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MEMOIRS 


BEAD  BEFORE  THE 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL    SOCIETY 


OF   LONDON. 


1867-8-9. 


VOL.    III. 


LONDON: 

rCBLIBHBD   FOR  TRI  AMTHROPOLOOICAL  ROCIETT,   BT 

LONGMANS,    GREEN,  &   CO. 

1870. 


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COUNCIL  OF  THE 


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JOHN  BEDDOE,  Esq.,  M.D.,  For.  Assoc.  A.3.  Paris,  etc. 

HEBMANN  BEIGEL,  Esq.,  MJ).,  M.B.G.P. 

GAPT.  BICHARD  F.  BUBTON,  H.M.  Consul,  Damascus. 

B.  S.  CHABNOCE,  Esq.,  PhJ).,  F.S.A.,  For.  Assoc.  A.S.  Paris,  etc. 

J.  BABNABD  DAVIS,  Esq..  M.D.,  F.B.S.,  F.S.A.,  For.  Assoc  A.S.  Paris,  etc 

CAPTAIN  BEDFOBD  PIM,  B.N.,  F.B.a.S. 

BEBTUOLD  SEE  MANN^  Esq.,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S. 

9(ttctot* 

T.  BENDYSHE,  Esq.,  M.A. 

Stiasfuret* 

Bbv.  DUNBAB  I.  HEATH,  M Jk. 

a^tt  fiUwittx$i  of  CotmcQ* 

J.  GOULD  AVEBY,  Esq. 

J.  BUBFOHD  CARLILL,  Esq.,  M.D. 

S.  E.  COLLINGWOOD,  Esq. 

W.  C.  DENDY,  Esq. 

GEORGE  HABBIS,  Esq.,  F.S.A. 

JONATHAN  HUTCHINSON.  Esq.,  F.B.C.S. 

W.  B.  KESTEVEN,  Esq.,  F.RC.S. 

KELBUBNE  king.  Esq.,  M.D. 

BICHARD  KING,  Esq.,  M.D. 

A.  L.  LEWIS,  Esq. 

ST.  GEOBGE  J.  MIVABT.Esq.,  F.R.S. 

MAJOB  S.  B.  I.  OWEN,  F.L.S. 

E.  PEACOCK,  Esq.,  F.SjL. 

J.  SPENGE  BAMSKILL,  Esq.,  M.D. 

G.  ROBEBT  DES  BUFFIERES.  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

JOHN  THURNAM,  Esq..  M.D. 

W.  S.  W.  VAUX.  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  etc. 

C.  S.  WAKE,  Esq. 

A.  WILTSHIRE,  Esq.,  M.D. 

E.  VILLIN,  Esq. 


£ecretarg  ant  S^fbranan. 

J.  FRED.  COLLINGWOOD.  Esq..  F.G.S.,  For.  Assoc.  A.S.  Parisr 


LIST    OP    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAOB 

d  of  an  Australian  and  an  Aino  Woman         .        Frontispiece 

L  Houses  for  the  Dead  of  the  Hovas  in  Madagascar  .       17 

*ress  of  the  Hovas          .                                .  .17 

Instruments  of  the  Hovas             .                .  .18 

r  Amo  Man    .                .                «                .  .21 

ditto           .                .                .                .  .21 

>  British  Skulls,  from  Long  Barrows  in  Wiltshire  .       41 

ditto          from  a  Long  Barrow  in  Wiltshire  41 

Skull             .             '  .                .  .368 


Scotland,  to  lUustrato  Tables  of  Stature        .  400 

England  and  Wales,        ditto        .  .  426 


CONTENTS. 


PAOB 


L  The  Hovas,  and  other  characteristic  Tribes  of  Madagascar. 

By  Lieut.  S.  P.  Oliver,  RA.,  RRG.S.,  F.A.S.L.  .        1 

XL  Description  of  the  Skeleton  of  an  Amo  Woman,  and  of 
Three  Skulls  of  Men  of  the  same  race.  By  Joseph 
Barnard  Davis,  M.D.,  F.RS.,  F.S.A.,  V.P.A.S.L.,  etc.       21 

m.  Further  Researches  and  Observations  on  the  Two  Principal 
Forms  of  Ancient  British  Skulls.  By  John  Thurnam, 
M.D.,  F.S.A.,  F.A.S.L.   .  .  .41 

IV.  Elasticity  of  Animal  Type.     By  C.  W.  Devis,  B.A.  .       81 

V.  Vocal  and  other  Influences  upon  Mankind,  of  Pendency  of 

the  Epiglottis.  By  Sir  George  Duncan  Gibb,  Bart., 
M.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.G.S.,  V.P.A.S.L.,  Member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians,  Assistant-Physician  and 
Lecturer  on  Forensic  Medicine,  Westminster  Hospital, 
etc.  .....     106 

VI.  Note  on  the  Skulls  found  in  the  Roimd  Barrows  of  the 

South  of  England.  By  C.  Carter  Blake,  Esq. ,  Doct.  Sci. , 
F.G.S.,  Hon.  F.A.S.L.,  Lecturer  on  Comparative  Anatomy 
and  Zoology  at  Westminster  Hospital  School  of  Medicine     114 

VII.  On  the  Gypsies  of  Bengal.  By  Babu  Rajendrala'la 
MiTRA,  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  London,  Hon.  Member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Corresponding 
Member  of  the  German  and  the  American  Oriental  So- 
cieties, etc.      .  .  .  .  .120 

viii.  The  Psychological  Unity  of  Mankind.     By  C.  S.  Wake, 

r.A.S.L.  .....      io't 


VI  CONTENTS. 

IX.  The  Indians  of  the  Mosquito  Territory.   By  John  Collin- 

soN,  C.E.,  F.RG.S.,  F.A.S.L.,  etc.,  etc.  .     148 

X.  On  the  Saracens  in  France,  especially  in  Burgundy  and 
Lorraine.  By  Dr.  Gustavb  Lagneau.  (Translated  by 
E.  Villin,  F.R.S.L.,  F.A.S.L.)         .  .  .157 

XI.  On  the  Ancient  or  Fossil  Pottery  found  on  the  Shores  of 

Ecuador.     By  William  Bollabrt,  F.RG.S.,  F.A.S.L.   .     163 

XII.  Is  the  Character  of  the  Scotch  the  Expression  of  the  Soil 

of  Scotland]    By  John  Cleghorn,  F.A.S.L.  .  .     167 

xiiL  The  Bayaderes;  or,  Dancing  Girls  of  Southern  India. 
By  John  Shortt,  M.D.,  F.L.S.,  F.A.S.L.,  M.RC.P.L., 
etc.,  Surgeon-Greneral  Superintendent  of  Vaccination, 
Madras  Presidency         .  .  .182 

XIV.  On  the  Land  Dayas  of  Upper  Sarawak,  Seutah,  Lihoy, 
Letung,  and  Quoss.  By  Edward  P.  Houghton,  M.D., 
Loc.  Sec.  A.S.L.,  Resident  Officer,  Sarawak  Goyemment     195 

XV.  Habits  and  Manners  of  Marvar  Tribes  of  India.  By  John 
Shortt,  M.D.,  F.L.S.,  M.RC.P.L.,  F.A.S.L.,  etc.. 
General  Superintendent  of  Vaccination,  Madras  .     201 

XV.*  Report  on  Excavations  in  Caithness  Cairns,  conducted 
for  the  Anthropological  Society  of  London  by  Messrs.  J. 
Anderson  and  R.  I.  Shearer,  in  1866.  By  Joseph 
Anderson,  Loc.  Sec.  A.S.L.  .  .  .     216 

XVI.  Note  on  a  Skull  from  the  Cairn  of  Get,  Caithness,  dis- 
covered by  Joseph  Anderson,  Esq.,  Loc.  Sec.  AS.L.  By 
C.  Carter  Blake,  Doct.  ScL,  F.G.S.,  Lecturer  on  Com- 
parative Anatomy  and  Zoology,  Westminster  Hospital 
School  of  Medicine         ....     243 

xvu.  The  Character  of  the  Voice  in  the  Nations  of  Asia  and 
Africa,  contrasted  with  that  of  the  Nations  of  Europe. 
By  Sir  G.  Duncan  Gibb,  Bart.,  M.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D., 
F.G.S.,  V.RA.S.L.         .  .  .  .244 

xviL*  The  Fishing  Indians  of  Vancouver's  Island.     By  Ed- 
ward B.  BoGOE,  Esq.,  RN.,  Loc.  Sec.  A.S.L.  .     260 

xviii.  On  the  Homed  Cairns  of  Caithness.     By  Joseph  Ander- 
son, Loc.  Sec.  AS.L.      ....     266 


00NTBNT8.  vii 

XIX.  Anthropological  Remariu  on  the  Population  of  Venezuela. 

By  A.  Ernst,  F.A.S.L.  .274 

XX.  Examination  of  Central  American  Hieroglyphics  of 
Yucatan,  including  the  Dresden  Codex,  the  Guat^malien 
of  Paris,  the  Troano  of  Madrid,  the  Hieroglyphics  of 
Palenque,  Copan,  Nicaragua,  Veraguas,  and  New 
Granada;  by  the  recently  discovered  Maya  Alphabet. 
By  William  Bollaebt,  F.R.G.S.,  F.A.S.L.,  Corr.  Mem. 
University  of  Chile,  of  the  Ethnological  Societies  of 
London  and  New  York,  etc.  .  288 

XXI.  Report  on  the  Researches  of  Dr.  Edouard  Dupont  in  the 
Belgian  Bone-Caves  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Lesse.  By 
C.  Carter  Blake,  Doot.  ScL,  F.G.S.,  Hon.  F.A.S.L., 
Associ6  Etranger  de  la  Soci6t6  d' Anthropologic  de  Paris, 
Corresponding  Member  of  the  Sociedad  Antropoldgica 
Espafiola,  and  of  the  Anthropological  Section  of  the 
Soci^t4  des  Amis  de  la  Nature  de  Moscou,  Lecturer  on 
Comparative  Anatomy  and  Zoology  at  Westminster 
Hospital  School  of  Medicine  .315 

xxu.  On  Ancient  Peruvian  Graphic  Records.  By  William 
BoLLABRT,  F.RG.S.,  F.A.S.L.,  Corr.  Mem.  Univ. 
Chile,  of  the  Ethnological  Societies  of  London  and  New 
York,  etc.        .....     351 

xxiiL  On  the  Physical  Characteristics  of  the  Inhabitants  of 
Bretagne.  By  John  Beddoe,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Pres.  A.S.L., 
Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris     359 

XXIV.  Account  of  the  Skull  of  a  Ghiliak.  Appendix  to  Article 
II,  pp.  21-40,  "On  the  Skeleton  and  Skulls  of  Ainos."  By 
J.  Barnard  Davis,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  V.P.A.S.L.  .     366 

XXV.  On  the  Headform  of  the  Danes.  By  Dr.  Beddoe,  Pre- 
sident of  the  Anthr.  Soc.  of  London  .  .378 

XXVI.  On  the  Stature  and  Bulk  of  Man  in  the  British  Isles. 
By  Dr.  Beddoe,  B.A.,  M.D.,  F.S.S.,  President  of  the 
Anthr.  Soc.  of  London  .  384 


7' 


MEMOIES 


BEAD    BSFOBB   THB 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON. 


I. — Tlie  Hollas,  and.  other  cha/ractervitic  Tribes  of  Mada/jascar, 
By  Lieut.  S.  P.  Olivbr,  R.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.A.S.L. 

Tt  must  be  always  a  subject  of  great  interest  to  anthropologists 
that  the  great  island  of  Madagascar,*  separated  from  Africa  by 
a  short  distance  of  four  hundred  miles  only,  should  present  such 
a  marked  difference  to  that  continent  in  its  organic  productions. 
The  marked  singularity  of  the  mammal  fauna,  in  the  absence 
of  so  many  African  families  and  orders,  and  the  existence  of 
numerous  genera  and  species  peculiar  only  to  the  island,  are 
well  known  to  all  naturalists.  Dr.  Hartlaub,  the  ornithologist, 
has  found  the  bird-population  in  the  highest  degree  peculiar, 
and  Mr.  Bates,  the  entomologist,  in  his  analysis  of  the  insect 
fauna,  found  a  still  greater  proportion  of  species  of  insects 
peculiar  to  this  island ;  whilst  the  endemic  character  of  its  flora 
has  been  shown  by  Petit  Thenars,  Bojer,  and  other  botanists. 
The  conclusion  forced  upon  us  by  the  above  facts  is  that, 
although  so  near  to  Africa,  Madagascar  has  never  had  any 
close  connexion  with  that  continent,  but  that  the  Mozambique 
channel  has  existed  as  a  watery  barrier  for  a  long  geological 

*  Madagascar  is  the  name  given  to  the  island  by  foreigners,  and  is  not 
used  by  the  natives,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  have  learnt  the  name 
from  the  Europeans :  the  Hova  authorities,  however,  have  now  adopted  it  as 
the  official  name.  The  native  name  is  **  Nosindambo"  (island  of  wild  hogs), 
and  they  sometimes  term  it  **  Ny,  anivony  ny  riaka"  ("  the,  in  the  midst  of 
the  flood").  So,  also,  Malagasy  is  an  adjective  applied  to  the  inhabitants  and 
language  of  the  country,  and  only  partially  used  by  a  few  of  them  on  the 
ea^tem  coast :  Malgache,  Madegasse,  Malagassi,  are  synonymous. 

VOL.  III.  B 


( 


2  OLIVER   ON   THE    HOVAS   OP   MADAGASCAR. 

period.*  Some  have  supposed  that  Madagascar  and  the 
Mascarene  islands^  with  other  numerous  atolls  and  coral  reefs^ 
have  formed  the  site  of  an  ancient  tract  of  land  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  similar  to  the  great  Pacific  continent,  whose  former 
existence  and  subsequent  subsidence  were  indicated  by  Darwin 
some  time  ago. 

How  deep  an  interest  is  excited  when  we  find  Madagascar, 
the  third  largest  island  in  the  world  (whose  area  is  inferior 
only  to  that  of  Borneo  and  New  Guinea),  peopled  by  races  of 
human  beings  as  peculiar  to  their  country  as  its  fauna  and 
flora,  and  in  every  respect  totally  dissimilar  to  those  numerous 
tribes  inhabiting  the  immense  neighbouring  continent  of  Africa. 
EthnographicaUy  speaking,  they  are  Oceanic  rather  than  Afri- 
can. To  these  races  the  name  of  Malagasy  has  been  generally 
applied  by  foreigners,  although  they  are  only  known  to  them- 
selves by  the  names  of  the  particular  tribes  to  which  they 
severally  belong.  From  time  immemorial  these  Malagasy  have 
managed  to  preserve  their  native  independence,  owing  pro- 
bably to  the  courage  and  jealousy  of  the  people,  to  the  im- 
passable forests,  bad  roads,  and  not  least  to  the  insalubrity  of 
the  country,  especially  on  the  coast,  and  to  other  accidents ; 
and  although  for  many  years  their  island  has  lain  in  the  very 
highway  of  commercial  traffic  between  England  and  the  Bast 
Indian  empire,  they  have  remained  until  lately  cut  oflF  entirely 
from  settled  intercourse  with  Europeans,  and  unimproved  by 
foreign  civilisation. 

*  Mr.  H.  W.  Bates  (the  talented  entomologist)  explains  the  pecoliar 
organic  features  of  Madagascar  by  the  following  ingenious  hypothesis,  viz. : 
"  that  the  island  (whether  previously  stocked  with  anti- African  forms  or 
not)  was  at  one  time  much  more  closely  connected  with  Africa  than  it  now 
is,  and  that  the  time  of  connection  was  anterior  to  the  date  when  the  con- 
tinent became  peopled  by  Simiidse  and  the  bulk  of  its  present  mammalia, 
but  posterior  to  the  introduction  of  Lemurs.  Subsequently  to  this  epoch 
we  may  suppose  it  to  have  become  isolated,  as  we  now  find  it ;  the  lapse  of 
time  since  the  severance  having  been  sufficient  to  cause  the  present  diver- 
gence of  the  faunas — a  divergence  caused,  however,  as  much  by  the  extinc- 
tion of  old  forms  on  the  continent,  once  common  to  both  lands,  through  the 
introduction  or  immigration  of  so  many  new  ones,  as  by  the  origination  of 
new  species  and  genera  in  Madagascar  allied  to  prototypes  once  common  to 
island  and  continent."    Proc,  Zoo.  Soc,  1863,  part  iii,  p.  476. 


OLIVER  ON   THE   HOVAS   OF   MAOAGASCAB.  3 

It  is  evident  that  the  Malagasy  have  never  degenerated  from 
any  original  condition  of  civilisation,  for  there  are  no  relics  of 
primeval  civilisation  to  be  met  with  in  the  country ;  yet  the 
Malagasy  seem  to  have  considerably  advanced  themselves  in 
the  art  of  building  houses  and  originating  elaborate  fortifica- 
tions, which  they  have  themselves  modified  to  suit  their  of- 
fensive and  defensive  weapons  previous  to  any  known  inter- 
course with  civilised  people.  They  had  domesticated  oxen* 
and  pigs,  and  made  advances  in  the  cultivation  of  rice,  yams, 
etc.,  but  whether  by  their  own  unaided  intellect  or  by  external 
example  we  cannot  say.  Originally  they  seem  to  have  been 
totally  ignorant  of  any  religion ;  what  they  possess  now  has 
been  borrowed  from  others  or  invented  but  lately  by  them- 
selves for  political  motives.f  Yet  their  wonderful  aptitude 
for  religious  instruction  is  shown  by  the  presence  of  eighteen 
thousand  Christians  in  the  province  of  Ankova  alone.  With- 
out any  written  langus^e  they  appear  to  have  an  elaborate 
structure  of  grammar ;  although  many  words  are  evidently  in- 
troduced from  abroad. 

The  various  nations  pr  tribes  inhabiting  Madagascar  may  be 
considered  as  forming  two  distinct  races ;   one  characterised 

*  During  the  laBt  century  "  It  is  said  of  Eabiby  that  whilst  he  and  his 
people  were  busy  planting  rice,  one  of  them  killed  an  animal  called  the 
jamoka  (bullock),  and  ate  a  part  of  it.  Pleased  with  his  discovery,  he  con- 
tinued to  kill  and  eat  frequently;  and  in  consequence  of  this  became  so 
much  stouter  than  the  rest  of  his  companions,  that  he  was  questioned  by 
the  inquisitive  chieftain  as  to  the  cause  of  his  newly-acquired  corpulency, 
and  after  some  hesitation  confessed  the  facts  of  the  case.  Kabiby,  like  a 
wise  man,  preferring  experiment  to  mere  information,  very  naturally  wished 
to  make  trial  for  himself.  Finding  the  beef  as  good  as  had  been  described 
to  him,  the  chief,  far  from  indulging  any  jealous  wish  to  keep  so  important 
a  secret,  ordered  another  bullock  to  be  taken  and  kiUed  in  order  that  he 
might  feast  his  companions.  He  also  first  ordered  fahitra  or  folds  to  be 
made  for  collecting  cattle,  and  was  the  first  also  who  ate  the  flesh  of  the 
wild  hog.  The  fahitras  made  by  him  are  still  preserved  at  the  village  called 
after  him  Amhohidrabiby.*'     Ellis,  Hist,  of  Madagascar,  vol.  ii,  p.  118. 

t  "  Impoina,  the  father  of  the  first  Badama,  in  consecrating  some  national 
idols,  is  said  to  have  acted  solely  from  political  motives  in  the  conviction 
that  some  kind  of  religious  influence  was  useful  in  the  government  of  a 
nation."     Ellis,  History  of  Madagascar. 

Ba>haniraka,  foreign  secretary  in  1862,  remarked  to  me  that  religion  was 
good  for  the  lower  classes,  as  it  made  them  orderly  and  quiet  citizens. 

b2 


4  OLIVER   ON   THE   HOVAS   OP   MADAGASCAR. 

by  small  'stature  and  a  comparatively  fair  complexion,  and  the 
other  remarkable  for  a  larger  stature  and  dark  coloured  skin. 
The  sources  of  their  origin  must  ever  be  a  mystery  to  us ;  but 
still,  by  the  aid  of  linguistics,  we  have  tolerable  grounds  for 
assigning  to  the  lighter  race  some  previous  connexion  with 
western  Protonesia,  whilst  we  consider  the  darker  coloured 
natives  of  the  coast  as  the  remains  of  the  primitive  aboriginals, 
or  perhaps  more  accurately  of  an  anterior  population.  Both 
these  nations  speak  the  same  language,  varied  only  as  to  dialect, 
but  physically  they  are  totally  diflferent.  Neither  of  them  has 
any  resemblance  to  African  types.  Even  their  clothing  shows 
that  there  is  small  probability  of  their  having  at  any  former 
period  sprung  from  an  African  colony,  for  at  all  times  it 
appears  that  the  races  inhabiting  the  adjacent  continent  have 
universally  been  clothed  with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  fur 
karosses,  etc.;  but  although  numerous  animals  exist  in  the 
island  whose  skins  are  most  suitable  for  the  purpose,  still  they 
are  never  used  by  the  natives,  whilst  their  using  so  generally 
cloth  made  from  the  woven  strips  of  the  rofia  palm  or  the 
bark  of  the  hibiscus  simply  beaten  out,  after  the  manner  of 
making  cloth  practised  by  the  South  Sea  islanders,  affords 
additional  evidence  that  these  inhabitants  of  Madagascar  have 
a  common  origin  in  the  Asiatic  Archipelago  with  the  races 
now  found  in  the  Pacific  islands. 

On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Crawfurd,  who  has  well  studied  the 
philology  of  Madagascar  and  Malaya,  although  he  finds  many 
Malay  and  Javanese  words  in  the  Malagasy  language,  will  not 
admit  that  any  of  the  Malagasy  are  of  Malay  origin,  he  says, 
"  The  people  of  Madagascar  are  not  Malays,  nor  do  they  bear 
any  resemblance  to  them ;  they  are  in  fact  negroes,  but 
negroes  of  a  particular  description :  they  are  negroes  in  the 
same  sense  that  Portuguese,  Lapps,  and  Englishmen,  Germans, 
and  Spaniards  are  Europeans,  and  in  no  other — their  facial 
angle  is  not  so  acute  as  that  of  the  ordinary  negro.^' . . .  "Like 
all  other  negroes  they  are  ignorant  of  letters :  no  negro  nation 
has  ever  invented  an  alphabet ;  the  language  was  totally  dis- 
tinct, not  only  from  Malay,  but  from  every  other  language  of 
Africa.^^     "  Mr.  Crawfurd's  hypothesis  is  '  that  a  fleet  of  Malay 


OLIVER  ON   THE   H0VA8   OF   MADAGASCAR.  5 

pirates  had  been  tempest-driven  from  their  coast  and  not 
able  to  make  their  way  back;  that  they  had  been  caught  in  the 
south-east  monsoon  which  blows  south  of  the  Equator,  and 
had  made  for  the  first  land  that  lay  in  their  way,  which  would 
of  course  be  Madagascar;  that  in  that  way  they  arrived  in  suf- 
ficient numbers  to  protect  themselves  in  the  first  instance 
against  the  natives,  then  afterwards  imparted  to  them  a  certain 
amount  of  instruction  and  conveyed  to  them  a  knowledge  of 
the  cultivation  and  use  of  vegetable  productions,  and  finally 
became  absorbed  among  them  by  intermarriage\^'  Proceedings 
R.  Geo.  8oc.,  vol.  vii.  No.  2  (1863),  p.  69. 

I  now  proceed  to  describe  the  chief  physical  and  psychical 
peculiarities  of  these  tribes,  which  constitute  the  bulk  of  the 
Malagasy  population,  but  first  I  will  give  a  table  of  their  approx- 
imate numbers,  of  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  obtain  accu- 
rate information : — 


1.  Malay  origin  ? 


2.  Aboriginal? 


fl.  Hovas                            Fair               ...  800,000 

II^S^IX           ]  Light  brown...  1.500.000 

.4.  Betsileo                          Brown           ...  1,500,000 

I  B^^^o                ]  Deep  brown  ...  300.000 

U:  f^^J""^  ■"'  !  Black             ...  1^200^ 

Total     ...  5,300,000 


A  great  extent  of  country  is  depopulated,  on  account  of 
long  barbarous  wars,  the  practice  of  infanticide,  and  the  cruel- 
ties of  the  slave  trade,  which  account  for  the  smallness  of  the 
population  as  compared  with  the  area  of  this  fine  island,  which 
is  about  250,000  square  miles,  or  twenty-one  people  to  every 
scjuare  mile.  The  organisation  of  the  Malagasy  people,  as  1 
have  before  noticed,  is  referable  to  two  distinct  types.  Let  us 
first  examine  the  light-coloured  tribes,  of  whom  the  Hova  is 
the  true  representative  type.  This  group  includes  the  Betaui- 
mena,  Betsimasaraka,  and  Betsileo  tribes,  all  of  whom  possess 
small  stature,  with  olive  complexion  of  different  shades,  more 
brown  than  black ;  physiognomy  more  Mongol  than  Negro, 
with  patent  and  recognised  affinities  to  the  Malay;  in  numbers 
they  are  inferior  to  the  black  or  darker  coloured  tribes,  and  they 


b  OLIVER  ON   THE   HOVAS   OF   MADAGASCAB. 

inhabit  the  Highlands  inland  and  part  of  the  eastern  coast  of 

Madagascar.* 

The  Hovas. 

The  first  in  importance  of  all  the  tribes  inhabiting  Mada- 
gascar is  the  race  of  Hovas,  who  occupy  the  central  province 
of  Ankova,  a  highland  territory  occupying  a  plateau  some  five 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  In  numbers  far  inferior  to  any 
of  the  black  tribes  of  Madagascar,  they  comprise  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  whole  population  of  the  island,  but  from  their 
superior  intelligence  and  power  of  military  organisation  they 
form  the  dominant  race,  and  rule  absolutely  over  the  other 
races,  which  together  are  five  times  their  number. 

Physically  these  Hovas  form  a  fine,  noble,  well-built  race  of 
men.  Robust  and  active,  nevertheless  they  are  mostly  below 
the  middle  stature,  which  indeed  but  few  of  them  ever  exceed. 
Their  figures  are  erect,  with  small  but  finely-formed  limb^  of 
good  proportion,  whilst  their  gait  and  movements  are  remark- 
ably graceful,  free,  and  agile.  Although  distinguished  by 
their  promptitude  and  activity,  their  strength  and  endurance 
is  inferior  to  that  of  the  other  neighbouring  tribes,  and  they 
are  easily  susceptible  of  fatigue  from  travelling  or  labour; 
this,  however,  I  imagine,  only  proceeds  from  the  fact  of  the 
Hovas  as  a  rule  not  being  brought  up  to  undergo  as  much  manual 
labour  as  the  slaves  under  them,  who  excel  in  carrying  great 
weights  for  long  distances. 

Physiognomically  speaking,  they  are  eminently  noticeable  for 
their  well-shaped  heads,  rather  flattened  at  the  back,  with  high 
foreheads,  often  of  an  European  cast  of  countenance  (in  some 
few  instances  the  distance  between  the  hair  and  eyebrows  is 
comparatively  narrow),  but  generally  indicative  of  considerable 

*  The  Protonesians  are  pecaliar  in  their  distribution ;  it  is  rarely  that 
they  form  the  exclusive  populations  of  those  lands  on  which  they  are  found. 
On  tho  contrary,  they  are  found  chiefly  in  the  lighter  variety ;  but  they  are 
always  found  in  the  interior  or  more  impracticable  parts,  and  always  as  an 
inferior  population.  The  migration  of  the  Eelenonesians  took  place  anterior 
to  the  spread  of  the  lighter  tribes.     (Dr.  Latham.) 

A  parallel  case  is  found  in  the  Feejee  islands,  where  there  are  two  races, 
light  and  dark,  the  Amphinesians  and  £elffinonesians.  Mr.  Crawfurd  says 
that  five  hundred  of  this  light-haired  race  are  able  to  turn  the  scale  of 
success  against  twenty  thousand  of  the  darker  Fe^'eeans. 


OUVEB  ON   THE    H0VA8   OF   MAOAGASCAB.  7 

intellectual  capacity  as  well  as  moral  excellence.  Their  fea- 
tures are  rather  delicate  than  prominent.  The  nose  is  small^ 
firm,  and  well  chiselled,  never  thick  and  fleshy,  and  sometimes  of 
pure  aquiline  shape,  more  frequently  straight,  now  and  then 
short  and  broad,  without  fullness  at  the  end,  the  facial  angle 
is  large;  their  lips  are  occasionally  thick  and  slightly  projecting, 
seldom  round  and  large,  but  often  thin,  and  the  lower  gently 
projecting  (this  latter  from  snuff-taking,  I  believe),  as  in  the 
Caucasian  race,  with  short  haughty  curling  upper  lip.  Their 
eyes  hazel,  clear,  and  lustrous,  but  small  and  piercing.  Their 
hair  is  jet  black,  but  soft  and  fine,  straight  or  curling  (Tsotra, 
Tsobolo) ;  a  few,  indeed,  have  frizzy  or  crisped  bair  (Ngita), 
but  this  evidently  does  not  belong  to  the  true  original  Hova 
type.  They  used  to  plait  their  hair,  but  since  1822  have 
usually  cut  their  hair  short  in  European  fashion,  adjusting  it 
with  grace. 

The  Hova  women  wear  their  thick  glossy  hair  elaborately 
dressed,  and  plaited  in  extremely  fine  plaits  and  braids,  tied  in 
a  number  of  small  knots  all  over  the  head,  giving  a  stiff  and 
rather  formal  aspect  to  the  contour  of  the  head  and  face. 
There  are  ten  or  twelve  different  modes  of  arranging  these 
plaits.  The  unmarried  females  allow  their  locks  to  flow  negli- 
gently over  their  shoulders.  There  are  few  grey-headed 
people  to  be  met  with,  and  they  are  scrupulously  careful  to  re- 
move their  grey  hairs,  as  it  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  them 
to  avoid  as  much  as  possible  any  symptoms  of  age,  and  it  is 
always  an  object  of  great  desire  to  appear  or  be  thought 
young.  Their  beards  are  but  weak,  and  the  hairs  are  plucked 
out  when  young ;  they  frequently  wear  moustachios,  generally 
thick  and  clipped  close. 

The  colour  of  their  complexion  is  olive,  more  or  less 
dark,  but  frequently  lighter  than  that  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Southern  Europe ;  the  vigour  of  health  often  imparts  a  ruddy 
tinge  to  their  countenances ;  but  this,  whilst  it  removes  them 
from  approximating  in  complexion  to  the  yellow  hue  of  the 
Malays,  does  not  give  them  any  resemblance  to  the  copper- 
coloured  Indians  of  America. 

The  men  are  better  formed  than  the  women,  in  whom  there 


8 


OLIVER   ON   THE    HOVAS   OF   MADAQASCAB. 


is  a  tendency  to  become  corpulent.  Their  hands  are  not  so 
warm  to  the  touch  as  those  of  Europeans,  and  their  blood  is  by 
thermometer  colder.  They  are  industrious,  intelligent,  and  to 
a  certain  degree  half  civilised.  They  are  most  kind  and  aflTec- 
tionate  in  their  natural  relations,  cheerful  and  hospitable,  and 
capable  of  the  warmest  friendship,  but  superstitious  and  men- 
dacious in  the  extreme.  They  are  quick  at  learning,  and  have 
a  retentive  memory.  They  are  very  sensitive,  and  possess 
great  natural  dignity,  being  extremely  amenable  to  law  and 
order,  and  the  constituted  authorities. 

The  Hovas  are  not  the  aborigines  of  this  part  of  Madagas- 
car which  they  now  inhabit,  and  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
with  any  certainty  from  what  part  of  the  island  they  came.  It 
is,  however,  their  own  general  belief  that  they  came  from 
the  south-east  of  Madagascar,  and  had  advanced  inland,  gra- 
dually dispossessing  the  aboriginal  inhabitants.  At  all  events, 
the  Hovas  are  a  race  entirely  distinct  from  all  the  rest  of  the 
natives  of  Madagascar :  from  wherever  they  have  come,  they 
have  in  every  respect  the  pre-eminence  and  superiority  over 
the  other  tribes. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  the  Hovas  should  be  fairer 
than  their  neighbours:  they  wear  more  clothing  to  begin  with, 
and  expose  their  bodies  less  than  any  of  the  coast  tribes; 
besides,  living  in  a  mountainous  district  at  high  elevations, 
with  a  cooler  and  more  salubrious  climate,  generally  conduces 
to  fairness  of  complexion ;  whilst  vast  rivers,  alluvial  deposits, 
and  swampy  countries  under  a  tropical  sun  are  found  always 
to  determine  a  tendency  to  the  colour  of  the  negro,  a 
fact  frequently  confirmed  and  fully  borne  out  by  the  colour 
and  country  of  the  black  tribes  of  Madagascar.  The  As- 
samese are  examples  of  this  distinction;  they,  a  mountain 
race,  being  light  in  comparison  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
neighbouring  swamps  of  Cambodia  and  Pegu.  So  in  Fer- 
nando Po,  an  island  only  twenty  miles  distant  from  the  main- 
land of  Equatorial  Africa,  but  rising  4,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
the  Ediya  family  have  much  lighter  skins  and  softer  hair 
than  the  African  negro.  Capt.  Beechey  remarked  that  through- 
out the  whole  of  Polynesia  the  lower  coralline  islands  always 


OLIVER   ON   THE   HOVAS   OF   MADAGASCAR.  0 

contained  a  darker  people,  whilst  the  hi^er  volcanic  islands 
possessed  lighter  coloured  inhabitants. 

The  language  of  Ankova  may  be  considered  as  the  standard 
of  the  Madagascar  dialect.  It  is  the  most  copious  and  least 
nasal. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  Teninkova,  or  vernacular 
dialect  of  the  Hovas,  from  its  intimate  relationship  to  the 
original  Malayan  or  Polynesian  language,  points  to  the  Indian 
Archipelago  of  which  Java  is  the  head- quarters  as  the  ancient 
cradle  of  the  Hova  race ;  but  it  is  equally  uncertain  at  what 
time,  or  in  what  manner,  this  migration  across  the  Indian 
Ocean  could  have  taken  place,  nor  are  there  any  legends  re- 
maining which  allude  in  any  way  to  such  a  fact. 

Mr.  Ellis,  on  first  landing  at  Tamatave,  was  surprised  at  the 
perfect  identity  of  the  Malagasy  and  Eastern  Polynesian  lan- 
guages in  the  names  of  many  things  common  to  both,  such  as 
a  cocoa-nut  tree,  the  name  of  which  they  pronounced  precisely 
as  a  South- Sea-islander  would  have  done.  So  also  with  the 
Pandanus  or  vacoua  tree,  one  of  the  most  common  trees  on 
the  coast  of  Madagascar;  and  in  Tahiti  also;  the  words  for 
Hower  and  the  names  of  the  parts  of  the  human  body.  The  nu- 
merals also  he  found,  with  but  slight  variation,  were  identically 
the  same ;  but  he  obsen^ed  that,  although  in  many  respects  the 
language  retained  the  same  simplicity  of  structure  and  arrange- 
ment, it  was  in  some  instances  more  defective,  while  in  others, 
especially  in  the  structure  and  application  of  its  verbs,  it  was 
far  more  extensive  and  complex  than  the  Polynesian  language. 
The  Hova  language  exhibits  an  instance  of  a  people  but  half- 
civilised,  using  a  language  copious,  precise,  and  philosophical, 
and  only  oral,  having  been  till  within  the  last  forty  years  an  un- 
written language.  That  they  now  possess  a  written  language 
is  entirely  due  to  the  London  Missionary  Society.  It  is  notice- 
able that  the  dialects  of  the  tribes  on  the  coast  more  nearly  re- 
semble one  another  than  any  one  of  them  can  be  found  to  re- 
semble that  of  the  Hovas ;  so  that  we  are  accordingly  led  to 
suppose  that  the  Hovas  are  a  people  of  later  introduction  to 
the  island  than  the  coast  tribes,  who  appear  to  have  been  the 
anterior  inhabitants  of  the  country.  These  I  will  now  proceed 
to  describe. 


10  olivfib  on  the  hovas  of  madagascab. 

The  Bstsimasabaea  and  Betanimena. 

These  seem  to  form  but  one  people,  and  next  to  the  Hovas 
are  the  fairest  race  in  Madagascar.  It  is  supposed  that  they 
arise  from  a  blending  of  the  aboriginals  of  the  east  coast  and  the 
Zafindramina,  some  remnants  of  an  Arab  colony.  (Members 
of  this  same  colony  inhabit  the  island  of  St.  Mary's,  where 
they  style  themselves  Zafihrihama  or  descendants  of  Abraham.) 
But  there  is  doubtless  a  great  admixture  of  Hova  blood  in 
their  veins.  They  are  particularly  cleanly  in  their  houses  and 
habits,  but  degraded  in  morals,  and  extremely  apathetic  and 
indolent.  Intercourse  with  Europeans  has  produced  marked 
European  features  amongst  many  of  them ;  generally  they  have 
larger  heads  and  less  marked  features  than  the  Hovas.  The 
Betsileo  (or  '' invincible'^)  resemble  the  Hovas  also,  but  are 
much  darker;  they  are  more  agricultural  and  less  warlike  than 
their  neighbours  the  Hovas,  and  inhabit  the  high  mountainous 
region  south  of  Ankova.  They  are  slender  and  of  low  stature, 
of  various  shades  of  brown,  with  long  black  curling  hair;  they 
are  patriarchal  in  their  mode  of  life,  and  have  modest  and  un- 
assuming manners.  There  is  a  branch  of  them  called  the 
Betsileontanalay  a  body  of  whom  attended  at  the  capital  on  the 
coronation  of  the  queen  under  their  female  chieftain  Jovana. 
Ellis  describes  her  as  having  a  complexion  of  a  mellow  brown, 
regular  features,  open  countenance,  with  dark  glossy  hair 
bmided :  she  excelled  in  oratory,  and  appears  to  have  been  as 
brave  in  war  as  wise  in  council. 

The  Sakalavas. 

The  second  division  of  the  Malagasy  population  is  the  dark- 
coloured  variety,  of  which  the  Sakalavas  are  the  typical  repre- 
sentatives. They  are  distinguished  by  greater  stature,  dark 
complexion,  and  physiognomy  as  much  Negro  as  Mongol,  and 
include  the  North  and  South  Sakalavas,  the  Antsianaka,  and 
Bezano-zano;  they  have  been  an  anterior  population  to  the 
Malay  Hovas,  but  are  perhaps  themselves  connected  with  the 
Kelaiuonesian  branch  of  the  Oceanic  group,  if  not  true  ab- 
originals. The  Sakalavas  sometimes  are  divided  into  North  and 
South  Sakalavas,  but  anthropologically 'speaking  they  may  be 
said  to  include  all  the  black  tribes  of  the  western  coasts,  and 
comprehend  the  outlying  Bezano-zano  and  the  Antsianaka  to 


OUYEB  ON   THE    H0VA8   OF   MADAQASCAB.  11 

the  north  of  Ankova.  Their  head-quarters  maj  be  considered 
at  Iboina  and  Menab^^  to  the  king  of  which  for  many  years 
the  Hovas  paid  tribute,  until  Badama  I.  invaded  their  country, 
and,  forming  an  alliance  with  their  chief  Bamitraha,  married 
Basalimo,  his  daughter,  in  1826.  (This  princess  was  still  alive 
when  I  visited  the  capital  in  1 862,  when  she  used  to  appear  at 
the  court  ceremonies.)  The  Sakalavas  are  a  brave  and  gener- 
ous people ;  physically  considered  they  are  the  most  athletic 
race  in  Madagascar.  Capt.  J.  C.  Wilson,  R.N.,  in  his  Notes 
on  the  West  Coast,  declares  ''  that  tlie  Sakalavas  are  the  finest 
race  of  savages  he  has  ever  seen ;  that  they  are  far  superior  to 
the  Hovas  in  strength  and  appearance,  but  not  nearly  so  in- 
telligent. They  are  strongly  built,  tall,  independent  fellows, 
with  the  African  cast  of  countenance,  though  generally  much 
better  looking.'^  They  are  robust,  but  not  corpulent;  their 
limbs  well  formed,  muscular,  and  strong.  Their  complexion  is  of 
the  deepest  hue,  much  darker  than  that  of  the  other  Malagasy ; 
their  hair  crisped  and  curly,  but  not  woolly.  Their  features 
handsome,  regular,  and  prominent;  open  and  prepossessing 
countenances,  with  dark  eyes  and  a  keen  and  piercing  glance. 
They  are  indolent  when  secure  at  home,  but  in  war  they  are 
energetic,  brave,  and  resolute.  They  are  much  addicted  to 
divination,  sorcery,  and  all  superstitions.  They  are  generally  of 
a  friendly  disposition  towards  Europeans.  They  are  exceedingly 
fond  of  ornaments  of  silver  and  ivory,  and  occasionally  wear 
a  ring  in  their  nostrils,  and  a  circular  ornament  of  ivory, 
silver,  or  shell,  on  the  forehead.  "They  carry  flint  muskets, 
carefully  kept  in  order,  with  the  stock  ornamented  with  num- 
bers of  brass-headed  nails  and  well  polished ;  as  enemies  they 
are  not  to  be  despised,  being  capital  shots,  as  the  French  well 
know  from  experience  on  more  than  one  occasion."  (Wilson.) 
"They  grow  large  quantities  of  rice,  more  particularly  about 
the  marshy  country  about  the  Ozsanga  river;  but  on  the 
whole  the  natives  are  more  pastoral  than  agricultural  in  their 
habits.  Their  houses,  like  those  of  the  east  coast,  are  beauti- 
fully clean  and  comfortable,  and  of  the  same  construction. 
Morality  here  is  at  a  low  standard,  virtue  being  tinknoiun 
among  women;    though  it  must  be  said  that  when  married 


12  OLIVER   ON   THE    HOVAS   OP    MADAGASCAR. 

tbey  are  constant  to  their  husbands.  It  is  sad  that  this  de- 
plorable state  shonld  be  so  universal  throughout  this  beautiful 
island,  and  that,  though  in  many  respects  superior  to  other 
coloured  nations,  in  this  they  are  so  far  beneath  them.''  (I 
myself  doubt  whether  they  are  so  much  below  qther  savage 
nations  in  this  respect).  As  I  have  never  been  in  the  Sakalava 
country  myself,  I  have  given  the  above  extracts  from  Captain 
Wilson's  notes. 

They  are  in  the  habit  of  making  incisions  in  their  faces  and 
bodies.  They  wear  their  hair  plaited  in  small  knots,  and 
sometimes  wear  wigs  made  often  of  the  skin  of  the  hump  of 
the  zebu  oxen.  Whether  they  have  derived  the  custom  of 
cutting  their  bodies  from  the  Mozambiques  or  not,  is  unknown; 
but  there  is  certainly  a  similarity.  So  also  there  ''appears 
to  be  a  resemblance,  amounting  to  identity,  between  a  number 
of  words  used  by  the  Malagasy  and  the  natives  of  the  Mozam- 
bique coast  and  of  the  adjacent  interior."  "  It  is  impossible 
to  look  over  a  map  and  not  perceive  the  obvious  similarity 
between  the  names  of  the  districts  and  rivers  of  these  countries 
severally  :  such,  for  example,  as  Masambika  =  Mozambique ; 
Kilimany  =  Quilimane ;  Sambosy  =  Zambesi ;  Zimba,  Inham- 
bany,  Manisa ;  which  have  not  only  a  perfect  resemblance  to 
Malagasy  names,  but  are  either  Malagasy  roots  variously  com-, 
bined,  or  actual  words  in  the  Malagasy  language."  (Rev.  J.  J. 
Freeman.) 

The  Sakalavas  still  carry  on  a  trade  in  slaves  from  the  east 
coast  of  Africa :  from  somewhere  about  Angora  river  across  to 
Cape  St.  Andrew's,  they  are  brought  in  Arab  dhows;  the 
Sakalavas  give  four  head  of  cattle  for  one  slave.  (Wilson.) 
There  is  certainly  a  treaty  between  the  Hovas  and  English  re- 
lative to  prohibition  of  the  slave  trade ;  but  though  the  Hovas 
are  nominally  recognised  as  the  rulers  of  the  island,  they  have 
only  one  military  station  at  Majunga,  at  the  mouth  of  Bemba- 
tooka  bay  (into  which  the  important  river  Betsiboka  runs, 
forming  the  route  from  the  capital),  and  the  Sakalavas  are  in 
reality  perfectly  independent. 

The  Bezanozano  (''  anarchical")  and  the  Antsianaka  ("  ^not 
a  abject  to  others'')   resemble  one  another  very  closely,  and  aro 


OUVEB  ON   THE   HOVAS   OF   MADAGASCAR.  13 

ontlying  brandies  of  the  Western  Sakalavas.  They  are  stout, 
not  very  tall,  of  black  colour,  with  flat  features,  short  neck ; 
the  former  are  the  best  coolies  for  carrying  burdens  in  Mada- 
gascar. From  constantly  carrying  heavy  burdens  on  bamboos 
across  their  shoulders,  they  are  noticeable  for  large  humps  on 
their  shoulders,  a  provision  of  nature,  these  humps  forming 
natural  cushions  saving  the  collar-bone  from  any  concussion. 

The  Manendy  are  another  branch  of  the  darker  coloured 
Sakalavas :  they  live  between  the  Betsiboka  river  and  the  sea. 
The  Hovas  say  that  the  Manendy  can  live  on  leaves  and  roots ; 
but  Mr.  Ha^tie,  who  visited  them,  was  struck  with  their  supe- 
rior culture  of  the  soil. 

Another  branch  of  the  Sakalavas,  namely,  the  Vangiandrano 
tribes  from  the  south  of  the  island,  are  described  by  Ellis  as  a 
striking  race  of  men.  They  appeared  tough  and  agile.  Those 
men  were  ornamented  with  bands  round  their  foreheads,  to 
which  round  pieces  of  polished  shells  were  attached  just  over 
one  temple. 

Raloba,  chief  of  Vangiandrano,  is  thus  described: — "He 
moved  about  among  the  crowds  a  head  and  shoulders  above 
his  fellows — above  seven  feet  high ;  his  figure  was  thin ;  his 
head  broad,  and  rather  largo ;  his  features  slightly  prominent ; 
his  eyes  small ;  his  hair  slightly  grey ;  his  limbs  bony,  but  not 
muscular.  He  wore  an  open-breasted  shirt,  and  above  this  a 
large  native  lamba.  His  head  was  covered  with  a  singular 
cap  of  scarlet  cloth,  fitting  close  round  the  forehead,  but 
drawn  together  in  a  line  about  a  foot  across  above  the  crown. 
From  this  Une  the  upper  end  of  the  cap,  which  tapered  gra- 
dually to  a  point,  was  doubled  down  behind  the  extreme  end, 
reaching  below  the  waist.  The  cap  itself  was  ornamented  by 
a  large  solid  oval  piece  of  light  green  glass  in  front  instead  of 
a  precious  stone.  The  edges  were  covered  with  some  kind  of 
bright  yellow  bordering  extending  along  the  part  which  hung 
down,  and  terminating  in  a  large  yellow  tassel,  like  the  tassel 
of  a  bell  rope.^*  ....  "These  inhabitants  of  Vangiandrano  and 
the  country  about  Faradofay  (Fort  Dauphin)  are  famed  as 
spearmen  throughout  the  island,  and  are  not  allowed  to  sleep 
in  the  city:  they  are  said  to  bo  mahay,  i.  c.,  to  know  irhat  to  do 
with  the  spear/' 


14  OUVER  ON  THE  HOVAS  OF  MADAGASCAR. 

They  exhibited  their  manner  of  fighting  with  shield  and 
spear,  thus  described : — ''  In  the  war  game  now  exhibited  no 
spear  was  hurled,  the  fighting  was  at  close  quarters,  and  was 
an  exhibition  of  personal  encounter.  No  shouts  or  yells  were 
uttered;  it  was  silent  earnest  business.  When  there  was  a 
little  distance  between  the  combatants,  they  held  the  spears 
near  the  middle  of  the  shaft :  but  in  hand-to-hand  encounters 
close  to  the  head  of  the  weapon.  The  small-sized  men  were 
selected,  and  seemed  to  be  the  best  spearmen ;  steadiness  of 
eye  and  agility  appeared  to  be  of  more  importance  than  great 
stature  or  strength.  One  little  tough-looking  individual  elicited 
immense  applause.  A  thrust  that  it  was  supposed  would  have 
told  on  the  person  of  his  antagonist,  had  the  spear  not  been 
purposely  lowered,  was  followed  by  throwing  up  the  shield  in 
the  air  and  catching  it  by  the  handle  as  it  fell  with  the  left 
hand.  The  shields  are  circular;  not  large  nor  fixed  on  the 
arm,  but  held  in  the  hand  by  a  handle  left  in  the  wood  inside 
the  shield."     (Ellis,  Madagascar  Revisited,) 

The  Akongbos. 

The  Akongros  are  mentioned  by  Capt.  Rooke,  R.A.,  as  a 
tribe  independent  of  the  Hovas,  whose  head-quarters  are  two 
hundred  miles  south-west  of  Mananzari.  Their  chief  town  is 
said  to  be  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  steep  hill,  the  sides  of 
which  they  have  scarped  quite  perpendicularly,  so  as  to  render 
their  stronghold  impregnable  against  an  enemy  unprovided 
with  artillery.  It  is  said  to  contain  30,000  inhabitants ;  and, 
although  the  Hovas  had  repeatedly  attacked  it,  they  had  al- 
ways been  repulsed  with  great  loss,  the  garrison  being  assisted 
even  by  the  women,  who  rolled  down  rocks  and  logs  of  wood 
upon  their  assailants.  Capt.  Rooke  saw  about  twenty  of  these 
Akongros  who  were  in  Mananzari  on  a  friendly  visit.  ''  They 
were,"  says  Capt.  Rooke,  '^  rough,  powerfully-built,  good- 
humoured  fellows,  wearing  conical  straw  hats,  and  armed  with 
swords  and  spears."  They  performed  a  war-dance,  and  as- 
sured Capt.  Rooke^s  party  that  no  harm  should  befall  them  if 
they  paid  a  visit  to  their  stronghold,  an  invitation  which,  un- 
fortunately, they  were  unable  so  accept. 


ouver  on  the  hovas  of  madagascar.  15 

The  Heabianas 

Are  another  sub-division  of  the  Sakalavas,  and  occupy  a  part 
of  the  country  west  of  the  Betsileo  and  south  of  Menabe. 
They  are  taller  than  the  Betsileo  and  less  robust  and  muscular 
than  the  Betsimasaraka;  their  features  smaller;  colour  darker ; 
hair  crisp,  but  not  woolly,  matted,  nor  abundant ;  they  have 
sinewy  limbs,  with  free  and  agile  movements.  They  are 
probably  the  result  of  intermixture  of  Betsileo  and  Sakalava 
blood. 

The  Vazimba,  ob  Kimos. 

The  Vazimba  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  occupants 
of  Ankova ;  they  are  described  by  Rochon  under  the  name  of 
Kimos,  as  a  nation  of  dwarfs,  averaging  three  feet  six  inches 
in  stature,  of  a  lighter  colour  than  the  Negroes,  with  very  long 
arms,  short  woolly  hair.  As  they  were  only  described  by  natives 
of  the  coast,  and  have  never  been  seen,  it  is  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  these  pecuHarities  were  exaggerated;  but  it  is  stated 
that  a  people  of  diminutive  size  still  exist  on  the  banks  of  a 
certain  river  to  the  south-west.  There  are  many  tumuli*  and 
cairns  throughout  the  country  held  in  reverence  by  the  Mala- 
gasy, as  the  tombs  of  the  Vazimba,  which,  if  opened,  might 
throw  light  on  the  subject.  Some  of  the  Betanimena  have 
curious  ideas  of  their  ancestors  and  their  origin,  believing  that 
they  sprang  from  the  Babacootes  or  large  Lemurs  of  the  forest. 
Last  year  only,  one  of  the  officers  following  the  queen  on  her 
visit  to  the  coast,  having  shot  a  Babacoote,  was  degraded  to 
the  ranks  and  condemned  to  carry  the  Babacoote  back  to 
Ankova  and  have  it  properly  interred.  So  they  seem  to  have 
an  idea  of  the  missing  link  ! ! 

With  regard  to  the  native  Religion  of  the  Malagasy,  they 
can  hardly  be  said  to  possess  any  form  of  faith  whatever;  their 
creed  (if  that  term  may  be  applied  to  the  few  and  confused 
notions  entertained  on  the  subject)  seems  to  consist  of  little 

•  The  barrows  of  the  Vazimba  resemble  closely  the  ancient  tombs  of  the 
Indians  in  the  Chontales  district  of  Nicaragua.  It  would  be  a  difficult  task 
to  persuade  the  natives  to  open  them,  as  they  have  a  superstitious  horror  of 
desecrating  their  graves. 


16  OLIVER   ON   THE    HOVAS   OP   MADAGASCAR. 

more  than  an  heterogeneous  compound  of  superstitious  terrors 
and  practices. 

Certain  barbarous  ceremonies  and  unmeaning  usages  exist 
which  have  been  handed  down  from  their  forefathers;  but  they 
have  a  very  vague,  indefinite  notion  of  a  Deity,  applying  the 
term  "  Andriamanitra^^  (literally  ^'  the  fragrant  prince'')  to 
their  sovereign,  their  idols,  individually  and  collectively,  their 
dead,  to  anything  supernatural,  a  phenomenon  of  nature,  and 
to  the  genius  which  animates  their  various  charms,  divinations, 
ordeals,  etc. 

Their  ideas  on  these  subjects  are  evidently  borrowed  from 
other  nations ;  thus  they  practise  the  rite  of  circumci^n  learnt 
from  the  Arabs,  but  as  a  civil  rather  than  a  religious  ceremony. 
The  Vintana,  or  fixed  immutability  of  their  destiny,  answers 
to  the  doctrine  of  fate  taught  in  the  Koran  of  the  Mahometans. 
The  Fandroana,  or  national  new  year  festival  or  lustration, 
has  an  obscure  but  evident  relation  to  the  Jewish  Passover. 
Purifying  and  bathing  are  universal  on  the  occasion :  cattle 
are  slain,  and  their  blood  is  sprinkled  on  the  doorposts  of  their 
houses,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  throughout  the  year.  A 
hasty  meal  is  prepared  and  eaten,  and  general  festivity  ensues. 
The  ordeal  by  Tangena  (so  long  practised,  but  happily  now 
rendered  obsolete  by  law),  or  poison,  is  slightly  analogous  to 
the  ceremonial  of  ordeal  by  bitter  waters,  practised  by  the  / 
Jews  (Numbers,  ch.  xxxi,  verse  11.)  The  Faditra  and  Sorona 
have  an  affinity  to  the  cleanse,  sin,  and  wave  ofierings  of  the 
Pentateuch,  and  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  institution  of 
the  scape-goat.  So  also  the  Sampy,  or  idols,  correspond  closely 
to  the  Teraphim  of  the  old  testament.  Mosavy,  or  witchcraft, 
is  punished  by  stoning  to  doath,  as  in  the  law  of  Moses. 
Their  Fady  is  equivalent  to  the  Taboo  of  Polynesia.  Their 
Ody,  or  charms  and  amulets,  have  perhaps  a  small  relation  to 
the  African  Fetish,  The  Fanandro,  or  genethlialogy,  a  peculiar 
casting  of  nativities,  is  also  derived  from  ancient  eastern  na- 
tions. The  SMdy,  or  divination,  alone  seems  peculiar  to 
the  Malagasy  themselves,  and  is  highly  original.  It  is  not 
based  on  astronomy,  necromancy,  or  magic ;  but  its  nature  is 
oracular,  and  calculated  from  a  fixed  process  of  the  permuta- 


sr.M:. 


1 


s,  or  sand,  i^larcd 


I,  wIh)  tirt^  hiirit'd 
ifttM'wards  ])Iac('d 
V()0(l(.'n  liouscs  or 

r-caiu'  l)V  an  in- 
fornicnt  a  di'ink 
curions  wav  of 
JC(?  it  nnd(M*  Xhr 
•'s  rjuid.      ^I'lnn' 

and  ('ondncc  to 
:'\v  is  an  nnnsnal 
ans  are  cnmnion. 

iste''  distinction 
('  Zanakandjony. 
vo,  and  ai'o  the 
It  town,  'riicir 
t»*rrat  trnacitv, 
u'   oodics   of  tlio 

f  I'li  llniil<l.<l  ili(  ^    or 

.vorkini^'  tor  tlio 
ako  a  sjwidc*  l^ut. 
itiun  to  erect  a 
licy  lend  otliei's 
ont  of  the  sanu^ 
n  adlieriMKH'  to 
and   j)rond,  and 


Tlie  soveroiLTn 

mail   lias    more 

ly,    two    is    the 

of  rank  to  have 

lv«^-amv   i^"   hnn- 


OUTER   ON    THE    UOVAS    OP    MADAGASCAR.  17 

lions  and  combinations  of  certain  straws^  beans^  or  sand^  placed 
in  particular  lines  and  positions. 

Sepulture. 

They  have  great  veneration  for  their  dead,  who  are  buried 
in  large  solid  wooden  sarcophagi^  which  are  afterwards  placed 
either  in  handsome  mansoleums  or  simply  in  wooden  houses  or 
under  meve  sheds  {vide  the  Illustration) . 

The  Malagasy  press  the  juice  from  the  sugar-cane  by  an  in- 
genious  and  simple  roller  {vide  Sketch),  and  ferment  a  drink 
called  toak%  from  the  liquors.  They  have  a  curious  way  of 
taking  tobacco  in  the  shape  of  snuff,  but  place  it  under  the 
tongue  instead  of  in  the  cheek,  like  a  sailor^s  quid.  They 
also  in  secret  smoke  roiigona  or  hemp. 

The  Malagasy  habits  of  life  are  simple  and  conduce  to 
lonyerity,  and  throughout  the  whole  island  there  is  an  unusual 
amount  of  vexy  aged  persons;  in  fact,  centenarians  are  common. 

Caste. 

There  seems  to  be  a  solitary  instance  of  "  caste"  distinction 
among  the  Hovas,  claimed  by  a  clan  named  the  Zanakambony. 
They  live  about  eight  miles  from  Antananarivo,  and  arc  the 
descendants  of  the  original  conquerors  of  that  town.  Thoir 
peculiar  privileges,  which  they  maintain  with  great  tenacity, 
are  as  follows ;  viz. — The  right  of  carrying  the  bodies  of  the 
deceased  kings  and  building  their  tombs  and  tranomai^ina,  or 
houses,  over  them.  They  are  exempt  from  working  for  the 
king  except  in  smiths'  works  ;  so  they  may  make  a  spade  but 
not  use  it.  They  look  upon  it  as  a  degradation  to  erect  a 
fence,  to  associate  with  other  clans,  nor  will  they  lend  others 
even  a  mat  or  drinking  vessel,  nor  will  they  eat  out  of  the  same 
dish  as  other  people.  They  are  veiy  strict  in  adherence  to 
rites  and  ceremonies,  are  very  poor,  indolent,  and  proud,  and 
consequently  ignorant. 

Polygamy 

Exists  under  the  sanction  of  the  native  laws.  The  sovereign 
is  allowed  twelve  wives ;  but,  as  a  rule,  no  man  litis  more 
than  three  or  four,  and,  still  more  frequently,  two  is  the 
number.  It  is  considered  essential  to  any  one  of  rank  to  have 
more  than  one  wife.     The  native  word  for  polygamy  is  /)/???- 

VOL.  HI.  (' 


IH  OLIVER    ON    THE    II0VA3    OF    MADAGASCAR. 

l/orafesana,  "  the  means  of  causing  enmity".  The  wives,  how- 
ever, keep  perfectly  separate  establishments.  Divorces  are 
frequent,  and  widows  are  not  allowed  to  marry  within  twelve 
months  of  their  husband's  decease.  Many  of  both  sexes  are 
married  at  twelve  years  of  age ;  they  frequently  become 
parents  shortly  after  the  ages  above  specified  (Ellis,  vol.i,p.l63). 

The  genealog}'  is  traced  through  the  female  line  on  the  sup- 
position that  parentage  is  more  easily  identified  on  the  mother's 
side.  An  unmarried  queen  is  supposed  to  have  the  right  of 
having  a  family  by  whom  she  may  think  proper.  The  child- 
ren are  recognised  as  legitimate  by  their  relation  to  the  mother, 
and  no  questions  made  as  to  the  paternity.  It  was  often  as- 
serted that  !M.  Laborde  w^as  the  father  of  the  late  king ;  but 
with  what  foundation  1  cannot  say.  Throughout  the  island,  as 
may  be  easily  imagined,  immorality  of  every  description  pre- 
vails, and  a  stranger  arriving  on  the  coast  certainly  sees  the 
worst  of  it.  For  instance,  whenever  a  vessel  arrives  at  Tama- 
tave  or  other  port  on  the  coast,  the  ofiicer  of  customs  inquires 
the  number  of  the  people  on  board,  and  shortly  after  canoes 
approach  the  vessel  with  women  corresponding  in  number  to 
those  of  the  ship's  ofiicers,  crew  and  passengers,  who  proceed 
to  pass  the  night  on  board.  Unless  intercourse  is  allowed 
with  these  women,  the  ship  will  not  be  permitted  water,  pro- 
visions, or  to  traffic  in  bullocks,  etc.  Our  own  cruisers  have 
been  obliged  even  to  submit  to  this  requisite  demonstration  of 
amity.  Inland  also  the  young  unmarried  women  are  brought 
to  the  notice  of  the  passing  traveller  in  dances  of  a  suggestive 
character. 

The  Malagasy  are  very  fond  of  music  and  singing,  and  have 
a  quick  and  retentive  ear.  Their  native  musical  instruments 
consist  of  wooden  drums  (fig.  4) ;  the  lohniga,  a  stringed  in- 
strument with  a  hollow  calabash  (fig.  2) ;  the  raliha,  a  sort  of 
bamboo  harp  (fig.  3),  of  a  very  original  character.  They  also 
blow  conches  as  tnimpets,  and  clap  their  hands  in  unison  as  a 
chorus. 

In  many  of  the  villages  the  instrument  to  which  they  dance 
consists  of  a  large  hollow  bamboo  held  at  each  extremity  by  a 
little  girl,  whilst  the  musicians  simply  stand  in  a  row  and  tap 


mcthuiU  III'  iu- 
(iblo  in  priviLtu 
Kpt'iirtitl  or  bc- 

tO  tint  gilKC*  of 

■i  of  the  JaiHi- 

UIlJ  tllOtllOtluT 

'iniiiilmjn,  siaiu 
eIf-£jos!H.'8sion, 
the  1'Xiu.t  sjHjt 
i^iig  iiitii  hip< 

i'st  sifitci',  and 

rt'  usuully  siif- 
iil  tlccji,  or  in 

\n-da  iiK  !i  late 
a!  piTsoriHjfc, 
I  WHS  tlirown 
(I  tilt'  twist.;il 
■  t.lic  jHirpo-io. 

■X-l,    till!    IlOild 

rcr  in  put  to 
10  miirtlor  (an 

•  piiiiiKliinriit. 

'  punishment 

ptilljr    to 


ttf 


1  ]umiHliiiiciit 
olloivs;  liiail- 
lotlicr  ratlicr 
1  down  a  hill 
lis  Imnil,  and 
omctinu's  in- 


20  OUVEB  ON  THB  HOVAS  OF  MADAQASCAR. 

volving  the  whole  family,  and  confiscation  of  property  are  com- 
mon punishments.  Pecuniary  fines,  imprisonment  and  chains, 
with  hard  labour,  etc.  Maiming  is  sometimes  practised.  The 
public  judges  can  inflict  only  punishments  not  capital^  death 
being  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign.  If  a  criminal 
can  obtain  a  sight  of  the  sovereign  he  is  pardoned,  or  if  the 
sovereign  accepts  a  hazina  sent  to  him.  So  at  the  coronation 
of  the  present  Queen  Basoherina,  some  of  the  Menamaso  who 
had  escaped  the  massacre  of  their  comrades  obtained  a  com- 
mutation of  their  sentence  (Ellis) . 


SKUJ.L    OF     AINO    Mj\N 


PKUrj,    OF    AINO    -MAN 


21 


II. — Description  of  the  Skeleton  of  an  Aino  Womcm,  and  of 
Three  Skulls  of  Men  of  the  same  race.  By  Joseph  Babnabd 
Davis,  M.D.,  P.R.S.,  P.S.A.,  V.P.A.S.L.,  etc. 

Unexfectid  circumstances  enabled  me,  some  time  ago,  to  ex- 
amine a  fine  series  of  bones  of  the  aborigines  of  tbe  Island  of 
Yesso,  in  Japan,  of  which  it  appeared  in  some  measure  a  duty 
to  give  as  accurate  an  account  of  such  very  rare  objects  as  was 
in  my  power. 

I.  (a)  The  skeleton  of  an  Alno  woman.  Of  skeletons  of  exotic 
races,  those  of  men  almost  universally  prevail ;  those  of  women 
occur  only  occasionally,  without  it  be  in  the  rich  collection  of 
the  Gralerie  Anthropologique  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  of  Paris, 
where  there  is  an  unusual  number  of  the  skeletons  of  women  of 
exotic  races.  There  will  be  some  dijBSculty  in  finding  the 
means  of  comparison  of  this  AYno  example  with  other  skeletons 
of  women.  With  the  view  of  obtaining  some  aid  in  our  at- 
tempt, we  shall  refer  to — 

{h).  The  most  famous  skeleton  of  an  European  woman,  de- 
rived from  the  celebrated  Von  Sommerring's  Collection,  and 
now  contained  in  the  Anatomical  Museum  at  Giessen.  It  is 
the  subject  of  his  beautiful  Tabula  sceleti  feminini,*  She  was 
a  native  of  Mainz,  died  at  an  early  age,  about  twenty  years, 
and  her  skeleton  was  selected  "  e  sceletis  puellarum  bellissi- 
marum"  of  his  museum,  as  approaching  closest  in  form  to  the 
Venus  di  Medici. f  It  would  be,  in  some  respects,  too  severe 
a  test  to  compare  this  skeleton  of  a  young  German  woman,  of 
unusual  elegance  of  conformation,  with  that  of  the  Aino  wo- 


*  TrajecH  ad  MoBtium,  1797. 

t  "  Ne  autem  aliquid  deesset,  imprimis  pulchritudini  ossium  capitis,  com- 
paravi  iUa  soUicite  cum  cranio  palcherrimo  feminse  Georgianse  in  coUectione 
rarissima  Blumenbachii,  nee  sine  voluptate  animadvorti,  puella)  mcae  bel- 
lissimum  caput  osseum  optime  cum  illo  convenirc/' 


i 


22  DAVIS    ON   THE    SKELETON    OP 

man ;  still,  some  results  in  aid  of  our  description  may  ensue 
from  a  slight  comparison  of  the  two. 

(c).  The  skeleton  of  an  Australian  woman,  aged  about  thirty - 
five  years  (No.  1261  f  of  my  Collection),  from  the  province  of 
South  Australia. 

(d) .  The  description  of  the  skeleton  of  another  Australian 
woman,  considered  to  be  above  forty  years  of  age,  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Murray  River,  in  South  AustraUa.* 

The  two  latter  skeletons  are  selected  for  comparison,  be- 
cause (c)  is  the  only  other  woman's  skeleton  in  my  Collection, 
and  (d)  is  the  only  one  I  know  of  in  which  a  number  of  the 
same  measurements  are  given.  That  they  are  of  a  very  dis- 
tinct and  different  race  from  the  Aino  woman,  may  be  favour- 
able to  bringing  out  diversities  clearly. 

(a) .  The  ago  of  the  Aino  woman  appears  to  have  been  about 
twenty -five  years.  The  two  upper  denies  sapientiw  are  in  full 
position  and  development.  The  lower  ones  have  not  been  de- 
veloped at  all.  The  teeth  are  all  beautifully  perfect,  and  rather 
large.  The  entire  length  of  the  skeleton  is  five  feet  English, 
or  sixty  inches,  which  is  1 522  milUmetres.  This  gives  a  sta- 
ture that,  as  an  average,  would  be  considered  short,  although 
many  English  women  are  not  taller.  The  calvarium  is  of  good 
oval  form,  not  at  all  unlike  the  western  European.  The  face 
rather  prognathous.  The  nasal  bones  and  the  nostrils  some- 
what broad.  The  vault  of  the  calvarium  may  be  considered 
rather  flat,  and  the  supraoccipital  region  full;  but  the  more 
decided  feminine  charact eristics y — fullness  in  the  lower  occipital 
region  and  delicacy  of  the  mastoid  processes, — are  distinctly 
present. 

There  is  a  general  appearance  of  robustness  in  the  skeleton, 
indicated  in  the  humeri  and  the  femora,  and  all  the  other  long 
bones,  especially  in  their  articular  extremities.  The  vertebral 
column  may  be  regarded  as  having  six  lumbar  vertebraa ;  the 
first  being  like  a  dorsal  vertebra,  without  any  articular  facet 
for  a  twelfth  rib,  yet  not  possessing  the  large  direct  transverse 


*  Zur  Kenntnitt  der  Eingd>ornen  Sudaustraliens.     Von  Prof.  Alexander 
Ecker.     Berichte  d.  naturf.  Gea.  z.  Freiburg,  ii  Bd. 


AN   AINO   WOMAN,    ETC.  23 

processes  of  the  other  lumbar  vertebr89.*     There  are  eleven 
ribs  on  each  side. 

(b) .  In  turning  to  Von  Sommerring's  skeleton  of  the  Ger- 
man woman,  it  is  at  once  seen  that  the  two  crania  differ  mate- 
rially. That  of  the  latter  is  characteristic  of  her  race,  and 
more  pleasing  in  the  eyes  of  Europeans.  The  bones  of  the 
Aino  woman  are  all  of  a  ruder  conformation, — more  robust.  The 
proportionate  length  of  the  vertebral  column  is  the  same  in  the 
two  skeletons.  The  humerus  is  decidedly  longer  in  the  German ; 
yet  the  length  of  the  whole  upper  extremity  in  the  Aino  slightly 
exceeds  that  of  the  other  skeleton.  The  femora,  again,  are 
decidedly  longer  in  Von  Sommerring^s  skeleton,  and  the  notches 
between  the  heads  of  the  thigh-bones  and  the  greater  troch- 
anters are  much  deeper.  But  the  most  remarkable  discrepancy 
is  in  the  length  of  the  bones  of  the  leg.  The  tibia  and  fibula 
of  the  Aino  woman  are  disproportionately  short,  in  a  very 
obvious  degree.  Her  feet  are  also  broader.  There  is  a  striking 
disagreement  between  the  pelves  of  the  two  skeletons.  The 
German  woman's  exceeds  the  other  in  its  transverse  develop- 
ment, the  ilia  being  evased,  and  the  superior  opening  trans- 
versely oval ;  whilst  that  of  the  Aino  woman  is  more  expanded 
in  the  conjugate  diameter.  This  feature  will  be  seen  in  the 
measurements  given  hereafter.  The  whole  pelvis  bears  the 
appearance  of  narrowness,  the  hips  being  nearer  to  each  other. 
Such  peculiar  conformation  in  the  pelvis  of  the  Aino  woman 
is  quite  unfeminine  and  un-European.  The  distinguished  Pro- 
fessor Cams,  in  his  fine  work  Froportionslelire,  asserts  that 
there  is  such  a  difference  in  the  form  of  the  pelvis  between  his 
"day-people^'  and  his  "night-people'',  and  says  that  in  the 
latter  the  whole  pelvis  is  longer  and  narrower. f  Von  Som- 
mering  had  already  declared  the  pelvis  of  the  Negro  to  be 
narrow.}     In  both,  shortness  of  the  leg-bones  and  narrowness 

•  Von  Sdmmering  alludes  to  a  very  different  abnormal  condition  of  the 
vertebrae  in  one  of  his  Negro  skeletons.  He  says,  "  In  einem  meiner  Ne- 
gerskelete  sind  sechs  Lendenwirbel  bey  ilbrigens  vollzahliger  Zahl  der  andem 
Wirbelbeine,  so  wie  ich  dies  bey  mehreren  Europaern  gefunden." — Die  Kor- 
perliche  Verschiedenheit  des  Negers,  §  33. 

t  Proportionslehre,  §  15.     Leipzig,  1854,  fol. 

I  Op.  cit.,  §  3-1. 


24  DAVIS   ON   THE    SKELETON    OP 

of  the  pelvis,  the  skeleton  of  the  Aino  woman  approaches  to 
that  of  the  male  gorilla,  yet  without  giving  any  countenance 
to  the  developmental  hypothesis. 

(f).  The  skeleton  of  the  Australian  woman  (No.  1261 1  of 
my  Collection)  is  4  feet  10*7  inches,  or  58*7  inches  long,  that 
is,  1491  millimetres.  The  skull  of  this  Australian  woman  is 
long,  narrow,  and  low,  and  exceedingly  prognathous.  It  has 
a  broad  nose,  wide  nostrils,  and  a  wide  mouth,  with  unusually 
large  teeth.  It  is  full  in  the  supraoccipital  region,  and  rather 
flat  on  the  upper  surface,  and  it  is  also  full  in  the  infraoccipital 
region.     The  bones  of  the  entire  skeleton  are  very  slender. 

{(l).  The  skeleton  of  the  other  Australian  woman  is  1508  mm. 
in  length ;  so  that  the  longest  skeleton  of  the  series  is  that  of 
the  Aino  woman  (No.  I456t),  or  a,  and  the  shortest  that  of 
the  Australian  woman,  c. 

But  what  is  the  most  obvious  and  striking  diflTerence  between 
the  skeletons  of  the  Aino  and  of  the  Australian  women,  is  the  de- 
cided robustness  of  the  former,  and  the  remarkable  delicacy  and 
slendemess  of  the  bones  of  the  latter.  This  extends  from  the  bones 
of  the  extremities  to  the  clavicles  and  ribs.  It  is  difficult  to  con- 
vey a  true  idea  of  this  contrast  between  the  two  without  actual 
inspection.  Whilst  the  former  exceeds  the  mean  of  European 
women's  skeletons  in  the  diameter  and  stoutness  of  the  bones 
of  the  limbs ;  the  latter,  in  these  particulars,  comes  decidedly 
short  of  the  European  female  mean.  As  the  best  mode  of  in- 
dicating this  diversity  of  size  in  the  bones,  I  have  taken  the 
circumference  of  the  femur  of  the  Australian  woman,  at  the 
most  slender  part  of  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  and  find  it  to  be 
2' 7  inches,  or  68  mm. ;  whilst  that  of  the  Aino  woman  mea- 
sured in  the  same  part,  is  3*3  inches,  or  83  mm.  This  is 
a  difference  between  the  two  of  upwards  of  half  an  inch.  The 
same  diflTerence  is  perceived  by  taking  the  diameter  of  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  femur,  above  the  condyles,  at  its  widest 
part.  That  of  the  Australian  woman  gives  a  diameter  of 
2*55  inches,  or  66  mm.  That  of  the  Aino  woman,  of  2*9  inches, 
or  73  mm.  The  patellas  are  much  larger  in  the  latter.  All 
the  other  bones  of  the  limbs  keep  up  the  same  proportionate 
diversity,  so  that  the  hands  and  feet  of  the  Australian  woman 
present  a  remarkable  gracility. 


AN   AINO   WOMAN,    ETC.  25 

Perhaps  the  delicacy  of  the  frame-work  of  this  Australian 
skeleton  is  nowhere  more  obvious  than  in  the  structure  of  the 
pelvis.  When  compared  with  other  pelves,  this  may  be  looked 
upon  as  a  basin  made  of  eggshelUchvna,  All  the  bones  are  so 
frail  and  thin  and  light ;  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  the  bones  of 
her  cranium  are  so  thick  and  heavy.  It  is  a  happy  thing  that 
the  fragile  pelvis  oi  an  Australian  woman,  containing  a  series 
of  organs  so  essential  to  life  and  being,  should  be  hidden  in 
soft  parts,  and  further  protected  by  its  central  position  from 
injuries  to  which  it  would  otherwise  be  continually  liable.  Her 
exposed  head,  on  the  other  hand,  is  defended  by  the  dense  os- 
seous plates  of  the  skull  from  the  effects  of  the  constant  and 
severe  blows  to  which  it  is  subjected.  The  spinous  processes 
of  the  ossa  puhes  are  unusually  developed  and  prominent. 

This  remarkable  difference  between  the  robustness  of  the 
skeleton  of  the  Amo  woman,  the  general  thickness  of  its  bones, 
and  the  slendemess  of  that  of  the  Australian  woman,  should 
not  be  passed  over  without  noticing  that  all  voyagers  have  ob- 
served the  strong  bodily  structure  of  the  Amos.  La  P^rouse 
remarked  it.  On  the  contrary,  the  Australians,  as  a  people,  are 
conspicuous  among  all  races  for  the  thinness  of  their  limbs, 
and  the  gracility  of  their  bonos.  So  that,  although  for  illustra- 
tion we  have  compared  the  two  skeletons,  there  is  no  resem- 
blance between  them  in  respect  to  the  development  of  their 
osseous  tissues. 

Recollecting  this  absolute  difference  in  the  circumferential 
development  of  the  long  bones  in  these  two  skeletons  belong- 
ing to  different  races,  we  will  endeavour  to  ascertain  what  are 
their  relations  in  respect  of  the  length  of  the  individual  long 
bones,  and  the  dimensions  of  other  parts.  For  this  purpose  a 
tabular  view  will  be  best. 

Table  I. — Measurements,   etc.,  of  the   Aino,  and  of   Two 
Australian  Skeletons  {sue  next  page). 

By  this  table  it  appears  that  the  proportions  of  the  A'lno 
woman's  skeleton  are  peculiar.  The  vertebral  column  is  very 
short,  thirty  mm.  shorter  than  that  of  the  two  Australian 
women.     The  bones  of  the  arm  (humerus,   ulna,  and  radius) 


i 


26 


DATIS   ON   THE   SKELETON   OF 


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AN   Ai'NO   WOMAN,    ETC.  27 

are  short.  Whilst  the  femora  of  all  the  three  skeletons  are  as 
nearly  as  may  be  of  equal  length,  the  tibiae  of  the  AXno  wo- 
man are  exceedingly  shoii),  and  her  whole  lower  extremity  is 
short.  At  the  same  time,  the  bones  of  this  extremity  are  dis- 
proportionately thick. 

II.  In  attempting  to  describe  the  three  Aino  skulls  of  men, 
we  are  desirous  as  much  as  possible  to  avail  ourselves,  for  a 
perfect  comprehension  of  their  peculiarities,  of  all  other  infor- 
mation of  a  comparative  nature  that  we  know  of.  We  can  only 
hope  to  attain  a  moderate  degree  of  success,  and  even  this 
will  be  dubious  and  fleeting,  unless  aided  by  good  artistic 
illustrations.  One  male  Aino  skull  has  already  been  described 
by  an  accomplished  craniologist,  and  full  measurements  of  it 
given,  by  Mr.  George  Busk,  who  supplemented  these  by  add- 
ing, side  by  side,  those  of  an  "  English  cranium  of  the  same 
rather  unusual  length."*  To  avail  ourselves  to  the  utmost  of 
these  data,  we  will  measure  the  present  series  of  skulls  accords 
ing  to  Mr,  BusVs  method,  and  arrange  the  whole  in  a  table,  with 
the  addition  of  the  reduction  of  the  measurements,  as  accu- 
rately as  possible,  from  English  inches  to  millimetres.  Mr. 
Busk's  English  skull  occupies  the  first  column,  his  Aino  skull 
the  second,  and  the  three  other  Aino  skulls  follow  consecutively. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  whole  are  believed  to  be  the  skulls 
of  men.  The  internal  capacities  of  the  three  last  crania  have 
been  added,  in  cubic  inches,  as  well  as  cubic  centimetres. 

Table  II. — Measurements,  etc.,   of  an   English   and  Four 

AiNO  Crania. 

The  internal  capacity  of  the  three  Aino  skulls  yields  an 
average  of  1470  centimetres.  By  the  reduction  of  this  capacity 
to  ounces  weight  of  brain,  making  due  allowance  for  the  weight 
of  the  fluids  and  the  membranes,  we  acquire  a  mean  weight  of 
brain  in  these  Aino  crania  of  45*90  ounces  avoirdupois,  or  1301 
grammes.  This  is  a  brain-weight  considerably  exceeding  that 
of  the  aboriginal  races  of  India  and  Ceylon,  that  of  all  the  races 
of  the  plains  of  India,  both  Hindoos  and  Mussulmans ;  and  is 
only  paralleled  among  the  peoples  of  Asia,  by  the  races  of  the 

•  Transactions  of  the  Ethnological  Society  of  London  (New  Series)  vol.  vi. 


28 


DAVIS   ON    THE    SKELETON    OF 


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AN    AINO    WOMAN,    ETC.  29 

Himalayas^  the  Siamese,  the  Chinese,  and  the  Bormese.  It 
somewhat  exceeds  the  mean  brain-weight  of  Asiatic  races  in 
general. 

After  this  table,  which  gives  the  whole  of  the  necessary 
measurements  of  the  series  of  male  skulls,  we  will  endeavour 
to  indicate  with  some  care  those  peculiarities  observed  in  each 
individual  cranium  that  may  be  worth  notice. 

No.  1457 :  this  is  the  cranium  of  a  man  about  thirty  years 
of  age.  The  cheek  depressions  are  unusually  deep,  and  the 
nasal  bones  more  elevated  than  common,  so  as  to  present  an 
aquiline  nose.  The  frontal  suture  exhibits  all  its  serrations 
perfectly  from  one  end  to  the  other.  The  right  frontal  bone 
presents  a  slight  depression  just  above  the  edge  of  the  orbit  at 
its  inner  portion,  most  likely  the  seat  of  some  early  injury.  The 
left  spheno-parietal  suture  is  occupied  by  a  triangular  trique- 
tral bone.  There  is  not  one  in  the  right.  The  teeth  are  all  in 
their  places,  except  two,  which  have  dropped  out  accidentally, 
and  are  quite  sound.  They  are  scarcely  at  all  worn,  and  their 
condition  proves  that  the  Ainos  exercise  much  more  care  in 
avoiding  the  incorporation  of  sand  in  their  fish,  in  the  process 
of  drying,  than  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  North  America. 

No.  1458  is  a  more  massive  skull  than  the  last.  The  nose 
is  decidedly  less  prominent,  still  the  nasal  orifice  is  not  wide. 
The  supraciliary  protuberances  are  marked,  and  the  forehead 
recedent.  The  teeth  are  rather  small.  Although  apparently  not 
more  than  from  forty  to  fifty  years  of  age,  the  sutures  are 
much  ossified.  The  course  of  the  sagittal  can  with  difficulty  be 
traced  at  all.  All  the  central  portion  of  the  lambdoidal  is 
equally  obliterated.  And  the  whole  of  the  coronal  suture,  from 
one  alisphenoid  to  the  other,  has  experienced  the  influence  of 
ossification,  although  it  is  not  obliterated.  The  occipital  bone 
presents  a  paramastoid  process  on  each  side. 

In  No.  1459  the  two  upper  wisdom-teeth,  although  cut,  have 
not  come  into  use.  The  lower  ones  have  just  come  into  use. 
Yet  the  spheno-basilary  synchondrosis  is  perfectly  ossified. 
The  age  must  be  somewhere  near  twenty  years.  The  narrow 
nasal  bones  are  united  by  an  internasal  suture,  which  is  not 
straight,  but  takes  a  sigmoid  course.      The  nasal  orifice  is 


30  DAVIS   ON    THE    SKELETON    OF 

narrow.  The  nose  rather  flat.  The  calvarium  is  well  filled  out 
and  smooth.  There  is  some  doubt  whether  this  may  not  be 
the  skull  of  a  young  woman. 

We  have  not  introduced  the  cranium  of  the  woman^s  skele- 
ton into  our  table  of  measurements^  on  account  of  the  sex. 
And  the  only  remark  that  needs  to  be  made  upon  it  is  tbat  it 
exhibits  all  the  feminine  peculiarities  in  beautiful  proportions, 
so  that  it  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  fine  and  deli- 
cate  skull  of  an  European  woman. 

Having  given  this  brief  description  of  the  skeleton  and 
skulls,  we  proceed  to  say  something  about  the  other  peculiari- 
ties of  the  AYnos  observed  by  voyagers,  after  some  mention  of 
their  funeral  customs. 

Many  voyagers  speak  of  the  mode  in  which  some  tribes  of 
the  people  of  north-eastern  Asiatic  countries  dispose  of  their 
dead.  When  among  the  Orotchys  of  the  continent.  La  P^rouse 
found  everywhere  numerous  tombs.  He  says,  that  the  bodies 
of  the  poorer  people  were  exposed  upon  biers  in  the  open  air, 
under  a  sort  of  canopy  supported  by  posts  about  four  feet 
high.  They  all  had  their  bows  and  arrows,  their  nets,  and 
some  morsels  of  stufis  placed  around  their  monuments.  The 
bodies  of  persons  of  more  elevated  position  in  the  tribe  were 
placed  in  more  imposing  tombs.  In  one  of  the  fine  plates  to 
La  Peroxise^s  Voyage,  the  tombs  they  met  with  in  the  Bay  of 
Castries  are  depicted.*  And  the  report  of  Siebold  is  to  the 
same  efiect : — "Bodies  of  the  rich  receive  honours  of  a  different 
kind ;  they  are  embalmed,  filled  with  odoriferous  herbs,  and 
dried  during  a  year,  then  placed  in  a  sepulchre,  where  they  are 
annually  visited  by  their  relatives.^f  It  is  well  known  that 
the  Ainos  in  Yesso  entertain  great  respect  for  the  dead.  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  body  of  the  Amo  woman 
had  been  carefully  dried,  after  being  placed  in  the  bent  position 
with  the  knees  drawn  close  to  the  chin,  a  funeral  dress  put  on, 
and  then  it  was  placed  in  a  sort  of  basket-work  double  box  or 
case,  formed  like  those  of  the  Japanese,  one  to  slip  within  the 

•  AtUu  du  Voyage  de  La  Perouse,  Planche,  No.  53,  fol.  1797. 
t  Siebold,  Maeura  et  usages  dea  Ainoa,  as  quoted  in  Prichard,  Researches 
into  the  Physical  History  of  Mankind,  vol.  iv,  p.  456. 


AN   AINO   WOMAN,    ETC.  31 

other.  The  dress  was  made  wholly  of  the  same  material,  a 
thin,  coarse,  white  cotton  cloth,  unomamented  and  one  fold  in 
thickness.  A  piece  of  the  web  of  this  cloth,  which  was  abont 
twelve  inches  wide,  was  passed  across  the  abdomen  and  tied 
with  a  strip  round  the  loins.  A  chemise  open  before,  and 
reaching  to  the  thighs,  with  short  wide  sleeves,  was  placed  on 
the  back ;  a  cap  apon  the  head ;  and  something  like  gloves 
(all  of  the  same  cotton  cloth)  upon  the  arms,  tied  above  the 
elbows,  and  like  stockings  upon  the  legs,  tied  above  the  calves. 
The  head  had  been  closely  shaved.  It  is  said  that  the  Ainos 
in  the  Island  of  Yesso  have  adopted  this  practice  from  the 
Japanese. 

The  Aiiws,  which  term  means  men  in  their  own  language, 
are  an  aboriginal  people  inhabiting  the  Island  of  Yesso,  in 
Japan,  and  the  Island  of  Saghalien  to  the  north  of  it.*  The 
Ainos  are  also  said  to  inhabit  a  part  of  the  continent  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Amur,  and  likewise  the  Kurile  Isles.  It  is  very 
likely  that  a  better  knowledge  of  these  remote  people  will 
show  that  the  true  Ainos  are  not  so  extended.  La  Perouse,  in 
his  first  voyage,  sailed  from  Japan  between  the  continent  and 
Saghalien,  in  the  summer  of  1787.  It  might  be  said  that  he 
ascertained  that  Saghalien,  or  Tchoka,  was  an  island,  although 
he  did  not  sail  northwards  quite  through  the  strait  separating 
it  from  the  continent  of  Asia.  In  this  part  the  strait  is  shallow 
and  greatly  overgrown  with  fuci.  On  the  12th  of  July  La 
Perouse  had  a  most  interesting  communication  with  the  in- 
habitants Qn  the  west,  or  Asiatic  coast  of  the  strait ;  but  it  was 
not  till  he  had  sailed  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Tchoka,  or 
Saghalien,  at  Cape  Crillon,  that  he  received  the  islanders  on 
board  his  ship.  They  soon  became  familiar,  seated  themselves 
on  the  deck,  and  smoked  their  pipes.  He  describes  them  as  of 
good  figure,  and  with  regular  traits  of  countenance.    They  were 


•  Saghalien  anga  hata,  i.  c,  '*  Bock  in  the  mouth  of  the  filack  River",  the 
Saghalien  in  Ainor.  This  is  the  explanation  in  the  maps  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
gionaries.  The  island  is  now  called  Saghalien  by  the  Russians.  La  Perouse 
ascertained  that  its  native  name  was  Tchoka.  It  has  also  been  denominated 
Ohu-Jesao,  '*  High  or  North  Jesso",  as  it  is  only  separated  from  Jesso  by  the 
Strait  of  La  Perouse  ;  other  names  are  Kara/to  and  Tarakai. 


