.  Lloyd,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  Ed.,  F.R.CP.  (London). 
Ravenswood,  Broiighton  Park. 

1889,  April    6.     Robertson,  W.  J.,  Hollins'Moimt,  Heaton  Moor,  Stockport. 
1864,  Dec.  27.     Robinson,  John,  M.  Inst.  C.E.      Westwood  Hall,  Leek. 
1858,  Tan.   26.     Roscoe,  Sir  Henry  Enfield,  B.A.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. , 

F.C.S.,  M.P.     10,  Bramham  Gardens,  Wetherby  Road, 
Londo7i,  S.  W. 

1 85 1,  April  29.     Sandeman,  Archibald,  M.A.     Garry  Cottage,  near  Perth. 

1870,  Dec.  13.  Schorlemmer,  Carl,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.  The  Owens 
College. 

1842,  Jan.  25,  Schiinck,  Edward,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.  J^ersal,  Man- 
chester. 

1873,  Nov.  18.  Schuster,  Arthur,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.  The  Owens 
College. 

1881,  Nov.  29.     Schwabe,  Edmund  Salis,  B.A.     41,  George  Street. 

1886,  April    6.     Simon,  Henry,  C.E.     Darwin  House,  Didsbury. 

1859,  Jan.   26.     Sowler,  Thomas.     24,  Cannon  Street. 

1884,  Mar.  18.     Thompson   Alderman  Joseph.     Riversdale,  Wilvisloiu. 
1873,  April  15.     Thomson,    William,    F.R.S. E.,     F.C.S.,    F.LC.       Royal 

Lnstitiition. 
1889,  April  30.     Thornber,  Harry.     Rookfield  Avenue,  Sale. 
i860,  April  17.     Trapp,  Samuel  Clement.     88,    Mos ley  Street. 

1879,  Dec.  30.     Ward,  Thomas.     Brookfield  House,  Northwich. 

1873,  Nov.  18.     Waters,   Arthur  William,    F.G.S.      Care  of  Mr.  J.   West, 

Microscopical  Society,  King's  College,  London. 
1859,  Jan.  25.     Wilde,  Henry,  F.R.S.      The  Hurst,  Alder  ley  Edge. 
1859,  April  19.     Wilkinson,  Thomas  Read.     Maiichester  and  Salford  Bank, 
Alosley  Street. 

1874,  Nov.    3.     Williams,  William  Carleton,  B.Sc,  Professor  of  Chemistry. 

Firth  College,  Sheffield. 
1888,  April  17.     Williams,  E.  Leader,  M.I.C.E.     Boivdon,  Cheshire. 
1887,  April  19.     Williamson,  J.  H.  R.     14,  St.  Ann's  Square. 
1851,  April  29.     Williamson,  William  Crawford,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor 

of  Botany,  The  Owens  College,  M.R.CS.  Engl.,  L.S.A., 

For.  Mem.  Swed.  Acad.     Egerton  Road,  Falloivjield. 
18S9,  April  16.     Wilson,  Thomas  B.     37,    Arcade    Chambers,    St.  Mary's 

Gate,  Manchester. 


Literary  and  Philosophical  Society.  28] 

Date  of  Election. 
i860,  April  17.     Woolley,  George  Stephen.     6g,  Market  Street. 
1863,  Nov.  17.     Worthington,   Samuel  Barton,   M.    Inst.   C.E.      12,    York 

Place,  Oxford  Street. 
1865,  Feb.  21.     Worthington,  Thomas,  F.R.I.B.A.     40,  Brown  Street. 


N.B. — Of  the  above  list  the  following  have  compounded  for  their  sub- 
scriptions, and  are  therefore  Life  Members  : 
Brogden,  Henry. 
Johnson,  William  H.,  B.Sc. 
Sandeman,  Archibald,  M.A. 
Lowe,  Charles,  F.C.S. 


NEWYOR 


T.    SOWLER   AND  CO. 

PRINTERS,    CANNON    STREET, 

MANCHESTER. 


Fourth  Series.  /  Vol.  2  :  No.   i. 

MEMOIRS   AND    PROCEEDINGS 

OF 

THE    MANCHESTER 

LITERARY  &  PHILOSOPHICAL 
SOCIETY. 


CONTENTS. 


Proceedings pp.  i,  9,  21 

Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section  -        -  -  -    p.  8 

Physical  and  Mathematical  Section        -        -        -  -  -  p.  20 

Memoirs : — 

Incompleteness  of  Combustion  in  Gaseous  Explosions. 
By  Prof.  Harold  B.  Dixon,  F.R.S.,  and  H.  W. 
Smith,  B.Sc. p.  2 

A  decade  of  new  Hymenoptera.    By  P.  Cameron,  F.E.S. 

Communicated  by  John  Boyd,  Esq.  -        -        -        -  p.  11 

A  New  System  of  Logical  Notation.  By  Joseph  John 
Murphy.  Communicated  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Harley, 
M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Corresponding  Member    -        -        -  p.  22 


MANCHESTER : 
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Fourth  Series.  Vol.  2  :  No.  2. 