32  DAVIS   ON    THE    SKELETON    OF 

stoutly  built^  and  resembled  vigorous  men.  Their  beards  de- 
scended to  their  breasts,  and  their  arms,  necks,  and  backs  were 
covered  with  hair.  He  adds,  that  he  makes  this  remark  be- 
cause it  is  a  general  character :  "  for  we  easily  find  in  Europe 
many  individuals  as  hairy  as  these  islanders,  f  La  Perouse 
does  not  give  countenance  to  that  excessive  hairiness,  which  is 
attributed  to  them  by  the  Japanese  and  some  voyagers. 

It  will  be  well  to  add,  that  the  Russian  circumnavigator. 
Von  Krusenstem,  says  positively  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  end  of  the  island  of  Yesso,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
southern  end  of  Tchoka,  or  Saghalien,  both  name  themselves 
Ainos,  and  in  stature,  looks,  and  speech  prove  themselves  to 
be  only  one  people. 

1 .  There  are  certain  questions  which  deserve  to  be  carefully 
examined.  The  hairiness  of  the  Ainos  is  one  of  them.  They 
have  had  conferred  upon  them  the  name  of  "  the  hairy  men  of 
Yesso",  and  both  Chinese  and  Japanese  writers  allude  to  this 
peculiarity.  The  Japanese  represent  them  as  barbarians  in  an 
eminent  measure,  and  call  them  "  Morin",  explained  by  Klap- 
roth  as  "  Hairy  bodies".  They  have  also  been  named  "  Hairy 
Kuriles".  Still,  the  more  instructed  Japanese  do  the  Ainos 
greater  justice.  In  a  drawing  of  an  Aino  man  made  by  Syo-da 
Sabon-ro,  English  and  French  interpreter  of  the  Embassy  from 
the  Tycoon  of  Japan  to  Paris,  in  1864,  he  is  represented  as 
having  long,  straggling  locks  falling  down  on  each  side  of  his 
head,  and  a  rough  beard  of  no  very  unusual  length.  Captain 
Broughton,  whose  voyage  was  from  1 795  to  1 798,  reported  that 
their  bodies  were  almost  covered  with  long,  black  hair,  and  that 
the  same  was  to  be  seen  in  some  young  children.  Von  Krusen- 
stem testified,  from  an  examination  of  some  Ainos  in  the  north  of 
Yesso,  that  he  found  them,  with  the  exception  of  their  bushy 
beards  and  the  hair  on  their  faces,  as  smooth  as  other  people. 
In  the  great  Bay  or  Gulf  of  Amiwa,  at  the  south  of  the  Island  of 
Saghalien,  he  induced  several  to  uncover  their  bodies;  and  says, 
''  We  were  convinced  to  a  certainty  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  Ainos  have  no  more  hair  on  their  bodies  than  is  to  be 


•  Voyage,  tome  iii,  p.  86. 


AN   A'lNO   WOMAN,    ETC.  33 

found  on  those  of  many  Europeans/^  He  speaks  of  '^the 
greater  pai-f ,  because  in  Mordwinoff  Bay  he  had  met  with  a 
child,  only  eight  years  old,  with  his  body  entirely  covered  with 
hair ;  although  his  parents  and  several  other  adult  persons  in 
the  same  place  were  not  more  hairy  than  Europeans.  Hence 
Von  Krusenstem  declares  the  extreme  hairiness  of  the  Ainos 
to  be  a  fable,  or  exaggerated.*  Such  is  also  the  testimony  of 
Lieutenant  A.  W.  Habersham,  of  the  U.S.  Navy.  His  account 
is  deserving  of  quotation  at  length.  "  The  hairy  endowments 
of  these  people  are  by  no  means  so  extensive  as  some  early 
writers  lead  one  to  suppose.  As  a  general  rule,  they  shave  the 
firont  of  the  head  a  la  Japonnaise,  and  though  the  remaining 
hair  is  undoubtedly  very  thick  and  coarse,  yet  it  is  also  very 
straight,  and  owes  its  bushy  appearance  to  the  simple  fact  of 
constant  scratching  and  seldom  combing.  The  remaining  hair 
they  part  in  the  middle,  and  allow  to  grow  within  an  inch  of 
the  shoulder.  Tho  prevailing  hue  is  black,  but  it  often  possesses 
a  brownish  cast,  and  these  exceptions  cannot  be  owing  to  the 
sun,  as  it  is  but  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  suffer  a  like 
exposure  from  infancy  up.  Like  the  hair,  their  beard  is  bushy, 
and  from  the  same  causes.  It  is  generally  black,  but  often 
brownish,  and  seldom  exceeds  five  or  six  inches  in  length.  I 
only  saw  one  case  whore  it  reached  more  than  half  way  to  the 
waist;  and  here  the  owner  was  evidently  proud  of  its  great 
length,  as  he  had  it  twnsted  into  innumerable  small  ringlets, 
well  greased,  and  kept  in  something  like  order.  His  hairy 
however,  was  as  busby  as  that  of  any  other.  As  this  indi- 
vidual was  evidently  the  most  '  hairy  Kurile^  of  the  party,  we 
selected  him  as  the  one  most  likely  to  substantiate  the  assertion 
of  Broughton,  in  regard  to  '  their  bodies  being  almost  univer- 
sally covered  with  long,  black  hair\  He  readily  bared  his 
arms  and  shoulders  for  inspection,  and  (if  I  except  a  tuft  of 
hair  on  each  shoulder-blade,  of  the  size  of  one's  hand)  we  found 
his  body  to  be  no  more  hairy  than  that  of  several  of  our  own 
men.  The  existence  of  these  two  tufts  of  hair  caused  us  to 
examine  several  others,  which  examination  established  his  as 

f  Ritter,  s.  477. 
VOL.  III.  D 


34  DAVIS   ON   THE   SKELETON   OP 

an  isolated  case/'*'  This  fully  confirms  the  statement  of  Von 
Krusenstem.  They  wear  the  hair  of  their  heads  and  their 
beards^  usually  their  only  covering  to  this  part  of  their  bodies, 
long  and  flowing,  as  a  defence  against  the  climate  in  which 
they  dwell,  which  at  certain  seasons  is  sufficiently  severe ;  and 
it  is  probable  that  at  times  they  are  unusually  hairy. 

To  return  to  the  account  given  by  La  Perouse  of  his  visitors 
in  the  Bay  of  Crillon.  He  says,  he  believed  their  stature  to 
be  the  middle  height,  about  an  inch  less  than  that  of  the 
French ;  but  speaks  with  some  doubt,  from  the  just  proportion 
of  the  parts  of  their  bodies,  adding, — their  different  muscles 
being  strongly  pronounced  made  them  appear  in  general  form 
fine  men. 

2.  In  this  place  it  may  be  desirable  to  determine  as  far  as  we 
can  the  stature  of  the  A'inos,  We  have  seen  what  La  Perouse 
says  upon  the  subject.  Von  Krusenstein  affirms  that  they  are 
of  middle,  almost  equal  stature,  rising  at  most  to  five  feet  two 
inches.  If  this  were  Paris  measure,  it  would  be  equal  to  five 
feet  six  inches,  or  sixty-six  inches  English;  t.6.,  1672  mm.  Syo- 
da  Saburo,  the  Japanese  interpreter,  says,  they  are  in  general 
neither  very  tall  nor  very  little,  but  of  good  proportions. 
Lieut.  Habersham's  testimony  is,  that  "though  undoubtedly 
below  the  middle  height  as  a  general  rule,  I  still  saw  several 
who  would  be  called  quite  large  in  any  country ;  and  though 
the  average  height  be  not  more  than  '  five  feet  two  or  four 
inches',  they  make  up  the  difference  in  an  abundance  of  mus- 
cle", f  Perhaps  we  may  be  able  to  procure  more  definite  re- 
sults as  to  the  stature  of  the  Amos.  The  woman's  skeleton  was, 
as  already  stated,  five  feet  or  sixty  inches ;  i.e.,  1522  mm.  in 
height.  Two  pairs  of  femora,  probably  both  belonging  to 
males,  were  16*9  inches  in  length,  another  femur  15*8  inches, 
and  a  sixth  was  15'5  inches  in  length.  By  applying  Dr.  Hum- 
phry's rule  to  the  longest  femora,  we  obtain  a  stature  of  five 
feet  two  inches,  or  sixty-two  inches,  i.e.,  1573  mm.;  and  to  the 
shortest  femur,  we  obtain  a  stature  of  only  four  feet  eight  and 


•  Voti  and  QliddorCa  Indigenous  Races  of  the  Earth,  1857,  p.  620. 
t  Loe.  di,,  p.  620. 


AN   Ai'NO   WOMAN,   ETC.  35 

three-tenths  inches,  or  56'3  inches ;  i,e.,  1428  mm.  So  that  there 
is  good  reason  to  regard  the  Amos  of  Yesso  as  a  short  people, 
probably  averaging  not  more  than,  if  so  much  as,  five  feet  two 
inches,  or  1573  mm.,  in  stature.  Whether  the  disproportionate 
shortness  of  the  leg-bones  of  our  Aino  woman's  skeleton  is  a 
race  peculiarity,  it  is  not  quite  possible  to  decide  definitively. 
It  does,  however,  seem  to  be  very  likely.  Among  the  other 
tibiae  measured,  one  pair,  probably  belonging  to  one  of  the 
men  to  whom  the  longest  femora  appertained,  were  13*3  inches, 
or  337  mm.,  in  length.  A  single  tibia  was  thirteen  inches,  or 
829  mm.,  in  length,  and  a  fourth  only  12'7  inches,  or  319  mm. 
So  that  there  is  considerable  probability  that  shortness  of  the 
leg-bones  is  a  common  feature  among  the  Ainos. 

3.  La  P^rouse  says  the  colour  of  his  A'itio  visitors  was  as 
dark  as  that  of  Algerines,  or  of  other  people  of  the  coast  of 
Barbaiy.  Broughton  sa;^s,  they  are  of  a  light  copper-colour ; 
but  Von  Krusenstem  asserts  that  they  are  almost  black.  Lieut. 
Habersham  speaks  more  definitely.  "  We  saw  several  hundred 
men,  women,  and  children,  and  these  were  all  of  a  dark 
brownish-blacky  with  one  exception ;  which  exception  was  a  male 
adult,  strongly  suspected  of  being  a  half-breed.^'*  This  may 
be  considered  to  be  quite  confirmatory  of  Von  Krusenstern's 
observation,  and  conclusive  as  to  their  dark  colour ;  although 
inhabiting  a  country  in  which  the  mountains  are  covered  with 
snow  throughout  the  year.  It  is  believed  that  the  dried  body 
of  the  woman  was  of  a  dark-brown  colour. 

The  Amos  are  well  known  to  hunt  the  bear,  although  their 
food  consists  principally  of  fish,  salmon  especially.  Their  drink 
is  snow-water.  They  are  confidently  said  to  carry  away  the 
she  bear's  cubs,  and  to  tame  them.  There  is  even  authority 
for  the  assertion  that  they  ride  upon  these  young  bears.  And 
Von  Krusenstem  positively  affirms  that,  in  every  house  in  the 
south  of  the  Island  of  Saghalien,  was  to  be  observed  a  young 
bear,  which  was  reared  there,  and  had  its  place  in  the  comer 
of  the  hut.  He  adds,  that  notwithstanding  he  was  the  most 
restless  and  noisy  inniate  of  the  house,  yet  none  of  the  owners 

•  Loc.  cit.,  p.  621. 


38  DAYIS  ON   THE   SKELETON   OF 

diflTers  not  only  fix)m  the  European,  but  from  all  other  types  of 
skull  with  which  I  am  acquainted  in  the  greatly-advanced 
position  of  the  jugular  process  of  the  occipital  bone/'  The 
measurements  we  have  given  show  that  the  zygomatic  arches 
are  not  so  widely  divergent  in  our  e!samples  as  in  that  of  Mr. 
Busk,  hence  the  pheno-zygous  character  is  not  so  apparent, 
unless  it  be  in  No.  1459.  And  the  advanced  position  of  the 
jugular  processes  of  the  occipital  bone  is  not  seen  in  any  of  our 
examples,  unless  in  No.  1467.  They  are  not  to  be  taken  as 
exactly  of  the  same  form  as  European  crania ;  but  there  is  no 
striking  divergence  from  Western  European  types,  which  is  at 
once  obvious.  Still  these  skulls  of  A'inos,  as  already  said,  are 
not  to  be  taken  as  exactly  of  the  same  form  as  the  skulls  of 
Europeans;  although  the  diflTerences  may  not  be  so  striking 
and  at  once  obvious.  They  are  certainly  much  more  like  the 
skulls  of  Europeans  than  those  of  any  other  race  we  know  of 
in  proximity  with  the  Ai'nos.  As  before-mentioned,  they  do 
not  present  that  interjugal  breadth,  nor  that  flatness  of  face 
which  belong  to  those  races  called  Mongolian.  They  have  a 
moderately  well-developed  and  upright  forehead  (No.  1458 
least  so),  which  is  quite  European.  The  chin  is  prominent  and 
weU-rounded.  The  nasal  orifice  is  rather  narrow,  especially  in 
No.  1459.  But  there  is  an  appearance  about  the  face,  and  in 
the  long,  narrow  nasal  bones  which  distinguishes  them  from 
Europeans.  These  last  are  placed  upon  rather  wide  nasal  pro- 
cesses of  the  superior  maxillaries,  and,  except  in  No.  1457, 
make  very  little  prominence.  So  that,  nevertheless,  upon  the 
whole  it  may  be  said  that,  by  minute  examination,  their  diver- 
sity of  features  from  Europeans  stands  confessed. 

It  is  not  easy  to  compare  these  skulls  of  Ainos  with  those  of 
the  races  which  come  into  proximity  with  them.  All  speci- 
mens of  such  crania  are  at  present  extremely  rare.  Of  skulls 
of  Kurile  Islanders,  or  of  the  tribes  about  the  mouth  of  the 
Amur  none  are  known.  Those  of  Japanese  differ  decidedly 
from  those  of  Amos.  Von  Kotzebue,  in  1817,  sailed  all  along 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Island  of  Saghalien,  but  a  want  of 
access  to  his  voyage  prevents  our  obtaining  any  information 
from  that  source.    In  the  Atlas  of  Choris  there  arc  two  figures 


AN.AINO   WOMAN,    ETC.  39 

of  a  cranium  of  an  inhabitant  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  which 
are  on  about  the  same  parallel  as  Saghalien,  only  considerably 
to  the  east,  and  beyond  the  southern  extremity  of  Kamschatka. 
This  skull  is  not  very  accurately  depicted,  but  its  form  and 
features  are  quite  distinct  enough  to  show  that  it  bears  no  re- 
semblance whatever  to  our  Amos.  It  is  a  very  peculiar  cranium, 
with  an  exceedingly  recedent  forehead,  short  face,  and  much 
lateral  development  of  the  calvarium  —  pre-eminently  non- 
European. 

2.  We  next  come  to  the  moral  deportment  of  the  Amos,  of 
which  all  observers  agree  in  speaking  favoilrably.  La  P^rouse 
did  not  find  the  inhabitants  of  the  Bay  of  Crillon  to  manifest 
the  extraordinary  generosity  of  the  Orotchys  of  the  Bay  of 
Castries,  on  the  opposite  or  continental  coast  of  Asia.  But, 
he  says,  "their  manners  were  grave,  and  their  thanks  ex- 
pressed by  dignified  movements."  Von  Krusenstem  says, 
their  women  obtain  by  their  coal-black  hair  hanging  down 
their  necks,  the  dark  colour  of  their  faces,  their  lips  stained 
with  blue,  tatooed  hands  and  great  dirt,  a  sinister  appearance ; 
although  their  behaviour  is  very  modest,  and  in  every  expres- 
sion betrays  something  dignified.  He  says,  goodness  of  heart 
is  expressed  in  every  portrait  of  them  that  the  skilful  Tilesius 
painted.  Instead  of  the  greediness  and  nipacity,  which  are 
the  general  vices  of  the  South  Sea  Islanders,  they  present 
much  liberality  and  friendliness. 

They  are  a  mild  people,  and  in  this  respect  they  stand  in 
much  contrast  with  many  of  the  aboriginal  races  of  the  earth. 
It  seems  probable  that  the  fine  development  of  the  brain  in 
the  Ainos  is  connected  with  the  display  of  the  virtues  of 
humanity.  Their  respect  for  the  aged,  and  their  treatment  of 
women  are  vastly  superior  to  those  of  savage  nations  in  gene- 
ral. They  avoid  in  their  mamages  too  near  relationship. 
This  is  often  the  practical  wisdom  of  aboriginal  people.  They 
marry  one  wife,  treat  her  as  a  helpmeet,  not  as  a  drudge,  and 
allow  her  to  exercise  her  own  peculiar  gentle  sway  over  their 
minds.  The  testimony  of  Lieut.  Habersham,  after  he  has 
made  allowance  for  some  of  the  failings  of  the  Ainos,  is  very 
decided.     His  words  are  : — "  The  Ainos  are  unpleasantly  re- 


40  DAVIS   ON   THE    SKELETON    OF   AN    AINO   WOMAN,    ETC. 

markable  as  a  people  in  two  respects;  viz.,  the  primitive  nature 
of  their  costume,  and  their  extreme  filthiness  of  person.  I 
doubt  if  an  A'lno  ever  washes ;  hence  the  existence  of  vermin 
in  everything  that  pertains  to  them,  as  well  as  a  great  variety 
of  cutaneous  diseases,  for  which  they  appear  to  have  few  or  no 
remedies.  There  is  another  side  to  the  picture,  however,  and 
it  is  a  bright  one.  Their  moral  and  social  qualities,  as  exhi- 
bited both  in  their  intercourse  with  each  other  and  with 
strangers,  are  beautiful  to  behold.^'* 

These  rude  and  simple  people,  of  such  great  interest  in  many 
respects  in  an  ethnological  point  of  view,  have  been  known  in 
an  imperfect  manner  to  western  Europeans  since  the  middle  of 
the  last  century.  The  Chinese  and  the  Japanese  geographers 
may  for  a  longer  period  have  been  somewhat  better  acquainted 
with  them,  although  the  accounts  collected  by  Ritter  from 
these  sources  are  all  dated  within  the  last  hundred  years.  Tho 
Japanese  geographer  Rinsif^e^s  discoveries  appear  to  have  been 
made  only  within  two  years  before  those  of  La  P^rouse.  And 
the  notices  quoted  by  Ritter  from  the  great  geography  of  the 
Chinese  Empire,  are  from  the  edition  of  1818.  That  the  Ainos 
have  been  the  subjects  of  great  exaggeration  and  of  fable  has 
been  rendered  quite  apparent.  Further  observation  .reduces 
the  statements  respecting  them  to  their  true  dimensions,  and 
exhibits  them  as  a  peculiar  people  endowed  with  many  good 
qualities.  The  very  rare  opportunity  which  has  fallen  in  our 
way  to  add  to  the  knowledge  of  their  physical  organisation  has 
been  embraced  with  pleasure,  and  it  is  hoped  turned  to  some 
useful  account. 

•  Op.  ci^.,  p.  621. 


9kuU  (MB),  from  ■  tAng  BUTsir  U  ViUtuai  (Old  DllohJ.SoaUi  WUtL— (B-I,  -W.) 


liM),  from  ■  lang  B«nw  il  Flglwldfu,  SouUi  Wlltt.~(B-T,  M.) 


il  ilMl.tMU  >  Luuf  Bvtow  u  KonoD  Binnt,  Sonth  WUU.— (B-1,  -( 


^jrctK.VT  BKTUB.— 


AsciiMT  aaiTUH.—rmoM  a  tOHO  bakbow  in  wiltbhim. 


41 


III. — Further  Researclics  and  Observations  on  the  Two  Principal 
Fomis  of  Ancient  British  Skulls,  By  John  Thuenam,  M.D,, 
F.S.A.,  F.A.S.L. 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Anthropological 
Society,*  I  have  described,  at  length,  two  types  of  skulls  from 
the  grave-mounds  of  the  ancient  Britons,  which  are  strongly 
contrasted  the  one  from  the  other.  The  first,  and,  as  I  believe, 
the  earliest  in  time,  are  very  remarkable  for  their  ^'long- 
drawn-out"  (dolicliocejyhalic)  and  narrow  (stenocephalic)  form ; 
and  have  hitherto  been  principally  found  in  the  long  barrows 
of  the  south-west  of  England,  and  especially  in  those  of  the 
counties  of  Wilts  and  Gloucester.  The  second  are  charac- 
terised by  their  more  or  less  broad  and  short  form,  which 
brings  them  within  the  brachycephalic  and  eurycephalic  cate- 
gories of  technical  craniologists ;  and  are  yielded  by  the  cir- 
cular barrows  of  the  pre-Eoman  period,  which  are  spread  ex- 
tensively over  nearly  the  whole  of  this  island. 

Aechj:ological  Inferences. 

The  long  harrows,  in  accordance  with  the  geological  charac- 
ter of  the  districts  in  which  they  occur,  are  either  simple 
tumuli  of  earth,  chalk,  rubble,  and  flints,  as  in  South  Wilts  and 
Dorsetshire ;  or  they  contain  more  or  less  elaborately  built-up 
chambers,  galleries,  or  cists  of  large  stones,  as  in  North  Wilts 
and  Gloucestershire.  Whether,  however,  they  enclose  megali- 
thic  chambers  or  not,  the  sepulchral  deposits  are  almost  invari- 
ably found  at  or  near  the  broad  and  high  end  of  the  tumulus, 
which  is  generally  directed  towards  the  east.  In  no  case  have 
the  primary  interments  yielded  objects  of  metal,  whether  bronze 
or  iron ;  but,  in  some  instances,  implements  or  weapons  of  bone 

*  "  On  the  Two  Principal  Forms  of  Ancient  British  and  Gaulish  Skulls." 
(Memoirs  Anthrop.  Soc,  1865,  i,  120-168;  i59-5iy.  With  Appendix  of  Tables 
and  Platei«.) 


42  THUBNAM   ON   THE   FORMS  OF 

and  flint,  and  especially  well-chipped  leaf-shaped  arrow-heads; 
and  also  perhaps  (as  at  Uley),  axe-heads  of  flint  and  green 
stone,  both  polished,  have  been  found  in  them.*  I  therefore 
think  we  do  not  err  in  attributing  this  form  of  tumulus,  as  it 
occurs  in  this  south-west  part  of  England,  to  the  neolithic  age, 
and  to  a  period  when  the  burning  of  the  dead,  though  not  un- 
known, was  not  a  received  or  favourite  method  of  disposing  of 
their  remains. 

The  round  barrows,  whether  simply  conoid  or  bowl-shaped, 
or  of  the  more  elaborate  bell  and  disc  forms,  are  very  much 
more  numerous  than  the  long  barrows  of  the  same  districts. 
They  much  more  frequently  cover  interments  after  cremation 
than  by  simple  inhumation, —  in  the  proportion  indeed,  of  at 
least  three  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter.  As,  however, 
the  objects  found  with  the  burnt  bones  and  with  the  entire 
skeletons  in  this  class  of  barrows  do  not  difier  in  character, 
but,  in  addition  to  implements  and  weapons  of  stone,  including 
beautifully  barbed  arrow-heads  of  flint,  not  unfrequently  com- 
prise weapons  and  implements  of  bronze,  and  the  flner  and 
more  decorated  sorts  of  ancient  British  Jictilia  —  the  so- 
called  ^^ drinking^'  and  "incense  cups" — we  may  safely  con- 
clude that  all  are  of  the  same  bronze  age,t  during  which,  in 

*  Many  of  the  primary  interments  in  the  long  barrows  have  yielded  rude 
flakes,  knives,  and  scrapers,  as  well  as  large  globalar  nodules  of  flint,  weigh- 
ing from  one  to  four  pounds,  which  have  obviously  been  utilised.  {Archwolo' 
ffia,  xxxviii,  416.)  In  one  case,  there  was  a  sort  of  natural  bludgeon  of  flint, 
from  one  end  of  which  flakes  had  been  detached.  (Mem.  Anthrop.  8oc.,  i,  142, 
fig.  7.)  In  three  of  the  long  barrows,  one  simple  and  two  megalithic,  the 
delicate,  leaf-shaped  arrow-heads  referred  to  in  the  text  have  been  met  with. 
(Proc,  Soc.  Ant,  second  series,  iii,  168,  1865.) 

t  Objects  of  iron  have  only  in  very  rare  instances  (and  those  reported  are 
not  always  free  from  doubt),  been  found  in  the  round  barrows ;  yet,  the  peo- 
ple who  raised  these  g^ave-mounds  were  no  doubt  really  in  possession  of  that 
metal,  as  weU  as  bronze.  Iron,  however,  was  scarce,  and  its  use  probably 
very  much  restricted.  This  accords  with  the  statement  of  Caesar  as  to  the 
Britons  of  his  day,— "ferri  exigua  est  copia;  sere  utuntur  importato." 
(B.  Q.,  V,  12.)     The  age  was  strictly  one  of  bronze  and  iron  transition;, 

The  archssological  details  as  to  the  different  forms  of  ancient  British 
tumuli  in  the  south-western  counties  of  England,  are  given  in  papers,  by  the 
author  of  this  Memoir,  communicated  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Lon- 
don, in  the  yeai's  1867  and  1868,  for  publication  in  the  Archasologia, 


ANCIENT    BRITISH    SKUI4L8.  43 

this  country,  cremation,  though  not  the  exclusive,  was  the 
favourite  method  of  disposal  of  the  remains  of  the  dead. 

Anthropological  Ineerences. 

• 

The  conclusion  at  which  I  arrived,  in  the  memoir  referred  to, 
as  to  the  strongly  contrasted  head-forms  associated  with  the 
two  classes  of  grave-mounds  now  briefly  described,  was  that 
they  are  to  be  assigned  to  two  distinct  peoples.  The  brachy- 
cephalous  skulls,  of  the  round  barrows  and  bronze  age,  appeared 
to  me  to  be  clearly  attributable  to  the  Belgic  Britons  of  the 
time  of  Julius  and  of  the  ages  immediately  antecedent  and  sub- 
sequent ;  who,  as  we  know,  migrated  to  this  island  from  Gaul. 
The  dolichocephalous  skulls,  of  the  long  barrows  and  stone  age, 
I  assigned,  with  at  least  equal  confidence,  to  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants,  who  were  conquered  and  displaced  by  the  Belgic 
invaders,  and  are  described  by  Caesar,  under  the  name  of  Inte- 
riores  Britanni,  as  forming  the  aboriginal  population.*  We 
are  not  without  historical  grounds  for  regarding  this  last  popu- 
lation as  of  quite  diverse  origin  from  the  former,  and  for  re- 
garding it  as  Iberian,  or  at  least  as  owning  a  common  parent- 
age with  the  Iberians. 

The  general  connexion  of  the  two  different  skull-forms  with 
two  differing  forms  of  tumulus,  appeared  to  me  sufficiently 
curious  to  be  summed  up  in  a  convenient  antithetic  formula, 
thus  : — "  Long  harrows^  knig  skulls ;  round  harrows,  round  or 
short  skulls,"  At  the  same  time,  I  was  quite  aware  of  the 
existence  of  apparent  exceptions  to  this  proposition,  and  was 
fully  prepared  for  greater  ones  than  had  then  been  observed. 


*  "BritanniaB  pars  interior  ab  iis  incolitur,  quos  natos  in  insula  ipsa 
memoria  proditum  dicunt.  Maritima  pars  ab  iis,  qui  prsedie  ac  belli  in- 
fercndi  causa  ex  Belgis  transierant ;  qui  omnes  fere  iis  noininibns  civitatum 
appeUantur,  quibus  orti  ex  civitatibus  eo  pervenerunt,  et  bello  illato  ibi  re- 
manserunt  atque  agros  colere  coeperuut.  ...  Ex  his  omnibus  longe  sunt 
hnmanissimi,  qui  Cantium  incolunt,  quss  regio  est  maritima  omnis,  neque 
multum  a  Gallica  difierunt  consuetudine.  Interiorcs  plerique  fioimenta  non 
serunt,  sed  lacte  et  carne  vivunt,  pellibuaque  sunt  vestiti."  (B,  G.,  v,  12, 
It).  Whilst  it  is  seen  that  the  Belgic  tribes  near  the  coast  were  compara- 
tively civilised  agriculturists,  the  people  of  the  interior  were  much  less 
cultivated  and  still  in  the  hunting  and  f)astoral  condition. 


44  THUENAM   ON   THE    FORMS   OP 

As  to  the  round  barrows,  I  expressly  remarked  that  it  waii 
evident  that,  unless  the  earlier  race  had  been  suddenly  exterminated 
by  the  succeeding  one,  a  mixture  of  interments  and  of  tlie  two 
types  was  to  be  expected.^ 

Objections  Met. 

It  is  only  for  the  first  part  of  my  proposition,  viz. — Long 
barrows,  long  shulls,  that  I  lay  any  special  claim  as  a  discoverer 
or  original  observer.  I  believe  I  have  established,  for  this  part 
of  England,  the  connexion,  apparently  uniform,  between  long 
barrows  and  dolichocephalic  skulls.  I  have  now  opened  more 
than  twenty  of  those  remarkable  grave-mounds,  and  not  one  of 
them  has  yet  yielded,  in  the  primaiy  place  of  interment,  a  bra- 
chycephalic  skull.  As  to  the  second  part  of  the  proposition, 
viz. — Raund  banvws,  round  skulls,  I  claim  little  more  than  to 
have  formulated,  not  so  much  my  own  original  observations, 
which  under  this  head  are  not  very  extensive,  but  rather  the 
common  experience  of  all  British  craniologists  ;  among  whom 
I  reckon  Prof.  D.  D.  Wilson,  the  late  Mr.  Bateman,  Mr.  G. 
Tate,  my  friend  Mr.  Greenwell,  and  my  colleague  in  the  pro- 
duction of  Crania  BHtannica,  Dr.  J.  Barnard  Davis.  All  of 
these  hold  that  the  prevailing  ancient  British  skull-type,  and 
consequently  that  of  the  round  barrows,  is  brachycephalous. 

Objections  to  this,  the  second  proposition  of  my  formula, 
have  recently  been  adduced,  founded  on  nine  imperfect  skulls, 
received  from  round  barrows  in  Dorsetshire,  and  presented  to 
the  Anthropological  Society  by  Mr.  Shipp  of  Blandford.t  Even 
if  all  these  skulls  were  relevant  to  the  question,  it  may  be 
safely  asserted  that  a  much  larger  amount  of  evidence  than 
they  comprise  would  be  required  to  invalidate  the  proposition 
before  us,  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  held.  I  have  particularly 
examined  and  measured  these  nine  skulls,  and  my  measurements 
do  not  differ  materially  from  those  by  Mr.  C.  C.  Blake,  though  I 
obtain  from  them  an  average  breadth-index  of '72,  as  against 

*  Mem.  Anihrop.  Soc,  i,  128.  Separate  Copy,  p.  9.  I  also  referred  to  the 
probable  "  production  of  a  hybrid  population  with  a  cranial  form  interme- 
diate to  the  two  others".    Ibid.,  i,  150.     Separate  Copy,  p.  31. 

t  Anihro]^.  Review,  186G,  iv,  '6\)S. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH    SKULLS.  45 

one  of  '71.*  There  is,  however,  no  doubt  that  this  small 
series  is  much  more  doUchocephalous  than  any  yet  published 
»s  from  round  barrows,  and  that  the  mean  breadth-index  ap- 
proximates closely  to  that  of  the  true  long-barrow  skulls.  The 
two  first  alone  (Nos.  1  and  2),  are  of  the  usual  round  barrow 
type,  and  have  a  breadth-index  of  '81  and  '80.  The  other 
seven  vary  from  '67  to  '74  (average  *70^),  which  are  doUcho- 
cephalous and  long-barrow  breadth -indices. 

Upon  looking  at  the  history  of  these  skulls,  as  deducible 
from  Mr.  Shipp^s  memorandum,  from  a  letter  with  which  he 
has  favoured  me,  as  well  as  from  the  narrative  of  the  opening 
of  most  of  the  barrows  in  which  they  were  found,  given  in  Mr. 
Warners  recent  work.  The  Celtic  Turmili  of  Dorset,  I  see  great 
reason  to  doubt  whether,  of  the  entire  number,  more  than  one 
was  derived  from  a  really  primary  interrnent  in  a  circular  barrow 
of  the  British  period.  Four  or  five  are,  indeed,  avowedly  from 
^'  superficial'^  or  secondary  deposits.  Another  (No.  8),  is  from 
a  cemetery  of  the  Roman  period  at  Spettisbury,t  and  from  no 
round  barrow  at  all.  Another  (No.  9),  is  considerably  affected 
by  posthumous  lateral  flattening.  Two  others  (Nos.  4  and  5), 
are  from  an  interment,  the  character  of  which,  as  an  ancient 
British  barrow,  may  be  doubted :  consisting  as  it  did  of  a 
slight  ^'  swelling  of  the  turf  on  Kingston  Down,  barely  twelve 
inches  above  the  surrounding  surface'',  with  a  layer  of  flints 
covering  seven  skeletons  lying  side  by  side  and  east  and  west, 
in  a  shallow  grave  one  foot  deep.J  Both  these  skulls  have  a 
quite  recent  appearance,  and  retain  decided  traces  of  the  ani- 

•  There  are  really  eleven  skulls  and  calvaria,  and  ten  (excluding  "No.  10"), 
capable  of  being  measured.  The  last,  (Nos.  11  and  12  of  Mr.  Shipp's  Me- 
morandum, forming  one  specimen)  has  a  breadth-index  of '73,  and  its  addition 
to  the  series  does  not  affect  the  mean  hreadih-index,  which  I  stiU  make  *72. 
The  mean  height-index  of  the  ten  skulls  is  '74. 

t  See  Proc,  Soc.  Antiq.,  iv,  188. 

X  Wame,  Celtic  Tumuli  of  Dorset  (Part  2) ;  Kingston  Down  Tumulus, 
Twelve,  p.  11.  In  my  observations  in  the  text,  I  assume  the  genuineness  of 
these  nine  or  ten  skulls.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  they  bear 
no  labels  inscribed  at  the  time  of  their  discovery ;  and  that  when  presented  to 
the  Anthropological  Society,  they  had  been  in  Mr.  Shipp*8  possession  for  a 
period  of  twenty  years.  The  circumstances  are  not  favourable  to  their  cor- 
rect identification ;  though  this  is  certainly  possible. 


46  THUBNAM   ON   THE    FORMS   OF 

mal  oil  of  the  bones,  such  as  I  have  never  seen  in  truly  ancient 
British  skulls. 

As  regards  skulls  from  secondary  interments,  they  require 
to  be  entirely  eliminated  from  the  general  inquiry,  as  we  can 
seldom  say  to  what  period  they  belong.  Many,  perhaps  the 
majority,  are  Anglo-Saxon,  and  some  may  be  of  the  Roman 
period.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  possible  that  some  are 
pre-Roman  and  ancient  British ;  but  proof  of  this  is  certainly 
not  afforded  in  the  meagre  details  we  have  of  their  exhumation 
in  this  instance. 

I  am,  however,  quite  prepared  for  the  announcement  that,  in 
some  parts  of  England,  there  are  round  barrows,  the  primary 
interments  in  which  yield  elongate  skulls  of  the  long  barrow 
type.  And,  though  no  series  of  such  skulls  has  yet  been  pro- 
duced, I  should  by  no  means  be  surprised  to  meet  with  them 
in  some  of  those  districts  in  which,  it  may  be  from  local  causes, 
the  immigrant  brachycephalous  race  did  not  at  once  extend  it- 
self ;  though  it  may  have  communicated  its  fashion  of  erecting 
round  rather  than  long  barrows  over  the  dead.  Such  a  district 
may  possibly  have  been  Dorsetshire.  Wiltshire  was  an  impor- 
tant centre  of  the  Belgae ;  but  the  neighbouring  Dorsetshire, 
as  I  have  shown  elsewhere,  and  without  reference  to  the  pre- 
sent inquiry,  has  no  claim  to  be  considered  as  settled  by  the 
Belgic  invaders.*  A  comparison  of  the  objects  found  in  the 
circular  barrows  of  the  two  counties  conclusively  shows  that 
the  Durotriges  were  a  much  poorer  and  less  cultivated  people 
than  their  neighbours  the  Belgae.  It  is  quite  possible,  there- 
fore, that  they  may  turn  out  to  have  been  a  tribe  of  the  primi- 
tive dolichocephali,  as  we  may  conclude,  on  historical  grounds, 
the  Silures  and  other  western  tribes  were,  even  in  the  Roman 
period. 

I  here  freely  admit  that  Mr.  GreenwelPs  excavations,  during 
the  autumns  of  1866  and  1867,  seem  to  show  that  in  some  of 
the  circular  barrows  of  the  North  and  East  Ridings  of  York- 
shire, the  primary  interments  were  really  those  of  a  dolichoce- 


*  Crcmia  Britannica  (Decade  6).  Description  of  a  sknll  from  Ballard  Down, 
Dorset.    (PI.  46,  xxxni,  p.  1,  4.) 


ANCIENT   BBITISH   SKULLS.  47 

phalic  people  not  distinguishable  from  those  of  the  long  bar- 
rows ;  whilst  the  secondary  interments,  though  evidently 
ancient  British,  were  still  more  certainly  brachycephalic* 
These  facts,  though  for  this  particular  part  of  England,  op- 
posed to  the  naked  proposition,  "round  barrows,  round  skulls'*, 
are  still  in  favour  of  the  more  important  inference  as  to  the  pre- 
sence of  two  altogether  distinct  races  in  Britain  in  pre-Roman 
times;  one  of  whom,  the  earliest  in  order  of  time,  was  dolicho- 
cephalic,  and  the  other  brachycephalic.  This  very  part  of 
England,  North-East  Yorkshire,  is  indeed  one  in  which  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  two  races  were  brought  into  contact 
without  at  once  becoming  mixed.  The  "  Wolds''  of  the  East 
Riding  formed  almost  certainly  the  boundary  between  the  Pari- 
sii  of  the  southern  part  of  the  East  Riding  and  the  Brigantes 
of  the  rest  of  the  present  Yorkshire,  There  are  also  good  grounds 
for  believing  that  the  former  were  a  more  civilised  tribe  than 
the  latter,  and  that  they  were  immigrants  of  Belgic  or  Gaulish 
origin ;  whilst  the  Brigantes  probably  belonged  to  the  tribes 
who  are  caUed  aborigines  of  the  interior  by  Csesar.f 

Further  Evidence. 

My  present  principal  object,  however,  is  that  of  reviewing 
the  whole  subject,  in  the  light  of  the  additional  researches  and 
more  extended  data,  acquired  since  my  former  papers  were 
written. 

Round  Skulls  from  the  Round  Barrows. 

I  will  commence  with  the  minor  and  less  important  proposi- 
tion of  the  two ;  viz.,  the  connexion  of  brachycephalous  skulls 


*  This  I  take  from  Mr.  Greenwell's  report,  and  from  letters  with  which  he 
has  favoured  me ;  not  having  had  an  opportunity  of  carefully  examining  the 
skulls  themselves,  the  measurements  of  which  have  not  yet  been  published. 

t  This  point  was  worked  out  many  years  ago,  quite  independently  of  the 
question  now  under  discussion.  See  "  Inscription  of  Ancient  British  Skull 
from  Arras  E.  R.  Yorkshire,"  Cran.  Brit.,  Plates  6  and  7,  xii,  p.  5,  decade  2, 
1857.  The  skull  here  figured  and  described  has  a  breadth-index  of  *74,  and  is, 
therefore,  not  brachyc^halic.  It  has,  however,  no  relations  with  the  long- 
barrow  skulls,  as  its  macrognathic  character  sufficiently  declares.  Like  one 
or  two  other  skulls  in  my  collection,  it  is  an  exceptional  and  aberrant  in- 
stance of  the  brachycephalous  British  skull  form. 


48  THDRNAM    ON   THE    FORMS   OF 

with  the  circular  British  barrows;  or  Round  bam'ows,  round 
skulls. 

As  to  this,  I  relied  chiefly  on  the  data  brought  together  in 
the  descriptions,  plates,  and  tables  of  measurements,  in  Crania 
Britannica,  The  large  Table  II  of  that  work,  with  measure- 
ments of  one  hundred  and  eleven  ancient  British  skulls,*  about 
half  of  which  may  be  from  round  barrows,  was  not  completed 
by  my  former  colleague,  when  my  former  memoir  was  written. 
The  data  in  that  table,  as  in  the  entire  work,  were  brought  to- 
gether by  my  colleague  and  myself,  without  any  reference  to 
the  views  to  be  deduced  from  them ;  but  solely  on  the  grounds 
of  the  due  authentication  of  the  skulls,  and  of  their  fitness,  as 
regards  preservation,  for  being  engraved,  described,  and  mea- 
sured. 

In  the  complete  work.  Crania  Britannica,  there  are  descrip- 
tions and  plates  of  twenty-five  skulls  from  round  barrows  in 
all  parts  of  Great  Britain  ;t  one  only  of  this  number  being  re- 
garded as  the  skull  of  a  woman.  These  twenty-five  skulls  have 
breadth-indices  which  range  between  '74  and  '86,  and  have  a 
mean  of  '80^. 

SKULLS  FROM   BOUND  BABBOWS  IN  ALL  FABTS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN,  ENOBAVED 
AND  DESCBIBED    IN   "CBANIA  BRITANNICA." — BREADTH  INDEX. 
No.  of  Skulla.  Bange.  Meftn. 

^  26.  ...  -74  to -86.  ...  -SO'. 

Nine  of  the  twenty-five  have  a  breadth-index  of  less  than 
•80;  four  being  oval  or  orthocephalic  (•74-' 76),  and  five  sub- 
brachycephalic  (•77-*79);  sixteen  are  brachycephalic  ('SO-'SG). 
Not  one  skull  is,  properly -speaking,  dolichocephalic. 

In  Table  II  of  Crania  Britannica,  as  already  pointed  out,  the 
measurements  of  a  much  larger  series  of  skulls  from  round 
barrows  are  to  be  found.     It  will  be  desirable  to  exclude  those 


•  Cran.  Brit,,  Table  n,  p.  242-24$. 

t  Cran,  BHt,  Table  i,  p.  240-241.  The  Table  comprises  thirty-five  skulls; 
bat  of  these,  two  are  from  Ireland,  five  from  long  barrows,  two  from  graves 
not  covered  by  barrows,  and  one  is  too  defective  to  allow  of  the  breadth- 
index  being  calculated.  Twenty-one  of  the  twenty-five  round  barrow- 
skulls,  from  this  Table,  were  given  in  the  second  part  of  Table  I  of  the  paper, 
in  the  Memoirt  of  the  Anthropological  Society,  \,  162. 


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ANCIENT    BKITISH    SKULLS.  49 

from  other  parts  of  England,  as  to  most  of  which  the  exact 
character  of  the  tumulus  or  grave  whence  they  were  derived  is 
not  known,  and  to  confine  ourselves  to  those,  from  the  circular 
barrows  of  Derbyshire  and  StaflFordshire,  which  are  preserved 
in  the  Bateman  collection  at  Youlgrave.  These  are  forty-one  in 
number,  of  which  twenty-eight  are  supposed  to  be  the  skulls 
of  men  and  thirteen  those  of  women.*  All  the  measurements 
of  this  series,  I  ought  to  state,  are  by  Dr.  Barnard  Davis.  The 
results  tally  remarkably  with  those  obtained  for  the  skulls 
figured  and  described  in  Crayiia  Britannica.  The  forty-one 
skulls  have  breadth-indices  which  range  from  '74  to  '89,  and 
have  a  mean  of  '80'^.  Not  one  skull  is  properly  speaking  dolU 
chocephalic. 

8KULLB  FROM   ROUND   BABBOW8  IN   DEBBY8HIBE  AND  8TAPFOBD8HIBE   IN 

THE  BATSMAN  COLLECTION. — BREADTH  INDEX. 
No.  of  Skulls.  Range.  Mean. 

41.  ...  -74  to -89.  ...  -SO* 

1  have  made  numerous  excavations  in  the  round  barrows  of 
Wiltshire,  with  the  hope  of  accumulating  evidence  as  to  the 
ancient  British  skull  type  of  the  bronze  period  in  this  part  of 
the  island.  I  have  not,  however,  obtained  from  the  primary 
interments  in  this  class  of  tumuli,  more  than  nine  or  ten  skulls 
in  a  condition  susceptible  of  measurement.  Two  of  these  are 
engraved  and  described  in  Crania  Britannica,  and  are  included 
in  the  above  first  category  of  twenty-five  skulls.  Six  other 
skulls  and  calvaria  from  barrows  near  Stonehenge,  with  a 
seventh  obtained  by  a  friend  from  a  barrow  at  Ulwell,  Dorset, 
may  be  added  to  our  data.f    The  breadth-index  is  respectively, 

*  I  exclude  152  C  ($,  breadth-index  -69)  as  clearly  secondary  (Ten  Tears' 
Diggings,  p.  161).  I  have  compared  the  measurements  in  Table  II,  Cran, 
Brit.,  with  the  details  in  Mr.  Bateman's  Vestiges,  and  Ten  Years'  Diggings,  and 
especially  with  the  Descriptive  List  of  Skulls  in  the  Appendix  to  the  latter 
work. 

t  The  measurements  of  four  of  these  seven  skulls  are  given  in  the  second 
part  of  Table  I  in  my  former  paper«  Mem,  Anthrop,  Soc,  v.  i,  p.  462,  Nos.  7, 10, 
19,  and  25.  They  are  repeats  in  Table  II,  appended  hereto.  The  three  not 
in  the  table  are  Nos.  186,  265,  and  266.  The  former  is  from  an  oval  barrow, 
of  the  round-barrow  period.  Another  skull  (No.  254  of  my  collection),  more 
recently  obtained  from  a  round  barrow  near  Bratton,  Wilts,  is  a  remarkable 

VOL.  III.  E 


50  THUBNAM   ON   T&E   FORMS   OF 

•78,  -79,  -80,  -81,  -84,  -85,  and  -87;  average,  -82.  Five  of  th£ 
seven  a/re  absolutely  brachycephaUc,  and  the  other  two  are  sub^ 
brachycephalicy  and  closely  approa^^h  thai  form. 

If  we  combine  these  three  series  into  one,  we  obtain  seventy 
skulls;  fifty-six  of  which  are  presumably  those  of  men,  and 
fourteen  of  women.  The  principal  measurements  of  the  whole 
are  given  in  Table  II,  appended  hereto.  They  constitute  the 
most  important  data  yet  obtained,  or,  we  may  unfortunately 
add,  likely  to  be  now  obtained,*  for  determining  the  breadth- 
index  and  general  cranial  type  of  ancient  British  skuUs  from 
the  round  barrows.  The  entire  series,  in  reference  to  breadth- 
index,  may  be  thus  classed :  the  first  column  of  figures  gives 
the  actual  number,  the  second  the  per-centage. 

Male.  Female.  Both  Sexes. 

Ancient  BritiBh  Bound-BaiTow  /  *  >     /-        *  \      / * » 

Skulls.  Nob.  Proportions.  Nos.  Proportions.  Nos.  Proportions. 

I.  DOLICHOOEPHALI.    "i  ('      —'70) 

Sab-dolichocephali.  >  (*70 — '73) 

II.  Obthocbphali.        (-74— -76)  11      -lO*        1        -07        12  -17 

Sub-brachycephaU.  )  (-77— -79)  10      -18  4        -29        14  -20 


III.  Bbachycephali.    j  (-80— -89)35      •62»        9        -64        44  -63 

56      100       14      100        70        100 


It  is  seen  that  these  round  barrow  skulls  are  essentially 
brachycephalous.  Not  a  single  skull  is  either  dolichocephalic 
or  sub-dolichocephalic,  according  to  my  method  of  classifying 
skulls  by  their  breadth-index,  and  which  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  Professor  Welcker.f     A  few,  17  per  cent,  only, 

instance  of  the  effect  of  poethamous  distortion^  by  which  a  cranium  which 
was  clearly  sub-brachycephaloas  (c.  *78)  has  been  converted  into  a  pseudo- 
dolichocephalic  one,  having  a  breadth-index  of  *70.  In  another  specimen  of 
a  female  skull  (No.  261),  being  that  from  the  primary  interment  in  a  circular 
barrow  on  Warminster  Down,  excavated  May  18,  1867,  the  same  strangely 
transforming  effect  of  posthumous  distortion  is  likewise  very  apparent.  This 
skull,  however,  was  by  nature  less  brachyoephalic. 

*  The  destruction  of  skulls  and  other  human  remains  by  the  generality  of 
barrow-diggers,  and  especially  in  Wiltshire  at  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
by  the  elder  Cunning^n  and  Sir  B.  C.  Hoare,  can  hardly  be  too  much  de- 
plored.   The  loss  to  anthropological  science  is  irreparable. 

Mr.  L.  O.  Pike's  criticism  {The  English  and  their  Origin,  p.  160),  is  met  by  the 
publication  of  Table  II,  the  materials  for  which  were  formerly  not  accessible. 

t  Mem.  Anihrop.  8oc„  1865,  i,  462,  507,  510.  "Two  Principal  Forma  of 
Ancient  British  and  Gaulish  Skulls,"   (separate  copy,  pp.  52,  97,    100), 


ANCIENT   BRITISH  SKULLS.  51 

are  ovoid  or  orthocephalic ;  but  so  are  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  skulls  of  the  most  brachycephalous  peoples  of  modem  times. 
.  Our  round-barrow  ancient  British  skulls  are  as  brachycepha- 
lous as  those  of  modem  Germans^  Slavonians  and  Mongols. 
They  occupy,  indeed,  as  regards  their  mean  breadth-index, 
almost  exactly  the  same  position  as  the  skulls  of  those  peoples. 
This  is  well  seen,  on  reference  to  the  extensive  measurements 
by  Professor  Welcker,  who  gives  '79  as  the  mean  breadth-index 
of  the  skulls  of  Little  Russians  and  Finns ;  '80  as  that  of  the 
South  Germans,  Great  Russians  and  Magyars ;  and  '81  as  that 
of  the  Swiss,  Slovaks,  Calmucks  and  Tungusians.* 

I  here  confine  myself,  as  regards  the  round  barrow  cranial 
type,  to  the  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  actual  measurements 
of  well  authenticated  skulls.  It  would  be  easy  to  confirm  the 
view  I  have  arrived  at  by  the  opinions  and  observations  of 
various  writers.  Mr.  Bateman  for  Derbyshire  and  Stafibrd- 
shire,  Mr.  Greenwell  and  Mr.  Tate  for  the  Northumbrian  dis- 

Welcker,  Archiv  fur  Anthrop.,  1866,  i,  p.  135.  Here  is  given  a  most  valu- 
able tabular  classification  of  skulls  of  all  peoples,  according  to  their  breadth- 
indices,  from  Prof.  Welcker*8  measurements. 

The  question  discussed  in  this  and  in  the  preceding  papers  has  been  ob- 
scured by  that  unfortunate  system  of  nomenclature  and  classification,  not 
yet  obsolete,  according  to  which  all  skulls,  not  brachycephalous,  are  regarded 
as  dolichocephalous.  Objects  which  are  not  short  are  not  therefore  of  neces- 
sity long ;  it  being  in  the  very  nature  of  things  that  there  should  be  inter- 
mediate forms,  neither  long  nor  short.  Wo  regard  a  skull  as  brachycephalic 
when  it  has  a  breadth-index  of  '80  and  upwards ;  but  in  practice,  no  one  can 
distinguish  by  the  eye  a  skull  with  a  breadth-index  of  '79,  or  even  '78, 
from  one  of  '80.  The  one  is,  by  a  slight  fraction,  only  less  brachycephalous 
than  the  other,  though  in  some  classifications  the  one  would  stand  for  a  do- 
lichocephalic, the  other  for  a  brachycephalic  skuU.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to 
exclude  from  the  mind  the  idea  of  oval,  mesaticcphalic  or  orthocephalic  skuU- 
forms,  equally  removed  from  the  long  and  from  the  short.  Nature  presents 
to  us  all  three,  the  one  gliding  into  the  other,  though  within  defined  limits, 
by  scarcely  perceptible  gradations.  The  classification  of  races  according  to 
the  form  of  the  skull,  has  been  laid  open  to  just  censure  by  the  continued 
use,  notwithstanding  the  objections  of  Welcker,  Broca  and  myself,  of  the 
dichotomous  system  of  Ketzius.  '*  The  very  terms,"  says  an  acute  critic, 
•'  in  which  the  cephalic  index  is  described,  proclaim  it  most  arbitrary  and 
conventional;  since  a  mere  ideal  line  separates  the  round  from  the  long 
skulls."     Crawfrird,  Trans.  Ethnol.  flfoc,  vol.  vi,  p.  129. 

*  Archiv  far  Anthrop.,  1866,  i,  pp.  135,  142,  etc. 

e2 


52  THUENAM   ON   THE    FORMS   OP 

> 

tricts.  Dr.  D,  Wilson  for  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  Mr.  J.  R. 
Oliver  for  the  Isle  of  Man,*  and  Dr.  J.  Barnard  Davis  for  Bri- 
tain in  general,  all  in  one  form  or  other  ascribe  a  brachycephft- 
lous  skull  type  to  the  ancient  Britons  of  the  pre-Roman  bronze 
period ;  and,  consequently,  to  the  people  by  whom  the  round 
barrows  were  erected. 

LONG  SKULLS  FROM  THE  LONG  BARROWS. 

We  may  now  turn  to  the  primary  and  more  important  pro- 
position, namely,  the  connection  of  long  or  dolichocephalic 
skulls  with  the  large  barrows  of  elongate  form;  or  Long  barrows, 
long  skulls. 

Twelve  years  ago,  when  I  commenced  my  researches  in  the 
long  barrows  of  Gloucester  and  Wilts,  by  reopening,  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  E.  A.  Freeman,  that  at  Uley,  in  the  former 
county,  the  only  authentic  skulls  from  this  description  of 
tumulus  in  the  south-west  of  England,  were  two  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  Guy*s  Hospital,  obtained  thirty  years  previously  ai  the 
first  opening  of  this  remarkable  chambered  barrow.f  Since 
that  time,  I  have  lost  no  opportunity  of  suggesting  and  aiding 
in  the  exploration  of  this  interesting  class  of  tumuli ;  and  skulls 
have  successively  been  obtained,  by  myself  or  friends,  from 
those  of  Littleton  Drew,  West  Kennet,  Rodmarton,  Nymps- 
field,  Charlton  Abbots,  and  Oldbury,  all  of  them  situated  either 
in  North  Wiltshire  or  in  Gloucestershire.  J     The  skulls  from 

*  Since  this  paper  was  read,  I  have  been  informed  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Oliver, 
Hon.  Sec.  of  the  Manx  Society,  that  he  has  opened  thirteen  tumuli  of  the 
round  form,  that  the  crania  found  in  the  central  chambers  were  of  the  brachy- 
cephalic  type;  and  that  the  skeletons  measured  5  feet  10  inches  to  6  feet,  or 
even  more.  In  the  few  long  barrows  he  had  opened,  which  contained  skele- 
tons, the  crania  were  dolichocephalic. 

1 1  have  described  both  these  skulls ;  of  the  one,  of  which  there  is  a  full-sized 
lithographic  plate,  in  Crania  BritantUea  (pi.  6,  xxiv);  the  other,  that  of  a 
girl  of  twelve  or  fourteen  (rather  than  "  nine  or  ten  ")  in  Natural  History 
Review,  April,  1865,  t,  263  "  On  Synostosis  of  the  Cranial  Bones,"  etc.,  (se- 
parate copies,  p.  24). 

X  These  chambered  tumuli  and  the  skulls  derived  from  them  are  described 
in  CroiHia  Britannica,  pi.  24,  xxv ;  pi.  50,  xxvi ;  pi.  59,  xxvii ;  and  Memoirs 
Anthrop,  Soc,,  i,  131,  473,  474 ;  where  references  to  the  more  detailed  archseo- 
logical  memoirs  in  reg^ard  to  them  will  be  found. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH   SKULLS.  53 

these  megalithic  long  barrows  aro  forty  in  number,  twenty- 
seven  being  presumably  those  of  men,  and  thirteen  of  women. 
The  principal  measurements  of  all  are  given  in  Table  I,  appended 
to  this  paper,  from  which  it  appears  that  not  a  single  skull  is 
brachycephalic,  and  that  scarcely  any  deviate  materially  from 
the  narrow  elongate  type.  The  breadth-index  of  the  forty 
skulls  ranges  from  '67  to  '75  (in  one  instance  only  '77) ;  the 
average  breadth-index  is  •7P. 

SKULLS  FBOM  CHAJIBEBSD  LONO  BABBOW8  IK  OLOUOESTEBSHIRE  AND  NORTH 
♦  WILTS,— BREADTH-INDEX. 

Mo.  of  SkullB.  Range.  Mean. 

40.  ...  -67  to -77.  ...  •71». 

In  South  Wilts,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  as  on  other  parts  of  the 
chalk  downs  of  the  south  of  England,  destitute  of  stone  fit  for 
the  construction  of  chambers,  long  baiTows  are  found  similar 
in  external  form  to  the  chambered  ones  of  North  Wilts  and 
Gloucestershire.  Some  of  these  were  explored  early  in  this 
century  by  Sir  R,  C.  Hoare  and  Mr.  Cunnington,  and  were 
found  to  cover  interments  of  entire  skeletons  under  the  broad 
and  high,  generally  the  east,  end  of  the  barrow;  but  in  every 
instance  without  ornament,  weapon,  or  other  object  of  bronze 
or  of  any  other  metal.  As,  however,  none  of  the  skulls  had 
been  preserved,  it  was  impossible  to  say  what  was  their  type ; 
whether  dolichocephalic,  like  those  from  the  chambered  long 
barrows  of  North  Wilts  and  Gloucestershire ;  or  brachycephalic, 
like  those  from  the  circular  barrows  so  numerous  on  these  downs 
and  plains. 

After  many  unsuccessful  attempts  at  excavating  a  long  bar- 
row having  the  original  interment  intact,  I  succeeded,  as  nar- 
rated at  length  in  my  former  paper,  in  meeting  with  one  such 
at  Winterbourne  Stoke,  and  with  another  containing  six  skele- 
tons in  the  same  year,  1 863,  in  the  parish  of  Tilshead  (East) . 
In  1364, 1  re-opened  the  long  barrow  called  Bowlsbury,  and 
obtained  from  it  four  skulls  and  calvaria,  left  in  it  sixty  years 
previously  by  Mr.  Cunnington.  In  each  instance  the  skulls 
from  the  primary  interments  were  of  the  long  narrow  type, 
similar  to  those  from  the  chambered  barrows  of  North  Wilts 
and  Gloucester.     None  were  brachycephalous.     At  the  same 


IW 


54  THUENAM   ON   THE   FORMS   OF 

time,  skulls  obtained  by  other  investigators  from  long  barrows 
in  Yorkshire,  at  Heslerton,  Ebberston,  and  Dinnington,  were 
also  found  to  be  remarkable  for  their  dolichocephalic  form.* 
The  constantly  recurring  long  type  of  skulls  in  barrows  of  this 
peculiar  elongate  type,  appeared  to  me  fully  to  justify  the  in- 
ference of  my  first  paper  of  long  harrows,  long  skulls ;  whilst 
the  still  more  important  conclusion  was  arrived  at  and  esta- 
blished, that  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Britain  of  whom  the  «e- 
pulchral  monuments  remain  to  us  were  markedly  dolichocephalic. 

These  views,  however,  have  had  to  stand  the  test  of  q^ticism, 
and  objections  to  them  have  been  made  in  certain  quarters, 
l^he  inference,  moreover,  was  one  of  so  much  curiosity  and  im- 
portance, as  to  lead  me  to  seek  further  opportunities  for  its 
verification  or  otherwise;  and  since  the  publication  of  my 
former  papers  I  have,  with  this  object,  during  the  years  1865, 
1866,  and  1867,  opened  as  many  as  fifteen  other  of  these  large 
grave-mounds;  and  in  seven  of  the  number  have  been  rewarded 
by  finding  the  primary  interments.  These  have  yielded  seven- 
teen skulls  capable  of  being  measured,  the  number  obtained 
from  each  productive  barrow  varying  from  one  to  nine.  All, 
without  exception,  bear  out  the  views  previously  adopted.  I  am 
the  more  desirous  of  placing  this  additional  evidence  on  record, 
as  1  he  long  barrows  within  my  reach,  accessible  to  excavation, 


*  I  might  also  cite  the  experience  of  Mr.  Bateman  for  so-caUed  cham- 
bered barrows  in  Staffordshire  and  Derbyshire ;  but  the  more  I  consider 
his  not  very  dear  descriptions,  the  more  doubt  I  feel  as  to  their  being 
strictly  analogous  forms  of  tumuli.  They  were,  however,  regarded  by  him  as 
such ;  and  I  at  least  think  it  probable  that  several  of  them  were  really  the 
tombs  of  the  earlier  dolichocephalic  people  of  the  stone  age,  the  type  of 
whose  barrows  is  clearly  not  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  British  Islands,  and 
still  less  in  France  and  the  Channel  Isles.  In  Ireland  and  in  Caithness,  the 
chambered  barrows,  probably  nearly  coeval  with  the  long  chambered  barrows 
of  Gloucestershire  and  Wilts,  are,  generally  speaking,  circular.  It  is  still 
to  be  observed,  notwithstanding  that  the  Derbyshire  chambered  barrows 
were  generally  found  to  have  been  rifled,  and  the  primary  and  secondary 
interments  mixed  by  the  riflers,  that  the  mean  breadth-index  of  eight 
skulls  from  them,  measured  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Davis,  does  not  exceed  *72  (see 
Cran,  Brit.,  Table  II,  pp.  240,  246,  and  plate  33,  xvi,  p.  6).  I  exclude 
141  c,  with  the  extraordinary  breadth-index  of  *92,  as  being  posthumously 
distorted. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH    SKULLS. 


55 


have  now  nearly  all  been  explored.  Altogether,  there  are 
twenty-seven  skulls  and  calvaria  in  my  collection  from  the 
primary  interments  of  the  unchambered  long  barrows  of  South 
Wiltshire,*  which  are  susceptible  of  measurement^  twenty-one 
of  which  are  probably  those  of  men,  and  six  those  of  women. 

BKUI^LS    FBOM    SIMPLE    LONG    BABBOWB    IK    SOUTH    WILT8HIBB. 

BREADTH-INDEX. 
No.  of  8kuUg.  Range.  Mean. 

27.  ...  -63  to -76.  ...  -69. 

These  skulls  are  even  more  dolichocephalic  than  those  from 
the  more  northern  megalithic  long  barrows ;  the  mean  breadth- 
index  of  the  one  being  '69,  and  that  of  the  other  'Tl.  Geo- 
graphically, the  one  class  of  barrows  is  separated  from  the  other 
by  the  Vale  of  Pewsey  and  the  Wansdyke;  the  boundaries,  as  may 
be  presumed,  between  the  two  British  tribes  of  Belgae  and  Do- 
buni,  the  former  immigrants,  the  latter,  as  is  thought,  primeval. 

In  general,  there  is  a  great  conformity  as  to  the  breadtlj- 
index  of  the  skulls  from  each  barrow.  Some  are  orthocepha- 
lous  and  others  sub-dolichocephalous,  but  the  range  is  of  com- 
paratively small  extent,  and  the  dolichocephaly  of  the  skulls 
from  each  grave  mound  is  marked  and  decisive.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  this  : — 


CHAIITBEBED  LONG  BABROWS  OF  OLOU- 

UNCHAMBEBED    LONG 

B  A  BBC  WE 

1  OF 

CE8TEB  &  NOBTH  WILT8HIBI 

c. 

SOUTH  WILTSHIBE. 

No.  ol 

Breadth-lDdex. 

f               ■ 

X7~     . 

Breadth-Index. 

Skulls 

.    Range. 

Mean. 

Skulls.   Range. 

Mean. 

Uley,  Gloucester.        2 

•71--74 

•72* 

Winterbourne  Stoke  1 

•75 

•75 

Littleton-Drew, 

Tilshead  (East)     ...  5 

•68--74 

•71 » 

N.  Wilts.  7 

•68--74 

•71 

Bowls  Barrow        ...  4 

•65--70 

•67 

West  Kennet,    „       4 

•67-73 

•70 

Fyfield     ...            ...  1 

•69 

•69 

Ny  mpsfield,  Glouces- 

Tilshead (Lodge)  ...  2 

•66-68 

•67 

tershire  2 

•74-75 

•74 

Figheldean             ...  1 

•67 

•67 

Kodmarton           „      5 

•71-^74 

•73 

TUshead  (Old  Ditch)  1 

•68 

•68 

Charlton  Abbots  „   17 

•68-^77 

•71 

Netheravon            ...  1 

•69 

•69 

Oldbury,  N.  Wilts.     3 

•68--74 

•71 
•715 

Stonehenge  (165)  ...  2 
Norton  Bavant      ...  9 

27 

70»--7l 
•63-73 

•71 

40 

•67-77 

•68* 

•63.-75 

•69 

*  All  these  barrows  are  on  Salisbury  Plain,  and  from  an  area  extending 
about  twenty-five  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  about  fifteen  miles  from  north 
to  south.  Several  of  the  number  are  within  sight  of  Stonehenge.  In  Table  I, 


ftm^^ 


56  THUBNAM   ON   THE   FORMS   OF 

If  we  combine  the  skulls  from  the  two  classes  of  long  barrows 
into  one  series,  we  have  altogether  sixty-seven  skulls,  to  com- 
pare with  the  seventy  skulls  from  the  round  barrows ;  and  the 
whole,  when  arranged  according  to  the  same  principle  as  that 
adopted  for  that  class  of  skulls  (see  p.  50),  will  stand  as  follows : — 

Male.  Female  Both  Sexes. 

Ancient  British  Long-Barrow  . • »  . • »  - — • . 

Skulls.  Noe.  Proportions.  Nos.    Propor.       Nos.  Proportions. 

I.  DOLICHOCBPHALI.      -J  (•63--70)  23   ...   -49  9   ...   -45  32     ...   -48 

Sab-doHchocephali.  >  (•71--73)  18   ...   -88  5   ...   -25  23     ...   -34 

II.  Orthocephali.  (•74r--76)     6  ...   '13  5   ...   -25  11     ...  -165 

Sub-brachyoephali.   ( (•77--79) 1   ...  '05  1     ...    015 

III.  Bbachtcephali.      )  ('80-     ) 

47       100        20       100        67  100 

A  comparison  of  the  two  tables  shows  how  greatly  these 
long-barrow  skulls  diflfer  from  those  from  the  round  barrows. 
Among  the  latter  is  not  a  single  dolichocephalous  skull ;  among 
these  not  a  single  brachycephalous  one.  Upwards  of  four- 
fifths  (82  per  cent.)  are,  more  or  less,  dolichocephalous  ('67- 
•73)  j  and  nearly  one-half  (48  per  cent.),  typically,  or  absolutely 
so  ('GS-'TO).  A  small  proportion  only  (16*5  per  cent.),  are 
ovoid  or  orthocephalic ;  and  only  1*5  per  cent.,  represented 
by  a  single  exceptional  skull,  is  sub-brachycephalous,  with  a 
broadth-index  of 'T?.*  The  average  breadth-index  for  the 
entire  series  is  '71. 

SECONDARY   INTERMENTS. 

That  the  long  barrows,  yielding  dolichocephalic  skulls  in 
their  primary  interments,  are  earlier  in  time  than  the  round 

the  skulls  from  these  unchambered  mounds  are  distinguished  from  those 
from  the  chambered  long  barrows,  by  being  marked  as  derived  from  South 
Wilts.  There  are  some  barrows  of  this  class  in  North  Wilts,  but  they  are 
few  in  number,  and  have  not  afforded  any  crania. 

•  Professor  Vogt,  whilst  appearing  to  accept  the  main  conclusions  of  my 
former  paper,  observes,  as  to  Table  II,  that "  among  the  long-heads,  Thur- 
nam  himself  registers  very  decided  short-heads  as  coming  horn  long-barrows.'* 
(Arckivfur  Anthropol.,  i,  38,  Anthrop,  Rev.,  v,  347.)  Vogt  here  overlooks  my 
note  at  p.  475  (p.  65,  separate  copy),  which  shows  that  aU  the  short-heads  in 
this  table  are  from  secondary  interments,  that  they  are  marked  by  letters 
and  not  figures,  and  are  not  included  in  the  averages.  I  ought  to  have  kept 
the  secondary  and  primary  skulls  entirely  apart,'as  in  the  present  memoir. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH    SKULLS.  57 

barrows,  yielding  for  the  most  part  brachycephalic  skulls,  is,  I 
think,  proved  by  the  observations  made  during  the  two  past 
seasons  on  the  secondary  interments  in  the  upper  strata  of 
several  of  them.  In  two  or  three  instances,  Mr.  Cunnington 
and  Sir  R.  C.  Hoare  met  with  skeletons  within  a  foot  pr  two 
of  the  summits  of  long  barrows,  which,  from  their  extended 
position  and  the  nature  of  the  iron  weapons  found  with 
them,  were  evidently  Anglo-Saxon.*  Some  of  the  secondary 
interments  are,  however,  clearly  ancient  British,  of  the  bronze 
age;  and  in  two  instances  at  least,  deposits  of  burnt  bones, 
in  one  case  enclosed  in  a  British  cinerary  urn,  were  found 
by  Mr.  Cunnington  and  Sir  R.  C.  Hoare  near  the  tops  of 
long  barrows. t  In  no  case  whatever  has  urn-burial  been 
met  with  at  the  base  of  a  long  barrow.  J  More  important  for 
our  present  purpose  has  been  my  discovery  in  five  instances 
near  the  summits  of  long  barrows  of  skeletons  which  were  un- 
mistakeably  of  the  ancient  British  period.  These  skeletons 
were  shown  to  be  British,  and  not  Anglo-Saxon,  by  their 
crouched  or  contracted  posture,  and  in  three  instances  by  being 
associated  with  pottery  of  the  character  and  period  of  which 
there  can  be  no  doubt.  One  case  is  that  of  a  food-vase  accom- 
panying skeletons,  the  skulls  from  which  have  a  breadth-index 
varying  from  '81  to  '87. §     In  two  other  instances,  viz.,  in  the 

*  Ancient  Wilts,  i,  100  (Sherrington,  Comj).  Arch.,  xv,  344,  pi.  xviii,  xix) ; 
1,  87  (Bowls  Barrow);  i,  72  (Boreham).  In  the  long  barrow  at  Tilshead 
Lodge,  reopened  by  me,  I  found,  within  a  foot  of  the  summit,  a  skeleton 
stretched  at  length,  with  the  iron  umbo  and  other  mountings  of  a  shield, 
on  the  breast,  and  the  remains  of  a  small  brass-bound  bucket  of  wood  at 
the  head, — all  objects  clearly  Anglo-Saxon.  The  breadth-index  of  the  skull 
(No.  232)  is  -76. 

t  Ancient  Wilts,  i,  90  (Tilshead,  Old  Ditch);  i,  102  (Corton);  comp.  i,  66 
(near  Battlesbury). 

X  Imperfectly  burnt  bones  have,  in  two  or  three  instances,  been  found  at 
the  base  of  long  barrows ;  though  in  one  instance  (Tilshead,  Old  Ditch,  re- 
opened by  me),  they  accompanied,  and  did  not  merely  replace,  the  interment 
of  the  entire  skeleton.  They  were,  perhaps,  sacrificial,  and  the  accompany- 
ing skeletons,  in  the  other  instance  (Bratton  Camp  long  barrow),  may  have 
been  missed.    See,  also,  Hoare,  i,  83  (Knook). 

§  See  a  woodcut  of  the  vase,  and  lithographic  plate  of  the  very  brachy- 
cephalic adult  skull  from  the  secondary  interment  in  the  long  barrow  of 
Winterboume  Stoke.— if e?».  Anthro]^.  8oc.,  i,  141,  pi.  ii. 


58  THUBNAM   ON   THE   FORMS   OF 

Wilsford  (''170^')  and  Pigheldean  long  barrows,  the  pottery- 
consisted  of  beantifal  "drinking  cups''  of  the  latest  highly- 
decorated  type,  such  as  are  found  in  the  most  modem  circular 
tumuli.  The  skulls  of  the  associated  skeletons  have  a  breadth- 
index  of  '84  in  the  former,  and  'TS  in  the  latter  instance. 
Altogether,  there  are  in  my  collection  eleven  crania  from  the 
upper  level  of  long  barrows,  which  I  attribute  to  the  later 
British  period,  and  which  are  certainly  secondary.  A  majority 
of  these,  six  of  the  whole  number,  differ  wholly  in  their  type 
from  the  skulls  of  the  primary  interments  at  the  base  of  the 
long  barrows,  and  are  as  brachy cephalic  as  any  of  the  skulls 
from  the  circular  barrows  ('SO-'S?) :  one  is  sub-brachycephalic 
(•78),  two  are  orthocephalic  ('TS-'TG),  and  two  sub-dolicho- 
cephalic ('71 -'73).  Not  one  is  truly  dolichocephalic.  One 
of  these  skulls  (No.  257),  that  of  a  girl,  from  the  Wils- 
ford long  barrow,  having  a  breadth-index  of  *71^  belongs 
rather  to  the  long,  than  to  the  round  barrow  type ;  but  it  is 
remarkable  that  no  more  of  this  elongate  type  were  found 
among  these  secondary  interments,  if,  as  we  may  believe  was 
the  case,  the  long-headed  people  continued  to  survive  among 
the  round-heads.* 

The  evidence  derived  from  these  secondary  interments  ap- 
pears to  me  very  important,  if  not  altogether  conclusive ;  and 
I,  therefore,  arrange  the  skulls,  according  to  their  breadth- 
index,  as  follows : — 

8KULLS  FBOM   SECOND ABT  INTBBMBliTS  IN    THE    SIMPLE    LONG    BASS0W8  OF 

SOUTH  WILTS. 


I.        DOLICHOOBPHALI.  \  (   — '70) 

Sub-doHchocephaU.  |  l'7l''73) 

II.  Obthocbphali.  (•74-'76) 
Sab-brachycepbali.  )  (•77-*79) 

III.  Bbachycbphali.  /  (•80.-87) 


Nob.  Proportions. 


1 
2 
2 
6 


•09 
•18 
•18 
•55 


11  1-00 


*  Signer  de  Bossi  has  lately  described  an  ancient  tomb  near  Borne,  in 
which  were  skeletons  with  skulls  of  the  long  type  in  the  lower,  and  of  the 
round  typo  in  the  upper,  stratum. — "D6couvertes  d'Antiquit^s  Prehisto- 
riques  dans  la  Campagne  Bomaine."  Kevue  Archiologiffvs,  JviUet  1867, 
p.  52. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH    SKULLS.  59 

COMPARISON  OP  ANCIENT  BRITISH  DOLICHOCEPHALOUS  AND  BRACHT- 
CBPHALOUS   SKULLS  WITH  THOSE   OF  OTHER   PEOPLES, 

To  return  from  this  digression,  to  the  long-barrow  skuD*  of 
the  primaiy  interments,  the  measurements  of  all  of  which  are 
given,  in  the  order  of  their  breadth-index,  in  Table  I. 

The  most  important  observation  in  regard  to  these  skulls 
seems  to  be  that,  when  compared  with  those  of  all  peoples,  they 
occupy  a  remarkable  situation  in  respect  of  their  low  hrecMh^ 
index.  There  is  no  people  in  Europe  at  the  present  day  with 
skulls  so  dolichocephalous.*  Their  place  is,  indeed,  almost  at 
the  top  of  the  scale  of  dolichocephaly  and  brachycephaly,  and 
alongside  that  of  the  skulls  of  Negroes,  Hindoos,  and  New 
Caledonians. t  Our  67  long  barrow  skulls  have,  indeed,  about 
the  same  average  breadth-index  as  is  found  in  66  African 
Negroes  and  15  Australians,  measured  by  Welcker ;  and,  if 
arranged  according  to  the  Grerman  professor's  method  (Taf.  II, 
fig.  6),  the  resulting  figure  would  be  almost  identical  with  that 
shown  by  him  for  the  Negroes.  The  27  more  elongate  and 
narrower  skulls  from  the  simple  long  barrows  of  South  Wilts, 
if  separated  from  their  congeners  of  the  chambered  long  bar- 
rows, occupy  even  a  higher  place  on  the  scale,  near  the  Hot- 
tentots and  Caroline  islanders  or  '^Olias.'*  These  crania  of 
primeval  Britons  are,  indeed,  among  the  most  dolichocephalous 
known.  They  are  remarkable,  not  merely  for  length  but  for 
narrowness,  and  come  strictly  within  the  definition  of  steno- 
a'phali,  to  adopt  the  term  introduced  by  Professor  Lucae,  and 
sanctioned  by  the  use  of  Barnard  Davis  and  Professor  Welcker.  J 

Dr.  Davis  has  shown  that  the  skulls  of  many  Polynesians, 

*  Four  of  the  more  recently  discovered  long  barrow  skulls  (Nos.  224,  233, 
235,  and  251)  were  exhibited  at  a  meeting  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of 
Paris,  June  6,  1867.  MM.  Broca  and  Bertillon  reported  their  measurements 
as  yielding  a  mean  breadth  index  of  '664,  and  observe,  "  II  resulto  que 
I'indice  cephalique  de  ces  crdnes  indique  un  degr6  de  dolichoc^phalie  extra- 
ordinaire qui  ne  se  trouve  jamais  chez  les  Europeens." — Bull,  de  la  Soe. 
d*Anthrop.,  s.  s.  t.  ii,  p.  357 ;  comp.  p.  676. — Through  the  kindness  of  the 
Committee  of  the  Paris  Society,  we  are  enabled  to  reproduce,  from  the  Bulle- 
tins,  woodcuts  of  three  of  these  skulls. 

t  See  Professor  Welcker's  very  valuable  tables,  Archiv  fiir  Anthrop.,  i, 
135,  138,  154,  157,  Tab.  i,  ii,  vi,  vii. 

X  Anthrop.  Review,  1866,  iv,  54;  Archiv  fiir  Anthrop.,  1866,  i,  152. 


GO  THURNAM   ON   THE   FORMS   OP 

viz.,  the  Melanesians  of  New  Caledonia  and  of  the  New  Hebrides, 
and  also  Caroline  Islanders,  are  distinguished  not  only  by  great 
length  and  narrowness,  but  also  by  great  proportionate  height 
and  by  a  ridge-like  elevation  of  the  vertex,  in  the  lilie  of  the 
great  longitudinal  sutures.  These  characters,  as  Dr.  Davis 
points  out,  are  so  marked  as  to  justify  our  regarding  these 
peoples  as  approximating  in  their  skull-form  to  that  of  the 
synostotic  scaphocephali ;  and,  as  he  says,  '^  they  may  with 
propriety  be  designated  '  natural  scaphocephali.^  "^  This  term, 
natural  scaphocephali,  appears  to  me  to  be  almost  equally  appli- 
cable to  a  large  proportion  of  our  long-barrow  skulls,  t  in  which 
these  characters,  of  length,  narrowness  and  carinated  vertex,  are 
present  in  a  remarkable  degree.  As  regards  elevation,  though 
a  great  majority  of  the  skulls  of  men  are  high  skulls,  they  are 
not,  as  a  rule,  by  any  means  so  high  as  the  Polynesian  skulls 
here  referred  to.  As  Table  I  shows,  their  height-index  ex- 
ceeds their  breadth-index  by  the  figure  2  (A  '70  to  B  '72); J 
whereas  in  the  7  Caroline  Islander  skulls,  measured  by  Pro- 
fessor Welcker,  the  excess  is  represented  by  the  figure  6 
(A  '68  to  B  '74). §  On  the  other  hand,  we  learn  from  Professor 
Van  der  Hoeven,  that  one  of  these  Caroline  Islanders'  crania  (No. 

*  BarDard  Davis,  M.D.,  On  Synostotic  Crania  among  Aboriginal  Eaces,  1865, 
p.  31 ;  Deformatiovs  of  the  Skull;  Proceedings  of  Scandinavian  Naturalists, 
1865,  p.  5;  Anthrop.  Review,  1866,  iv,  54;  Thesaurus  Craniorum,  No.  817, 
p.  311. 

t  Already  designated  Kumhecephali  by  Prof.  Dr.  D.  Wilson.  Prehistoric 
Annals  of  Scotland,  p.  166,  169,  180.  Blomenbach  had  long  ago  written  of 
*'  the  narrow,  and  as  it  were,  keeled  bead  of  the  Ethiopian." 

X  In  my  former  tables,  I  and  II  (Mem,  Anthrop.  Soc,  i),  the  height-index 
of  the  long-barrow  sknlls  was  shown  to  exceed  this  breadth-index  by  the 
figure  3  (A  -70  and  -71  to  B  -73  and  -74).  This  is  caused  by  the  Yorkshire 
long-barrow  skulls  from  Dinnington  being  included  in  those  tables.  The 
difference,  on  the  large  scale,  is  possibly  more  truly  represented  by  3,  than 
by  2. 

§  The  six  Isle  of  Pines  (New  Caledonian)  skulls  in  the  Museum  of  the 
College  of  Surgeons  (5402  A.-F.),  presented  by  Capt.  Sir  Eyerard  Home,  at- 
tracted my  attention,  several  years  since,  by  their  long  and  narrow  form ; 
and  I  measured  and  took  notes  of  them,  at  that  time,  for  comparison  with 
those  from  the  long  barrows.  They  have  a  mean  breadth-index  of  '70^,  and 
a  height-index  of  '78.  They  are  consequently  much  higher  than  our  British 
hypsistenocephali,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  not  typically  such. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH   SKULLS.  61 

VII),  has  a  height-index  which  only  exceeds  the  breadth-index 
by  2  (A  '72  to  B  •74).  Again,  in  a  few  instances,  the  long 
barrow  British  skulls  have  a  preponderance  of  the  height-index 
which  more  than  exceeds  the  average  of  the  diflference  in  the 
GaroUne  Islanders,  and  is  represented  by  figures  as  high  as  6, 
7,  8,  and  10.  Altogether,  notwithstanding  the  varieties  in  the 
relations  of  the  two  indices  revealed  by  Table  I,  many  of  them 
seem  to  fall  into  the  class  of  hyp^i-stenocephali,  the  designation 
introduced  by  Dr.  Barnard  Davis  for  high  narrow  skulls,  and 
which  has  received  the  sanction  of  Professor  Welcker.* 

Professor  Welcker,  from  an  immense  number  of  measure- 
ments, has  ascertained  that  the  average  height-index  of  dolicho- 
cephalous  skulls  of  all  peoples  is  '74,  and  that  of  brachycephal- 
ous  skulls  •76.t  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  these  figures 
nearly  correspond  with  those  which  I  obtain  for  our  ancient 
British  dolichocephali  and  brachycephali,  and  which  are  '73  and 
'77  respectively.  But  it  does  not  hence  follow  that  though  the 
dolichocephali  are  absolutely  lower,  they  are  therefore  truly 
low,  and  the  brachycephali  truly  high  skulls.  On  the  contrary, 
Welcker  shows  very  clearly  that  a  skull  is  to  be  regarded 
as  ^^  high  when  the  height-diameter,  ^a^  when  the  breadth- 
diameter,  is  next  to  the  longitudinal  diameter,  the  chief  measure 
of  the  skull.^^  According  to  this  view,  it  is  height  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  breadth,  not  absolute  height,  which  determines  the 
claim  of  any  series  of  skulls  to  be  regarded  as  high  or  as  flat.  J 

*  See  "  Skoll-heights  in  their  relation  to  the  breadth  of  skulls'*,  being 
section  vi  of  Professor  Welcker's  recent  memoir,  "  Eraniologische  Mittheil- 
ungen,"  in  the  Arckiv  fur  Anthropol.,  i,  152.  Welcker  considers  that  all 
skulls  may  be  classed  according  to  a  quinary  system,  either  as — 1 .  high  and 
narrow,  Hypsistenocephali ;  2.  high  and  broad,  Hypaibrachycephali ;  3.  middle 
high  and  middle  broad,  Orthoeephali;  4.  flat  and  narrow,  Plaiyatenocephali ;  and 
6.  flat  and  broad,  Platyhrcichycephali :  of  these,  he  regards  the  first,  middle, 
and  last  as  typical ;  the  two  others  as  exceptional  forms. 

t  Welcker,  loc.  cit.,  p.  153. 

X  Hitherto,  with  Ketzius,  it  has  been  customary  to  judge  of  the  height 
of  skulls  according  to  the  length-height  index,  and  not  according  to  the 
breadth-height  index,  as  Welcker  now  suggests :  "  Chez  les  dolichoccphales 
la  hauteur  du  cr&ne  ordinairemont  base ;  .  .  .  chez  les  brachycephales  la 
hauteur  du  cr4ne,  compar^e  avec  la  longeur,  considerable"  {Sekrtften,  118, 
121).    I  was  myself  in  the  habit  of  regarding  platycephaly  as  complementary 


64 


THURNAM   ON    THE    FORMS   OP 


of  our  long-barrow  folk  far  away  in  Africa,  India,  Australia, 
the  Melanesian  Islands,  and  among  the  Esquimaux.  In  the 
following  comparison,  most  of  the  measurements  are  taken 
from  the  tables  in  Professor  Welcker's  late  memoir ;  they  are 
all  in  millimetres : — 


Meftsorements. 

Index. 

No.  of 

Skulls. 

L. 

B. 

H. 

B. 

H. 

Ancient  British   Long 

Barrow  Skulls  of  Males 

48 

195 

.  •  •      ±Ou      ... 

143 

•71     ... 

•73 

CaroHne  Islanders  (Olias) 

7 

187 

...     128     ... 

139 

•68     ... 

.    ^74 

New  Caledonians  -         ) 
„        (Isle  of  Pines*) 

2 

— 

—. 

•69     ... 

.    ^76 

6 

182 

...     128     ... 

142 

•70    ... 

•78 

Australians     .        .        . 

15 

180 

...     126     ... 

135 

•70    ... 

•76 

Kaffirs     .        .        .        - 

20 

«..     — -      ... 

— 

•69    ... 

•74 

Negroes  .       .        -        - 

66 

181 

...     126    ... 

132 

•70    ... 

•73 

Hindoos  .... 

18 

— 

— 

— . 

•70    ... 

•75 

Esquimaux 

18 

186 

...     131     ... 

138 

•70    ... 

•74 

The  following  is  a  similar  comparison  for  the  round-barrow 
skulls  : — 


No.  of 
Skulls. 

Measurements. 

Index. 

r^              B. 

H. 

B.                 H. 

Ancient  British  Bound 
Barrow  Skulls  of  Males 

56 

186     ...     149    ... 

142 

•81    ...    -77 

Czechs     .        .        .        - 
Slovaks   .        .        .        . 
South  Oermans 
Finns       -        -        -        . 

27 

6 

80 

11 

177    ...     145     ... 
176    ...    143    ... 
182    ...     146    ... 
179     ...     141     ... 

134 
134 
134 
134 

•82    ...     ^76 
•81     ...     -76 
•80    ...     -74 
•79    ...     -75 

It  is  remarkable,  as  regards  these  ancient  British  skulls,  both 
dolichocephali  and  brachycephali,  that  though  the  relation  of 
the  breadth-index  and  the  height-index  corresponds  very  much 
with  that  in  certain  modem  peoples  (the  former  with  uncivi- 
lised and  the  latter  with  civilised),  yet  the  actual  measurements 
are  so  much  in  favour  of  these  early  inhabitants  of  Britain. 
The  cranial  capacity,  and  consequently  the  brain-weight,  of  both 
peoples  has  been  very  decidedly  high.  ^ 

Although  the  long  barrow  skulls  are  for  the  most  part  high 
(hypsicephalous),  yet  in  a  certain  proportion,  or  one-sixth  of 

*  The  six  New  Caledonian  skulls  from  the  Isle  of  Pines,  are  those  in  the 
College  of  Surg^ns'  Museum,  referred  to  in  a  former  note ;  the  measure- 
ments of  which  are  my  own. 


Tablb 


ANCIENT   BRITISH    SKULLS.  65 

those  of  men  (8  out  of  48),  the  height-index  falls  short  of  the 
breadth-index.  The  tendency  to  platycephaly  is  both  much 
more  frequent  and  much  more  marked  in  the  skulls  regarded 
as  female;  and  in  more  than  one-third  (7  out  of  the  19),  this 
relation  is  observed.  Indeed,  the  average  breadth-index  and 
height-index  is  represented  by  the  same  figure,  '71 ;  so  that 
the  female  skulls  cannot  be  called  hypsicephalic  at  all,  but  are 
orthocephalic.  Such  exceptions  to  general  rules,  as  regards 
the  relative  proportions  of  breadth  and  height-index,  probably 
occur  among  the  skulls  of  all  peoples.  If  we  may  trust  the 
late  Professor  Vrolik's  measurements,  opposed  as  they  are  in 
this  instance  to  those  of  Professor  V.  der  Hoeven,  one  of  the 
female  Oliaor  Caroline  Islander  skulls  (that  of  Nahioli)  differs 
from  all  the  rest  in  being  platycephalic,  and  has  a  height-index 
of  only  •72,as  opposed  to  a  breadth-index  of  '73.  One  skull  (No. 
15$,  Table  I)  from  Tilshead  East,  engraved  and  fully  described 
in  my  former  paper,*  has  the  height- index  as  low  as  '65 ;  and 
has  been  adduced  by  Professor  Ecker  as  particularly  illustra- 
tive of  the  flattening  of  the  vertex  shown  by  him  to  be  charac- 
teristic of  many  female  skulls. f  Another  female  skull,  also 
very  remarkable  for  its  flat  vertex  (H-I.  *(SQ,  No.  3$,  Table  I.), 
from  Tilshead,  Old  Ditch,  has  since  been  added  to  the  series  in 
my  collection.  It  is  represented  in  Fig.  I.  of  the  woodcuts. 
Such  skulls  range  themselves  as  to  their  form,  with  those  of 
Hottentots  and  Bosjesmen,}  and  are  Platystenocephali. 

Among  the  brachycephalous  skulls  from  the  round  barrows, 
the  general  rule  of  the  height-index  being  represented  by  a 
minus  figure  as  compared  with  the  breadth-index,  meets  with 
very  few  exceptions.  No  more  than  7  of  the  56  male  skulls, 
and  not  one  of  the  14  female  skulls  deviate  from  this  rule ; 
though  the  two  most  dolichoccphalous  of  the  male  series  have  the 
height-index  so  high  (B-I.  '74,  H-I.  '80),  as  to  be  hypsicephalic. 
The  observation  as  to  the  exceptional  forms  of  individual  ex- 
amples in  these  two  classes  of  ancient  British  skulls,  is  seen  to 

•  Mem.  Anthrop.  Soc,  i,  I'tS,  PI.  iii. 
t  Archiv  far  Anthrop.,  i,  SO. 

X  The  Bosjesman  skull.  No  5357,  $,  in  the  Royal  College  of  Siirffoons'  Mu- 
seum, has,  I  find,  a  breadth- index  of  '76,  and  a  height-index  of  72. 

VOL.   III.  F 


66  THUENAM   ON   THE   POEMS   OP 

accord  with  Welcker's  remark  on  the  skull-forms  of  diflTerent 
peoples,  that ''  there  are,  although  isolated,  even  flat  dolicho- 
cephali  and  high  brachycephali ;"  and  likewise  that  "  the 
greatest  deviations  of  the  height-index  are  found  in  the  middle 
of  the  scale,  in  the  orthocephali"  (B  -73-- 77).* 

COMPAEISON   OP  ANCIENT   BBITISH   DOLICHOCEPHALOUS   SKULLS  WITH 

THOSE   OF  MODEEN   BASQUES. 

The  sixty  Spanish  Basque  skulls,  from  the  province  of  Gui- 
puscoa,  in  the  Collection  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of 
Paris,  were,  in  my  former  paper,  compared  with  the  long-bar- 
row skulls, t  After  that  memoir  was  written,  viz.  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1864, 1  had  the  opportunity  of  again  examining  them, 
and  on  that  occasion  took  the  principal  measurements  of  all  of 
them.  As  M.  Broca  has  only  given  us  a  summary,  though  a 
most  valuable  one,  of  the  results  obtained  by  him,  it  appears 
desirable  to  print  my  detailed  measurements  of  these  Basque 
skulls,  which  I  have  therefore  arranged,  according  to  their 
probable  sex,  and  in  the  ascending  order  of  their  breadth- 
index,  in  Table  III.  I  have  not  excluded  the  three  skulls  of 
children,  that  not  having  been  done  by  M,  Broca,  and  as  it  is 
obvious  that  their  retention  will  not  appreciably  aflfect  the  aver- 
ages. The  internal  capacity  given  for  each  skull,  is  that 
obtained  by  M.  Broca,  and  inscribed  by  him  in  cubic  centi- 
metres, on  each  cranium.  M.  Broca  gives  '77*  as  the  average 
breadth-index  of  the  entire  series,  whilst  I  make  it  no  more 
than  '76.  I  was  informed,  when  in  Paris,  that  these  skulls 
when  exhumed,  were  for  security  deposited,  for  several  hours, 
in  a  tank  of  water.  It  is  hence  probable  that  they  were  still 
somewhat  damp,  when  measured  by  M.  Broca,  shortly  after 
their  arrival  in  Paris  ;  and  that  they  were  thoroughly  dry  when 
submitted  to  my  callipers,  nearly  two  years  later.    When  skulls 

*  Archiv  fur  Anthrop.,  i,  155,  Prof.  Welcker  shows  the  reason  of  this  ap- 
parent irregularity,  when  he  observes  that  it  is  "  in  this  region  the  two  op- 
posite forms,  typical  dolichocephalic  with  their  broader  extreme  instances^ 
consequently  hypsicephali  (in  our  Table  I),  and  typical  brachycephali,  with 
their  narrower  offshoots,  thus  platycephali  (in  our  Table  II),  radiate  and 
mix  with  each  other"  (as  to  form). 

t  Mem.  ArUhrop.  Soc,  vol.  i,  p.  130,  160;  separate  copies,  p.  11,  41, 


ANCIENT   BRITISH   SKULLS.  67 

are  wefc,  they  have  a  greater  breadth-index  than  when  dry;  for, 
as  Professor  Welcker  has  shown,  "  The  recent  skull  in  drying, 
changes  its  form  a  little  in  a  dolichocephalic  direction/'* 

In  the  year  1866,  a  second  series  of  Spanish  Basque  skulls, 
nineteen  in  number,  from  the  same  Guipuscoan  cemetery,  was 
added  to  the  collection  in  Paris ;  of  which  skulls,  through  the 
kindness  of  M.  Broca,  I  was  likewise  enabled,  in  the  summer 
of  1867,  to  take  the  chief  measurements.  I  have  added  these 
measurements  to  the  Table ;  but,  as  two  skulls  only  (Nos.  1 
and  7),  seem  to  be  those  of  women,  I  have  not  separated  them 
according  to  the  sexes.  My  measurements  agree  as  closely 
with  the  average  results  of  M.  Broca,  as  those  by  two  manipu- 
lators can  be  expected  to  do.  The  breadth-index  for  this  series, 
according  to  both,  is  '76.  This  conformity  gives  me  confidence, 
as  regards  the  other  series  of  sixty  skulls,  that  my  measure- 
ments are  likewise  correct,  and  that  the  discrepancy  which  has 
been  pointed  out  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  different  hygro- 
metric  condition  of  the  crania  at  the  time  of  the  two  sets  of 
measurements  being  taken. 

Taking  the  whole  of  these  Basque  crania,  their  mean  breadth- 
index  of  "76  is  one  equally  removed  from  that  of  typical  doli- 
chocephalic and  brachycephalic  skull-forms  ;  of  the  former  of 
which  our  long  barrow  skulls  are  an  excellent  instance,  as  the 
round  barrow  skulls  are  of  the  latter.  For  the  former,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  mean  breadth-index  is  '71 ;  for  the  latter,  '81. 
The  preponderating  ovoid  or  orthocephalic  type  of  the  Basque 
skulls  is  perhaps  still  better  brought  out,  on  distributing  them, 
according  to  the  convenient  quinary  classification  previously 
adopted,  as  follows  : — 

Male.  Female.  Both  Sexes. 

Spanish  Basque  Skulla.  t • ^      /^— — -^ n      , * ^ 

Nos.  Proportions.  Nos.  Proportions.  Nos.  Proportions. 

I.       DOLICHOCEPHALI.     ».  (       — '70)        

Subdolichocephali.  )  (-71— -73)    6   ...    10*5       6   ...   22-8       11    13-8 
II.    Orthocephali.  (-74— -76)  24   ...   421       9   ...   409       33   418 

SubbrachycephaU.   )  (-77— -79)  23   ...   40-4       7   ...   318      30   38- 


)  (-77— • 
)(-80-- 


in.  Brachtcephali.      )(-80--83)    4   ...     7-         1   ...     4-5        5     6*4 

57        100-      22  100-       79   100 

*  Wachsihum  und  Bau,  p,  139. 

+  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d*Anthrop.,  second  series,  t.  i,  p.  470;  t.  ii,  p.  10.30. 

p2 


68  THUBNAM   ON   THE   FORMS   OF 

This  table  stould  be  compared  with  that  at  page  50,  for  the 
round-barrow  skulls,  and  that  at  page  56,  for  the  long«barrow 
ones.  An  examination  of  the  three  shows  how  remarkably 
they  differ ;  the  long  and  round-barrow  skulls  crowding  around 
the  high  and  the  low  figures  respectively,  while  the  Basques 
gravitate  almosf  entirely  to  the  intermediate  and  central  figures. 
But,  though  not  typically  dolichocephalic,  the  Basque  crania, 
as  compared  with  those  of  Europe  generally,  and  especially 
with  those  of  France,  are  relatively  dolichocephahc ;  and  no- 
thing is  more  striking  than  the  very  small  proportion  of 
brachycephalous  skuUs  which  are  found  in  the  series.  Accord- 
ing to  the  high  authority  of  Professor  Virchow,  two  at  least  of 
the  brachycephalous  skulls  of  the  series  owe  their  brachy- 
cephaly  to  synostosis  of  the  transverse  sutures.*  They  are 
probably  the  skulls  of  a  decidedly  mixed,  though  originally 
dolichocephalic,  people ;  the  original  type  having  been  modified 
by  a  moderate  brachycephalous  infusion,  continued  through 
many  generations. 

It  has  already  been  shown  from  my  measurements,  {ante 
p.  63),  that,  as  in  other  modem  Europeans,  the  mean  vertical 
diameter  of  these  Basque  skuUs  falls  decidedly  below  the  trans- 
verse. The  reverse,  as  I  have  shown,  is  the  case  in  the  long- 
barrow  dolichocephali.* 

I  still  adhere  to  the  opinion  that  the  tendency  to  a  dolicepha- 
lous  type  in  the  Basques  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Iberians ; 
and  that  the  brachycephalous  admixture  is  GauUsh.  More 
evidence  as  to  this,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  may  be  derived  from 


*  "  Two  of  the  Basque  skulls  belonging  to  the  Anthropological  Society  of 
Paris,  have  been  described  as  unusually  brachycephalic ;  but  it  will  be  found 
that  they  both  exhibit  a  premature  ossification  of  the  transverse  sutures. 
The  Basque  skull  is  eminently  dolichocephalic,  and  in  this  respect  it  re- 
sembles the  ancient  crania  which  are  found  in  the  oldest  tumuli  of  North- 
eastern Germany." — Prof.  Virchow,  at  "  The  Anthropological  Congress  of 
Paris  of  1867,"  Med.  Times  and  Gazette,  7th  March,  1868. 

t  M.  Broca's  vertical  diameter  is  a  hasilo-hregmatic  one,  and  differs  entirely 
from  that  generally  employed  by  cianioscopists.  My  "  greatest-height"  is 
taken,  as  usual,  between  the  plain  of  the  foramen  magnum  and  the  bregma, 
or  vertex,  of  the  skull,  a  little  behind  the  point  of  junction  between  the 
sagittal  and  coronal  sutures. 


ANCIENT   BEITISH    SKULLS.  69 

researches  conducted  by  the  members  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Madrid ;  from  whom  no  contributions  would  be 
more  acceptable  than  such  as  might  clearly  reveal  to  us  the 
ancient  and  modern  cranial  types,  for  diiferent  parts  of  the 
Iberian  Peninsula. 

Our  views  as  to  the  Spanish  Basque  skulls,  derive  much  sup- 
port from  all  I  have  yet  been  able  to  learn,  respecting  the 
series  of  57  French  Basque  skulls,  from  St.  Jeande  Luz,  added 
during  the  past  autumn,  1 867,  to  the  collection  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Society  of  Paris,  through  the  enterprise  of  M.  Broca. 
These  crania,  it  is  stated,  show  a  very  much  greater  tendency 
to  the  brachycephalous  typo,  than  do  those  of  the  Spanish 
Basques.  This,  if  the  views  here  advocated  bo  coiTOct,  was  to 
have  been  expected  in  the  descendants  of  an  Iberian  people, 
settled  in  a  Transpyrennean  country,  in  the  midst  of,  and  sur- 
rounded by,  Gaulish  tribes. f 

Different   Characters   of   the   Pace   in   the   Ancient 
British  Dolichocephali  and  Brachtcephau. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  here,  what  I  have  before  said  as 
to  the  contrasted  characters  of  the  face,  in  the  two  classes  of 
ancient  British  skulls.*  I  must,  however,  point  out,  that 
though  in  our  dolichocephaH  of  the  long  barrows  the  cranium 
proper  corresponds  so  much  in  form  with  that  of  the  Negroes, 
and  Melanesian  Islanders,  the  face-cranium  is  remarkably  and 
altogether  different,  and  so  proves  the  absence  of  any  genetic 
relationship.  There  is  in  particular  none  of  the  prognathism, 
exaggerated  malar  breadth,  or  great  width  of  the  nasal  open- 
ings, which  give  an  air  of  savageness  and  ferocity  to  the  skulls 
of  the  New  Caledonians  and  Carohne  Islanders ;  but  the  very 
reverse  of  all  these.  They  are,  indeed,  more  orthognathic 
even  than  many  modern  Europeans,  and  the  facial  characters 
generally  are  mild,  and  without  exaggerated  development  in 
any  one  direction.  The  contrary  is  the  case  in  the  brachy- 
cephalous skulls  from  the  round  barrows,  to  which  the  very 
large  and  prominent  facial  bones  give  a  claim  to  be  regarded 

•  Mem.  Anthrop.  Soc,  i,  150-154. 

t  Since  the  above  wa3  written,  an  elaborate  description  of  these  French 
Basque  skulls  has  been  given  by  M.  Broca.— J5uil.  de  la  Soc.  d*Anihrop.,  s.  s. 
t.  iii,  p.  43-101. 


70  THURNAM   ON   THE   FORMS   OF 

as  more  or  less  prognathic^  and  preeminently  macrognathic. 
The  face  in  the  dolichocephalic  races  of  Europe  is  defined,  by 
M.  Pruner  Bey,  as  oval,  and  in  the  brachycephalic,  as  angula/r 
or  lozenge-shaped.  These  definitions  may  be  accepted  as 
also  applicable  to  our  ancient  British  long-heads  and  round- 
heads ;  though  they  scarcely  succeed  in  expressing  the  more 
striking  facial  characteristics  of  these  crania. 

Premature  Obliteration  of   the  Sutures   in   the  Ancient 

British  Dolichocephalic  Skulls. 

The  great  tendency  to  obliteration  of  the  sutures,  before 
observed  in  the  long  barrow  skulls,t  is  fully  confirmed  by  ob- 
servation on  the  additional  examples  obtained  in  the  excava- 
tions of  the  two  past  years.  The  sutures  are  seen  to  be  oblite- 
rated disproportionately  to  the  apparent  age,  as  judged  of  by 
the  degree  of  dental  attrition  and  other  circumstances.  The 
sagittal  suture  especially  is  often  efiaced,  sometimes,  as  would 
appear,  by  infantile,  at  others  by  premature  senile,  obliteration. 
At  times,  the  sagittal  suture  is  almost  entirely  obliterated,  whilst 
the  coronal  and  lambdoid  are  open ;  but,  in  an  equal  number  of 
instances,  the  sagittal,  coronal,  and  lambdoid  are  all  equally 
efiaced.  The  dolichocephaly,  therefore,  of  these  skulls  can- 
not be  regarded  as  the  efiect  of  synostosis;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  the  dolichocephaly  and  tendency  to  synostosis  of  the 
parietals  are  both  race-characters ;  and  the  latter  is  more  pro- 
bably an  efiect  of  dolichocephaly  than  its  cause.  As  I  have 
previously  shown,  "  it  is  not  improbable  that  in  dolichocephal- 
ous  peoples  the  great  longitudinal  sagittal  suture  (in  the  same 
way,  though  in  a  much  less  degree  than  the  frontal),  may  be 
more  prone  to  obliteration  than  the  transverse  sutures,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  suture  margins  being  more  early  brought  into 
apposition,  from  the  growth  of  the  brain  being  more  active  in 
the  longitudinal  direction  than  in  the  transverse.^^* 

Not  only  have  no  facts  adverse  to  this  view  been  brought  to 

•  Mem.  Anthrop.  Soc ,  i,  154-155.  "  On  Synostosis  of  the  Cranial  Bones, 
especially  the  Parietals,  in  one  class  of  Ancient  British  and  A^frican  Skulls." 
—Nalural  History  Review,  No.  18,  1865,  p.  242. 

t  Nat,  Hist,  Rev.,  I,  c,  p.  246  (separate  copies,  p.  5).  • 


ANCIENT   BRITISH   SKULLS.  71 

lights  but  one  recently  acquired  skuU  is  particularly  valuable^ 
as  affording  strong  additional  proof  of  its  accuracy.  It  is  that 
of  a  young  woman,  of  perhaps  eighteen  years  of  age,  and  was 
obtained  from  the  long  barrow  of  Norton  Bavant.  The  spheno- 
basilar  symphysis  is  still  open.  The  skull  (No.  251  of  my  Col- 
lection), is  of  markedly  sub-scaphocephalic  form,  and  presents 
likewise  a  slight  grade  of  klinocephaly.  The  breadth-index  is 
not  more  than  '64,  and  it  is,  with  one  exception,  the  narrowest 
or  most  dolichocephalic  skull  I  have  yet  obtained  from  the 
long  barrows.  It  is  not  possible,  in  this  instance,  for  any  one  to 
attribute  the  dolichocephaly  to  synostosis.  Every  suture,  lon-gi^ 
tvdinal  as  well  as  tranverse,  is  seen  to  he  open,  both  on  the  inner 
and  outer  surface  of  the  skull.  In  regard  to  the  question  be- 
fore us,  this  cranium  constitutes  a  crucial  instance,  entirely 
opposed  to  the  view  of  the  dolichocephaly  of  these  skulls  being 
caused  by  synostosis.  Had  the  individual  lived  to  the  period 
of  middle  age,  it  is  very  possible,  nay  probable,  that  premature 
senile  obliteration  of  the  sutures  might  have  taken  place ;  but 
if  so,  it  is  clear  that  this  would  have  been  an  effect  of  doli- 
chocephaly, and  in  no  degree  whatever  its  cause.  It  is  just 
such  immature  skulls  as  that  before  us,  and  as  that  previously 
referred  to  from  the  chambered  long  barrow  at  Uley,*  which 
are  so  extremely  valuable,  as  enabling  us  to  form  a  just  estimate 
of  the  probable  influence  of  synostosis  in  modifying  the  form 
of  the  skull. 

Difference   of   Stature   in   the  Ancient  British  Dolicho- 

CEPHALI   AND   BrACHYCEPHALI. 

In  the  former  paper, f  I  deduced  the  stature  of  the  two 
peoples  whose  cranial  remains  have  now  been  compared,  from 
ten  femora  of  men  from  long  barrows,  and  from  ten  others  from 
round  barrows ;  and  I  there  showed  that  the  probable  mean 


*  Ihid.t  p.  263  (p.  24).  The  skull,  No.  251,  described  in  the  text,  and  a  wood- 
cut of  which  is  also  given  (see  fig.  3),  though  much  more  dolichocephalic,  is  very 
similar,  in  form  and  proportions,  to  the  remarkable  cranium,  perhaps  of  a 
New  Caledonian,  described  and  figured  by  Professor  Huxley,  and  in  which, 
with  a  breadth-index  of  '73  ("  '729"),  the  sagittal  and  other  sutures  are  dis- 
tinctly open.    See  Journal  of  Physiolo^,  vol.  i,  p.  60,  Nov.  1866. 

t  Mem.  Anihrop.  Soc,  i,  159. 


72  THURNAM   ON   THE    FORMS   OF 

height,  as  calculated  from  the  length  of  the  thigh  bones,  was 
5  feet  5  inches  for  the  dolichocephalous  Britons  of  the  stone 
age;  and  5  feet  9  inches  for  the  brachycephalous  Britons  of  the 
bronze  age ;  being  a  difference  of  no  less  than  4  inches,  or 
10*16  centimetres.  Since  that  time,  I  have  collected  many 
additional  observations  of  the  length  of  the  thigh  bones  from 
primary  interments  in  long  barrows.  I  have  now  altogether 
twenty-five  measurements,  all  taken  by  myself,  representing 
an  equal  number  of  separate  male  skeletons,  fourteen  being 
from  the  chambered,  and  eleven  from  the  simple  or  unchambered, 
barrows.*  In  Tables  I  and  II  of  Crania  Britannicayf  there  are 
twenty-seven  measurements  of  thigh  bones  from  the  round 
barrows,  twelve  being  of  skeletons,  the  skulls  of  which  are 
engraved  and  described  in  that  work.  Of  these  twelve,  five 
were  measured  by  myself,  and  seven  by  Dr.  J.  Barnard  Davis. 
The  other  fifteen  measurements  are  of  femora,  from  the  round 
barrows  of  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire,  still  preserved  in  the 
Bateman  Collection,  and  were  taken  either  by  Mr.  Bateroan 
or  by  Dr.  Davis.  On  calculating  the  mean  length  of  the 
twenty-five  femora  from  the  long  barrows,  I  find  this  to  be 
exactly  18  inches,  or  45*7  centimetre8,t  and  that  of  the  twenty- 
seven  femora  from  the  round  barrows  to  be  18'8  inches,  or 
47*75  centimetres. t 

If,  with  these  data,  we  accept  Professor  Humphry's  probable 
estimate,  that  the  average  length  of  the  thigh  bone  is  as  27*5 
to  the  stature  represented  by  100,  we  shall  find  that  the  mean 
stature  of  the  dolichocephalic  men  of  the  long  barrows  was 

*  The  fourteen  femora,  from  the  chambered  long  barrows  of  Gloucester- 
shire and  North  Wilts,  average  17*9,  the  eleven  from  the  simple  long 
barrows  of  South  Wilts,  18*2  inches ;  the  difference  being  no  more  than  0*3 
inch,  or  7*4  millimetres.  Nothing  can  be  inferred  from  so  slight  a  dis- 
crepancy. 

t  Crania  Britaunica,  p.  240*245. 

X  The  twelve  femora,  from  the  round  barrows  of  England,  measurements 
of  which  are  given,  Cran.  Brit.,  Table  I,  have  an  average  length  of  19*18  in.; 
and  the  fifteen,  from  the  round  barrows  of  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire,  in 
Cran.  Brit.,  Table  II,  an  average  of  18*56  inches,  or  more  than  half  an  inch 
(•57  in.)  less.  The  first  series  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  picked  in- 
stances, and  may  have  included  the  remains  of  a  greater  number  of  chieftains 
remarkable  for  their  stature. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH   SKULLS.  73 

5  feet  5*4  inches,  or  1.661  metre,  and  that  of  the  brachycephal- 
ous  men  of  the  round  barrows  5  feet  8*4  inches,  or  1*737  metre. 
The  excess  of  stature,  in  favour  of  the  brachycephalous  Britons, 
is  thus  found  to  amount  to  3  inches,  or  7*6  centimetres.  The 
diflTerence  is  not  quite  so  great  as  that  formerly  deduced  from 
more  limited  data,  but  is  amply  sufficient  to  support  the  in- 
ference of  a  difference  of  race  being  implied  by  so  considerable 
a  difference  in  stature. 

Anchylosis  op  Cervical  and  Dorsal  Vertebre  in  Ancient 

British  Douchocephali. 

A  peculiarity,  which  I  have  frequently  noticed  in  the  human 
remains  from  the  long  barrows,  may  be  briefly  referred  to. 
This  consists  in  an  a];ichylo8ed  condition  of  two  or  more  of  the 
cervical,  or  upper  dorsal,  vertebrae.  "  Two  dorsal  vertebrse, 
feebly  united  by  anchylosis,"  were  obtained  from  the  chambered 
long  barrow  at  Uley,  and  are  preserved  in  the  Museum  at 
Guy^s  Hospital  ;*  and  when  this  tumulus  was  re-opened  in  1854, 
I  found,  in  searching  among  the  debris  of  human  remains,  in 
the  chambers,  two  other  upper  dorsal  vertebrae  united  in  the 
same  way.  The  same  condition  was  observed  in  the  remains 
sent  to  me  from  the  neighbouring  chambered  tumulus  at 
Nympsfield ;  and  in  those  likewise  from  Charlton  Abbots ;  in 
the  last  of  which,  two  of  the  lower  cervical  vertebrae  were  found 
anchylosed.  Again,  when  the  Rodmarton  chambered  barrow 
was  opened,  three,  if  not  four,  cervical  vertebrae,  firmly  soldered 
together  into  one  piece,  were  picked  out  of  the  remains.  I 
have  found  the  same  thing  in  the  un chambered  long  barrows 
of  South  Wilts;  and  have  one  remarkable  specimen  from  that 
at  Fyfield,  in  which  the  vertebra  dentata  and  the  third  vertebra 
of  the  neck  are  fused  together  into  a  single  bone.f 

I  would  not  assert  that  this  morbid  condition  is  confined  to 
remains  from  the  long  barrows.  It  is,  however,  certainly  not 
of  rare  occurrence;  whilst  it  is  very  uncommon  and  almost 
unknown,  so  far  as  my  experience  extends,  in  the  round  bar- 
rows.    It  hence  seems  to  be  indicative  of  some  peculiarity  in 

*  Catalogue,  No.  3202. 

t  Cran,  Brit.,  PL  5,  xxiv,  p.  3.  PL  59,  xxvii,  p.  3.  Mem.  Anthrop.  Soc,  i,  476. 


74  THUBKAM   ON   THE   FOBMS  OF 

the  mode  of  life  of  the  people  in  whose  remains  it  is  observed. 
That  many  of  the  peoples  of  Northern  Europe  were  at  one  time 
partially  i/roglodytic,  and  occupied  subterranean  cave-dwel- 
lings, at  least  during  the  winter,  we  have  abundant  testimony. 
Diodorus  tells  us  that  the  Britons  had  subterranean  reposi- 
tories for  their  com.*  Tacitus  says  the  same  of  the  ancient 
Germans;  and  adds  that  they  took  up  their  abode  in  them 
during  the  cold  of  winter  :t  the  same  may  have  been  true  of 
the  Britons.  It  is  certain  that  if  the  entrances  to  these  dwel- 
lings of  the  living  were  as  narrow  and  contracted  as  in  those 
which  remain  to  us  of  the  dead,  they  could  only  have  been 
entered  on  all-fours,  and  that  not  without  risk  of  injury.  Of 
the  subterranean  dwellings  and  granaries  of  some  of  the  British 
tribes,  we  have  the  probable  remains  in»  the  weems  and  Picts- 
liouses  of  Scotland,  and  in  more  or  less  analogous  structures 
found  both  in  Cornwall  and  Ireland.  The  entrances  to  the 
Scotch  weems  and  earth  houses  is  generally  by  a  long  passage, 
which  is  often  less  than  two  feet  wide  and  three  feet  high.f 
It  is  clear  that  in  the  entrance  to,  and  exit  from,  dwellings  thus 
constructed,  the  head  and  neck  would  be  very  much  exposed 
to  violent  concussions  against  the  sides  and  roofs  of  these  narrow 
passages  and  doorways ;  and  it  is  not,  perhaps,  improbable  that 
anchylosis  of  the  vertebrae  may  have  resulted  from  such  violence. 
It  would  be  desirable  to  ascertain  whether  our  mining  popula- 
tion, whose  labours  are  carried  on  in  low,  narrow,  and  dark 
galleries  and  chambers,  are  not  liable  to  injuries  of  the  neck, 
resulting  in  vertebral  anchylosis  such  as  that  of  these  ancient 
Britons. 


•  Diod.  Sic,  V,  21. 

t  Tacitus,  Qermania,  16,  "  Subterranei  epecus,  suffugium  hiemi."  See, 
also,  what  Virgil  says  of  other  northern  nations,  Oeorgic,  iii,  376.  The  his- 
torical notices  of  subterranean  dwellings  in  Britain  and  in  the  rest  of  Eu- 
rope, of  necessity  refer  to  the  bronze,  if  not  even  to  the  iron,  period.  The 
discoveries,  however,  in  the  cave-dwellings  of  central  France,  and  the  com- 
parison of  the  probable  habits  of  the  people  by  whom  they  were  inhabited, 
with  those  of  the  Esquimaux,  show  that  such  dwellings  and  such  a  mode  of 
life  were,  in  all  likelihood,  much  more  common  in  the  stone  period  than  in 
the  succeeding  ones. 

X  Archasologia,  xxxiv,  127. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH    SKULLS.  75 

SuMMAEY  OP  Inferences. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  conclude  this  paper  witt  a  summary, 
in  wliicli  may  be  arranged  the  principal  inferences  and  conclu- 
sions to  be  deduced  from  it,  and  from  my  preceding  memoir, 
under  fourteen  different  heads. 

I.  The  skulls  from  the  primary  interments  in  the  long  ha/r- 
rotes  of  Wiltshire  and  Gloucestershire,  and,  it  is  believed,  ot 
South  Britain  in  general,  are  of  a  strongly-marked  dolicho- 
cephalic  type,  having  a  mean  breadth-index  of  "71;  which  is 
much  lower  than  that  of  any  modem  European  people.  No 
brachycephalic  skull,  with  a  breadth-index  of  '80,  or  upwards, 
has  been  obtained  from  the  primary  interments  in  these  bar- 
rows.  No  objects  of  metal  or  of  decorated  pottery  are  known 
to  have  been  found  with  these  interments,  but  only  those  of 
stone,  bone,  or  horn.  We  refer,  therefore,  these  long  barrows 
to  the  stone  period, 

II.  The  skulls  from  the  primary  interments  in  the  round 
harrows  of  the  same  districts,  and,  it  is  believed,  of  South 
Britain  in  general,  are  of  more  or  less  brachycephalous  pro- 
portions, having  a  mean  breadth-index  of  '81;  much  higher 
than  that  now  found  in  the  population  of  any  part  of  England  and 
Wales.*  Objects  of  bronze,  and,  very  rarely  of  iron,  and  richly- 
decorated  pottery  are  found  in  them,  with  or  without  objects  of 
stone.  These  round  barrows,  therefore,  we  refer  to  the  bronze 
period,  and  to  that  of  bronze  and  iron  transition. 

III.  The  skulls  from  secondary  interments  in  the  upper 
strata  of  the  long  barrows  are,  in  most  cases,  of  similar  brachy- 
cephalous proportions  with  those  from  the  primary  interments 
in  the  round  barrows.  They  have,  in  a  few  instances,  been 
found  in  connection  with  decorated  British  pottery,  altogether 
identical  with  that  of  the  round  barrows.  They  are  doubtless 
the  remains  of  the  same  people  as  that  by  whom  the  circular 
barrows  were  erected;  and  for  all  intents  and  purposes  they 
may  be  regarded  as  round-barrow  skulls. 

IV.  It  has  never  been  pretended  that  there  is  any  necessary 

*  See  table  by  Dr.  Beddoe,  Mem.  Anlhrop.  Soc,  ii,  350. 


76  THUBNAM   ON   THE   FORMS   OP 

connection  between  long  skulls  and  long  barrows,  or  round 
skulls  and  round  barrows;  and  the  dolichocephalic  people, 
who,  in  this  part  of  England,  buried  in  long  barrows,  may  else- 
where have  erected  circular  tumuli  over  their  dead.  The  im- 
portant question  does  not  regard  the  form  of  their  tombs,  so 
much  as  the  sequence  of  the  two  peoples  in  the  order  of  time 
and  civilization.  As  to  this,  it  is  contended  that  the  long-heads 
were  the  true  primeval  race ;  and  that  they  were  succeeded  by 
a  taller,  more  powerful,  and  more  civilised  people,  who  gra- 
dually extended  themselves  and  became  dominant,  through  a 
groat  part,  perhaps  nearly  the  whole,  of  the  island. 

V.  These  British  dolichocephali,  or  long-heads,  are  the 
earliest  people  whose  sepulchral  monuments  can  be  shown  to 
remain  to  us.  The  exploration  of  their  tombs— the  long  bar- 
rows— shows  that  they  buried  their  dead  entire,  and  almost 
always  without  cremation ;  that  they  possessed  herds  of  small, 
short-horned  oxen,  the  Bos  longifrons  or  Bos  brachyceros,  and 
that  they  subsisted  largely  on  the  chase  of  the  red  deer,  and 
wild  boar ;  that  some  of  their  customs  were  barbarous  in  the 
extreme;  and  in  particular  that,  if  not  addicted  to  anthro- 
pophagism,  they,  at  least,  sacrificed  many  human  victims,  whose 
cleft  skulls  and  half-charred  bones  are  found  in  their  tombs. 

VI.  The  brachycephalous  people,  or  round -heads,  who 
buried  in  the  round  barrows,  were  more  civilized  than  the 
dolichocephali,  and  may  be  inferred  to  have  brought  with  them 
the  more  common  use,  if  not  the  first  knowledge,  of  bronze. 
The  exploration  of  their  tombs  shows  that  burning  the  dead 
was  with  them  the  prevailing  and  fashionable,  though  not  ex- 
clusive, mode  of  burial ;  and  the  appearances  are  consistent 
with  what  we  are  told  of  the  funerals  of  the  Gauls  (their  sup- 
posed congeners)  by  Caesar  and  Pomponius  Mela.  From  the 
same  source,  or  the  appearances  in  their  tombs,  we  should 
infer  that  they  had  advanced  from  the  nomadic,  pastoral,  and 
hunting  condition,  to  a  more  settled  agricultural  stage  of  cul- 
ture ;  and  that,  if  they  had  not  altogether  abandoned  the  more 
barbarous  customs  of  their  ancestors,  and  in  particular  that  of 
human  sacrifice  (which  all  history  tells  us  was,  at  one  time, 
everywhere  prevalent),  they  had,  at  least,  restricted  them  within 
narrow  limits. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH   SKULLS.  77 

VII.  There  is  no  proof,  nor  is  it  in  the  least  probable,  that 
the  brachycephalic  extirpated  the  earlier  dolichocephalic  people. 
It  is  far  more  likely  that  they  reduced  them  to  slavery,  or 
drove  them,  in  part,  into  the  interior  and  western  parts  of  the 
island.  When  once  snbdued  to  obedience,  they  may  have  lived 
with  them  on  friendly  terms,  and  even  mingled  with  them  in 
domestic  relations.  In  some  districts,  the  brachycephali  would 
probably  entirely  replace  the  earlier  race ;  whilst  in  others,  the 
dolichocephaU  would  live  on  under  the  supremacy  of  their  more 
powerfiil  neighbours.  A  mingling  of  the  remains  of  the  two 
peoples  in  their  later  tombs  must  almost  certainly  have  ensued. 

VIII.  The  two  races,  the  existence  of  which  is  made  known 
to  us  by  researches  in  the  tumuli,  are  most  naturally  iden- 
tified with  the  two  peoples,  strongly  contrasted  in  their  man- 
ners, whom  Cassar  describes  in  well  known  passages  of  the 
12th  and  14th  chapters  of  the  5th  book  of  his  Commentaries.* 
According  to  this,  the  short  or  round-heads  of  the  bronze 
period  are  the  same  as  the  agricultural  people  of  the  maritime 
districts,  who  are  said  by  Caesar  to  have  migrated  from  Belgic 
Gaul ;  and  the  long-headed  people  of  the  stone  period  are  the 
pastoral  and  less-civilized  people  of  the  interior,  reputed  abori- 
ginal, and  who,  prior  to  the  coming  of  the  others — as  to  which 
event  there  is  no  certain  note  of  time — must  have  occupied,  and 
been  dominant  in,  the  maritime  parts,  as  well  as  in  the  interior 
of  the  island. 

IX.  The  origin  and  ethnic  aflBnities  of  these  two  peoples  can 
only  be  discussed  conjecturally  and  tentatively  in  the  present 
state  of  science.  An  often-quoted  passage  in  the  Agricola  of 
Tacitus,  seems,  however,  to  indicate  part  of  the  probable 
solution. t  The  great  Roman  historian  points  out,  first,  the 
dark  complexion  and  curly  hair  of  the  western  tribe  of  the 
Silures ;  and  secondly,  the  similarity  of  the  appearance  of  the 


*  Qaoted  antea,  p.  43,  note. 

t  Tacitus,  Agric.y  xi.  "  Silurum  colorati  vultus,  torti  plerumquo  crines 
[Jomandes  adds  'et  nigri'],  et  posita  contra  Hispania.  Iberos  veteres  tra- 
jecisse  easqne  sedes  occupasse,  fidem  faciunt.  Proximi  Gallis  et  similes 
sunt  •  •  ♦  *  In  universum  tamen  lostimanti  Gallos  vicinum  solum  occu- 
passe  credibile  est." 


78  THUBNAM   ON   THE    FORMS   OF 

Southern  Britons  to  their  neighbours  in  Gaul.  And  he  adduces 
the  very  obvious  argument  from  these  diflferences  of  physio- 
gnomy and  appearance,  that  the  Silures  were  descended  from 
the  Iberians  of  Spain,  whilst  the  Southern  and  South-eastern 
Britons  were  derived  from  the  people  of  the  opposite  coast  of 
Gaul.  As  evidence  of  this  last  position,  Tacitus  refers  to  the 
similarity  of  the  religion,  language,  and  moral  and  mental 
temperament  of  the  Britons  and  Gauls.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  in  this  passage  the  Silures  are  named  Kai^  ^^oyrjv,  as  a 
principal  tribe,  and  as  representative  of  others  not,  like  them- 
selves, confined  to  the  extreme  west  of  the  island.  By  Caesar, 
however,  who  knew  nothing  of  the  west  of  Britain,  the  Silures 
would  be  regarded  as  interiores,  just  as  the  regions  producing 
tin  were,  and  termed  by  him  mediterranei.  The  proximi  Oallis 
of  Tacitus  are  clearly  the  same  people  as  those  of  the  maritima 
pars  of  Caesar. 

X.  The  geographer,  Strabo,  is  another  important  witness 
for  a  great  diflference  in  the  features  and  personal  character- 
istics of  the  Iberians  and  GbuIs.  In  the  course  of  his  fourth 
book,  he  twice  tells  us  that  the  Iberians  diflTered  entirely  in 
their  bodily  conformation  from  the  Guuls,  of  both  "  Celtica^' 
and  '^Belgica,'^  who,  he  expressly  says,  participated  in  the 
common  Gaulish  physiognomy.*  It  is  evident  that,  if  we  in- 
terpret this  observation  of  Strabo^s  by  the  light  of  that  just 
quoted  from  Tacitus,  we  must  picture  the  Iberians  as  a  swarthy 
or  melanous  people,  with  dark  complexion  and  curly  dark  hair. 
They  would  thus  be  strongly  contrasted  with  the  GbuIs,  who, 
by  the  classical  writers,  are  uniformly  represented  as  fair,  or 
xanthoxia,  and,  moreover,  as  of  tall  stature.  Compared  with 
the  Gauls,  the  Iberians,  like  other  southern  Europeans,  were 
probably  a  people  of  short  stature.  We  derive  no  light  from 
the  remains  in  the  barrows  as  to  the  colour  of  the  hair  and  the 
complexion  of  those  buried  in  them ;  but  they  do  enable  us 
to  ascertain  a  diflference  of  height.  The  measurement  of  the 
skeletons,  and  especially  of  the  thigh-bones,  from  the  long 
barrows  and  the  round  barrows  respectively,  clearly  demonstrate 

•  Strabo,  iv,  1,  §  i;  iv,  2,  §  i. 


ANCIENT   BRITISH    SKULLS.  79 

that  the  dolichocephali  of  the  former^  as  compared  with  the  bra- 
chycephali  of  the  latter,  were  a  people  of  short  stature.  The 
mean  height,  as  calcalated  from  the  measurement  of  52  male 
skeletons  or  femora,  was  about  five  feet  six  inches  in  the  one, 
and  five  feet  nine  inches  in  the  other ;  the  average  difference 
being  no  less  than  three  inches. 

XI.  The  cranial  type  of  the  ancient  Iberians  has  not  yet 
been  so  conclusively  ascertained  as  is  to  be  desired.  But  the 
examination  of  the  large  series  of  skulls  of  modern  Spanish 
Basques  at  Paris,  as  well  as  of  such  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
skulls  as  exist  in  English  and  Dutch  collections,  altogether 
justifies  the  presumption  that  the  Iberians  of  antiquity  were  a 
decidedly  dolichocephalous  people. 

XII.  The  British  brachycephali  of  the  bronze  period  are  to 
be  regarded  as  an  offshoot,  through  the  Belgic  Gauls,  from 
the  great  brachycephalous  stock  of  Central  and  North-eastern 
Europe  and  Asia;  in  all  the  countries  of  which — France,  Switzer- 
land, South  Germany,  Bohemia,  Poland,  Russia,  and  Finland — 
the  broad  and  short  cranial  type  is  still  the  prevailing  one. 

The  earlier  British  dolichocephali  of  the  stone  period  were, 
we  think,  either  derived  from  the  ancient  Iberians,  or  from  a 
common  source  with  that  people.  Not  only  was  Spain  peopled 
by  the  Iberian  race,  but  even,  in  historical  times,  a  considerable 
part  of  Gaul ;  and  there  is  no  improbability  in  the  conclusion 
of  its  having  occupied  the  British  Islands  likewise. 

XTII.  As  to  the  origin  of  the  Iberians  themselves, it  is  better  to 
confess  our  ignorance  than  to  indulge  in  premature  speculations. 
Some,  as  Professor  Vogt,  would  bring  them  from  America  by 
way  of  a  lost  Atlantis,  or  '^  connecting  land  between  Florida 
and  our  own  continent,  which,  in  the  middle  tertiary  (miocene) 
period,  was  still  above  the  water.^'  Others,  as  M.  Broca,  search 
for  them  in  Northern  Africa ;  others,  in  the  more  or  less  far 
East ;  whilst  Professor  Huxley  finds  in  their  crania,  as  in  those 
of  the  other  dolichocephali  of  Western  Europe,  Australian 
afiinities,  though  without  deciding  on  ^^  the  ethnological  value 
of  the  osteological  resemblance." 

XIV.  In  conclusion, — I  am  content  with  having  established, 
from  archaeological  and  osteological  data,  at  least  to  my  own  sa- 


80  THUBNAM   ON  ANCIENT   BRITISH   SKULLS. 

tisfaction,  the  existence,  in  this  Island  of  the  West,  of  two  dis- 
tinct races  in  pre-Roman  times.  One  of  these,  I  may  repeat, 
which  had  lost  its  supremacy,  at  least  in  the  south  of  the  island, 
being  the  earUer  and  dolichocephalic,  was  probably  Iberic ;  the 
other,  being  the  later  and  brachycephalic,  was  probably  Gaulish 
or,  in  other  words,  Belgic. 


81 


rV. — Elasticity  of  Animal   Type,      By  C.  W.  Dbvis,  B.A., 

F.A.S.L. 

There  are  salient  facts  in  the  Natural  History  of  Man  which, 
to  most  observers,  seem  to  belong  to  man^s  nature  alone ;  or, 
at  least,  to  be  there  comprehended  in  a  measure  so  superlative, 
as  to  confer  upon  them  the  rank  of  human  peculiarities.  Man, 
it  is  said,  is  especially  characterised  by  these,  among  his  other 
faculties — a  power  of  perfect  adaptation  to  climatic  changes, 
and,  therefore,  of  unlimited  expansibility  over  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and,  as  a  sequent  of  both,  corresponding  inconstancy  of 
form,  physical  and  mental ;  further,  by  a  normal  tendency 
to  find  his  highest  level  under  artificial  conditions  of  life. 
Though  it  is  pretty  certain  that  more  than  one  of  these  so- 
called  characteristics  have  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  con- 
troversialists, still  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  are  possessed 
by  man  in  no  little  strength.  There  is,  indeed,  reason  to  think 
that  the  undeniable  existence  of  these  faculties  has  exercised 
more  than  its  due  influence  over  the  formation  of  even  scientific 
opinion  as  to  man's  zoological  status.  In  the  early  modem 
period  of  physiological  study,  research  was  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  the  human  frame ;  and  its  deductions  were  unaided 
by  a  knowledge  of  the  range  and  convertibility  of  the  physical 
forces.  To  this  era  is  to  be  attributed  the  origin  of  a  hypo- 
thesis of  life  which  clings  tenaciously  to  the  minds  of  the 
passing  generation,  especially  to  those  of  a  metaphysical  com- 
plexion. In  accordance  with  the  mental  custom  of  exalting  all 
unknown  causes  to  supernatural  dignity,  one  of  the  first  results 
of  observation  upon  organic  operations,  was  the  invention  of  a 
special  commissioner,  a  deus  in  machind,  charged  by  the  First 
Cause  with  the  general  superintendence  of  the  body — elabo- 
rating its  structures,  energising  its  organs^  repairing  its  in- 
juries, resisting  its  proneness  to  decomposition,  and  acting 
throughout,  not  merely  irrespective  of,  but  in  direct  antagonism 

VOL.  III.  G 


82  DEVJS   ON    ELASTICITY   OF   ANIMAL   TYPE. 

to  the  forces  whicli  regulate  inorganic  phenomena.  For  this 
hypothetical  creation  various  names  have  been  devised  by  the 
fancy  and  requirements  of  believers,  from  the  "  animating 
principle '^  (one  to  each  animal  form)  of  Aristotle,  reproduced 
in  the  "  vital  forms''  of  the  present  Scotch  school,  to  the  "  or- 
ganic principle,''  '^  nisus  formativus,"  ''  vis  medicatrix  naturaB," 
of  latter-day  observers,  and  the  '^ vital  spark"  and  "living 
soul"  of  the  rhapsodist.  The  presence  of  such  a  delegate  being 
assumed,  it  was  easy,  perhaps  necessary,  to  suppose  that  any 
constitutional  peculiarities  observable  amongst  animals  must 
be  due  to  the  inherent  capacities  of  their  "  living  principles." 
The  obvious  existence  of  a  natural  scale  of  organisation  seems 
to  have  suggested  the  idea  that  the  gradual  complication  and 
intensification  of  the  bodily  functions  indicate  a  corresponding 
exaltation  of  the  immaterial "  principle,"  to  which  they  are  sub- 
servient. But  as  these  manifestations  of  organic  activity  show 
that  the  whole  animal  becomes  more  thoroughly  independent 
of  external  conditions,  and,  consequently,  more  at  liberty  to 
amplify  the  special  characters  of  its  organism,  it  was  concluded 
that  in  an  inferior  susceptibility  in  the  individual  to  injury  from 
change  of  circumstances,  and  greater  capacity  in  the  species  to 
spread  out  in  form  or  locality,  we  have  evidence  of  "  vital  prin- 
ciples" of  a  superior  nature.  Let  us  further  assume  that  the 
human  group  of  animals  exhibits  in  these  respects,  that  is,  in 
its  tolerance  of  physical  change,  and  in  the  great  variety  of 
form  which  it  presents,  a  positive  and  inexplicable  contrast  to 
the  absence  of  similar  characteristics  elsewhere;  and  let  us 
attribute  the  supposed  fact  without  reserve  to  the  pre-eminence 
in  man  of  the  "  psychovital  element,"  and  we  are  once  more  led 
to  that  impassable  gulf  between  man  and  beast  in  which  so 
many  have  lost  their  tempers.  If,  however,  it  should  be  found, 
on  examination,  that  these,  together  with  depending  characters, 
are  so  far  from  being  peculiar  to  man,  that  they  exist  in  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  among  lower  animals,  we  shall  rather  be 
disposed  to  refer  them  to  some  intelligible  law  of  organisation 
affecting  animals  of  very  different  grades  alike.  Whatever  the 
nature  of  the  organising  force,  whether  autocratic,  or  merely 
one  of  the  modifications  of  the  general  motor,  its  most  per- 


DEVIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL   TYPE.  83 

ceptible  result  is  diflferentiation  of  form  and  constitution :  in 
view  of  the  correlation  of  animal  life  with  its  means  of  susten- 
tation,  perhaps  we  may  say  it  is  the  most  inevitable  result. 
Among  the  invertebrates  dissimilarity  of  form  is  chiefly  specific. 
We  are  overwhelmed  by  the  almost  incalculable  multitude  of 
species ;  we  find  it  diflScult,  for  the  most  part,  to  distinguish 
between  individuals.  In  the  higher  classes,  especially  the 
Haematotherma,  the  species  are  comparatively  few ;  individual 
differences  are  much  more  remarkable.  Taking  the  mammalia 
as  a  class,  it  is  easily  observable  that  individual  dissimilarity  is 
by  no  means  constant  in  its  value ;  that  in  some  orders  and 
families  it  is  much  more  obvious  than  in  others;  and  that^ 
while  this  is  true  of«animals  in  their  natural  state,  the  tendency 
to  differentiation  is  increased  under  artificial  influences,  a  horse 
or  a  dog  being  scarcely  less  individualised  than  a  member  of 
the  human  group.  In  the  case  of  man,  this  diversity,  which 
so  peremptorily  arrests  the  attention,  has  been  referred  to 
many  causes,  reasonable  or  amusing,  as  authorities  varied. 
Among  the  agencies  producing  variation,  a  prominent  place 
has  justly  been  assigned  by  Gliddon  and  others  to  hybridisation ; 
and  there  are  considerations  suggested  by  this  faculty  which 
may  justify  us  in  making  it  a  centre-point  round  which  to  group 
the  other  characters  which  await  review. 

Although  there  are,  probably,  few  men  of  science  with  whom 
the  idea  lingers  that  fertile  interbreeding  demonstrates  identity 
of  species,  it  is,  notwithstanding,  felt  by  many  that  the  great 
power  of  interproduction  probably  possessed  by  many  forms  of 
mankind,  obstructs  the  reception  of  the  theory  of  multiple 
species ;  and,  though  the  plurality  of  human  origin,  towards 
which  so  many  lines  of  proof  converge,  neither  affirms  nor 
denies  the  doctrine  of  specific  unity,  the  opponents  of  the 
former  lean  with  misplaced  confidence  upon  hybridity  as  a  test 
of  the  latter.  As  a  natural  consequence,  human  hybridibility 
has  been  alternately  vaunted  and  depreciated  by  conflicting 
expositors  of  man's  origin  and  specific  value.  Disputants  have 
made  frequent  appeals  to  zoology,  without,  however,  eliciting 
any  very  satisfactory  results ;  perhaps  because  the  facts  ad- 
duced have  been  chiefly  derived  from  instances  of  intermixture 

g2 


84  DEVIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL  TYPE. 

afforded  by  a  few  of  the  domesticated  animals.  Not  impro- 
bably, a  wider  survey  and  stricter  analysis  of  the  phenomena 
of  hybridisation  may  eventually  result  in  the  discovery  that 
some  general  relation  in  respect  to  it  exists  between  various 
groups  of  animals ;  and  further,  that  such  a  relation  may  dis- 
tinctly include  man  within  its  terms.  It  is  very  frequently 
supposed,  either  that  animals  in  their  natural  state  afford  no 
indications  whatever  of  hybridising  propensities,  these  being 
assumed  to  be  the  abnormal  effects  of  the  artificial  conditions 
to  which  they  are  subjected  by  their  association  with  man,  or 
that  the  inclination  and  the  power  subsist  at  a  low  and  dead 
level.  It  is  true  that  the  greater  number  of  observed  instances 
of  fertile  intermixture  happen  in  domesticalrion,  and  necessarily 
so  ;  but  we  are  by  no  means  without  evidence  that  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  experimentalist,  though  favourable,  are  not 
essential  to  hybriSity.  Intermixture,  again,  does  undoubtedly 
takes  place  more  or  less  completely  in  a  great  variety  of 
animals ;  moderate  inquiry,  however,  will  convince  the  zoologist 
that  it  occurs  in  much  greater  proportion  and  strength  in  some 
groups  than  in  others.  As  this  fact  forms  the  pivot  on  which 
the  present  inquiry  turns,  it  will  be  necessary  to  substantiate 
it  by  a  detailed  arrangement  of  the  instances  of  hybridisation 
commonly  known. 

In  all  discussions  of  this  question,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in 
mind  that  hybridity,  taken  as  an  index  of  specific  value,  is,  in 
every  case,  a  varying  quantity,  depending  partly  on  the  degree 
of  affinity,  whether  proximate,  or  more  remote  of  the  species  in 
question,  and  partly  on  the  degree  of  hybridibility  mutually 
possessed  by  them.  This  may  rise  to  its  perfection  in  the 
capacity  to  produce  offspring  indefinitely  fruitful  among  them- 
selves, sink  to  its  zero  in  the  mere  impulse  to  coition,  or  exist 
in  intermediate  grades.  The  offspring  may  bo  fertile  only  with 
the  parent  stocks ;  or  two  species  not  known  to  hybridise  infer 
8Py  may  do  so  by  the  medium  of  a  third,  whose  product  from 
each  of  the  others,  propagate  between  themselves ;  or  the  off- 
spring of  two  species  may  be  fertile  with  a  third ;  or  finally, 
they  may  be  altogether  infertile.  Although  our  interest  is 
especially  excited  by  examples  of  the  higher  grades,  even  the 


DEVIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OF  ANIMAL   TYPE. 


85 


lowest  of  them  is  of  considerable  value  ;  for  if  largely  yielded 
by  many  different  species  of  a  family,  it  gives  an  important  in- 
dication of  the  existence  of  a  natural  disposition  to  intermixture, 
and  suggests  an  investigation  into  the  causes  which  may  have 
led  to  an  arrest  of  hybridibility  at  this  stage. 

Confining  our  attention  to  the  division  of  animals  with  which 
man  is  more  immediately  associated,  the  warm-blooded  verte- 
brates, and  glancing  over  these  forms  of  life  from  the  lowest  of 
them  upwards,  the  group  which  first  comes  under  notice  is  that 
of  the  anserine  birds.  Until  we  arrive  at  the  geese  and  ducks, 
no  evidence  of  prevalent  hybridisation  occurs  in  any  aggregate 
of  species;  in  this,  the  indications  are  unmistakeable.  The 
following  list,  capable,  no  doubt,  of  being  increased  by  many 
readers,  shows  the  extent  to  which  this  family  of  birds  is  known 
to  interbreed : — 


The  common  goose  breeds  with  the 


**               »> 

» 

)» 

»»               »f 

»> 

f* 

»»                »» 

>» 

» 

>»                >» 

f* 

9t 

9»                          »f 

9> 

» 

»                           »> 

9> 

>» 

»>                           f» 

it 

» 

The  Egyptian  goose 

»» 

>» 

»»           *» 

** 

»> 

»»           »» 

»» 

» 

The  Canada  goose 

>> 

f> 

>*           >» 

t» 

» 

»           f» 

»* 

»» 

The  Bean  goose 

*> 

>» 

»           »» 

39 

>» 

The  Bernicle  goose 

99 

»» 

»>            » 

» 

»f 

f*           »» 

» 

>» 

>> 


»» 


)» 


*) 


Mule  from  Egyptian  &  Canada  Geese,  do. 
The  Common  duck  breeds  with  the 


>»              i 

>» 

»              i 

99 

»* 

» 

99                       i 

>* 

» 

99 

9f                     i 

»» 

Hoopet  swan. 
Chinese  goose. 
Canada  goose. 
Bernicle  goose. 
White-fronted  goose. 
Bean  goose. 
Wild  grey  lag  goose. 
Knobbed  goose. 
Chinese  goose. 
Spur-winged  goose. 
Common  duck. 
Common  goose. 
Chinese  goose. 
Bernicle  goose. 
Pink-footed  goose. 
Common  goose. 
Common  goose. 
Canada  goose. 
White-fronted  goose. 
Pintail  duck. 
Common  duck. 
Muscovy  duck. 
Sheldrake. 
Pintail. 
Widgeon. 
Teal. 

Indian  black  duck. 
Egyptian  goose. 


86 


DEYIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OF   ANIMAL   TYPE. 


The  Pintail  Duck  breeds  with  the 


>» 


»» 


»$ 


»$ 


»» 


» 


The  Shoveller  Duck 
The  Scaup  Duck 

>9  99 

The  Ferruginous  Duck 

»»  99 

The  Common  Swan 


» 


99 


9* 


ff 


4f 


» 


99 


99 


99 


9» 


» 


» 


99 


99 


99 


99 


99 


» 


99 


f> 


f> 


99 


99 


Common  duck. 
Widgeon. 
Scaup. 

Bemide  goose. 
Garganey  teal. 
Pochard. 
Pintail. 
Pochard. 
Tufted  duck. 
Polish  swan. 
Black  swan. 
Common  goose. 


An  analysis  of  this  list  shows  that  of  the  comparatively  few 
species  which  ordinarily  come  under  observation,  no  fewer  than 
28  breed  together  to  an  extent  varying  from  one  to  sevren 
species ;  and  that  the  intermixture  is  not  confined  within 
generic  limits,  but  is  exemplified  between  swans  and  geese, 
geese  and  ducks.  Passing  on,  no  example  of  hybridity  causes 
us  to  halt  before  we  reach  the  rasorial  tribes.  Among  these, 
a  large  group,  containing  the  pheasants,  partridges,  fowls,  and 
grouse,  give  unequivocal  evidence  that  they  are  naturally  dis- 
posed to  intermixture.     We  find  that, — 

The  Common  Pheasant  breeds  with  the        King-necked  pheasant. 


>t 


*> 


» 


99 


99 


» 


>f 


99 


99 


f> 


99 


39 


93  >t 

The  Black   Grouse 

93  *> 

The  Common   Fowl 


>* 


33 


» 


99 


» 


99 


33 


33 


33 


f» 


»> 


>» 


» 


>» 


f> 


>» 


»> 


»f 


33 


33 


Qolden  pheasant. 

Silver  pheasant. 

Black  grouse. 

Guinea-fowl. 

Turkey. 

Fowls  of  various  kinds. 

Pheasant. 

Capercailzee. 

Pheasant. 

Capercailzee. 

Partridge. 


Fowls  of  all  species  breed  one  with  another.  The  ten  species 
here  named  are,  therefore,  exclusive  of  the  several  distinct 
species  of  fowls,  whose  capacity  for  prolific  interbreeding  has 
stocked  our  poultry-yards  with  mongrels  innumerable ;  were 
these  enumerated,  the  number  would  be  raised  to  about 
eighteen.  As  the  list  includes  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
the  species  of  this  family  familiarly  known  to  us,  it  is  clear  that 
a  strong,  and  in  many  instances,  an  effectual  tendency  to  com- 

ixture  must  be  attributed  to  the  group. 


DEVI8   ON    ELASTICITY   OF   ANIMAL   TYPE.  87 

After  a  wide  interval  we  meet  with  a  similar  disposition  dis- 
played in  a  family  of  the  insessorial  birds,  the  finches.  Taking 
ike  canary  as  a  centre,  and  Bechstein  as  an  authority,  confirmed, 
however,  by  the  experience  of  breeders,  we  find  this  bird  com- 
monly hybridising  with  its  kindred,  the  goldfinch,  greenfinch,  sis- 
kin, linnet,  sparrow,  bullfinch,  &c.  Whether  the  mules  from  the 
last-aamed  finch  are  prolific  intei'  se,  is  yet  undecided ;  with  re- 
spect to  the  rest  such  appears  to  be  the  case  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  prolificacy  is  pro- 
portionate to  the  aflSnity  of  the  species  associated,  and  obtains 
both  between  the  progeny  of  several  stocks  and  that  of  any  one 
stock  with  the  canary.  Not  only,  then,  do  these  finches  hybridise 
with  tke  canary,  but,  through  the  ofispring  so  obtained,  with 
each  other.  Their  direct  hybridibility  is  instanced  in  the  case 
of  an  intermixture  of  the  wild  goldfinch  and  greenfinch.  Al- 
though a  few  remarkable  instances  of  natural  hybridisation 
have  been  observed  to  take  place  between  birds  belonging  to 
other  groups,  the  song-thrush  having  been  known  to  breed,  in 
three  instances,  with  the  blackbird,  and  in  one  of  them  for 
successive  years,  and  the  hooded  and  common  crow  being  fre- 
quently thus  associated,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  another 
example  of  an  inclination  to  or  capacity  for  intermixture  running 
throughout  a  family. 

In  the  mammalia  we  find  that  the  groups  conspicuous  for 
their  facility  of  interbreeding  are  much  more  numerous.  The 
first  presents  itself  in  that  great  section  of  the  hollow-horned 
ruminants  which  includes  the  goats,  sheep,  and  oxen ;  the 
illustrations  being  most  frequent  among  the  former  two.  Not 
only  are  all  forms  of  the  domestic  goat,  whether  of  our  own  or 
of  ftreign  stocks,  intermiscible,  but  they  are  capable  of  pro- 
ducing with  various  wild  species.  Bell,  in  his  British  Quad- 
nip.'ds,  is  of  opinion  that  "  the  large  goats  which  are  reported 
to  lave  been  brought  from  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Gaiden  of  Plants  at  Paris,  and  which  were  stated  to  have  been 
wild,  were  probably  the  progeny  of  the  Ibex  with  the  common 
goat."  These  hybrids  were  found  to  be  capable  of  interbreed- 
ing, but  to  what  extent  is  not  recorded.     Hodgson  tells  us 


88  DEVIS   ON   ELASTICITY   OF  ANIMAL   TYPE. 

that  the  wild  Jh&ral  of  Nepaul  also  breeds  with  the  domestic 
goat.  The  hybridibility  of  the  Cashmere  goat  is  shown  by  the 
permanence  of  a  Tartar  half-breed  of  that  species,  and  the  fact 
that  both  species  of  Ibex,  the  common  and  the  Caucasian,  bre^d 
readily  with  the  reclaimed  species  was  well  known  to  Cuvier. 
The  mouflSon  is  known  to  breed  with  the  common  ewe,  but  the 
hybridibility  of  the  various  species  of  sheep  does  not  seen  to 
have  excited  much  experimental  attention  ;  their  fertility  with 
each  other  may,  however,  reasonably  be  taken  for  granted,  as 
we  find  that  the  faculty  overpasses  the  somewhat  indi3tinct 
line  separating  the  two  genera  Ovis  and  Capra.  There  :s  suf- 
ficient evidence  that  the  domestic  goat  will  breed  successfully 
with  the  sheep.  P.  Cuvier  states  that  the  mules  are  fmitful, 
but  reproduce  with  some  difficulty.  Chevreul,  however,  speaks 
of  the  practice  in  Chili  of  crossing  sheep  with  goats  in  order  to 
modify  the  fleece  ;  a  process  which  would  seem  to  require  con- 
tinuous production.  Cretzschmar  obtained  a  cross  between  the 
Cashmere  goat  and  the  Saxon  merino,  while  Cuvier  siys  of  the 
relation  between  sheep  and  goats  that  "  they  so  littfe  merit  to 
be  generically  separated  from  each  other  that  they  produce  by 
intermixture  fertile  ofi'spring."  This,  it  must  be  observed, 
was  written  under  the  impression  then  commonly  feli  that  non- 
hybridity  is  the  test  of  distinctiveness ;  a  proof  liab.e  to  result 
in  a  redudio  ad  absurdum,  for  in  these  animals  hybricity  ranges 
even  into  a  distinct  family.  Hellenius  (Gliddon,  Tyjjes)  has 
recorded  in  the  memoirs  of  the  Royal  Swedish  Academy  of 
Stockholm  the  details  of  a  fertile  intermixture  of  the  ram  with 
the  female  roe.  He  was  successful  in  procuring  two  genera- 
tions of  hybrids  inter  se,  besides  other  mixtures  of  the  mules 
with  the  parent  stocks.  As  to  the  oxen,  direct  evidence  is 
more  scanty,  yet  there  is  enough  to  show  that  a  similar  dis- 
position prevails  amongst  them.  Instances  of  hybridity  be- 
tween the  zebu  and  gayal  of  India  have  been  observed,  and 
even  the  American  bison  is  known  to  reproduce  with  the  com- 
mon cow  ;  but  it  is  said  that  their  ofispring  are  infertile.  In- 
deed, the  hybridibility  of  the  ox  tribe  does  not  at  first  s^ht 
seem  to  be  equal  to  that  of  the  sheep  and  goats.  This,  low- 
ever,  depends  upon  a  hypothesis,  of  which  there  is  no  proof. 


DEVIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OF   ANIMAL   TYPE.  89 

that  all  forms  of  domestic  cattle  are  derived  from  a  single  source. 
If  we  owe  them,  as  we  certainly  do  other  domestic  animals,  to 
two  or  more  distinct  stocks,  their  interprolificacy  is  ij^so  facto 
established.     The  next  well-marked  instance  occurs  in  the  hog 
family.     The  genus  Bus  has  been  reclaimed  from  Britain  to 
China,  and  the  variations  produced  by  intermixture  are  in- 
numerable.    The  Chinese  pig,  a  distinct  species,  breeds  un- 
hesitatingly with  the  western  hogs.     Science,  however,  awaits 
information  respecting  the  hybridibility  of  some  outlying  forms, 
as  the,  Papuan  and  Japan  species ;  and  that  of  the  Wart  hog,  or 
the  Peccaries,  with  the  true  pigs.     In  the  horses,  again,  the 
indications  of  a  general  tendency  to  hybridization  are  too  strong 
to  be  overlooked.     Not  to  venture  upon  the  harried  ground  of 
origin,  we  may,  at  least,  aflSrm  that  many  well-defined  forms  of 
horse  have  retained  their  peculiar  characters  from  pre-historic 
eras ;  and,  by  virtue  of  permanence  of  type,  must  be  held  to  be 
distinct  species.     It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  all  these, 
from  the  British  pony  noticed  by  Caesar  to  the  giant  Belgian 
and  the  graceful  Arab,  hybridize,  without  exception,  in  the 
highest  degree.     Even  the  cognate  genera  are  very  prone  to 
intermixture.     The  ass,  the   zebra,  and   the  quagga  readily 
breed  with  every  species  of  horse.     The  general  infecundity  of 
the  mules,  arising  from  the  first  of  these  associations,  is  not 
surprising,  considering  the  distance  which  separates  the  ass 
from  the  horse.     A  much  more  promising  field  of  experiment 
would  bo  found  in  the  zebra.     It  is  scarcely  doubtful  that  they 
would  prove  to  be  interprolific.     In  the  digitigrade  division  of 
the  Caruivora  there  is  a  group,  the  Miistelidm,  which  affords 
indications  of  hybridibility,   at  first   sight  unimportant,  but 
valuable   when  taken    in   connection   with   characters   to   be 
subsequently  considered.     It  is  difficult  to  see  on  what  grounds 
the  specific  distinction  of  the  polecat  from  the  ferret  is  ignored 
by  some  naturalists,  when  it  is  established  by  every  necessary 
character,  and  contradicted  by  none  except  albinism.     These 
animals  breed  together  with  facility,  and  the  cross  is  readily 
and  frequently  perpetuated  for  the  purposes  of  the  gamekeeper 
and  others.     In  the  absence  of  systematic  experiment,  our 
knowledge  of  the  miscibility  of  the  larger  felines  is  very  limited. 


90  DEVIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OP   ANIMAL   TYPE. 

The  lion  and  the  tiger  often  hybridise  in  confinement;  the 
young  have  been  reared  to  maturity,  but  there  seems  to  be  as 
yet  no  observation  as  to  their  fertility.  The  opinion  is  now 
prevalent  that  it  is  to  a  mixture  of  several  distinct  species  of 
the  smaller  cats  that  we  owe  the  origin  of  the  domestic  hybrid ; 
if  this  be  correct,  and  the  sole  original  of  our  familiar  has  never 
yet  been  produced,  it  follows  that  several  species  of  the  genus 
interbreed  with  the  production  of  a  perfectly  fertile  offspring. 
But  of  all  others,  the  most  important  group  of  animals  in  re- 
ference to  hybridibility  is  certainly  that  of  the  canine  digiti- 
grades.  In  this  family  we  have  a  grading  series  of  wolves, 
dogs,  agilaras,  jackalls,  and  foxes ;  in  all  these  the  susceptibility 
of  hybridisation  crops  out  more  or  less  conspicuously.  We  do 
not  require  isolated  experiments  to  assure  us  of  its  presence  in 
the  wolves.  It  is  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  well-known  fact  that 
their  reclaimed  forma  in  the  huts  of  the  North  Americans  have 
produced  among  themselves  several  races  of  hybrids,  known  as 
dogs,  retaining  more  or  less  of  the  lupine  aspect,  and  some- 
times bearing  mai'ks  of  vulpine  admixture.  It  is  almost  super- 
fluous to  say  that  the  true  dogs  interbreed  most  perfectly,  both 
the  specific  forms  whose  permanence  of  type  is  vindicated  by 
the  records  of  five  thousand  years  and  the  mongrels  rising  be- 
fore our  own  eyes.  The  wolves  breed  with  the  dogs,  not  only 
intermediately  through  the  domesticated  American  wolves,  but 
directly  one  with  another.  Pallas,  indeed,  affirms  that  the 
wolf-dog  of  Europe  (C.  Pameranius)  is  a  hybrid  race,  derived 
on  the  one  side  from  the  black  wolf  {C.  Lycaon),  The  agiiaras 
of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  a  genus  Da^icyon, 
nearly  midway  between  dogs  and  foxes,  produce  with  the  for- 
mer an  offspring  perfectly  fertile ;  though  it  is  said  that  the 
union  takes  place  with  less  facility  than  amongst  the  dogs 
themselves.  The  dogs  and  foxes,  again,  breed  together,  as  is 
proved,  not  merqly  by  occasional  instances  within  our  own 
experience,  but  from  the  fact  that  the  Spartans  cultivated  a 
race  of  fox-dogs  {AlopeJcides)  which  must  certainly  have  been 
prolific,  otherwise  they  would  have  been  under  the  necessity  of 
constantly  procuring  wild  foxes  to  keep  up  the  breed.  The 
dog  and  jackal  also  interbreed ;  but,  though  the  fact  is  ascer- 


DEVIS   ON   ELASTICITY   OP  AKIMAL  TYPE.  91 

tained^  tihie  degree  of  whicli  the  intermixture  is  capable  has  not 
been  determined.     It  is  impossible  to  do  more  in  a  few  sen- 
tences than  summarise  the  multitade  of  observations  on  record 
respecting  hybridity  amongst  the  members  of  the  dog  family ; 
enough  perhaps  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  faculty  of  inter- 
breeding exists  in  it  to  an  extent  which  seems  scarcely  capable  of 
limitation.    One  other  group  now  remains,  that  of  the  monkeys. 
The  monkeys  proper,   and   especially  the  simian  division   of 
them,  occupy  a  conspicuous  position  in  the  lowest  degree  of 
the  scale  of  hybridity,  but  occasionally  they  rise  above  it.     It 
is  a  matter  of  ordinary  observation  that  these  more  anthropoid 
forms  exhibit  in  confinement  a  laxity  in  their  reproductive  in- 
clinations, which  not  only  renders  them  irrespective  of  seasons, 
conformable  therein  to  man,  but  allows  their  procUvities  to  be 
displayed  to  the  utmost  stretch  of  communism  ;  and  by  many 
of  them  even  towards  the  human  female.     The  mandrils,  for 
example,  manifest  so  strong  a  disposition  in  the  latter  direction, 
that  travellers'  tales  about  ourangs  and  native  women  are  per- 
haps worthy  of  more  credence  than  is  generally  allowed  to 
them.     In  our  latitudes,  and  in  the  cages  of  our  menageries, 
it  is  probable  that  the  facilities  for  interbreeding  aflforded  by 
the  association  of  species,  are  counteracted  by  climatic  and 
other  negations;    and  it  is  also  possible  that  many  cases  of 
hybridity  amongst  them  are  lost  to  science.     Two  instances  of 
it  between  animals  of  differeut  genera  have  fallen  under  the 
writer's  observation ;  still,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  in  confine- 
ment the  monkeys  do  not  effectually  hybridise  to  any  great 
extent,  notwithstanding  the  strong  disposition  thereto  con- 
stantly exhibited  by  them. 

From  the  facts  adduced,  incomplete  as  the  collection  neces- 
sarily is,  it  may  have  become  evident  that  we  have  no  reason  to 
regard  hybridisation  as  on  the  one  hand  an  unnatural,  or  on 
the  other  a  common  diversion  of  generative  methods.  What- 
ever tendency  there  may  possibly  be  to  the  obUteration  or  modi- 
fication of  specific  forms  from  this  cause,  it  is  certainly  not  equally 
obvious  in  all  vertebrate  groups.  Many,  most,  perhaps,  give  no 
recognisable  indications  of  it  at  all ;  in  many  other  instances, 
they  are  unfrequent  and  widely  isolated;  while  in  the  families 


92  DEVIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OP   ANIMAL   TYPE. 

referred  to,  the  ducks,  fowls,  finches,  sheep,  goats,  oxeu, 
horses,  cats,  dogs,  and  monkeys,  we  have  found  the  hybridising 
impulse  more  or  less  active  and  universal.  To  popular  appre- 
hension, cases  of  hybridity  are  simply  matters  of  curiosity, 
meaning  little  or  nothing ;  and  were  they  irrelative  facts,  mere 
eccentricities,  even  the  zoologist  might  be  excused  if  he  passed 
them  by  as  well-nigh  valueless  to  science.  This,  however,  is  far 
from  being  the  case,  for,  on  examining  further  the  natural  history 
of  the  families  in  question,  we  discover  that  the  tendency  to 
hybridisation  is  constantly  associated  with  a  series  of  other 
characteristics,  predicable  of  them  only,  or  at  least  possessed 
by  them  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  by  others.  A  review  of 
these  characters  may  possibly  enable  us  to  decipher  the  prin- 
ciple which  renders  them  mutually  dependent. 

The  family  of  the  geese  and  ducks  comprises  a  large  number 
of  species,  many  of  them  of  very  close  affinity.  It  possesses  a 
vast  geographical  range,  not  confined  to  a  single  zone,  but  ex- 
tending to  very  varied  climates,  and  therefore  subjecting  them 
to  the  utmost  diversity  in  physical  conditions.  The  readiness 
with  which  nearly  all  the  species  which  have  been  tried  submit 
to  domestication  is  a  matter  of  ordinary  experience,  and  in  this 
state  they  flourish  in  whatever  localities  they  may  be  placed. 
The  variations  developed  in  the  domestic  stocks  are  extremely 
numerous  ;  although,  we  may  observe  in  passing,  the  mallard, 
from  which  its  origin  is  commonly  deduced,  does  not  seem  to 
break  into  varieties  when  kept  isolated  for  a  long  period.  In 
the  rasorial  group  we  meet  with  the  same  set  of  characters. 
The  typical  poultry,  indeed,  so  perfect  in  their  hybridibility, 
are  restricted,  in  their  natural  range,  to  Eastern  Asia ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  no  animals  show  greater  submission  to  change 
of  circumstances  wherever,  within  moderate  temperatures,  they 
may  be  transported;  and  there  is  amongst  them  very  close 
specific  alliances.  Of  the  feathered  hosts  peopUng  the  woods, 
no  group  can  exhibit  a  greater  number,  or  closer  approximation 
of  species,  or  wider  extent  of  distribution,  than  the  finches. 
None  supplies  so  many  songsters  and  pets  to  our  cages.  The 
sparrow  on  the  house-top  proves  that  in  one  case,  at  least, 
domesticity  is  a  natural  inclination ;  the  canary  evidences  the 


DEVIS   ON   ELASTICITY   OP   ANIMAL  TYPE,  93 

proneness  of  domesticated  species  of  the  family  to  sport  into 
Tarieties.    In  the  ruminants,  to  which  reference  has  been  made^ 
the  same  series  of  facts  appears  in  high  relief ; — a  large  number 
of  intimate  species,  extensive   range,  easy  reclamation,  and 
abundant  variability,     ''  No  animal,^'  says  Pennant,  ''  seems  so 
subject  to  variation  (the  dog  excepted)  as  the  goat,  nor  did  its 
multitudinous   transformations  escape  Pliny  (lib.  8,  c.  53)/' 
Cuvier  observes  that  the  domestic   goat  varies  infinitely  in 
stature,  colour,  length  and  fineness  of  hair,  and  in  the  size  and 
number  of  its  horns.     The  family  is  spread  over  Europe,  Asia, 
and  North  Africa,  and,  in  osculant  forms.  North  America.    The 
near  affinity  of  several  of  the  species,  proves  a  great  stumbling- 
block  to  the  systematist.     The  same  observations  would  have 
to  be  repeated,  if  necessary,  in  the  cases  of  the  sheep  and  oxen. 
If,  again,  we  turned  to  the  horses  and  the  hogs,  we  should  find 
that  the  characters  enumerated  are  exhibited  by  those  families 
in  a  much  greater  degree  than  in  any  other  group  belonging  to 
the  pachydermatous  order.     But  nowhere  is  their  concurrence 
BO  remarkable  as  amongst  the  dogs.     The  typical  dogs  are  now 
cosmopolitan ;  the  wolves  and  foxes  nearly  so ;  the  jackalls  are 
widely  spread   over  Africa  and  Asia,  and  whilom   Southern 
Europe  ;  the  aguaras  alone,  a  small  and  transitional  genus,  are 
comparatively  restricted.     Of  the  near  affinity  of  the  dogs  one 
to  another  it  is  superfluous  to  say  a  word :  that  of  the  wolves 
is  best  seen  in  the  difficulties  experienced  in  separating  the 
species  of  America  from  those  of  Europe,  those  of  either  con- 
tinent from  each  other,  and  varieties  from  species  throughout. 
To  a  smaller  extent,  the  foxes  and  the  other  genera  of  the 
family,  present  like  obstacles  to  an  exact  registration.     The 
North  American  tribes  have  habitually  taken  advantage  of  the 
readiness  of  the  wolves  to  submit  to  domestication.     The  eight 
varieties  of  the  black  wolf  and  the  five  varieties  of  the  grey, 
testify  to  their  tendency  to  originate  forms,  apparently  new, 
even  in  the  wild  state.    A  domestic  disposition  cannot,  perhaps, 
be  attributed  to  the  foxes  and  jackals,  but  the  ag6aras  were 
found  by  Columbus  in  a  reclaimed  condition.     The  high  degree 
of  perfection  to  which  these   characters  of  geographical  ex- 
pansion, multiplicity  of  species,  variability,  and  domesticity. 


94  DEVI8  ON    ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL   TYPE. 

attain  in  the  true  dogs,  is  apt  to  divert  our  attention  from  their 
congeners.  It  is,  however,  diflScult  to  study  the  whole  family 
with  much  care,  and  resist  the  conviction  that  it  exemplifies  in 
a  pre-eminent  degree  the  natural  association  of  characters  which 
we  have  been  led  to  recognize  in  other  groups.  A  further 
illustration,  of  limited  extent,  occurs  in  the  weasel  tribe.  The 
intermixture  of  the  polecat  and  ferret  has  been  mentioned. 
The  numerous  species  into  which  this  family  ramifies  are  so 
intimately  connected,  that  the  latest  efibrt  made  to  distinguish 
between  them,  is,  in  many  points,  very  ud  satisfactory ;  and 
much  remains  to  be  done  before  their  difierentiations  and 
specific  values  can  be  regarded  as  established.  In  many  of 
these  animals  we  are  perplexed  with  a  large  amount  of  varia- 
bility ;  some  of  them,  the  martens  notably,  enjoy  a  very  ex- 
tensive geographical  range.  The  same  remarks  will  apply  to 
the  smaller  cats,  with  the  addition  that  these  animals  seem  to 
be  naturally  inclined  to  associate  with  man.  In  the  monkeys, 
we  are  once  more  able  to  define  the  same  series  of  characters, 
though  in  some  respects  they  are  modified.  The  monkeys  are 
known  to  us  in  a  large  number  of  specific  forms,  whose  bound- 
aries are  frequently  indistinct;  the  uncertainty  arising  from 
close  relationship  being  increased  by  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  apparent  varieties.  The  group  possesses  a  wide  longitudinal 
extension  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  but  its  latitudes  are 
almost  restricted  to  tropical  and  sub-tropical  zones.  Young 
cheiropoda  are  nearly  always  susceptible  of  human  attachment 
and  discipline ;  the  higher  forms,  as  the  chimpanzee,  seem  to 
acquire  human  habits  spontaneously.  It  is  diflScult  to  form  an 
accurate  estimate  of  the  domestic  disposition  of  the  whole 
family,  but  probably  it  is  not  strong ;  and  weakness  in  this 
character  is  accompanied,  as  we  have  seen,  by  limitations  in 
superficial  range,  and  a  comparatively  low  degree  of  hybridi- 
bihty. 

The  intensity  which  characterises  the  possession  of  these 
faculties  by  the  canidaB,  is  paralleled  in  one  other  group  only, 
that  of  man,  whose  diflfusion,  adaptation  to  varied  conditions  of 
existence,  number  and  aflSnity  of  forms,  and  tendency  to  an 
artificial  life  and  hybridibility,  place  him  in  the  same  category. 


DBVIS   ON   ELASTICITY   OF  ANIMAL  TYPE.  95 

It  is  not  within  the  present  scope  of  the  writer  to  discnss  the 
measure  in  which  these  faculties  are  possessed  by  mankind^  or 
the  circumstances  by  which  they  are  favourably  or  adversely 
affected.  The  usual  account  given  of  them  is  assumed  to  be 
correct. 

The  facts  adduced,  subject,  here  and  there,  to  slight  modifi- 
cations, will,  perhaps,  justify  the  conclusion,  that  in  the  birds  and 
mammals  a  certain  set  of  idiosyncracies  are,  generally  speaking, 
associated  together,  and  mutually  dependent,  and  that  they  are 
not  of  uniform  occurrence  throughout  each  class,  but  are,  as  it 
were,  concentrated  in  particular  groups,  which  have  no  other 
connection  with  each  other  than  the  possession  of  these  pecu- 
liarities. 

All  this  seems  to  imply,  that  in  such  groups  there  is  an  in- 
herent flexibility  of  constitution,  permitting  the  individual  to 
endure  a  certain  degree  of  modification  in  two  different 
directions ;  in  the  one  rendering  it  possible  for  it  to  yield  to 
the  effects  of  changes,  whether  of  climate  or  habit,  in  the  other 
allowing  a  greater  or  less  license  in  the  working  of  the  strict 
rule  of  specific  generation;  a  relaxation  which  results,  not 
merely  in  the  grosser  production  of  intermediate  forms  by 
intermixture,  but  in  a  tendency  to  produce  variation  within  the 
proper  limits  of  the  species. 

However  sufficient  may  bo  the  facts  whereon  our  argument 
is  based,  a  strong  confirmation  of  its  general  truth  is  afforded 
by  the  negative  evidence  of  several  cases  in  which  the  characters 
under  consideration  are  almost  or  entirely  deficient.  The 
camels,  whose  whole  genus  consists  of  two  species,  widely  sepa- 
rated as  to  structural  characters  from  their  nearest  kindred,  the 
llamas,  their  range  confined  of  old  to  the  sandy  plains  of  Asia, 
and  extended  in  comparatively  modern  times  to  those  of  Africa, 
have  been  reclaimed  and  assiduously  cultivated  from  ante-histo- 
rical ages,  yet  we  see  no  hybrid  races  resulting  from  inter- 
mixture of  the  species,  and  no  acquired  variability  compensating 
for  natural  uniformity.  The  swift  dromedary  of  the  Arabs 
differs  from  its  companions  only  in  its  lighter  frame.  The 
Asiatic  elephant  again,  one  of  two  species,  constituting  an  iso- 
lated group  without  natural  varieties,  and  restricted  to  the 


96  DEVI8   ON    ELASTICITY   OF  ANIMAL   TYPE, 

African  and  Asiatic  tropics,  though  bred  in  domestication  from 
a  very  remote  period,  has  not  sported  into  new  forms.  Cer- 
tain elephants  are  appropriated  to  certain  uses,  for  which  their 
individual  shape  and  disposition  may  be  fitted,  but  permanent 
varieties  in  any  way  corresponding  with  those  of  horses  or  dogs 
have  never  been  established.  So  it  is  with  the  reindeer,  the 
instrument  of  man  from  post-glacial  times,  and  the  only  species 
of  its  genus.  Two  or  three  nominal  varieties  of  caribou  are 
nominally  and  vaguely  distinguished,  but  the  intense  domesti- 
cation to  which  the  animal  has  been  subjected  for  thousands  of 
generations  has  failed  to  produce  anything  analogous  to  the 
variations  exhibited  by  animals  familiar  to  ourselves.  In  all 
these  instances,  and  we  may  add  to  them  the  llamas  of  South 
America,  fewness  of  species  preventing  the  interfusion  of  many 
bloods,  and  a  low  capacity  for  variation,  natural  or  acquired, 
are  accompanied  not  merely  by  a  very  limited  geographical 
range  possessed  by  the  animals  at  the  presept  time,  but  by 
evidences  of  a  want  of  adaptive  power  which  renders  their  sub- 
servience to  altered  conditions  almost  nil.  The  reindeer  has 
been  gradually  driven  back  by  geological  changes  from  latitudes 
now  temperate  to  those  still  arctic.  The  elephants  have,  in  a 
similar  manner,  retired  to  the  tropics  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere, 
and  died  out  completely,  in  the  West ;  experience  showing 
that  they  are  now  incapable  of  propagating  far  from  the  equator. 
The  introduction  of  the  camel  into  the  West  is  a  failure ;  its 
permanent  acclimatisation  in  Australia,  though  possessing, 
perhaps,  more  of  the  elements  of  success,  is  still  a  problem : 
that  of  the  llama  into  the  same  country  is  already  found  to  be 
surrounded  by  apparently  insupei*able  difficulties. 

The  mutual  dependence  of  the  characters  under  notice  is 
placed  in  a  strong  light  by  the  cases  now  cited.  They  show 
how  httle  variabihty  is  efiected  by  domestication  or  change  of 
circumstances  merely;  how  much  it  depends  upon  the  con- 
currence of  several  constitutional  prerogatives  of  the  family 
rather  than  of  the  individual.  Whether  domestication  combined 
with  change  of  habitat  would,  in  such  a  case,  e.^.,  that  of  the 
reindeer,  be  more  eflFectual,  cannot  be  experimentally  proved, 
as  the  experiment  would  be  precluded  by  the  want  of  adapta- 


DEVIS   ON    ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL  TYPE.  97 

tion.  It  is  observable  that  among  domesticated  animals  the 
least  variation  takes  place  in  those  whereof  bat  one  species  has 
been  reclaimed.  The  guinea  pig,  for  example,  sports  only  into 
parti-colours ;  so  with  the  pintado  and  the  turkey.  The  ass, 
again,  preserves,  even  in  its  most  cultivated  breeds,  a  surprising 
uniformity.  We  have  here  presumptive  evidence  that  variation 
results  rather  from  a  contact  of  species  than  from  the  accidents 
of  individual  circumstance. 

The  existence  of  natural  hybridisation,  observed,  indeed,  com- 
paratively rarely,  but  occurring  unobserved  we  know  not  how 
often,  is  a  very  suggestive  fact.  It  not  only  loosens  our  ideas 
of  specific  exclusiveness  of  generation,  previously  undermined 
by  experiment ;  but  it  leads  us  to  ask,  whether  it  be  not  a 
natural  process  in  force  beyond  what  we  at  present  imagine, 
and  whether  the  fine  gradations  between  species  which  so  often 
puzzle  the  naturalist,  more  especially  the  ornithologist  and 
entomologist,  be  not  in  part  due  to  this  agency.  At  least  it 
shines  through,  if  not  dispels,  another  portion  of  the  theocra- 
tical  mist  wherein  the  early  cultivators  of  zoology  worked ;  we 
can  scarcely  echo  Blumenbach's  sentiment  that  specific  genera- 
tion is  an  arrangement  of  providence  for  the  conservation  of 
species,  except  on  the  inadmissible  supposition  that  providence 
can  countermand  itself. 