MEMOIRS   AND    PROCEEDINGS 

THE    MANCHESTER 

LITERARY  &  PHILOSOPHICAL 

SOCIETY. 

1888-9. 

CONTENTS. 


Proceedings pp.  33—37,  38-41,  71—73 

Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section        -        -      pp.  38,  70 

Memoirs  : — 

Notes    on   Some   of  the   Peculiar   Properties  of  Glass. 

By  William  Thomson.    F.R.S.Ed.,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.  p.  42 

On  the  British  Species  of  AUotrinae,  with  descriptions 
of  other  new  species  of  Parasitic  Cynipidae.  By 
P.  Cameron.     Communicated  by  John  Boyd,  Esq.  -  p.  53 

On  the  unification  in  the  measure  of  time,  with  special 
reference  to  the  contest  on  the  initial  meridian.  By 
C.  Tondini  de  Quarenghi.  Communicated  by  F.  J. 
Faraday,  F.L.S.  -        -        -        -        -        -        -  P-  74 


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Fourth  Series.  Vol.  2  :  No.  3. 

MEMOIRS   AND    PROCEEDINGS 

THE    MANCHESTER 

LITERARY  &  PHILOSOPHICAL 
SOCIETY. 

1888-9. 

CONTENTS. 

Proceedings PP-  90,  153,  184,  192 

Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section        -        -    pp.  89,  183 

Memoirs  :— 

Hymenoptera  Orientalis ;  or  Contributions  to  a  knowledge 
of  the  Hymenoptera  of  the  Oriental  Zoological 
Region.  By  P.  Cameron.  Communicated  by  John 
Boyd,  Esq. P'9i 

On  the  equation  to  the  Instantaneous  Surface  generated 
by  the  dissolution  of  an  Isotropic  Solid.  By  James 
Bottomley,  D.Sc.        -        - p.  154 

On    the  Vitrified   Cement    from    an    ancient  fort.      By 

G.  H.  Bailey,  D.Sc,  Ph.D. P-  185 

Notes  on  a  form  of  Plantago  maritima  [L.]  new  to  Great 
Britain :  f.  Pumila  (Kjellman).  By  James  Cosmo 
MelviU,  M.A.,  F.L.S. p.  189 

Colour  and  its  relation  to  the  Structure  of  Coloured 
Bodies :  being  an  investigation  into  the  Physical 
Cause  of  Colour  in  natural  and  artificial  bodies  and 
the  Nature  of  the  Structure  producing  it.  By 
Alexander  Hodgkinson,  M.B.,  B.Sc.        -        -        -  p.  193 


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NOTICE. 

The  Editor  regrets  that,  owing  to  unexpected  delays,  he 
is  unable  to  issue  the  coloured  chart  illustrating  Dr.  Hodgkin- 
son's  paper  on  "The  Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies"  with  the 
present  number  of  the  "  Memoirs  and  Proceedings."  It  will, 
however,  be  included  with  the  next  number  (which  the  Editor 
hopes  to  issue  in  a  week  or  two)  in  position  for  binding. 
An  uncoloured  proof  of  the  chart  (to  be  re-placed  by  the 
coloured  one)  is  issued  with  the  present  number. 


Fourth  S&ries. 


Vol.  2  :  No.  4. 


MEMOIRS   AND   PROCEEDINGS 

OF 

THE    MANCHESTER 

LITERARY  &  PHILOSOPHICAL 
SOCIETY. 

1888-9. 

CONTENTS. 


Coloured  Chart  to  illustrate  Dr.  Hodgkinson's  paper  on  the 

Structure  of  Coloured  Bodies.     To  face    -        -        -        -  p.  212 

Proceedings pp.  215,  220,  226,  234,  236 

Microscopical  and  Natural  History  Section  -        -  pp.  213^  224,  267 

Physical  and  Mathematical  Section p.  214 

Memoirs  : — 

On  Leaves  found  in  the  Cutting  for  the  Manchester  Ship 
Canal,    21  feet   under  the   Surface,    and  on   Green 
Colouring  Matter  contained  therein.     By  William 
Thomson,  F.R.S.  Ed.,  &c.      JVM  Plate  -        -        -  p.  216 
On  Sound  propagated  through  an  atmosphere,  in  which 
the  surfaces  of  constant  density  are  parallel  planes, 
in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  those  planes.     By 
Ralph  Holmes,  B.A.  -        -        -       -       -        -  p,  221 

Notes  on  Seedling  Saxifrages  grown  at  Brockhurst, 
from  a  single  scape  of  Saxifraga  Macnabiana.  By 
William  Brockbank,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.  -  -  -  p.  227 
On  the  Green  Colouring  Matter  from  Leaves  found  in 
one  of  the  Cuttings  of  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal. 
By  Edward  Schunck,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.  -  -  -  p.  231 
On  an  old  Canoe  recently  found  in  the  Irwell  Valley, 
near  Barton,  with  observations  on  Pre-historic  Chat 
Moss.  By  Mr.  Alderman  W.  H.  Bailey.  IFM 
t7uo  Plates    -------__  p.  243 

Annual  Report  of  the  Council p.  252 

List  of  the  Council  and  Members p.  270 

Title  Page  and  Index  to  the  Volume. 


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