The  characters  which  we  have  been  led  to  associate  together 
in  reference  to  the  life  groups  brought  under  consideration, 
appear  to  consolidate  themselves  into  two  propositions  pre- 
dicable  of  those  groups.  A  great  extent  of  geographical  range, 
combined  with  an  adaptability  to  a  variety  of  natural  condi- 
tions, and  a  proneness  to  domestication,  seem  to  indicate  a 
general  submissiveness  to  external  agencies.  A  large  number 
and  close  relationship  of  specific  forms,  a  disposition  to  hybrid- 
ibility,  and  a  facility  in  sporting  into  varieties,  may  together 
be  considered  as  indicating  an  expansion  of  the  modes  of 
specific  production  ordinarily  recognised.  A  step  further  may 
safely  be  taken.  We  may  infer  from  the  data  before  us  that 
the  groups  in  question,  and  any  others  to  which  the  same  series 
of  characters  may  be  found  to  belong,  possess  them  in  order  to 
enable  them  by  their  mutual  reactions  to  occupy  the  widest 

VOL.  III.  H 


98  DEVIS   ON   ELASTICITY   OF   ANIMAL  TYPE. 

extent  of  surface  by  the  greatest  multiplicity  of  forms  in  the 
most  vigorous  life  whereof  their  present  constitution  is  capable; 
and  it  is  scarcely  venturing  into  the  realms  of  speculation  to 
say^  that  an  expansive  constitution  like  this  must  be  the  seat 
and  instrument  of  the  greatest  amount  of  the  vitaUsing  re- 
actions. 

If  this  be  a  correct  statement  of  facts  observable  in  nature^ 
it  only  remains  for  us  to  search  for  the  cause  to  which  the 
effects  may  reasonably  be  attributed.  What^  then^  is  the 
principle  regulating  the  possession  of  such  a  constitution  ?  The 
clue  to  it  appears  to  be  afforded  by  one  of  the  animals  whose 
cases  have  been  cited  as  confirmatory  evidence^ — the  elephant, 
— but  it  is  a  clue  which  must  be  traced  backwards  into  the 
byegone  history  of  animal  life.  The  study  of  organic  life  leaves 
no  room  for  doubt  that  the  existence  of  every  group  of  animals, 
whether  coterminous  with  the  great  divisions  of  vertebrates 
and  invertebrates,  or  with  the  gradually  subordinated  sections 
into  which  they  arrange  themselves,  has  a  definite  duration  in 
time.  At  a  superficial  glance  it  might,  indeed,  appear  that  the 
greater  divisions,  especially  that  of  the  invertebrate  animals, 
have  preserved  a  continuous  existence  from  their  first  appear- 
ance, as  the  whole  number  of  forms  comprised  in  them  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  greater  at  any  former  time  than  at  the 
present  day ;  but  we  are  quickly  assured  that  though  they  con- 
tinue, they  continue  by  virtue  of  frequent  changes  effected  in 
their  composition ;  the  inconstancy  being,  perhaps,  greater  as 
the  animalisation  becomes  more  highly  elaborated,  and  its 
effects  being  clearly  perceptible,  whether  we  compare  the  two 
sub-kingdoms,  or  the  higher  and  lower  members  of  each,  with 
one  another.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  discuss  by  what 
mode  the  changes  have  been  effected,  or  whether  they  have  or 
have  not,  on  the  whole,  tended  to  render  the  sum  of  animal 
life  more  perfect ;  it  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose  to 
accept  the  truth  that  such  changes  have  taken  place  from  the 
beginning,  and  from  the  constancy  of  natural  operations  to  de- 
duce the  reasonableness  of  the  belief  that  they  are  still  taking 
place.  The  changes  have  never  been  complete ;  that  is,  affect- 
ing every  portion  of  a  group  at  the  same  time ;  but  partial,  and. 


DBVI8   ON    ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL  TYPE.  99 

80  to  speak^  fitful^  reminding  us  of  waves  rising  and  falling 
upon  the  surface  of  the  advancing  tide.  As  we  examine  the 
strata,  we  encounter  at  every  step  forms  of  life  starting  into 
existence  in  various  directions,  rising  to  their  respective  sum- 
mits, and  subsiding  as  they  approach  higher  levels  of  time. 
The  Pterodactyls^  Enaliosaurs,  Dinosaurs,  Ammonites,  and  IW- 
lobites  are  among  the  well-known  instances  of  large  groups, 
whose  history  belongs  entirely  to  geology.  A  list  of  the 
smaller  groups,  known  as  genera  and  species,  whose  birth  and 
death  are  registered  in  the  rocks,  would  be  simply  wearisome. 
We  need  but  to  reflect  that,  even  among  the  lower  and  more 
permanent  classes,  the  cases  of  identity  between  past  and  pre- 
sent forms  are  but  rare,  and  growing  rarer  under  investigation, 
and  we  shall  be  assured  that  every  type  of  animal  has  a  life 
time ;  subject,  no  doubt,  to  premature  interruption,  but,  gene- 
rally speaking,  running  its  due  course.  It  is  an  ordinary  ex- 
pression that  a  certain  group  flourished  at  a  certain  time. 
What  criteria  lead  us  to  this  conclusion,  or  enable  us  to  de- 
nominate a  given  era  according  to  its  prevalent  types,  as  the 
age  of  reptiles  ?  briefly  these,  a  culmination  in  the  number  and 
variety  and,  oftentimes,  magnitude,  of  the  forms  presented  by 
the  type,  preceded  by  an  increase  and  followed  by  a  decrease 
of  those  characters,  accompanied,  moreover,  by  an  expansion 
and  subsequent  contraction  of  the  space  of  land  or  water  occu- 
pied by  them.  By  the  application  of  the  same  criteria  to 
groups  at  present  existing,  we  are  justified  in  asserting  posi- 
tively that  they  are  of  very  various  ages.  Many  of  them  com- 
menced their  life  at  remote  periods,  and  at  after  epochs  stored 
the  rocks  with  remains  of  species  and  genera  vastly  outnumber- 
ing their  existing  forms,  and  that  frequently  in  latitudes  which 
would  be  fatal  to  their  remnants.  Such  were  the  marsupials,  eden- 
tates, and  pachyderms  of  the  mammalian  class;  it  is  therefore  no 
metaphor  to  say  that  such  groups  as  these  and  the  struthious 
birds,  the  lacertian  lizards,  the  armour-plated  fish,  the  brachio- 
pods,  echinoderms,  and  crinoids,  are  dying  of  sheer  old  age — 
once  potent  in  all  respects,  their  numbers,  diversity,  physique, 
and  expansiveness,  have  gradually  dwindled ;  they  now  linger 
in  decrepitude,  shadows  of  their  former  selves — their  decease, 

h2 


100  DAVIS   ON   ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL  TYPE. 

sometimes  hastened^  sometimes  hindered^  by  human  agency^ 
cannot  be  very  far  distant. 

We  discover  in  this  manner  that  homological  investigation  is 
as  applicable  to  the  vital  as  to  the  structoral  characters  of 
animal  groups.  The  regular  progression  and  duration  of  life 
proper  to  the  individual  of  a  species  are,  with  necessary  modi- 
fications, exhibited  by  that  and  every  natural  aggregate ;  birth, 
youth,  maturity,  decay  succeed  each  other ;  the  dead  do  not 
rise  again,  and  adolescence  is  characterised,  as  we  have  seen, 
by  those  vital  manifestations  which  are  familiar  to  our  own  ex- 
perience,— the  restless  diffusive  temper,  the  keen  impulse  to 
propagation  overstepping  the  limits  of  ordinary  associations, 
the  consequent  differentiation  of  features,  the  facility  of  pre- 
serving and  even  of  enjoying  life  under  circumstances  before 
which  the  stiffness  of  age  would  quail  and  succumb.  This 
pliability  of  temperament,  this  power  of  yielding  to  tension  put 
upon  the  physical  structure,  this  readiness  wherewith  the 
functional  organs  modify  their  tone  in  accord  with  the  exigencies 
of  the  new  situation,  may  be  termed  elasticity  of  the  animal  type, 
for  in  whatever  degree  or  direction  the  changes  may  be  traced, 
whether  in  the  rise  of  new  features  harmonised  to  climatic 
variations,  or  of  forms  altered  by  the  contact  of  different  species, 
or  elsewise,  the  normal  characters  though  strained  are  not 
destroyed,  and  the  adaptive  nature  of  the  changes  is  shewn  by 
the  tendency  of  the  type  to  return  to  its  simpler  forms  when 
the  conditions  are  simplified  or  the  energies  reduced.  We  may 
here  remark  that  the  term  elasticity,  in  the  sense  proposed, 
is  consonant  to,  and  indeed  required  by,  well-known  facts; 
fletihility  of  type,  implying  a  permanent  alteration,  is  known 
only  to  theory. 

So  far  the  whole  result  attained  is  that  the  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  numerous,  varied,  and  vigorous  forms,  extensively 
diffused,  inclined  to  acquired  habits  and  hybridisation,  is  due 
in  any  group  to  the  time  of  life  to  which  it  has  reached, — in 
other  words,  to  the  principle  of  maturation,  the  law  or  laws 
which  regulate  life  processes  in  the  several  stages  from  germi- 
nation to  death. 

If  we  are  correct  in  attributing  the  phenomena  associated 


DEVIS   ON   ELASTICITY    OF  ANIMAL   TYPE.  101 

under  the  term  elasticity  to  the  degree  of  maturation,  it  is  clear 
that  the  history  of  man  ought  to  supply  facts  in  confirmation ; 
the  description  should  be  equally  true  in  the  case  of  man  as  in 
that  of  the  lower  animals ;  for,  whatever  our  opinions  are  as  to 
his  supra-material  nature,  the  characters  whereon  depend  his 
occupation  of  the  earth  are  fundamentally  physical,  and  in  his 
physical  properties  he  is  altogether  an  animal.  The  main  facts 
at  present  ascertained  in  respect  to  the  past  life  of  mankind  as 
a  whole  strongly  illustrate  our  proposition.  Nothing  appears 
more  certain  than  that  mankind  has  passed  through  late  geo- 
logical time  in  a  very  low  phase  of  existence ;  that  we  are  not 
yet  acquainted  with  his  primary  state  no  unprejudiced  inquirer 
will  see  reason  to  deny.  The  general  similarity,  almost  identity, 
of  the  earliest  industrial  remains  of  man,  wherever  discovered, 
has  excited  no.  little  attention ;  its  most  natural  explanation  is 
found  in  the  uniformity  of  wants  and  capabilities  characteristic 
of  the  infant  state;  traced  upwards  in  archaic  history,  the 
development  of  mental  power  is  best  seen  in  the  diversity  of 
character  which  has  left  its  impress  on  human  works.  Whether 
this  was  accompanied  by  corresponding  variation  of  form  cannot 
be  affirmed  until  the  comparative  osteology  of  the  earliest,  and 
of  subsequent,  races  has  accumulated  materials  for  judgment. 
During  historic  times  the  group  has  been  composed  of  a  num- 
ber of  distinct  races,  far  greater  than  the  earth  could  have  scon 
at  the  origin  of  the  type ;  in  its  present  stage  the  typical  cha- 
racters, intellectual  and  physical,  are  at  an  altitude  previously 
unattained,  but  we  have  no  reason  to  think  that  the  group  as 
a  whole  is  at  or  near  its  zenith. 

In  following  downwards  the  traces  of  this  principle,  from  the 
whole  group  to  its  subordinate  sections,  it  is  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  the  mode  wherein  it  affects  similar  subdivisions  of  the 
lower  animals.  Groups  of  like  artificial  value,  as  families  or 
orders,  differ,  as  we  have  seen,  among  themselves  in  their  in- 
dications of  Hfe  development ;  and  as  such  groups  are  but  the 
individuals  of  higher  aggregates,  so  their  own  subdivisions 
present  similar  diversities.  At  every  period  of  its  lifetime,  a 
family,  for  example,  may  and  does  comprise  genera  and  a  genus 
species,  in  various  phases  of  the  type  growth  of  the  aggregate 


102  DEYIB   ON   BLA8TICITY   OF  ANIMAL  TYPE. 

of  next  greater  valae — the  oldest  of  these^  that  which  possesses 
the  greatest  typical  capacity,  may  or  may  not  be  the  youngest 
in  point  of  time ;  the  youngest,  sometimes  so  immature  as  to 
render  its  real  type  doubtful,  may  be  amongst  the  oldest  mem- 
bers of  the  family.  This  is,  indeed,  in  accordance  with  the 
observation  that  the  lower  the  standard  of  possible  attainment, 
the  sooner  it  is  reached  and  the  longer  it  is  preserved  unim- 
paired. The  history  of  a  natural  family,  though  on  the  whole 
clearly  showing  progress  upwards,  by  no  means  presents  us 
with  a  consecutive  series  of  genera  arising  one  from  another, 
and  each  exhibiting  a  measure  of  improvement  upon  its  an- 
cestor; much  lesd  does  it  teach  us  that  each  genus  can,  and 
therefore  does,  develope  within  itself  the  highest  characters  of 
its  type ;  we  observe,  moreover,  that  each  group  having  com- 
pleted the  cycle  of  development  proper  to  it,  necessarily  perishes 
and  its  place  in  nature  is  supplied,  generally  speaking,  by  some- 
thing better.  Human  developments  form  no  exception  to  the 
order  observed  elsewhere  in  nature,  and  we  have  abundant 
evidence  in  the  history  of  races  that  the  laws  of  maturation  are, 
and  have  been,  constantly  influencing  their  rise  and  fall.  Some 
still  existing  are  perpetuations  of  the  infancy  of  humanity,  and 
perishing  therein  as  still  less  mature,  man,  on  whose  ground 
they  tread,  has  perished  before  them ;  some  are,  or  have  been, 
characterised  by  the  graces,  inquisitiveness,  and  credulity  of 
childhood ;  a  stage  whereof  the  ancient  Greek  perhaps  afibrded 
the  full  type.  Others  we  see  in  their  incipient  maturity,  a  grade 
of  development  not  exemplified  in  the  previous  history  of  man, 
vigorous,  domineering,  propagative,  outspreading,  adapting 
themselves  readily  to  unwonted  circumstances,  mixing  their 
blood  with  that  of  every  race  in  contact  with  them,  even  while 
they  crush  them  out  of  existence,  varying  infinitely  among 
themselves  in  feature  and  temperament,  holding  themselves 
loose  from  those  ties  which  so  strongly  bind  down  other  more 
immature  types  to  their  soil  and  customs.  In  short,  it  is  in 
these  especially  that  we  recognise  a  degree  of  elasticity  of  type, 
for  it  is  in  these  that  the  characters  leading  to  its  recognition 
exist  in  the  greatest  force  yet  known. 

The  most  general  and  most  fatal  hindrance  to  the  elevation 


DKYI8   ON   ELASTICITY   OF  ANIMAL   TTPE.  103 

of  a  race  above  its  natural  level  is  want  of  adaptability.  Im- 
maturity in  this  respect  not  only  renders  tbe  physical  powers 
more  susceptible  of  injury^  but  prevents  the  intellectual  from 
obtaining  that  mastery  over  external  conditions  which  brings 
them  within  the  limits  of  endurance.  Among  such  races  medical 
practice,  sanitary  provision,  engineering,  and  even  domestic 
arts,  are  but  imperfectly  comprehended  and  rudely  exercised. 
One  of  the  irrepressible  outcomes  of  propagative  expansiveness, 
whether  in  human  or  other  races,  is  colonisation,  at  once  the 
index  and  the  means  of  increased  development.  This,  which 
must  not  be  confused  with  migration,  is  exemplified  in  races 
such  as  the  old  Roman  and  modern  European  in  a  degree  un* 
approached  elsewhere ;  in  other  races  fixity  is  associated  with 
exclusiveness,  and  exclusiveness  is  but  another  word  for  stag- 
nation. 

If  the  several  grades  of  development  be  the  products  of  a 
natural:  law  such  as  that  which  I  have  endeavoured  to  point  out, 
it  follows  that  in  any  type  or  race  the  proportions  wherein  the 
characteristics  are  inherent  cannot  be  materially  and  perma« 
nently  altered ;  and  as  this  deduction  is  confirmed  by  experi- 
ence, we  are  compelled  to  refuse  assent  to  the  hypothesis  that 
every  individual,  and,  collectively,  every  race,  is  capable  of  in- 
definite improvement.'  This  supposition  implies  that  every 
race  possesses  the  elements  and  potentiality  of  human  develop- 
ment in  full  perfection,  and  merely  requires  impulse  and  oppor- 
tunity to  vindicate  its  typical  equality.  If  so  it  is  impossible 
to  account  for  the  indisputable  fact  that  some  races  make  the 
opportunity  under  their  own  impulse,  while  others  exist  for  an 
indefinite  period  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances  and 
fail  to  do  so.  To  say  that  all  can  be  brought  up  to  the  same 
level  by  education,  and  are  therefore  essentially  equal  in  capacity 
is  to  pile  hypothesis  upon  hypothesis,  it  is  analogous  to  saying 
that  every  variety  of  iron  may  be  rendered  equally  magnetic, 
and  therefore  possesses  the  natural  properties  of  a  magnet.  It 
ought  not  be  objected  to  the  principle  of  life  stages,  that  in 
practice  it  would  render  our  conduct  towards  more  immature 
races  fatalistic,  prevent  all  efroi*t  tending  to  their  cultivation, 
from  a  conviction  that  such  endeavours  must  necessarily  be 


104  DEVIS  ON   ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL  TYPE. 

futile,  Edacation^  the  communication  of  experience  from  the 
elder  to  the  younger,  notwithstanding  the  imposing  titles  given 
to  it  by  doctrinaires,  is  simply  a  natural  impulse  known  to  be 
obeyed  by  other  animals  than  man ;  and  since  we  are  educators 
by  nature,  the  effect  of  education,  experience  communicated,  is 
a  natural  sequence ;  farther,  since  the  limit  of  possible  education 
is  determined  by  the  degree  of  maturation,  we  have  sufficient 
reason  to  attempt  the  improvement  of  a  race  in  the  hope  of 
thereby  ascertaining  its  maturity  where  unknown.  Benevolence 
frequently  wonders  why  so  little  fruit  springs  from  its  golden 
seed  scattered  broadcast  among  the  ''  poor  heathen,^'  and  com- 
placency is  content  to  ascribe  the  fact  to  original  sin,  or  de- 
moniacal agency,  both  particularly  rife  among  savages.  Were 
a  competent  acquaintance  with  the  human  constitution  one  of 
the  accomplishments  of  the  world's  civilizers,  they  would  under- 
stand that  the  rational  habits  of  thought  and  speech  of  adult 
mankind  are  utterly  unsuited  to  childish  races ;  that  the  differ- 
ential calculus  cannot  well  be  understood  before  the  multipli- 
cation table ;  and  they  might  be  led  to  suspect  that  elementary 
treatment  would  produce  reports  perhaps  less  glowing,  but 
results  more  substantial.  The  fallacy  of  the  present  system  lies 
in  its  theory  of  the  fundamental  equality  of  all  men.  If,  how- 
ever history  and  experience  testify  to  one  thing  more  strongly 
than  to  another  it  is  this,  that  every  race  is  not  capable  of 
attaining  the  higher  phases  of  humanity.  The  past  presents 
us  with  no  example  of  a  race  pure,  exclusive,  inelastic  in  its 
idiosyncracies,  and  concomitantly  deficient  in  brain  force, 
developing  itself  out  of  itself,  or  even  being  capable  of  education 
from  the  savage  into  the  highly  civiUsed  condition.  This  con- 
tinuous progress  takes  place  in  humanity  as  a  whole,  not  in  all 
its  component  parts.  Be  this  as  it  may,  that  elasticity  of  con- 
stitution which  we  have  traced  in  various  groups  of  animals, 
including  that  of  man,  and  which  is  itself  probably  the  effect  of 
energetic  chemico-vital  reactions,  is  a  sufficient  explanation  of 
any  difficulties  attendant  upon  hybridibility  or  climatic  adapta- 
tion, and  may  perhaps  eventually  throw  light  upon  the  mode  of 
production  of  those  intermediate  forms  which  so  often  confound 
specific  distinctions,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  cannot  be 


DEVI8  ON   ELASTICITY   OP  ANIMAL   TYPE.  105 

satisfactorily  traced  to  actual  intermixture.  The  danger  of 
confining  the  attention  to  man  alone  while  studying  his  natural 
character^  and  of  being  thereby  led  to  view  him  as  a  kind  of 
pseudo-animal^  is  strongly  illustrated  in  the  case  before  us; 
Cew  physical  characters  pertaining  to  man  have  been  more  fre- 
quently quoted  as  peculiarly  human  attributes^  than  the  faculties 
of  adaptation  and  of  interbreeding ;  yet,  in  these  respects,  man 
is  at  least  equalled  by  the  dogs,  and  the  powers  themselves  are 
possessed  by  virtue  of  a  law  whose  operation  is  plainly  dis- 
cernible in  several  other  groups  of  animals.  Whatever  other 
foundation  they  may  have,  it  is  clear  that  neither  the  doctrine 
of  unique  origin  on  the  one  hand,  nor  that  of  supernatural  pro- 
prietorship of  the  earth  on  the  other,  can  be  based  upon 
qualities  participated  in  by  other  animals. 


106 


V. — Vocal  and  other  Influences  upon  Mankind,  of  Pendency  of 
the  Epiglottis.  By  Sib  George  Duncan  Qibb,  Bart.,  M.A,, 
M.D.,  LL.D.,  P.G.S.,  V..P.A.S.L.,  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  Assistant-Physician  and  Lecturer  on 
Forensic  Medicine,  Westminster  Hospital,  etc. 

1.  In  a  continued  series  of  experimental  inquiries  with  the 
laryngoscope,  which  I  have  carried  on  during  the  last  six  years, 
in  healthy  persons  of  both  sexes,  different  ages,  and  varying 
position  in  life,  some  important  discoveries  were  made  relating 
to  the  position  of  that  remarkable  cartilage  known  as  the 
epiglottis.  From  time  to  time  I  have  drawn  the  attention  of 
scientific  men  to  this  subject,  both  in  my  writings  and  before 
societies,  but  more  particularly  before  the  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  at  the  Cambridge  Meeting  in 
1862  and  at  that  at  Newcastle  in  1863,  when  the  normal  position 
of  the  epiglottis,  as  described  by  all  anatomists  and  physiolo- 
gists before  my  time,  was  especially  considered. 

Up  to  the  period  of  the  Newcastle  Meeting  in  1863  I  had 
examined  680  healthy  persons,  and  the  phenomena  observed  in 
them  relatively  to  the  position,  form,  and  appearance  of  the 
epiglottis  formed  the  subject  of  my  paper.  Four  years  had 
elapsed  since  then,  and  again  I  ventured  to  bring  the  subject 
before  the  British  Association  at  its  late  meeting  at  Dundee, 
with  an  increased  experience,  founded  on  an  examination  of 
4600  healthy  persons  up  to  the  month  of  September  1867. 
No  excuse  is  needed  for  submitting  my  paper  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  Fellows  of  the  Anthropological  Society,  as  the  sub- 
ject is  one  that  bears  upon  mankind  in  general,  and  the  European 
races  in  particular.  As  my  observations  will  have  reference 
chiefly,  indeed  almost  entirely,  to  the  position  occupied  by  the 
epiglottis,  whether  vertical  and  perpendicular  or  pendent  in  an 
oblique  or  horizontal  direction,  and  the  influence  which  the 
latter  exerts  upon  mankind  at  large,  I  shall  endeavour  to  ex- 
plain briefly  the  relative  situation  of  the  parts  around  the 


aiBB   ON    PENDENCT   OF   TBE   EFIOLOTTIS.  107 

epiglottis,  so  that  every  one  who  is  not  acquainted  with  the 
anatomy  of  this  part  of  the  body,  may  understand  what  is  meant 
by  pendency  of  L  epiglottis. 

2.  At  the  root  of  the  tongue,  behind  its  base,  is  seen  a  tri- 
angolar  or  oval-shaped  cartilage,  compared  to  a  cordate  leaf, 
with  its  edges  curved  or  curled  forwards,  standing  in  an  erect  or 
perpendictdar  position.  It  is  of  a  pale  yellow  or  buff  colour,  notun- 
like  the  crust  of  a  loaf  of  bread,  and  it  plays  a  most  important  part 
in  relation  to  theactof  swallowing;  from  its  situation  it  lies  above 
and  in  front  of  the  upper  part  of  the  larynx,  a  cartilaginous  box 
existing  on  the  top  of  the  windpipe  and  readily  felt  in  the  neck. 
As  the  epiglottis  is  extremely  flexible  and  elastic  it  is  depressed 
in  the  act  of  swallowing,  covers  the  larynx,  allows  the  food  to  pass 
over  it,  and  rapidly  elevates  itself  into  its  erect  position ;  by  this 
means  neither  food  nor  any  other  substance  can  gain  entrance 
to  the  windpipe.  During  the  act  of  swallowing  the  tongue  is 
drawn  backwards  and  the  larynx  raised  forwards,  the  glottis 
immediately  closes,  with  its  regulators,  the  epiglottis  becomes 
pendent  or  depressed,  and  the  contents  of  the  mouth  pass  over 
it  into  the  pharynx,  or  pouch  at  the  back  of  the  throat,  leading 
to  the  gullet  or  oesophagus.  The  epiglottis  is  attached  by 
means  of  a  pedicle  to  the  inside  of  the  Pomum  Adami,  or  Adam^s 
apple,  felt  in  the  neck,  and  is  likewise  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  the  os  hyoides  or  tongue  bone,  and  the  larynx,  by 
means  of  folds  of  mucous  membrane,  receiving  various  names 
from  the  parts  they  serve  to  connect.  Only  one  half  of  the 
cartilage  is  free,  and  for  convenience  I  would  compare  it  to  a 
little  tongue  situated  behind  the  larger  tongue,  but  pointing 
upwards  instead  of  forwards. 

As  described,  it  will  be  understood  that  the  epiglottis  should 
be  quite  erect  or  vertical,  which  moreover  allows  the  top  of  the 
windpipe  to  be  freely  open  for  the  purposes  of  comfortable 
breathing.  All  the  older  anatomists  were  correct  in  describing 
the  cartilage  as  vertical,  and  I  am  quite  willing  to  admit  that 
that  is  its  natural  and  proper  position. 

3.  Having  said  thus  much  we  are  now  prepared  to  imderstand 
what  is  meant  by  pendency  of  the  cartilage,  and  I  will  explain 
what  that  is,  how  it  was  discovered,  and  the  influence  it  exerts 


108  GIBB   ON   PENDENCY   OF   THE    EPIGLOTTIS. 

upon  all  classes  of  mankind.  At  the  commencement  of  my  in- 
vestigations I  was  struck  very  forcibly  by  the  circumstance  of 
finding  in  a  great  many  healthy  people,  that  the  cartilage,  in- 
stead of  being  erect  as  just  described,  was  pendent,  had  fallen 
downwards  and  backwards  over  the  top  of  the  glottis,  or  wind- 
pipe, like  a  drooping  leaf.  In  many,  again,  there  was  a  dis- 
position to  it,  but  such  cases  have  not  been  included  in  my 
statistics.  The  pendency  was  more  or  less  complete,  and  when 
it  was  so  nature  compensated  for  this  by  allowing  the  cartilage 
to  have  a  dome  or  arched  shape  to  allow  of  the  entrance  of  air 
with  freedom.  In  a  good  many  this  shape  was  not  seen,  but 
the  cartilage  lay  quite  flat  and  sloping  backwards.  (The  vari- 
ous forms  presented  by  the  pendent  condition  were  illustrated 
by  diagrams,  and  a  comparison  made  between  them  and  the 
erect  or  vertical  position,  formed  a  contrast  that  could  not  be 
misunderstood.)  * 

4.  The  examination  was  made,  as  stated  before,  in  per- 
sons of  apparently  good  health,  of  both  sexes  and  at  all  ages, 
from  the  infant  in  arms  to  that  of  extreme  old  age,  verging 
upon  one  hundred  years ;  children,  young  people,  persons  in 
the  prime  of  life,  elderly  and  very  old  persons,  were  all  alike 
submitted  to  examination.  The  social  relationship  extended  to 
entire  families,  from  the  grandparent  to  the  grandchildren,  and 
even  to  the  great  grandchildren.  In  this  way  only  could  I 
obtain  valuable  information  regarding  the  congenital  or  here- 
ditary character  of  pendency  of  the  epiglottis.  In  some  in- 
stances parents  and  their  children  possessed  it,  and  it  seemed 
an  hereditary  peculiarity ;  in  others,  again,  it  was  acquired ; 
thus  three  or  four  children  would  have  an  erect  epiglottis  and 
a  fifth  a  pendent  one ;  in  some  instances  one  or  two  children 
would  be  bom  with  it,  whilst  their  brothers  and  sisters  had  it 
not,  nor  did  the  parents  possess  it.  In  some  persons  again  it 
was  acquired  by  residence  and  exposure  in  hot  climates ;  it  is 
not  necessarily  a  concomitant  of  the  aged,  and  I  believe,  as  a 


*  The  descriptive  portion  of  this  paper  has  been  rendered  in  ordinary 
language,  devoid  of  technicality  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to  be  readily  un- 
derstood by  non-professional  readers. 


GIBB  ON   PENDENCY   OP  THE   EPIGLOTTIS.  109 

rale^  that  most  old  people  do  not  possess  it^  in  Europe  at  leasts 
and  old  age  ceteris  paribus  is  more  within  the  reach  of  those 
whose  epiglottis  is  vertical  or  erect,  than  in  those  again  in 
whom  it  is  pendent. 

5.  The  great  majority  of  those  I  examined  were  natives  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  but  the  number  included  residents 
of  other  European  nations,  whilst  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
African  race,  and  an  equal  number  of  the  Asiatic,  chiefly  Chinese, 
are  separately  given.  Enough,  however,  was  determined  to 
permit  of  my  forming  some  general  conclusions  in  regard  to  all 
classes  of  people  amongst  the  various  races  of  mankind,  in  hot, 
temperate  and  cold  climates,  in  all  parts  of  the  universe. 

6.  To  come  now  to  my  statistics.  As  time  and  opportunity 
would  permit,  parties  of  individuals,  varying  from  three  or  four 
to  fifty,  were  examined  by  introducing  the  laryngoscope,  a  small 
mirror  previously  warmed,  into  the  back  of  the  mouth.  Many 
of  these  inspections  were  made  at  my  own  house,  or  at  the 
houses  of  friends ;  a  good  many  at  Westminster  Hospital,  and 
some  at  other  public  institutions,  such  as,  amongst  others,  the 
Home  for  Asiatics  at  Poplar  and  the  Seaman^s  Hospital  Ship 
'*  Dreadnought.^'  The  results  were  always  noted  at  the  time,  and 
the  general  health  of  all  was  good ;  at  Westminster  the  persons 
were  healthy  so  far  as  the  throat  was  concerned.  On  calculating 
the  general  result,  it  yielded  the  large  number  of  4600  in- 
dividuals, extending  over  a  period  of  between  six  and  seven 
years.     This  is  exclusive  of  280  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

7.  The  number  of  the  pendencies  of  the  epiglottis  was  found 
to  be  513  in  the  4600  persons,  which  is  equivalent  to  eleven 
per  cent,  and  a  fraction.  This  means  that  eleven  out  of  every 
hundred  healthy  persons  possess  a  pendent  epiglottis ;  reckon- 
ing my  hearers  at  200  at  the  late  meeting  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation at  Dundee,  eleven  per  cent,  gave  twenty-two  persons 
who  were  present  when  I  read  my  paper  whose  epiglottis  was 
pendent.  Curiously  enough  this  per  centage  agrees  with  that 
brought  before  the  Association  at  Newcastle  in  186-i,  and  I 
believe  it  holds  good  in  the  natives  of  Europe  and  of  cold 
countries.  It  is  increased  in  hot  climates,  as  great  heat  would 
seem  to  exert  a  more  perniciously  relaxing  efiect  on  the  cartilage 
than  extreme  moisture  or  varying  degrees  of  cold. 


110  OIBB  ON   PENDENCY   OF  THE   EPIGLOTTIS. 

8.  Applying  the  calculation  of  this  per  centage  to  the  popu- 
lation of  Great  Britain^  which,  by  the  last  census,  was  deter- 
mined to  be  28,887,519,  eleven  per  cent,  gives  the  number  of 
3,177,627  persons  who  have  not  a  vertical  or  erect  epiglottis. 
Or,  if  the  population  of  Europe  be  taken,  which  is  estimated  at 
272,000,000,  eleven  per  cent,  gives  the  number  of  pendencies 
as  24,727,273.  I  think  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  other  Euro- 
pean nations  would  resemble  our  own  in  the  comparative 
frequency  of  pendency.  But  if  the  test  is  appUed  to  the  natives 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  the  results  are  startling. 

9.  I  have  submitted  some  280  natives  of  India  and  China 
and  various  parts  of  Africa,  with  the  adjacent  islands,  to  ex- 
amination, and  what  does  the  reader  suppose  was  discovered  ? 
It  was  this : — every  single  person,  of  both  sexes — I  may  say 
without  any  real  exception — had  the  epiglottis  pendent.  This 
startled  me  at  first ;  but  to  test  the  matter  fairly,  through  the 
kindness  of  my  friend  Mr.  F.  M.  Corner,  surgeon  to  the  Insti- 
tution, I  was  permitted  to  examine  all  the  inmates  of  the 
Home  for  Asiatics  at  Poplar,  as  late  as  the  25th  of  July  last, 
and  without  any  single  exception,  the  epiglottis  was  found 
completely  pendent  in  all.  There  were  several  fine,  young,  and 
lively  negroes  from  the  River  Congo  in  Africa,  in  whom  we 
might  have  expected  to  find  the  cartilage  in  a  vertical  position. 
But  no ;  it  was  completely  pendent.  Finding,  therefore,  that 
in  the  280  natives  of  hot  climates,  such  as  exist  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  the  epiglottis  was  pendent  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  we  are 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that  it  must  be  a  common  peculiarity 
to  the  races  of  those  great  continents.  There  is  this  to  be  said, 
however,  regarding  these  pendencies:  the  examination  was 
made  exclusively  in  this  country,  and  it  is  just  possible  that 
the  cartilage  may  have  become  pendent  in  a  tolerable  number 
on  their  change  from  a  hot  climate  to  our  more  temperate  one. 
Nevertheless,  I  am  not  disposed  to  attach  too  much  importance 
to  this,  because  I  have  been  satisfied  on  several  occasions  of 
the  fact,  that  Europeans  acquire  pendency  by  a  lengthened 
stay  in  hot  climates.  The  estimated  population  of  Asia  is 
750,000,000,  and  of  Africa,  200,000,000 ;  whilst  Oceana  is  set 
down  at  2,000,000.  All  these  together  amount  to  1,150,000,000 


GIBB  ON    PENDENCY   OF  THE    EPI0L0TTI8.  Ill 

of  persons^  of  whom  it  would  be  rash  in  the  highest  degree  to 
say  more  than  that  a  large  proportion^  much  greater^  indeed^ 
than  amongst  Europeans^  possess  pendency  of  the  cartilage. 
Can  it  be  wondered  at  that  we  should  find  a  number  of  cir- 
cumstances result  from  a  condition  which  impedes  free  breathing 
and  renders  a  proneness  to  disease  in  some  shape  ? 

10.  The  influence  of  pendency  of  the  epiglottis  upon  all 
classes  of  mankind^  but  especially  on  Europeans^  may  be 
described  as  follows  : — 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  great  aperture  or  entrance- 
door  of  the  windpipe  is  closed  three-fourths — I  might  say  seven- 
eights  ;  therefore^  the  air  for  the  purposes  of  breathing  has  to 
enter  by  means  of  a  narrow  opening,  which,  however,  after 
being  respired,  passes  out  again  with  greater  facility  than  it 
entered.  The  first  effect  of  this  condition  is  a  modification  or 
alteration  of  the  natural  voice ;  the  voice,  as  a  rule,  has  a  ten- 
dency towards  a  bass  tone  in  adult  males,  for  the  pendent  epi- 
glottis acts  the  part  of  the  Ud  of  an  organ  pipe.  The  singing 
voice  is  materially  altered ;  and  in  the  female  sex  the  higher 
notes  cannot  be  produced  at  all  in  some  persons,  whilst  in 
others  the  vocal  power  and  compass  are  weakened,  and  pen- 
dency is  inimical  to  anything  like  prolonged  singing,  I  have 
never  known  a  single  instance  of  one  of  the  great  female 
singers  of  the  day — and  I  have  had  several  of  them  under  my 
care  from  time  to  time — to  possess  a  pendent  epiglottis ;  there 
may  have  been  a  disposition  to  a  little  pendency  from  relaxation, 
the  result  of  cold  or  an  over  exertion  of  the  singing  voice,  but 
that  condition  was  always  temporary.  In  singing  the  higher 
notes,  as  witnessed  in  the  contralto  and  soprano  voices,  the 
opening  into  the  larynx  or  top  of  the  windpipe  must  be  per- 
fectly free  and  the  epiglottis  quite  erect,  so  that  the  direction 
of  the  sound  shall  be  towards  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  entirely  in 
front  of  the  soft  palate.  In  pendency  of  the  epiglottis,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  voice  strikes  the  back  of  the  throat  behind,  in- 
stead of  in  front,  of  the  soft  palate.  In  some  persons,  the  pen- 
dency is  so  complete,  that  a  mere  semicircular  chink  exists  for 
the  air  to  enter,  and  the  inconvenience  in  singing  is  greater. 
Yet  that  very  circumstance  gives  to  a  few  of  the  male  sex  a 


112  OIBB  ON   PENDENCY   OP  THE   EPIGLOTTIS. 

voice  for  declamatory  reading  which  is  remarkably  powerful 
and  beautiAil ;  nevertheless^  such  persons  are  liable  at  all  times 
to  colds^  from  the  necessarily  impaired  power  of  breathing. 
Young  girls  with  this  condition  can  never  expect  to  become 
singers  of  any  importance  unless  it  is  remedied ;  and  in  them, 
and  in  boys  too,  but  especially  in  girls,  the  voice,  in  speaking, 
is  not  clear  and  silvery  as  it  ought  to  be.  In  young  people  the 
tonsils  are  often  enlarged  when  the  epiglottis  is  pendent,  for 
the  natural  circulation  is  not  free  and  easy  through  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  throat. 

11.  Although  the  general  health  is  apparently  good,  in  a 
certain  number  of  persons  there  is  a  disposition  to  sluggishness 
of  body  and  general  languor,  the  result  of  impeded  respiration. 
In  certain  states  of  the  atmosphere  this  renders  them  liable  to 
attacks  of  disease  to  which  they  may  be  constitutionally  pre- 
disposed. 

12.  During  the  prevalence  of  the  ordinary  exanthemata,  such 
as  scarlet  fever,  measles,  whooping  cough,  and  diphtheria,  or  of 
epidemics  of  throat  and  chest  aflTections,  persons  with  a  pendent 
epiglottis,  particularly  children  and  young  people,  are  more 
liable  to  become  aflTected  than  others  whose  windpipe  door,  as  I 
may  call  it,  is  wide  open,  and  this  for  the  reasons  already  given. 

13.  I  am  not  going  too  far  in  saying,  that  in  grown-up  per- 
sons with  a  pendent  epiglottis  there  is  a  greater  risk  towards 
the  contraction  of  prevailing  epidemic  diseases  than  in  those 
otherwise  circumstanced ;  and  perhaps  it  may  help  to  explain 
why,  sometimes,  comparatively  healthy  persons  are  struck 
down,  while  others,  seemingly  more  delicate,  escape.  For  it 
must  be  remembered,  that  when  the  breathing  is  not  free,  the 
general  health  indirectly  suffers,  through  deficient  arteriali- 
sation  of  the  blood,  and  its  effects  upon  the  entire  system.  A 
great  many  grown  up  persons  breathe  with  discomfort  in  their 
beds  with  a  pendent  epiglottis ;  and  not  a  few  become  asthmatic 
and  subject  to  chronic  bronchitis  as  they  advance  in  life.  I  am 
satisfied  that  few,  very  few,  or  perhaps  none,  in  this  country, 
at  least,  ever  reach  extreme  old  age  with  a  pendent  epiglottis. 

14.  Heretofore  no  person,  with  the  exception  of  myself,  has 
dwelt  upon  the  importance  of  such  a  peculiarity  as  that  I  have 


OIBB  ON    PENDENCT   OF   THE   EPIQLOTTIS.  113 

described^  or  upon  its  general  effects;  and  I  would  again 
remind  the  reader  that  there  are  3,177,627  persons  the  subject 
of  it  in  Great  Britain  alone.  Its  great  frequency,  especially  in 
hot  climates,  might  lead  many  persons  to  say,  it  is  a  natural 
condition ;  indeed,  I  thought  so  myself  at  first,  but  now  feel 
satisfied  iJiat  it  is  not.  In  conclusion,  the  reader  would  natu- 
rally ask  me,  what  are  the  means  proposed  to  remedy  pen- 
dency of  the  epiglottis  ?    They  are  these  :-— 

15.  Let  him  request  his  medical  attendant  to  examine  him 
with  the  laryngeal  mirror,  and  if  he  finds  the  epiglottis  droop- 
ing,  or  in  a  pendent  position,  more  or  less  complete,  it  wiU  be 
prudent  for  the  reader  to  notQ  it,  have  it  attended  to,  and  in  a 
large  majority  of  persons,  the  young  especiaUy,  it  can  be  recti- 
fied  and  elevated. 

On  the  whole,  however,  I  think  it  has  been  shown  that  the 
influence  of  pendency  of  the  epiglottis  upon  mankind  generally 
is  prejudicial  and  pernicious,  and  therefore  well  worthy  the 
attention  of  philanthropists  and  anthropologists. 

I  have  elsewhere  termed  the  process  of  examination,  Epu 
glottisation,  which  possesses  a  meaning  somewhat  analogous  to 
va4xination. 


VOL.  HI. 


114 


VI. — Note  on  the  ShulU  fowad  in  the  Round  Ba/rrows  of  the 
SotUh  of  England.  By  C.  Cartbb  Bulke,  Esq.,  F.Gr.S., 
Hon.  F.A.S.Lyi  Lecturer  on  Compaarative  Anatomy  and 
Zoology  f^t  Westminster  Hospital. 

During  the  late  visit  of  the  President  x)f  the  Anthropologioal 
Society  to  Dorsetshire,  he  was  enabled  to  obtain  from  Mr. 
Shipp,  of  Blandford,  twelve  skulls  and  fragments  of  skulls  from 
the  round  barrows  of  the  district  near  Blandford.  I  have  been 
led  to  give  the  following  slight  note  on  these  skulls,  as  they 
exhibit  some  remarkable  characters,  and  their  examination  may 
confirm  or  invalidate  the  theories  which  have  recently  been 
promulgated  respecting  the  typical  character  afforded  by  the 
skulls  found  iu  the  round  barrows  of  the  South  of  England. 

Dr.  Thumam,in  his  paperon  the  two  principal  forms  of  English 
and  Gaulish  skulls  {Mem.  Anthrop.  Soc.  Lond.,  vol.  i),  gives  a 
table  which  contains  the  measurements  of  twenty-five  skulls 
from  the  English  round  barrows.  The  longest  of  these  exhibits 
a  cephalic  index  of  '74,  the  shortest  a  measurement  of  '87  :  the 
average  cephalic  index  being  'SI .  He  has  been  led  to  conclude, 
therefore,  that  the  typical  character  of  the  skulls  found  in  round 
barrows  is  that  which  presents  the  brachycephalous  type.  The 
following  are  the  words  in  which  Dr.  Thumam  states  his 
theory : — 

"  The  form  of  skull,  from  the  bowl-shaped,  bell-shaped,  an.d 
other  circular  barrows  of  pre-Roman  Britain,  scarcely  requires 
extensive  illustration;  being  on  all  hands  admitted  to  be 
brachycephalous.'^ — (P.  149.) 

'^  The  skulls  from  the  circular  barrows  of  England  of  the 
pre-Roman  period  are  mostly  of  brachycephalic  or  sub-brachy- 
cephalic  type;  this  short  and  broad,  or  round,  cranial  form 
being  found  in  tumuli  evidently  of  the  same  epoch,  though 
some  of  them  contain  implements  and  weapons  of  both  bronze 
and  stone,  others  of  stone  only.'' — (P.  120.) 

'^  Whilst  the  dolichocephalic  skulls  from  the  long  barrows 
group    themselves    around    the  number   70,   as  regards   the 


BLAKS  ON  SKULLS  FBOM  BOUND  BARROWS.        115 

proportion  of  the  breadth  to  the  length  taken  as  100 ;  the 
brachycephalic  ones  from  the  round  barrows  are  mostly  repre- 
sented by  the  number  80  and  upwards/^ — (P.  150.) 

''  To  sum  up  the  conclusions  as  to  the  forms  of  skull  from  the 
tumuli  of  the  pre-Boman  period  in  this  country^  a  sort  of  axiom 
has^  I  think^  now  been  established  to  this  effect : — ^Long  bar- 
rows, long  skulls ;  round  barrows,  round  or  short  skulls ;  doli- 
chotaphic  barrows,  dolichocephalic  crania ;  brachytaphic  bar- 
rows, brachycephalic  crania.*' — (P.  158.) 

I  shall  now  give  the  description  of  the  remains  in  the  words 
of  Mr.  W.  Shipp. 

SKULLS   FOUND   IN   TUMULI   IN  THE   NEIGHBOURHOOD   OF 

BLANDFORD. 

No.  1 . — "  From  a  barrow  in  the  parish  of  Whitechurch.  The 
skeleton,  with  that  of  a  child,  was  lying  about  two  feet  below 
the  vegetable  covering,  and  evidently  of  a  later  date  than  the 
construction  of  the  barrow  itself.'* 

No.  2. — ''Prom  a  barrow  at  Winterbome,  Kingston.  At 
its  feet  was  a  coarse  British  urn  fillod  with  burnt  bones.  On 
the  floor,  on  a  cist,  was  another  skeleton  (No.  3),  with  a  large 
deposit  of  burnt  bones  by  its  right  side." 

No.  4  and  5. — "  From  a  barrow  on  Kingston  Down,  in  which 
were  seven  skeletons  lying  side  by  side ;  but  no  um,  or  any 
trace  of  cremation.'^ 

No.  6  and  7. — "  From  a  barrow  in  the  vicinity  of  a  British 
camp  at  Burbury,  containing  two  rude  urns  and  several  deposits 
of  burnt  bones." 

No.  8. — "  This  skull  was  found,  with  upwards  of  one  hundred 
others,  on  the  east  side  of  a  British  camp  at  Spetisbury — cut 
through  for  the  Blandford  and  Wimbome  Railway.  With 
these  were  several  iron  swords,  bronze  fibuleD,  rings,  bono 
combs,  and  other  articles  of  Soman  manufacture.'^ 

No.  9. — "  From  a  barrow  on  Boke  Down,  in  which  were 
three  skeletons,  four  urns,  and  several  deposits  of  burnt 
bones." 

No.  10  and  11. — ''From  a  barrow  on  Bloxworth  Down,  in 
which  wore  six  skeletons,  placed  in  a  sitting  posture  on  the 

i2 


116 


BLAKE   ON   SKULLS   FfiOM   BOUND   BABBOWS. 


floor,  with  three  ums  contaming  several  becids,  bone  needles, 
etc.,  etc."* 

No.  12. — "From  a  barrow  on  Abbey  Croft  Down,  in  a  cist, 
on  the  floor,  with  a  rude  British  urn  at  its  head.'' 

I  now  proceed  to  give  the  measurements  of  these  skulls  : — 

MEASUBBMBHTS  OF  SKULLS  FROM  BLANDFO&D  BOUND  BABBOWS,  ABBANOBD 

IN  OBDBB  OF  BBLATIYB  BBBADTH. 


Mecisto- 
cephali. 


Meco- 

cephali. 

Subbrachy-  ) 

cephali.     j 

Eury-       ^ 
cephali.     ) 


No. 


8 

4 

5 
9 
7 
6 

3 
2 


10 
11 
12 


Localities. 


Spitsbory  British  Camp,  with  Bo- 
man  remains 
Kingston  Down  Barrow 


»»  ft  f» 

Bokedown  Barrow    ., 


Burbury 


»$ 
»»  »» 

Winterbome 


» 


»» 


»» 


Whitchurch     „      secondary  inter- 
ment; ...        ...        ...        ... 

Bloxworth  Down  Barrow ') 

„  „  „       >  fractured 

Abbey  Croft  Down     „      ) 


Average  Cephalic  Index 


• 

5 

J 

s. 

•J 

1 

Cepha 
Inde: 

204 

136 

•66 

194 

131 

•67 

194 

133 

•68 

192 

132 

•68 

196 

136 

•69 

192 

135 

•70 

182 

132 

•72 

178 

142 

•79 

174 

141 

•81 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•73 

When  these  skulls  are  carefully  measured,  it  appears  that 
the  ratio  of  breadth  is  much  smaller  than  in  the  average  skulls 
measured  by  Dr.  Thurnam.  Where  his  lowest  breadth  is  "74, 
the  lowest  breadth  of  the  Blandford  skull  is  '66,  Where  his 
highest  breadth  is  '87,  the  highest  breadth  of  the  Blandford 
skulls  is  '81 ;  the  average  being  in  each  case  respectively  '81 
and  -73. 

If  the  Blandford  skulls  (nine  in  number)  are  added  to  Dr. 
Thumam^s  table  of  twenty -five  skulls,  the  average  of  the  whole 
thirty-four  will  be  found  to  be  '77.  It  will  be  bomo  in  mind  that 
the  average  he  gives  for  his  skulls  from  long  barrows  is  '71. 


*  There  is  some  obvious  mistake  or  transposition  of  numbers  here,  inas- 
much as  the  frontal  bone,  marked  12,  has  undoubtedly  appertained  to  the 
same  individual  as  the  posterior  part  of  cranium  marked  11. 


BLAKE  ON  SKULLS  FROM  BOUND  BARROWS.        117 

The  distinction  between  an  average  of  *81  and  '77  must  strike 
all  observers :  and  many  may  consider  that  this  deduction  of 
4  per  cent,  may  invalidate  much  of  the  general  conclusions 
arrived  at  by  Dr.  Thumam. 

According  to  the  theoretical  assumption  conveyed  in  Dr. 
Thomam^s  statistics^  the  average  cephalic  index  of  nine  skulls 
from  the  round  barrows  ought  to  have  been  about  '80.  The 
precise  proportion  given  is  'SI.  But  the  fact  negatives  this 
a  priori  conception^  as  we  have  an  average  of  '73.  Furthermore, 
six  out  of  the  nine  skulls  appertain  to  that  group  of  skulls 
which  present  a  cephalic  index  of  below  "71,  and  which  Pro- 
fessor Huxley  has  termed  mecistocephalic,  a  term  highly  con* 
venient,  and  which  I  am  very  glad  to  adopt.  This  fact  is  very 
surprising,  as  it  shows  that  even  in  the  district  of  the  Dobuni, 
where  long-headed  individuals  have  been  discovered  and  de- 
scribed in  Davis  and  Thumam's  Crania  Britannica,  we  have  an 
extremely  long-headed  population  whose  remains  are  found 
in  the  short  barrows.  Furthermore,  while  the  longest  skull 
given  by  Dr.  Thumam  from  his  long  barrows  (West  Kennet, 
pi.  50,  Cran.  Brit)  has  a  cephalic  index  of  *67,  this  index  is 
equalled  by  the  skull  from  the  Kingston  Down  short  barrow, 
also  affording  an  index  of  '67. 

The  skull  No.  8  from  the  British  camp  at  Spitsbury,  asso- 
ciated with  iron  remains  and  articles  of  Boman  manufacture, 
although  not  found  in  a  barrow,  must  be  included  in  the  pre- 
sent comparison.  If  its  measurements  are  carefully  compared 
with  those  of  the  two  skulls  from  Kingston  Down,  no  person 
will  be  able  to  doubt  that  they  appertained  to  the  same  race. 

I  have  also  included  the  skull  1  in  the  present  comparison. 
It  is  probably  of  later  date  than  the  barrow  itself :  being  brachy- 
cephaUc,  or,  more  strictly  speaking,  "  eurycephalic  *'  (Huxley) . 
A  strict  logical  necessity  may,  however,  lead  to  the  exclusion 
of  this  skull  from  the  average. 

Let  us,  therefore,  exclude  the  skulls  Nos.  1  and  8  from  the 
comparison.  The  following  will  be  the  results,  and  they  are 
very  startling : — 

That  the  seven  skulls  from  the  Blandford  round  barrows 
afford  a  lower  cephahc  index  than  the  twenty-five  skulls  mea- 


118  BLAKE   ON    SKULLS   FROM   BOUND   BABBOWS. 

sured  by  Dr.  Thumam  from  his  dolichocephalic  ban'ows,  the 
figures  being  '70  and  '71  respectively. 

If  I  were  inclined  to  base  any  conclusion  on  these  figures, 
we  might  reverse  Dr.  Thumam^s  ''  axiom/^  and  say,  "  long 
barrows,  long  skulls;  round  barrows,  long  skulls  too,  and 
sometimes  longer,'' 

The  researches  of  Dr.  Beddoe  on  the  head-forms  of  the  West 
of  England  have  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  skulls  of  the 
people  of  the  West  of  England  are  decidedly  dolichocephalic. 
His  lowest  index  given  was  '76,  and  this  was  derived  from  the 
observations  derived  from  the  inspection  of  forty  natives  of 
north-western  Wiltshire.  But  the  natives  of  Dorsetshire  at 
the  time  of  the  erection  of  the  round  barrows,  appear  to  have 
been  far  more  dolichocephalic.  The  type  of  Irish  skull  is  also 
stated  to  be  long.  Dr.  Beddoe  gives  it  in  Munster  as  '76. 
Dr.  Barnard  Davis  gives  it  in  Kerry  as  '77.  Professor  Huxley 
states  that  ^'  the  ancient  Irish  skuU  was  predominantly  dolicho- 
cephalic, more  so  than  even  the  ancient  Scotch  skull  -/'  giving 
as  examples,  the  Blackwater  skuU  (c.  i.  *79)  and  the  Borris 
skull  (c.  i,  *737).  Dr.  Beddoe  states  that  ^^the  ancient  Irish 
skulls,  as  well  as  the  mediaeval  and  modem  ones,  are  long ;  the 
four  in  the  catalogue  in  the  Crania  Britannica  average  '762, 
and  the  two  in  the  Museum  at  Kilkenny  the  same  modulus  to 
a  fraction.^'  But  the  skulls  from  Blandford  are,  indeed,  ipsis 
Hibeniiis  Hibemior,  as  they  afford  a  less  cranial  index  than  any 
of  the  above  cited  crania.  However,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
the  resemblance  between  the  skulls  from  the  long  barrows,  as 
well  as  those  from  the  round  barrows  now  before  us,  and  the 
."  River-bed  skulls  "  of  Professor  Huxley,  is  very  great.  He 
was  led  to  conclude : — 

"  As  the  evidence  stands  at  present,  I  am  fuUy  disposed  to 
identify  the  ancient  population  of  Ireland  with  the  long  barrow 
and  '  river-bed '  elements  of  the  population  of  England,  and 
with  the  long-headed,  or  '  cumbecephalic,'  inhabitants  of  Scot- 
land j  and  to  believe  that  the  round  barrow,  or  '  Belgic,^  ele- 
ment of  the  Britannic  people  never  colonised  Ireland  in  suffi- 
cient numbers  to  make  its  presence  ethnically  felt.'* 

The  description  of  these  skulls  may  follow  at  another  time. 


BLA.KE   ON   SKULLS   FBOM   BOUND   BABBOWS.  119 

I  have  only  now  to  deal  with  their  moduli.  I  may  notice  that 
in  the  general  contour  they  agree  closely  with  the  long-headed 
type  of  skull  termed  "  Apostle  skuU/^  by  Professor  Carl  Vogt. 
One  of  these^  found  at  Biel^  is  in  the  Museum  at  Berne.  Its 
cephalic  index  is  '70.  They  also  agree  with  the  Hohberg- 
types  of  Messrs.  Butimeyer  and  His^  especially  with  such  a 
skull  as  that  figured  c.  u  from  Hohberg^  whose  index  is  *69. 
The  average  breadth  of  skulls  in  the  Hohberg  type  my  readers 
will  recollect  to  be  '707. 

The  conclusions  I  would  desire  at  present  to  draw  are  the 
following : — 

1.  That  the  state  of  materials  at  our  disposal  precludes  any 
generalisation  as  to  the  prevalence  of  a  brachycephalic  type  of 
skull  in  the  round  barrows  of  the  South  of  England. 

2.  That  a  much  larger  series  of  skulls  from  the  rounds  as 
well  as  from  the  long  barrows^  must  be  measured  before  we 
can  arrive  at  any  conclusion  as  to  the  cranial  modulus. 


120 


VII. — On  the  Gypsies  of  Bengal.  By  Babu  Rajenprala^la 
MiTRA,  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  London^  Hon,  Member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  of  Gh-eat  Britain  and  Ireland,  Corresponding 
Member  of  the  German  and  the  American  Oriental  So- 
cieties, etc. 

The  belief  in  Europe  is  general  that  the  gypsies  are  of  Asiatic 
origin.  GTrellmann,  in  his  Dissertation  on  tlie  Gypsies  of  Europe, 
supposed  India  to  be  the  birthplace  of  that  wandering  race, 
and  Hoyland's  Historical  Survey  of  the  Gypsies  fully  supports 
that  opinion.  Borrow,  in  his  Gypsies  in  Spain,  adopts  the 
opinion  of  Grellmann,  and  he  has  been  most  ably  seconded  by 
Colonel  Hariot  in  his  Observations  on  the  Oriental  Origin  of  the 
Romnichal  Tribe.  Owing,  however,  to  their  vagrancy  and  ex- 
treme reluctance  to  mix  with  the  settled  inhabitants  of  any 
country,  the  history  of  the  gypsies  has  been  most  imperfectly 
studied ;  and  there  is  no  work  that  we  know  of  in  which  their 
origin  has  been  indisputably  traced  to  any  particular  locality, 
or  any  satisfactory  account  of  the  when  and  how  they  dis- 
persed from  the  scene  of  their  original  habitation.  An  idea 
was  once  prevalent  that  the  atrocities  of  Timur's  invasion  of 
India  drove  out  large  bodies  of  the  people  over  different  coun- 
tries, and  that  they  constituted  the  patriarchs  of  the  gypsy  race. 
But  Arab  Shah,  in  his  biography  of  Timur,  has  shown  that 
gjrpsies  lived  in  Samarcand  long  before  Timur's  invasion,  and 
that  they  were  at  one  time  massacred  to  the  extent  of  several 
thousands  to  relieve  that  tyrant  of  internecine  disturbances, 
and  several  centuries  before  that  Ferdusi  sang  of  a  band  of 
gypsies  who  had  come  to  Persia  at  the  request  of  Behram 
Gur  to  entertain  his  people  with  the  music  of  the  lute.  The 
men  were  called  "  luri,"  and  the  gypsies  in  that  country  are  to 
this  day  known  by  that  name.  Foroliviensis  observes  that,  on 
the  4th  August,  1422,  two  hundred  of  the  Cingari  came  to  his 
native  town,  on  their  way  to  Rome,  and  some  of  them  said 


HITRA   ON    THE   OTPSIES   OF   BENGAL.  121 

that  they  were  from  India:  "  et  ut  audire  alique  dicebant,  quod 
erant  in  India/'  Munster  corroborates  this  account  from  the 
information  he  gathered  of  one  of  the  Cingari  in  a.d.  1524^ 
"  when^  also^  an  impression  existed  among  them  of  their  hav- 
ing come  from  that  country/'  These  evidences  do  not,  how- 
ever, go  far  enough ;  and  the  proofs  regarding  the  original 
dispersion  of  the  gypsies  from  India,  and  their  existence  in 
this  country  in  the  present  day,  must  depend  exclusively  upon 
the  peculiarities  of  their  language,  customs,  habits,  and  phy- 
sical characters, — data  which,  owing  to  climatic  and  other  in- 
fluences, must  always  be  to  some  extent  inconclusive. 

The  name  by  which  the  gypsies  proclaim  themselves  is 
Ttommichalf  or,  ''  wandering  man'',  but  the  word  is  used  by 
themselves  only,  and  is  unknown  to  the  people  among  whom 
they  live.  The  word  ''  gypsy"  is  a  corruption  of  Egyptian, 
and  is  not  known  beyond  the  local  limits  of  England.  In 
Scotland  they  are  called  "tinklers".  In  France,  they  are 
known  as  "  Bohemians",  from  the  circumstance  of  their  having 
come  there  on  their  expulsion  from  Bohemia,  and  consequently 
it  is  not  to  be  met  with  elsewhere.  The  Spanish  name  gitana^ 
which  was  used  to  indicate  the  crafty  character  of  the  people, 
and  the  Italian,  Wallachian,  are  also  local.  The  Bohemian 
name  zingaro,  and  its  German  congener  zigeumer^  with  its 
Portuguese  corruption,  cigano,  appear  among  the  Turks  as 
zingariy  zigani,  zingani,  and  chinganeh.  From  Turkey  the 
word  has  been  traced  to  Persia,  and  thence  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Indus,  in  Beloochistan,  where  Pottinger  noticed  a  tribe 
named  Tchingani,  who  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  gyp- 
sies in  many  of  their  peculiar  customs.  It  is  said  that  when 
Sultan  Selim  conquered  Egypt,  the  inhabitants  rose  against 
him  under  the  leadership  of  one  Zinganeus;  but  being  de- 
feated and  banished  the  kingdom,  they  dispersed,  in  numerous 
small  parties,  over  difierent  countries,  where  they  became 
known  by  the  name  of  their  leader.  This  opinion,  however, 
involves  an  anachronism  of  more  than  a  hundred  years ;  foi' 
while  Sultan  Selim's  conquest  is  dated  1517,  there  is  undoubted 
evidence  to  show  that  the  Zingaris  appeared  in  Europe  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.     Sir  Thomas  Browne  fixed 


122  MITBA.  ON   THB   GYPSIES   OF  BENQAX. 

the  date  of  their  appearance  in  Germany  at  a.d.  1400,  but 
Munster  and  Spilman  changed  it  to  1417.  In  Switzerland  and 
Italy  they  were  noticed  in  1422,  and  in  France  in  1427. 

In  India,  the  word  Zmga/ro  does  nowhere  occur ;  but  it  is 
curious  to  observe  that,  in  Sweden,  the  gypsies  were  once 
known  by  the  name  of  tottors,  and  in  the  duchy  of  Holstein 
they  are  to  this  day  called  either  zihhoinera  or  tottors,  while  in 
different  parts  of  Denmark  their  usual  name  is  totters.  Now, 
these  Tarters,  Tatters,  or  Taters  (AnglioS,  Tartars),  or  some  of 
them  were,  before  the  time  of  Zinghis  E[han,  known  by  the 
name  of  "  bede^^,  a  word  which,  in  India,  is  with  slight  dia- 
lectic yariations,  applied  to  a  race  of  vagrants  whose  habits 
and  customs,  as  far  as  known,  point  to  their  having  proceeded 
from  the  same  stock  to  which  the  gypsies  owe  their  origin. 
Bishop  Heber  noticed  these  people  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges  and  in  Ceylon,  and  believed  them  to  have  a  close  re- 
semblance to  the  zingaroes  of  Persia  and  Europe.  Abb^  Du- 
bois observed  them  in  Southern  India,  where  they  are  known 
under  the  names  of  weddahs,  nuts,  ruraver,  sdmbddi,  ruruneru, 
and  sikdter.  The  Bunjaras  of  Central  India  have  been  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  a  race  of  gypsies.  So  are  the  Konjis 
and  Dombarus ;  and  Mr.  Stevenson  describes  a  people  in  Dek- 
han  who  bear  a  strong  likeness  to  the  vagrants  of  Europe. 
He  says,  "  the  shadgdrshids  (for  that  is  the  name  by  which 
those  people  are  known)  are  a  tribe  of  jugglers  and  fortune- 
tellers who  wander  about  the  Dekhan,  and  probably  other 
parts  of  the  country,  where,  however,  they  are  not  known  by 
name,  but  generally,  we  believe,  by  that  of  "gorode^' 
(juggler),  which  is  the  denomination  of  the  caste  in  the 
Vijndneswara  Sdstra.  The  Kam&taka  term  of  *'  shudg&rshid^' 
is  derived  from  shudgdr  (a  burning  or  burial  ground),  and  shid 
(proficient,  ready),  it  being  their  habit  to  prowl  about  these 
places  to  collect  certain  pieces  of  human  bone  with  which  they 
are  supposed  to  work  charms  and  incantations.  The  tribe  is 
looked  upon  with  much  awe  and  detestation ;  and  the  fear  of 
exciting  the  wrath  of  any  of  its  members,  generally  secures  a 
ready  compliance  with  their  demands  for  charity.  On  this, 
however,  they  do  not  place  their  only  reliance ;  they  are  no- 


MITRA   ON   THS   OTPSIES   OF   BENGAL.  128 

torioos  for  kidnapping  children,  and  also  for  an  abominable 
traffic,  consisting  in  the  sale  of  sinews  extracted  from  the 
breasts,  the  wrists,  and  the  ankles  of  females.  These  are  sup- 
posed to  be  preservative  charms  from  all  evils ;  bat  in  order 
that  they  may  possess  this  virtue  to  the  full  extent,  they  must 
be  taken  from  the  person  of  a  woman  who  has  been  very  lately 
delivered.  The  caste  of  Shudgdrshid  is  said  to  have  sprung 
from  the  union  of  a  woman  of  the  Patr&wat  (stone-cutter) 
tribe  and  of  a  Kida  or  Kaber  (boatman).  Kabir  Rishi,  the 
author  or  compiler  of  one  of  the  Velas,  taught  the  art  of  magic 
to  some  of  the  first  of  this  race,  who  have  now  lost  the  greater 
part  of  their  original  skill.  The  deity,  which  they  conceive 
chiefly  entitled  to  their  worship,  is  the  goddess  Chowdhi 
(Chandi  ?),  whose  principal  shrine  is  in  Malabar,  where,  we 
understcuad,  the  caste  is  most  numerous.  North  of  the  Krishna 
they  worship  Rdm&stick,  a  goddess  whose  chief  pagoda  is  in 
£und£hdr.^^  The  fondness  for  extracting  sinews  frx)m  dead 
bodies  is  evidently  a  local  peculiarity,  and  has  not  been  found 
in  any  other  branch  of  the  gypsy  race.  Mr.  Stevenson  does 
not  notice  the  Weddahs ;  but  his  description  leaves  no  doubt 
that  his  Shidg&rshids  are  a  detachment  of  that  tribe. 

The  Weddahs  are  represented  in  Ceylon  by  a  race  called 
Veddahs.  Bishop  Heber,  as  has  been  before  said,  called  them 
a  tribe  of  gypsies  j  but  in  the  detailed  account  of  Sir  Emerson 
Tennent,  there  is  nothing  to  waiTant  this  belief.  He  says  they 
are  the  remnants  of  the  aborigines,  but  characterised  by  no- 
thing of  vagrancy,  fortune-telling,  and  other  peculiarities  of 
the  gypsies. 

In  Bengal,  the  counterpart  of  the  Weddahs  are  met  in  a 
tribe  of  men  called  Bediyds.  Their  physical  characters  are  not 
much  difierent  from  the  people  among  whom  they  live,  and  yet 
there  are  certain  peculiarities  in  their  make  which  show  them 
to  be  distinct  from  the  Bengalies.  Whether  it  be  owing  to 
the  wandering  life  they  lead,  or  the  ethnic  peculiarity  of  their 
race,  we  do  not  know ;  but  the  fact  is  certain  that  the  Bediy&s 
show  no  tendency  to  obesity,  and  are  noted  for  a  light,  elastic, 
wiry  make,  very  uncommon  in  the  people  of  this  country.  In 
agility  and  hardihood  they  stand  unrivalled.     The  men  are  of 


124  MITRA  ON   THE   OTPSIES   OF   BENOAL. 

a  brownish  colour,  like  the  bulk  of  Bengalies,  but  never  black. 
The  women  are  of  a  lighter  complexion,  and  generally  well 
formed, — some  of  them  have  considerable  claims  to  beauty;  and 
for  a  race  so  rude  and  primitive  in  their  habits  as  the  Bediy&s 
are,  there  is  a  sharpness  in  the  features  of  their  women,  which 
we  see  in  no  other  aboriginal  race  in  India.  Like  the  gypsies 
of  Europe,  they  are  noted  for  the  symmetry  of  their  limbs ; 
but  their  offensive  habits,  dirty  clothing,  and  filthy  professions, 
give  them  a  repulsive  appearance,  which  is  heightened  by  the 
reputation  they  have  of  kidnapping  children,  and  frequenting 
burial  grounds  and  places  of  cremation.  Their  eyes  and  hair 
are  always  black,  but  their  stature  varies  very  much  in  different 
individuals.  But  as  there  are  now  many  men  in  Bengal  who 
have  been  driven  by  poverty  to  take  to  the  professions  of 
the  Bediy&s,  without  being  of  that  caste,  it  is  unsafe  to  draw 
any  deduction  from  limited  experience;  a  great  number  of 
men  who  profess  to  be  Bediy&s,  but  who  turn  out,  on  cross  ex- 
amination, to  be  either  outcasts,  or  descendants  of  outcasts, 
who,  for  want  of  better,  have  adopted  the  profession  of  the 
Bediyds.  Some  of  them  called  themselves  Mdls,  and  live  by 
snake-catching  and  sale  of  herbs.  These,  as  well  as  other 
pseudo-Bediyds,  have  none  of  the  physical  peculiarities  of  their 
namesake,  and  are  generally  of  a  black  complexion.  Though 
popularly  known  as  Bediyds,  they  keep  distinct,  and  are  never 
allowed  to  mix  and  intermarry  with  the  true  Bediyd.  In  this 
they  differ  from  the  European  gypsies  who,  according  to  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  have  mixed  largely  with  vagrants  of  European 
descent. 

The  true  Bediyd  does  not  often  build  a  permanent  house, 
and  seldom  takes  to  agriculture.  Like  the  gypsy,  he  leads 
a  roaming  life,  and  is  content  with  whatever  accommodation 
he  can  get.  When  travelling  in  bodies,  the  Bediyds  carry 
with  them  a  few  beasts  of  burthen,  generally  country  tatoos 
or  bullocks,  frequently  the  former,  but  never  or  seldom  don- 
keys. The  place  of  their  encampment  is  the  outskirts  of  a 
village,  and  there  they  put  up,  with  the  mats  and  sticks,  a 
few  miserable  little  wigwams,  in  which  men,  women,  and 
children  huddle  together,  with  little  attention  to  ease  or  con- 


MIT&A  ON   THE   OTPSIES   OP   BENGAL.  125 

yenience.  In  some  parts  of  the  Burdwan  and  Baraset  districts 
in  Bengal^  the  Bediyds  have  permanent  hnts^  like  those  of  the 
native  peasantry.  They  are  frequently  forsaken^  and  are  put 
up  only  to  evade  the  persecution  of  poUce  officers.  In  Baraset^ 
some  few  take  land^  ostensibly  for  agricultural  purposes^  but 
really  to  represent  to  police  authorities  that  they  are  fixed  in- 
habitants of  a  place^  usefully  employed^  and  not  hable  to  be 
taken  up  as  vagrants.  The  land  in  question  is  tilled  by  hired 
labour,  and  bears  no  proportion  to  the  number  of  people  for 
whose  benefit  it  is  sown.  It  is  generally  situated  at  a  great 
distance  from  the  fields  of  the  Bengali  ryot. 

The  dress  of  the  Bediy&s  assimilates  generally  with  that  of 
the  people  among  whom  they  live.  The  Nuts  have  party- 
coloured  cloths  hanging  from  different  parts  of  their  body,  and 
jugglers  sometimes  put  on  some  outlandish  garment  or  other ; 
but  the  great  bulk  dress  very  much  in  the  same  way  as  the 
natives  of  the  country.  This  adaptation  of  the  dress  to  the 
customs  of  a  country,  is  the  characteristic  of  the  gypsy  eveiy- 
where. 

One  marked  peculiarity  of  the  European  gypsy  is  his  cook- 
ing-pot, which  is  invariably  made  of  iron,  and  hung  from  three 
posts,  with  a  fire  underneath.  The  Bediyd  has  no  such  utensil ; 
his  pipkin  is  the  common  kidgree-pot  of  the  country,  used  over 
three  bricks  or  clods  of  earth,  and  sometimes  over  a  native 
hearth,  or  chuhi.  The  cooking,  however,  is  made  in  common, 
and  men,  women,  and  children  all  eat  together  promiscuously, 
except  when  placed  among  Bengalis,  when  the  women  eat 
separately. 

The  gypsies  are  not  noted  for  the  choice  of  their  fare ;  the 
the  Bediyas  are  even  less  so.  More  omnivorous  than  crows, 
they  eat  whatever  they  can  get,  and  nothing  comes  amiss  to 
them,  whether  it  be  a  rotten  jackal  or  a  piece  of  veal,  beef,  or 
mutton.  Familiar  with  the  use  of  bow  and  aiTOWS,  and  great 
adepts  in  laying  snares  and  traps,  they  are  seldom  without 
large  supplies  of  game,  and  the  flesh  of  wild  animals  of  all 
kinds.  A  variety  of  birds  they  keep  dried  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses ;  and  mongooses,  squirrels,  and  flying  foxes,  they  seek 
with  avidity,  as  articles  of  luxury.     Spirituous  liquors  and  in- 


126  MITBA   ON    THE    QTPSIES   OF    BENGAL. 

toxicating  drags  are  indulged  in  to  a  large  extent ;  and  chiefs 
of  clans  assume  the  title  of  bhang y,  or  '^  drinkers  of  bhang'' 
(Indian  hemp),  pa/r  excellence,  as  a  mark  of  honour. 

In  Spain,  and  also  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania,  some 
gypsies  follow  trades,  and  become  innkeepers,  farriers,  and 
dealers  in  horses,  smiths,  nail-makers,  tinkers,  and  menders  of 
old  pots  and  kettles,  while  some  have  become  soldiers  and 
sailors;  but  those  are  not  their  national  professions.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  gypsies  in  Europe  are  jugglers,  tumblers, 
thieves,  hunters,  weavers  of  wicker  baskets,  makers  of  wooden 
platters  and  spoons,  and  vagabonds  of  all  work ;  the  women 
being  employed  in  early  life  in  rope-dancing  and  legerdemain, 
and  subsequently  in  fortune-telling  and  chiromancy,  in  inter- 
preting dreams,  selling  herbs  and  charms,  and  pilfering  what- 
ever  comes  in  the  way.  The  Bediyd  in  Bengal  is  ignorant  of 
none  of  these  professions.  In  lying,  thieving,  and  knavery  he 
is  not  a  whit  inferior  to  his  brother  of  Europe,  and  he  prac- 
tises everything  that  enables  him  to  pass  an  easy  idle  life, 
without  submitting  to  any  law  of  civilised  government,  or  the 
amenities  of  social  life.  Hence  the  Bengal  proverb,  Bede 
rujdrd  rdyot  nahi  sddhuro  khdtak  nahi,  *'  The  BediyA  is  neither 
the  subject  of  a  king,  nor  the  debtor  of  a  capitalist.'' 

When  in  the  neighbourhood  of  towns  or  villages,  the  BediyA 
earns  his  livelihood  by  thieving,  exposing  dancing-monkeys, 
bears,  and  serpents,  retailing  herbs,  weaving  baskets,  and  sell- 
ing birds,  squirrels,  sheep,  goats,  and  mungooses.  When 
away  from  the  habitation  of  civilised  man,  he  is  a  hunter  of 
jackals  and  foxes,  a  bird-catcher,  a  collector  of  herbs  and 
simples.  The  Luri  of  Persia  and  the  Multani  of  Cabul  keep 
bears  and  monkeys,  and  all  three  are  attended  by  wild,  half- 
savage  dogs,  as  are  the  Bnnj&ras  of  central  India  and  the 
gypsies  of  Europe. 

The  female  Bediyd  or  Bediy&ni  is  the  very  counterpart  of 
her  European  sister.  She  roams  about  in  towns  and  villages, 
with  a  small  bundle  on  her  head,  which  contains  an  unfailing 
charm  for  every  complaint  of  the  body  or  the  mind,  for  which 
she  may  be  consulted.  Is  a  child  ill  of  infantile  convulsions  ? 
the  cause  is  the  devil,  and  none  can  oxorcise  better  than  a 


MIT&A  ON   THE   QTPSIES   OF   BENGAL.  127 

Bediydni.  If  a  villag0*girl  has  found  her  lover  or  husband 
untrue^  none  can  give  a  more  potent  philter  to  restore  lost 
afifection  than  the  woman  with  her  bundle  of  simples.  To  cal- 
culate the  return  of  absent  lovers,  or  ascertain  the  sex  of  in- 
cipient pledges  of  love,  she  goes  a-head  of  the  professed 
astrologer.  Palmistry  is  her  special  vocation;  and  cupping 
with  buffalo-homs,  and  administering  moxas  and  drugs  for 
spleen  and  rheumatism,  take  a  great  portion  of  her  time.  She 
has  a  peculiar  charm  for  extracting  maggots  from  the  root  of 
carious  teeth.  When  a  boy,  the  writer  of  this  note  was  sub- 
ject to  irritation  and  swelling  of  the  gums  from  carious  teeth, 
and  for  it  the  affection  of  a  fond  mother,  and  the  general 
ignorance  of  the  healing  art  at  that  time,  suggested  no  better 
remedy  than  the  mantra  of  the  village  Bediy^.  On  three 
different  occasions  we  had  to  submit  to  her,  and  thrice  she 
charmed  out  small  communities  of  little  maggots  by  dint  of 
repeating  a  variety  of  most  indecent  verses.  She  used  to 
apply  a  tube  of  straw  to  the  root  of  the  carious  tooth,  and 
every  now  and  then  bring  out  a  maggot  in  its  barrel.  Once 
spun  cotton  was  used  instead  of  straw,  but  with  no  diminution 
of  success.  The  operation  was,  no  doubt,  a  deception,  but 
the  relief  felt  was  unmistakable  and  permanent. 

The  feeling  of  admiration  for  little  black  moles  on  a  fair  face 
is  an  oriental  peculiarity.  In  India,  it  is  as  strong  as  it  was  in 
Hafiz,  who  offered  to  give  away  both  Samarcand  and  Bokhara 
for  a  single  mole  on  the  face  of  his  beloved.  The  usual  mode 
of  producing  it  is  by  tattooing, — an  art  unknown  to  all  in 
Bengal,  except  the  Bediydnis.  For  this  purpose  they  roam 
about  in  villages,  during  the  cold  weather,  proclaiming  their 
profession  and  inviting  customers.  Young  girls  are  their 
principal  patrons,  and  they  generally  get  themselves  tattooed 
between  the  eyebrows  or  below  the  under  lip.  Sometimes  the 
breasts  and  the  forearms  are  also  subjected  to  the  operation, 
which  consists  in  introducing  under  the  epidermis,  with  the 
point  of  a  needle,  the  juice  of  a  plant,  which  soon  dries  into 
an  indelible  black  spot.  An  imitation  is  sometimes  produced 
by  unprofessional  village  boys  by  the  use  of  writing  ink ;  but 
the  marks  in  such  cases  are  badly  formed,  and  soon  change  to 


128  MITRA   ON   THE   0TPSIE8   OF   BENGAL, 

a  pale  blue  of  no  beauty.  The  process  is  called  ulH  or  goddni 
in  Bengal.  At  home^  the  occupation  of  the  Bediy&nl  is  weav- 
ing mats  of  palm-leaves^  cooking  being  the  exclusive  duty  of 
her  lord. 

In  Europe  and  Persia^  the  gypsies  are  noted  for  some  talent 
in  music^  but  we  are  aware  of  no  such  trait  in  the  Bediy&  of 
this  country ;  and  although  the  Spanish  zincali  is  an  accom- 
plished danseuse,  her  Bengali  sister  has  no  other  claims  in  that 
respect  than  what  can  be  assumed  by  her  performances  on  the 
tight  and  the  slack  rope.  Capt.  Richardson's  notice  of  the 
Nuts  of  Bengal  contradicts  our  experience  in  this  matter.  Ac- 
cording to  it  the  Nuts^  who  are  only  a  division  of  the  Bediy&s^ 
are  great  proficients  both  in  music  and  dancing.  The  Bunj&r&s 
are  fond  of  music.  Ferdusi  makes  that  accomplishment  the 
cause  of  their  exodus  to  Persia ;  and  Jaye  Sing^  of  Canouge^ 
sings  of  the  Bardins^  (female  gypsies)  perfection  in  the  arts  of 
singing  and  dancing. 

Female  gypsies  are  obliged,  by  the  nature  of  their  profes- 
sion, constantly  to  expose  their  persons  to  public  gaze  in  the 
prime  of  their  youth,  and  to  habituate  themselves  to  a  great 
deal  of  indecency  and  intercourse  with  men;  still  they  are 
noted  for  their  fidelity  to  their  lords.  The  BediyA  woman  is, 
perhaps,  even  more  circumspect  in  this  respect  than  her  Euro- 
pean representative.  She  is  expected  to  return  home,  after  her 
day^s  peregrinations,  before  the  jackaPs  cry  is  heard  in  the 
evening,  and  in  defaidt  is  subjected  to  severe  punishment.  It 
is  said  that  a  fattx  pas  among  her  own  clansmen  is  not  held 
reprehensible,  but  we  have  no  means  of  giving  any  authorita- 
tive opinion  on  the  subject ;  certain  it  is  that  no  Bediy&ni  has 
ever  been  known  to  be  at  fault  with  anyone  not  of  her  own 
caste. 

Marked  morql  traits  are  not  to  be  expected  in  a  race  of  pro- 
fessed thieves ;  and  yet  the  Bediy&s  are  fond  husbands,  kind 
parents,  affectionate  children,  and  unswerving  friends.  At- 
tachment to  their  nationahty  is  extreme,  and  no  Bediy&  has 
ever  been  known  to  denounce  his  race.  Whenever  a  Bediyd 
is  apprehended  by  the  police,  his  clansmen  do  their  best  to 
release  him,  and  if  condemned  to  imprisonment  or  death,  they 
invariably  support  his  family. 


MITEA   ON   THE   GYPSIES   OP   BENGAL.  129 

Of  religious  ties  the  gypsy  has  few,  and  the  Bediyd  is  noted 
for  want  of  fixed  opinions  on  that  subject.  The  former  pro- 
fesses to  be  a  Christian  whenever  it  suits  his  convenience ;  and 
the  latter  is  by  turns  a  Hindu  or  a  Mussulman,  according  as 
he  is  in  the  midst  of  a  Hindu  or  a  Mohammedan  population. 
Some  are  deists ;  some  are  Kalier  panthis,  or  Sikhs ;  and  others 
assume  various  disguises,  as  Fakeers,  Jogees,  Durvishes,  San- 
tons,  etc.  Hence,  the  Bediya  has  earned  the  title  of  Panchpiri 
or  "  followers  of  many  (lit.  fine)  pirs,  or  saints.'^  He  does  not, 
however,  subject  himself  to  any  of  the  rites  of  the  religion  he 
professes.  His  dead  are  generally  buried ;  and  his  marriage 
contract  is  solemnised  over  country  arrack,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  priests,  the  only  essential  being  the  consent  of  the 
heads  of  his  clan.  Marriage  is  restricted  to  his  own  caste; 
but  kidnapped  children,  brought  up  in  his  camp,  are  not  pro- 
hibited. The  Bediy^  is  even  more  sparing  of  ceremony.  In 
reply  to  the  exhortation  of  the  bride's  relatives  to  treat 
her  kindly,  he  simply  declares  ''this  woman  is  my  wedded 
wife/'  marking  her  head  at  the  same  time  with  red  lead.  The 
bride  responds,  by  saying,  "  this  man  is  my  husband,^'  and 
returns  the  mark  on  his  forehead.  The  red  lead  is,  in 
Europe,  replaced  by  a  ring,  both  evidently  proceeding  from 
local  customs  unconnected  with  gypsy  peculiarity.  In  central 
India,  the  Benjares  are  strictly  forbidden  to  intermarry  in 
their  own  clans;  but  the  prohibition  does  not  extend  to  the 
Bediyds  of  Bengal,  among  whom  incestuous  marriages  are 
suspected  to  be  common. 

It  is  said  that  all  Bediyds,  whether  professing  Hinduism  or 
Mohammedanism,  worship  the  goddess  Kill.  This  is,  no  doubt, 
a  peculiarity  borrowed  from  the  Thugs,  by  whom  that  goddess 
is  supposed  to  be  the  patroness  of  rogues  and  thieves. 

The  Bediyds  never  appear  before  a  court  as  complainants, 
nor  do  the  gypsies.  They  are  both  under  the  control  of  chiefs 
who,  in  Europe,  have  the  title  of  "kings",  and  in  India, 
"  Sirdars'\  These  chiefs  are  invested  with  supremo  power, 
and  with  the  aid  of  councils,  or  "  panchdyets^',  they  administer 
justice,  and  manage  the  afiairs  of  the  difierent  clans.  Their 
decrees  are  final;  and  no  member  of  their  community  ever 

VOL.    III.  K 


130  MITRA   ON   THE   GYPSIES   OP   BENGAL. 

dreams  of  appealing  to  any  higher  authority.  Even  in  cases 
of  excommunication,  the  regard  to  the  interest  of  the  commu- 
nity is  suflBciently  strong  to  prevent  any  appeal  to  the  law 
courts  of  the  country.  The  punishments  inflicted  by  the  pan- 
chdyets  are  confined  to  fines,  and  stripes  with  a  shoe :  but  in 
extreme  cases,  expulsion  from  caste  is  had  recourse  to.  The 
proceeds  of  the  fines  are  devoted  to  the  entertainment  of  the 
commimity  with  spirituous  drinks,  a  small  percentage  being 
paid  to  the  chief  for  the  support  of  his  rank  and  consequence. 
His  rank  is  generally  hereditary ;  and  he  is  invested  with  au- 
thority over  his  clansmen  wherever  they  may  be  located.  The 
exercise  of  this  authority  is  seldom  found  to  be  impracticable, 
inasmuch  as  the  Bediyd,  though  habitually  a  vagrant,  still  has 
considerable  attachment  for  the  district  of  his  birth,  and  re- 
turns there  often  in  course  of  his  ramblings.  Subordinate 
to  the  chief,  there  are  a  number  of  leaders  to  whom  he  dele- 
gates his  authority,  for  the  government  of  his  subjects  at  a 
distance  from  his  head-quarters.  The  chiefs  of  the  Bunjaras 
attained  to  great  distinction  during  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe 
and  his  successors,  who  honoured  them  with  firmans  and  flags 
in  token  of  their  services  as  carriers  of  commissariat  supply. 
Bhikhd  was  the  first  who  distinguished  himself  in  this  way ; 
and  one  of  his  descendants,  Sarun  Bhungy,  established  rules 
for  the  government  of  the  race,  which  are  held  in  the  highest 
veneration  to  this  day.  We  know  of  no  such  code  among  the 
Bediyds,  nor  have  they  ever  made  themselves  in  any  way  use- 
ful to  civilised  man. 

As  a  nation  of  thieves,  the  Bediy&s  are  everywhere  perse- 
cuted, and  obliged  to  resort  to  the  most  tortuous  means  to 
preserve  themselves  from  utter  extermination.  In  all  cases  of 
dacoity,  they  are  the  first  to  be  seized,  and  their  name  alone 
suffices  to  ensure  their  conviction  in  most  instances.  Occasion- 
ally, an  active  magistrate,  or  darogah,  causes  their  expulsion 
from  one  district  to  another,  and  frequently  they  are  put  to 
great  annoyances  and  trouble.  Seven  years  ago,  a  magistrate 
of  Baraset  proposed  to  place  guards  over  a  whole  community 
of  Bediyfis,  with  a  view  not  to  allow  them  to  stir  out  of  their 
homes  at  night,  and  to  keep  them  under  sitrveillance  during 


MITBA   ON   THE    GYPSIES   OP   BENGAL.  131 

the  day.  A  few  years  before  that,  an  officer  m  Jessore  ex- 
pelled a  large  body  of  Bediyds  from  that  district.  A  police- 
officer  of  some  experience  once  assured  us  that — out  of  a  com- 
munity, it  is  supposed,  of  about  5,000 — at  least  500  Bediy&s 
are  annually  convicted  of  theft,  house-breaking,  and  dacoity, 
in  three  or  four  districts  of  Bengal.  This  would  imply  either 
extreme  persecution,  or  an  inordinate  devotion  to  thieving, — 
perhaps  both.  In  Europe,,  the  gypsies  do  not  at  all  differ  from 
the  Bediy&s  in  this  respect.  Since  their  entrance  into  that 
quarter  of  the  globe,  they  have  been  marked  out  for  general 
persecution  everywhere.  From  Bohemia  they  were  expelled 
soon  after  their  arrival  in  that  country,  and  from  France  in 
1 560.  In  Spain,  they  proved  a  perfect  nuisance  by  their  con- 
stant pilferings,  and  were  ordered  to  leave  the  country  in  1591 . 
In  England,  they  fared  no  better.  Act  22  Hen.  VIII,  c.  x, 
describes  them  as  '^  an  outlandish  people,  using  no  craft  or 
feat  of  merchandise,  and  living  by  thefts  or  robbories.^^  They 
are  accordingly  directed  to  leave  the  country,  under  pain  of 
imprisonment  and  forfeiture  of  property ;  and  in  trials  of  felony 
declared  not  entitled  to  a  jury  de  mediefate  linguce.  Subse- 
quently, in  the  reigns  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  the  rigors  of 
these  restrictions  were  greatly  increased ;  and  residence  for  a 
month  in  England  by  a  gypsy,  or  others  in  the  guise  of  gypsies, 
was  declared  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy.  These  laws 
were  carried  out  with  great  severity,  and  yet  they  seem  to 
have  produced  little  eflTect ;  and  the  gypsies  lived  on,  and  to 
this  day  live  as  do  the  BediyAs,  in  the  practice  of  their  nefarious 
callings,  without  any  perceptible  diminution  of  their  number. 

The  language  of  the  gypsy  has  been  proved  to  be  the  Hin- 
dustani, with  a  mixture  of  vocables  borrowed  from  the  people 
among  whom  they  happen  to  live,  and  partly  from  the  German 
and  the  Russian.  In  Bengal,  the  foreign  elements  are  replaced 
by  Bengali  and  Sanskrit,  but  the  language  is  not  used  in  the 
way  the  gypsies  use  it.  Hindustani  would  ill  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  a  secret  means  of  intercommunication  in  the  midst  of 
an  Indian  population.  The  Bediyds,  therefore,  have  transposed 
the  syllables  of  their  words,  and  prepared  a  kind  of  backslang, 
which,  without  much  changing  the  words,  renders  them  per- 

k2 


132 


MITRA   ON   THE   GYPSIES   OP    BENGAL. 


fectly  unintelligible  to  the  unitiated.  In  England,  the  back- 
slang  of  the  costermongers  offers  an  apt  parallel  to  this.  The 
main  principle  of  their  language,  as  that  of  the  Bediy&,  is  to 
spell  their  words  backwards,  or  rather,  pronounce  them  rudely 
backwards,  with  occasional  alterations,  additions,  and  subtrac- 
tions of  particles  and  syllables  for  the  sake  of  euphony,  and 
perhaps,  also,  with  a  view  to  add  to  their  mystery.  In  this 
way  the  costermongers  make  dlog  for  '^  gold" ;  doog  for 
*'  good  " ;  edgabac  for  ''  cabbage",  earth  si'th  no  um  for  ^'  three 
months'%  etc. ;  and  the  Bediy&s  have  their  ga  for  ag,  ''  fire" ; 
ragha  for  ghar,  ''house";  onk  for  Icon  ''who";  hdlam  for 
lamhdy  "long^';  noso  for  sona,  "gold";  lash  tu  for  tdldsh, 
"  search",  etc.  Besides  these,  they  have  a  great  number  of 
words  formed  by  modifying  vernacular  terms  without  reference 
to  any  fixed  rules.  These  they  make  use  of  sometimes  alone, 
and  sometimes  mixed  with  the  backslang,  in  their  intercourse 
with  their  own  people ;  but  they  are  particularly  careful  not  to 
let  out  their  knowledge  to  strangers. 

The  grammatical  construction  of  the  Bediyd  language  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Bengali.  In  a  like  manner,  the  gypsy 
language  in  Spain  is  governed  by  the  rules  of  the  Spanish 
grammar,  and  in  England  by  those  of  the  English.  For  in- 
tercourse with  their  neighbours,  the  Bediyks  study  the  verna- 
culars of  the  country,  and  sometimes  acquire  considerable 
talent  in  reading  and  writing. 


Englbb. 

Twilight 

TobcLCCO 

Shoe 

Fish 

Cloth 

House  of  brick 

Fire 

Come 

Sit 

Go 

Gone 

Taken 

Done 

Relation 

Police 
Sleep 


BEDIYA  VOCABULAEY. 

Bediy&. 

Bibit 

M&kta 

T^u 

Si-m-ti 

Chip  r& 

Jhot& 

Eaff  or  Ga 

A'^ 

B& 

Ja' 

Ga 

Li 

Ki 

Bba-o 

K\Uak  ko  kar& 
Sui 


Hindustani,  Bengali,  etc. 

Sh&m,  H. 
Tdzm&k,  B. 
Jut&,  B.,  H. 

Matsya,  b.,  Machobhi,  h. 
Eapr&,  H.,  Eapa  ra,  b. 
KoiightLTf  B. 
Ag,  H.,  Agan,  B. 
Ao,  H.,  Aiso,  B. 
Baitbo,  H.,  Balsa,  b. 
Jao,  H.,  B. 

Geva,  H.,  Giy&che,  b. 
Lia,  H.,  Li^chhe,  b. 
Ki&,  H.,  Kariachbe,  b. 
Bb&i,  B.,  Bbaia,  h.,  (for 
brotber) 

Sona,  u.,  Supta,  s. 


HITRA  ON   THE   OTPSIES   OF   BENOAL. 


133 


Engliali. 

B«diy&. 

Water 

Pani 

Ooat 

Bko,  kekkd 

Eight  anna  piece 

Eudnii 

Father 

Baro 

Light 

A  lo  ha  ti  re 

Cloud 

Me  &'gh& 

ViUage 

Datto 

Earthen  tobacco-cup 

Dhalki 

Darknesa 

Panda 

Moonlight 

Dhala 

Daylight 

Bama 

Puddle  or  clay 

Khira 

To  eat  and  drink  (carouse)  Fetan 

Wine  or  epitituoue  liquora  Nepho 

Crowbar    (for    breaking  Chiti 

throagh  a  wall) 

Oa  Sadar 

Torch  Pol 


Rire 

Demon 

DoU,  vetches 

* 

H4li 

Flesh 

Guli 

Rupee 

Falki 

Ornaments 

Xhila 

Woman 

BakH 

Man 

Bakra 

Knife 

Pandi 

To  lun  away 

Geme 

BattU 

Dhot 

Dog 

Nelya 

Thatched  house 

Khola 

Chowkidar 

Kokon 

To  cease  and  carry  away 

*San^i 

To  go  away  to 

a  foreign 

Chati 

counti-y 

Nikaform  of  marriage 

Kali 

HindosUni,  Bengali,  etc. 

Pani,  H. 

Chh&gal,  B,,  Bakr&t  h. 

Adali,  B. 

Bap,  B. 

A-lo,  B. 

Megha,  B. 

Ealika,  B.,  Ealki,  h. 
Andhera,  h.,    Andha 

kara,  b. 
Dhala,  b.,  dust-light  (as 

in  a  dust-storm) 
Basno,   b.,    (for  colour, 

implying  brightness) 
Khira,  b.,  (a  cast^rd,  or 

thickened  milk) 
Kh4o4  d4o&,  b. 
Sarab,  b.,  h. 
Sindh  kati,  B. 

Yel,  B.,  H. 

Mosala,  b.,  Ful,  b.,   u. 

(flowers) 
Bhat,  B.,  H. 
D&l,  B.,  H. 
Mas,  B. 
xaKa,  B«,  H* 
Gahana,  b.,  h. 
Stri,  B.,  H.,  Bateri,  h., 

(she-goat) 
Bakra,  h.  (goat) 
Cbhuri,  b.,  h. 
Goma  (Sanskrit,  to  go) 
Goru,  b. 
Kukar,  b. 

Kholarprhar,B.  (tiled  hut) 
Chowkid6r,  h. 
Sange,  b.  (in  company) 
Chati,  b.  (carayansai'y) 

Nika  (Persian) 


134 


VIII.  —  The   Psyclioloijical    Unity   of   Mankind.       By    C.    S. 

Wake,  F.A.S.L. 

Whateveb  decision  may  ultimately  be  arrived  at   as  to  the 
actual  origin  of  man,  the  unity  of  the  human  race  is  evident 
from  a  fact  which  has  hitherto  attracted  little  attention.     It  is 
a  familiar  idea,  and  one  which  appears  to  be  now  accepted  as  a 
truth,  that  "  mankind'^  (a  term  which,  in  this  relation,  has  pro- 
bably been  used  as  synonymous  with  the  Caucasian,  or  Indo- 
European,  race)  resembles  in  its  totality  an  individual  man, 
having,  like  him,  an  infancy,  a  childhood,  youth,  and  manhood. 
In  the  early  ages  of  the  world  man  was  in  his  infancy ;  and 
from  that  stage  he  has  progressed,  by  gradual  steps,  until  now 
he  may  be  said  to  have  attained — at  letist  in  peoples  of  the 
European  stock — to  a  vigorous  manhood.     That  such  a  devel- 
opment must  have  taken  place,  is  evident  from  the  considera- 
tion that,  when  we  speak  of  mankind  at  large,  we  can  only 
refer  to  the  whole  sum  of  individuals  of  which  it  is  composed, 
whose  progressive  improvement,  from  generation  to  generation, 
constitutes  the  development  of  human  civilisation.     The  fact, 
which  appears  to  have  hitherto  almost  escaped  attention,  is 
the  present  existence  of  various  families  of  mankind,  exhibit- 
ing every  stage  of  the  supposed  development.     Tt  is  evident 
that  if  this  can  be  established,  it  will  furnish  an  important  ar- 
gument in  favour  of  the  unity  of  mankind. 

That  a  comparison  may  be  made  between  the  intellectual 
phenomena  presented  by  the  several  great  divisions  of  the 
human  race,  and  those  exhibited  by  man  in  the  gradual  evolu- 
tion of  his  mental  faculties,  it  will  be  advisable  to  sketch  shortly 
the  several  stages  in  the  individual  man's  intellectual  progress. 
The  child,  for  some  time  after  birth,  is  simply  instinctive  in  its 
actions,  all  of  which  are  directed  towards  the  satisfaction  of  its 
own  physical  wants.  With  the  accumulation  of  experience, 
there  is  the  substitution  of  imitative  action  for  that  of  instinct; 
the  former,  however, .  although  it  is  necessarily  accompanied 


THE   PSYCHOLOGICAL   UNITY   OP   MANKIND.  135 

by  a  certain  amount  of  observation  having  relation  wholly  to 
self.  The  exercise  of  attention  is  accompanied  by  that  of  the 
will,  which  is  the  expression  of  the  activity  of  the  mind  in  re- 
lation to  external  objects.  Intimately  connected  with  this 
faculty  is  the  cruelty  so  noticeable  among  children^  and  which 
may  be  described  as  one  of  the  most  distinguishing  traits  of 
boyhood.  Up  to  this  point,  the  distinction  which  is  generally 
made  between  the  intellectual  and  the  emotional  faculties  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  shown  itself;  as  all  the  actions  of  the 
child-life  are  referable  to  the  instinctive  principle  in  different 
external  relations.  If  either  can  be  said  to  have  priority,  it 
must  be  asserted  that  the  intellectual  part  of  man's  nature  is 
the  first  to  be  developed,  aroused  by  the  observation  of  external 
objects.  After  the  age  of  puberty,  however,  the  emotional 
nature  becomes  more  active ;  and  we  see  the  result  in  the  pas- 
sionate life  which  marks  the  youthful  period  of  man's  existence. 
Nevertheless,  during  this  activity  of  the  passions,  the  intellect 
is  not  dormant.  Its  powers  are  gradually  unfolding ;  and  its 
activity  is  exhibited  in  that  simple  phase  of  the  imaginative 
faculty  which  may  be  described  as  the  empirical.  This  is  the 
phase  which  the  mind  exhibits  during  early  manhood.  As  the 
sphere  of  its  activity  is  enlarged,  however,  imagination  comes 
to  be  controlled  by  the  reflective  or  regulative  faculty ;  and 
when  reason  has  established  its  influence,  man  may  be  said  to 
have  attained  his  actual  manhood. 

From  this  sketch  of  man's  mental  development,  it  is  seen 
that  it  has  five  chief  stages,  which  may  be  described  as  the 
selfish,  the  wilful,  the  emotional,  the  empirical,  and  the  rational; 
these  several  phases  will  be  found  to  have  their  counterparts 
in  the  mental  condition  of  the  several  great  races  of  mankind. 
The  two  first  of  these  stages  have  much  in  common.  This  is 
necessarily  so,  as  they  display  but  little  mental  activity,  the 
difference  between  them  being  one  of  strength  of  will,  rather 
than  of  the  inner  qualities  which  reveal  themselves  through 
external  action.  We  shall  be  prepared,  therefore,  to  find  that 
those  peoples  who  are  in  the  first  and  second  stages  of  develop- 
ment exhibit  much  sameness  of  phenomena.  The  race  which 
answers  to  the  lowest  stage  of  man's  intellectual  progress,  is 


136  THE   PSYCHOLOGICAL    UNITY   OP    MANKIND. 

that  which  it  can  hardly  be  donbted  is  the  oldest  as  well  as  the 
most  uncivilised  of  the  races  of  mankind.  It  is  possible  that 
the  aborigines  of  the  Australian  continent  are  not  so  thoroughly 
degraded  as  is  generally  supposed ;  but  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  their  mental  condition  is  at  a  lower  level  than  that  of  any 
other  widespread  race.  The  Australian  native  certainly  dis- 
plays considerable  ingenuity  and  cunnings  and  no  small  degree 
of  skill  and  activity  in  war  and  the  chase.  A  late  writer  (Mr. 
Lang)  states,  that ''  everything  they  have  to  do,  they  do  in  the 
very  best  manner ;  and  I  have  observed,  that  for  every  con- 
tingency that  arises  they  have  some  simple  remedy.'^*  He 
says  further,  that "  they  appear  to  have  discovered  the  pro- 
perties of  every  article  fit  for  food  within  their  reach;  and 
have  the  power  of  distinguishing  between  the  useful  and  de- 
trimental portions  of  each.''  One  of  the  most  curious  facts 
connected  with  this  peculiar  people  is,  that  ''every  native 
knows  every  other  native,  with  whom  he  has  ever  come  in  con- 
tact, by  the  mark  of  his  foot,  as  surely  and  conclusively  as  the 
detective  officer  knows  every  thief,  of  his  acquaintance,  by  his 
face.''  Mr.  Lang  states,  moreover,  that  the  Australian  abori- 
gines have  a  considerable  knowledge  of  astronomy,  which  ex- 
tends so  far  as  the  dividing  ''  the  heavens  into  constellations, 
almost  identical  with  those  of  our  own  astronomers,  and  named 
after  various  animals."t  According  to  the  same  writer, ''  the 
highest  form  of  their  intelligence  is  exhibited  in  their  poetry 
and  corroborees, — regularly  composed  operas,  accompanied  by 
characteristic  music."  Notwithstanding  these  symptoms  of 
intelligence,  the  whole  mental  activity  of  the  Australian  native 
may  be  said  to  be  of  a  very  simple — almost  instinctive — kind  ; 
and  it  is  combined  with  moral  qualities — or  it  may  rather  be 
^xiAt^  M^'xth  an  absence  of  them — which  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the 
place  they  hp\d  in  the  scale  of  humanity.  The  writer  just  re- 
ft'rred  to,  wlio  is  far  from  being  prejudiced  against  them,  says, 
''  After  a  Ifcng  and  careful  study  of  the  aborigines,  I  cannot 
desci-ibe  itfas  anything  more  or  less  than  that  of  bloodthirsty 
savages,   f  go  far  as  the  men  are  concerned,  at  all  events,  I 


•  The  AbLngines  of  Australia,  by  Gideon  D.  Lang.  p.  30.         f  /Wt7.,  p.  21. 


THE   PSYCHOLOGICAL   UNITY   OF   MANKIND.  137 

cannot  remember  any  occasion  on  which  they  displayed  the 
faintest  spark  of  gratitude  or  generosity.  In  short,  their  dis- 
position is  one  of  unmitigated  selfishness.^'*  Pure  selfishness j 
then,  governed  by  no  idea  of  "  morality^',  is  the  ruling  prin- 
ciple of  the  lives  of  the  Australian  aborigines ;  and  we  see  in 
them  the ''  oldest'^  of  the  great  families  of  mankind. 

The  second  stage  of  mental  progress  is  the  wilful,  and  of 
this  the  aborigines  of  the  American   continent  furnish   the 
racial  example.     A  writer  in  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica  thus 
describes  the  mental  characteristics  of  this  people :  '^  The  in- 
tellectual faculties  of  this  great  family  appear  to  be  decidedly 
inferior,  when  compared  with  those  of  the  Caucasian  or  Mon- 
golian race.     The  Americans  are  not  only  averse  to  the  re- 
straints of  education,  but  are,  for  the  most  part,  incapable  of 
a  continued  process  of  reasoning  on  abstract  subjects.     Their 
minds  seize  with  avidity  on  simple  truths,  but  reject  whatever 
requires  investigation  or  analysis.     Their  proximity,  for  two 
centuries,  to  European  institutions,  has  made  scarcely  any  per- 
ceptible change  in  their  mode  of  thinking  or  their  manner  of 
life ;  and  as  to  their  own  social  condition,  they  are  probably  in 
most  respects  exactly  as  they  were  at  the  earliest  period  of 
their  national  existence.     They  have  made  few  or  no  improve- 
ments in  constructing  their  houses  or  their  boats ;  their  in- 
ventive and  imitative  faculties  appear  to  be  of  very  humble 
capacity,  nor  have  they  the   smallest  taste  for  the  arts  and 
sciences.^'     To  this  the  writer  adds,  when  speaking  of  the 
Alleghany  Indians,  that  they  have  furnished  examples  of  '^  a 
high  sense  of  honour,  according  to  their  perceptions  of  duty ; 
mutual  fidelity  among  individuals ;  a  fortitude  that  mocks  at 
the  most  cruel  torments ;  and  a  devotion  to  their  tribe  which 
makes  self-immolation  in  its  defence  easy.     On  the  other  hand, 
they  treat  their  wives  cruelly,  and  their  children  with  indiflTer- 
ence.     The  apathy,  under  the  good  and  ill  of  life,  which  the 
stoic  affected,  is  the  grand  element  of  the  Indian's  character. 
Gloomy,  stem,  and  severe,  he   is   a   stranger  to  mirth  and 
laughter.     All  outward  expression  of  pleasure  or  pain  he  re- 


•  The  Aborigines  oj  Aualralia,  p.  32. 


138  THE    PSYCHOLOGICAL   UNITY   OP   MANKIND. 

gards  aa  a  weakness ;  and  the  only  feeling  to  which  he  ever 
yields,  is  the  boisterous  joy  which  he  manifests  in  the  moment  of 
victory,  or  under  the  excitement  of  intoxication.  He  is  ca- 
pable of  great  exertions  in  war  or  the  chase,  but  has  an  un- 
conquerable aversion  to  regular  labour."  There  is  much  truth 
in  this  estimate  of  the  Indian  character ;  but  no  one  can  read 
Mr.  Catlings  graphic  description  of  North  American  Indian  life 
without  seeing  that  some  modification  of  that  estimate  is  ne- 
cessary. This  traveller  declares  the  current  idea  that  "  the 
Indian  is  a  sour,  morose,  reserved,  and  taciturn  man,''  to  be 
entirely  erroneous.  He  says  that,  on  the  contrary,  he  belongs 
to  ^^a  far  more  talkative  and  conversational  race  than  can 
easily  be  seen  in  the  civilised  world.  .  .  .  No  one  can  look 
into  the  wigwams  of  these  people,  or  into  any  little  momentary 
group  of  them,  without  being  at  once  struck  with  the  convic- 
tion that  small-talk,  gossip,  garrulity,  and  story-telling,  are 
the  leading  passions  with  them."*  Mr.  Catlin  adds,  that  ^^  they 
are  fond  of  fun  and  good  cheer,  and  can  laugh  easily  and 
heartily  at  a  small  joke, — of  which  their  peculiar  modes  of  life 
furnish  them  with  an  inexhaustible  fund,  and  enable  them  to 
cheer  their  little  circle  about  the  wigwam  fireside  with  endless 
laughter  and  garrulity." f  This  childish  mirth  is,  indeed,  quite 
consistent  with  the  intellectual  state  of  Mr.  Catlings  proteges. 
Although  ingenious  and  talented,  he  admits,  nevertheless,  that 
"  in  mechanic  arts  they  have  advanced  but  little,"  and  '^  in  the 
fine  arts  they  are,  perhaps,  still  more  rude,  and  their  produc- 
tions are  few."  When  to  this  is  added,  that  'Hhe  North 
American  Indian  is  everywhere,  in  his  native  state,  a  highly 
moral  and  religious  being,"  f  and  that  he  is  "  by  nature  decent 
and  modest,  unassuming,  and  inoffensive ;"  we  must  recognise 
the  conclusion,  drawn  by  Mr.  Catlin  from  these  premises,  that 
"  the  Indian's  mind  is  a  beautiful  blank  on  which  anything 
might  be  written," §  as  a  fair  one.  This  character  may  be 
thought  to  be  rather  too  highly  coloured ;  but  it  has  its  dark 
side  in  the  cruelty  which  Mr.  Catlin  admits  to  be  one  of  its 


•  Catlin's  North  American  Indians,  vol.  i,  p.  84.  f  Ibid,,  p.  85. 

X  Ibid,,  vol.  ii,  p.  243.  §  IHd.,  p.  245. 


THB   PSYCHOLOGICAL    UNITY   OF   MANKIND.  139 

leading  traits.  This  is  seen  more  especially  in  the  treatment 
of  prisoners  of  war,  and  in  connexion  with  certain  religious 
ceremonies.  This  trait  is,  however,  only  incidental  to  the 
more  general  characteristic  of  strength  of  vnll,  which  the 
North  American  Indian  so  peculiarly  exhibits.  This  is  seen  in 
his  endurance  under  hardship  and  suffering,  in  the  incidents 
connected  with  his  mode  of  warfare,  and  even  in  his  political 
independence,  which  is  almost  absolute. 

Now,  much  of  Mr.  Catlings  description  of  the  character  of 
the  North  American  Indian  is,  allowing  for  the  diflference  in 
the  conditions  of  their  existence,  perfectly  applicable  to  the 
character  of  the  civilised  man  in  the  boyish  stage,  when  his 
passions  are  not  yet  fully  developed.     At  this  stage  the  will 
— guided  in  its  operation  by  the  mind,  becomes  active,  within  a 
limited  range,  in  relation  to  external  objects,  as  distinguished 
from  the  mere  selfishness  of  the  child — has  the  chief  sway 
over  man's  conduct.     This  phase  of  mental  activity  has,  how- 
ever,  much  in  common  with  that  which  precedes  it.     The  sel- 
fish  nature  is  predominant  in  both  of  them  j  but  in  the  one 
case  its  action  is  almost  purely  instinctive ;  whilst  in  the  other, 
it  is  accompanied  by  a  certain  mental  activity  in  relation  to 
external  nature,  which  gives  intensity  to  the  will,  without  alter- 
ing the  end,  towards  the  attainment  of  which  its  operation  is 
directed.     A  natural  result  of  this  strength  of  will,  guided  as 
it  is  by  contracted  thought,  is  the  cruelty  which  is  a  distin- 
guishing trait,  as  well  of  the  childish  mind  as  of  the  lower 
races  of  mankind.     So  characteristic  is  this  trait,  that  it  might 
almost  be  said  that  the  human  mind  passes  through  a  "  cruoP' 
phase.     It  is,  however,  simply  the  thoughtless  activity  of  the 
wilful  "  self,''  and  its  continuance  is  usually  coextensive  only 
with  that  of  the  thoughtlessness  which  gives  to  selfish  action 
its  abhorrent  character, — a  thoughtlessness  which  exhibits  it- 
self, moreover,  in  the  buoyant  mirth  which  is  a  not  less  dis- 
tinguishing mark  of  early  boyhood  than  it  is,  according  to  Mr. 
Catlin,  of  the  North  American  Indian  in  his  natural  state. 

The  third  stage  of  mental  development  through  which  the 
human  being  passes  is  the  emotional,  aud  we  see  its  closest 
counteipart  in  the  mental  condition  of  the  Negro  race.     The 


140  THE   PSYCHOLOGICAL    UNITY   OF   MANKIND. 

emotional  nature  of  the  Negro  is  now  so  well  known,  that  little 
proof  of  this  analogy  is  necessary.  Sufficient  evidence  of  this 
is  furnished  by  Dr.  Hunt,  in  his  pamphlet  entitled  The  Negroes 
Place  in  Nature.  Dr.  Hunt  cites  Dr.  Pruner-Bey,  as  saying, 
^^  The  capacity  of  the  Negro  is  limited  to  imitation.  The  pre- 
vailing impulse  is  for  sensuality  and  rest.  No  sooner  are  the 
physical  wants  satisfied,  all  psychical  effort  ceases,  and  the 
body  abandons  itself  to  sexual  gratification  and  rest.  The 
family  relations  are  weak ;  the  husband  or  father  is  quite  care- 
less. Jealousy  has  only  carnal  motives;  and  the  fidelity  of 
the  female  is  secured  by  mechanical  contrivances.  Drunken- 
ness, gambling,  sexual  gratification,  and  ornamentation  of  the 
body,  are  the  most  powerful  levers  in  the  life  of  the  Negro." 
Although  this  cannot  be  accepted  as  a  fair  description  of  the 
character  of  all  the  African  peoples,  and  although  it  requires 
to  be  somewhat  qualified  even  in  relation  to  the  Negro ;  yet 
as  to  the  latter,  it  must  be  taken  as  being  generally  true.  In 
comparing  this  stage  of  human  progress  with  that  of  the  in- 
dividual  man,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  description  just 
given  expresses  the  true  phenomena  of  the  youthful  life.  It 
cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  youth  is  the  period  when  the 
emotional  nature  is  predominant,  and  when  the  passions  are 
most  active.  The  influences  of  race  and  of  individual  educa- 
tion in  great  measure  control  the  operation  of  the  passions 
among  civilised  peoples ;  but  subjectively,  the  youthful  phase 
of  the  civilised  mind  is  exactly  similar  to  that  which  is  observed 
among  the  Negroes  as  a  race.  There  is  one  characteristic  of 
the  African  mind  which  deserves  notice,  as  showing  that  the 
Negro  is,  nevertheless,  not  purely  an  emotional  being.  Cap- 
tain Burton  declares  that  ^'  exaggeration  is  the  characteristic 
of  the  mind  of  both  the  East  and  West  African."  He  says, 
when  speaking  of  the  coast-clans  of  eastern  Africa,  ^^  Super- 
subtle  and  systematic  liars,  they  deceive  where  duller  men 
would  tell  the  truth ;  the  lie  direct  is  no  insult ;  and  the  ofien- 
sive  word  muongo  (liar)  enters  largely  into  every  dialogue. 
They  lie  like  Africans,  objectlessly,  needlessly,  when  sure  of 
speedy  detection,  when  fact  would  be  more  profitable  than 
falsehood ;  they  have  not  discovered,  with  the  civilised  knave, 


THE    PSYCHOLOGICAL   UNITY   OP   MANKIND.  141 

that '  honesty  is  the  best  policy' ;  they  lie  till  their  fiction  be- 
comes^ subjectively,  fact.  With  them  the  lie  is  no  mental 
exertion,  no  exercise  of  ingenuity,  no  concealment,  nor  mere 
perversion  of  the  truth :  it  is  apparently  a  local  instinctive 
peculiarity  in  the  complicated  madness  of  poor  human  nature." 
This  curious  phase  of  the  uncivilised  mind  is  due  to  the  ab- 
sence or,  at  least,  the  weakness  of  the  moral  sense ;  and 
although,  as  Captain  Burton  asserts,  it  requires  no  mental 
exertion,  it  is,  nevertheless,  proof  of  a  certain  degree  of  mental 
(ictivity;  and  it  serves  as  a  connecting  link  between  the  Negro 
and  the  race  next  above  him  in  the  progressive  development  of 
mankind.  It  may  be  added,  as  forming  another  such  link, 
that,  however,  careless  the  African  peoples  may  be  of  human 
life,  they  are  not,  except,  perhaps,  among  some  of  the  lowest 
tribes,  naturally  crii^l;  superstitious  fears  and  observances 
often  make  them  so ;  but  their  ordinary  nature  is  rather  mild 
than  the  reverse. 

Analogy  has  thus  been  traced  between  the  selfish,  the  wilful, 
and  the  emotional  phases  of  the  human  mind,  and  the  charac- 
teristics of  certain  races  of  mankind.  These  several  phases 
may  be  all  classed  together,  as  being  gradual  development  of 
man's  sensuous  nature.  In  each,  however,  there  is  necessarily 
a  certain  admixture  of  ^^  intellectual"  activity ;  and  we  have 
now  to  consider  the  empirical  phase  which  distinguishes  the 
mind  of  the  European  in  the  stage  of  early  manhood.  At  this 
stage  the  mind  has  attained  to  considerable  activity  ;  but  the 
regulative  or  rational  faculty  not  being  yet  fully  developed,  its 
operations  are  empirical  in  their  result,  as  being  guided  only 
by  the  simple  teachings  of  experience.  The  g^eat  division  of 
mankind  which — the  most  perfectly — exhibits  this  mental 
phase,  is  the  Asiatic  or  Turanian.  M.  Guyot,  in  describing  the 
mental  characteristics  of  this  race,  says,  "  With  it  the  melan- 
choUc  temperament  seems  to  prevail ;  the  intellect,  moderate  in 
range,  exercises  itself  upon  the  details,  but  never  rises  to  the 
general  ideas,  or  high  speculations  of  science  and  philosophy. 
Ingenious,  inventive,  full  of  sagacity  for  the  useful  arts  and  the 
conveniencies  of  life,  the  Mongolian,  nevertheless,  is  incom- 
petent to  generalise  their  application.     Wholly  turned  to  the 


142  THE   PSYCHOLOGICAL   UNITY   OF   MANKIND. 

things  of  earth,  the  world  of  ideas,  the  spiritual  world  seems 
closed  against  him.  His  whole  philosophy  and  religion  are 
reduced  to  a  code  of  social  morals,  limited  to  the  expression  of 
those  principles  of  human  conscience,  without  the  observance 
of  which  society  is  impossible."*  We  have  here  the  descrip- 
tion of  a  people  whose  mind  has  become  extremely  active  in 
relation  to  the  simple  phenomena  of  external  nature,  and  the 
knowledge  thus  gained  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  physical  wants 
of  life.  The  observation  of  the  facts  on  which  science  is  founded, 
and  the  great  advance  made  by  the  Chinese,  for  example,  in 
the  useful  arts,  prove  that  the  intellect  has,  with  them,  attained 
to  a  considerable  degree  of  activity.  The  inability,  however, 
of  the  unassisted  Asiatic  mind  to  form  an  absolute  science,  is 
evidence  that  the  mental  development  exhibited  is  still  im- 
perfect. This  phase  of  intelligence  is,  indeed,  that  which  Mr. 
Mill  affirms  the  great  mass  of  civilised  mankind  to  exhibit 
throughout  life, — the  reasoning  from  particular  to  particular 
without  the  intervention  of  general  ideas.  The  absence  of 
science  is  simply  owing  to  the  inability  to  recognise  general 
truths,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Asiatic  mind.  The  want 
of  the  regulative  or  rational  faculty  is,  however,  attended  by 
curious  results.  The  mental  activity  not  being  controlled  by 
the  reason,  imagination  exerts  more  than  its  legitimate  influ- 
ence ;  the  greatest  exaggerations  are  indulged  in ;  thus  making 
unreliable  so  much  of  oriental  history.  Deceit,  which  with  the 
Negro  is  the  result  of  mere  caprice,  becomes  with  the  Asiatic, 
oblivious  as  he  is  of  the  requirements  of  morality,  a  legitimate 
exercise  of  the  intellect.  We  see,  without  doubt,  in  the  oriental 
mind,  the  empirical  stage  of  the  human  mind, — that  phase  in 
which  the  actions  of  life  are  the  result  of  the  application,  not 
of  the  generalisations  of  moral  or  scientific  truth,  but  of  the 
particular  teachings  of  experience  without  the  intervention  of 
any  process  of  strict  scientific  induction.  It  would  seem,  in- 
deed, as  though  the  Asiatic  mind  were  incapable  of  originating 
any  further  advance  in  civilisation.  M.  Guyot  says  of  the 
Hindoos  and  Chinese,  that  ^^  these  nations  ofier  us  the  astonishing 

•  Physical  Geography  (1860),  p.  179. 


THE    PSYCHOLOGICAL    UNITY   OP   MANKIND.  143 

spectacle  of  civilised   communities   remaining  perfectly   sta- 
tionary.     Three  thousand  years   of  existence  have  made  no 
essential  change  in  their  condition, — have  taught  them  no- 
thing,— ^have  brought  about  no  real  progress, — have  developed 
none  of  those  great  ideas  which  effect,  in  the  life  of  nations,  a 
complete  transformation  :  they  are^  as  it  were,  stereotyped/^* 
In  the  intellectual  phase  exhibited  by  the  Hindoos,  there  is, 
nevertheless,  a  great  contrast  to  that  of  the  Chinese,  notwith- 
standing they  have  much  special  resemblance.    The  writer  just 
referred  to  asserts  that,  **  endowed  with  a  higher  intelligence, 
with  a  power  of  generalisation,  with  a  profound  religious  sen- 
timent, the  Hindoo  is  the  opposite  of  the  Chinese ;  for  him 
the  invisible  world,  unknown  to  the  Chinese,  seems  alone  to 
exist.     But  the  influence  of  the  climate  of  the  tropics  gives  to 
the  intuitive  faculties  an  exaggerated  preponderance  over  the 
active  faculties.     The  real,  positive  world  disappears  from  his 
eyes.     Thus,  in  his  literature,  so  redundant  in  works  of  philo- 
sophy, of  poetry  and  religion,  we  seek  in  vain  for  the  annals 
of  his  history,  or  any  treatise  on  science,  any  of  those  collec- 
tions of  observations  so  numerous  among  the  Chinese.     In 
spite  of  these  defects,  the  Hindoo  civilisation,  compared  to 
that  of  China,  bears  a  character  of  superiority  which  betrays 
its  noble  origin :  it  is  the  civilisation  of  the  western  i-aces 
transported  and  placed  under  the  influence  of   the   east.^'t 
This  influence  shows  itself  in  a  faculty  of  exaggeration  and  a 
practice  of  deceit,  similar  to  those  exhibited  by  the  Chinese. 
The  Hindoo  intellect  may,  indeed,  be  said  to  difier  from  that 
of  the  Chinese  rather  in  the  objects  of  its  thought  than  in  the 
faculties  which  show  their  activity.     Empirical  thought  is  that 
which  governs  the  civilisations  of  both  these  peoples ;  but 
whilst  in  the  one  C€ise  it  has  for  its  object  the  simple  expe- 
riences of  life ;  in  the  other,  it  almost  overlooks  the  mere  facts 
of  science,  and  becomes  active  about  the  first  principles  of 
nature  itself.     The  Chinese  mind  deals  with  the  phenomena 
from  which  the  inductions  of  science  are  to  be  made,  stopping 
short,  however,  of  such  inductions ;  whilst  the  Hindoo  intel- 

•  Physical  Geography  (1850),  p.  181.  f  lUd.,  p.  180. 


144  THE    PSYCHOLOGICAL    UNITY   OP   MANKIND. 

lect  constructs  its  systems,  without  any  reference  to  the  pheno- 
mena from  which  alone  can  be  educed  the  generalisations  of 
true  science. 

We  see  in  the  Hindoo  intellectual  phase  the  foreshadowing 
of  the  fifth  and,  it  may  be,  the  final  stage  of  human  mental 
progress.  With  this  intermediate  type,  the  rational  faculty 
has  begun  to  assert  its  supremo  authority ;  but  having  no  suf- 
ficient data*  for  its  exercise,  its  conclusions  partake  of  the  im- 
perfection of  the  premises  from  which  they  are  drawn.  In  the 
European  intellect  we  see  exhibited  all  the  phenomena  which 
distinguish  the  rational  stage  of  man^s  mental  development. 
It  may  be  thought  unnecessary  to  give  proofs  of  a  fact  so  in- 
disputable ;  but  the  language  of  M.  Guyot  on  this  point  is  so 
just  that  it  cannot  be  omitted.  He  says  :  ^'  Christian  Europe 
beholds  poetry,  the  arts,  and  the  sublimest  sciences,  succes- 
sively flourish,  as  in  the  bright  ages  of  Pagan  Greece ;  but, 
enriched  already  with  the  spoils  of  the  past,  culture  is  far  more 
comprehensive,  more  varied,  more  profound ;  for  it  is  not  only 
affluent  with  the  wealth  of  the  days  gone  by,  but  Christianity 
has  placed  it  on  the  soKd  foundation  of  truth.  The  spirit  of 
investigation  ranges  in  all  directions ;  it  adds  to  this  brilliant 
crown  a  new  gem,  the  science  of  nature,  which  grows  with  a 
speed  of  which  the  ancient  world  had  not  even  a  forecast. 
Unriddled  by  the  spirit  of  man.  Nature  has  yielded  up  to  him 
her  secrets ;  her  untiring  forces  are  enlisted  in  the  service  of 
intellect,  which  knows  how  to  guide  their  action  for  its  own 
purposes."*  Whether  the  full  development  of  the  European 
intellect  is  due  to  the  influence  of  Christianity,  as  M.  Guyot 
supposes,  or  whether  Christianity  itself  is  part  of  the  great  in- 
tellectual progress  exhibited  by  the  Caucasian  race,  is  of  little 
moment  to  the  present  argument.  The  fact  cannot  be  denied, 
that  the  full  manhood  of  humanity  expresses  itself  only  in  this 
the  youngest  and  most  perfect  of  the  races  of  mankind. 

The  progress  of  man  has  thus  been  traced  through  his  various 
race-developments  ;  and  it  has  been  shown  that  representatives 
of  the  several  stages  still  linger  on  the  earth.     If  this  be  so, 

•  Physical  Geography  (1850),  p.  201. 


THE   PSYCnOLOOICAL   UNITY  OF  MANKIND,  145 

several  important  inferences  may  thence  be  drawn.  In  the 
first  place,  if  it  be  true  that  the  European  or  Caucasian  race 
exhibits  a  phase  of  mental  development,  the  progressive  stages 
towards  which  are  exhibited  by  other  races  of  mankind,  we  are 
justified  in  believing  that,  before  the  former  could  have  reached 
its  perfect  stage,  it  must  have  passed  through  all  the  inter- 
mediate ones.  We  may  therefore  suppose  that  the  past  phases 
of  development  of  the  European  race,  can  be  reproduced  by 
observation  of  the  present  condition  of  the  less  perfect  races 
of  man.  According  to  this  view,  in  the  Australian  aborigines 
we  have  examples  of  the  primitive  state,  not  only  of  the  Euro- 
pean, but  of  all  other  races.  This  is,  however,  subject  to  great 
qualification,  seeing  that  the  very  fact  of  superior  races  having 
made  so  much  further  advance  in  civilisation  than  those  below 
them,  proves  that  the  peculiarities  of  inferior  peoples,  which 
constitute  their  race-characters,  can  never  have  been  so  strongly 
marked  in  those  above  them.  This  consideration  leads  to  the 
further  conclusion,  that  the  present  imperfection  of  inferior 
peoples  is  not  necessarily  introductory  to  the  more  perfect  de- 
velopment exhibited  by  the  European.  In  a  former  paper,  I 
endeavoured  to  show  that  the  source  of  the  inferiority  of  the 
lower  races  of  mankind  is  to  be  sought  in  the  long-continued 
persistence  of  conditions  of  nature  unfavourable  to  the  per- 
fect development  of  the  physical  and  mental  organisms,  which 
has  finally  resulted  in  a  state  of  arrested  growth,  such  as  those 
races  exhibit. 

Wo  have  in  this  a  reason  why  the  inferior  races  should  not 
be  able  to  attain  to  the  perfection  of  development  of  the  Eu- 
ropean,— an  inability  which  must  be  the  most  apparent  in  the 
lowest  variety  of  mankind,  seeing  that  the  longer  any  physical 
or  mental  state  continues,  the  more  habitual  or  fixed  does  it 
become.  Probably,  in  the  case  of  the  Australian  and  American 
aborigines,  and  also  of  those  races,  remnants  of  which  aro 
found  in  the  Hottentots  and  Eskimos,  these  states  have  become 
so  fixed  that  they  cannot  be  altered.  The  Negro  and  the 
Asiatic  forms  appear  to  be  less  fixed ;  and  yet  they  are  ap- 
parently incapable  of  making  any  further  progress /rowi  within. 
If  this  is  to  take  place,  it  must  have  its  origin  from  ivithont ; 

VOL.  HI.  L 


146  THE    PSYCHOLOGICAL    UNITY   OF   MANKIND. 

and  it  is  reserved  for  the  European  race,  not  only  to  exhibit 
the  most  perfect  phase  of  human  civilisation,  but  to  impress 
that  civilisation  on  the  older  races  of  mankind. 

If  the  view  of  the  progress  of  mankind  here  insisted  on  be 
correct,  and  if  there  be  a  correlation  of  the  physical  structure 
of  a  people  and  of  the  mental  peculiarities  they  exhibit,  race- 
characters*  must  originally  have  been  of  merely  secondary  im- 
portance ;  and  they  can  have  become  of  primary  importance 
only  when  fixed,  as  the  result  of  persistence  of  certain  external 
conditions  through  a  long  period  of  time.  No  doubt  it  is 
owing  to  this  persistence  that  certain  characters  are  now  so 
marked  as  to  be  strictly  racial.  It  may,  certainly,  be  objected 
that  even  supposing  the  primitive  equality  of  all  the  races  into 
which  mankind  is  now  divided,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow 
that  they  must  have  had  a  common  origin.  There  is  appa- 
rently no  reason  why  mankind  should  not  have  descended  fi*ora 
one  hundred  ancestors  instead  of  from  one  only.  If,  however, 
the  idea  of  the  plurality  of  races  be  got  rid  of,  as  it  must  be, 
if  the  ancestors  of  all  races  were  originally  on  an  equality,  the 
reason  for  requiring  a  plurality  of  origins  must  go  with  it. 
The  more  so,  as  the  lapse  of  time  is  as  competent  to  account 
for  the  universal  spread  of  man  over  the  globe,  as  the  forma- 
tion of  the  races  into  which  mankind  is  now  divided.  It  is 
undoubted  that  a  very  long  period  has  been  required  for  the 
latter  process ;  and  as,  on  the  supposition  of  man's  primitive 
equality,  all  races  must  have  had  an  equally  distant  origin  in 
time,  there  is  nothing  to  render  it  unlikely  that,  as  those  races 
are  traced  back  to  their  common  type,  they  are  also  being 
traced  up  to  a  common  source. 

It  is  objected,  however,  that  we  have  no  evidence  in  history 
of  the  origin  of  races ;  and  that  we  must,  therefore,  suppose 
them  to  have  always  existed  as  such,  and  mankind,  conse- 
quently, to  have  had  several  centres  of  origin.  This  argument 
in  favour  of  original  plurality  of  race,  however  plausible,  is  of 
little  value,  seeing  that  it  is  purely  negative.  The  fact  of  his- 
tory being  silent  on  the  subject,  is  no  proof  that  races  have 
not  been  actually  formed  ;  it  may  have  been,  and  doubtless 
was,  throughout  a  period  long  antecedent  to  that  which  even 


THE   PSYCHOLOGICAL   UNITY   OP    MANKIND.  147 

the  oldest  tradition  can  reach.  There  are,  moreover,  two  diflS- 
culties  connected  with  the  idea  of  an  original  plurality  of  races, 
which  render  its  truth  highly  improbable.  The  legitimate 
conclusion  to  which  it  leads  is,  that  every  country  has  had  its 
own  autochthones ;  and  that  man,  therefore,  is  sprung  from  not 
one,  or  three,  but  from  hundreds  of  ape  progenitors  !  For  the 
ape  origin  of  man  would  seem  to  be  essential  to  the  scientific 
belief  in  the  original  plurality  of  race.  This  conclusion  is  un- 
satisfactory enough ;  but  is  hardly  more  so  than — supposing 
the  ape  origin  of  man — to  assert  that  the  Caucasian  race  has 
not  sprung  from  the  Mongolian  or  from  the  Negro  stock,  but 
from  an  ape ;  seeing  that  while  the  latter  differs  from  man  so 
much  more  than  it  resembles  him, — the  European  and  the 
Negro,  even,  resemble  each  other  so  much  more  than  they 
differ ; — ^it  is  vastly  more  probable  that  the  superior  has  been 
derived  from  an  inferior  human  type  than  that  it  has  been  de- 
rived  from  an  ape.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  Cauca- 
sian race  has  not  sprung  from  any  other  of  the  existing  human 
races,  but  that  it  has  been  derived  from  some  older  race,  of  which 
each  of  the  existing  families  of  mankind  represents  some  spe- 
cial phases  fully  developed.  All  the  branches  must,  however, 
meet  in  the  primitive  stock  before  the  common  ancestor  is 
reached,  if  they  are  traced  down  low  enough ;  and  it  is  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Caucasian  race  has  sprung  from 
even  the  lowest  or  earliest  type  of  humanity; — even  though  Us 
immediate  progenitor  were  an  ape, — than  that  the  former  had 
an  independent  ape  origin. 


l2 


148 


IX.  —  Tlie    Indians   of   the    Mosquito    Ten'itory,       By   John 
CoLLiNSON,  C.B.,  F.E.G.S.,  F.A.S.L.,  etc.,  etc. 

In  1863,  I  read  before  the  British  Association  Meeting,  held 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  an  account  of  my  explorations  and 
survey,  during  the  same  year,  in  the  Mosquito  territory  of 
Central  America.  Since  then  I  have,  besides  traversing  Nica- 
ragua from  lake  to  ocean,  repeated  my  visit  to  the  Mosquito 
country,  and  spent  considerable  time  in  exploring  its  rivers, 
lagoons,  and  impenetrable  forests.  The  present  brief  paper 
has  in  view  the  communication  of  some  interesting  facts  picked 
up  at  odd  times  during  these  two  expeditions,  relative  to  the 
manners,  customs,  and  languages  of  three  out  of  the  seven 
aboriginal  tribes  who  people  its  shores  and  vast  forests. 

The  Mosquito  Indians  consist  of  seven  distinct  tribes ;  viz., 
Mosquitos,  Woolwas,  Bamas,  Valientes,  Cookwras,  Tongas, 
and  Poyas ;  but  as  my  dealings  were  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  three  first  mentioned,  the  information  I  now  com- 
municate will  relate  to  them  alone.  Commencing  with  a  brief 
outline  of  their  respective  physical  traits,  I  shall  deal  with  the 
Mosquito  tribe  first. 

These  Indians  are  by  far  the  most  intelligent  and  enlightened 
of  all  the  tribes, — a  result  attained  by  the  indefatigable  efforts 
of  the  Moravian  missionaries,  who  have  established  several  of 
their  stations  along  the  coast ;  and  from  the  greater  accessibility 
of  the  Mosquitos  have  more  especially  directed  their  efforts,  in 
the  first  instance,  to  their  civilisation  and  the  abolition  of  the 
barbarous  ceremonies  so  common  among  them.  The  personal 
appearance  of  the  members  of  this  tribe  is  decidedly  good, 
when  uncontaminated  by  the  diseases  introduced  among  them 
by  traders,  etc.,  from  the  civilised  Old  World.  Though  their 
stature  is  short,  rarely  if  ever  exceeding  five  feet  eight  inches, 
they  are  strongly  made,  and  can  endure  a  continuance  of  fa- 
tigue much  better  than  their  larger  neighbours,  the  Woolwas. 
Iliis  I  attribute  to  their  more  decent  mode  of  living,  induced 


THE   INDIANS   OF   THE    MOSQUITO   TERRITORY.  149 

by  the  missionaries^  which  has  caused  the  traders  of  the  coast 
to  seek  for  more  congenial  boon  companions  for  their  sensual 
revels  among  the  less  enlightened  tribes.  The  complexion  of 
these  people  is  very  dark^  with  finely  cut  features^  noses  small 
and  straight^  cheekbones  high^  and  hair  long^  coarse^  and  thick^ 
falling  from  the  crown  equally  over  head  and  face^  no  attempt 
being  made  to  keep  it  off  the  latter.  For  clothes^  the  more 
civilised  wear  any  article  of  European  clothing  they  can  pick 
up ;  while  the  others  content  themselves  with  a  piece  of  native 
cloth  round  their  loins,  called  ''  toonu". 

The  king  of  the  entire  territory  is  an  hereditary  chief,  and 
is  obliged  by  law  to  be  a  pure  Mosquito,  the  title  descending 
regularly  from  father  to  son,  or  in  failure  of  direct  issue  to 
the  nearest  relative,  who  is  a  member  of  the  royal  tribe.  The 
last  king,  my  companion  for  some  time,  while  exploring  the 
country,  was  a  good  specimen  of  what  an  enlightened  Indian 
can  become.  His  education,  received  at  Jamaica,  was  quite 
equal  to  that  of  an  ordinary  English  gentleman.  With  it  he 
had  acquired  a  refined  taste,  hardly  to  have  been  expected; 
he  was  never  without  one  or  two  volumes  of  our  best  English 
poets  in  his  pocket,  and  availed  himself  of  every  unoccupied 
moment  to  peruse  them.  But  I  do  not  want  it  to  be  supposed 
that  civilisation  had  made  him  effeminate  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree ;  on  the  contrary,  he  was  the  best  shot,  and  cancels  man 
in  the  whole  country ;  and  though  regarded  by  his  people  with 
the  afiection  of  children  for  their  father,  his  slightest  word  or 
look  was  law,  and  woe  to  him  who  disobeyed  either.  I  am 
sorry  to  say  that  this  exemplary  monarch  is  no  more. 

The  Woolwas,  who  come  next,  are,  in  my  opinion,  the  most 
interesting  of  all  the  tribes,  they  are  still  almost  in  their  pris- 
tine state  of  barbarity ;  some  of  their  number,  who  were 
working  for  me  in  the  bush,  had  actually  never  before  seen  a 
white  man. 

These  people  follow  the  curious  custom  of  flattening  the 
heads  of  their  children  in  infancy,  practised  also  in  some  parts 
of  North  America :  and  as  they  wear  the  same  long  hair  as  the 
Mosquitos,  but  instead  of  allowing  it  to  cover  the  face,  have  it 
cut  in  a  straight  line  juat  above  the  eyes,  and  as  fur  back  as 


160  THE   INDIANS   OP   TUB   MOSQUITO   TEBEITOBY. 

the  temples,  their  countenances  have  a  peculiar  appearance^ 
more  as  if  cut  out  of  a  block  of  wood,  than  created  of  natural 
flesh  and  blood.  Their  cheek  bones  are  very  high,  eyes  black 
and  glittering,  like  most  Indians,  and  complexions  swarthy. 
Their  other  features  are,  of  course,  completely  spoilt  and  altered 
from  their  original  form,  by  the  compression  process.  Both 
these  tribes  are  dreadfully  subject  to  cutaneous  aflfections,  and 
especially  leprosy ;  with  the  exception  of  the  king,  I  never  saw 
a  perfectly  clean  skinned  man  among  them. 

The  sole  garment  indulged  in,  by  both  men  and  women  alike, 
is  the  "  tas,"  a  cloth  made  out  of  the  bark  of  the  India  rubber 
tree  [Castilloa  elastica),  similar  to  the  "  toonu"  of  the  Mosquito 
men,  only  much  wider.  It  is  twisted  round  the  loins,  and, 
after  fastening  in  front  in  some  wonderful  manner,  both  ends 
are  allowed  to  fall  down  and  form  a  broad  flap.  They  are  very 
fond  of  painting  their  faces  with  a  beautiful  carmine,  extracted 
from  a  shrub  called  "arter"  (Bignatiia  chic  a).  On  festal  occa- 
sions wonderful  figures  are  drawn  on  their  countenances  with 
this  colour. 

We  now  come  to  the  Kamas,  a  very  fine  race  of  men,  some 
indeed  of  Herculean  stature  and  strength,  and  dreaded  alike  by 
both  Mosquitos  and  Woolwas.  From  the  specimens  I  saw,  a 
stature  of  six  feet  does  not  seem  to  be  at  all  uncommon  among 
them.  The  remnants,  however,  of  this  once  powerful  and 
numerous  race,  which  formerly  peopled  tlie  San  Juan,  Rama, 
and  Frio  rivers,  besides  many  smaller  intervening  ones,  and 
struck  terror  into  the  minds  both  of  the  Spanish  conquerors 
and  the  other  Indians  by  their  ferocious  character  and  reputa- 
tion as  cannibals — have,  I  suspect,  a  strong  admixture  of  negro 
blood  in  their  veins,  as,  hke  the  Caribs,  they  often  have  mous- 
taches, which  seem  to  arise  among  the  denizens  of  tropical 
America  only  after  the  intermixture  of  difierent  races.  These 
men,  though  reputed  so  fierce,  are  yet  intelligent  above  ordinary 
wild  tribes,  most  of  them  speaking  English  well.  Their  coun- 
tenances are  serious  and  stern,  and  give  one  the  impression  of 
much  thought  devoted  to  brooding  over  their  country^s  wrongs. 
The  dress  worn  by  them  is  very  similar  to  the  Mosquito  cos- 
tume, viz.  the  inevitable  "  toonu,'^  accompanied  by  any  European 


THE   INDIANS   OF   THE    MOSQUITO   TERBITOBT.  151 

garments  attainable,  without  much  regard  to  their  proper 
position  on  the  human  form  as  regulated  by  fashionable  tailors. 

A  general  description  of  the  characteristic  traits  and  appear- 
ance of  these  tribes  having  been  given,  I  shall  now  detail  a  few 
of  the  most  interesting  ceremonies  and  customs,  originally 
practised  by  all  alike,  but  now  fast  falling  into  disuse  among 
the  Mosquitos. 

Their  religious  observances  seem  to  be  confined  to  invoca- 
tions, interrogations,  and  propitiations  of  devils  and  evil  spirits; 
that  good  spirits  or  gods  exist  is  their  belief,  but  they  con« 
sider  the  evil  ones  to  be  much  their  superiors,  and  in  all  cases 
of  difficulty  they  fly  to  supplicate  the  latter  and  not  the  former. 
A  belief  in  a  future  existence  is  entertained  among  them,  and 
after  a  death  the  canoe  of  the  departed  is  cut  across  in  the 
middle,  the  corpse  placed  in  it  so  that  he  may  have  no  difficulty 
in  getting  out  at  one  end,  and  then  buried  under  his  house,  in 
which  are  deposited  plantains,  bananas,  and  com,  and  a  porous 
jar  filled  with  water.  The  provisions  are  for  the  spirit  on  its 
way  to  the  happy  hunting  grounds,  and  the  token  of  departure 
is  the  disappearance  of  the  water  from  the  jar. 

The  most  important  and  barbarous  of  their  ceremonies  is  a 
religious  drinking  orgie  (very  similar  to  the  feasts  of  the  Jurias 
of  South  America,  described  by  Humboldt)  celebrated  in  the 
following  manner.  Invitations  are  sent  out  in  great  numbers, 
but  always  to  members  of  the  same  tribe,  to  take  part  in  the 
proceedings.  At  the  stated  time,  those  invited,  accompanied  by 
their  wives,  assemble,  decked  out  with  feathers  and  beads,  and 
smeared  over  with  paint,  so  as  to  become  perfectly  unrecognis- 
able. They  then  paddle  in  their  canoes  to  some  out-of-the-way 
spot,  chosen  for  its  solitude  and  the  improbability  of  intrusion. 
There,  huts  of  branches  and  palm-leaves  are  hastily  erected,  and 
the  women  set  to  work  in  them,  to  prepare  a  filthy  and  highly 
intoxicating  drink,  called  *'  mishla,'^  made  as  follows : — large 
supplies  of  ripe  plaintains,  cocoa  nuts,  cassava,  and  pine  apples 
are  provided,  which  are  first  chewed  by  the  women,  and  then 
spit  into  troughs  dug  out  of  logs.  The  saliva,  conjoined  wi^h 
the  influence  of  a  tropical  sun,  speedily  produces  fermentation, 
when  the  dif^gusting  mes^s  is  ready  for  consumption.    The  men, 


152  THE   INDIANS   OP   THE   MOSQUITO   TERRITORY. 

meanwhile^  have  removed  themselves  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
from  the  women's  huts,  and  cleared  out  a  space  of  ground. 
Each  man  then  carved  for  himself  a  small  pipe  (burnt  on  con- 
clusion of  the  ceremonies,  as  too  sacred  to  be  beheld  by  profane 
eyes)  on  which  they  play,  accompanying  themselves  by  dancing 
and  singing,  which  grow  more  boisterous  and  rapid  as  the  ex- 
citement caused  by  the  exercise  arouses  them.  This  is  their 
invocation  to  the  Devil,  with  whom  they  pretend  to  hold  con- 
verse, and  receive  information  relative  to  present  and  future 
events.  Each  individual  keeps  this  up  until  he  falls  to  the 
ground  from  utter  exhaustion,  when  he  crawls  to  the  women's 
camp,  drinks  as  much  "  mishla''  as  he  can  swallow,  then  re- 
turns and  rejoins  the  other  revellers.  This  goes  on,  without  ces- 
sation, for  three  or  four  days,  when  all  return  home  to  sleep  off 
the  baneful  eflFects  of  their  dissipation,  which  not  unusually 
produces  a  state  of  temporary  insanity.  No  woman  is  allowed 
to  see  anything  of  what  is  going  on,  under  a  penalty,  rigidly 
enforced,  of  immediate  death. 

Another  very  common  and  favourite  method  of  unravelling 
the  unknown,  is  an  incantation,  by  a  "  sookia''  man,  (who  pos- 
sesses a  reputation  as  Doctor  of  Medicine,  as  well  as  diviner.) 
He  commences  operations  by  cutting  a  small  wand,  peeling  it, 
and  tying  a  short  string  to  its  top.  He  then  strokes  it  repeat- 
edly, muttering  in  an  undertone  words  supposed  to  form  an 
incantation ;  after  this  has  been  done  for  some  time,  one  end 
of  the  stick  is  placed  in  the  left  elbow,  and  the  right  arm  is 
stretched  out  to  the  string  end;  if  it  exactly  reaches  this  when 
extended  to  its  full  length  the  wand  will  reveal  the  truth,  if  not 
the  string  must  be  altered  and  the  process  repeated  until  it  is 
in  its  right  position.  Questions,  relating  to  the  present  and 
future,  will  then  be  answered  the  ^'  sookia''  man,  correctly  as 
he  states,  though  I  must  confess  that  the  queries  I  propounded 
were  never  replied  to  very  successfully,  but  I  was  an  unbeliever, 
and  it  is  a  notorious  fact  that  spirits  are  put  out  of  their  calcu- 
lations by  the  incredulous. 

.A  foolish  custom,  still  very  generally  prevalent  among  the 
people,  is  the  marriage  ordeal,  to  which  every  youth  must  sub- 
mit when  he  aspires  to  the  dignified  position  of  a  married 
man. 


THE   INDIANS   OF   THE   MOSQUITO   TEBBITOBT.  153 

Notice  having  beea  given  of  the  youth's  desires^  a  day  is 
fixed,  and  all  the  married  men  of  the  tribe  assemble,  when  the 
luckless  aspirant  stands  in  the  midst,  bending  down  his  bare 
back,  and  submits  to  the  ordeal,  which  consists  of  a  dreadful 
beating,  administered  by  each  beholder  in  turn,  with  his  elbow, 
a  formidable  instrument  in  the  power  of  a  heavy  man,  the  use 
of  the  fists  being  entirely  unknown. 

Should  the  suflFerer  be  unpopular  he  is  very  lucky  if  he  es- 
capes with  his  life,  and,  indeed,  I  have  been  credibly  informed 
that  many  fatal  cases  have  arisen  from  this  inhuman  practice. 
The  ordeal  undergone,  liberty  is  vouchsafed  to  marry  as  soon 
as  he  has  sufficiently  recovered  from  its  effects. 

To  counterbalance  this  rite  a  man  has  great  power  over  his 
wife  after  marriage.  Should  he  return  home  after  a  journey 
and  suspect  her  of  faithlessness,  he  binds  her  by  her  hands  and 
feet  to  a  tree,  beats  her  with  a  club,  and  even  gashes  her  with 
a  knife,  until  she  accuses  some  man  of  being  her  lover.  She 
is  then  released,  and  the  husband  proceeds  to  the  accused's 
residence,  and  gets  damages  out  of  him  by  driving  away  and 
taking  possession  of  any  cattle  he  may  possess. 

This  law  is  without  appeal,  and,  as  may  be  supposed,  leads  to 
frightful  abuses;  the  woman's  word  after  submitting  to  the 
torture  cannot  be  gainsaid,  and  ill-will,  or  the  desire  for  some 
coveted  possession,  is  quite  sufficient  for  calling  it  into  action. 

I  must  not  omit  mention  of  a  superstition  founded  on  the 
supposed  existence  of  a  gigantic  species  of  serpent.  These 
mythical  reptiles  are  called  *^  Wowlvahs,"  and  are  believed  by 
the  natives  to  inhabit  certain  out-of-the-way  swampy  pools  and 
marshes,  where  they  grow  to  an  enormous  size,  live  for  ever, 
and  have  the  capability  of  swallowing  a  canoe  full  of  men  at  a 
time.  No  Indian  will  stop  near  their  supposed  abode  for  fear 
of  arousing  their  anger,  and  so  compassing  his  own  destruction. 

The  '^  sookia"  men  above  mentioned,  conjoined  with  the  ex- 
ercise of  a  certain  amount  of  practical  knowledge  of  doctoring, 
make  use  of  charms  and  incantations  against  sickness,  painting 
a  lot  of  devils  on  sticks,  with  which  they  assume  they  can,  by 
fencing  round  the  sufferer,  keep  off  the  aggressive  devils  who 
are  assailing  hiui.     They  also  tie  charmed  sticks  on  their  cacao 


154  THE   INDIANS   OP  THE   MOSQUITO   TBBBITOBY. 

and  other  trees^  to  keep  birds,  animals,  and  even  men,  from 
plundering  them. 

Where  all  these  inhabitants  of  Mosquito  originally  came 
from  is  difficult  to  say ;  but  that  they  were  at  any  former  time 
one  people  is  exceedingly  improbable,  and  could  be  disproved 
by  the  fact  alone  of  their  speaking  such  utterly  distinct  and 
diflferent  languages.  Since  we  can  obtain  any  records  of  them, 
they  have  ever  been  a  fierce  and  marauding  race,  resisting 
subjugation  successfully,  with  every  man's  hand  turned  against 
his  neighbour's.  My  impression  is,  not  that  they  originally 
peopled  their  present  strip  of  territory,  which,  had  such  been 
the  case,  must  necessarily  show — as  it  does  not — some  remains 
and  proof  of  their  ancestors'  existence;  but  that  each  tribe 
came  severally,  and  at  different  times,  from  various  parts  of 
the  continent,  north  and  south.  Races  like  the  North  American 
Indians  of  to-day,  to  whom  civilisation  is  impossible,  and  gra- 
dually driven  back  by  the  fruitfulness  and  increasing  numbers 
of  the  more  adaptable  and  improving  races,  sought  refuge  in 
the  fastnesses  and  pathless  forests  of  the  Mosquito  country. 
To  support  my  theory,  the  Caribs,  expelled*  of  recent  years 
from  the  gulf  islands  where  they  formerly  dwelt,  have  come  in 
this  manner  to  the  Mosquito  coast;  and  though  preserving, 
like  the  other  tribes,  their  mother  tongue  intact,  are  yet 
settling  down  as  another  race  and  tribe,  to  add  to  the  number 
of  the  Mosquitos. 

I  have  appended  to  this  paper  two  vocabularies, — one  of  the 
Mosquito,  and  one  of  the  Woolwa  tongue ;  some  of  the  words 
in  the  former  have,  I  believe,  been  pubUshed  before ;  but,  I 
think,  I  am  correct  in  stating  that  the  present  one  is  the  only 
Woolwa  vocabulary  yet  known  in  Europe. 

*  Caribs  depi^rted  from  St.  'Vincent  to  Roatan,  in  bay  of  Honduras,  by  tbo 
English,  in  number  six  thousand,  a.d.  1796. 


THE   INDIANS   OF   THE    MOSQUITO    TERRITOKT. 


155 


WOOLWA  VOCABULARY. 


Libra,  Woolwa  people, 

Wahi,  brother, 

Al,  man, 

Yel,  woman, 

Siroa  backar,  girl, 

Al  backar,  boy, 

Yalki,  wife, 

Alkimuk,  husband, 

Aslar,  one, 

Bon,  iwo, 

Bas,  three. 

Aroonca,  four, 

Seenca,  five. 

Deecca,  six. 

Yecca,  seven, 

Bachca,  eight, 

Tingpiicasla,  nine, 

Tingniskoobou,  ten, 

Pamki,  tapir, 

Nowar  powka,  red  tiger, 

Nowar,  tiger, 

Powka,  red, 

Nowar  bolka,  spotted  tiger, 

Burruska,  black, 

Pichca,  white, 

Simna,  deer, 

Sowie,  wari, 

Cassi,  to  eat. 

Caskouting,  eating, 

Deekoting,  drinking. 

Soopokotmg,  sucking, 

Deeko,  to  drink. 

Yappoo,  alligator, 

Kabama,  iguana. 

Was,  water. 

I  warra,  come  here. 

Baina  warra,  come  hci'e  qtiick. 

Yowanakou,  let  us  go. 

Koorring,  canoe. 

Waliinah,  paddle, 

Eoobil,  knife. 

Seeban,  bow  and  ai'rows, 

Keeddak,  cuee. 

Oorrus,  monkey. 

Wummi,  Curassow  (turkey). 

Wunkuruman,  guan  (small  turkey). 

Woomalo,  partridge, 

Moolakoos,  peccari, 

Yaoika,  good. 

Dootka,  bad. 

Awai,  yes. 

Eessou,  no, 

Aissou,  none, 

Ahmakouting,  sleejting. 

Meouhka  ahmakouting,  to  sleep. 

Toonik,  head. 


Tas,  cloth  worn  round  loins, 

Kalki,  foot, 

Einki,  hand, 

Wakki,  plantains, 

Inkkini,  bananas, 

Um,  com, 

SuBsunka,  beads, 

Simming,  fish-hook. 

Sooksuwookka^  cord, 

Asnar,  cloth, 

Soobba,  pot, 

Watikah,  banana  bird, 

Vecah,  hare, 

Kee,  rock. 

Sou,  ground. 

Son  assnng,  world, 

Nowal,  devil, 

Waikou,  God, 

Mah,  sun, 

Waikoo,  moon. 

Mahbruska,  sky. 

WaaLouti,  rain. 

Ewi,  to  die, 

Yowahkooting,  to  walk, 

Yoolbntiang,  to  talk, 

Mahdi,  to-day. 

Yun,  to-morrow. 

Dummi,  yesterday, 

Koo,  fire. 

Eoolaka,  firewood. 

Pun,  wood. 

Quassika,  hammock, 

Keettung,  waterfall, 

Tookwunnah,  big. 

Ki,  mine. 

Yungdeeki,  yours. 

Washbiloo,  mishla  (intoxicating  drink), 

Moohiwah  deekaTia,  his. 

Amisceka,  sister. 

Passingka,  father. 

Mamaka,  mother. 

Eahaloo,  shirt. 

Eahaaong,  trousers, 

Coocoo,  cocoa,-nut. 

Almuk,  male. 

Tooroo,*  cattle, 

Pamka,  horse. 

Boorroo,*  donkey. 

Mnlah,*  mule. 

Malakah,  Indian  rahbit, 

Kookmik,  armadillo, 

Hoombooka,  bird. 

Ooli,  turtle. 

Taspool,  Indiarubber. 

Deehlatookuting,  cooking. 

Pun,  tree. 


Evidently  corniptions  from  Ihc  Spanish. 


156 


THE    INDIANS   OF   THE    MOSQUITO   TEBBJTOBT« 


Wayahal,  Mosquito  man, 
Waya  yel.  Mosquito  woman, 
Sooktuk,  calabash. 
Mahboutoring,  fighting. 
Was,  river, 
Tooki,  mouth. 
Meekduka,  eyes, 
Anaki,  teeth. 


Tapabki,  ears. 
Baa,  hair. 
Koomah,  salt. 
Koomhoo,  rabbit. 
Backar  kee,  children, 
Oo,  house. 
Assun,  hiU, 


MOSQUITO  VOCABULAEY. 


Narra  bal,  come  here, 
Eine,  make  haste. 
Kaiser,  let  us  go. 
Douce,  stick, 
Yerri,  long, 
Kumi,  one, 
Wal,  two. 
Yumpa,  three. 
Walwalun,  four, 
Matasip,  five. 
Mata  walkaby,  six, 
Mata  walkaby  kami,  seven, 
Matawal  wal,  eight, 
Matawal  yampa,  nine. 
Matawal  sip,  ten. 
Youan  eiske,  twenty, 
Youan  eiske  wal,/or*y. 
Clucki,  cut. 
Brebal,  bring  here, 
Yany,  mine. 
MaD,  your. 
Eisiken,  father, 
Yapti,  mother. 
Mooine,  eldest  brother. 
Deevra,  youngest  brother, 
Lakreka,  sister, 
Tahte,  uncle. 


Yapti  deevra,  aunt. 
Darner,  grandfather. 
Kookah,  grandmother, 
Pearker,  tcidoto. 
Mair,  w\fe. 

Mair  waikna,  husbands 
Mairen,  woman. 
Waikna,  man, 
Lilla,  mistress, 
Almuks,  old  man, 
Hupla,  people, 
Mebi,  friends. 
Pies,  eai. 
Ploom,  victuals. 
Dies,  drink, 
Lia,  water, 

Lia  kowta,  cold  water, 
Wano,  come  along, 
Apia,  no, 
Aoa,  yes. 
Yabra,  north. 
Blanco,  south. 
N'emopera,  go  this  side. 
Passer,  wind 
Keero,  knife, 
Kakboos,  gun. 


List  of  Articles  exhibited  on  the  Table, — Sookia — used  to  protect  cacao-trees. 
Bjws— one  of  "  soapa"  palm,  one  of  "ooka".  Fighting  Arrows — sagar-cane 
blossom  tipped  with  "  sonpa"  and  iron  points.  Wari  Arrow— ditto,  ditto, 
ditto.  Fish  Arrows— ditto,  ditto,  with  iron  points.  Silak— turtle  har- 
poon, shaft  of  "soupa".  Line  for  ditto— silk-grass.  Turtle  Harpoons. 
Fish  Harpoons.  Turtle  Shell — turtle  of  commerce  (hawkbiU).  Scales  of  ditto. 
Machete — cutlass.  Stone  Candlestick.  Sheet  of  indiarubber.  Lances — used 
for  fighting  and  killing  large  game.  Toonu — native  cloth  made  from  india- 
rubber  tree  bark  worn  round  the  loins.  Flutes.  Pnack — bead  necklace. 
Soumis — native  clay-pots  for  cooking.  Dress  teeth.  Eukwasbara— used  for 
calling  animals.  Pitpan — canoe.  Busbara — pot-spoon.  Shukkah.  Yul- 
sirpi.    Mawa  Ulbika — used  to  paint  the  face  with. 


157 


X. — On  the  Saracens  in  France,  especially  in  Burgundy  and 
Lorraine,  By  Dr.  Gustavb  Lagxbau.  (Translated  by 
E.  VilHn,  F.R.S.L.,  F.A.S.L.) 


Thb  Saracens  came  out  from  Arabia,  and  after  having  success- 
fully subdued  the  nations  of  Northern  Africa  and  Spain,  began 
their  incursions  beyond  thePyrennees  asearlyas  a.d.  715.*  Their 
armies  were  composed,  not  of  Arabs  only,  but  also  of  Moors, 
Kabils,  or  African  Berbers,  and  Jews,  at  that  time  numerous  in 
Spain,  t  In  an  anthropological  point  of  view,  these  diverse  races 
vastly  differed  in  characters ;  for  even  now  the  Arab  and  the 
Kabil,  living  in  Algeria,  vary  very  sensibly.  "  The  Berber,''  says 
M.  Pruner-Bey,J  "is  generally  distinguished  from  the  Arab 
by  a  higher  stature,  by  a  cerebral  and  facial  cranium  broader 
in  its  transverse  diameter;  his  forehead  is  more  vertical, 
well  developed  in  every  direction,  and  little  produced;  his 
eyebrows  are  less  arched,  and  are  sometimes  nearly  united 
together.  The  jaws  are  entirely  orthognathous.  The  Berber 
has  less  delicate  features  than  the  Arab.  The  craniometrical 
mensurations,  taken  by  one  of  our  colleagues  §  on  eleven  Ara- 
bian heads  and  fourteen  Kabil  heads,  fully  confirm  these  dif- 
ferences.'* 

Up  to  A.D.  759,  when  the  Frank  King  P^pin  took Narbonne,  the 
Saracens  occupied  Septimania,  overran  the  Albigeois,  Ruergue, 

*  Beinaud,  Invdsiona  of  the  Saracens  into  France  and  into  Savoy,  Piedmont, 
and  Switzerland,  1836,  Paris. 

t  Ihid.,  pp.  7  and  240.     Depping,  The  Jews  in  the  Middle  Ages,  1834,  p.  31. 

J  Memoirs  de  la  Soci^t^  Anthropologique  de  Paris,  vol.  i,  pp.  413, 414. 

§  "  Besults  of  Craniometry,"  M6moires  de  la  8oc,  d*Anthrop,,  y,  11,  p.  432. 


Antfro-pos- 

t4;riur  dia* 

metor. 

Biparietal 
diameter. 

138 

Horizontal 

circumfer- 

enoe. 

Relation  of  Lon- 
gitudinal &  traus- 
Terse  diameters. 

Berbers, 

Kabils,  and  Moors 

184 

526 

1000  :  760 

Arabs 

. 

178 

135 

505 

1000  ;  759 

Jews 

•        *        •        * 

175 

131 

486 

1000  :  750 

158      LAGNEAU  ON  THE  SARACENS  IN  FRANCE,  ETC. 

Gevaudan,  and  Velay  provinces,  and  advanced   northwards, 
both  into  Burgundy  and  beyond  Poictiors. 

The  small  peninsula,  Le  Veron,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Vienne  river  into  the  Loire,  is,  to  all  appearances,  still  inhabited 
by  the  descendants  of  some  Saracens  who  escaped  death  at  the 
battle  fought  between  Charles  Martel  and  Abd-erah-mam,  near 
Poictiers,  They  are  still  remarkable  for  their  dark  complexion, 
elongated  faces,  very  black  hair,  and  melancholy.* 

The  M^doc  ^'Landes"  were  likewise  a  district  of  refuge  for 
the  vanquished  dispersed  after  this  long  battle  by  "  Eudes,'* 
duke  of  Aquitaine,  and,  according  to  tradition,  they  built 
the  village  of  Vendays,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are  still  at 
present  distinguished  by  features  very  typical  of  the  east. 
Their  women  are  remarkably  beautiful.  Even  their  horses  are 
still  considered  of  Arabian  race.f 

Doctors  Russicre  and  Vincent  J  have  equally  noticed  in  the 
''  Creuse'*  department,  near  ChAtillon,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Montmaury  (or  Mountain  of  the  Moors)  inhabitants  of  a  high 
size,  light  frame,  dark  brown  skin,  nervous  temperament,  Uvely 
imagination,  and  apparently  descended  also  from  Arabian  fugi- 
tives, some  of  whom  had  introduced  carpet  making  at  Au- 
busson. 

When  the  Mussulman  armies  were  obliged  to  recross  the 
Pyrenees,  numbers  of  Saracens  remained  in  France.  Charle- 
magne gave,  to  those  Saracens  who  became  Christians,  lands  in 
the  vicinity  of  Narbonne.  Some  ancient  families  of  Languedoc 
consider  themselves  of  that  origin. § 

At  a  later  period,  these  Saracens,  after  having  occupied  Ca- 
margue,  settled  in  a.d.  889  at  the  Castle  of  Fraxinet  (now  the  vil- 
lage of  La  Garde  Frainet)  in  the  Gulf  of  Tropez,  near  mountains 
there  again  called  Mountains  of  the  Moors.  In  the  same  manner 
in  the  Maritime  Alps,  Esa  built  in  terraces  on  a  steep  rock  ||  the 

•  Fod^r6,  Vayages  aux  Alpea  Maritimea,  p.  68,  Paris,  1821. 

t  "Le  Littoi-al  de  la  France";  "Eiis6e  Beclos";  Revrie  des  Deux  Mondes, 
Aoftt,  1863. 

X  F.  Vincent,  "  Etudes  d'Anthropol.  sur  le  D^partement  de  la  Creuse", 
Bulletin  de  la  8oc,  det  Sciences  Naturellea  d'Anthrop.  de  la  Crease,  vol.  iv,  p.  50, 
1865. 

§  Reinaud,  vol.  i,  p.  1)7,  etc.  ||  Ma^<isxn  Pittorcsque,  p.  lis,  1861. 


LAQNBAU  ON  THE  SARACENS  IN  PRANCE,  ETC.      159 

St.  Hospice  Peninsula;  Bordigher,*  where  palm  trees  are 
^rown,and  some  other  districts  of  the  Littoral,  became  stations  of 
Saracens.  In  a.d.  941  Hugues,  king  of  Italy  and  Provence,  made 
over  to  them  lands  in  the  Hills  of  Maurian,  of  Tarantaise,  and 
Faucigny.t  From  their  mountains  they  spread  into  the  plains 
of  the  south-east  of  France.  Being  driven  from  the  environs  of 
Grenoble,  about  a.d.  965,  Guillaurae,  count  of  Provence,  caused 
them  the  loss  of  the  Castle  of  Fraxinet ;  J  but  they  were  ex- 
pelled from  the  Savoy  Mountains  only  in  the  eleventh  century.  § 
At  the  present  time  there  still  exist  descendants  of  those 
Saracens  between  Annecy  and  Chamb^ry  in  the  plain  of 
Bauges.  || 

According  to  Fodere,1[  the  elephantiasis  of  the  Arabs,  ob- 
served in  Provence  and  in  Liguria,  is  the  sad  inheritance  of 
these  easterns. 

As  to  the  Saracens  of  Burgundy,  they  appear  to  have  in- 
vaded that  region  during  the  eighth  century,  after  having  mas- 
sacred, in  the  Velay  in  a.d.  729,  St.  Theofrede,  abbot  of  Amnoric, 
now  "monastier;*'**  whilst,  in  the  meanwhile,  the  Alp  Saracens 
made  frequent  irruptions  into  the  plains  of  the  east  of  France. 
Dom  Mabellon  records  that  they  destroyed,  in  a.d.  782,  the  Con- 
vent of  He  Barbe  at  Lyons  ("  Apud  Lugdunum  Insulaj-Barbaras 
Monasterium'^)  .ft 

Lately  Dr.  Perier  found  at  Chazay  d'Azergues,JJ  in  the 
Rhone  Department,  near  the  cave  still  called  the  "  Sarraziniere,*' 
a  skull  which,  after  its  conformation,  appeared  to  him  as  coming 


•  Gillebert  d'Hericourt,  Gazette  MMcale  de  Lyons,  pp.  98  and  153,  1862. 

t  Pod^r^*,  vol.  i,  p.  45. 

X  Reinaud,  pp.  205-209,  etc. 

§  Hadry-Menos,  *'  La  Savoio  depuis  rAnnexation",  Bevae  des  Deux  Mondes, 
Nov.  15,  1862. 

I!  Gosse,  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d*Anthrop.,  vol.  ii,  1861.  Caffe,  Journal  dcs  Con- 
naissances  J\Udicale8,  p.  159,  April  10,  1862. 

%  Foder6,  vol.  i,  p.  69 ;  and  vol.  iv,  du  Journal  Complementaire  du  Diction- 
noire  des  Sciences  MiUlicales. 

•*  Congris  Scientifique  de  France,  22nd  session,  1855,  vol.  i,  p.  612 ;  vol.  ii, 
p.  482,  communication  of  Messrs.  Carmue  and  Aymard. 

ft  Dom.  Johan.  Mabillon,  Annates  Ordinis  Benedicti,  vol.  ii,  p.  89. 

XX  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d^Anthrop.  de  Pan^,  vol.  vi,  p.  22-i. 


IGO      LAONEAU  ON  THE  SARACENS  IN  PRANCE,  ETC. 

from  those  Saracens  who  built  forts,  now  in  ruins,  at  Ghftteaa- 
Gaillard  and  at  La  Motte-Saracen  between  Ambronay  and 
Varambron,  in  the  "  Ain''  Department.* 

North  of  Macon  and  south  of  Tournus,  on  both  banks  of  the 
Saone,  there  are,  on  one  side,  the  villages  of  Boz,  Ozan,  Arbigny, 
and  Sermoyer,  whose  inhabitants  call  themselves  Burkins;  and 
on  the  other,  the  village  of  Uchizy,  whose  inhabitants  go  by 
the  name  of  Chizerots,  In  contradiction  to  M.  Reboud,  M. 
Reinaudf  seems  to  doubt  their  Saracen  origin.  In  1862  I 
went  to  Uchizy  and  Arbigny ;  several  persons  there  told  me 
themselves  that  they  were  of  Arabian  or  Saracenic  origin.  In 
the  midst  of  numerous  individuals,  having  apparently  no  very 
distinct  anthropological  characters,  some  very  black  haired 
women  diflFered  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighbourhood  by 
their  tall  and  slender  figure;  their  elongated  faces,  without 
malar  prominences,  by  their  uniform  and  dark  complexion,  by 
their  large  eyes,  long  eye-lashes,  black,  thick  and  arched  eye- 
brows, by  their  physiognomy,  melancholy,  yet  regular  and 
beautiful ;  for  one  of  these  young  Chizerotes,  when  the  French 
empress  passed  through  Macon,  had  been  appointed,  as  the  most 
beautiful  girl  of  the  whole  district,  to  offer  a  bouquet  to  her 
sovereign.     That  type  seems  more  Arabian  than  Berberic. 

Those  Saracens,  whose  descendants  are  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  Saone,  according  to  Dom  Jean  Mabillon,  destroyed 
Autun  (AugiLstodunum) ,  pulled  down  the  abbey  of  Beze  (wo- 
nasterium  Besuense)  near  Dijon  (Divis),  attacked  Sens  {Sernonea) 
whence  they  were  repulsed  by  Ebbon  in  a.d.  732,  and  lastly  mas- 
sacred St.  Mellin  and  his  monks  in  the  monastery  of  Luxeuil : 
Nee  hvjus  cladis  expcrs  ])a^a8  Vesontionensis,  ubi  monasterio 
Luxioviotum  proserat  ahbas  Mellinus  numeroso  ccetui  monacho^ 
rum,  qui  una  cum  abhafe  ccen^i  sunt,% 

Saracens,  who  devastated  our  provinces  of  the  east,  are  also 
mentioned  in  Li  lloinans  dl  Oarin  le  Loherain.     Not  only  is  it 

*  Bibaad,  "  Sur  VOrigrine,  les  Moeurs,  et  les  Usages  de  quelques  com- 
ninnes  da  Departement  de  TAin,  voisines  de  la  Sadne»"  Mimoire  de  VAcad. 
Celtique,  vol.  v,  p.  6,  etc.,  1810. 

t  Ibid.,  p.  802. 

X  Vol.  ii,  pp.  88,  89,  etc. 


LAON£An  ON  THE  SARACENS  IN  FRANCE,  ETC.       161 

therein  alluded  to  diverse  engage m en ts  fought  by  Charles 
Martel,  after  which  the  pagans,  expelled  from  Sens,  fled  as  far 
as  Troyes : — 

"  Vont  s'eu  fuiant  Paten  &  Sajrrasin, 
Qui  eechappa  mont  se  tint  k  gaxi 
Deci  k  Troies  ne  prenent  oncqnes  fin."* 

But  we  read  also  of  Hervis,  duke  of  Metz,  begging  for  pro- 
tection from  king  P^pin  in  vain,  against  the  Saracens  besieging 
his  fief  and  laying  waste  the  valley  of  Metz  : 

"  Qa'en  vostre  fief  m'ont  Sarrasins  asais, 
Le  Yal  de  Mez  pechoie  et  mal  mis.f 

These  easterns  would  appear  to  have  dwelt  some  years  in 
that  region,  for  the  slaughter  of  the  monks  of  Luxeuil  goes  as 
far  back  as  a.d.  732,  according  to  Mabillon,  and  P^pin,  who  was 
petitioned  by  this  duke  of  Metz,  succeeded  Charles  Martel  in 
A.D.  741  only. 

M.  de  Saulcy,  in  his  excavations  at  Crainvilliers,  near  Con- 
trexeviUe,  has  found,  in  the  midst  of  skulls  and  bones  since 
forwarded  to  the  Anthropological  Gallery  of  the  Paris  Museum, 
a  plate  covered  with  Arabic  characters  (letters)  upon  which  the 
name  of  Ali  can  be  seen  twice.  These  bones  and  this  archado- 
logical  specimen  are  in  all  likelihood  the  vestiges  (signs)  of  a 
fight  with  these  Saracens.  J 

Moreover,  in  the  tenth  century,  long  after  the  Saracens'  re- 
treat, towards  the  south,  the  inhabitants  of  Verdun  were  still 
carrying  on  with  them  a  strange  commerce.  The  bishop  of 
Cr^mone,  Liutprand,  being  sent  in  a.d.  948  by  the  king  of  Italy, 
B^ranger  II,  to  the  emperor  of  the  East,  Constantine  VIII,  has 
left  records  that  amongst  other  presents  which  he  was  to  offer, 
there  were  four  carsamatia,  or  eunuchs,  of  whom  the  Verdun 
merchants  were  making  a  very  lucrative  trade  with  Spain. 

"  Obtuli  autem  loricas  optimaa  ix,  ,  .  ,  mancepia,  quatuor 
carsamatia  imperatari  'nominates  omnibus  preciosora,  Carsa^ 
matnm  autem  Groeci  vocant  amputatis  virilibus  et  virga  puerum 


*  Li  Romans  di  Qarin  le  Loherain,  vol.  i.  Song  i,  §  xiii,  Paris,  1833. 
t  Ibid.,  §  xvii,  p.  52. 

♦  Revue  Arch^ologique,  nouvellc  8^'rie,  vol.  viii,  p.  351,  Sept.  1863. 

VOL.  III.  M 


162       LAONEAU  ON  THE  SARACENS  IN  FRANCE,  ETC. 

cumichum;  qnos  Verdunenses  mercatores  oh  immensum  lucrum 
facere  solent,  et  in  Hispaniam  dncereJ'* 

As  regards  the  Saracens  of  our  east  provinces,  it  is  well  to 
remark  with  Dom  Mabillon,t  Charles  Lecointe,J  and  M. 
Reinaud,§  that  the  ancient  historians  and  "  romancers,^'  have 
often  confounded  them  with  the  Vandals.  This  confusion, 
doubtless,  comes  from  the  sojourn  of  these  latter  in  Africa, 
whence,  at  a  later  period,  the  Saracens  issued  to  pass  into  Spain 
and  invaded  our  country.  In  the  Ramans  di  Garin  le  Loherain 
the  Saracens  are  sometimes  spoken  of  under  the  name 
"Wandres."||  Sometimes  also  the  name  of  ^'Hongres'^  is 
given  to  them.^f  The  "  Hongres"  were  a  diflferent  people,  but 
pagans  equally,  who  had,  however,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Franks, 
adopted  Christianity.  They  were  doubtless  the  descendants  of 
the  ''  Huns,''  a  colony  of  which  had  been  established  between 
La  Nahe,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Moselle,  in  a  district  called  then 
''  tractus  Hunnorum,''  and  now  ''  Hundsruck''** ;  or  from  the 
Hungarians,  issued  from  a  mixture  of  Hungarees,  Slavonians, 
and  Magyars,  which  at  a  later  period,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  tenth  century,  invaded  France  several  times, ft  and  en- 
countered there  the  Saracens,  J  J  then  masters  of  the  Alps  and 
the  adjacent  countries. 


*  Liatprandi,  Historia,  toI.  ii,  cap.  iii,  1723.  f  Loc,  cU,,  p.  88. 

X  CaroIuB  Leoointe,  Annales  Ecclesicutici  Francorum,  vol.  W,  p.  728,  1670. 

§  Loc.  cit..  Introduction,  pp.  34  to  38,  and  p.  3l»  notes, 

II  Ibid,,  §  i,  p.  1 ;  and  §  ix,  p.  22.  %  Ibid.,  §  xvii,  p.  51. 

**  BooiUet,  Diet.  Hist,  et  04og.,  Handsmck. 

ft  Le  Dussieux,  Essai  Hist,  sur  les  Invunans  des  Hongrois,  1834. 

Xt  Beinaud,  loe.  cit.,  p.  183. 


1(3:3 


XI. — On  tlie  Ancient  or  FosM  Pottery  found  on  the  Shores  of 
Ecuador,     By  William  Bollaert,  F.R.G.S. 

I  HAYS  lately  received  a  collection  of  very  ancient  and  in- 
teresting Indian  pottery  from  the  north  coasts  of  Ecuador. 
These  specimens  have  been  sent  to  me  by  my  friend,  James  S. 
Wilson,  Esq.,  an  old  Australian  explorer,  but  now  the  Super- 
intendent of  the  Ecuador  Land  Company^s  Settlement  at  Pai- 
lon  of  San  Pedro,  in  Ecuador.  I  think  these  remains  worthy 
of  scientific  notice,  in  consequence  of  their  being  the  first  spe- 
cimens brought  to  Europe.  They  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  plastic  art  in  that  portion  of  the  New  World, 
long  before  its  discovery  by  the  Spaniards.  I  will  now  give 
extracts  from  Mr.  Wilson's  letters  to  me. 

''  San  Lorenzo,  De^,  23,  1860. 

''At  various  points  of  the  coast  of  Esmeraldas  may  be 
observed  banks  of  alluvial  clay,  standing  six  or  eight  feet 
above  tide-level  in  the  rivers  and  estuaries.  While  I  was  ex- 
amining the  Island  of  Santa  Rosa,  I  visited  a  spot  where  In- 
dian remains  were  said  to  exist.  I  found  a  quantity  of  broken 
pottery,  of  vessels,  images,  and  other  objects ;  and  I  was  told 
that  women  frequented  the  place  to  wash  for  gold.  I  found 
the  pottery  in  a  stratum,  one  foot  thick,  of  black  vegetable 
mould,  which  was  covered  by  a  bed  of  yellowish  clay  six  feet 
thick.  On  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Tola  {V  75'  N.)  similar 
remains  are  found,  in  a  like  position.  I  have  collected  some 
of  the  figures  for  you.  I  suspected  that  the  gold  found  there 
was  wrought  gold ;  and  on  inquiry  was  told  that  it  was  partly 
in  scales,  like  spangles,  with  holes  through  them,  so  as  to 
stitch  the  same  to  cloth. 

"  The  place  is  a  geological  curiosity,  the  sea  having  risen 
slowly  until  it  attained  six  feet  above  the  surface,  where  these 
people  had  evidently  lived  for  centuries;  that  the  sea  had 
again  retreated,  until  the  stratum  had  again  nearly  attained  its 
former  altitude.  The  sea  is  again  encroaching  slowly  all  along 
the  coast." 

M  2 


164  BOLLAJSET   ON   ANCIENT   FOSSIL  POTTERY. 

Under  date,  Campana,  July  25tli,  1861,  Mr.  Wilson  writes 
to  me :  "  The  pottery  antiquities  are  sent  to  you.  ...  I  have 
purchased  for  the  Ecuador  Land  Company  a  few  small  gold 
articles,  found  in  one  of  those  islands,  called  Tolitas  {tola  means 
a  tomb) ;  they  are  found  in  a  stratum  of  ancient  surface-earth, 
amongst  broken  pottery,  and  covered  with  an  alluvial  deposit, 
often  six  feet  thick.*' 

At  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1 862,  among  other  objects  from 
Ecuador  was  the  ancient  pottery  in  question.  The  following 
is  from  a  Report :  '^  In  the  centre  of  the  court  is  a  case  con- 
taining Indian  antiquities,  including  an  Inca  sceptre,  and  the 
dried  head  of  an  Indian  of  the  Jivaro  tribe.*  In  the  same 
case  are  gold  ornaments  from  Molletura  and  Pailon.  A  few 
specimens  of  very  rude  ancient  Indian  pottery  from  Pailon  .*' 
This  is  what  I  have  called  Fossil  Pottery,  sent  to  me  by 
Mr.  Wilson,  and  which  I  have  deposited  in  the  British  Museum. 

Description  of  the  Pottei'y, — It  appears  to  have  been  buried 
under  the  sea,  then  raised,  probably  by  earthquake  movements. 

1.  Large  bead  and  portion  of  bast,  which  may  represent  one  of  the  monkey 

tribe,  probably  the  Horro,  said  by  the  historian,  Velasco,  to  be  very 
large.  (Mr.  BoUaert  has  now  a  cranium  of  this  animal  in  his  possession.) 
This  specimen,  as  well  as  the  rest,  is  moulded  of  a  sandy  marl,  and 
only  sun-dried. 

2.  Portion  of  a  human  £EU3e,  ear  bored. 

8.  Small  head,  hollow, — a  good  specimen  of  art. 
4.  Small  head  of  old  man. 

6,  6.  Two  other  heads. 

7.  A  small  mask. 

8.  A  grotesque  head. 

9,  10.  Heads  of  animals,  may  be  of  the  peccary. 
11, 12.  Sitting  figures. 

13, 14.  Two  fiat  pieces  of  pottery,  studded  on  one  side  with  small  chips  of 
siliceous  crystals,* — used  as  a  rasp  or  grater. 

15.  A  foot. 

16,  17.  Two  small  vessels. 

18  to  20.  Portions  of  figures. 

•  See  Trans,  Ethnol.  Boe.  for  description  of,  1863,  by  W.  Bollaert ;  also 
an  account  of  a  drawing  in  Intellectual  Observer,  March  1862.  There  is  a 
specimen  of  a  similar  head  now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  photographs  at 
the  Anthropological  Society. 

t  See  Markham  "  On  Quartz-Cutting  Implements  of  the  Ancient  Inhabit- 
ants of  Cbanduy,  near  Guayaquil,"  Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Society 
vol.  ii,  p.  Ivii,  1864. 


BOLLAERT   OX   iiNCIENT   FOSSIL   POTTERY.  165 

On  some  of  the  pottery,  shells  are  seen  firmly  attached, 
probably  of  the  Ostrea  family;  also  others.  Specimens  of 
these  were  sent  to  Sir  B.  Murchison  in  1866. 

In  June  1862,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Geographical  Society, 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison  gave  Mr.  Wilson's  letter  to  him  of 
25th  April,  1862,  on  the  subject  of  this  ancient  pottery  and  its 
geological  position,  when  Sir  Roderick  made  the  following 
remarks : — *'  The  discoveries  he  (Mr.  Wilson)  has  made  of  the 
existence  of  the  works  of  man,  in  a  stratum  of  mould  beneath 
the  sea-level,  and  covered  by  several  feet  of  clay, — the  pheno- 
menon being  persistent  for  sixty  miles, — are  of  the  highest  in- 
terest to  physical  geographers  and  geologists.  These  facts 
seem  to  demonstrate  that,  within  the  human  period,  the  lands 
on  the  west  coast  of  Equatorial  America  were  depressed  and  sub- 
merged; and  that  after  the  accumulation  of  marine  clays 
above  the  terrestrial  relics,  the  whole  coast  was  elevated  to  its 
present  position.^' 

Extract  of  letter,  Quito,  Jan.  3,  1865,  from  J.  S.  Wilson  to 
W.  BoUaert : — ''  I  am  anxious  to  perform  another  journey  to 
the  coast,  that  I  may  have  an  opportunity  of  making  further 
observations  on  the  strata  containing  relics  of  human  art.  .  .  . 
This  extensive  coast  and  river  formation  has  afforded  me 
grounds  for  much  speculation,  even  before  the  discovery  of 
those  ancient  relics,  in  France  and  elsewhere,  was  published 
by  Sir  C.  Lyell.  It  is  as  old,  geologically,  as  the  drift  strata 
of  Europe  in  which  those  relics  were  found;  and  I  believe  it 
to  be  identical  with  that  of  Guayaquil,  in  which  the  bones  of 
Mastodon  are  met  with,  and  from  this  circumstance  named 
"The  Field  of  Giants.''  Under  such  considerations,  we  find 
the  people  of  South  America  (or  more  properly  Tropical  Ame- 
rica) more  advanced  in  civilisation,  during  the  Mastodon  period, 
than  those  of  Europe,  indicated  by  those  relics  of  pottery  and 
wrought  gold, — in  the  manufacture  of  the  former  they  excelled 
the  people  of  Ecuador  of  the  present  day,  whether  of  American 
or  European  origin.  What  now  becomes  of  the  theories  which, 
represent  America  peopled  from  China,  when  at  this  period  we 
find  America  possessed  of  a  somewhat  civilised  people  before 
China  became  a  nation  ?  indeed,  I  could  produce  arguments  to 


166  BOLLAEBT   ON    ANCIENT    FOSSIL   POTTERY. 

prove  that  the  tide  of  migration  flowed  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion/' 

In  1 866,  there  was  read  at  the  Geological  Society, ''  Geological 
Notes  of  the  Pacific  Coast  of  Ecuador,  and  on  some  Evidences 
of  the  Antiquity  of  Man  in  that  region/'  by  Mr.  Wilson,  ab- 
stract of  which,  with  a  section,  is  given  in  the  November  num- 
ber of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society.* 

*  In  the  Qeologieal  and  Natural  History  Repertory,  vol.  i  ( 1865-7),  p.  345, 
will  be  found  Mr.  Wilson's  paper  in  full,  with  sections  at  the  town  of  Esme- 
raldas,  and  of  the  point  of  Ohancama. 


1G7 


XII. — Is  the  Character  of  the  Scotch  the  Expression  of  the  Soil 
of  Scotland?    By  John  Cleghoen,  F.A.S.L. 

Before  I  attempt  to  answer  this  question  I  shall  explain  how  I 
have  had  my  attention  called  to  the  subject^  show  you  the  steps 
through  which  I  have  been  led  to  give  my  answer^  and  thus 
induce  yon,  perhaps,  to  acquiesce  in  my  conclusions. 

About  fifteen  years  ago  I  gave  a  lecture  in  Wick,  "  On  the 
Surface  Geology  of  Caithness,^'  and  in  that  lecture  I  said  that 
our  best  cereals,  our  best  cattle,  and  our  best  men  and  women, 
were  raised  on  the  boulder  clay ;  and  that  where  it  was  awant- 
ing,  as  on  the  top  levels,  there  crops  were  scanty,  the  cattle 
poor,  and  the  men  and  women  miserable.  Intelligent  farmers 
who  heard  me,  and  who  knew  the  county  well,  saw  that  what 
I  said  was  true,  and  now,  with  us,  good  men  and  women  are 
looked  for  on  the  boulder  clay  only.  You  may  be  very  sure 
that  since  then  I  must  often  have  turned  the  matter  over  in  my 
mind,  looking  for  "  the  reason  why'^ ;  but  I  never  was  induced 
to  give  the  subject  much  thought  till  about  a  year  ago,  when 
my  friend.  Dr.  Arthur  Mitchell,  came  to  Wick.  In  a  conver- 
sation I  had  with  him,  I  said,  "  There  surely  must  be  a  great 
difference  between  the  east  and  west  country  Scotch" ;  but  on  his 
asking  me  why  there  must  be  this  difference  I  found  the  answer 
I  should  give  did  not  satisfy  myself,  and  I  was  sure  it  would  not 
satisfy  so  precise  and  correct  a  thinker  as  Dr.  Mitchell.  I  there- 
fore held  my  tongue,  but  ever  since  his  question  has  haunted 
me.  At  that  time  I  -had  a  vague  notion  that  the  depressing 
east  wind  on  the  one  side,  and  the  soft  western  breezes  on  the 
other,  might  be  agents  sufficient  to  give  distinctive  features  to 
those  constantly  subject  to  their  influence ;  but  a  little  reflection 
let  me  see  that  in  Caithness  the  inhabitants  of  each  of  its 
parishes  have  distinctive  features,  and  a  distinctive  dialect,  as 
well  as  a  parochial  idiosyncrasy ;  that  on  the  east  coast  of  Scot- 
land each  county  had  its  own  dialect  and  type  face ;  and  that  the 
same  was  true  of  the  west  coast  popubitions,  which  would  nob 


168  CLEOHOBN   ON    THE   CHARACTEB   OF   THE    SCOTCH. 

have  been  the  case  were  the  east  and  west  winds  the  agents  at 
work  in  producing  these  characteristics ;  in  shorty  I  found  I  was 
quite  at  sea  on  the  subject. 

T]i4^  climate  of  the  east  and  west  coasts. — After  Dr.  Mitchell 
had  left  us  I  began  to  try  and  solve  his  question.  I  first 
ascertained  what  is  known  of  the  character  of  the  east  and  west 
winds  on  both  sides  of  the  island.  As  to  the  east  wind  Dr. 
Mitchell  pointed  out  to  me  that,  being  a  cold  and  dry  wind,  it 
had  great  capacity  for  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture,  and 
that  in  its  passage  across  the  German  ocean  to  us,  it  reached 
us  not  only  dry,  but  a  drying  wind,  therefore  in  its  land  journey 
westward  it  retained  its  character  of  dryness  and  coldness,  and 
was  there  as  much  complained  of  as  with  us  on  the  east 
coast. 

Eegarding  the  west  wind,  I  found  Ray,  in  his  work  The 
Wisdom  of  God  in  the  Creation,  quoted  Gsdsar  as  saying  of  the 
west  wind,  ''  Magnam  partem  omnis  temporis  in  his  locis  flare 
consuevif' ;  it  is  wont  to  blow  in  these  quarters  a  great  part 
of  the  whole  year, ''  which  observation",  says  Ray,  "  holds  true 
to  this  day,  the  wind  lying  in  that  quarter  at  least  three-quarters 
of  the  whole  year.*'  And  he  says  this  appears  from  the  trees, 
which  grow  on  and  near  the  sea  shores  all  along  the  western 
coast  of  England,  whose  heads  and  boughs  I  have  observed  to 
run  far  to  landward,  but  toward  the  sea  to  be  snubbed  by  the 
winds,  as  if  their  boughs  and  leaves  had  been  pared  off  on  that 
side.  Now  I  observe  this  snubbing  off  of  the  boughs  of  trees 
on  their  west  sides,  is  as  true  at  Wick  as  on  the  west  coast  of 
England.  I  saw,  moreover,  that  the  feal-dykes  in  the  county 
had  their  south-west  sides  bare  of  vegetation  compared  to  their 
north  and  east  sides ;  and  that  all  our  old  castles  are  in  a  more 
dilapidated  state  on  their  south  and  west  than  on  their  north 
and  east  sides.  The  trees,  the  feal-dykes,  and  the  old  castles 
of  Caithness,  seemed  to  me  to  proclaim  that  the  west  wind,  soft 
although  it  be,  yet  from  its  constancy  and  its  wetness  is  a  more 
potent  agent  of  change  in  the  physical  world  than  the  east  with 
all  its  bad  name ;  and  this  character  of  it  is  borne  out  by  what 
Dr.  Mitchell  says,  viz.,  "  We  have  in  Scotland  thrice  as  much 
>viiid  from  the  south-west  as  we  have  from  the  north-cast,  and 


CLBOHOBN   ON   THE   CHARACTEB  OF  THE   fiCOTCH.  169 

it  comes  to  us  charged  with  moisture^  which  it  readily  parts 
with^  so  that  it  is  a  rainy  wind.  As  to  the  temperature  of  the 
two  sides  the  difference  is  not  greater  than  that  between  two 
districts  in  several  of  the  east  counties ;  and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  rainfall  on  the  two  sides.  I  therefore  concluded  that  the 
climatic  condition  of  the  east  and  west  coasts  are  nearly  one^  or 
so  alike  as  not  to  cause  any  great  difference  between  the  east 
and  west  country  populations. 

The  Area  of  the  Boulder-Clay. — So  far  as  we  Scotch  were 
concerned^  then,  I  gave  up  climate  as  a  race  producer.  At  this 
stage  of  my  investigations  what  I  had  said  fifteen  years  before, 
of  the  relation  between  the  boulder  clay  and  the  organisms  on 
it,  recurred  to  me,  and  I  asked  myself  did  the  same  relations 
hold  true  over  wider  areas  than  I  had  yet  examined,  and  this 
is  what  I  found.  "  The  distribution  of  these  drift  deposits  in 
Scotland,'^  says  Professor  Nicol,  speaking  of  the  boulder  clay, 
"  is  very  distinct.  It  divides  the  country  into  two  strongly 
contrasted  regions — an  eastern  and  a  western.  Their  boundary 
is  marked  generally  by  a  line  which,  beginning  on  the  Clyde 
near  Dumbarton,  runs  north-east  by  Callander  and  Crieff  and 
thence  round  by  the  head  waters  of  the  Dee  and  Spey,  along 
Monag-Leadh  mountains  to  near  Inverness.  Thence  it  passes 
round  the  Beauly,  Cromarty,  and  Dornoch  firths,  by  the  western 
declivities  of  Ben-Wyvis  and  the  foot  of  Loch  Shin,  onwards  to 
the  north  coast.  Each  of  the  great  regions  separated  by  this 
line  has  its  own  marked  and  peculiar  character.  The  eastern 
all  over  the  low  grounds  and  high  up  over  the  mountains,  is 
covered  with  a  thick  mass  of  boulder  clay  and  upper  stratified 
drift.  In  the  western  the  boulder  clay  is  scarcely  known ;  the 
rocks  are  bare  and  exposed,  or  in  the  valleys  covered  with  a 
thin  coat  of  local  detritus,  chiefly  water- worn  sands,  or  gravels. 
The  east  is  a  land  of  enormous  depositions,  the  west  one  of 
equal  waste  and  transport/^ 

Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  said  of  the  west  highlands :  "  Your 
country  consists  of  two  things,  stone  and  water.  There  is, 
indeed,  a  little  earth  above  the  stone  in  some  places,  but  very 
little ;  and  the  stone  is  always  appearing ;  it  is  like  a  man  in 
rags — the  naked  skin  is  still  peeping  out/'  Having  thus  found 


170  CLEQHOBN   ON   THE   CHARACTER   OF   THE    SCOTCH. 

the  area  of  the  boalder  clay  iu  Scotlaud  we  shall  now  consider 
the  organisms  ou  it  and  off  it. 

The  Organisms  on  and  off  the  Boulder  Clay. — "  The  west," 
says  Professor  Nicol,  '^  is  a  land  of  naked  rocks,  lochs,  and 
black  moors.  The  east  is  a  land  of  noble  trees  and  fertile  fields, 
of  carses  waving  with  crops  of  golden  com."  Is  this  descrip- 
tion borne  oat  by  the  retams  of  the  crops,  &c.,  &c.,  on  the  two 
sides  ?  I  think  it  is.  I  have  taken  the  Board  of  Trade  retams 
for  1866,  relating  to  the  popalation,  area,  acreage  of  crops,  corn 
crops,  aud  the  namber  of  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  following 
coanties  on  the  east  and  west  of  Scotland,  dividing  the  coantry 
as  near  as  I  can  to  harmonise  with  the  line  indicated  by  Pro- 
fessor Nicol.  The  counties  on  the  east  are  Aberdeen,  Banff, 
Berwick,  Caithness,  Clackmannan,  Edinburgh,  Elgin  or  Moray, 
Fife,  Forfar,  Haddington,  Kincardine,  Kinross,  Linlithgow, 
Nairn,  Peebles,  Perth,  and  Selkirk.  On  the  west — Argyle, 
Ayr,  Bute,  Dumbarton,  Inverness,  Lanark,  Renfrew,  Ross  and 
Cromarty,  Stirling,  and  Sutherland. 

East — ^population,  1,330,989;  area,  6,868,348 ;  under  crop, 
2,328,212;  under  com,  872,141;  number  of  cattle,  440,476; 
number  of  sheep,  1,802,248.  West — population,  1,448,653; 
area,  10,102,637;  under  crop,  1,038,636;  under  com,  284,260; 
number  of  cattle,  353,253 ;  number  of  sheep,  2,304,046. 

Of  th6  comparative  value  of  the  com,  the  cattle,  and  the 
sheep  of  the  two  sides  these  returns  tell  us  nothing;  but 
knowing  that  the  western  slopes  of  boulder  clay  districts  in 
Caithness  afford  inferior  corn  to  north  and  east  exposures,  and 
that  farm  servants  in  Ross-shire  often  bargain  to  be  supplied 
with  Caithness  grown  oatmeal,  rather  than  that  grown  in  their 
own  county,  I  judge  that  west  country  com  must  indeed  be 
poor  stuff.  The  cattle,  too,  of  the  west  are,  I  believe,  unfit  for 
the  table  till  fattened  on  eastern  pastures ;  and  the  sheep  are, 
I  fancy,  like  the  cattle  in  this  respect,  for  a  Caithness  flock- 
master  tells  me  that  he  has  two  hirsels,  one  on  the  south-west 
and  the  other  on  the  north  and  east  of  a  mountain  range  in 
Caithness,  and  that  he  can  command  two  shillings  ahead  more 
for  the  sheep  reared  on  the  north  and  east  than  he  can  get  for 
those  on  the  south-wost  of  his  ground.  The  difference  in  value 


CLEGHOBl^   ON   THE   CHARACTER   OF   THE   SCOTCH.  171 

between  east  and  west  coantry  Scotch  sheep  must  surely  be 
very  striking.  But  when  we  know  that  Aberdeenshire  sends 
more  beef  and  mutton  to  the  London  market  than  all  Scotland^ 
we  must  infer  not  only  that  Aberdeenshire  must  be  a  very  re- 
markable county^  but  that  the  difference  in  value  in  the  cattle 
and  sheep  of  the  east  and  west  must  be  great  indeed^  seeing 
the  west  sends  none  there. 

Let  us  now  look  at  the  men  of  the  east  and  west. — On  the 
western  side  of  the  boundary  line  of  these  strongly  con- 
trasted regions  the  Gaelic  is  the  prevailing  language ;  on  the 
other  side  it  is  the  Saxon.  Out  of  the  eastern  counties  our  most 
distinguished  scholars  have  arisen.  Aberdeenshire  alone  has 
produced  a  greater  number  of  senior  wranglers  than  all  the  west 
of  Scotland.  On  the  east  we  have  three  universities,  our  re- 
ligious revolutions  have  had  their  rise  there ;  and  there  is  an 
individualism  in  the  east  countryman  that  seems  wanting  in  him 
of  the  west.  The  west  men  move  in  masses;  ^^ shoulder  to 
shoulder*'  is  their  motto.  At  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  in 
the  choice  they  made,  they  seem  to  have  been  governed  by  the 
leanings  of  their  chief,  and  at  the  disruption  they  moved  with  the 
minister.  The  clashing  of  minds  on  religion  is  little  heard  on 
the  west.  The  religion  of  the  west  may  be  shortly  characterised 
as  priest-worship;  that  of  the  east  as  self-worship.  On  the 
west  there  is  one  university ;  on  the  west  the  men  are  more 
remarkable  as  warriors  than  scholars.  As  evincing  that  the 
reasoning  faculties  are  less  in  use  on  the  west  than  on  the  east 
coast  a  Uttle  attention  to  the  Registrar  General's  returns  of 
births  and  marriages  will,  I  think,  demonstrate.  I  have  taken 
the  return  for  the  year  1864,  and  divided  the  country  as  before, 
and  found  the  births,  the  illegitimate  births,  and  marriages 
(the  illegitimate  percentage  given  is  the  mean  for  the  ten  years 
1855-1864),  and  this  is  what  is  found  : — 

„.  ...  111.  per  cent  Mar-  n^»h,         R««pinitory       Zymotic 

Birthfl.  foy  ^  ye^  riageii.  ^^'**"-  D^Uis.  Deaths. 

East  47,331    ...    10  per  cent.   ...    9,767   ...   30,360   ...  3,749   ...     7,749 
West  66,517    .,.      6  per  cent.   ...11,388   ...  39,055   ...   5,746   ...   10,508 

The  birthrate  of  the  west  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  east  rate, 
through  the  operation  of  this  law,  made  known  by  Doubleday  : 
"  Nature  only  causes  an  increased  productiveness  when  species 


172  CLBGHOBN    ON   THE   CHABACTEB   OF   THE   UCOTCH. 

is  put  in  danger^  and  in  the  ratio  of  the  danger/'  "  This  law," 
says  Doubleday,  ^'  runs  through  the  vegetable  and  animal  crea- 
tion. The  plant  or  animal  that  is  starved  as  to  natural  aUment, 
is  prolific  in  proportion.  Hence  all  rich  aristocracies  decrease, 
all  poor  communities  increase.  Nature,  by  this  beneficent  law, 
causes  luxury  to  be  barren,  to  stop  the  progress  of  disease, 
and  poverty  to  be  prolific,  to  save  the  species  from  extinction.'* 
In  a  comparison  of  the  English  and  Scotch  birthrates,  we  see 
the  same  truths  taught.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  English 
dietary  is,  in  quantity  and  quality,  far  higher  than  the  Scotch; 
and  the  Registrar-General  tells  us  that  in  Scotland  348  wives 
gave  birth  to  100  children,  while  it  requires  386  wives  in  Eng- 
land to  produce  100  children  in  the  year.  The  low  illegitimate 
rate  of  the  west,  apparently  so  indicative  of  thought,  may  be 
thus  explained.  The  dissuasives  from  illegitimacy  are  the  same 
on  the  east  that  they  are  on  the  west ;  it  follows,  then,  that  on 
the  east  the  promptings  must  be  stronger  than  the  dissuasives, 
while  on  the  west  the  dissuasives  must  outweigh  the  prompt- 
ings ;  therefore,  the  vw  vitce  must  be  less  energetic  on  the  west 
than  it  is  on  the  east.  That  this  must  be  the  cause  of  the  low 
illegitimate  rate  of  the  west  is  what  the  table,  showing  the 
produce  of  the  west,  would  imply ;  but  it  is  put  beyond  a  doubt 
by  these  facts,  that  the  bastardy  rate  of  the  east  is  highest  in 
the  counties  where  the  cereals  and  cattle  are  in  the  highest 
perfection,  and  the  higher  faculties  of  man  best  developed. 
The  highest  illegitimate  rate  on  the  east,  then,  evinces  in  its 
population  geii&i'ally  an  amount  of  restraint  so  great  as  can 
only  exist  among  men  and  women  of  a  high  order.  This  sen- 
timent is  well  expressed  by  Hume  when  portraying  Queen 
Elizabeth's  character.  He  says  :  ''  In  her  family,  in  her  court, 
in  her  kingdom,  she  remained  equally  mistress.  The  force  of 
the  tender  passion  was  great  over  her,  but  the  force  of  her 
mind  was  still  superior;  and  the  combat  which  her  victory 
cost  her  serves  only  to  display  the  visible  firmness  of  her  resolu- 
tion and  the  loftiness  of  her  ambitious  sentiments."  The  evils  of 
low  nutrition,  or  in  other  words,  the  want  of  soil,  is  further 
shown  in  the  high  marriage  rate  of  the  west.  Notwithstand- 
ing their  want  of  soil,  their  low  dietary,  and  the  consequent 


CLEGflORN   ON    THE   CHARACTER  OF  THE   SCOTCH.  173 

apathy  there  must  be  in  their  men  and  women^  their  slight 
promptings  to  marriage  are  at  once  gratified,  heedless  of  all 
the  evils  improvident  marriages  necessarily  entail.  Bat  the 
chronic  starvation  of  the  west  is  put  beyond  doubt  by  the  high 
deathrate  of  the  west.  Had  the  west  rate  been  that  of  the 
east,  the  deaths  would  have  been  34,133,  and  not  39,055,  as  we 
find  they  are ;  thus,  nearly  five  thousand  fall  a  prey  to  destitu- 
tion annually.  That  the  excess,  at  least,  arises  from  want  of 
nutriment,  appears  from  these  facts :  That  the  deaths  of  the 
west  from  affections  of  the  respiratory  organs  were  nearly  1,000 
in  excess  of  the  east  rate,  and  of  children  more  than  2,000  died 
in  excess  of  the  east  from  zymotic  diseases.  ''  Consumption," 
says  Dr.  Hewitt,  "  in  its  many  forms  and  disguises,  appears  to 
be  essentially  connected  with  want  of  food.'' 

We  see  that  this  diversity  cannot  be  attributed  to  climate, 
nor  can  we,  with  more  probability,  impute  it  to  the  boulder 
clay,  for  the  boulder  clay  is  seldom  that  in  which  the  plough 
works, — ^is  not  that  which  affords  us  food,  at  least  in  Caithness. 
I  judge  then  that  the  boulder  clay  cannot  affect  the  condition 
of  the  plants  or  animals  on  it.  But  to  what  cause  are  we  to 
attribute  the  strongly  contrasted  regions  pointed  out  by  Pro- 
fessor Nicol  ?  How  came  it  that  the  boulder  clay  fills  all  the 
valleys  on  the  eastern,  and  is  awanting  on  the  western  water- 
shed ?  By  finding  that  we  may  find  a  way  out  of  the  difficulties 
that  meet  us  when  we  would  investigate  the  distinctions  in  the 
form  and  in  the  customs  that  pervade  the  inhabitants.  To 
what  agent  are  we  to  attribute  '^  the  upper  stratified  drift''  that 
covers  the  boulder  clay,  and  what  is  its  character  ?  These  are 
questions  we  shall  now  try  to  answer,  and  having  done  that  we 
shall  look  at  man's  relation  to  the  soil. 

Since  the  above  was  written  I  learn  from  an  intelligent  pro- 
vision merchant  in  Wick,  that  no  two  parishes  in  Caithness 
afford  eggH  of  similar  quality ;  that  he  can  tell  from  the  taste 
of  the  egg  the  district  it  was  raised  on ;  that  the  same  is  true  of 
the  fowls,  and  more  decidedly  so  of  the  pork  and  the  butter ; 
and  that  the  meal  of  some  farms  had  in  it  all  those  qualities 
that  allayed  hunger,  that  built  up  the  eater,  in  greater  propor- 
tion than  the  meal  of  other  farms.     We  have  what  is  called 


174  CLEOHOEN   ON   THE   CHARACTER   OF   THE    SCOTCH. 

weak  meal  and  strong  meal.  This  variety,  1  judge,  must  be 
owing  to  their  chemical  constituents  being  different,  and  that 
this  variation  must  be  owing  to  variety  in  the  soils  on  which 
they  were  raised. 

If  this  be  true  of  the  food  out  of  which  man  is  elaborated, 
then  the  varieties  of  the  men  in  Caithness  are,  I  fancy,  to  some 
extent  explained.  I  was  strengthened  in  this  opinion  on  learn- 
ing the  general  belief,  that  a  boll  of  Murkle  oatmeal  is  held  to 
be  worth  a  boll  and  a  half  of  any  other  meal  raised  in  the 
county.  Overlooking  the  virtues  of  their  meal,  Murkle  masons 
will  persist  in  making  Murkle  doors  no  wider  than  doors  are 
generally,  forgetting  that  Murkle  men  and  women  are  of  a  very 
different  build,  have  a  breadth  far  from  common,  and  often 
stick  in  their  doors;  hence  the  phrase,  'Hhe  stick-doors  of 
Murkle.'^  Murkle  is  in  the  parish  of  Olrig ;  but  Dunnet,  its 
neighbour,  is  also  famous  for  good  meal,  good  potatoes,  butter, 
pork,  and  other  good  things.  Dunnet,  perhaps,  does  not  turn 
out  such  bulky  men  and  women  as  Olrig ;  but  I  know  it  turns 
out  intelligent  and  much-prized  maidservants,  a  greater  num- 
ber of  ship-captains,  and  more  master  masons  than  any  other 
parish  in  the  county ;  and  in  its  parish  minister — a  Dunnet 
man — ^it  has  the  most  popular  parish  minister  in  the  county. 

On  the  right  track. — From  what  has  thus  far  been  made  ap- 
parent, a  further  pursuit  of  our  inquiry,  on  the  same  track  we 
have  marked  out,  seems  to  me  to  be  fraught  with  important 
results.  That  this  course  has  not  hitherto  been  pursued  is, 
perhaps,  the  true  cause  that  anthropology  is  so  chaotic.  The 
error  hitherto  appears  to  me  to  be  that  which  stood  in  the  path 
of  geological  progress ;  viz.,  a  prevailing  persuasion  that  the 
ancient  and  existing  causes  of  change  were  different,  both  as 
regards  their  nature  and  energy.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  says, "  The 
first  observers  conceived  the  monuments,  which  the  geologist 
endeavours  to  decipher,  to  relate  to  an  original  state  of  the 
earth ;  or  to  a  period  when  there  were  causes  in  activity  dis- 
tinct in  kind  and  degree  from  those  now  constituting  the 
economy  of  nature.  These  views  were  gradually  modified,  and 
some  of  them  entirely  abandoned,  in  proportion  as  observations 
were  multiplied,  and  the  signs  of  former  mutations  more  skil- 


CLBQHORN   ON  THE   CHARACTER  OF   THE   SCOTCH.  175 

folly  interpreted.  Many  appearances — which  had  for  a  long 
time  been  regarded  as  indicating  mysterions  and  extraordinary 
agency — were  finally  recognised  as  the  necessary  result  of  the 
laws  now  governing  the  material  world ;  and  the  discovery  of 
this  nnlooked-for  conformity  has  at  length  induced  some  philo- 
sophers to  infer  that^  during  the  ages  contemplated  in  geology^ 
tiiere  has  never  been  any  interruption  to  the  agency  of  the 
same  uniform  laws  of  change.  The  same  assemblage  of  general 
causes^  they  conceive,  may  have  been  sufficient  to  produce,  by 
iheir  various  combinations,  the  endless  diversity  of  effects  of 
which  the  shell  of  the  earth  has  preserved  the  memorials ;  and 
consistently  with  these  principles,  the  recurrence  of  analogous 
changes  is  expected  by  them  in  time  to  come.'' 

This  extract,  to  my  mind,  strikingly  depicts  the  state  we  are 
now  in,  and  the  course  we  must  follow,  if  we  would  read  man 
aright.  We  have  viewed  man  through  a  wrong  medium.  Let 
us,  therefore,  forget  for  a  little  all  we  have  heard  of  the  history 
of  the  men  of  the  two  sides ;  look  at  them  as  they  are,  and 
some  of  the  agents  of  change  now  at  work,  and  see  if  they 
explain  each  other. 

So  far  as  we  have  got,  it  appears  that  no  two  districts  can 
be  more  diverse  in  soils  than  our  eastern  and  western  water- 
sheds ;  while  as  regards  climate,  no  two  can  be  more  alike.  On 
the  west,  the  grass  is  scant,  and  the  cattle  stunted ;  and  being 
without  soil  fitted  to  grow  com,  man's  higher  faculties  seem  to 
me  as  in  abeyance,  or  dwarfed  by  penury. 

"  His  knowledge  measar'd  to  his  state  and  place." 

Is  diversity  in  the  physical  and  social  features  of  man  ne- 
cessary to  the  health  of  the  Order  Bimana?  and  is  diversity  of 
soil  the  means  for  its  attainment  ?  It  looks  very  like  it.  If 
diversity  of  character  in  man  be  for  the  health  of  the  Order, 
then  there  must  be  a  natural  law  determining  this  diversity ; 
and  as  I  have  found  a  law  determining  diversity  in  soil,  I  shall 
show  you  that  there  is  a  harmony  between  man  and  the  soil 
so  intimate  that,  having  found  the  soil,  you  can  tell  the  type 
of  man  it  carries.  I  shall  now,  therefore,  point  out  this  law, 
how  it  now  works,  and  how  we  have  evidence  that  it  has 
worked  in  the  past  as  it  does  at  present. 


176  CLEGHORN   ON   THE   CHARACTER   OF  THE    SCOTCH. 

In  the  North  British  Review  for  February  1852,  there  is  a 
paper  on  the  '^  Geology  of  the  Surface  and  Agriculture/'  where, 
I  believe,  for  the  first  time,  public  attention  was  called  to  the 
fact  that  the  superficial  deposits  were  excluded  from  geological 
maps ;  and  that  it  was  the  fashion  among  those  who  under- 
took to  teach  geology,  in  its  application  to  agriculture,  to  tell 
the  farmers  that  the  nature  of  the  soil  being  given  on  one  part 
of  a  geologiceJ  formation,  it  is  known  for  the  whole ;  that  the 
rock  below  them,  which  is  nearest  the  surface,  should  be  as- 
sumed as  the  surface.  This  geological  fiction  has  still  a  strong 
hold  on  the  public  mind;  but  the  intelligent  farmer  knows 
that  this  is  either  not  true,  or  a  very  rude  approximation  to 
the  truth ;  and  that  within  very  small  areas,  on  the  same  field, 
many  varieties  of  soil  occur  of  very  diflTerent  values,  without 
any  corresponding  variation  in  the  mineral  character  of  the 
rock  on  which  they  rest. 

The  law  that  has  determined  this  variety  of  soil,  I  think^ 
I  discovered  in  1857;  and  at  the  anniversary  meeting  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  of  that  year.  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison 
made  this  law  known  to  geographers.  The  law  is  this, — the 
prevailing  wind  here  and  over  the  northern  hemisphere,  the 
south-west,  wears  the  headlands  into  precipices,  which  sends 
back  the  debris  by  a  counter  or  reflux  current,  which  neces- 
sarily tends  to  shoal  up  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  firth, 
or  sea.  This  law,  so  simple  and  so  universal,  has  been  re- 
cognised as  true  by  eminent  geologists  and  geographers,  and 
by  marine  engineers  of  the  highest  standing.  The  wonder  is 
it  should  till  now  have  escaped  detection.  This  law  works  in 
China  and  Japan  as  it  does  in  Wick  bay;  the  law  of  forces 
here  is  the  law  there.  The  waves  lay  down  the  materials  com- 
mitted to  them,  by  dynamic  law,  with  a  discrimination  above 
all  human  nicety  of  manipulation ;  every  particle  is  scrutinised, 
and  has  its  fixed  place  in  our  bays,  firths,  and  seas, — the  mud, 
the  sand,  and  the  gravel, — and  these  mechanically  and  che- 
mically diversified  in  endless  variety.  The  natural  laws  are 
universal,  invariable,  and  unbending.  That  we  may  have  a 
proper  appreciation  of  the  majesty  of  this  law,  and  the  mag- 
nificence of  its  operations,  let  us  look  for  a  little  at  its  work- 
ing on  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Britain. 


CLSGHORN    ON   THE   CHARACTER   OP  THE    SCOTCH.  177 

'•  The  east  and  west  coasts  of  Britain  have/'  says  Professor 
Nicol,  '*  features  very  distinct.  On  the  east,  long  lines  of  rug- 
ged cliffs,  with  scarce  a  break  or  a  bay  in  which  the  smallest 
yessel  can  seek  shelter  from  the  north-east  storms.  On  the  west, 
innumerable  sea-lochs  running  far  up  among  their  guardian 
mountains,  with  deep  water  to  their  extremities.  Even  the 
wreck-chart  tells  the  same  story;  so  free  of  shipwrecks  on  the 
west, — so  bleak,  with  signs  of  disaster,  on  the  east,  where, 
from  the  Orkneys  to  the  Tweed  or  Thames,  no  shelter  opens 
to  the  storm-tost  sailor,  save  the  Moray  Firth  or  the  neigh- 
bouring Forth.  But  the  distinction  ends  not  on  the  shore. 
Beyond  it  there  are,  on  the  west,  islands  numberless. 

•'  On  the  iron-bound  eastern  coast  our  progress  is  arrestfed  by 
no  Islay  or  Jura,  no  Mull  or  Skye,  where  nature  has  built 
shrines  which  man  has  yet  failed  to  desecrate  and  destroy. 
There,  from  St.  Abb's  Head  to  John  O'Groats,  where  we  pass 
the  Bass  Kock  and  the  May,  no  rock  or  islet  meets  our  view ; 
and  even  below  the  water  the  same  difference  prevails.  From 
the  Moray  Firth  across  to  Norway  and  south  of  the  English  Chan- 
nel, the  North  Sea  has  no  soundings  deeper  than  Loch  Ness. 
Every  where  mud  banks  and  shoals,  so  shallow,  that  on  the  Ger- 
man side  the  sailor  fears  his  ship  may  ground  in  the  mud  before 
becomes  in  sight  of  land.  How  different  on  the  west  coast.  There 
you  may  leap  from  land  into  twenty  fathoms  of  water ;  even 
within  the  islands  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
fathoms  are  common ;  and  only  a  few  miles  out  the  sounding 
line  passes  first  the  one  hundred  fathom  then  the  two  hundred 
fathom  line,  beyond  which  to  the  American  shores  the  water  is 
measured  not  by  hundreds  but  by  thousands  of  feet."  This  is 
Professor  NicoPs  portraiture  of  our  east  and  west  coasts,  and 
very  true  and  very  graphic  it  is ;  but  the  learned  Professor, 
when  he  essays  to  explain  the  agency  that  effected  the  diversity 
of  contour  in  the  two  sides,  has  been  any  thing  but  fortunate. 
"  Physical  diversities  so  great,^'  says  the  Professor,  ^^  imply  a 
very  diverse  physical  history.  The  one  region,  the  west,  is 
evidently  a  half-submerged  mountain-land  ;  the  other,  the  east, 
an  emerged  sea-bottom.  Anciently,  for  a  long  period,  the  west 
has  been  a  broad,  lofty  mountain  chain ;  the  east,  on  the  other 

VOL.    III.  N 


178  CLBOHOBN   ON    THE   CHARACTER   OF   THE    SCOTCBT. 

hand,  a  wide,  mud-filled  sea-bottom,  with  shipwrecks  floating 
and  straining  in  its  shallow  waters, — the  one  side  of  the  island 
has  arisen,  the  other  has  gone  down/'  Such  a  jump  out  of 
the  diflSculty,  I  respectfully  submit,  cannot  be  accepted. 
The  professor  cuts,  not  patiently  unties,  the  knot,  as  is  re- 
quired. He  runs  counter  to  the  teachings  of  modem  geology, 
which  has  discarded  violence,  fictions,  and  miracles  to  help  us 
out  of  our  difficulties.  The  professor  must  be  told  that  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  our  island  have  their  type  in  every  bay 
and  firth  on  the  coast, — on  the  coasts  of  every  island  and  con- 
tinent, and  that  it  never  will  do  to  bring  an  earthquake  to  deepen 
the  west  and  raise  the  east  sides  of  all  of  them.  The  professor 
did  not  know  that  the  prevalent  wave-producing  wind  wears 
the  headlands  into  precipices,  which  send  back  the  debris  by  a 
counter  or  reflux  current,  which  necessarily  tends  to  shoal  up 
the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  firth,  or  sea.  Had  he  known  this 
law,  we  would  not  have  been  told  that  "  the  one  side  of  our 
island  has  arisen,  and  the  other  gone  down." 

Our  prevalent  wave-producing  wind,  the  south-west,  is  pull- 
ing to  pieces  the  western  shores  of  continental  Europe,  and 
laying  the  d/bris  down  on  our  eastern  shores.  On  our  eastern 
shores,  our  law  is  a  builder ;  on  the  west  it  is  an  excavator. 
Through  the  operation  of  our  law,  Heligoland  is  melting  away, 
and  the  Dutch  with  difficulty  retain  Holland.  The  western 
side  of  Britain,  like  that  of  western  Europe,  is  the  losing  side. 
Take  the  map,  and  see  the  soft  and  swelling  outline  of  our 
eastern  shore, — ^youth  is  in  every  lineament;  while  the  west 
coast  has  every  mark  of  age  and  decay  imprinted  on  it, — it  is 
angular,  wrinkled,  and  furrowed.  This  growing  on  the  east 
side,  and  the  decay  and  transport  that  is  going  on  on  the  other, 
is  strikingly  shown  in  the  engineering  difficulties  experienced 
to  keep  the  Tyne  open  and  deepened ;  while  on  the  Clyde  and 
the  Mersey  the  same  ends  have  been  gained  with  an  ease  which 
our  law,  and  no  other,  can  satisfactorily  explain. 

We  can  see  now  why  the  boulder-clay  fills  all  the  valleys  on 
the  east  side,  and  is  wanting  on  the  west  side, — how  it  comes 
about  that  we  have  on  the  east  "  an  upper  stratified  drift,"  the 
soil  that  gives  us  food ;  and  why  it  is  wanting  on  the  west,  and 


CLEGHOBN  ON  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  SCOTCH.     179 

there  only,  as  Professor  Nicol  says,  "  a  thin  coat  of  local  de- 
tritus,  chiefly  water-worn  gravels,"  or,  as  Dr.  Johnson  said, 
"  stone  and  water,  with  a  little  earth  above  the  stones  in  some 
places."  We  see,  too,  why  the  west  is  a  land  of  waste  and 
transport ;  and  now  we  have  seen  on  the  wide  area — the  east 
and  west  of  Scotland — the  same  correspondence  between  the 
fioil  and  man,  that  I  saw  on  the  narrow  area  of  Caithness. 

Oar  law  has  left  its  trail  on  the  surface  of  this  country,  and 
of  all  others,  in  a  way  we  have  not  yet  looked  at.  The  north- 
east side  of  the  floor  of  all  our  valleys  is  the  low  side,  for  to 
that  side  all  our  rivers  tend;  they  hug  their  north-eastern 
banks.  The  north  side  of  all  our  valleys,  too,  is,  in  an  agricul- 
tural point  of  view,  of  inferior  value  to  the  opposite  side,  from 
the  continuance,  during  a  very  long  period,  of  the  same  hydro- 
dynamic  force  that  broke  down  and  deepened  the  north-east 
sides  of  our  bays  and  firths.  The  north  and  south  sides  of  the 
Moray  firth,  and  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  of  all  bays  and  seas, 
tell  this  story ;  while  the  diversity  of  soil  within  small  areas, 
on  the  same  farm  and  on  the  same  field,  point  out  our  law  as 
the  agent  that  effected  the  diversity. 

Epitome  and  Conclusion. — We  have  found  a  diversity  in  the 
men  of  the  two  sides  of  Scotland,  and  that  this  diversity  cor- 
responds with  the  diverse  character  in  the  soils  of  the  east  and 
the  west  sides.  Wo  have  found,  too,  a  natural  law  that  deter- 
mines diversity  in  soils,  and  diversity  in  the  properties  of  the 
food  the  soils  afibrd.  I  am  surely,  then,  justified  in  inferring 
that  the  east  and  west  countrymen  are  the  expression  of  the 
soil,  in  the  same  sense  that  the  flora  and  the  fauna  of  the  two 
sides  are  its  expression. 

Surely,  then,  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  character  of  the 
Scotch  is  the  expression  of  the  soil  of  Scotland.  If  this  be 
granted,  then  it  follows  that  his  language  is  of  the  soil ;  and 
so  must  his  religion  be.  Gaelic,  surely,  is  of  the  soil ;  for 
I  see  it  is  confined  to  the  sterile  districts,  and  seems  to  be'  re- 
tained there,  because  the  condition  of  the  poor  districts,  as 
food  producers,  remains  unaltered.  In  Caithness,,  we  have 
five  parishes  wholly  English  speaking, — Wick,  Canisbay,  Dun- 
net,  Olrig,  and  Bower,  and  these  on  the  east  and  north  of  the 

n2 


180  TLEOHORN  ON  THE   CHABACTEB   OF  THE   SCOTCH. 

county;  the  other  five  are  semi-Gaelic.  To  account  for  this 
difference^  the  commonly  assigned  cause  is,  that  the  English 
speaking  parishes  were  colonised  by  Scandinavians.  But  the 
same  people  conquered  and  colonised  the  wiBst  country  as  well 
as  the  east ;  while  their  descendants  speak  Graelic  on  the  west 
and  English  on  the  east, — ^languages  not  spoken  by  the  in- 
vaders. In  the  north,  the  Gaelic  begins  where  the  corn-bear- 
ing soil  ends;  and  on  the  south-west,  the  same  holds  true. 
This  linguistic  difference  in  the  two  sides  is  not  more  diverse 
than  their  food-giving  capacity ;  and  seeing  we  have  in  Caith- 
ness— in  the  English  speaking  parishes — dialectic  varieties, 
and  that  on  soil  so  nearly  homogeneous  as  ours  is,  we  surely 
ought  to  infer  that  where  the  greatest  diversity  exists  in  soils, 
there  we  ought  to  find  the  greatest  diversity  in  language. 

I  have  said  that  the  religion  of  the  west  may  be  characterised 
as  priest-worship ;  that  of  the  east,  as  self-worship.  The  want 
of  com  on  the  west,  "  that  strengtheneth  man's  heart,"  en- 
genders the  massing  propensity, — the  shoulder  to  shoulder 
principle ;  paucity  of  food,  low  diet,  weakens  the  whole  man  j 
all  his  faculties  are  absorbed  in  food-getting ;  the  struggle  for 
existence  being  great,  he  depends  on  the  priest  for  his  religion, 
leaves  that  to  him,  takes  what  he  has  to  give,  and  asks  no 
questions.  The  east  man,  having  the  com  and  something 
more,  is  filled  and  is  strong ;  and  he  says  to  the  priest,  stand 
aside,  I  can  do  your  work  myself, — I  do  not  require  your  aid. 
The  west  man's  religion,  although  called  Protestant,  is  essen- 
tially Popish,  and  Popery  is  the  religion  of  the  poorer  countries 
of  Europe, — poor  in  soil,  I  mean,  and  in  the  Murkle  sense  of 
poor  soil. 

It  seems  a  just  inference,  from  the  working  of  our  law  of 
winds  and  currents,  that  Ireland  must  be  an  exaggeration  of 
our  western  watershed ;  and  that  most  of  her  ills  must  be  attri- 
buted to  Irishmen's  ignorance  of  our  law.  Had  they  known  the 
poverty  of  their  soil  they  would,  as  George  Combe  would  have 
told  them,  have  been  able  to  ascertain  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
possible  for  man  to  place  himself,  in  accordance  with  the  phy- 
sical law  that  produced  the  sterility,  so  as  to  reap  advantage 
from  it ;  and  also  to  determine  how  far  the  sufferings  which  he 


195 


XIV. — On  the  Land  Dayns  of  Upper  Sarawak,  Seidah,  Lihoy, 
Letung,  and  Qmoss.  By  Edward  P.  Houghton,  M.D., 
P.A.S.L.,  Resident  Officer,  Sarawak  Government. 

The  average  height  of  the  people  is  5  ft.  2  in.,  4  ft.  6  in. 
being  considered  short,  and  5  ft.  6  in.  tall.  The  complexion  is 
yellowish  brown,  the  eyes  and  hair  black ;  the  latter  is  coarse, 
and  is  generally  worn  long — in  some  few  cases  it  is  inclined  to 
curl.  The  shape  of  the  head  is  round,  a  little  elongated  on  the 
top ;  the  face  is  broad ;  the  eyes  large ;  the  nose  a  little  pressed 
in  on  the  bridge  and  wide  at  the  bottom ;  the  nostrils  are  large, 
the  lips  thick,  and  the  teeth  rather  projecting.  Puberty  takes 
place,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  at  the  age  of 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  years,  though  the  people  do  not  marry 
young.  Births  of  more  than  one  child  are  not  common.  In 
general  there  are  more  than  two  children  in  a  family ;  on  an 
average  there  are  four,  very  seldom  only  one  child.  There  are 
more  males  than  females  among  adults,  but  in  general  the  pro- 
portion is  about  equal.  There  are  families  with  two,  three,  four 
boys,  but  also  others  with  the  same  number  of  girls,  or  mixed. 
Women  continue  to  boar  children  to  about  the  age  of  forty. 
This  is,  however,  a  matter  not  very  easy  to  determine  with 
certainty,  as  before  the  Europeans  arrived  in  the  country  the 
people  had  no  mode  of  calculating  their  years.  Even  now 
most  of  them  do  not  know  their  ages,  but  guess  only,  and 
sometimes  quite  at  random.  You  might  hear  people  answer 
the  question.  How  old  they  are  ?  with  eighty,  one  hundred,  or 
two  hundred,  who  perhaps  are  not  yet  half  that  time.  Another 
reason  for  dividing  their  answers,  with  respect  to  age,  by  two, 
is  that  they  count  a  year  only  six  months — i.e.,  from  one  rice 
harvest  to  the  other.  The  people  in  general  attain  a  pretty 
good  age,  the  greater  part  up  to  sixty  or  seventy.  The  oldest 
man  here,  and,  in  fact,  of  the  whole  Scutah  tribe,  is  a 
(formerly  heathen)  priest  or  menang,  about  ninety-five  to  one 
hundred  years  of  age,  with  grey  hair.     He  has 'lately  become  a 

o2 


196  OlSl   THE    LAND   DAYAKS   OF   UPPER   SARAWAK. 

Christian.  He  has  a  large  family,  all  sons,  some  of  whom  are 
also  Christians.  His  first  wife,  about  seventy  years  old,  is  still 
alive.  Both  are  still  able  to  move  about,  talk  cheerfully,  and 
enjoy  their  food.  The  old  man  is  suffering  from  loss  of  sight. 
Mothers  suckle  their  children  very  long.  There  are  cases 
where  children  suck  till  they  are  three  to  five  years  of  age. 
The  women  have  in  general  an  abundance  of  milk,  and  are  very 
strong.  The  menstrual  period  lasts  about  four  days.  The 
time  of  uterogestation  is  the  same  as  with  Europeans.  Mis- 
carriages and  premature  delivery  are  not  rare  occurrences.  The 
prevailing  forms  of  disease  are — intermittent  fever,  otitis, 
ichthyosis,  scrofula,  catarrhal  opthalmia,  diarrhoea,  elephanti- 
asis, leprosy,  ferunculi  and  anthrax,  enlarged  spleen  with 
ascites,  cholera  and  smallpox,  indolent  ulcers.  The  people  also 
suffer  very  much  from  entozoa,  the  lumbrici  generally,  very 
seldom  thread-worms.  Syphilis  and  gonorrhoea  are  never 
known.  Among  those  Day  as  who  do  not  come  in  contact  with 
Malays,  the  treatment  of  the  sick  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
manangs.  Those  who  have  had  intercourse  with  Malays  often 
try  their  remedies,  after  the  attempts  of  their  own  priests  have 
failed  to  produce  a  cure.  All  remedies  are  external,  either 
rubbing,  or  washing,  or  sprinkling.  I  have  never  seen  or 
known  of  a  Daya  doctor  giving  a  drug  or  any  internal  medicine, 
or  interfering  with  the  diet.  If  one  excepts,  therefore,  such 
few  cases  where  rubbing  or  washing  would  rationally  be  of  any 
use,  the  whole  medical  treatment  of  the  Dayas  rests  on  their 
heathen  system  of  superstition,  in  some  cases  perhaps  approach- 
ing sympathetic  cures,  professing  to  transplant  sickness.  They 
believe  that  in  sickness  the  human  soul  goes  out  of  its  body,  is 
perhaps  carried  away  by  evil  spirits,  and  has  to  be  brought 
back  again  to  its  proper  dwelling-place.  This  is  done  accord- 
ing to  certain  established  rules  and  ceremonies.  In  all  of 
these  the  blood  of  animals,  either  pigs  or  fowls,  is  used  as  a 
kind  of  sacrificial  atonement  or  purification.  They  have  a 
number  of  fetiches^  magic  stones,  which  are  said  to  possess 
supernatural  powers.  They  relate  that  such  stones  are  given 
by  spirits  to  the  priests,  their  places  indicated  in  dreams,  or 
they  have  fallen   from  heaven  in  former  times.     They  have 


THE   LAND   DAYAKS   OF    UPPER   SARAWAK,    ETC.  197 

several  large  ones  with  distinct  names,  ''  Le  Bandos,  ''  Le 
Ganas,''  ''  Le  Ruyare,''  &c.,  at  different  Daya  villages.  On 
certain  days  they  are  carried  about  in  procession,  and  festivals 
are  held  at  their  places.  Such  stones — ''  guna,''  as  they  are 
called — ^have  particular  houses  built,  and  a  Daya,  who  is  paid 
by  the  village,  is  appointed  to  watch  over  them.  In  cases  of 
sickness  a  certain  kind  of  altar  is  erected  near  the  sick  person^s 
head,  offerings  are  put  on  it,  and  a  single  gong  beaten  all  the 
while.  Then  the  priests  sprinkle  the  sick  man  with  blood,  and 
make  certain  marks  on  him,  as  well  as  on  his  relations.  No 
inmate  of  the  house  is  allowed  to  leave  it  for  two  or  three  days ; 
no  stranger  may  enter.  They  also  bathe  the  sick  with  cocoa-nut 
water  mixed  with  ginger  and  a  yellow  root.  Often  also  they 
use  spittle  (saliva  mixed  in  their  mouths  with  red  sirih),  and 
spit  on  his  face,  neck,  and  other  parts  of  his  body.  Then 
there  are  three  or  four  men  and  women  appointed  to  go  by 
night  with  torches  and  gongs  beating  in  the  jungle,  canying 
with  them  rings  of  beads  washed  in  the  blood,  and  magic 
stones,  in  order  to  seek  for  the  place  where  the  departed  soul 
of  the  sick  may  have  run  to,  and  bring  it  back  to  him,  after 
which  crowning  feat  he  is  said  to  recover.  Soon  after  the 
birth  of  a  child  they  have  a  similar  ceremony  of,  so  to  say, 
initiation,  or  bringing  the  new  child  under  the  dominion  of 
their  gods,  by  washing  and  sprinkling  child  and  parents  with 
blood  and  cocoa-nut  water,  to  drive  away  the  evil  spirits,  and 
to  secure  to  the  new-comer  the  influence  of  their  magic  incan- 
tations. 

If  I  may  be  allowed  to  infer  one  remark  from  these  short 
statements,  it  is  this :  You  see  here,  in  the  simple  Land  Dayas 
of  Borneo,  another  most  striking  proof  we,  in  the  full  light 
and  benefit  of  Christian  civilization,  are  often  apt  to  forget^ 
that  fallen  human  nature,  lying  under  the  fear  of  a  supernatural 
world  unknown,  seeks  for  ways  and  means  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  with  a  high  and  pure  Being,  and  to  draw  down 
blessings  upon  the  dark  state  of  misery  and  trouble. 

The  prevailing  food  is  rice,  boiled  in  bamboos,  with  vege- 
tables, cribung,  yams,  cucumbers,  lotus,  etc.  They  are  fond  of 
pork  and  fowls.     Often  they  catch  in  traps  in  the  jungle  wild 


198  TH£   LAND   DA\AK8   OF    UPr£K   SARAWAK^   ETC. 

pigs  and  wild  deer,  wliich  they  salt  and  keep  in  jars.  They 
also  catch  fish  now  and  then,  but  in  general  eat  salt  fish  as  the 
cheapest  and  most  easily-procurable  condiments  with  their  rice. 
Their  cooking  utensils  are  bamboos,  which  they  find  in  abun- 
dance in  the  jungle,  use  two  or  three  times,  and  then  throw 
away.  Besides  these  they  use  iron  saucepans  and  pots  to  cook 
rice,  vegetables,  meat,  etc.  The  bamboos  are  also  used  to  fetch 
water.  Other  articles  of  food  are  snails,  prawns,  birds  (if  they 
can  be  got),  and  certain  kinds  of  monkey.  It  is  said  that  some 
of  the  natives  also  eat  snakes,  but  this  is  a  matter  I  will  not 
vouch  for.  The  Dayas  make  three  chief  meals  a  day,  at  seven 
or  eight  in  the  morning,  at  twelve,  and  at  five  or  six  in  the 
evening.  This  they  do  when  they  are'  at  home  during  their 
rest  time.  When  they  work  hard  in  their  farms  they  often 
dispense  with  one  or  two  of  these  meals,  also  when  travelling. 
They  are  very  strong  and  robust  people,  and  able  to  bear  along 
abstinence  (some  two  or  three  days) .  Their  life  is  a  very  hard- 
working one.  Several  months  in  the  year  they  live  entirely 
away  from  the  village  in  houses  built  on  the  farms  in  the  jungle, 
preparing  the  ground,  sowing,  weeding,  and  harvesting.  They 
are  able  to  carry  very  heavy  loads  on  their  backs.  Men, 
women,  and  children  work  on  the  farms.  The  women  are  not 
treated  with  any  distinction  with  regard  to  the  farm-work. 

The  dressing  of  children,  as  well  as  of  grown-up  people,  is 
very  plain.  A  cloth  round  the  waist  in  the  case  of  the  males, 
and  a  short  petticoat  in  the  case  of  the  females,  is  all  their  dress. 
If  it  is  very  wet  and  cool  weather,  they  use  the  rind  of  a  tree  as 
a  kind  of  blanket  in  which  to  wrap  children.  The  cradle  con- 
sists of  the  hollowed  trunk  of  a  tree,  suspended  by  strings  from 
the  ceiling.  There  are  no  circumstances  connected  with  the 
dressing  or  cradling  of  children  tending  in  any  way  to  modify 
the  shape  of  the  body.  Besides  the  short  petticoat  mentioned 
above,  which  is  fastened  round  the  loins  by  a  brass  wire  girdle, 
the  females  wear  a  number  of  brass  rings  ;  on  their  wrists  and 
upper  part  of  the  arms  a  white  porcelain  ring  as  ornament.  In 
their  ears  they  have  ear-rings,  or,  if  too  poor,  flowers  and  leaves 
of  certain  trees.  The  flowers  are  also  worn  in  the  hair.  At 
festivals  other  and  better  petticoats,  with  Uttle  bolls  fastened 


THE  LAND  DATAKS  OF  UPPER  SARAWAK^  ETC.       199 

on  them^  are  used ;  also  a  kind  of  head-dress^  something  like  a 
sugar-loaf^  and  red  jackets.  A  most  necessary  implement  and 
companion  of  each  Dayais  his  sirih-case^  with  leaves^  chalk  and 
tobacco^  and  gambir^  as  also  his  large  knife. 

The  houses  are  built  very  plainly,  part  of  bilion  or  ironwood, 
a  raised  platform  of  bamboos  crossed,  walls  and  roof  of  leaves 
of  the  sago  palm,  very  durable  and  water-tight.  Each  family 
occupies  one  large  room  with  a  verandah.  At  the  entrance  of 
the  room  there  is  a  hearth,  made  of  earth  and  stones  :  on  this 
they  cook.  Of  course,  the  whole  room  looks  black  from  smoke, 
which  has  no  other  escape  than  the  door  and  one  large  window. 
This  latter  is  merely  a  large  hole  left  in  the  roof,  and  in  rain 
must  be  shut  with  a  shutter  made  of  palm-leaves.  The  room 
is  lighted  by  the  fire  from  the  hearth,  and  by  a  little  torch  made 
from  the  gum  of  a  tree,  put  into  bamboos,  and  used  as  oil.  The 
sleeping-place  is  before  the  fire,  on  mats  spread  out  at  night ; 
pillows  stuffed  with  grass,  etc.,  are  made  use  of,  and  coverings 
made  of  the  rinds  of  certain  trees. 

There  are  no  monuments  in  the  shape  of  buildings,  but  in 
language  they  have  some  remnants  of  old  songs  and  stories, 
which  have  been  handed  down  by  oral  tradition.  Other  tribes 
of  Dayas  more  inland  are  said  to  possess  very  old  valuable 
jars ;  but  in  the  parts  of  the  country  I  am  acquainted  with,  I 
have  not  heard  of  the  existence  of  any  antiquities,  unless  the 
big  guna,  a  stone  of  man's  length  (most  likely  an  aerolith), 
called  Le  Kuyan,  which  is  kept  in  a  house  at  Seun,  be  con- 
sidered as  such. 

The  dead  are  buried  here  in  a  hill  outside  the  village.  In 
the  other  villages  they  are  burnt  in  the  jungle ;  and  this  custom, 
as  well  as  a  certain  Tinasti  the  people  invoke  in  all  the  cere- 
monies, leads  to  the  conclusion  that  an  emigration  of  later  date 
has  supplanted  partly  the  old  Daya  fetishism.  With  the  dead 
offerings  are  made  and  animals  burnt, — pigs  in  the  case  of  the 
richer  people,  and  fowls,  or  a  part  of  a  fowl  only,  in  that  of  the 
poorer. 

The  Dayas  believe  very  dimly  in  a  future  life.  They  say  the 
soul  is  changed  into  a  spirit,  which  hovers  about  the  hills  and 
places  in  the  jungle.     These  spirits,  which  are  called  "  Minos,'' 


200  THE   LAND   DATAES   OF   UPPER   SABAWAK^   ETC. 

are  objects  of  fear  and  superstition.     Customs  are  observed  on 
account  of  them. 

There  are  no  particular  ceremonies  at  marriages.  The  rela- 
tives (or  parents,  if  alive)  of  bride  and  bridegroom  form  certain 
agreements  with  each  other  about  settling  property,  etc.,  which 
chiefly  consists  in  jars  and  gongs — clothes  and  gold,  if  rich. 
The  bride  follows  the  bridegroom  to  his  house  or  his  parents', 
and  is  considered  a  member  of  his  family.  Polygamy  is  not 
practised  by  the  Land  Dayas  here.  Divorce  is  very  frequent, 
owing  to  the  great  extent  of  adultery,  and  thus  a  criminal 
practice  of  intermarrying  exists,  which  contributes  very  much 
to  the  debilitating  of  the  tribes.  Widows  are  in  general  treated 
very  well,  as  also  the  sick  and  aged. 

The  domestic  animals  are  pigs,  fowls,  cats  (short-tailed),  and 
dogs.     They  are  of  the  common  kinds,  indigenous  here. 

Each  village  has  at  its  head  a  man  appointed  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Rajah  of  Sar&wak,  chosen  by  the  people,  called 
"  Ovay  Kaya.^'  If  a  village  has  less  than  one  hundred  and  fifty 
inhabitants  it  has  only  a  "  Penyara.''  He,  with  a  number  of 
old  people  elected  by  the  community,  called  elders,  directs  and 
governs  all  the  affairs  of  the  village,  under  sanction  of  the  Go- 
vernment. All  the  bachelors  of  a  village,  from  the  age  of 
twelve  upwards,  live  together  in  a  round  house  built  sepa- 
rately from  the  other  houses.  In  this  house  also  the  heads  of 
enemies  taken  formerly  in  war  are  preserved.  Head-hunting 
is,  however,  now  forbidden,  thanks  to  the  Rajah's  Government, 
and  head-festivals  are  therefore  out  of  use. 


201 


XV. — Habits  and  Manners  of  Marvar  Tribes  of  India.  By 
John  Shobtt,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P.L.,  F.A.S.L.,  F.L.S.,  etc.. 
General  Superintendent  of  Vaccination,  Madras. 

In  the  district  of  Madura  there  are  two  large  zemindaries,  and 
these  were  at  one  time  united,  and  under  the  government  of 
one  Kelaven  Saithoo  Pathier.  The  legend  as  regards  these 
estates  runs  as  follows : — 

About  one  hundred  and  forty  years  ago,  a  few  miles  from  the 
present  Zemindary  (Shevagunga)  there  existed  a  village  named 
Nalcottai,  subject  to  the  control  of  one  Shasivama  Taver,  a 
Polgar,  who  was  married  to  an  illegitimate  daughter  of  Kelaven 
Saithoo  Fathier,  and  whose  name  was  Akilanda  Espari 
Natchiar,  On  the  death  of  Kelaven  Saithoo  Pathier,  of 
Bamnad,  the  succession  was  disputed  between  his  illegitimate 
son  and  son-in-law,  but  the  latter  obtaining  the  assistance  of 
the  Rajah  of  Tanjore,  usurped  the  kingdom  of  Ramnad ;  the 
illegitimate  son  consequently  sought  the  shelter  of  the  Nal- 
cottai Polgar  for  some  length  of  time ;  but  when  Kelaven 
Sathoo  Pathier's  son-in-law,  the  usurper,  heard  of  the  protec- 
tion that  had  been  given  his  brother-in-law  by  the  Polgar  of 
Nalcottai,  he  sent  a  small  force,  and  drove  him  out  of  his 
estates,  and  destroyed  his  villages ;  in  consequence  of  which 
Shasivama  Taver  and  the  illegitimate  son  of  Kelaven  Saithoo 
Pathier  sought  shelter  at  Tanjore,  and  there  led  a  Hfe  of 
poverty,  until  an  opportunity  offered  itself,  when  Shasivama 
Taver  distinguished  himself  in  a  personal  combat  with  a  royal 
tiger,  for  which  he  obtained  the  favour  of  the  Rajah  of  that 
district,  who  on  inquiry  learned  his  history  and  subsequent 
troubles,  upon  which  he  gave  him  an  armed  force  to  retake  his 
possessions,  Shasivama  himself  leading  the  force  on  to  Ram- 
nad. He  stormed  the  place,  killed  the  usurper,  and  placed  his 
friend,  the  illegitimate  son-in-law  of  Kelaven  Saithoo  Pathier 
on  the  throne.  In  consideration  of  these  services,  the  Saithoo 
Pathier  (the  title  is  in  use  among  the  Rajahs  of  Ramnad,  and 


202  SHORTT   ON    MABYAB  TRIBES   OF   INDIA. 

means  Lord  of  the  Causeway)  directed  his  kingdom  to  be 
divided  into  five  portions,  three  of  which  he  retained  himself^ 
and  which  at  present  form  the  zemindaree  of  Bamnad,  and  the 
remaining  two  divisions  he  bestowed  on  Shasivama  Taver, 
the  Polgar  of  Nalcottai,  The  subsequent  Rajahs  and  Ranees 
of  Shevagunga  are  the  descendants  of  the  said  Shasivama 
Taver,  the  Polgar  of  Nalcottai.  Owing  to  the  division  of  the 
zemindaree  into  two  portions,  Ramnad  was  called  Pareeyavadi, 
and  Shevagunga  Sheenavadi. 

It  is  said  that  whilst  the  country  was  being  divided,  Shasi- 
vama bribed  the  accountants  and  others,  and  selected  for  him- 
self the  best  portion,  more  especially  that  part  watered  by  the 
river  Vigay. 

The  following  fable  is  connected  with  the  origin  of  the  town 
of  Shevagunga  itself,  which  is  situated  in  lat.  9^  51',  long. 
78^  33',  and  is  twenty-six  miles  distant  from  Madura,  east  by 
south.  It  would  appear  that  when  Shasivama  Taver  was  simply 
the  Polgar  of  Nalcottai,  and  was  out  on  a  hunting  excursion^ 
and  being  overcome  with  thirst,  ho,  after  some  search,  came 
upon  a  small  spring  of  water.  Here  he  met  a  rishi  (Hindoo 
monk),  who  foretold  that  he  would  become  the  possessor  of  that 
territory.  Shasivama  Taver,  in  return,  promised  that,  should 
the  rishi^s  prediction  be  fulfilled,  he  would  convert  the  spring 
into  a  large  tank,  and  call  its  waters  the  Gunga,  or  River  of 
Sheva,  and  raise  a  town  around  it.  Subsequent  events  having 
fulfilled  the  prophecy,  Shasivama  Taver,  with  rigid  punctuality, 
carried  out  his  promise  in  constructing  a  large  theppa  colum,  or 
square  stone-faced  tank,  leading  by  steps  to  the  water,  on  four 
sides,  and  here  he  constructed  also  the  town,  and  made  it  his 
capital,  calling  it  Shevagunga ;  and  for  upwards  of  a  century 
this  place  has  been  the  residence  of  the  ruling  Zemindars, 
Shasivama  Taver  being  the  first  Zemindar, 

The  estate  of  Shevagunga  comprises  about  1,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  with  upwards  of  1,000  villages  and  hamlets. 
The  population  is  said  to  comprise  396,116  individuals. 

The  revenue  realised  by  this  estate  is  estimated  at  between 
six  and  seven  lacs  of  rupees  per  annum,  and  the  Government 
pciscush  (tribute),  which  amounts  to  about  222,000  rupees,  is 
paid  out  of  the  above  revenue. 


8H0RTT   ON    MABYAB   TRIBES   OF   INDIA.  203 

This  zemindaree  continued  in  regular  hereditary  succession 
down  to  Veloo  Natchiar,  during  whose  government  her  Prime 
Minister^  the  famous  Panyamaruthoo^  and  his  brother  Chima- 
maruthoo,  Servacarus  (warriors)  by  caste^  usurped  her  autho- 
rity, and  ruled  the  country,  in  their  own  persons,  in  reality. 
Ulieir  rule,  although  despotic,  did  a  vast  deal  of  good  to  the 
zemindaree  itself ;  and  their  efforts  to  extinguish  the  heredi- 
tary succession  were  ceaseless,  and  with  this  object  they  mur- 
dered all  the  members  of  the  Shasivama  Taver  family,  with 
the  exception  of  two  brothers,  who  fled  into  the  country. 
They  were  named  Gowry  Oyya  or  Woodia  Taver,  the  eldest, 
and  Gowry  Vailaba  Taver,  the  youngest.  The  latter,  however, 
was  captured  and  put  in  chains,  and  kept  in  the  jungles  of 
Kaliar*  Kovilt>  from  whence  he  made  his  escape  to  Arthangee, 
a  village  in  the  kingdom  of  Tanjore,  with  the  connivance  and 
assistance  of  a  servant-girl  of  the  Kuliar  caste,  employed  in 
the  Shcvagunga  palace.  He  nevertheless  underwent  great 
hardships,  being  constantly  persecuted  by  the  brothers  Mura- 
doo,  and  several  times  narrowly  escaped  being  murdered. 

About  this  time  the  famous  Oomien,*  Polgar  of  Pongallum 
Covelly,  rebelled  against  the  late  East  India  Company,  and  he 
was  assisted  with  arms  and  ammunition  by  the  two  brothers, 
Chinna  and  Parria  Murathoo.  Finally  they  themselves  raised 
the  standard  of  rebellion.  The  Mahratta  invasion  in  Southern 
India  against  the  Mahommedans  having  taken  place  about  this 
time,  encouraged  the  Maravars  (brothers  Murathoo)  to  continue 
their  rebellion,  and  which  gave  rise  to  the  Polgar  war.  Prior 
to  this,  and  while  the  Mussulmen  were  in  power,  the  revenues 
due  to  the  Nabobs  of  the  Camatic  by  the  Maravars  had  to  be 
collected  by  an  armed  force  ;  but  in  consequence  of  subsequent 
troubles  the  Nabob  of  the  Camatic  had  to  apply  to  the  English 
for  assistance  in  this  matter.  The  required  assistance  was 
given  by  the  despatch  of  an  English  detachment,  under  the 
command  of  a  field-officer,  to  Shevagunga,  and  resulted  in  the 
brothers  Murathoo  being  driven  from  place  to  place,  taking 
their  final  stand  in  the  jungles  of  Kuliar  Kovil,  where  was 

*  The  name  of  a  low-caste  tribe.  f  Name  of  a  temple. 

X  Dummy,  dumb  man. 


204  SHORTT    ON    MABVAR   TRIBES   OP   INDIA. 

fought  the  famous  battle  of  that  name.  The  Maravars  were 
defeated^  and  the  Murathoos  taken  and  hanged.  In  Tripatore 
there  is  still  to  be  seen  a  ruined  bastion^  on  the  top  of  which 
is  stuck  a  pole^  marking  the  spot  where  this  famous  chieftain 
was  hung.     Tranquillity  was  soon  restored. 

In  1802  Lord  Clive  issued  a  proclamation^  calUng  upon  the 
members  of  the  Shevagunga  family  to  attend  at  the  village  of 
Sholaporam,  With  the  object  of  conciliating  the  people,  the 
Government  was  anxious  to  re-establish  the  old  Nalcottai 
family,  when  the  elder  brother  of  the  two  who  fled  to  Tan- 
jore,  to  escape  the  persecution  of  the  brothers  Murathoos, 
came  forward,  and  abdicated  his  right  to  his  younger  brother, 
whereupon  the  Government  publicly  installed  him  at  Shola- 
poram as  Zemindar  of  Shevagunga.  In  consideration  of  the 
elder  brother  having  abdicated  his  right,  a  few  large  villages, 
which  were  formed  into  Paliapett  of  Pudonaton,  were  given  to 
him,  and  which  is  still  enjoyed  by  his  descendants. 

About  this  time  the  permanent  settlement  was  introduced, 
and  Istimarar  Sunnud*  was  issued  to  Gowry  Vullaba  Taver ; 
hence  he  is  known  as  the  Istimarar  Zemindar.  He  ruled  for 
about  thirty  years,  and  on  his  death  the  zemindaree  was  usurped 
by  his  nephew,  the  son  of  the  Polgar  of  Padamatoor,  who  ruled 
for  two  years  and  died.  On  his  death  his  son  Bodagooroo 
succeeded ;  but  soon  after  the  estate  was  involved  in  dispute, 
and  Utigation  has  been  carried  on  for  the  last  thirty  years. 

After  various  decrees  in  this  country,  an  appeal  was  made  to 
Her  Majesty's  Privy  Council  on  behalf  of  the  widow,  the  pre- 
sent Ranee,  Kothama,  alias  Kolundapauny  NaMiiar,  the  whole 
of  whose  family  were  driven  out  of  the  country.  She  sought 
protection  in  Bamnad  for  some  time;  and  finally,  in  1856, 
found  her  way  to  G.  T.  Fischer,  Esq.,  at  Salem,  and  through 
whose  persevering  exeHion  on  her  behalf  she  eventually  ob- 
tained possession  of  her  fatherland  and  home.  The  trials  and 
hardships  she  underwent  are  painful  to  relate.  She  seemed 
indifferent  as  to  the  result  of  her  appeal  to  the  Queen,  and 
when  she  received  intelligence  of  the  success  of  her  appeal, 
she  did  not  exhibit  emotion  of  any  kind. 

*  Permanent  order,  or  warrant,  to  hold  land. 


SHORTT   ON    MARVAR  TRIBES   OF   INDIA.  205 

The  Ranee  is  the  mother  of  several  children,  three  of  whom 
are  now  alive — one  boy  and  two  girls.  Her  age  is  about  forty- 
five  years ;  height,  about  5  ft.  2  in.  Her  character  is  combined 
with  simplicity  and  goodness,  and  her  faith  superstitions. 

She  rises  at  seven  a.m.,  and  visits  her  daughters  at  eight 
o'clock.  She  goes  to  the  pagoda,  where  she  bathes  her  body, 
casts  off  her  white  clothes,  and  decks  herself  with  red  silk 
cloths ;  goes  through  various  unmeaning  ceremonies ;  puts 
her  shrine-marks,  which  consist  of  holy  ashes;  and  then 
goes  into  another  room,  changes  her  silk  for  her  usual  white 
cloth,  and  proceeds  to  her  audience  chamber,  where  her 
Buperintendent  or  carhar  meets  her,  and  informs  her  of 
all  that  is  going  on  in  the  estate,  etc.,  when  she  issues  such 
orders  as  may  be  required,  and  returns  to  her  palace  to 
partake  of  her  morning  meal,  about  eleven  or  twelve  o'clock. 
Her  food  is  partaken  off  a  plantain  leaf  or  a  golden  plate. 
The  meal  consists  chiefly  of  curry  and  rice,  with  milk,  plan- 
tains, fruits,  and  sweets,  etc.  The  curry  consists  chiefly  of 
vegetables,  prepared  in  various  ways.  After  her  meal  she 
chews  her  betel  and  nut,  and  then  goes  to  her  other  apart- 
ments, where  she  listens  to  stories  or  any  other  information 
she  can  get  from  her  women,  and  in  a  few  minutes  she  falls 
asleep.  She  awakes  again  at  about  two  or  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  when  she  again  visits  her  daughters  in  their  own 
apartments  in  the  palace,  which  adjoin  each  other.  Her  move- 
ments are  very  slow,  and  she  is  followed  by  a  number  of  women. 
On  her  return  she  calls  for  her  daughters  and  all  her  women, 
and  gets  them  to  join  her  in  prayers  and  singing  songs  in  the 
enclosure  in  front  of  her  palace,  whilst  herself  and  daughters 
look  on  with  amusement.  The  goddess  she  offers  poojah  to  she 
calls  "Eoyar*  Royar  Es])erro"\  Whenever  the  Ranee  enters  the 
pagoda  tom-toms  are  beaten,  and,  as  a  rule,  this  occurs  every 
morning  and  evening.  She  returns  from  her  pagoda  about 
eight  or  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening,  takes  her  supper,  and  re- 
tires for  the  night. 

The  population  chiefly  comprises  Marawars,  a  tribe  of  a  low 

*  King,  or  Emperor.  f  A  term  applied  to  the  wives  of  Vishna. 


206  8H0RTT   ON   MARVAR   TRIBES   OF   INDIA. 

caste^  warriors  at  one  time.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been 
thieves.  There  are  several  peculiarities  in  these  people^  the 
chief  of  which  is  the  mode  of  dress  of  the  women,  their  love 
of  ornaments,  and  the  system  of  piercing  the  ear-lobes,  so  dis- 
tending them  as  to  touch  or  reach  the  shoulders.  I  will  now 
briefly  describe  each. 

The  boring  of  the  ear  is  invariably  performed  by  men  of  the 
Corava  caste,  and  the  operation  is  generally  carried  out  during 
infancy,  when  the  child  is  a  month  old.  The  operation  consists 
first  in  piercing  the  lobe  of  the  ears  with  a  stout  needle,  and  a 
cotton  ligature  is  passed  through  the  orifice  and  the  ends  se- 
cured by  a  knot.  To  this  salt  and  water  is  applied,  which  is 
continued  for  a  day  or  two,  when  the  ligature  is  taken  out,  and 
a  piece  of  broomstick  is  now  forced  into  the  ear,  which  is  re- 
newed for  a  stouter  stick  every  three  or  four  days,  when  a  piece 
of  dry  pith  is  substituted.  The  pith  is  previously  moistened 
with  water,  which  causes  it  to  swell  and  distend  the  opening. 
This  is  also  renewed  by  a  stouter  piece  of  pith  every  other  day ; 
and  in  the  course  of  a  fortnight  or  so  pieces  of  cloth,  steeped  at 
first  in  salt  and  water,  afterwards  in  castor-oil,  are  substituted ; 
and  in  about  a  month  or  so  leaden  or  brass  weights  are  fixed  to 
the  lobe  of  the  ear,  the  weight  of  which  is  gradually  increased 
till  the  bottom  of  both  ears  meet  across  the  root  of  the  nose 
in  one  direction,  and  touch  the  shoulders  in  another,  when 
the  process  is  considered  complete  and  satisfactory. 

I  took  off  leaden  weights  from  several  children  under  a  year 
old,  each  weighing  one  ounce.  The  weights  are  continued  for 
some  years,  to  prevent  the  lobes  shrinking  up  again.  Under 
this  system  the  part  gains  vigour ;  but  if  at  any  time  there  are 
indications  of  the  ear-lobes  being  likely  to  give  way  under 
the  strain  of  the  weights,  they  are  either  removed  or  lightened 
for  a  time.  As  the  young  lady  approaches  puberty,  massive 
golden  ear-rings  take  the  place  of  lead,  while  in  the  poor  it  is 
changed  to  brass.  The  dangling  of  the  ear-lobes  on  the 
shoulder  is  considered  very  ornamental.  This  is  not  the  only 
opening  made  in  the  ear :  the  helix  along  its  upper  part  is  also 
pierced  in  three  places,  and  decked  with  jewels.  Each  jewel 
is  of  a  peculiar  shape  and  design.    The  uppermost  jewel  worn  in 


SHOBTT  ON  MABVAR  TRIBES  OP  INDIA.  207 

tbe  ear  is  callod  a  kuppa,  and  generally  consists  of  two  pieces 
connected  with  each  other  by  a  rod  and  a  screw^  the  latter 
being  screwed  into  the  rod  when  it  is  inserted  into  the  ear. 
The  lower  part  of  the  ornament  frequently  has  a  cluster  of 
pearls  or  precious  stones  hanging  from  it  amongst  the  rich ; 
but  the  poor  firequently  substitute  for  them  coloured  pieces  of 
glass. 

The  next  ornament  is  termed  vesary  moorgo.  It  consists  of 
a  pendant  merely^  and  is  generally  studded  with  precious 
stones. 

The  third  jewel  is  called  orenapu.  It  has  a  roundish  form, 
and  may  also  be  studded  with  jewels ;  and  the  fourth,  which 
generally  consists  of  one  or  more  massive  pieces  of  gold,  fila- 
greed,  of  various  forms,  but  most  frequently  of  the  form  of  a 
signet-ring,  dangles  on  the  shoulder. 

The  practice  of  piercing  the  lobules  of  the  ear  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  restricted  to  the  Maravars  only ;  but  in  the  south 
other  castes,  such  as  the  Vellalver,  Agembadier,  KuHsr,  Cow- 
herds^  Vaniers,  GhetlieSy  and  others,  resort  to  the  same  practice, 
and  when  the  operation  is  perfect  it  is  termed  Thola  Oathoo, 
The  only  exceptions  seem  to  be  amongst  the  Brahmins  and 
Gentoos.  The  opening  thus  formed  in  the  lobule  of  the  ear 
frequently  gives  rise  to  accidents  by  getting  torn  through.  At 
Chengleputt,  where  the  opening  in  the  lobule  of  the  ear  is 
about  one  twelfth  the  size  of  what  it  is  further  south,  is  con- 
stantly being  torn  through,  from  accidents  arising  from  the 
occupations  of  native  women  in  gathering  sticks,  and  attending 
to  other  household  work ;  and  during  quarrels  or  fights  with 
each  other  it  is  also  frequently  torn  through;  and  on  an 
average  I  used  to  have  from  ten  to  fifteen  cases  annually  of 
torn  ear  coming  for  treatment  to  the  dispensary.  From  the 
greater  size  of  the  opening  in  the  ears  of  women  in  the  Ma- 
dura district,  accidents  of  this  kind,  I  should  think,  must  be 
much  more  frequent.  Perhaps  there  is  no  accident  that  can 
happen  to  a  native  female,  no  matter  of  what  caste,  that  causes 
so  much  anxiety  to  the  patient  and  her  friends  as  that  of  a  torn 
ear,  which  is  termed  Moohe  Cauthoo,*  and  is  considered  a  great 

*  Moolee  cauthoo,  defective  ear. 


208  SHORTT   ON   MABVAR   TRIBES   OP   INDIA. 

disgrace,  on  which  account  they  are  particularly  anxious  to 
have  the  injury  as  soon  and  as  quietly  as  possible  repaired ; 
and  they  submit  patiently  to  have  the  edges  pared  afresh  when 
necessary,  and  the  ends  brought  together  by  a  silver  wire 
suture.  Even  girls  of  six  and  seven  years  of  age  will  sit  like 
blocks  of  wood,  to  have  the  operation  of  mending  carried 
out ;  and  in  these  cases,  if  care  be  taken  to  bring  the  raw 
surfaces  evenly  together,  the  parts  unite  rapidly  in  the  course 
of  some  three  or  four  days,  and  in  about  three  weeks  or  a 
month  after  they  are  able  to  put  on  their  ear-rings  as  if  nothing 
had  happened. 

The  style  of  dress  of  the  Maravar  women  diflFers  from 
other  castes,  except  that  of  the  Agumbadiers,  It  consists,  hke 
that  in  use  among  other  native  women,  of  one  entire  piece, 
varying  in  length  from  thirty  to  fifty  cubits,  and  from  three  to 
five  feet  in  breadth.  It  frequently  has  a  coloured  border  on 
either  side,  more  especially  when  white ;  the  outer  end  is  also 
covered.  This  portion  is  frequently  embroidered  in  silver  or 
gold  amongst  the  rich,  and  simply  coloured  by  the  poor,  and  is 
called  moonthannee  *  by  name. 

In  tying  on  the  cloth,  the  plain  end  is  gathered  into  folds 
to  the  extent  of  some  fifteen  or  twenty  cubits,  held  in  the  hand 
and  placed  behind  at  the  waist,  while  the  other  portion  is 
moved  round  the  body,  and  the  portion  gathered  is  allowed  to 
fall  over  to  the  depth  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches.  This 
is  termed  the  hosavum  (folds),  and  is  allowed  to  fall  over  in 
graceful  folds,  forming  a  kind  of  upper  skirt,  and  gives  the 
woman  a  full  appearance  about  the  hips,  as  the  folds  encircle 
throe  parts  of  the  person  from  behind.  This  is  practised 
among  all  castes  of  women,  who  use  the  native  cloth  or  saree, 
but  the  kosavum,  as  it  is  termed,  is  not  so  extensive,  and  is 
only  confined  to  the  right  side  by  a  small  fold  or  gathering, 
which  is  scarcely  visible.  The  ornamental  end  of  the  cloth  is 
now  ca,rried  across  the  back  and  over  the  left  shoulder,  and  the 
embroidered  part  itself  opened  out  in  front.  Widows  wear 
white  clothes  only,  but  married  women  can  use  coloured 
cloths. 

*  Moonthannee^  or  front  piece. 


8H0RTT   ON    MARVAB  TRIBES   OF   INDIA.  209 

Hair. — Among  Maravar  women  the  hair  is  put  up  differently 
to  what  natives  in  general  do.  The  hair  is  set  on  the  top  of 
the  head  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  the  wearer  a  tallish  ap- 
pearance. It  is  parted  along  the  centre  into  two  divisions,  that 
of  either  side  is  crossed  over  and  tucked  inwards  from  the 
front,  whilst  the  ends  are  left  peeping  out  and  playing  with  the 
breeze. 

The  men  are  much  better  looking  than  the  women.  They 
are  tall,  have  a  fine  intelligent  appearance,  a  robust  form  of 
body,  and  somewhat  martial  appearance.  Their  heads  are 
well  formed,  with  a  raised  expansive  brow,  large  and  intelli- 
gent eyes.  I  regret  that  I  had  not  the  means  at  command  of 
taking  their  measurements  and  weights. 

I  shall  now  conclude  this  paper  with  the  ceremony  connected 
with  the  installation  of  the  present  Ranee  in  her  rightful  place, 
after  a  dispute  of  some  thirty-five  years. 

The  installation  is  termed  the  Puttumj  or  Assumption  of 
Dignity,  and  was  carried  out  on  the  10th  of  October,  1863,  to 
witness  which  the  whole  of  the  Shevagunga  zemindary  popu- 
lation was  invited,  and  to  attend  at  the  general  merrymaking. 
This  was  fully  taken  advantage  of;  but  at  the  same  time  the 
more  sensible  people  evinced  much  sympathy  for  the  Ranee 
herself,  whose  family  had  for  the  last  thirty-five  years  been  de- 
prived of  their  patrimonial  rights. 

On  th<|  conclusion  of  the  Diisserah*  festival,  it  is  usual 
among  Indian  princes,  on  attaining  permanent  command,  to 
carry  out  the  ceremony  of  shooting  the  arrow.  The  day  is 
universally  celebrated  by  the  Hindoos,  in  all  parts  of  India,  in 
token  of  the  destruction  of  the  giant  king,  Mahishuren. 

At  mid-day,  and  about  a  mile  from  the  palace  of  Shevagunga, 
was  selected  a  spot  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  ceremony. 
State  preparations  had  been  going  on  in  the  palace  from  day- 
light. The  flags  of  Hanooman  (Monkey  God)  and  Gerooda 
(Brahmin  kite)  were  seen  to  float  over  the  palace.  Tom-toms, 
cannon,  and  other  noises  kept  concerting.  The  Ranee,  after 
her  usual  ablutions  and  poojahs,  was  presented  with  the  usual 
prasathun  (holy  food)  by  the  parobuthan,  or  family  priest.  This 

*  A  ten-day  Hindoo  feast  in  honour  of  the  g^oddess  Kali. 
VOL.  III.  r 


210  SHORTT   ON   MABYAB  TBIBBIS   OF   INDIA. 

prasatham  comprises  plantains^  cocoa-nuts^  betel^  flowers^ 
sandal-wood,  and  tirunoor,  or  holy  ashes.  The  priest  then 
requested  permission  to  commence  the  ceremony  of  installing 
her  into  the  seat  and  honours  of  her  forefathers.  Having  ob- 
tained the  necessary  permission,  he  departed  to  the  palace 
pagoda,  where  some  hundreds  of  Brahmins,  Priests,  Grurus, 
Josiers,  and  Shastrias  had  assembled  to  assist  on  the  occasion. 
At  the  auspicious  hour  the  parohithan  commenced  the  ceremony 
of  Poonihaha*  Vacchanum,  to  purify  the  palace,  and  with  that 
view  spread  some  raw  rice  on  the  granite  floor  of  the  temple 
near  the  doorway  of  the  pagoda.  On  it  he  placed  a  brass  pot 
filled  with  water,  the  mouth  of  which  was  covered  with  mango 
leaves.  After  some  unmeaning  ceremonies  and  muntras  were 
repeated  in  honour  of  Varuna^  the  God  of  Waters,  the  mango 
leaves  were  removed  from  the  mouth  of  the  pot,  dipped  into 
the  fluid,  and  the  place  sprinkled  with  the  water. 

Next  followed  the  invocation  of  Vignaspereriy  who  was  repre- 
sented by  a  conical  mass  of  ground  turmeric,  and  which  was 
placed  next  to  the  brass  pot.  The  purohithan  then,  with  a  tray 
full  of  rupees,  rose  and  addressed  the  assembled  Brahmins  in 
Sanskrit,  in  honour  of  the  occasion ;  and  after  having  requested 
their  prayers  for  the  prosperity  of  the  Ranee,  the  distribution 
of  the  rupees  followed.  After  this  commenced  the  Jepums,  or 
prayers  of  the  Brahmins,  their  hearts  having  been  previously 
gladdened  by  the  rupees,  and  they  began  the  ceremony  of  the 
Navadanim,  by  the  spreading  of  nine  different  kinds  of  grain, 
each  separately  covered  by  plantain  leaves,  forming  tiers  one 
over  another.  These  were  surmounted  by  thirty-five  brass  pots, 
of  sizes,  filled  with  water  from  the  tank  in  front  of  the  palace. 
These  vessels  had  their  mouths  covered  with  leaves,  flowers, 
fruits,  cloth,  sandal- wood,  and  money,  and  the  chiLckrum,  or  as- 
trological symbol,  was  also  deposited  by  them.  The  Brahmins, 
during  their  recitations  of  prayers,  threw  rice  mixed  with  saf- 
fron (or  turmeric)  against  the  vessels  of  water.  At  the  same 
time  camphor  and  incense  were  ignited  and  cocoa-nuts  broken. 
Betel  loaves  and  flowers  were  again  deposited  opposite  each 

•  Purification. 


SHOBTT   ON   MAEVAB  TRIBES   OP   INDIA.  211 

pot,  after  which  a  crown,  of  the  form  of  a  dacal  coronet, 
studded  with  gems,  and  said  to  have  cost  fifteen  thousand 
rupees,  was  brought  forward  by  Mr.  Fisher,  the  agent,  and 
handed  to  the  purohithan  to  be  consecrated.  This  was  done 
by  placing  it  at  the  feet  of  Vignasjyeren,  and  holy  water  made 
ready  (i.  e.,  water  from  the  rivers  Oanges,  Cauvery,  Vigay, 
Mamiserum,  Tripaty,  Palany,  and  others) .  The  Banee  having 
finished  her  devotions,  came  forth  at  the  auspicious  hour  of 
eleven  a.m.,  conducted  by  her  female  relatives,  when  she  was 
led  to  the  Kurruneul*  Ghawkai,  or  Installation  Place,  in  use  in 
the  Zemindary,  which  is  an  open,  court-like  building,  of  a 
square  form,  and  constructed  of  granite,  having  in  the  centre  a 
raised  platform  twelve  feet  square  and  three  feet  high,  with 
steps  on  the  east  and  west  sides,  the  roof  being  flat  and  square, 
supported  by  marble  pillars ;  and  within  this  building  is  placed 
tt  platform  formed  of  a  marble  slab,  nine  feet  by  five,  and  two 
inches  thick,  supported  by  eight  crouching  lions  about  two  feet 
from  the  ground. 

On  this  platform  the  Ranee,  now  decked  in  coloured  silks, 
seated  herself,  surrounded  by  her  family  and  relatives.  The 
ofiiciating  priest  and  his  assistants  then  repeated  their  mwn- 
tra^,  and  held  over  the  head  of  the  Ranee  a  silver  strainer,  into 
which  the  holy  water  was  poured,  and  the  spray  from  the 
thousand  perforations  broke  over  her  person,  after  which  water 
from  the  different  conseci*atod  vessels  was  collected  and  poured 
through  the  strainer  (called  the  Sashasra  dahara  Kamahum,* 
and  is  believed  to  contain  exactly  a  thousand  perforations)  ; 
after  which  the  coronet  was  placed  on  the  Ranee's  head  by  Mr. 
Fisher,  the  agent,  while  the  Brahmins  invoked  unnumbered 
blessings  for  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  the  family  of  the 
Ranee  and  the  Ranee  herself.  Thus  was  completed  the  Putta- 
bee  Shagum,  or  Installation  of  the  Ranee.  The  usual  din  and 
uproar  from  tom-toms  and  congratulations  made  the  place 
resound  again. 

The  Ranee,  dripping  in  holy  water,  was  now  conducted  to  her 
private  temple,  where  she  changed  her  wet  apparel  for  a  spot- 
less white  muslin ;  and  having  ornamented  her  person  with 

•  Granite  seat.  f  Veesel  with  a  thousand  perforations. 

p2 


212  SHORTT   ON   MABVAK   TRIBES   OP   INDIA. 

jewellery  and  abundance  of  marks  of  sacred  ashes^  she  retired 
with  her  female  relatives  to  the  palace  pagoda^  there  to  return 
her  own  thanks  to  her  God,  and  which  she  carried  out  by  pros- 
trating herself  before  a  lamp  that  was  burning  at  the  foot  of 
one  of  the  idols  in  the  covil,  or  pagoda.  She  then  returned  to 
the  Ghowkaiy  and  commenced  the  distribution  of  gifts,  the  chief 
of  which  consisted  of  ghee,  or  clarified  butter,  and  Gingely  oil. 
A  cup  of  ghee  was  now  offered  to  the  Eanee,  in  which  she  was 
to  behold  her  reflection ;  and  to  avoid  looking  at  the  presentee's 
countenance,  a  looking-glass  was  given  her  to  admire  her  own 
reflection.  A  similar  ceremony  was  gone  through  with  the 
Gingely  oil,  and  after  which  distributions  of  presents  of  money 
took  place,  and  the  people  dispersed. 

Now  followed  the  Wesa  Danum,  or  ten  gifts  prescribed  by 
the  Shastries  for  the  absolution  and  remission  of  sins.  These 
comprised  land,  cows,  gold,  silver,  cloth,  ghee,  grain,  sugar, 
salt,  etc.,  followed  by  a  tray  containing  saffron,  coloured  rice, 
cocoa-nuts,  plantaihs,  sandal-wood,  and  tirunnor  (holy  or  sacred 
ashes),  collected  by  the  several  oflSciating  Brahmins  during  the 
different  ceremonies.  These  were  offered  to  the  Eanee,  and 
with  the  pronunciation  of  different  muntras  (prayers)  the  rice 
was  thrown  at  her ;  and  at  the  conclusion  a  few  gains  were 
placed  on  the  crown  of  her  head,  and  her  forehead  smeared 
with  holy  ashes,  upon  which  the  collected  Brahmins,  having 
invoked  endless  blessings,  departed. 

The  ceremony  of  shooting  the  arrow  was  now  commenced ; 
and,  in  the  instance  of  males,  the  ruhng  Zemindar  himself 
should  conduct  the  ceremony  by  his  presence;  but  as  the 
Eanee  could  not  appear  in  public,  she  sent  her  son  to  represent 
her  on  the  occasion,  who  prepared  himself  by  prostration  before 
the  temple  deities.  He  then  received  from  his  mother  the  five 
arrows  that  were  to  be  shot.  These  he  delivered  to  the  oflSciat- 
ing Brahmin  who  had  hitherto  conducted  the  Diwserah,  or  ten 
days'  festival,  and  then  proceeded  in  procession  to  mount  his 
elephant,  which,  in  gay  trappings,  awaited  his  pleasure  at  the 
gateway. 

The  animal  employed  on  such  occasions  is  usually  white,  but 
there  being  none,  the  usual  elephant  was  painted  white  for  the 


SHORTT   ON    MARVAR   TRIBES   OF   INDIA.  213 

occasion.  Having  mounted  ^he  elephant,  in  company  with  two 
of  his  uncles,  he  proceeded  to  the  spot  where  the  ceremony 
was  to  take  place.  The  image  of  Vignasperen  in  his  vehicle, 
the  bandycoote  mounted  on  a  car  drawn  with  drag-ropes  pre- 
ceding him.  Next  followed  the  master  of  ceremonies,  the 
Brahmins  with  the  arrows,  mounted  on  an  elephant;  after 
which  came  the  white  elephant  with  the  Ranee's  son  and 
brothers-in-law,  accompanied  by  dancing-girls  and  a  large 
crowd  of  spectators.  The  place  selected  for  the  purpose  had 
a  pandall  erected  thereon,  giving  cover  to  a  space  of  twenty 
feet  square,  the  sides  enclosed,  leaving  only  an  archway  open- 
ing leading  into  the  interior,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  what 
is  termed  the  '^Vunnee  Marum''  (Prosopis  Spicigera).  Tho 
procession  then  went  round  the  shed  twice ;  and  on  the  third 
time,  while  the  elephant  faced  the  east,  the  master  of  cere- 
monies shot  an  arrow  in  the  air  in  that  direction,  then  turned 
round,  and  did  the  same  to  the  other  cardinal  points,  a  sheep 
being  sacrificed  at  the  different  localities  on  which  the  arrows 
descended.  The  fifth  arrow  was  then  shot  at  the  Vunnee 
Marum,  and  the  ceremony  concluded.  The  procession  then 
returned  home. 

This  ceremony  of  Vmmee  Marum  shooting  occurs  in  most 
parts  of  India,  at  the  termination  of  the  Dusserah,  and  is 
carried  out  in  commemoration  of  the  great  battle  between 
Mashihasooreti,  the  King  of  Giants,  and  Doorga.  The  fable 
runs  thus :  That  in  consequence  of  the  tyranny  of  Mashiha- 
sooren,  on  the  representation  of  Indra,  the  King  of  the  Gods, 
to  Vishnu,  his  anger  at  the  relation  of  the  atrocities  of  Mashi- 
hasooren  was  so  great  that  the  earth  shook  like  a  leaf,  and  he 
produced  the  Female  Deity  known  as  Muhamyay  or  Doorga,  the 
passive  principle  of  nature,  and  who  undertook  tho  destruction 
of  the  Giant  King,  and  the  battle  that  ensued  lasted  some  ten 
days,  terminating  in  favour  of  Doorga  and  the  death  of  Mashi- 
hashooren.  For  this  success  the  Gods  returned  thanks  to  the 
victorious  Doorga  for  having  delivered  them  from  so  great  an 
enemy.  It  appears  that  whilst  perambulating  in  her  chariot  in 
pride,  she  shot  out  four  of  the  five  arrows  she  carried  at  the 
four  cardinal  points,  whilst  the  fifth  was  the  one  that  destroyed 


214  SHORTT   ON   MABVAB   TRIBES   OF   INDIA. 

the  giant,  and  is  considered  emblematical  of  her  having  con- 
quered three  worlds;  and  promising  succour  to  those  who 
sought  her,  she  vanished. 

On  the  return  of  the  young  Zemindar  to  the  palace,  his 
mother,  the  Ranee,  awaited  him  at  the  Installation  Room ;  and 
on  his  making  his  appearance  there  seven  Brahmin  virgins,  the 
eldest  carrying  a  brass  dish  containing  saffron-water*,  pre- 
sented themselves.  The  dish  of  saffron  was  encircled  around 
the  heads  of  the  Ranee  and  her  son  seven  times,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  averting  the  evil  eye ;  and  after  having  received  pre- 
sents of  cloths,  they  were  dismissed.  The  Ranee  then 
proceeded  to  the  "  kaliana  mahal,"  or  marriage-hall,  where 
her  children,  relatives,  and  female  servants  came  and  prostrated 
themselves  before  her,  in  token  of  allegiance. 

In  the  evening  the  young  Zemindar,  the  Ranee's  son,  held  a 
Durbar,  in  lieu  of  his  mother,  to  receive  obeisance  and  respect 
from  the  several  Devastarums,  the  heads  of  the  Nats,  or  feudal 
divisions  of  the  zemindary,  and  the  chief  Brahmins,  the  Stani^ 
yalsy  or  trustees  of  the  various  pagodas,  took  precedence.  The 
chief  Stanigal  sat  down  before  him,  and  offered  him  two  brass 
or  clay  chatties,  containing  parasathum,  or  holy  food.  This 
the  Ranee's  son  accepted  by  touching  them,  while  an  attendant 
emptied  the  contents  and  returned  the  chatties.  Then  the 
Stanigal  rose,  and  touched  the  young  gentleman's  brow  with 
holy  ashes,  and  retired.  The  heads  of  the  different  pagodas 
went  through  a  similar  ceremony.  Then  the  heads  of  the  Nats 
advanced  with  offerings  of  sheep.  They  prostrated  themselves 
before  him,  and  craved  his  protection  to  their  rights  and  privi- 
leges according  to  mamool  (custom).  These  were  followed  by 
the  Dowmasavum  Brahmins,  who  numbered  five  hundred. 
These  sat  down  and  offered  their  blessings  in  Sanskrit,  each 
one  presenting  a  cocoa-nut  smeared  with  saffron.  At  the 
same  time  about  two  thousand  rupees  were  being  distributed 
to  begging  Brahmins  at  the  palace  gateway. 

Then  followed  a  nautch,  with  dancing-girls,  of  whom  there 


*  Saffron-water  mixed  with  liino,  chunaan,  is  in  common  use  for  destroying 
the  "  evil-eye".    The  dish  containing  it  is  encircled  around  the  person. 


8H0RTT   ON    MARVAR   TRIBES   OF   INDIA.  215 

were  twenty-four  sets.  Sandal-wood,  betel,  nut,  and  garlands 
of  flowers  were  profusely  distributed,  and  the  Tamasha  kept  up 
till  daylight. 

Thus  terminated  the  installation  of  Streemathoo  Moothoo 
Yigia  Bagoonadha  Banee  Kuthama,  alias  Kolundapoony 
Natchiar. 

For  much  of  the  information  connected  with  the  habits  and 
manners  of  the  Ranee  I  am  indebted  to  Miss  Fischer,  whose 
intimacy  with  that  personage  has  enabled  her  to  furnish  me 
with  the  necessary  information.  I  am  likewise  indebted  to  R. 
Fischer,  Esq.,  B.L.,  for  much  information  on  various  points, 
and  as  to  the  installation  ceremony  and  the  shooting  of  the 
arrow. 

I  have  chiefly  abridged  these  from  a  paper  furnished  by  Mr. 
Fischer  to  one  of  the  daily  newspapers,  a  copy  of  which  Mr. 
Fischer  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal.  To  Miss  Fischer  I  am 
likewise  indebted  for  the  photographs  which  I  have  the  plea- 
sure to  submit  with  this  paper. 


21G 


XV. — Report  on  Excavations  in  Caithness  Cairns,  conducted  for 
the  Anthropological  Society  of  London  by  Messrs.  J.  Anderson 
and  B,  I.  Shearer,  in  1866.  By  Joseph  Andeeson,  Loc. 
Sec.  A.S.L. 

In  a  previous  report  I  have  detailed  the  results  of  our  explora- 
tions in  the  chambered  sepulchral  cairns  of  Thrum  ster,  Ulbster, 
and  Camster,  Caithness.  In  the  course  of  our  investigations 
into  the  structural  characteristics  of  these  interesting  cairns^ 
we  were  fortunate  enough  to  succeed  in  elucidating  completely 
the  hitherto  unknown  structural  character  of  the  long  cairns 
with  expanding  crescentic  ends,  whose  peculiar  features  are  in 
that  report  for  the  first  time  described.  We  were  also  fortu- 
nate enough  to  fall  in  with  an  entirely  new  type  of  cairn  struc- 
ture, uniting  the  characteristics  of  the  previously  mentioned 
long  or  '^  homed  *'  cairns  with  those  of  the  common  or  round 
cairn,  whose  exterior  form  is  defined  by  a  circular  enclosing 
wall,  and  containing  a  central  tri-cameral  chamber.  As  we 
had  then  examined  only  two  examples  of  the  long  cairn  with 
"  horns  '^  or  crescentic  ends,  and  had  found  but  one  of  the 
short  kind  with  horns,  our  attention  was  primarily  directed  to 
ascertain  if  there  were  more  examples  of  either  type  among 
the  few  sepulchral  cairns  in  the  district  which  still  remained 
unexamined.  We  have  again  been  so  fortunate  as  to  find  an 
additional  example  of  each  of  these  kinds,  both  being  exteriorly 
almost  the  exact  counterpart  of  those  previously  described,  but 
presenting  considerable  diflTerence  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
internal  chamber. 

The  Caien  op  Get.  Shoet  Caien  with  Hoens. 
The  cairn  of  Get,  as  it  is  locally  termed,  is  situated  in  a 
hollow  at  the  south-east  end  of  the  hill  fort  of  Garrywhin. 
From  an  examination  of  its  exterior  we  had  judged  it  to  be  of 
the  same  type  as  the  homed  cairn  at  Ormiegill,  previously  de- 
scribed. It  had  been  partially  disturbed  and  the  apex  removed 
during  the  construction  of  a  dam  close  by ;  but  we  soon  satis- 


EXCAVATIONS   IN    CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  217 

fied  ourselves  that  neither  its  chambers  nor  passage  had  been 
laid  open,  and  its  external  enclosing  walls  had  not  been  laid 
bare.  On  digging  down  into  the  chamber,  we  found  the  walls 
unbroken  all  round  to  the  height  of  from  five  feet  at  the  lowest 
to  between  eight  and  nine  feet  at  the  highest  part,  and  showing 
a  very  distinct  convergence  for  the  roof  at  the  height  of  six  to 
seven  feet  above  the  floor.  The  passage  walls  were  also  con- 
tinuous and  unbroken,  but  the  lintelling  was  gone.  The  whole 
chamber  and  passage  was  filled  with  a  confused  mass  of  stones, 
which  being  entirely  cleared  out,  the  floor  was  found  to  be 
perfectly  undisturbed,  and  the  rubbish  over  the  floor  of  the 
passage  seemed  equally  undisturbed.  In  fact,  although  the 
apex  had  been  taken  off  the  cairn,  and  some  of  the  lintels 
taken  off  the  passage,  in  the  search  for  large  stones  for  the 
dam,  it  was  perfectly  clear  that  the  workmen  had  not  gone 
deeper  than  to  try  the  cairn  for  big  stones ;  and  finding  none 
suitable  that  were  easily  got  at,  they  had  abandoned  the  search, 
and  gone  for  what  they  wanted  to  the  walls  of  the  hill  fort 
close  by. 

When  thoroughly  cleared  out,  the  chamber  in  this  cairn,  in- 
stead of  being  tri-caraerated,  as  we  had  heretofore  found  them, 
was  bi-cameral.  The  first  compartment,  as  usual,  was  small  and 
rectangular.  It  was  separated  from  the  other  and  main  com- 
partment by  two  largo  and  heavy  flags  set  across  the  floor,  and 
leaving  a  passage  between  their  opposing  edges.  But  the  re- 
mainder of  the  chamber  was  not  subdivided  again  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  small  compartment  as  usual  at  the  back.  It  was  thus 
the  roomiest  chamber  we  had  met  with,  and  was  much  more 
nearly  circular  in  its  outline  than  any  of  the  rest.  The  two 
large  slabs  that  would  have  formed  the  division  between  the 
second  and  third  compartments  were  not  wanting,  but  they 
were  set  with  their  faces  in  the  wall  instead  of  across  the  cham- 
ber. The  customary  large  slab  at  the  back  of  the  chamber 
facing  the  passage  was  also  in  its  place  as  usual. 

The  entrance-passage  opens  to  the  S.S.W.  It  is  eleven  feet 
in  length  and  two  feet  six  inches  wide  at  the  outside  entrance, 
widening  gradually  till  it  enters  the  chamber,  where  it  is  fully 
three  feet  wide.     The  lintels  being  gone,  the  height  of  the 


218  EXCAVATIONS   IN  CAIBKS^    CAITHNESS. 

passage  could  not  be  ascertained,  but  it  could  not  have  been 
over  three  feet  at  the  outside,  where  the  slope  of  the  cairn 
would  bring  it  down  to  something  like  that  height. 

Measuring  across  the  centre  of  the  floor  from  sidewaU  to 
sidewall,  and  from  front  to  back  between  the  divisional  dtones 
and  the  upright  slabs  forming  the  jambs  in  the  entrance  from 
the  passage,  the  first  compartment  of  the  chamber  is  only  six 
feet  by  four  and  a  half. 

The  second  or  principal  compartment,  approximately  circular 
in  form,  encloses  an  area  which  measures  eleven  feet  from  side- 
wall  to  sidewall,  and  ten  feet  from  front  to  back.  Owing  to 
the  walls  being  built  along  with  and  over  the  top  of  the  great 
slabs  set  into  them,  as  previously  described,  the  circular  form 
of  this  compartment  is  more  nearly  that  of  an  irregular  octagon 
on  the  ground  plan.  The  slab  which  partly  forms  the  back  of 
the  chamber  is  five  feet  across  the  face,  and  rises  four  feet  in 
the  wall,  while  those  on  either  side  are  each  four  feet  four 
inches  across  the  face,  and  rise  to  about  the  same  height  in  the 
walls.  Above  that  height  the  building  is  gradually  brought  to 
a  more  circular  form ;  and  as  the  slabs  and  the  lower  part  of 
the  walls  incline  slightly  outwards,  this  is  corrected  by  the 
masonry  over  these  being  brought  gradually  forward,  till  at  the 
height  of  seven  feet  the  overlapping  and  rapid  convergence  for 
the  roof  begins.  The  contour  of  the  chamber  would  thus  be 
something  like  a  barrel  set  on  end. 

The  external  structure  of  the  cairn  forming  the  horns  is  the 
same  here  as  in  the  Ormiegill  case.  A  double  wall,  or  rather  a 
wall  built  parallel  to  and  leaning  against  another,  runs  all  the 
way  round  the  outside  of  the  cairn,  so  as  to  give  it  the  peculiar 
outline  shown  in  the  Plan  No.  1 .  Both  walls  are  faced  to  the 
outside  only.  The  distance  from  the  face  of  the  outside  wall 
to  the  face  of  the  one  behind  it  varies  slightly  in  different  parts, 
ranging  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet.  The  horns  are 
slightly  convex  at  the  tips,  which  are  four  feet  across.  They 
project  in  front  of  the  body  of  the  cairn  twenty-two  feet,  and 
backwards  behind  the  body  of  the  cairn  fifteen  feet.  The  front 
horns  are  forty-eight  feet  apart  at  the  tips,  and  the  hinder  ones 
the  same.     The  extreme  length  of  the  structure,  from  the  tip 


EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS^   CAITHNESS.  219 

of  the  front  horn  to  that  of  the  hind  horn  on  either  side  is 
eighty  feet :  and  the  extreme  width  from  point  to  point,  both 
before  and  behind,  is  fifty-six  feet ;  the  width  of  the  body  of 
the  cairn  across  the  centre  being  forty-six  feet. 

The  contents  of  the  chamber  yielded  some  very  interesting 
results.  In  the  first  compartment  we  found  the  only  collection 
of  skulls  in  a  sufficient  state  of  entirety  to  admit  of  removal 
and  preservation,  that  has  been  obtained  from  the  Caithness 
chambered  cairns. 

In  the  first  compartment  lay  a  number  of  skeletons,  the 
heads  having  been  all  placed  to  the  right  side  of  the  entrance, 
as  if  the  bodies  had  been  laid  athwart  the  doorway.  The 
entrance  passage  opens  to  the  S.S.W.  by  compass,  so  that  the 
bodies  would  be  laid  with  the  heads  to  E.S.E.,  and  the  feefc  to 
W.N.W.  From  the  fragmentary  condition  of  several  of  the 
skulls  and  the  decayed  state  of  the  other  bones,  the  exact 
number  of  skeletons  could  not  be  ascertained,  but  we  judged 
that  there  could  not  have  been  fewer  than  seven  or  eight. 
The  skulls  of  more  than  half  of  these  were  pretty  entire  and  in 
good  preservation,  considering  the  quantity  of  stones  and 
rubbish  that  lay  above  them.  The  other  portions  of  the  skele- 
tons were  very  much  decayed,  the  middle  of  the  floor  being  a 
little  lower  and  wetter  than  where  the  skulls  lay.  From  the 
number  of  individuals  crowded  into  the  small  area  (six  feet  by 
four  and  a  half),  there  was  no  possibility  of  determining  to 
which  particular  skull  any  of  the  other  bones  belonged. 
Neither  could  we  ascertain  with  certainty  whether  the  bodies 
had  been  deposited  at  full  length  or  doubled  up,  though  from 
the  fragments  being  found  all  over  the  floor,  I  incline  to  the 
belief  that  they  may  have  been  laid  at  full  length.  On  the 
character  of  these  skulls  I  shall  venture  no  opinion  further  than 
to  state  that  they  appear  to  me  to  be  remarkably  well  formed, 
and  that  heads  of  a  much  more  degraded  type  may  easily  be 
found  on  the  shoulders  of  many  men  of  the  present  day. 

On  the  floor  of  the  main  compartment  of  the  chamber  there 
was  the  largest  accumulation  of  ashes,  mixed  with  bones,  burnt 
and  unbumt,  and  pottery,  that  we  have  found  in  any  of  the 
cairns.     In  the  centre  it   formed  a  compact  mass  of  about 


220  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS. 

eighteen  inches  in  thickness.  We  examined  it  most  carefully 
as  it  was  lifted,  and  found  it  plentifully  mixed  with  wood  ashes 
and  charcoal,  many  of  the  fragments  indicating  pieces  of  wood 
of  very  considerable  thickness.  It  would  be  very  difficult  now- 
a-days,  in  a  treeless  country  like  Caithness,  to  obtain  as  many 
sticks  as  would  make  a  fire  within  a  circuit  of  many  miles ; 
but  the  people  who  kindled  these  great  and  long-continued 
fires  in  the  cairns  appear  to  have  had  no  difficulty  in  obtaining 
wood  for  fuel.  Wo  found  no  piece  of  wood  unbumt,  though 
bones  unburnt  at  one  end  and  completely  charred  at  the  other 
were  of  frequent  occurrence. 

The  quantity  of  burnt  and  splintered  bones  intermixed  with 
this  layer  of  ashes  was  very  great.  The  bones  got  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  floor  were  unburnt.  Human  bones  were  mixed  up 
with  those  of  the  horse,  dog  (?),  deer,  ox,  and  swine,  in 
indiscriminate  confusion  ;  and  both  the  human  and  animal 
bones  bore  the  same  unequivocal  evidence  of  being  wholly 
burnt  in  some  instances,  and  only  partially  placed  in  the  fire  in 
others.  The  human  bones  were  those  of  very  young  children 
as  well  as  of  adults.  In  this  compartment  the  skulls  occurred 
only  in  small  fragments,  and  in  several  instances  nothing  re- 
mained of  them  but  the  teeth. 

Scattered  through  the  mass  of  ashes  and  bones  were  chips 
and  flakes  of  flint  in  great  abundance,  some  completely  burnt, 
and  others  quite  free  from  the  action  of  fire.  A  few  of  these 
Hakes  are  chipped  to  shape  as  if  intended  for  arrow-heads ; 
and  one  beautifully  finished  arrow-head,  an  inch  in  length  and 
fully  half  an  inch  broad,  was  found  imbedded  in  the  mass.  It 
is  more  leaf-shaped  than  heart-shaped,  and  chipped  all  over  the 
side  as  well  as  on  the  edges,  being  brought  to  an  extremely  fine 
sharp  point. 

Fragments  of  pottery  were  also  abundant.  They  were  of  the 
usual  kind,  and,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  unomamented. 
The  single  pattern  of  ornamentation  which  occurred  in  this 
cairn  was  that  formed  by  indenting  the  clay  with  the  finger- 
nail— a  style  of  ornamentation  abundantly  found  in  the  round 
cairns,  but  of  which  the  one  or  two  pieces  found  hero  are  the 
only  examples  met  with  in  the  horned  cairns. 


EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  221 

LoNO  Caien,  Camstee,  with  Horns. 

This  long  cairn,  the  external  appearance  of  which  is  figured 
from  a  photograph  in  my  previous  report  (Mem.  Antli.  Soc, 
vol.  ii),  was  such  a  formidable  undertaking  that  we  had  con- 
siderable hesitation  about  commencing  it.  Prom  the  appear- 
ance externally  of  its  eastern  end  we  had  reason  to  believe  that 
we  should  find  the  chamber  entire,  with  the  roof  on  it.  And 
so,  indeed,  it  proved,  although  all  our  previous  knowledge  of 
the  other  homed  cairns  and  our  conclusions  from  analogy  re- 
garding its  internal  arrangements  were  quite  at  fault.  Al- 
though this  extraordinary  and  extensive  cairn  yielded  us  abso- 
lutely nothing  in  the  shape  of  contained  relics,  we  succeeded 
in  elucidating  its  structural  characteristics  and  the  internal 
arrangements  of  its  contained  chambers,  which  were  quite 
peculiar. 

The  entire  length  of  the  cairn,  measuring  from  the  Hues 
across  the  tips  of  the  horns  at  either  end,  was  195  feet.  Its 
width,  at  the  highest  or  eastern  end  between  the  tips  of  the 
horns,  was  64  feet,  and  at  the  western  end  32  feet.  The 
central  line  of  the  cairn  ran  along  the  ridge  of  a  hill  which 
gave  it  an  appearance  of  greater  elevation  than  it  really  had. 
Its  bearing  by  compass  was  north-east  and  south-west,  and, 
like  all  the  long  cairns,  the  end  looking  to  the  eastward  was 
the  highest,  reaching  in  this  case  an  elevation  of  about  1 5  feet. 
Looking  at  the  cairn  sideways,  it  had  the  appearance  of  a 
number  of  hummocks  of  stones  joined  on  to  each  other  along 
the  ridge.  This  turned  out  to  be  the  key  to  the  interior  ar- 
rangement, but  having  in  former  instances  found  the  chamber 
opening  midway  between  the  horns  at  the  highest  end  of  the 
cairn,  we  set  to  work  there  in  the  belief  that  there  the  entrance 
passage  must  be  found.  We  were  also  the  more  induced  to 
persevere  in  trying  to  find  the  passage  there,  as  we  believed 
that  when  we  got  into  the  chamber  we  should  find  the  roof 
standing,  and,  though  we  might  easily  have  forced  an  entrance 
into  the  chamber  by  removing  the  apex  of  the  cairn,  we  wished 
to  preserve  the  roof  entire.  After  having  driven  an  opening 
on  the  level  of  the  ground  a  considerable  way  into  the  mass  of 


222  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS^    CAITHNESS. 

the  cairn,  directly  in  the  centre  between  the  two  horns,  we 
came  upon  the  outer  wall,  which  defines  the  crescentic  ends  of 
all  the  homed  cairns.  But  here,  to  our  disappointment  and 
perplexity,  there  was  no  opening.  The  wall  was  well-built, 
and  about  five  or  six  feet  of  its  height  remained  standing,  but 
where  the  passage  ought,  from  the  analogy  of  the  other  long 
cairns,  to  have  opened  through  the  wall,  there  was  neither 
break  nor  opening  to  be  seen.  It  then  occurred  to  us  that  if 
the  crescentic  structure  forming  the  horns  had  been  added  after 
the  rest  of  the  cairn  was  completed,  the  wall  might  have  been 
built  across  the  doorway  of  the  chamber  so  as  to  shut  it  up. 
Accordingly,  we  broke  through  the  outer  wall  and  found  the 
usual  second  wall  of  the  outer  structure  running  parallel  with 
it  at  a  distance  of  three  feet  and  a-half  behind  it.  Behind  this 
second  wall  the  mass  of  the  cairn  for  several  feet  inwards 
showed  no  signs  of  a  passage.  Thus  baffled,  we  had  no  resource 
but  to  force  an  entrance  directly  into  the  chamber  from  the  top. 
"While  this  was  being  done  it  was  found,  by  clearing  away  the 
mass  of  the  side  of  the  cairn,  along  the  south-east  side,  so  as 
to  expose  the  retaining  wall  on  that  side,  that  the  passage 
opened  there  instead  of  in  the  usual  way,  between  the  horns  at 
the  end.  The  mouth  of  the  passage  was  thirty  feet  back  from 
the  extremity  of  the  cairn,  and  ran  out  at  the  side  just  under 
the  apex  of  the  first  and  largest  hummock.  Following  up  the 
clue  thus  obtained,  another  passage  was  found  running  out 
from  under  the  apex  of  the  second  hummock  fifty  feet  further 
along.  The  great  height  of  the  cairn  and  the  enormous  labour 
of  clearing  out  the  chambers  from  the  top,  together  with  the 
distance  (fifteen  miles  from  Wick  by  the  road)  obliged  us  to 
content  ourselves  with  the  exploration  of  these  two  chambers, 
and,  as  we  were  not  stimulated  to  further  examination  by 
finding  a  single  relic  in  either,  we  did  not  try  the  lower  part  of 
the  cairn,  in  which  it  is  probable  that  there  may  be  two  or 
three  more  chambers  still  unexplored. 

The  first  passage,  entering  thirty  feet  from  the  north-east 
end  of  the  cairn,  is  very  low,  scarcely  exceeding  two  feet  in 
height  at  the  entrance.  It  goes  in  straight  across  the  cairn 
for  seventeen  feet,  where  by  a  flat  stone  set  up  on  either  side 


EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  223 

at  a  considerable  angle,  the  direction  of  the  passage  is  changed 
fifty  degrees  towards  the  north-east  end  of  the  cairn.  It  then 
runs  irregularly  winding  for  seven  feet  further,  when  it  ter- 
minates in  a  low  bee-hive  shaped  cell,  instead  of  the  usual  tri- 
camerated  chamber.  The  first  seventeen  feet  of  the  passage 
had  large  and  strong  covering  lintels,  the  rest  was  unlintelled 
and  much  broken  down. 

This  curious  cell  is  formed  on  the  ground-plan  by  five  slabs 
set  on  edge,  giving  its  floor  an  irregularly  pentagonal  form. 
Over  these  and  between  their  interstices  the  walls  are  formed 
of  small  flattish  stones,  and  carried  up  in  an  approximately 
circular  form.  At  about  four  feet  above  the  floor  the  courses 
of  flattish  stones  project  slightly  inwards  each  over  that  beneath 
it  until  they  almost  meet  at  the  top,  and  the  dome  is  closed  in 
at  a  height  of  six  feet  and  a-half  by  a  single  flat  stone  about  nine 
inches  square.  The  stones  of  which  the  walls  are  built  are 
very  well  and  closely  fitted  without  jointing  and  without  much 
regularity  of  face.  The  floor  was  paved  with  two  large  and 
heavy  slabs  which  did  not  exactly  fit  the  area,  and  they  conse- 
quently overlapped  each  other  in  the  middle.  There  were  no 
side  jambs  to  the  doorway  in  the  wall  of  the  cell,  and,  as  the 
whole  building  between  the  cell  and  the  bend  in  the  passage 
had  slid  very  considerably,  it  was  doubtful  whether  the  stones 
that  closed  the  entrance  to  the  cell  had  been  built  in  or  not. 
So  great  had  been  the  slide  in  the  mass  of  the  cairn  on  this 
side  of  the  cell  that  even  the  passage  walls  were  not  distinctly 
made  out. 

This  little  cell,  when  cleared  of  rubbish,  was  only  high 
enough  in  the  centre  to  admit  of  a  man  standing  upright.  The 
five  stones  formiug  the  periphery  of  its  internal  area  measured 
along  the  floor  two  feet,  three  feet,  four  feet,  three  feet,  and 
four  feet  and  a-half  respectively.  Including  the  doorway,  which 
was  about  eighteen  inches  wide,  the  circumference  of  the  room 
was  thus  only  eighteen  feet.  A  single  fragment  of  bone  was 
all  that  was  found  in  it.  We  lifted  the  heavy  slabs  which 
formed  the  floor,  and,  on  digging  below,  found  that  the  clay 
was  the  undisturbed  clay  of  the  ridge  on  which  the  cairn  was 
built. 


221  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS^    CAITHNESS. 

The  second  passage,  fifty  feet  further  along  towards  the  small 
end  of  the  cairn,  also  ran  directly  across  to  the  centre  of  the 
cairn,  whore  it  led  to  a  fine  large  chamber  of  the  usual  tri- 
camerated  arrangement.  This  passage  was  diSerent  from  any 
we  had  yet  seen  as,  instead  of  being  low  at  the  outward  en- 
trance, it  was  higher  there  than  further  in,  and  the  first  five 
feet  wore  roofed  by  a  horizontal  arch  instead  of  being  lintelled 
with  flat  slabs.  At  the  outer  entrance,  and  for  five  feet  in- 
wards, whore  it  was  arched  over  by  small  flat  stones  overlapping 
each  other  inwards  till  they  nearly  met,  the  width  of  the  pas- 
sage was  only  eighteen  inches.  Where  the  passage  was 
spanned  by  large  and  heavy  lintels  it  widened  considerably, 
and  each  succeeding  lintel  was  placed  higher  than  the  last. 
Thus  the  roof  of  the  inner  part  of  the  passage  rose  as  it  went 
inwards  like  the  under  side  of  the  steps  of  a  stair  until  where 
it  entered  the  first  compartment  of  the  chamber,  the  roof  of 
the  passage  was  continued,  as  it  were,  over  a  portion  of  this 
compartment.  Usually  the  first  compartment  of  the  chamber 
is  flat-roofed  as  well  as  the  passage. 

On  the  second  and  third  compartments  the  roof  was  wanting. 
The  divisional  stones  separating  the  first  from  the  second  were 
seven  feet  high,  and  a  lintel  supported  on  two  side  props  stood 
between  them,  the  second  pair  of  divisional  stones  were  only 
five  feet  high.  As  usual,  a  very  large  slab  formed  the  lower 
part  of  the  back  wall  of  the  chamber  facing  the  entrance  and 
sloping  very  considerably  outwards. 

The  first  compartment  is  entered  from  the  passage  by  a 
doorway  two  feet  wide,  between  a  pair  of  jambs  two  feet  high, 
which,  contrary  to  the  usual  arrangement,  do  not  reach  to  the  roof 
on  account  of  the  rising  of  the  roof  of  the  passage.  The  whole 
height  of  the  doorway  is  four  feet  four  inches,  there  being  a 
space  between  the  top  of  the  entrance  jambs  and  the  lintelUng 
of  the  roof  of  two  feet  four  inches.  The  side  walls  are  slightly 
curved,  and  the  distance  between  them  across  the  centre  of  the 
floor  is  four  feet  eight  inches.  The  divisional  stones  not  being 
set  fair  across  the  floor  the  one  side  is  a  few  inches  shorter 
than  the  other,  but  the  form  of  the  compartment  is  pretty 
nearly  square,  the  door-jambs  being  four  feet  seven  inches. 


EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIBNS^    CAITHNESS.  225 

and  four  feet  two  inches  respectively,  from  the  divisional  stones. 
Roughly,  this  antechamber  may  be  set  down  as  about  four  feet 
and  a  half  square,  about  the  same  height  at  the  outer  end,  and 
rising  to  six  feet  and  a  half  at  the  entrance  to  the  second 
compartment. 

The  second  compartment  is  much  larger  and  wider.  The 
side  walls  are  also  slightly  curved,  and  are  distant  from  each 
other,  across  the  centre  of  the  floor,  seven  feet  ten  inches,  the 
distance  between  the  ends  of  the  divisional  stones  from  front 
to  back,  at  their  insertion  in  the  wall,  being  on  the  one  side 
five  feet,  and  on  the  other,  five  feet  six  inches.  The  width  of 
the  entrance  between  the  first  pair  of  divisional  stones  is  two 
feet  and  a  half.  The  third  compartment  is  entered  by  an  aper- 
ture between  the  divisional  stones,  of  two  feet  eight  inches  wide. 
This  compartment  is  narrower  than  usual ;  but  the  large  slab 
at  the  back,  leaning  outwards  at  a  very  sharp  angle,  makes  it 
more  roomy  above  than  it  shows  on  the  ground  plan.  Measured 
on  the  floor,  it  is  only  four  feet  four  inches  from  sidewall  to 
sidewall,  and  two  feet  and  a  half  from  the  divisional  stones  to 
the  back  slab. 

The  floor  of  this  chamber  was  much  harder  and  more  com- 
pact than  usual ;  and  the  admixture  of  ashes  and  broken  and 
charred  bones,  was  much  more  sparingly  present  than  in  any 
other  chambered  cairn  we  had  seen.  Some  fragments  of  hu- 
man skulls,  and  a  few  broken  animal  bones,  with  traces  of 
wood,  charcoal,  and  spots  of  ashes,  were  all  the  relics  it  yielded 
to  a  diligent  search.  Not  a  vestige  of  any  manufactured  ob- 
ject was  found  in  either  of  the  chambers ;  and  the  absence  of 
these,  and  especially  of  pottery,  was  the  more  remarkable,  that 
the  largo  round  cairn  a  hundred  yards  distant  {Metn.  8oc,  An» 
ihrojp.y  vol.  ii)  had  yielded  us  so  many. 

Kenney's  Caien,  Round  and  Chambered. 

Kenney^s  cairn  stands  on  the  top  of  the  hill  above  Bruan, 
and  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  cairn  of  Get,  previously 
described.  It  is  externally  about  forty  yards  in  circumference, 
and,  on  being  excavated,  it  turned  out  to  be  one  of  the  ordinary 
round  cairns,  with  a  passage  leading  to  a  central  chamber. 

VOL.    III.  Q 


226  EXCAVATIONS    IN   CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS. 

Its  internal  arrangement  diflTers,  however,  from  any  of  the 
round  ones  previously  excavated.  Although  it  has  the  usual 
division,,  of  the  internal  chamber,  into  three  compartments,  the 
third,  instead  of  being  at  the  further  extremity  of  the  chamber, 
is  curiously  formed  in  the  left  hand  side  of  the  main  compart- 
ment, immediately  behind  the  first  divisional  stone.  The 
main  compartment  in  this  cairn  is  much  larger  and  loftier  than 
in  most  of  the  others. 

The  passage,  which  is  ten  feet  long,  is  also  higher  and  wider 
than  usual.  At  the  exterior  entrance  it  is  two  feet  nine  inches 
wide,  and  expands  to  a  width  of  four  feet  and  a  half,  where  it 
passes  into  the  first  compartment,  the  aperture  of  which,  how- 
ever, is  narrowed  to  three  feet  by  the  projecting  jambs.  The 
lintels  remain  over  the  passage  throughout  its  entire  length, 
and  are  large  and  thick  slabs.  The  height  at  the  entrance  is 
almost  three  feet,  rising  to  about  four  at  the  entrance  into  the 
chamber. 

The  first  compartment  measures  eight  feet  across  the  floor, 
from  sidewall  to  sidewall,  with  a  breadth  of  four  feet  between 
the  jambs,  at  the  end  of  the  passage,  and  the  divisional  stones 
between  the  first  and  second  compartments.  The  divisional 
stones  project  each  about  three  feet  across  the  floor,  leaving  an 
aperture  between  their  edges,  leading  into  the  second  or  main 
compartment,  of  three  feet  and  a  half.  These  divisional 
stones  did  not  rise  to  the  roof;  and  instead  of  the  first  com- 
partment having  been  lintelled  over,  like  the  passage, — as  is 
usual  in  the  round  cairns, — its  roof  was  formed  in  the  same 
way  as  that  of  the  main  compartment,  and  must  have  formed 
part  of  it.  About  four  feet  of  the  convergence  of  the  walls 
remain  on  this  compartment,  the  walls  beginning  to  be  brought 
inwards,  by  the  overlapping  of  their  courses,  at  a  height  of 
five  feet  above  the  floor.  The  main  compartment  is  of  a 
squarish  form,  with  rounded  corners  on  the  ground  plan,  but 
gradually  drawing  to  an  outline  approximately  circular,  as  the 
walls  rise  over  the  tops  of  the  three  great  slabs  set  in  them, 
having  their  faces  flush  with  the  lower  face  of  the  wall.  These 
slabs  being  inclined  outwards,  and  the  walls  beginning  to 
come  forward  at  about  five  feet  up,  the  circularity  of  the  cham- 


EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  227 

ber  and  the  concavity  of  the  walls,  give  it  something  of  the 
shape  of  a  huge  kettle.  Little  of  the  convergence  for  the  roof 
remains  on  the  larger  compartment  however,  but  enough  to 
show  that  it  must  have  had  a  higher  and  more  spacious  dome 
than  any  we  have  yet  seen.  The  extreme  height  of  the  highest 
part  of  the  chamber  wall  remaining  is  nine  feet.  The  little 
recess  off  the  main  chamber,  on  the  left  side,  is  formed  on  two 
sides  by  a  couple  of  walls  springing  from  behind  the  divisional 
stone  of  the  chamber,  and  the  large  slab  faced  into  the  wall, 
respectively.  These  walls  form  the  ends  of  the  recess,  the 
back  of  which  is  formed  by  a  single  large  slab  set  in  the 
ground  and  inclined  outwards.  The  one  end  is  three  feet  and 
a  half,  and  the  other  two  feet  and  a  half,  while  the  back  is 
four  feet ;  so  that  the  extent  of  the  floor  is  four  feet  by  three. 
A  single  stone  forms  the  roof;  and  to  narrow  the  opening,  a 
long  slab  twenty  inches  wide  is  set  up,  with  the  one  end  in  the 
ground,  and  the  other  abutting  on  the  covering  stone.  The 
height  of  the  recess  inside  was  only  three  feet  and  a  half.  Its 
floor  was  flagged  with  a  single  large  stone,  which  lay  on  the 
top  of  another,  and  beneath  both  there  was  a  layer  of  clay,  three 
or  four  inches  thick,  plentifully  mixed  with  charcoal  and  ashes, 
and  under  that  again  a  third  large  flag,  beneath  which  was  the 
undisturbed  subsoil  of  the  hill. 

The  contents  of  this  cairn  differed  from  those  of  the  cairns 
previously  explored,  in  the  great  abundance  of  fragments  of 
pottery,  which  were  so  plentifully  mixed  with  the  ashes  on  the 
floor  as  to  suggest  the  idea,  that  there  must  have  been  either 
a  long  course  of  time  during  which  broken  pottery  became 
mixed  with  the  stratum  of  ashes ;  or  that  an  immense  number 
of  vessels  of  clay  must  have  been  deposited  at  one  time,  and 
their  broken  fragments  subsequently  mixed  with  the  ashes. 
They  were  almost  equally  abundant  in  all  parts  of  the  floor, 
and  at  all  depths  in  the  layer  of  ashes  and  calcined  and  broken 
bones,  which  was  fully  a  foot  thick.  The  clay  below  this  layer 
of  ashes  was  scooped,  in  pits  in  some  parts,  in  the  centre,  and 
at  these  places,  of  course,  the  ashes  were  deeper.  All  over  the 
undisturbed  natural  clay,  the  fragments  of  pottery  were  very 
thickly  strewn,  and  in  many  instances  pressed  into  the  clay 

q2 


228  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS. 

floor,  as  if  they  had  been  trodden  into  it  previous  to  the  accu- 
mulation of  ashes  over  them.  When  cleaned  and  sorted,  the 
different  varieties  of  pottery  in  this  caim  were  found  to  be  seven, 
differing  in  ornamentation,  shape,  and  degree  of  fineness.  The 
most  comman  pattern  was  that  having  the  single  or  double  im- 
pression of  a  thumb-nail.  The  twisted  thong-pattern,  and  one 
made  of  rows  of  scorings  or  scoopings  with  the  sharp  end  of 
a  pointed  instrument,  were  also  found.  We  got  no  flint  weapons 
in  this  caim,  and  only  a  few  chips  of  flint.  The  human  and 
animal  remains  were  neither  so  abundant  nor  so  well  preserved 
as  in  the  caim  of  Get.  A  few  small  fragments  of  skulls,  a 
number  of  teeth  in  the  corners  of  the  chamber  behind  the  di- 
visional stones,  and  some  bones,  human  and  animal,  scattered 
over  the  area  of  the  floor,  and  imbedded  in  the  layer  of  ashes 
that  covered  it,  were  mostly  too  fragmentary  for  preservation. 
The  animals,  as  indicated  by  their  teeth,  seemed  to  be  those 
usually  found  in  the  other  cairns, — the  horse,  the  ox,  the  deer, 
and  swine,  with  the  dog  or  fox.  In  the  passage  leading  into 
the  chamber  were  found  one  of  those  oblong  rounded  stones, 
about  five  inches  in  length,  with  the  ends  rubbed  flat,  and 
bearing  marks  of  rubbing  all  along  its  sides ;  and  also  a  flat 
piece  of  bone,  about  five  inches  long  and  two  broad,  having 
one  end  ground  smooth  on  both  sides,  to  resemble  the  cutting 
end  of  a  flat  chisel.  These  two  objects  have  no  counterparts 
among  the  articles  hitherto  found  in  chambered  cairns,  but 
they  closely  resemble  others  found  very  frequently  in  brochs. 

The  Bboch  op  Yabhouse. 

From  the  time  that  we  commenced  our  excavations  three 
years  ago,  our  attention  had  been  attracted  to  a  very  large 
grass-grown  caim,  situated  in  the  south  end  of  the  loch  of 
Yarhouse,  scarcely  a  quarter  of  a  mile  below  the  two  long 
cairns,  with  horns,  on  the  top  of  the  hill  adjoining.  Having 
now  exhausted  the  district  of  the  sepulchral  chambered  and 
cistcd  cairns,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  we  resolved  to  open  this 
one  in  order,  if  possible,  to  ascertain  whether  it  might  afibrd 
us  any  clue  to  the  relation  of  the  brochs  and  chambered  cairns 
to  each  other  in  time. 


EXCAVATIONS   IK   CAIBNS^   CAITHNESS.  229 

This  great  green  caim  stands  on  a  small  island,  ent  oflF  from 
connection  with  the  land  by  an  artificial  fosse,  now  silted  np. 
The  caim  was  upwards  of  two  hundred  paces  in  circumference, 
around  the  base,  and  about  twenty  feet  in  perpendicular  height 
above  the  shore  of  the  loch,  in  the  centre ;  and  on  the  removal 
of  the  apex  of  the  cairn,  we  found  it  to  be  a  ruined  broch,  the 
main  building  of  which  was  in  excellent  preservation,  and  the 
wall  still  standing  to  the  height  of  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  round 
the  greater  part  of  the  enclosure. 

In  two  places,  while  removing  the  top  of  the  caim,  which 
was  composed  of  the  ruins  of  the  circular  wall  of  the  broch, 
which  had  fallen  inwards,  and  filled  up  the  central  area  to  the 
height  above  mentioned,  we  found  human  remains  among 
the  rubbish.  They  were  about  two  feet  and  a  half  to  three 
feet  under  the  green  turf,  with  which  the  whole  caim  was  over- 
grown.  In  the  one  case,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  skeleton 
remained  in  wasted  fragments ;  but  of  the  skull  the  frontal  and 
facial  bones  alone  remained,  and  these  were  not  entire.  In 
the  other  case,  which  occurred  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  top 
of  the  caim,  only  the  fragments  of  a  skull,  without  any  trace 
of  any  of  the  other  bones,  remained.  In  the  passage  leading 
to  the  doorway  of  the  broch,  and  down  at  the  base  of  the  cairn, 
the  wasted  fragments  of  a  third  skeleton  were  found.  In  all 
the  three  cases,  the  bones  seemed  naturally  decayed.  In  the 
third  case,  there  was  an  appearance  as  of  a  kist,  there  being 
two  flat  stones,  on  edge,  on  either  side  of  the  bones,  but  the 
ends  were  not  well  fitted,  and  may  have  been  simply  the  stones 
that  had  not  been  disturbed  in  the  debris  of  the  ruin.  It 
seemed  as  if  the  two  side  stones  alone  had  been  set  up,  and 
the  covering  stone  was  simply  a  rough,  flattish,  and  thick 
stone,  not  a  slab.  The  length  of  the  cavity  corresponded  with 
the  usual  dimensions  of  the  short  kists  we  have  found  in  the 
hills  about  Kenney^s  caim  and  the  caim  of  Get.  The  appear- 
ances seemed  to  favour  the  supposition,  that  there  had  been  a 
burial  in  a  short  kist  on  the  mound,  after  the  original  structure 
of  the  broch  had  become  a  ruin ;  and  the  fact,  that  the  other 
two  had  been  found  at  about  the  same  depth  under  the  turf, 
appeared  to  favour  the  supposition  that  they  too  had  been  bu- 


230  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS. 

ried  there  on  the  mound,  by  simple  interment,  in  shallow  graves, 
without  any  kist.  Instances  of  these  green  cairns  being  used 
as  burying  places,  are  still  to  be  found ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
but  that  the  practice  of  burying  in  these  and  similar  mounds  is 
itself  of  ancient  origin.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Thomson,  in  the  sta- 
tistical account  of  Scotland  (parish  of  Wick,  Caithness),  records 
the  finding  of  the  skeleton  of  a  very  tall  man,  in  a  grave  formed 
of  flagstones,  set  in  the  earth  which  covered  the  mound,  formed 
by  the  ruin  of  a  large  broch  at  Thrumster,  which  is  close  by. 
Mr.  John  Henderson,  of  Thurso,  informed  me  that  a  kist,  with 
a  skeleton  in  it,  was  similarly  found  at  Dunbeath.  Dr.  Sinclair 
showed  me  a  skull  which  came  out  of  ^'  a  stone  coffin"  in  a 
similar  mound,  at  Latheron wheel.  At  Camster,  there  is  a  mo- 
dern graveyard  in  which  interments  are  yet  made,  the  graves 
being  dug  in  the  face  of  a  green  mound,  which  has  every  ap- 
pearance of  being  the  ruin  of  some  ancient  structure.  Mr. 
Petrie  records  the  occurrence  of  short  kists  containing  bronze 
oraaments,  on  the  top  of  a  mound,  which,  when  excavated, 
proved  to  conceal  the  ruins  of  a  broch.  Mr.  Farrer,  also,  de- 
scribes a  broch  which  had  been  turned  into  an  ancient  burying- 
place.  It  is  thus  perfectly  possible  that  future  explorers,  dig- 
ging in  some  of  these  ancient  mounds,  may  find  stone  weapons 
and  implements,  bronze  ornaments  and  weapons,  stone  cists, 
long  and  short,  urns,  and  remains  of  burnt  bodies,  and  full 
length  graves,  with  modem  coffin-plates,  relegating  the  inter- 
ment to  the  present  century,  and  all  intermingled  in  perplexing 
confusion.  But,  rightly  interpreted,  each  series  of  facts  will 
tell  its  own  tale. 

The  removal  of  the  apex  of  the  mound  disclosed  a  building 
in  the  centre,  having  all  the  characteristics  of  the  brochs, 
borgs,  or  broughs,  of  Shetland,  Orkney,  and  Suthcrlandshire. 
In  Caithness,  hitherto,  none  of  these  buildings  have  been  ex- 
plored which  have  shown  so  much  of  the  original  plan  of  the 
structure  as  to  enable  them  to  be  pronounced  indubitable 
"brochs^^;  and  so  little  knowledge  has  been  gained  from  the 
opening  of  innumerable  mounds  for  agricultural  purposes,  that 
it  has  been  questioned  whether  anything  similar  to  the  brochs 
of  the  three  counties  mentioned  had  ever  existed  in  Caithness. 


EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIBNS,   CAITHNESS.  231 

That  there  were  many  such  structures  in  this  county, — in  fact, 
that  the  face  of  the  country  was,  at  one  time,  completely  studded 
with  them,  cannot  now  be  doubted  by  any  candid  observer  who 
knows  what  a  "  broch^^  is. 

The  broch  of  Yarhouse,  as  originally  constructed,  was  a 
building  formed  of  a  single  circular  wall,  averaging  a  little 
over  twelve  feet  thick,  and  having  chambers  constructed  in  the 
thickness  of  the  wall,  which  could  be  entered  from  the  interior 
court  enclosed  by  the  wall,  and  to  which  there  was  only  one 
entrance  from  the  outside.  The  area  enclosed  by  the  wall  is 
not  a  perfect  circle,  but  very  nearly  so ;  the  interior  diameters, 
taken  at  right  angles  across  the  floor  of  the  court,  being  re- 
spectively twenty-nine  feet,  and  twenty-nine  feet  ten  inches. 
The  interior  diameter  originally  has  been  about  thirty-three 
feet,  but  a  wall,  two  feet  four  inches  thick,  has  been  built 
against  the  main  wall  all  round  the  inside,  to  the  height  of 
about  eight  feet,  where  it  forms  a  scarsement,  or  ledge,  sur- 
rounding the  court.  This  broch  differs  from  most  others  in 
having  two  entrance  passives ;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  one  of 
these  belongs  to  the  later  adaptation  of  the  building,  when  the 
lower,  and  in  all  probability  the  older,  of  the  two  entrance  pas- 
sages, was  converted  into  a  communication  between  the  court 
and  the  cells  outside  the  wall  of  the  broch,  which  are  quite 
evidently  of  later  construction,  being  built  upon  the  ruins  of 
the  original  structure.  Or  if  the  present  entrance  was  the 
original  passage-way  into  the  court,  the  other,  which  led  from 
the  court  to  the  foot  of  the  stair  and  the  adjoining  chamber,  was 
converted  into  a  communication  with  the  later  cells  outside  by 
simply  breaking  through  the  two  feet  of  wall  which  intervened, 
and  erecting  a  covered  passage  along  the  outside  wall  of  the 
broch  to  the  nearest  cell. 

The  main,  or  present  entrance  to  the  court  is  on  the  side 
of  the  broch,  away  from  the  land,  and  is  approached  by  an 
avenue,  or  covered  way,  not  roofed  over,  but  protected  by 
walls  on  either  side,  which  do  not  run  straight  out  from  the 
doorway,  but  take  a  considerable  bend  twice  towards  the  land. 
Where  they  abut  upon  the  outer  wall  of  the  broch,  these  walls 
are  about  five  feet  high,  but  at  the  outer  extremity  not  more 


232  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS^    CAITHNESS. 

than  two  feet  of  their  height  remains  standing.  They  are 
irregularly  built,  and  seem  to  consist  of  parts  pieced  together 
at  intervals,  the  courses  being  broken  by  long,  flat,  and  nar- 
row slabs,  set  upright  on  their  ends  across  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  like  false  jambs ;  and  two  or  three  times  they  are  ac- 
companied by  similar  stones  set  on  edge  across  the  floor  of 
the  passage,  as  if  marking  the  threshold  of  a  door.  At  ir- 
regular intervals,  similar  long  flat  stones  stand  in  the  face  of 
the  walls,  and  not  across  them.  This  passage-way  extends  out- 
wards from  the  entrance  of  the  broch  to  a  distance  of  forty-five 
feet,  and  is  very  irregular  in  width.  At  the  broch  entrance 
it  is  four  feet  wide.  At  the  first  cross-stone,  or  threshold,  on 
the  floor,  it  has  narrowed  to  two  feet  and  half.  It  then 
widens  to  five  feet,  and  is  again  contracted  towards  the 
second  cross-stone  in  the  floor,  where  it  is  only  three  feet 
and  a  half  wide.  Immediately  behind,  or  to  the  outside  of 
this  second  threshold,  it  again  widens  to  four  feet  four  inches, 
and  further  on,  to  six  feet,  when  it  again  contracts  to  four 
feet  and  a  half,  and  at  the  outer  entrance  it  is  not  more  than 
three  feet  wide. 

The  broch  entrance,  leading  through  the  circular  wall  into 
the  court,  faces,  by  compass,  to  B.S.B.  It  is  five  feet  four 
inches  high,  thirty-two  inches  wide  at  the  outside  of  the  wall, 
and  twenty-seven  inches  wide  at  the  inside,  its  length  through 
the  thickness  of  the  wall  being  eleven  feet.  It  is  roofed  by 
seven  stones,  four  of  which  are  laid  with  their  flat  sides  down, 
and  three  set  on  edge.  Both  sides  of  the  entrance-way  are 
finely  built  with  flat  stones,  some  of  which  are  of  great  length, 
three  of  the  largest  of  them  measuring  respectively  nine  feet 
long  and  four  inches  thick ;  seven  feet  long  and  six  inches  thick; 
and  six  feet  six  inches  long  and  five  inches  thick.  It  is  paved 
by  fourteen  slabs,  laid  crosswise,  their  ends  passing  under  the 
walls  on  either  side.  A  stone  on  edge,  about  nine  inches  high, 
ran  across  the  inner  threshold,  and  two  flat  stones  stood  on 
either  side,  like  jambs. 

Entering  the  court  and  turning  to  the  left,  at  a  distance  of 
fifteen  feet  from  the  entrance  passage,  measured  round  the 
inner  wall  of  the  court,  an  opening  in  the  wall  gives  access 


EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIBNS^    CAITHNESS.  233 

from  the  court  to  the  stair^  and  a  large  oblong  chamber  at  the 
foot  of  the  stair.  This  openings  as  formerly  stated^  passing 
between  the  foot  of  the  stair  and  the  entrance  to  the  chamber^ 
now  passes  completely  through  the  wall^  and  forms  a  commu- 
nication with  two  cells  of  later  construction  outside.  After 
passing  through  the  wall^  it  enters  a  narrow  and  somewhat 
tortuous  passage^  in  some  parts  not  over  eighteen  inches  wide 
and  thirty  inches  high,  which  leads  first  to  an  irregularly  built 
cell  of  squarish  form,  with  rounded  comers,  and  about  nine 
feet  in  diameter, — ^an  opening  in  the  wall  of  this  cell,  leading 
into  the  next,  which  is  about  double  the  size. 

The  chamber  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  broch,  at 
the  foot  of  the  stair,  is  about  three  feet  wide  throughout  its 
length  of  thirteen  feet,  terminating  with  a  rounded,  somewhat 
arched  extremity,  coming  up  from  about  three  feet  above  the 
floor  to  meet  the  roof,  which  is  flat,  and  formed  of  large  lintels 
laid  across  at  the  height  of  six  feet  above  the  floor.  These 
lintels,  instead  of  beiug  laid  on  their  flat  sides,  are  set  on  their 
edges,  so  as  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  mass 
of  building  better.  The  stair,  which  is  three  feet  wide,  ex- 
tends upwards  for  twenty-one  feet  of  sloping  height.  It  is 
formed  of  rough  flagstones,  the  steps  being  under  six  inches  in 
height,  and  so  very  narrow  that  they  scarcely  afibrd  a  foot- 
hold. Sixteen  steps  up  there  is  a  landing,  or  platform,  about 
five  feet  long,  opening  from  which  an  aperture,  like  a  small 
window,  looks  into  the  court :  above  this  landing  there  are 
only  five  steps  remaining. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  court  from  the  last-mentioned 
entrance,  and  twenty-seven  feet  round  from  it,  another  passage, 
four  feet  and  a  half  wide,  and  running  for  six  feet  into  the 
thickness  of  the  wall,  gives  access  to  other  two  chambers  on 
either  side,  also  built  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  one 
to  the  left  is  similar  in  form  to  the  one  at  the  foot  of  the 
stair,  being  four  feet  wide,  ten  feet  eight  inches  long,  and  six 
feet  high ;  roofed,  also,  with  a  rounded,  sh'ghtly  arched  end, 
and  lintelled  over,  throaghout  its  lengtji>  with  long  narrow 
blocks  set  on  edge.  To  the  right  of  the  entrance,  a  passage 
— of  which  the  one  side  has  fallen  in,  and  which  seems  to  have 


234  EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS. 

been  about  four  feet  wide  and  six  feet  long,  and  two  feet  and 
a  half  high — ^leads  to  a  sub-rectangular  chamber,  nine  feet 
long,  five  and  a  half  feet  wide  at  the  one  end,  and  three  and  a 
half  at  the  other.  The  roof  of  this  chamber  was  gone,  and  it 
was  impossible  to  tell  whether  it  had  been  vaulted  or  roofed 
with  flat  stones  laid  over  the  slightly  convergent  walls. 

The  whole  interior  wall  of  the  court  bore  the  appearance  of 
having  been  subjected  to  strong  and  long  continued  heat,  the 
stones  of  the  wall  being  often  burned  to  the  very  centre,  and 
split  and  cracked  in  all  directions.  The  same  thing  was  ob- 
served in  the  case  of  the  old  Strikoke  broch,  described  in  a 
previous  report,  and  the  whole  of  the  rubbish  which  filled  the 
court  was  mingled  with  ashes,  bones,  and  fragments  of  pottery, 
to  a  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet  above  the  floor.  This  may 
be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  court  was  used 
long  after  the  broch  was  partially  in  ruins,  and  several  feet  of 
rubbish  covering  the  original  floor.  Even  so  high  as  the  top 
of  the  scarsement,  some  eight  or  nine  feet  above  the  floor  of 
the  passages,  we  found  evidence  of  this  later  occupation  and 
adaptation  of  the  original  building  to  subsequent  purposes  in 
the  remains  of  two  walls  cutting  ofi"  a  portion  of  the  area,  and 
abutting  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  broch  so  as  to  form  cells  at 
difierent  levels ;  the  one  having  seven  or  eight  feet,  and  the 
other  ten  or  eleven  feet,  of  the  d/bris  formed  by  the  ruin  of 
the  broch  under  their  respective  foundations.  The  stair,  also, 
was  filled  with  ashes  up  to  the  landing ;  and  the  marks  of  the 
fire  on  its  side  walls  showed  very  distinctly  that  three  or  four 
feet  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  walls  had  been  protected  from 
the  effects  of  the  fire,  which  had  burnt  and  split  the  stones  of 
the  walls  on  either  side  above  that  level. 

The  secondary  structure  in  the  interior  area  of  the  broch, 
consisting  of  the  wall  built  round  the  inner  face  of  the  broch 
wall,  and  which,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  I  have  called  the 
scarsement,  appears  to  form  part  of  one  structural  plan,  with 
the  divisional  walls  running  across  the  court.  These  divisional 
walls  are  partly  buili^,  and  partly  formed  of  slabs  set  on  edge. 
They  run  from  either  side  of  the  entrance  passage  out  into  the 
centre  of  the  court,  thus  prolonging  the  passage  way  for  six- 


EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  235 

teen  feet  and  a  half  into  the  interior  area.  Then  they  are  met 
by  two  walls  formed  in  the  same  manner,  and  running  nearly 
at  right  angles  across  the  court,  thus  dividing  the  inner  area 
into  three  enclosures.  It  is  noticeable  that  although  only 
about  four  feet  of  the  height  of  these  partition  walls  remained 
standing,  the  height  of  the  narrow  slabs,  set  on  end  at  inter- 
vals across  the  structure  of  the  partitions  to  strengthen  them, 
corresponds  with  the  height  of  the  scarsement,  the  only  one 
remaining  unbroken  rising  to  the  height  of  seven  feet  nine 
inches  above  the  foundation  of  the  wall.  It  seems  thus  a  rea- 
sonable inference,  that  the  partition  walls  and  the  scarsement 
were  not  only  later  than  the  broch  itself,  but  were  originally 
part  of  one  design,  the  object  being  to  obtain  support  for  a 
roof  of  some  kind,  over  the  whole  court,  at  a  height  of  about 
eight  feet  above  the  floor.  That  the  scarsement  and  the  par- 
tition walls  were  later  than  the  original  structure,  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  the  foundations  of  both  are  considerably 
above  the  level  of  the  foundation  of  the  original  building;  and 
below  the  whole  extent  of  the  partitions,  fully  a  foot  of  ashes 
lies  underneath  their  foundations.  Among  the  ashes  on  the 
floor  of  the  court,  an  oblong,  boat-shaped,  granite  boulder  was 
found,  having  a  smoothly  ground  level  face,  polished  by  use, 
and  about  eighteen  inches  long  by  seven  or  eight  in  greatest 
breadth.  Another,  exactly  similar  in  form  and  nearly  similar 
in  size,  was  found  built  into,  and  forming  part  of,  the  scarse- 
ment ;  possibly,  the  two  together  may  have  formed  a  rude  kind 
of  mill  for  grinding,  by  working  the  flat  face  of  the  one  on  the 
flat  face  of  the  other. 

The  clearing  out  of  the  inner  area,  with  the  passages  and 
chambers,  proved  a  work  of  much  greater  magnitude  and  ex- 
pense than  we  had  anticipated,  involving  the  lifting  of  a  mass 
of  rubbish  and  stones  thirty  feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly  fifteen 
feet  deep,  over  the  lowest  part  of  the  wall  of  the  broch,  and  de- 
positing it  clear  of  the  exterior  of  the  caim.  It  happened,  too, 
that  the  circumstances  were  singularly  unfavourable  for  the 
preservation  of  relics,  as  well  as  their  detection  in  the  rubbish. 
When  we  came  near  the  bottom,  we  discovered  that  the  water 
of  the  loch  rose  in  the  interior  of  the  broch  to  the  height  of 


236  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS,   CAITHNESS. 

three  feet  above  the  floor.  In  fact,  it  rose  with  the  antumn 
rains  so  much  that  the  workmen  were  unable  to  complete  the 
excavation  till  the  loch  had  again  resumed  its  summer  level. 
This  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  level  of  the  loch  had  been 
raised,  many  years  ago,  to  supply  the  neighbouring  mill ;  and 
thus,  for  about  twenty  years,  the  water  has  stood  three  feet 
high  in  the  interior  of  the  broch  throughout  the  winter.  This 
may  explain  why  the  quantity  of  bones  and  bone  implements 
found  in  this  instance  has  been  so  small,  as  compared  with 
other  brochs.  The  annual  saturation  must  have  completely 
destroyed  any  bone  relics  that  remained  on  the  floor. 

The  relics  found  in  the  interior  of  the  broch  were  of  the 
same  character  as  those  from  the  brochs  of  Old  Stirkoke  and 
Bowermadden,  described  in  my  previous  report,  and  now  in 
the  society's  museum.  They  consist  of  a  curiously  shaped 
stone  implement,  formed  from  a  piece  of  flat  clay-slate  into  an 
almost  exact  resemblance  to  the  ace  of  spades.  An  immense 
number  of  "  pestles''  or  "  crushers",  as  they  have  been  called, 
— oblong  pebbles,  varying  from  ten  to  three  inches  in  length, 
and  generally  of  such  a  diameter  as  to  be  easily  grasped  in  the 
hand.  Some  of  these  are  abraded  on  the  ends  by  rubbing, 
and  others  by  striking  some  substance  as  hard  as  themselves ; 
and  some  are  polished  on  the  sides  and  furrowed  by  use^  as  if 
some  smooth  or  sharp-edged  object  had  been  rubbed  obliquely 
against  them.  A  piece  of  polished  stone,  shaped  like  the  mo- 
dem "  sharping-stone"  used  for  reaping-hooks.  A  large  number 
of  flat,  circular  stone  discs,  chipped  round,  and  varying  from  a 
foot  in  diameter,  and  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness 
to  throe  inches  in  diameter,  and  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
thick.  A  number  of  stone  bullets  from  three  to  five  inches  in 
diameter,  some  of  them  having  flat  faces  worn  on  them,  exactly 
resembling  those  from  Bowermadden.  A  fragment  of  a  flat 
circular  stone,  throe  inches  thick,  apparently  part  of  a  quern  ; 
and  a  rudely  fashioned  mortar,  hollowed  out  of  an  unshaped 
block  of  red  sandstone,  about  nine  inches  square.  An  immense 
quantity  of  broken  pottery,  most  of  it  plain  and  badly  burned, 
the  clay  being  mixed  with  small  stones,  and  the  shaping  of  the 
vessels  rudely  done  by  hand.     None  of  it  was  wheel-made. 


EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  237 

though  a  few  pieces^  ornamented  with  the  finger-point  pattern, 
so  common  in  the  neighbouring  sepulchral  chambered  cairns, 
occurred.  This,  with  the  occurrence  of  a  flint  object,  about  an 
inch  in  length  and  half  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  base,  formed 
into  the  frustrum  of  a  cone  by  a  g^eat  number  of  narrow  facets 
struck  off  its  circumference  longitudinally,  and  thus,  exactly 
similar  in  character  to  a  much  smaller  one  found  in  the  cham- 
bered long  cairn  on  the  top  of  the  hill,  suggests  a  connexion 
between  the  two  classes  of  structures ;  but  we  are  yet  without 
any  distinct  evidence  on  that  point.  A  number  of  tines  of 
deer's  horns,  sawn  off,  and  sawn  portions  of  antlers  also  oc- 
curred; but  no  finished  bone  implements,  and  no  traces  of 
metal,  were  found  in  the  interior  of  the  structure.  Several 
spindle-whorls  of  polished  stone,  similar  to  those  from  the 
other  brochs,  were  also  found. 

The  animal  remains  that  were  plentifully  intermixed  with 
the  ashes  and  rubbish  of  the  interior  were,  so  far  as  we  could 
recognise  them  from  the  teeth,  the  common  animals  of  the 
cairns,  viz.,  the  ox,  deer,  swine,  horse,  and  sheep  or  goat,  with 
one  or  two  species  of  fowls.  A  considerable  quantity  of  the 
shells  of  the  common  whelk,  periwinkle,  limpet,  trochus,  and 
cockle,  were  also  mixed  with  the  bones  and  refuse.  The  bones 
were  all  splintered  and  broken,  and  frequently  charred.  No 
human  bones  were  observed,  with  the  exception  of  those  found 
as  formerly  mentioned,  about  two  feet  and  a  half  to  three  feet 
under  the  green  turf  that  covered  the  surface  of  the  cairn,  and 
which  are  conjecturally  referred  to  burials  in  the  mound  long 
after  the  whole  structure  had  become  a  shapeless  ruin. 

Outside  the  broch,  and  between  it  and  the  ditch  all  around, 
a  number  of  cells,  built  on  the  rubbish,  and  belonging  to  a 
later  period,  were  afterwards  explored  by  the  aid  of  the  Bhind 
bequest  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland.  The  con- 
tents of  these  cells  were,  in  the  main,  similar  to  those  of  the 
broch  itself;  but  iron  knives  were  found  in  two  of  them,  and  a 
bronze  brooch,  with  an  inscription,  referrible,  from  the  letter- 
ing, to  a  period  not  later  than  the  twelfth  century,  was  found 
in  the  upper  portion  of  the  cell  nearest  to  the  outside  wall  of 
the  broch,  and  not  more  than  about  three  feet  under  the  general 


238  EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIENS,    CAITHNESS. 

surface  of  the  green  turf  which  covered  the  cairn.  It  lay  in 
close  proximity  to  the  fragments  of  a  human  skull,  and  was 
presumably  a  burial  deposit  made  after  the  caim  was  a  ruin. 

The  Beoch  of  Dunbeath. 
I  have  been  favoured  with  the  following  account  of  the  open- 
ing of  a  very  interesting  broch  at  Dunbeath,  by  W.  S.  T. 
Sinclair,  Esq.,  jun.,  of  Dunbeath  : — 

"  Bunheath  Castle,  Oct,  20th. 

^^Dear  Sir, — Having  observed  the  success  which  has,  in 
many  instances,  attended  the  researches  of  others  with  respect 
to  those  structures  of  the  primeval  age,  with  which  this  county 
abounds,  I  resolved  to  make  an  experiment  upon  one  of  them 
myself.  Accordingly  I  commenced  operations  upon  a  green 
knowe,  surmounting  a  point  on  the  bank  of  the  Dunbeath 
river,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Houstry  burn,  and  about  half 
a  mile  above  the  village  bridge.  At  a  distance,  this  mound 
was  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  peaks  and  promonto- 
ries by  its  covering  of  vivid  green  sward.  On  closer  scrutiny, 
however,  traces  of  building  were  observable  on  the  north  and 
east ;  and  on  the  south  side  was  a  structure,  in  form  resembling 
a  well,  about  four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  which  was  filled  and 
surrounded  by  a  growth  of  sturdy  nettles. 

"  Popular  tradition  of  the  former  existence  of  ^  a  castle^  on 
this  spot,  gave  colour  to  the  assumption  that  the  rich  turf 
covered  something  more  than  a  heap  of  stones,  and  this  the 
first  day's  work  showed.  Beginning  on  the  south  side,  and 
clearing  away  the  earth  and  loose  stones,  we  found  an  oval 
chamber,  with  a  portion  of  the  converging  roof,  or  dome,  re- 
maining, twelve  feet  six  inches  long,  six  feet  six  inches  wide, 
and  about  thirteen  feet  to  the  highest  part  of  the  converging 
sides.  In  this  preliminary  experiment,  I  obtained  the  bones 
of  various  animals,  among  which  are  horns  of  the  deer,  bones 
of  a  bird,  and  of  the  cod  and  haddock ;  fragments  of  various 
kinds  of  jaws,  the  enamel  of  the  teeth  retaining  its  pristine 
freshness,  although  the  bone  bears  evidence  to  the  lengthened 
period  of  its  inhumation.  Along  with  these,  the  homy  portion 
of  two  right  hoofs  of  a  deer,  pared  down  upon  the  upper  edge ; 


EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  239 

a  section  of  an  antler  an  inch  long,  chipped  and  ground  at  both 
ends ;  a  rib  reduced  by  grinding  to  an  edge ;  and  Several  bones 
sawn  across,  or  fractured  by  a  blow,  are  indisputable  traces  of 
its  former  occupation  by  man ;  while  at  the  further  end,  a  shell 
heap  of  whelks  and  limpets  adjoined  a  few  small  pieces  of  wood 
charcoal,  above  which  the  marks  of  fire  were  plainly  visible. 

"  The  subsequent  and  final  excavation  confirmed  my  opinion, 
that  the  oval  chamber  formed  part  of  a  '  borg^,  or  *  dun',  whose 
wall  is  highest  towards  the  north,  the  rest  having  fallen  a  prey 
to  time  and  Gothic  hands.  It  is  circular  in  plan  j  consisting 
of  two  concentric  walls,  between  which  it  has  apparently  con- 
tained four  or  more  chambers,  two  only  of  which  remain  toler- 
ably perfect.  One  on  the  north  is  built  square,  with  recesses 
on  throe  sides,  but  has  the  usual  dome-shaped  roof,  terminated 
by  a  flat  slab.  The  other  is  the  before-mentioned  oval  chamber, 
which  is  on  the  east  of  the  principal  entry, — an  opening  three 
feet  wide. 

"  The  further  search  for  vestiges  of  man's  handicraft  did  not 
yield  the  find  of  implements,  etc.,  which  I  had  expected  on 
first  breaking  open  the  cairn  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  varied 
collection  of  bones  of  carnivora  and  herbivora.  There  appears 
to  bo  but  one  trace  of  the  human  form  divine, — a  single  ver- 
tebra of  an  adult,  while  jaws  and  teeth  of  many  of  the  lower 
animals  abound.  Among  these,  there  appear  to  me  to  be 
teeth  of  the  ox,  deer,  wolf  (?),  boar,  and  stoat,  with  fragments 
of  fishbones.  Among  this  second  lot  was  a  piece  of  freestone, 
covered  with  numerous  indentations,  all  nearly  of  the  same 
size.  One  of  these  passes  right  through  the  stone ;  possibly 
it  was  used  for  grinding  some  kind  of  weapon.  In  the  very 
centre  of  the  enclosure,  and  lying  on  the  hard  clay  bottom, 
was  a  small  spheroidal  stone,  very  similar  to  a  common  shore 
pebble,  an  inch  in  diameter.  As  it  is  netther  perforated  nor 
marked  in  any  particular  manner,  I  was  at  first  inclined  to  pass 
it  over ;  but  I  observed  that  it  exhibits  a  great  amount  of 
polish.  The  effect  of  intense  heat  is  discernible  on  the  east 
side  of  the  inclosure,  in  the  reddened  and  disintegrated  stones 
on  that  part  of  the  wall.  This  appears  to  have  been  occasioned 
by  a  smelting  fire,  employed  for  the  reduction  of  iron  ore,  se- 


2iO  EXCAVATIONS   IN   CAIRNS^   GAITHNJBBB. 

vcral  nodnlos  of  which  were  mixed  up  with  the  animal  remains, 
and  as  if  in  proof  of  the  sapposition,  an  iron  spearhead,  five 
inches  long,  lay  beside  the  lumps  of  reduced  iron  in  that  place. 
Further  evidence  of  the  occupation  by  man  is  adduced  by  the 
discovery  of  burnt  grain,  here,  and  oats,  of  which  I  obtained  a 
handful  close  to  the  wall,  and  next  to  the  clay  bottom. 

^'  That  the  site  of  this  cairn  has  been  a  favoured  spot  from 
time  immemorial,  may  be  adduced  from  the  fact  that  the  title 
of  the  '  tuUoch'  (green  cairn),  as  it  is  locally  termed,  Dun-bheh, 
is  given  to  the  whole  estate  in  the  Anglicised  form  of  Dnnbeath. 
The  etymology  of  the  first  part  of  this  word  clearly  points  to 
the  nature  of  the  building;  while  the  latter  applies  to  the 
brushwood  which  clothes  the  banks  of  the  streams,  at  whose 
junction  it  is  situated/' 

Small  Burial  Caibns. 

A  few  yards  from  the  cairn  of  Get,  was  a  group  of  short 
cists  set  in  the  ground,  which  we  examined  without  finding 
traces  of  either  urns  or  bones.  Close  by  was  a  small  cairn, 
about  three  feet  high  in  the  centre,  and  eighteen  feet  in  dia- 
meter. It  was  covered  by  about  a  foot  of  peat  which  had 
grown  over  it,  so  that  none  of  the  stones  of  which  it  was  com- 
posed were  visible.  On  opening  it,  we  found  the  stones  laid 
on  their  flat  sides,  and  sloping  outwards  from  the  centre  of  the 
cairn.  Eound  the  circular  base  a  kind  of  wall,  about  a  foot 
high,  appeared,  which  was  met  by  another  wall  of  about  the 
same  height,  running  from  the  centre  of  the  cairn  in  the  form 
of  a  segment  of  a  circle.  The  junction  of  the  walls  presented 
an  appearance  exactly  similar  to  that  described  by  Dr.  Hunt, 
as  occurring  in  a  cairn  which  he  opened  in  Shetland,  and  which 
his  workmen  declared  was  a  chimney.  At  the  end  of  this  seg- 
ment of  a  circle,  which  terminated  near  the  centre  of  the  cairn, 
there  was  a  flat  stone,  about  two  feet  long  by  nine  inches  in 
breadth.  On  this  flat  stone,  and  covered  simply  by  the  stones 
of  the  cairn  supei^posed,  without  any  cell  being  built  or  cist 
formed,  there  lay  a  human  skeleton,  or  rather,  the  remains  of 
a  complete  skeleton.  The  skull  was  pretty  entire,  thoucrh 
much  decayed  on  the  side  next  the  stone.     It  lay  on  tho  loft 


EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS.  241 

side.  The  long  bones  were  decayed  at  the  ends ;  but  the  ar- 
rangement of  these  and  the  ribs  showed  that  the  legs  had  been 
drawn  up,  so  that  the  leg  and  arm  bones  lay  all  parallel  to  each 
other  in  front  of  the  ribs.  The  sternum  and  lower  side  of  the 
pelvis  were  decayed,  and  of  the  vertebrae,  only  a  few  fragments 
remained.  The  head  lay  towards  the  N.E.  On  the  top  of  the 
skull  there  was  a  round  hole,  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
diameter.  We  conjectured,  however,  that  it  might  have  been 
simply  the  result  of  decay,  arising  from  an  angle  of  the  stone 
above  it  pressing  on  that  point.  Beneath  the  foundation  of 
the  cairn,  the  soil  showed  signs  of  having  been  disturbed,  and 
some  small  fragments  of  pottery  and  wood  charcoal  were  found 
beneath. 

Concluding  Eemabks. 

Of  the  characters  of  the  human  remains,  found  in  the  cairns 
now  described,  I  do  not  feel  myself  qualified  to  speak  >  but  I 
hope  they  will  be  described  by  some  one  able  to  speak  with 
authority  on  these  matters.  Those  now  obtained  are  the  only 
skulls  which  the  chambered  sepulchral  cairns  of  Caithness  have 
yielded  in  a  state  of  entirety  and  preservation,  sufficient  to  ad- 
mit of  description.  They  are  the  first  and  only  skulls  obtained 
from  ''horned^'  cairns,  of  which  we  have  now  explored  five, 
and  which  are  as  yet  unknown  anywhere,  except  in  Caithness. 
As  the  sepulchral  cairns  of  this  district  have  now,  so  far  as 
known,  been  all  opened  at  some  time  or  other,  it  is  scarcely 
likely  that  any  more  skulls  may  be  found. 

In  regard  to  the  two  classes  of  homed  cairns,  it  is  worthy  of 
notice,  that  in  both  cases  the  short  cairns  should  have  yielded 
a  larger  collection  both  of  human  remains  and  manufactured 
objects  than  any  others.  While  the  long  cairns — ^which  are 
so  very  similar  to  the  short  ones  in  external  form,  and  present 
a  general  resemblance  in  their  internal  arrangement — have  been 
found  to  be  almost  barren  of  relics  in  the  whole  three  instances 
examined ;  the  two  short  cairns  have  been  most  prolific. 

If  we  suppose,  as  is  suggested  by  the  appearance  of  the 
building,  by  the  fact  that  a  short  kist  containing  an  urn  and 
beads  of  lignite  was  found  on  the  floor  of  one  of  the  long 
cairns,  with  presumptive  evidence  of  its  being  a  secondary 

VOL.    III.  R 


242  EXCAVATIONS    IN    CAIRNS,    CAITHNESS. 

construction  not  contemplated  in  the  structural  arrangement  of 
the  chamber,  by  the  more  solid  consistency  of  the  floors,  by 
the  more  decayed  condition  of  the  bones,  by  the  total  absence 
of  ornamented  pottery,  and  the  almost  total  absence  of  pottery 
of  any  kind, — if  wo  suppose  from  these  indications  that  the 
long  cairns  are  the  more  ancient  of  the  two  classes  of  homed 
cairns,  and  the  most  ancient,  for  the  same  reason,  of  any  of  the 
chambered  cairns,  we  are  puzzled  to  account  for  the  complete 
identity  of  type  as  regards  external  form  presented  by  the  long 
and  the  short  cairns ;  and  puzzled,  also,  by  the  fact,  that  in 
both  the  evidences  of  cremation  are  in  and  underneath  the 
floors,  while  the  unbumt  burials  are  over  the  burnt  ones,  and 
therefore  of  a  subsequent  period. 

Again,  if  we  suppose  the  brochs  to  have  been  the  dwelling- 
places,  and  these  chambered  cairns  the  tombs,  of  the  same 
race,  we  are  even  more  hopelessly  puzzled  by  the  dissimilarity 
of  type  and  similarity  of  contents  presented  by  the  two  classes 
of  structures.  The  trodden  floor  of  ashes  mixed  with  burnt 
and  splintered  bones  of  the  chambered  cairns,  is  so  like  the 
ash-covered  floor  of  the  brochs  in  the  general,  that  were  it  not 
that  the  human  bones  are  as  many,  and  as  much  broken  and 
burned  in  the  chambered  cairns  as  the  animal  bones,  while  in 
the  brochs  human  bones  are  exceptional ;  and  were  it  not  that 
while  the  chambered  cairns  yield  only  weapons  of  war  and 
personal  ornaments,  the  brochs  yield  only  domestic  implements 
and  utensils,  one  would  be  tempted  to  class  their  contents  in 
the  same  category  on  a  hasty  generalisation.  We  have  already 
a  few  slight  indications  which  point  to  a  possible  connexion 
between  the  brochs  and  the  chambered  cairns ;  but  the  whole 
subject  is  yet  very  obscure.  These,  therefore,  and  many  other 
questions  of  a  kindred  nature,  must  be  left  for  future  discus- 
sion, as  we  have  not  yet  obtained  data  sufficient  for  determining 
the  relations  in  time  among  the  several  classes  of  sepulchral 
cairns  themselves,  or  for  the  elucidation  of  the  meaning  and 
intention  of  their  singularly  peculiar  structural  characteristics. 


213 


XVI. — Note  on  a  Skull  from  the  Cairn  of  Get,  Caithness,  dif- 
covered  by  Joseph  Anderson,  Esq.,  Loc,  Sec.  A.S.L.  By 
C.  Carter  Blake,  Doct.  Sci.,  F.G.S.,  Lecturer  on  Com- 
parative Anatomy  and  Zoology,  Westminster  Hospital. 

The  skull  is  of  great  size  and  weight,  the  osseous  structure 
being  very  dense.  All  of  the  teeth  were  in  place  at  the  time 
of  death,  and  show  signs  of  being  much  worn.  The  age  of 
the  individual  was  probably  about  fifty,  and  the  sex,  male.  The 
orbits  are  large,  and  the  nasal  bones  forwardly  produced. 
The  forehead  is  large  and  capacious,  and  the  parietal  tubers 
broad  and  prominent.  The  coronal  suture  is  partially  obliterated, 
and  the  sagittal  suture  entirely  so, — a  rainure  (Pruner-Bey), 
or  depression  extending  throughout  its  posterior  two-thirds, 
and  forming  slight  supra-lambdoid  flattening.  The  upper  part 
of  the  supra-occipital  bone  is  well  produced,  and  the  semicir- 
cular line  is  prominent.  The  mastoids  are  small ;  and  on  the 
right  side,  a  small  paroccipital  has  been  developed  from  the 
jugular  eminence.  The  foramen  magnum  is  rounded  in  form, 
and  the  pharyngeal  tubercle  is  much  towards  the  left  side.  The 
impressions  for  the  insertion  of  the  masseter  muscle  are  large. 
The  supraorbital  ridges  are  not  developed.  The  inferior  maxilla 
is  very  large  and  massive,  the  chin  being  excessively  promi- 
nent ;  the  inferior  border  is  very  thick  and  rounded,  the  pos- 
terior angle  of  the  ascending  ramus  being  rather  obtuse.  The 
sigmoid  notch  is  not  shallow.  The  malar  bones  are  thick,  but 
not  forwardly  prominent,  and  the  canine  fossae  are  remarkably 
shallow. 

Greatest  length 183  millimHres 

Greatest  breadth  140         „ 

Cephalic  index   '76 

Facial  angle   80^ 


K  2 


244 


XVII. — The  Character  of  the  Voice  in  the  Nations  of  Asia  and 
Africa^  contrasted  with  that  of  the  Nations  of  Europe.  By 
Sir  G.  Duncan  Gibb,  Bart.,  M.A.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.G.S., 
V..P.A.S.L. 

A  CONTRAST  of  the  character  of  the  voice  in  the  various  nations 
of  the  world  has  never  been  attempted;  and  no  traveller  or 
resident  in  any  particular  country,  whether  at  home  or  abroad, 
has  devoted  himself  to  the  consideration  of  such  a  subject. 
Travellers,  now  and  then,  in  their  description  of  certain  na- 
tions and  tribes,  speak  of  their  loud,  their  shrill,  their  powerfal, 
or  their  weak  voices.  Beyond  the  mere  mention  of  the  sound 
of  the  voice  as  they  find  it,  no  special  desire  has  been  evinced 
to  dwell  upon  it  at  large.  Any  attempt,  therefore,  on  my  part, 
to  describe  the  character  of  the  voice  in  the  peoples  inhabiting 
the  vast  continents  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  to  contrast  it  with 
that  of  the  nations  of  Europe  might,  indeed,  seem  to  be  Uto- 
pian, with  apparently  no  facts  to  fall  back  upon,  or  to  bring 
forward,  in  support  of  any  views  that  might  be  propounded. 
Nevertheless,  the  task,  difficult  though  it  seems  to  be,  I  have 
endeavoured  to  work  out  with  all  the  energy  and  effort  that 
could  be  devoted  to  its  study  and  elucidation,  to  be  further 
aided,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  by  such  remarks  as  those  may  make 
upon  it  who  desire  to  take  part  in  the  discussion  of  the  subject. 

I  may  state,  however,  that  I  think  I  possess  some  facts, 
although  not  numerous  nor  abundant,  that  will  lend  their  aid 
in  the  consideration  of  this  question.  These,  with  such  in- 
formation, meagre  as  it  is,  which  I  have  endeavoured  to  cull 
from  travellers,  who  have  referred  to  the  voices  of  the  nations 
of  Asia  and  Africa,  shall  be  made  to  bear  their  just  weight  in 
the  course  of  my  remarks.  After  generalising  and  reasoning 
upon  these,  they  shall  be  contrasted  with  the  voice  of  Euro- 
peans, such  as  we  commonly  know  it. 

The  general  subject  of  the  paper  is  of  more  interest  than  at 
first  sight  might  appear,  and  unquestionably  has  something  to 


GIBB   ON   THE   CHARACTER   OP   THE   VOICE.  245 

do  with  the  superiority  of  the  European  over  the  Asiatic  and 
African  races.  For  convenience,  the  nations  of  Asia  may  be 
comprised  under  three  great  divisions : — 

1.  The  natives  of  China  and  Japan. 

2.  The  inhabitants  of  Tartary,  Thibet,  and  Mongolia. 

3.  The  natives  of  India  and  Birmah. 

This  division,  although  arbitrary,  takes  in  the  chief  races  of 
Asia,  and  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  the  general  illustra- 
tion of  the  voice  in  the  natives  of  that  continent.  There  are, 
probably,  inhabitants  of  some  of  the  smaller  kingdoms  on  the 
southern  seaboard  and  peninsula,  such  as  Laos,  Siam,  and 
Anam,  taking  in  Gochin-China  and  Cambodia,  and  even  else- 
where, where  the  character  of  the  voice  might  possibly  vary 
considerably  from  that  of  the  other  nations ;  but  on  the  whole 
I  do  not  think  that  will  materially  interfere  with  the  general 
conclusion.     Siberia  is  necessarily  excluded. 

The  Chinese  and  the  Koreans,  and  the  Japanese,  according 
to  Dr.  Prichard  (p.  230),  belong  to  the  same  type  of  the  human 
species  as  the  natives  of  High  Asia ;  but  it  seems,  he  says, 
among  them,  to  have  become  softened  and  mitigated,  and  to 
display  frequent  deviation  from  that  character  which  travellers 
assert  is  almost  uniform  among  the  Mongols. 

Although  I  have  not  been  either  in  China  or  Japan,  my  in- 
tercourse with  natives  of  those  countries  abroad,  together  with 
the  information  I  have  derived  from  persons  who  have  had 
communication  with  them  in  their  native  land,  leads  me  to  say 
that  the  voice,  in  both  races,  is  one  of  a  low  power  and  feeble 
compass.  In  tone,  it  seldom  reaches  very  high ;  and  if  I  might 
compare  it  to  any  one  thing  more  than  another,  I  should  say 
it  was  a  whining  voice.  This,  I  feel  persuaded,  will  strike 
those  who  have  had  much  personal  communication  with  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese.  Their  soft  and  quiet  manner  of  speak- 
ing, which  at  times  possesses  a  sort  of  metallic  twang,  not  un- 
like that  of  their  Mongol  progenitors,  may  be  due  to  the  pecu- 
liar guttural  character  of  their  language,  in  which  vowel  sounds 
appear  so  largely  to  predominate.  Or,  again,  it  may  depend 
upon  a  shallow  formation  of  the  larynx,  approaching  to  that 
in  the  female  sex,  wherein  its  depth,  or  profundity — starting 


246         GIBB  ON  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  VOICE 

from  the  point  of  the  pomum  Adami^  backwards  to  the  thick 
portion  of  the  ring  of  the  cricoid  cartilage — is  less  than  is  met 
with  in  the  Tartar  tribes  or  in  Europeans.  Or,  thirdly,  it  may 
depend  upon  habitual  pendency  of  the  epiglottis  or  cartilage, 
that  forms  the  protector  of  the  larynx  in  the  act  of  swallowing. 
Upon  a  very  careful  consideration  of  the  subject,  together  with 
personal  observation,  it  seems  to  me  that  in  both  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese,  but  especially  in  the  former,  all  three  causes  ex- 
ert a  more  or  less  modifying  effect,  but  that  producing  the 
greatest  influence  is  the  last, — pendency  of  the  epiglottis. 

No  doubt,  many  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  will  be  found 
to  possess  as  good  and  powerful  voices  as  are  to  be  heard  any- 
where; yet  very  few  will  be  devoid  of  the  metallic  twang, 
which  gives  to  it  a  muffled  character.  Yet,  as  the  vocal  cords 
are  necessarily  short,  intensity  and  loudness  of  sound  will  be 
replaced  by  quality,  in  which  the  tenor  variety  may  predomi- 
nate. Although  I  have  examined  fewer  of  the  Japanese  than 
their  co-religionists  (in  part  at  any  rate)  and  neighbours,  the 
Chinese,  I  think  the  voice  is  clearer  and  stronger  in  them,  and 
the  epiglottis  wiU  not  be  found  so  generally  pendent.  Although, 
likewise,  both  nations  are  an  industrious  race,  neither  possesses 
the  extreme  activity  or  energy  of  their  progenitors,  the  Tar- 
tars and  Mongols,  now  to  be  considered.  This  is  not  a  con- 
sequence, but  an  accompaniment  of  their  peculiar  voice,  which 
is  a  manifestation  of  physical  weakness  pervading  nearly  the 
entire  race.  Nevertheless,  strongly  made  Chinamen,  with  sound- 
ing voices  and  quick  movements,  are  mentioned  by  Hue  (vol. 
ii,  p.  242). 

Central  Asia,  comprising  the  great  kingdoms  of  Tartary, 
Thibet,  and  Mongolia, — far  away  from  the  intercourse  of  civi- 
lised nations,  and  therefore  not  in  common  communication  with 
them,  like  the  Chinese  and  Japanese, — would  prove  a  sealed 
book  to  the  scientific  investigator,  were  it  not  for  the  glimpses 
of  information  furnished  by  travellers,  like  Messrs.  Hue  and 
Gabet.  The  character  of  the  voice  was  the  last  thing  to  enter 
the  mind  of  either ;  yet,  in  their  description  of  the  natives  of 
the  three  kingdoms  mentioned,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  over- 
looked facts  and  incidents  apparently  invested  with  the  most 


IN    THE    NATIONS    OF    ASIA   AND   AFRICA.  247 

trivial  importance,  although  oftentimes  related  on  the  score  of 
anecdote.  In  this  manner  have  I  been  furnished  with  some 
information,  not  only  interesting,  but  of  real  importance  and 
value.  If  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  comparatively  mild 
and  feeble  speakers  from  the  causes  mentioned,  it  is  not  so 
with  the  Tartars.  In  them  the  voice  is  decidedly  stronger, 
louder,  and  more  powerful,  yet  still  partaking  of  the  laryngeal 
or  metallic  twang.  My  authority  for  this  is  Hue,  who  states 
in  his  Travels  in  Tartary, "  The  manners  and  movements  of 
these  inhabitants  of  the  desert  are  abrupt  and  jerking ;  their 
speech  brief  and  energetic.  The  tones  of  their  voice  have 
something  about  them  metallic  and  deafening.  Many  of  them 
are  wealthy ;  and  with  these  display  consists  in  decorating  the 
sheath  of  the  sword  with  precious  stones,  and  their  own  robes 
with  borders  of  tigerskin.  The  horses  which  they  bring  to 
Tang-Keou-Eul  are  remarkably  beautiful,  vigorous,  well-made, 
and  of  great  grandeur  in  the  step, — in  all  respects  far  superior 
to  those  of  Tartary,  and  fully  justifying  the  Chinese  phrase, 
'  Sima  Toung-mieou'  (western  horses,  eastern  oxen),^'  p.  23, 
vol.  ii. 

I  have  preferred  giving  this  extract  in  full,  because  it  ex- 
presses so  much,  in  a  few  words,  relating  to  the  character  of 
the  people,  in  which  energy,  activity,  and  determination  play 
an  important  part.  No  wonder  need  be  expressed  in  the  power 
of  the  voice,  which  is  rendered  metallic  and  deafening  from 
causes  which  shall  be  presently  explained.  A  good  instance 
of  vocal  character  and  power  in  the  Tartar  is  furnished  by  the 
following  extract : — 

"  On  the  day  of  our  arrival  at  Tang-Keou-Eul,  a  few  minutes 
before  we  entered  the  town,  we  met  a  long  hair,  who  had  been 
giving  his  horse  drink  in  the  river  Keou-Ho.  Samdadchiemba 
(Hue's  servant),  who  was  always  attracted  by  anything  having 
an  eccentric  air,  cautiously  approached  the  man,  and  saluted 
him  in  the  Tartar  fashion,  saying,  ^  Brother,  art  thou  at  peace?' 
The  Houng-Mao-Eul  turned  fiercely  towards  him  ;  ^^  What  bu- 
siness of  thine  is  it,  tortoise-egg  !"  cried  he,  with  the  voice  of 
a  stentor, '  whether  I  am  at  peace  or  at  war  ?  And  what  right 
hast  thou  to  address,  as  thy  brother,  a  man  who  knows  nothing 


218  QIBB   ON    THE   CHAEACTEE   OP   THE    VOICE 

about  thee?'  Poor  Samdadchiemba  was  taken  all  aback  at 
this  reception ;  yet  he  could  not  help  admiring,  as  something 
very  fine,  this  haughty  insolence  of  the  long-hair*'  (vol.  ii,  p.  24). 

Samdadchiemba,  who  was  the  cameleer  of  Messrs.  Hue  and 
Gabet,  was  a  young  man,  who  was  neither  a  Chinese,  a  Tartar, 
nor  Thibetian,  but  one  whose  features  partook  of  the  Mongol 
race.  Hue  describes  his  face  as  "  having  no  decisive  character ; 
it  exhibited  neither  the  mischievous  knavery  of  the  Chinese, 
nor  the  frank,  goodnature  of  the  Tartar,  nor  the  courageous 
energy  of  the  Thibetian;  but  was  made  up  of  a  mixture 
of  all  three"  (vol.  i,  p.  20) .  The  character  of  his  voice  is  not 
given ;  but "  an  exertion  of  his  strong  lungs''  induced  Tartars 
in  the  distance  to  turn  in  their  saddles,  and  come  up  to  him  (p. 
29).  At  night,  it  appears,  he  snored  with  all  the  might  of  his 
lungs  until  daybreak  (p.  31).  This  last  is  significant  of  some 
pendency  of  the  epiglottis,  probably  to  the  extent  of  one-half. 
His  voice  I  infer  to  have  been  moderate  in  power ;  and  his  sur- 
prise at  the  reception  he  met  with  from  the  Tartar  need  not  bo 
wondered  at,  for  in  fact  he  had  ^^  caught  a  Tartar." 

On  one  occasion,  three  horsemen  overtook  them ;  one  of 
whom,  whose  costume  bespoke  him  a  Tartar  Mandarin,  ad- 
dressed them  with  a  loud  voice :  ^'  Sirs,  where  is  your  country?" 
"  We  came  from  the  west."  "  Through  what  districts  has 
your  beneficial  shadow  passed  ?"  "  We  have  last  come  from 
Tolon-Noor."  "Has  peace  accompanied  your  progress?" 
"  Hitherto  we  have  journeyed  in  all  tranquilUty.  And  you, 
are  you  at  peace  ?  And  what  is  your  country  ?"  "  We  are 
Khalkas,  of  the  kingdom  of  Mourguevan,"  etc.  (p.  39,  vol.  i) . 
The  l(nid  voice  uttered  by  these  Tartars  is  so  striking  and  im- 
pressive, that  Hue  seldom  let  an  opportunity  pass  of  referring 
to  it.  On  visiting  the  caves  of  the  Ortous,  in  Tartary,  Hue 
relates : — 

"  Wo  directed  our  steps  to  the  opening  of  the  cavern,  and 
on  reaching  the  threshold  of  the  door,  perceived  within  a  large 
fire  of  hemp-stems,  whose  undulating  fiame  reached  the  ceil- 
ing, so  that  the  place  looked  Hko  an  oven.  On  further  inves- 
tigation, we  observed  a  human  form  moving  amidst  the  thick 
smoke;  we  soon  hoard  the  Tartar  salute,  "Mendou!"  uttered 
by  a  sonorous  voice,  "  Come  and  sit  beside  this  fire."     We  did 


IN    THE   NATIONS   OF  ASIA  AND   AFRICA.  249 

not  like  to  advance.  This  cave  of  Cacus,  that  loud  voice  pre- 
sented to  our  minds  something  fantastic.  Finding  that  we 
remained  silent  and  motionless^  the  inhabitant  of  this  sort  of 
vent-hole  of  Erebus  rose,  and  came  to  the  threshold.  He  was 
neither  a  devil  nor  a  ghost,  but  simply  a  Mongol  Tartar,  who, 
the  night  before,  having  been  surprised  by  the  storm,  had  fled 
to  this  cave,  where  he  had  passed  the  night''  (vol.  i,  p.  181). 

In  Tartary,  the  women  lead  a  very  independent  life,  riding 
out  on  horseback  at  pleasure,  and  visiting  each  other  from  tent 
to  tent.  Differing  from  the  "  soft  languishing  physiognomy  of 
the  Chinese  women,  the  Tartar  woman  presents  in  her  bearing 
and  manners  a  power  and  force  well  in  accordance  with  her 
active  life  and  nomad  habits,  and  her  attire  augments  the 
effect  of  her  masculine,  haughty  mien''  (vol.  i,  p.  187). 

The  voice  of  the  Tartar  woman  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  the 
men,  in  power,  at  any  rate,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  behaviour 
of  an  innkeeper's  wife,  who  for  her  obstinacy  received  a  for- 
midable box  on  the  ear  from  her  husband,  which  sent  her  into 
a  corner,  screaming  at  the  pitch  of  her  voice  (p.  291,  vol.  i). 

The  following  picture  of  the  Mongols,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Tartars,  in  the  words  of  M.  Hue,  cannot  but  be  interesting 
here  : — "  The  Mongol  has  a  flat  face,  with  prominent  cheek- 
bones, the  chin  short  and  retiring,  the  forehead  sunken ;  the 
eyes  small  and  oblique,  of  a  yellow  tint,  as  though  fiill  of  bile ; 
the  hair  black  and  rugged,  the  beard  scanty;  the  skin  of  a 
deep  brown,  and  extremely  coarse.  The  Mongol  is  of  middle 
height  j  but  his  great  leathern  boots  and  large  sheep-skin  robe, 
seem  to  take  away  from  his  height,  and  make  him  appear  di- 
minutive and  stumpy.  To  complete  this  portrait,  we  must 
add  a  heavy  and  ponderous  gait,  and  a  harsh,  shrill,  discordant 
language,  full  of  frightful  aspirates.  Notwithstanding  this 
rough  and  unprepossessing  exterior,  the  disposition  of  the 
Mongol  is  full  of  gentleness  and  good-nature  :  he  passes  sud- 
denly from  the  most  rollicking  and  extravagant  gaiety  to  a 
state  of  melancholy,  which  is  by  no  means  disagreeable"  (vol. 
i,  p.  257).  I  would  draw  particular  attention  to  the  "harsh, 
shrill,  discordant  language,  full  of  frightful  aspirates." 

The  Lamas  of  Thibet  are  not  inferior  to  their  brethren,  the 


250  aiBB   ON    THE    CHARACTER   OF   THE    VOICE 

Mongols  and  Tartars,  in  vocal  power,  which  is  manifested  on 
the  occasion  of  exorcising  the  demon  of  sickness.  The  follow- 
ing description  by  Hue  has  reference  to  prayers  recited  by  the 
Lamas  for  the  recovery  of  a  person  ill  with  intennittent  fever. 
"  Upon  a  given  signal,  the  clerical  orchestra  executed  an  over- 
ture, harsh  enough  to  frighten  Satan  himself,  the  lay  congrega- 
tion beating  time  with  their  hands  to  the  charivari  of  clanging 
instruments  and  ear-splitting  voices.  The  diabolical  concert 
over,  the  Grand  Lama  opened  the  Book  of  Exorcisms,  which 
he  rested  on  his  knees.  As  he  chanted  one  of  the  forms,  he 
took  from  the  basin,  from  time  to  time,  a  handful  of  millet, 
which  he  threw  east,  west,  north,  and  south,  according  to  the 
rubric.  The  tones  of  his  voice,  as  he  prayed,  were  sometimes 
mournful  and  suppressed ;  sometimes  vehemently  loud  and 
energetic.  All  of  a  sudden,  he  would  quit  the  regular  cadence 
of  prayer,  and  have  an  outburst  of  apparently  indomitable  rage, 
abusing  the  herb-puppet  with  fierce  invectives  and  furious 
gestures.  The  exorcism  terminated,  he  gave  a  signal  by 
stretching  out  his  arms,  right  and  left,  and  the  other  Lamas 
struck  up  a  tremendously  noisy  chorus  in  hurried,  dashing 
tones;  all  the  instruments  were  set  to  work;  and  meantime 
the  lay  congregation,  having  started  up  with  one  accord,  ran 
out  of  the  tent,  one  after  the  other,  and  tearing  round  it  Uke 
mad  people,  beat  it  at  their  hardest  with  sticks,  yelling  all  the 
while  at  the  pitch  of  their  voices,  in  a  manner  to  make  ordinary 
hair  stand  on  end"  (vol.  i,  pp.  66,  67). 

The  same  sort  of  vocal  chaos,  so  to  speak,  is  exhibited  when 
a  Lama  Bokte  manifests  his  power  of  killing  himself,  yet  not 
dying.  "  At  his  feet,  numerous  Lamas,  ranged  in  a  circle, 
commence  the  terrible  invocations  of  this  frightful  ceremony. 
As  the  recitations  of  the  prayers  proceeds,  you  see  the  Bokte 
trembling  in  every  limb,  and  gradually  working  himself  up 
into  phrenetic  convulsions.  The  Lamas  themselves  become 
excited  :  their  voices  are  raised  ;  their  song  observes  no  order, 
and  at  last  becomes  a  mere  confusion  of  yelling  and  outcry. 
Then  the  Bokte  suddenly  throws  aside  the  scarf  which  envelopes 
him,  unfastens  his  girdle,  and,  seizing  the  sacred  knife,  slits 
open  his  stomach  in  one  long  cut"  (vol.  i,  p.  191). 


IN   THE   NATIONS   OF  ASIA   AND   AFRICA.  251 

During  the  festival  of  the  new  year  at  Lha-Ssa^  the  town  is 
invaded  by  innumerable  bands  of  Lamas^  who  run  through  the 
streets  in  disorderly  bands,  uttering  frightful  cries,  chanting 
prayers,  and  fiercely  quarrelling  with  their  fists  (ii,  p.  218). 
This  behaviour  of  the  Lamas  is  in  vivid  contrast  to  their  usual 
quiet  behaviour,  modest  mien,  and  low  and  grave  tone  of  their 
voices  (vol.  ii,  p.  32). 

The  extracts  which  have  been  given,  so  clearly  and  yet  so 
accurately,  represent  the  general  character  of  the  voice  amongst 
the  races  of  people  inhabiting  Tartary,  Thibet,  and  Mongolia, 
that  I  must  be  pardoned  for  not  altering  their  phraseology,  nor 
condensing  them  more  than  was  absolutely  necessary.  The 
metallic  and  deafening  tones  of  the  voice  well  explain  the  cha- 
racter of  the  latter,  as  might  be  common  to  a  race  of  people 
who  almost  habitually  live  in  the  saddle,  and  whose  incessant 
activity  and  constant  travelling  contribute  to  render  them  very 
vigorous,  and  capable  of  supporting  the  most  terrible  cold  with- 
out appearing  in  the  least  afiected  by  it  (i,  p.  68).  If  the 
Tartars  utter  deafening  cries  and  shouts  (i,  p.  110),  and  dis- 
pute by  turns  furiously  and  argumentatively  (i,  p.  120),  they 
possess  at  the  same  time  much  fluency  of  tongue  (i,  p.  120). 
There  cannot  be  much  difiBculty  in  arriving  at  a  tolerably  cor- 
rect estimate  of  the  condition  of  the  Tartar's  larynx  from  the 
faithful  description  given  by  Hue  and  Gabet  of  these  races  of 
people.  In  them  all,  but  more  especially  in  the  Tartar  tribes, 
the  larynx  is  well  developed,  and  is  very  prominent  in  the 
neck,  the  pomum  Adami  being  a  conspicuous  feature.  The 
vocal  cords,  consequently,  are  long  and  powerful,  surmounted 
most  probably  by  capacious  ventricles.  The  metallic  and  deaf- 
ening tone  of  the  voice  has  been  partly  acquired  by  habit, 
and  by  partial  pendency  of  the  epiglottis,  to  the  extent,  most 
likely,  of  more  or  less  of  three-fourths.  The  Tartar  voice, 
screechy  and  noisy,  painfully  affecting  the  ear  of  those  unac- 
customed to  it,  is  inferior  to  the  sonorous  voice  of  the  Euro- 
pean ;  yet  possessing  more  power  and,  on  the  whole,  approaches 
nearer  to  it  than  that  of  many  other  nations.  The  extreme 
cold  and  rigour  of  the  climate  of  Tartary,  I  think  is  favourable 
to  the  immunity  from   complete  pendency  of  the   epiglottis. 


252         GIBB  ON  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  VOICE 

although^  no  doabt^  many  such  examples  may  still  exist)  among 
the  Tartars  and  Mongols. 

From  these  various  accounts  it  is  fair  to  argue  that^  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  character  of  their  voice,  the  Tartars  are  a 
strong,  vigorous,  active,  energetic,  and  powerful  race,  the 
worthy  descendants  of  the  great  Genghis  Khan,  whose  con- 
quests in  the  thirteenth  century  struck  terror  into  the  sur- 
rounding nations,  and  which  showed,  moreover,  what  such  a 
race  of  people  were  capable  of  executing.  In  the  study  of 
this  interesting  subject,  nothing  has  commanded  my  admiration 
more  than  the  character  possessed  by  some  of  these  noble  Tar- 
tars, whose  commanding  voices  were  a  part  of  their  true 
nature. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  next  great  kingdom,  I  would  here 
I'emind  the  reader  of  Defoe's  account  of  the  Cochin-Chinese  in 
the  great  bay  of  Tonquin,  in  Robinson  Crusoe,  Boiling  hot 
tar  was  freely  ladled  over  their  naked  bodies  when  attacking 
the  ship  undergoing  repairs,  which  caused  them  to  roar  out  like 
bulls.  They  made  such  a  fearful  howling  and  crying,  that 
Crusoe  compared  it  to  the  howling  of  wolves,  for  he  never 
heard  anything  more  nearly  approach  to  it  (pp.  384,  386,  386, 
of  Robinson  Crusoe), 

So  much  space  has  been  devoted  to  the  two  other  divisions 
of  the  Asiatic  nations,  that  I  am  compelled  to  limit  my  ob- 
servations relatively  to  the  inhabitants  of  India  and  Birmah.  I 
am  not  going  to  enter  into  a  consideration  of  the  vocal  character 
of  the  numerous  tribes  of  India  and  Birmah,  that  would  be  a 
task  in  itself  alone  of  great  labour.  The  subject  shall  be 
noticed  in  reference  to  the  inhabitants  of  India  generally ;  I 
am  indebted  for  some  of  my  information  to  my  friend  Lieut. 
Cecil  P.  Stone,  of  H.M.  77th  Regt.,  who  has  been  many  years 
in  India,  and  who  is  moreover  a  great  observer  of  Indian 
character.     He  replied  to  a  series  of  interrogations  of  mine. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  voice  of  the  natives  are  the 
following : — It  is  generally  soft  and  plaintive,  and  very 
feminine.  It  is  not  so  very  powerful  as  shrill,  the  natives 
always  sing  in  falsetto,  but  they  can  be  heard  at  a  great  dis- 
tance.    The  natives  of  the  hills  have  a  more  robust  voice  than 


IN    THE   NATIONS    OP   ASU   AND   AFRICA.  253 

those  of  the  plains,  and,  from  the  habit  of  always  calling  to 
each  other  from  hill  to  hill,  have  contracted  a  habit  of  loud 
speaking. 

The  hill  tribes  possess  somewhat  of  a  metallic  twang  in  their 
voices,  but  those  of  the  plains  are  plaintive  and  whining. 

The  natives  do  not  possess  a  good  speaking  voice,  as  a 
general  rule  they  do  not  possess  voices  well-calculated  for 
oratory.  They  are  not  resonant,  and  never  speak  ore  rotunda. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  males  possess  a  prominent  thyroid 
cartilage. 

There  is  much  difference  of  voice  in  the  various  races  of 
India ;  it  may  be  predicated,  as  the  variety  of  race,  so  variety 
of  voice. 

Lieut.  Stone  never  heard  a  bass  singer  during  the  whole  of 
his  sojourn  in  India,  nor  even  a  barytone ;  the  natives  always 
sing  falsetto.  The  compass  of  the  voice  is  small,  hardly  above 
the  octave. 

In  the  main  my  observations  of  Indian  character  lead  me  to 
concur  with  my  friend  ;  nevertheless,  I  have  heard  good  clear 
audible  voices  amongst  the  natives  of  Bengal,  not  unlike  Euro- 
peans, more  especially  when  they  have  much  mixed  with  them. 
This  has  been  observed  also  in  the  women.  The  slightly 
metallic  twang  varies  a  good  deal,  being  sometimes  almost  alto- 
gether unobservable ;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  distinctly  character- 
istic. In  the  males  the  thyroid  cartilage  is  prominent,  large, 
and  deep,  with  fairly  long  vocal  cords,  the  larynx  being  formed 
as  in  Europeans,  but  with  this  peculiarity,  that  in  nearly  all  the 
natives  of  both  sexes,  particularly  those  I  have  examined  in 
this  country,  the  epiglottis  is  completely  pendant,  and  curled 
under  in  variable  proportions.  I  have  scarcely  seen  a  single 
instance  of  the  pretty,  oval,  leaf-shaped  epiglottis,  such  as  we 
are  in  the  habit  of  seeing  it  amongst  Europeans.  This  pendant 
peculiarity  must  necessarily  impart  twang  and  metallic  tone  to 
some  extent;  and  points  to  loss,  or  rather  absence,  of  physical 
power  and  strength  in  the  entire  inhabitants  of  the  plains.  It 
may  vary  in  the  hill  and  mountain  tribes,  especially  as  they 
extend  northwards,  towards  a  more  bracing  and  invigorating 
atmosphere  on  elevated  lands.     The  natives  of  India  are  pretty 


254  GIBB    ON    THE    CHARACTER   OP   THE    VOICE 

nearly  on  a  par  with  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  vocal  power 
and  compass,  but  they  are  decidedly  inferior  to  the  Tartars  and 
Mongols. 

In  dwelling  upon  the  character  of  the  voice  in  the  various 
races  that  inhabit  the  African  continent,  necessity  compels  me 
to  confine  my  remarks  wholly  and  simply  to  the  Negro,  as  we 
understand  by  that  term  the  various  black  races  found  in  the 
interior  and  on  some  of  the  coasts,  especially  the  western. 
This  will  permit  me  to  take  in  the  slaves  which  have  been  ex- 
ported to  the  American  continent  and  elsewhere. 

Of  slaves  and  free  blacks  in  North  America  I  have  had  many, 
indeed  I  may  say  abundant  opportunities  in  the  earlier  part  of 
my  life  of  studying  their  peculiarities  in  regard  to  voice  and 
speech,  and  their  new  home,  so  to  call  it,  has  not  altered  what 
is  common  to  them  as  a  race.  My  inspection  of  the  interior  of 
the  living  larynx,  however,  in  the  Negro,  has  been  made  in 
this  country. 

The  larynx  of  the  Negro  contains  all  the  various  parts  com- 
mon to  other  races  of  mankind ;  nevertheless,  as  I  have  shown 
in  a  memoir  upon  the  subject  published  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Anthropological  Society,*  there  are 
essential  differences  in  the  larynx  of  the  black  and  white  races, 
which  necessarily  exert  their  influence  in  modifying  the 
character  of  the  Negro  voice.  The  Negro  larynx  is  fairly  de- 
veloped, not  unusually  prominent  in  the  neck,  and  the  vocal 
cords  are  not,  perhaps,  of  the  full  length  of  those  in  the  Euro- 
pean races,  nor  of  the  Tartars.  Nor  are  they  again  as  short 
as  in  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  They  are,  probably,  of  inter- 
mediate proportions  between  the  Chinese  and  Tartars.  They 
differ,  however,  from  all  other  races  of  mankind,  which  I 
have  had  the  opportunity  of  examining,  in  these  particulars : 
the  plane  of  the  superior  surfaces  of  the  vocal  cords,  instead  of 
being  horizontal,  slopes  from  within  outwards  and  downwards ; 
this  permits  a  view  of  the  fundus  and  entire  cavity  of  the 
ventricles  of  the  larynx  which,  in  their  situation  and  position. 


*  Essential  points  of  difference  between  the  larynx  of  the  Negpro  and  that 
of  the  white  man. 


IN    THE   NATIONS   OF   ASIA   AND   AFRICA.  255 

may  be  compared  to  the  saddlebags  placed  upon  the  back  of  a 
mule.  In  the  white  and  other  races  we  cannot  see  the  interior 
of  the  ventricles,  because  their  direction  is  outwards,  and  their 
situation  either  on  a  level  or  above  the  plane  or  horizontal  sur- 
face of  the  vocal  cords.  Besides  these,  the  Negro  possesses 
very  large  and  prominent  Wrisbergian  cartilages, — little  bodies, 
like  small  round  peas,  at  the  top  of  the  back  of  the  larynx^  not 
commonly  seen  in  other  races  of  mankind.  , 

Then,  as  a  rule  in  the  Negro,  the  epiglottis  is,  for  the  most 
part,  pendant  and  curled  under  laterally ;  a  condition  which  I 
have  even  seen  in  a  lot  of  healthy  young  Uvely  and  laughing 
Negroes  from  the  river  Congo. 

All  these  peculiarities,  I  think,  incontestably  point  to  the 
want  of  great  vocal  power,  such,  for  example,  as  a  loud  and 
commanding  voice.  On  the  other  hand,  they  possess  the 
elements  of  a  bellowing  or  roaring  voice,  a  deafening  noisy 
sound,  without  anything  musical  or  distinctive  about  it,  beyond 
mere  noise.  Their  speaking  voice  varies ;  it  is  either  smooth 
and  harmonious  in  tone,  slightly  guttural,  or  it  is  rough  and 
husky.  The  former  predominates,  and  is,  on  the  whole,  agree- 
able and  pleasing,  and  where  it  does,  the  Negro  is  a  laughing 
low-musical  and  singing  person.  Negroes  are  always  more 
disposed  to  be  merry  and  laugh  than  to  be  sad  and  gloomy. 
Dull  care  they  drive  away,  unless  their  grievances  are  strong 
and  bitter.  Possessing  strong  powers  of  imitation,  they  are  in 
the  habit  of  taking  oflF  other  speakers,  winding  it  up  with  a 
chuckle.  Dr.  James  Hunt,  in  his  essay  On  the  Negro's  place  in 
Nature,  says  : — "  There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  Negroes  voice 
by  which  he  can  always  be  distinguished.  This  peculiarity  is 
so  great  that  we  can  frequently  discover  traces  of  Negro  blood 
when  the  eye  is  unable  to  detect  it.  No  amount  of  education  or 
time  is  likely  ever  to  enable  the  Negro  to  speak  the  English 
language  without  this  twang.  Even  his  great  faculty  of  imita- 
tion will  not  enable  him  to  do  this''  (p.  22). 

This  twang  is  slightly  nasal,  but  I  do  not  think  it  general  to 
the  Negro  as  he  exists  in  Africa.  In  America  it  has  been  de- 
rived by  imitation  from  his  master.  In  the  elderly  Negress 
the  voice  becomes  acute  and  shrieking  or  shrill,  but  it  is  not  so 


256  GIBB   ON   THE    CHARACTEE   OP   THE   VOICE 

in  the  young.  Livingstone,  in  his  work  on  the  Zambesi  (p. 
551),  refers  to  the  "  shrill  calls  of  women  watching  their  com,*' 
and  the  '^  shrill  wail  of  the  women,  O  Mae"  (p.  553). 

And  I  agree  with  the  following  observation  of  Dr.  B.  Clarke 
to  some  extent :—''  A  pleasing  manner,  soft  and  winning  ways, 
with  a  low  and  musical  laugh,  may  in  strict  truth  be  declared 
to  be  the  heritage  of  most  of  the  Negro  women''  (Dr.  Hunt's 
Essay,  p.  22). 

Livingstone  says : — '^  The  laugh  of  the  women  is  brimful  of 
mirth.  It  is  no  simpering  smile,  nor  senseless  loud  gaffaw ;  bat 
a  merry  ringing  laugh,  the  sound  of  which  does  one's  heart 
good.  One  begins  with  Hft,  H^e,  then  comes  the  chorus,  in 
which  all  join,  1EL^666  !  and  they  end  by  slapping  their  hands 
together,  giving  the  spectator  the  idea  of  great  heartiness"  (p. 
503).  "  The  cries  of  children,  in  their  infant  sorrows,  are  the 
same  in  tone,  at  different  ages,  there  as  all  over  the  world" 
fldeni,  p.  503). 

^'  On  passing  a  beautiful  village,  called  Bangwe,  surrounded 
by  shady  trees,  and  placed  in  a  valley  among  mountains,  we 
were  admiring  the  beauty  of  the  situation  (writes  Livingstone), 
when  some  of  the  much-dreaded  Mazitu,  with  their  shields,  ran 
out  of  the  hamlet,  from  which  we  were  a  mile  distant.  They 
began  to  scream  to  their  companions  to  give  us  chase."  "  The 
first  intimation  we  had  of  the  approaching  Mazitu  was  given 
by  the  Johanna  man,  Zachariah,  who  always  lagged  behind, 
running  up,  screaming  as  if  for  his  life"  (p.  551-2) .  The  scream 
here  mentioned  was  most  probably  a  sort  of  a  roar  or  bellow, 
and  not  a  shrill  sound. 

I  never  heard  a  fine  loud  sonorous  voice  by  a  Negro,  although 
they  have  the  power  of  uttering  bass  notes  in  a  low  and  grave 
tone,  from  the  peculiarities  of  their  larynx,  notably  pendency 
of  the  epiglottis.  The  position  of  the  ventricles  of  the  larynx 
is  unfavourable  to  intensity  and  gravity  of  sound,  and  to  power 
and  compass,  as  met  with  in  Europeans.  A  barytone  voice  is 
not  uncommon  amongst  Negro  singers,  and  now  and  then 
falsetto  voices  in  females,  although  I  have  recently  heard  of  a 
Negro  prima  donna,  whose  voice  is  said  to  be  a  fine  soprano. 
So  much  for  the  Negro  voice. 


IN   THE   NATIONS  OF    ASIA  AND  AFRICA.  257 

It  now  remains  for  me  to  consider  the  vocal  character  of 
Europeans,  and  to  contrast  it  with  what  has  been  stated  con- 
cerning that  of  Asiatics  and  Africans. 

Speaking  generally,  the  natives  of  France  and  England, 
Germany,  Russia,  Italy,  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  possess 
strong,  powerful,  sonorous,  and  clear  voices.  There  may  be 
slight  variations  as  to  character  and  tone ;  but,  as  a  rule,  they 
all  agree  in  possessing  power,  full  compass,  range,  clearness, 
and  loudness  of  sound.  Take  the  Frenchman,  for  example, 
with  his  oratorical  powers,  distinctness  of  utterance,  sonorous 
vibration,  and  audible  voice,  free  from  twang.  The  Italian  is 
not  inferior  to  the  Frenchman  in  any  respect.  The  English- 
man, although  a  slower  speaker,  and  perhaps  with  less  fluency 
of  language,  is  behind  no  other  European  nation  in  vocal  capa- 
city, and  his  voice  has  been  heard  above  all  others  on  the  try- 
ing occasion  of  the  din  of  battle,  in  commanding  his  fellow 
man ;  or  in  the  senate,  where  his  oratory,  uttered  in  notes  of 
distinctness  and  vocal  power,  attracts  the  attention  of  his 
hearers.  The  Russian,  not  unlike  the  Englishman  in  many  re- 
spects, although,  perhaps,  with  somewhat  feebler  vital  capa- 
city, has  a  voice  of  energy  and  power  distinctly  heard  in  the 
open  air,  and,  in  some  of  the  districts  of  Russia,  possessing 
very  great  power  and  intensity  of  sound.  The  hurrah  of  the 
Russian  and  the  huzza  of  the  Englishman,  have  been  con- 
sidered not  unlike  one  another  in  vocal  power  and  character. 
But  of  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  there  is  one  that  carries  oflF 
the  palm  both  in  power  and  intensity  of  sound,  and  in  noisy 
utterance.  If  the  metallic  sound  of  the  Tartar's  voice  deafens 
one,  the  continuously  sonorous  vibration  of  the  running  speech 
of  the  German  stuns  one.  Whether  this  be  owing  to  the  pecu- 
liar guttural  language,  the  vital  capacity,  or  the  desire  to  be 
heard  above  his  fellow-man,  I  will  not  undertake  to  say ;  but 
the  German  has  the  most  powerful  voice  in  Europe.  In  a 
mixed  assembly  of  speakers,  e.  g.,  International  Congress  of 
Archaic  Anthropology,  the  question  is  asked,  Who  is  that  loud 
speaker  addressing  the  chair,  the  tones  of  whose  voice  pain- 
fully tickle  the  ear  ?  Oh  !  the  reply  is  made,  that  is  Professor 
Sticken  Mudden,  of  Chairhausen,  a  great  authority  on  tooth- 

VOL.  III.  8 


258  GIBB   ON   THE   CHARACTER   OP   THE    VOICE 

less  skulls.  To  the  German  race  must  be  accorded  the  proud 
pre-eminence  of  possessing  the  most  powerful  voices  amongst 
the  various  nations  of  Europe,  and,  perhaps,  the  French  come 
next,  although  I  am  not  disposed  to  acknowledge  that  vocal 
capacity  and  power  in  the  Englishman  is  inferior  to  the  French ; 
this  is  owing,  perhaps,  to  our  climate  as  much  as  anything 
else,  which  is  favourable  to  physical  endurance,  and  increased 
vital  capacity.  The  larynx  is  well  developed  in  the  nations  of 
Europe,  of  full  depth  from  before  backwards,  and  good  length 
of  vibrating  vocal  cords.  There  is  an  essential  absence  of 
twang  and  metallic  sound,  which  is,  for  the  most  part,  due  to 
the  comparative  infrequency  of  pendency  of  the  epiglottis  when 
contrasted  with  the  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Amongst 
Englishmen,  11  per  cent,  is  the  amount  of  it,  as  given  in  4,600 
healthy  people  examined  by  myself;*  and  I  do  not  think  that 
the  percentage  in  other  European  nations  will  exceed  that ;  it 
may  slightly  do  so,  but  future  observation  by  other  workers 
must  determine  the  question.  Nothing  points  more  to  the  su- 
periority of  vocal  character  than  the  singing  powers  of  a  na- 
tion; and  in  this  respect  many  of  the  European  countries 
excel,  Europe  is  the  cradle  of  song,  although  a  large  cradle, 
if  you  like,  but  it  points  to  superiority  of  voice  in  strength, 
power,  compass,  and  sound.  The  details  of  all  this  the  limits 
and  nature  of  this  paper  prevent  my  going  into.  From  these 
and  other  causes,  therefore, — to  speak  in  general  terms, — the 
character  of  the  voice  is  superior  in  the  European  to  the  Asiatic 
and  African.  He,  perhaps,  cannot  bellow  as  loud  as  the  Negro, 
nor  can  he  screech  as  loud  as  the  Tartar;  nevertheless,  his 
vocal  character  is  superior  to  both.  But  in  strength  of  voice 
he  must  yield  to  the  Tartar,  who,  without  exception,  has  the 
most  powerful  voice  in  the  world.  Consequently,  the  Tartar 
is  physically  superior  to  any  other  nation ;  but  the  various  na- 
tions of  Europe  come  next  to  him,  even  if  some  do  not  equal 
him,  and  possibly,  indeed,  may  excel  him.  The  Germans  rank 
next  to  the  Tartars,     And  amongst  ourselves,  I  am  disposed 


•  Sec  my  paper  on  "  Vocal  and  other  Influences  upon  Mankind  from  Pen- 
dency of  the  Epiglottis,"  p.  10(>. 


IN   THE    NATIONS   OP    ASIA   AND   AFRICA.  259 

to  believe  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  Irish  have 
more  powerful  voices  than  their  fellow  subjects  the  Scotch  or 
English.  However,  opinions  may  vary  upon  this  point;  for 
amongst  the  Celtic  spoken  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish,  there  is  a 
similarity  in  this  respect :  their  vocal  power  is  considerable, 
and  not  unequal,  which  may  be  due  to  their  peculiar  language. 
As  the  subject  is  a  new  one,  and  the  field  untrodden,  I  trust 
that  the  necessary  short-comings  in  the  treatment  of  it  in  this 
paper  will  be  charitably  overlooked,  and  harsh  criticism  dis- 
armed. 


s2 


2C0 


XVII. — Tlie    Fishing    Indians   of   Vancouver's    Island,      By 
—  BoGG,  Esq. 

The  Sougish  tribe  is  at  once  the  smallest  and  the  most  de- 
graded of  all  the  tribes  in  Vancouver  Island.  They  dwell  in 
and  around  Victoria,  the  capital  of  Vancouver  Island,  and  their 
village  is  opposite  that  city,  on  the  other  side  of  the  harbour. 
This  village,  like  those  of  all  the  other  tribes  I  have  visited,  is 
composed  of  long,  low,  shed-like  buildings,  with  the  front 
higher  than  the  back,  so  as  to  give  the  roof  a  good  pitch.  The 
uprights  of  these  huts  are  posts,  firmly  driven  into  the  ground, 
often  rudely  decorated,  or  carved  into  the  uncouth  likeness  of 
a  gigantic  human  form.  These  posts  are  never  taken  away; 
but  the  rough-hewn  planks,  which  form  the  sides  and  roof  of 
the  dwelling,  and  which  are  fastened  to  the  posts  by  ropes  of 
seaweed,  are  always  carried  about,  by  the  owners,  in  their  mi- 
grations. When  the  fishing  season  comes  on,  then  the  Indian 
takes  down  the  planks,  places  them  in  his  canoe,  puts  in,  also, 
his  baskets  full  of  birch  and  bark,  his  collection  of  dried  sal- 
mon-roe, and  some  bladders  of  fish-oil,  and  departs  with  his 
wife  and  family  to  the  fishing  grounds  of  the  tribe.  Adjacent 
to  these  fishing  grounds  is  the  site  of  the  summer  village  of 
the  tribe,  which,  for  six  months  out  of  the  year,  is  only  in- 
dicated by  the  posts  I  have  already  alluded  to.  But  when 
spring  comes,  with  it  come  the  fish,  the  salmon,  the  rock-cod, 
the  skate,  and  shoals  of  herring  and  whiting.  Then  the  In- 
dians come  to  the  village,  unload  their  canoes,  tie  their  planks 
together,  fasten  them  to  the  posts,  put  up  bunks  round  the 
sides  to  form  their  sleeping  places,  clear  away  the  enormous 
nettle-beds,  which  are  the  constant  accompaniment  and  sure 
sign  of  an  Indian  encampment ;  and  then  they  settle  down  to 
the  most  important  business  of  their  lives,  viz.,  to  catch  fish 
enough  to  last  them  for  food  till  spring  comes  again. 

It  is,  perhaps,  in  this  matter  of  fishing  that  their  greatest 
ingenuity  is  shown,  in  the  numerous  contrivances  adopted  to 


THE   FISHING  INDIANS   OF  VANCOUVER'S   ISLAND.  261 

obtain  the  end  in  view,  and  in  the  untiring  skill  which  they 
exhibit.  And  here  I  must  premise  that,  with  regard  to  fish- 
ing, all  the  tribes  are  alike  in  the  instruments  they  use,  and 
the  skill  they  exhibit.  I  shall,  therefore,  only  notice  other 
tribes  when  I  have  different  customs  to  speak  of. 

When  the  salmon  comes  in  season,  the  men  of  the  party 
go  out  trolling  in  a  very  fast  canoe,  which  they  paddle  with 
great  rapidity.  They  tow  a  long  line  astern  made  of  seaweed, 
very  tough  and  strong,  and  to  this  is  attached,  by  slips  of 
deer-hide,  an  oval  piece  of  granite,  perfectly  smooth,  and  the 
size  and  shape  of  a  goose-egg.  This  piece  of  granite  acts  as 
a  sinker,  and  it  spins  the  bait.  The  salmon-hook  is  a  piece  of 
sti-ong  whalebone,  at  one  end  of  which  is  a  loop,  and  at  the  other, 
a  piece  of  very  hard  wood,  which  is  pointed,  and  lashed  on  to 
the  whalebone  at  an  acute  angle.  These  hooks  are  very  strong, 
and  will  hold  the  largest  salmon.  The  bait  is  very  often  a  red 
berry,  of  which  the  salmon  are  very  fond,  but  at  other  times 
it  is  a  bit  of  dried  salmon-roe. 

The  cod-hook  is  very  much  more  ingenious,  and  is  made  of 
wood,  and  resembles  somewhat  in  shape  an  old  English  fy,  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  of  the  letter  being  the  hook,  which, 
when  not  in  use,  is  always  kept  attached  to  the  perpendicular 
portion  by  means  of  twine  made  of  fishgut,  in  order  that  it 
may  preserve  its  elasticity.  When  the  Indian  goes  after  the 
cod,  he  takes  this  hook,  and  unwinds  the  twine  which  has  kept 
it  curved.  But  even  when  he  has  taken  it  off,  the  curve  is  still 
retained  for  a  time ;  the  bait  is  put  on,  and  away  he  goes  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  some  rocky  islets,  where  the  rock-cod  is 
sure  to  hook  ;  the  hook  dropped  over  the  side,  there  this  man 
will  remain  for  hours,  until  at  last  he  gets  a  bite.  Then  we 
see  why  the  hook  is  elastic.  As  the  fish  tugs,  he  only  pulls 
the  hook  out  of  its  curve,  and  into  a  straight  line ;  but  the 
great  force  required  to  overcome  the  elasticity  exhausts  the 
fish,  and  makes  him  an  easy  prey  to  his  captor.  Another 
reason  for  the  form  of  the  hook,  is  that  its  breadth  prevents 
the  fish  from  swallowing  the  hook  sufficiently  to  get  at  the  hue 
and  bite  it. 

Herrings  and  whiting  are  caught  in  a  very  peculiar  manner 


262  THE   FISHINa   INDIANS  OF   VANCOUVER'S   ISLAND^ 

indeed.  A  piece  of  pine,  about  fourteen  feet  long,  three  inches 
broad,  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  has  one  of 
its  edges  studded  with  very  sharp  spikes,  made  of  hard  wood, 
and  about  two  inches  long.  This  rake  is  used  in  the  following 
manner.  When  a  shoal  of  herrings  is  seen,  the  Indian  paddles 
quickly  up  to  them,  drops  his  paddle,  picks  up  the  rake,  and 
then,  while  his  canoe  is  shooting  a-head  over  the  shoal,  he 
makes  a  sweep  through  the  shoal  with  his  rake,  his  hands 
being  the  centre  of  the  semicircle  which  the  extremity  of  the 
rake  describes  in  the  water.  He  generally  impales  five  or  six 
fish  on  the  spikes,  which  he  throws  into  the  bottom  of  the 
canoe,  by  striking  the  rake  forcibly  on  the  gunwale  of  the 
canoe. 

While  the  men  are  out  fishing,  the  squaws  are  employed  in 
splitting  and  drying  the  fish,  boiling  down  the  cods'  livers  for 
the  oil,  drying  the  salmon-roe,  etc.  When  all  this  work  is 
over,  and  the  fish  are  getting  scarce  and  unfit  for  food,  the 
Indian  takes  down  his  planks,  stows  all  his  gear,  and  departs 
to  his  winter  village,  where  he  vegetates  till  the  returning 
spring  rouses  him  again  to  activity. 

The  Cape  Flattery,  or  Tahtoosh  Indians,  also  pursue  and 
capture  the  whale.  They  have  a  number  of  sealskins,  which 
they  turn  inside  out,  and  use  as  bladders  (these,  from  their  size, 
are  very  buoyant).  They  also  use  a  large  number  of  harpoon 
heads,  all  of  which  fit  into  one  shaft.  These  harpoon  heads 
are  very  sharp  indeed,  being  made  of  old  files,  etc.,  ground 
down,  and  they  are  dipped  in  resin  to  prevent  rust  and  pre- 
serve the  edge.  When  a  whale  is  to  be  caught,  the  canoes 
follow  about  until  a  harpoon  can  be  driven  into  it.  As  soon  as 
the  whale  feels  the  harpoon,  it  dives,  and  when  it  dives,  the 
harpoon-shaft  floats  up  to  the  surface  and  is  picked  up ;  but 
the  head  of  the  weapon  is  deeply  imbedded  in  the  whale's 
flesh,  and  attached  to  it  is  one  of  these  large  skins,  or  bladders, 
full  of  air.  Every  time  the  whale  comes  up  to  breathe,  fresh 
harpoons  are  thrust  into  it,  with  other  bladders  attached,  until 
at  length  the  number  and  buoyancy  of  these  air-vessels  offers 
such  a  resistance  to  any  attempt  at  diving,  that  the  whale  is 
soon  wearied  out,  is  killed,  and  then  towed  to  the  village  by 


THE   PISHING    INDIANS   OF   VANCOUVER'S    ISLAND.  263 

the  canoes.  The  flesh  is  eaten  by  the  Indians^  and  the  oil  is 
used  to  anoint  their  bodies.  At  the  principal  village  of  the 
Cape  Flattery  tribe,  the  uprights  of  the  chiePs  house  were 
carved  into  the  representation  of  men  with  their  mouths  open ; 
and  I  saw  a  piece  of  whale's  flesh  nailed  into  the  mouth  of 
each  figure. 

The  Ahousad  tribe  adopt  another  labour-saving  method  of 
catching  salmon.  They  use  a  long  spear,  the  head  of  which  is 
loose,  and  attached  by  a  thong  to  the  centre  of  the  spear-shaft. 
When  the  fish  is  speared,  therefore,  the  shaft  comes  out  of  the 
socket  in  the  head,  and  floats  up  to  the  surface,  being  still, 
however,  attached  to  the  head  by  the  thong.  Away  goes  the 
fish  as  fast  as  ever  it  can,  dragging  this  fourteen  feet  shaft  ho- 
rizontally after  it ;  but  its  power  is  soon  exhausted,  the  resist- 
ance being  so  great;  and  the  Indian,  who  has  been  quietly 
awaiting  the  result,  paddles  up,  and  takes  possession  of  his 
victim. 

These,  then,  are  the  methods  by  which  the  Indian  takes  his 
daily  food  out  of  the  sea.  Now,  let  us  look,  for  a  few  moments, 
at  some  other  of  his  customs.  I  need  hardly  describe  the  pro- 
cess for  flattening  the  head,  which  all  these  tribes  undergo ;  it 
has  been  so  often  and  so  well  described,  that  it  is  perfectly 
familiar  to  all  of  us. 

Reclined  in  this  wind-rocked  cradle,  his  body  and  limbs 
swathed  with  birch-bark  bandages,  the  Indian  child  passes  the 
first  two  or  three  years  of  his  existence ;  and,  perhaps,  it  may 
be  a  wonder  to  some  people,  but  when  the  child  is  taken  out 
of  its  bandages,  it  has  the  most  perfect  control  over,  and  the 
freest  use  of  its  limbs.  An  Indian  child  is  never  deformed, 
never  idiotic.  The  language  of  these  tribes  is  most  extraor- 
dinary, being,  apparently,  a  collection  of  1(^8  and  q'a  gurgled 
in  the  throat,  in  a  manner  that  would  lead  any  uninitiated  per- 
son to  believe  that  the  speaker  was  about  to  vomit.  Yet  to 
this  peculiar  language  they  can  give  so  peculiar  an  utterance, 
that  they  can  be  heard  for  many  miles  through  the  silent 
forests.  And  at  the  time  that  H.M.S.  Devastation  went  to  the 
west  coast  of  Vancouver's  Island  to  seize  some  of  the  Indians 
who  had  murdered  the  Indian  agent  there,  we  subsequently 


264  THE   FISHING   INDIANS   OF    VANCOUVEE'S   ISLAND. 

found  that  the  exact  hour  of  our  departure  from  Victoria,  and 
our  destination,  were  known  to  all  the  west  coast  tribes  within 
four  hours  of  the  time  when  we  weighed.  These  things  had 
been  communicated  through  the  forest,  from  one  tribe  to  an- 
other, the  distance  being  very  much  too  great  for  any  other 
method  to  have  been  adopted. 

The  Indians  have  several  amusements.  They  are  very  fond 
of  dancing.  We  had  Cedar  Kanim  (the  chief  of  the  friendly 
Clayogusts)  and  a  band  of  his  warriors  on  board  for  some  time, 
and  one  night  they  gave  us  a  specimen  of  their  dances.  The 
old  chief  was  in  the  centre  of  his  band,  holding  a  very  formid- 
able spear  which  was  made  of  the  tusk  of  a  narwhal,  and 
decorated  with  many  scalps.  Around  him  were  the  warriors, 
squatting  on  their  haunches.  One  of  them  began  beating  a 
rude  tambourine,  and  then  all  the  old  men  began  a  wild  mono- 
tonous chant,  clapping  their  hands,  and  rocking  themselves  to 
and  fro.  Suddenly,  with  tremendous  bounds,  never  once  rising 
to  bend  their  knees,  but  bounding  in  that  squatting  posture, 
the  young  men  left  the  circle.  A  coil  of  rope,  a  fife-rail,  or  a 
hand-spike,  became  their  enemies  for  the  nonce,  and,  with 
stealthy  bounds,  and  much  turniug  and  twisting,  each  enemy 
was  pounced  upon  and  scalped.  Then  returning  to  the  circle 
they  all  joined  in  the  chant,  which  was  intended  to  describe  the 
prowess  of  each  individual,  for  as  each  was  named  in  succession, 
he  had  to  bound  round  the  circle  and  back  again  into  his  place. 
The  dance  ended  with  them  all  hopping  round  the  deck.  Beside 
dancing,  the  Indians  are  very  fond  of  gambling.  Their  game  of 
chance  is  of  "  odd  or  even,^'  and  is  played  as  follows : — They 
have  a  number  of  discs  of  wood,  the  size  and  shape  of  draughts. 
They  also  prepare  a  kind  of  fine  bow  from  the  inner  fibre  of  the 
birch  bark.  When  they  are  going  to  play  they  squat  down  at 
one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  matting,  one  of  the  players  takes  an 
uneven  number  of  these  discs,  rolls  them  in  some  of  the  tow, 
until  it  is  like  a  great  ball,  and  then  suddenly  divides  it  into  two 
parts  :  the  adversary  has  then  to  say  which  of  these  two  parts 
contains  the  odd  number.  When  the  part  is  thus  indicated, 
the  player  puts  down  the  other  portion,  unwraps  the  tow  and 
rolls  the  discs  along  the  matting,  the  adversary  counting  them 
aloud.     They  will  play  at  this  simple  game  for  days  together. 


THE    FISHING    INDIANS   OF   VANCOUVER'S   ISLAND.  265 

They  often  play  high,  their  money  consisting  of  the  Wampum 
beads^  each  of  which  is  valued  as  a  shilling. 

When  an  Indian  is  ill  the  medicine  man  (Ooshtukl)  is  sent 
for,  and  as  his  professional  education  is  rather  different  from 
our  own,  it  may  be  as  well  to  say  in  what  it  consists. 

First,  then,  his  mother  must  dream  that  she  will  give  birth  to 
a  frog ;  and  this  fact  is  so  essential  that  the  ''  Doctor's ''  pipe 
and  all  his  insignia  of  office  must  give  representations  of  this 
event. 

The  incipient  medicine  man  has,  like  those  in  this  country, 
to  pass  a  preliminary  examination,  only  of  rather  a  different 
kind,  for  he  has  to  eat  a  live  dog  in  the  presence  of  the  assem- 
bled tribe.  This  ceremony  over,  he  retires  to  the  woods,  where 
he  passes  several  days,  communing  with  Nature,  and  digesting 
the  dog.  After  this  enforced  absence,  he  returns  to  the  village 
at  noon  on  a  certain  day  appointed  beforehand,  and  the  war- 
riors arm  themselves  for  the  occasion.  At  noon  he  appears, 
running  full  speed,  and  his  object  is  to  bound  on  one  of  the 
warriors,  and  bite  a  piece  out  of  his  left  breast.  If  he  fail  in 
his  object  he  is  slain  by  the  warrior,  if  he  succeed  he  at  once 
rises  to  the  dignity  of  a  medicine  man.  Then  he  robes  himself 
in  a  wolf-skin,  making  the  head  of  the  beast  into  a  cap,  takes 
his  tambourine,  and  stalks  grisly  and  grim  to  the  side  of  his 
patient.  There  he  sits,  and  beats  the  tambourine,  and  sings  a 
minor  chant,  for  days  together,  till  his  patient  gets  well,  or 
dies.  When  an  Indian  dies  his  skull  is  kept  by  the  tribe,  but 
his  body  is  placed  in  a  box,  together  with  a  pipe,  tobacco, 
(made  of  willow  leaves),  same  dried  fish,  some  fish  hooks,  and 
some  money.  Then  the  lid  is  tied  on  the  box,  and  the  box  is 
then  carried  up  some  lofty  Douglas  pine,  and  tied  on  to  some 
branches,  a  hundred  feet  or  more  above  the  ground.  And 
there,  above  his  forest  home,  above  the  haunts  of  the  bear,  the 
gaunt  wolf,  the  stately  elk,  the  timid  deer,  the  aerial  coffin  is 
suspended ;  and  oftentimes  in  places  where  Indian  villages  once 
were,  but  have  long  ceased  to  exist,  in  places  where  no  sound 
breaks  the  gloom  of  the  forest,  where  no  living  thing  exists  to 
lessen  the  awful  solitude,  looking  upwards  you  may  see  these 
strange  graves,  may  see  how  the  Red  men  are  placed  in  their 
last  homes  to  await  the  call  to  the  ^'  happy  hunting  grounds." 


266 


XVIII. — On   the  Horned   Cairns   of   Caithness,      By   Joseph 

Andersox,  Loc.  Sec.  A.S.L, 

A  SERIES  of  excavations  amongst  the  chambered  cairns  of  the 
east  coast  of  Caithness^  undertaken  for  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  London,  and  jointly  carried  on  by  the  writer  and 
Mr.  R.  I,  Shearer,  has  led  to  the  discovery  of  an  entirely  new 
type  of  cairn  structure,  and  yielded  the  only  collection  of  skulls 
hitherto  obtained  from  these  ancient  places  of  sepulture.  In 
this  paper,  I  propose  briefly  to  describe  the  peculiar  structural 
characteristics  of  the  horned  cairns,  and  to  detail  the  results 
of  the  examination  of  their  chambers. 

The  homed  cairns,  so  called  from  the  peculiar  expansion  of 
their  crescentic  ends  into  horns,  or  alate  projections  from  the 
body  of  the  cairn,  are  of  two  forms  externally,  diflTering  only 
on  account  of  the  cairn-structure  being,  in  the  one  class,  about 
three  times  the  length  of  the  other  class.  Like  the  common, 
round,  and  chambered  cairns  with  which  they  are  associated, 
their  internal  structure  consists  of  a  chamber,  generally  divided 
into  three  compartments  by  monoliths,  set  on  end  in  the  floor, 
and  passing  through  the  side  walls  and  across  the  area,  so  as 
to  leave  a  passage  from  one  compartment  into  the  next,  of 
about  eighteen  inches  wide;  but  in  their  external  form  and 
structure,  they  differ  widely  from  any  sepulchral  or  chambered 
cairns  hitherto  known.  The  peculiar  configuration  of  the  two 
classes  will  be  discerned  at  a  glance  from  the  accompanying  dia- 
grams (see  Mem,  Soc.  AidhroiJ.,  vol.  ii,  p.  226).  In  the  typical 
example,  a  double  wall,  or  rather,  a  wall  built  against  and  in  front 
of  another  wall,  runs  entirely  round  the  whole  mass  of  the 
cairn,  giving  it  a  form  not  unlike  that  of  a  star-fish  with  four 
rays ;  while  in  the  long  cairns,  the  outline  is  the  same,  but 
triply  elongated  in  the  centre  part.  Within  this  double  wall, 
a  circular  wall  encloses  the  chamber.  Of  these  homed  cairns, 
we  have  explored  five  examples,  all  in  the  parish  of  Wick. 

Three  of  them  are  long  cairns.     No.  1  is  240  feet  in  length. 


THE    HOBNED   CAIENS   OF   CAITHNESS.  267 

the  breadth  of  the  base  of  the  body  of  the  cairn,  at  the  wide 
end,  being  66  feet,  and  at  the  narrow  end,  36  feet ;  the  expan- 
sion of  the  horns,  in  the  wide  end,  being  92  feet  from  tip  to 
tip,  and  at  the  narrow  end  53  feet. 

No.  2  is  195  feet  long.  Its  horns  are  shorter,  but  well  de- 
fined ;  and  the  expansion  across  the  tips,  at  the  wider  end,  is  64 
feet,  and  across  the  smaller  end,  32  feet. 

No.  3  is  190  feet  long,  the  base  of  the  body  of  the  cairn 
being  43  feet  wide  at  the  broad  end,  and  26  feet  at  the  narrow 
end ;  and  the  expansion  of  the  horns  62  feet  at  the  wide  end, 
and  34  feet  at  the  other. 

These  three  long  cairns  all  have  their  highest  and  widest 
ends  facing  eastwards.  No.  1  looking  E.  by  S.  by  compass. 
No.  2,  N.E. ;  and  No.  3,  E.S.E.  In  this  feature,  these  long 
cairns  resemble  the  "  long  barrows^^  of  the  south  of  England ; 
and  some  of  the  Yorkshire  long  barrows,  also,  appear  to  have 
had  a  "retaining  walP^  exterior  to  the  mass  of  the  cairn, 
though  in  their  horned  structure  the  Caithness  long  cairns 
stand  alone. 

In  two  of  the  long  cairns,  the  chamber  is  situated  in  the 
east,  or  highest  end,  the  rest  of  the  cairn  being  simply  a  mass 
of  rubble.  The  passage,  in  these  two  instances,  opens  in  the 
middle  of  the  curvature  between  the  horns.  In  the  third  case, 
the  chamber  opens  to  the  side  of  the  cairn,  and  there  is  no 
passage  opening  between  the  curvature  of  the  horns. 

The  horns  of  No.  1,  taper  from  a  breadth  of  about  twenty 
feet,  where  they  spring  from  the  front  of  the  cairn,  to  nine 
feet  at  the  tips ;  and  the  curvature — from  the  entrance  passage 
in  the  centre  to  the  tip  of  the  horn — is  fifty-four  feet.  In  No. 
2,  the  horns  do  not  project  more  than  five  feet,  and  they  are 
only  six  feet  broad  at  the  tips.  In  No.  3,  the  line  of  the  curv- 
ature, from  the  opening  of  the  passage  in  the  centre  to  the 
tips  of  the  horns,  is  thirty  feet,  and  they  are  ten  feet  wide  at  the 
tips.  These  singular  prolongations  of  the  structure  contain 
neither  chambers  nor  cists,  and  are  built  upon  undisturbed 
clay.  Their  height  varied  according  to  the  preservation  of  the 
cairn.  In  No.  1,  one  horn  was  imperfect.  In  No.  2,  all  four 
are  perfect  on  the  foundation,  the  tips  being  about  a  foot  high 


268  THE   HORNED   CAIRNS   OP   CAITHNESS. 

abq^e  the  surface  of  the  moor,  and  the  double  wall  rising  from 
thence  to  a  height  of  about  seven  feet  in  the  centre  of  the 
curvature.  In  No.  3,  the  highest  part  of  the  double  wall,  in 
the  centre  of  the  curvature,  is  five  feet. 

The  chamber  in  No.  1  is  entered  by  a  passage  ten  feet  long 
and  about  two  feet  wide.  The  chamber  itself  is  about  twelve 
feet  by  six,  and  of  the  height  of  the  walls  about  six  feet  re- 
main, with  signs  of  convergence  by  overlapping  stones,  at 
that  height,  to  form  a  flattish  dome-like  roof.  It  is  divided 
into  three  compartments;  the  divisional  stones,  single  slabs, 
standing  about  seven  feet  high  between  the  first  and  second 
compartments.  The  third  compartment  is  a  recess  in  the  end, 
with  a  doorway  two  feet  four  inches  high,  and  twenty  inches 
wide.  The  whole  recess  is  roofed  by  one  enormous  block  of 
stone,  supported  in  front  on  the  two  divisional  slabs.  The 
area  of  its  floor  is  only  four  feet  eight  inches  by  two  feet  four 
inches,  and  the  interior  height  two  feet  and  a  half. 

In  the  long  cairn.  No.  2,  we  found  two  chambers,  with  indi- 
cations of  others,  opening  to  the  south-east  side  of  the  cairn 
instead  of  to  the  end,  as  in  the  others.  One  of  these  cham- 
bers was  of  the  usual  tricamerated  kind,  and  the  passage  lead- 
ing into  it  was  partly  vaulted  by  overlapping  stones,  and  partly 
lintelled  with  large  flat  blocks.  The  other  chamber  was  a 
simple  beehive-shaped  cell,  about  four  feet  by  five,  and  six  feet 
and  a  half  high  in  the  centre,  the  walls  converging  from  the 
height  of  four  feet.  It  was  reached  by  a  winding  passage 
twenty-three  feet  long,  and  not  over  two  feet  and  a  half  high. 

In  No.  3,  the  chamber  was  in  the  eastern  end,  and  was  large 
and  roomy.  Instead  of  having  a  small  compartment  at  the 
back,  the  third  division  of  the  chamber  expanded  into  a  semi- 
circular area,  making  the  whole  chamber  eighteen  feet  in  its 
greatest  length,  and  eight  feet  in  its  greatest  breadth. 

The  two  short  cairns  are  pretty  nearly  of  a  size ;  the  body 
of  the  cairn,  in  each  case,  measuring  about  forty  feet  by  fifty, 
and  the  extreme  length  of  the  structure,  including  the  horns, 
being  in  the  one  case  eighty  feet,  and  in  the  other,  sixty-six. 
In  the  one.  No.  4,  the  horns  extend  forward  about  twenty 
feet,  and  backward  about  sixteen  feet  from  the  body  of  the 


THE    HORNED    CAIRNS   OF   CAITHNESS.  269 

cairn^  and  they  taper  from  about  eighteen  feet  at  the  widest, 
to  about  six  feet  at  the  tips.  In  the  other.  No.  5,  they  extend 
forward  about  twenty  feet,  and  backward  about  fifteen  feet, 
tapering  to  a  breadth  of  eight  feet  in  the  front  tips,  and  nine 
feet  in  those  behind.  In  No.  5,  the  best  preserved  of  the  two, 
the  double  wall  forming  the  outhne  of  the  body  of  the  cairn 
and  horns,  is  nowhere  less  than  two  feet  high.  The  circular 
wall  surrounding  the  chamber  is  about  four  feet  high.  How 
much  higher  these  walls  may  have  been,  there  is  nothing  to 
show. 

The  chamber  floors  in  both  the  long  and  the  short  cairns 
yielded  abundant  evidences  of  cremation,  as  well  as  of  the  deposit 
of  unburned  bodies;  but  while  the  quantity  of  the  remains 
found  in  the  long  cairns  was  scanty,  in  the  short  cairns  it  was 
very  large.  Manufactured  relics  were  also  much  more  plenti- 
fully found  in  the  short  than  in  the  long  cairns.  In  both  the 
long  and  the  short  cairns,  the  occurrence  of  unbumt  bones  in 
greater  or  less  abundance  on  the  surface  of  the  floor ;  while 
the  floor  itself  was  composed  of  a  bed  of  ashes  mixed  with  burnt 
bones  of  human  beings,  and  half-burned,  broken,  and  splint- 
ered bones  of  animals,  suggests  the  idea  that  cremation  was 
the  earlier  mode  of  sepulture  in  these  cairns.  In  one  instance, 
however,  in  the  long  cairn  No.  3,  a  cist  of  the  short  kind  was 
found  set  on  the  floor,  evidently  a  secondary  sepulture  to  the 
cairn  chamber,  and  in  the  cist  were  an  urn,  ornamented  with 
the  twisted  thong,  and  scattered  about  it  seventy  beads  of  lig- 
nite, formed  like  vertical  sections  of  the  shank  of  a  tobacco- 
pipe,  varying  from  an  eighth  to  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length.  On  the  same  floor  with  the  cist  were  a  quantity  of 
human  bones,  unbumt.  While  the  floors  of  the  chambers  in 
the  long  cairns  were  a  mixture  of  clay,  ashes,  and  bone  frag- 
ments, the  floors  of  the  short  cairns  were  almost  entirely  ashes 
and  bones,  forming  a  layer  from  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half 
thick. 

No.  1  of  the  long  cairns  yielded,  to  a  minute  search  of  the 
substance  of  the  chamber  floor,  a  few  flint  chips,  and  a  pecu- 
liarly shaped  flint  like  a  flat  truncated  cone,  the  sides  of  which 
were  formed  by  a  number  of  narrow  facets  struck  off'longitudi- 


270  THE    HORNED   CAIRNS   OP   CAITHNESS. 

nally.  The  length  did  not  exceed  half  an  inch  and  the  diameter 
of  the  base  considerably  less.  An  almost  exactly  similar  worked 
flint  was  found  in  excavating  a  broch  close  by.  The  bones  in 
this  caim  were  extremely  comminuted,  being  broken  into 
splinters  the  largest  of  which  was  not  above  an  inch  in  length. 
Two  fragments  of  pottery,  well  burnt  and  plain,  completed  the 
list  of  objects  found  in  No.  1 . 

No.  2  of  the  long  cairns  yielded  even  less.  A  single  flint 
chip,  and  a  few  bones  human  and  animal,  were  all  the  relics 
found  in  the  floors  of  the  two  chambers. 

No.  3,  besides  the  cist  already  mentioned  as  set  on  the  floor, 
and  containing  an  urn  and  heads  of  lignite,  yielded  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  human  bones,  burnt  when  found  imbedded  in 
the  floor  and  unbumt  on  the  surface  of  the  floor.  Mixed  with 
the  human  bones  were  a  quantity  of  animal  bones  broken  and 
splintered. 

The  short  cairn  (No.  5)  at  Oimiegill  yielded  an  immense 
quantity  of  broken  and  burnt  bones  human  and  animal^  the 
animal  bones  being  those  of  the  horse,  ox,  deer,  dog,  and  sheep 
or  goat.  In  many  instances  the  human  bones  were  burnt  to 
charcoal,  and  the  animal  bones  were  all  splintered.  From  the 
quantity  of  fragments  of  human  skulls  a  number  of  all  ages 
must  have  been  deposited  in  the  chamber. 

In  one  compartment  we  found  a  beautifully  polished  hammer 
of  grey  granite,  perforated  for  the  handle,  a  triangular  flint 
arrowhead,  and  a  broken  knife  of  flint  beautifully  worked  and 
ground  sharp  along  the  cutting  edge.  A  large  quantity  of 
flint  chips,  some  of  which  had  been  worked  for  arrow  heads 
but  left  unfinished,  were  found  and  also  a  disc  of  flint  about  an 
inch  across  with  facets  taken  out  of  its  edges  all  round  so  as 
to  make  it  a  section  of  a  cone  parallel  to  the  base.  In  the  first 
compartment  another  triangular  arrow-head  was  found.  A 
large  quantity  of  fragments  of  pottery  was  picked  out  of  the 
debris  of  the  floor.  Some  of  it  was  thin  and  well  made,  but 
none  wheel-made.  The  pottery  though  all  plain  was  of  three 
or  four  different  patterns,  distinguishable  by  variety  in  the  lip 
or  the  thickness  of  the  fabric. 


THE    HORNED   CAIRNS   OF   CAITHNESS.  271 

The  other  short  cairn  (No.  4)  called  the  cairn  of  Get  yielded 
a  series  of  six  or  seven  skulls,  of  which  three  or  four  were  pretty 
entire.  They  lay  in  the  first  compartment,  on  the  right  side  of 
the  entrance,  and  the  bodies  appeared  to  have  been  laid  across 
the  doorway  with  the  heads  all  to  the  E.S.B.  The  quantity  of 
bones  in  the  floor  of  this  chamber  was  something  surprising, 
and  while  those  imbedded  in  the  floor  both  human  and  animal 
were  generally  burnt,  some  being  burnt  only  at  one  end, 
none  of  the  human  bones  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  floor  were 
burnt. 

The  layer  of  ashes  and  burnt  bones  forming  the  substance  of 
the  floor  was  in  this  cairn  fully  eighteen  inches  thick.  Scattered 
through  it  were  a  great  quantity  of  flint-chips,  some  burnt 
white,  others  untouched  by  fire.  One  very  neatly  shaped 
arrow  head  like  a  small  rose  leaf  was  picked  up  in  the  principal 
compartment.  The  pottery  of  this  cairn  presented  a  greater 
variety  of  ornament  than  in  any  of  the  other  homed  cairns.  The 
pattern  found  in  the  common  round  cairns  ornamented  by 
indenting  the  wet  clay  with  the  finger  nail  occurred  in  this 
cairn.     The  same  pattern  has  been  found  in  the  broch. 

Whether  the  reason  or  object  of  the  tri-camerated  arrange- 
ment of  the  chambered  cairns  be  symbolic  or  simply  construc- 
tive is  not  apparent  either  from  their  structure  or  contents. 
Still  less  apparent  is  the  reason  or  purpose  of  the  peculiar 
design  exhibited  in  the  external  configuration  of  the  structure 
of  these  horned  cairns.  It  is  as  yet  an  open  question  upon 
which  no  evidence  is  attainable  whether  these  peculiarities  of 
external  structure,  the  horned  outline  and  double  wall  giving 
each  of  the  four  sides  a  kind  of  crescentic  form  are  part  of  the 
cairn  as  originally  constructed,  or  later  additions ;  but  from  the 
analogy  of  the  round  cairns,  which  are  encircled  externally  by 
a  double  wall,  it  seems  probable  that  the  crescentic  outlines, 
formed  by  the  double  wall  of  the  homed  cairns,  is  the  original 
design  of  the  caim  form. 

That  they  were  used  for  two  different  modes  of  sepulture  at 
different  periods,  and  possibly  by  different  races,  seems  plain 
from  the  abounding  evidences  of  cremation  in  the  floor,  and 
the  occurrence  of  unbnmed  skeletons  at  full  length  (so  far  as  we 


_  ...v»e  iiu  (iistnic't  cvKlence  c 
Difiicult  ns  it  is  iiow-a-diivs  to   realise  air 
iniiiit'iise  aiJiuunt  of  labour  implied  in  g 
such  an  enormous  mass  of  stones  as  that  o 
240  feet  in  length  by  forty-five  of  avera 
rently  six  to  eight  feet  of  average  height 
wards  of  one  thousand  cubic  yards  of  stc 
difficult   to  conceive   all   this   labour  exp 
chamber  less  than  twenty  feet  long  if  the 
dweUing  for  shelter  or  defence— an  objeci 
been  better  attained  with  one-hundredth  ps 
relics   are  mortuary  and  not  domestic,  am 
honour  and  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  m 
the  only  motive  which  will  satisfactorily  ac 
amoimt  of  laborious  efibrt  implied  in  their  cc 
It  has  been  suggested  that  while  the  broch 
tions  the  chambered  cairns  were  the  tomb 
were  the  rearers  of  both  these  classes  of  ancii 
so,  there  must  be  supposed  a  reason  for  the  i 
structure  between  the  habitations  and  the  t< 
nothing  better  can  be  said  in  support  of  th 
that  the  design  of  the  habitation  was  forced 
perience  as  the  fittest  for  defence ;  while  1 
like  the  primeval  idea  of  all   tombs,  as   s< 
have  been  copied  from  a  more  ancient  stx 
may  have  bp^r»  ^ — ^ 


k-'^  r  r. 


THE    HORNED   CAIRNS   OF   CAITHNESS. 


273 


ends  looking  eastward,  and  the  chamber  constructed  in  the 
eastern  end,  and  both  having  a  retaining  external  wall,  although 
this  has  been  noticed  only  along  the  side  of  some  of  those  in 
England,  seems  to  point  to  a  community  of  origin,  while  the 
general  affinity  of  the  chambered  caims  of  Caithness  with  those 
of  Ireland  is  equally  suggestive.  But  until  a  better  and  more 
extensive  series  of  crania  from  these  sepulchral  monuments  has 
been  obtained  for  comparison,  the  question  of  race  must  remain 
in  abeyance. 


VOL.   III. 


274 


XIX. — Anthropological  Remarks  on  the  Pojnilation  of  Venezuela. 

By  A.  Eenbt,  of  Cardcas^  F.A.S.L. 

I. — Statistical  Inquikibs. 

It  is  entirely  impossible  to  say  what  is  the  exact  number  of 
inhabitants  in  Venezuela.  The  dates  contained  in  geographical 
works  are  merely  founded  on  general  calculations^  and  are  not 
the  results  of  careful  numbering.  A  trustworthy  census  has 
never  been  made^  and  is  altogether  an  impossibility^  much 
people  Uving  far  from  villages  or  other  communities ;  and  even 
in  these^  a  considerable  number  of  inhabitants  would  abscond^ 
because  they  consider  a  census  identical  with  researches  after 
people  for  military  service. 

But  there  exist  official  statistical  evaluations  of  the  number 
of  inhabitants.  They  are  made  from  time  to  time  to  regulate 
the  elections  for  the  Congress ;  but  their  results  are  very  sus- 
picious. The  persons  who  have  to  number  receive,  for  each 
hundred  of  inhabitants,  a  certain  remuneration,  and  it  is  there- 
fore their  interest  to  get  a  final  number  as  high  as  possible. 
Nothing  at  all  can  be  stated  with  respect  to  the  indepeudent 
Indian  tribes.  Humboldt  calculated,  at  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  800,000  inhabitants,  fifteen  per  cent,  of  which  were 
pure  Indians,  eight  per  cent.  Negro  slaves,  twenty-five  per 
cent.  Hispano-Americans,  one  per  cent.  Europeans,  and  fifty- 
one  mixed  races.  A.  Codazzi  {Resurnen  de  la  Geografia  de  Fe- 
nezuela,  Paris,  1841)  gives,  for  1825,  701,633  inhabitants.  The 
decrease  may  be  accounted  for  by  considering  the  long  war  of 
independence,  and  the  most  cruel  manner  of  warfare  on  both 
sides,  the  dreadful  earthquake  of  1812,  and  the  epidemics  in 
1818  and  1825. 

In  1839,  according  to  the  same  author,  the  population  was 
945,348,  represented  as  follows  : — 

Independent  Indians    52,415 

Half-civilised  Indians  14,000 

Completely  civilised  Indians   155,000 

White  Hispano-Americans  and  Europeans 260,000 

Mixed  races 414,151 

Slaves   49,151 

Total    945,348 


BBMABKS   ON   THE   POPULATION   OF    VENEZUELA.  275 

This  number  would  give  a  yearly  increase  of  more  than  two 

per  cent,  for  the  fourteen  years  from  1825  to  1839;  whilst 

even  the  United  States,  for  the  ten  years  from  1850  to  1860, 

show  but  a  yearly  increase  of  1*8  per  cent.  (KVoien,  Erdkunde, 

iii,  731),  and  England  and  Wales,  for  the  twenty  years  from 

1831  to  1851,  nearly  1*3  per  cent.  (Kloden,  he.  cit.  ii,  539). 

It  may  be  stated  here  that  the  work  of  Codazzi  is  not  at  all 

very  exact  and  sincere  in  its  statistical  part.     The  author  had 

a  purpose  very  different  from  what  the  book  pretended  to  be 

written  for,  "  to  draw,  with  the  hand  of  an  apparently  learned 

man,  a  veil  over  the  true  situation  of  the  policy  and  economy 

of  Venezuela,  covering  over  all  what  was  foul,  and  representing 

things  neither  as  they  were  then,  nor  are  to-day.     It  was  not 

convenient  to  say  that  poor  Venezuela  had  already  made  a 

powerful  beginning  in  the  abominable  corruption,  which,  at 

last,  led  to  scandal  and  ruin^^  (William  Iribarren,  in  a  letter, 

dated  Bogota,  21st  Nov.  1847,  communicated  in  M.  de  Briceno, 

''  La  Gran  Question  fiscal  de  Venezuela,  Caracas,'^  1864). 

The  following  census  of  1844  gives  the  following  results : — 

Free  Inhabitants 1,173,674 

Manumisos* 23,514 

Slaves 21,628 

Total    1,218,716 

This  is  the  most  trustworthy  census  made  in  Venezuela.  Dr. 
M.  de  Briceno,  in  the  very  able  paper  mentioned  before,  starts, 
therefore,  in  his  calculations  of  the  population  from  this  num- 
ber, by  adding,  from  year  to  year,  the  excess  of  the  births 
over  the  deaths,  and  arrives,  for  1863,  to  1,700,000  inhabit- 
ants, which  gives  1*7  per  cent,  increase  per  annum.  But  this 
excess  is  not  known  with  full  security.  It  was  in  1 843  ("  Me- 
moria  de  lo  Interior  y  Justicia,^^  Caracas,  1844),  28,223,  the 
number  of  births  being  50,121 ;  the  number  of  deaths,  21,898 ; 
so  that  there  was  one  birth  for  24*6  inhabitants,  and  one  death 
for  43*2  inhabitants  (Peuchet  gives  for  France,  on  28*3  inha- 
bitants, one  birth,  and  on  30*9,  one  death).  The  number  of 
deaths,  nevertheless,  was  certainly  greater.     We  must  con- 

*  These  Manumisos  were  in  a  transitory  state  from  slavery  to  emanci- 
pation. 


276  BBMARK8   ON    THE    POPULATION   OP   VENBZUBLA. 

sider  that  in  such  a  country  as  Venezuela^  many  persons  die 
without  being  noticed  by  anyone,  even  in  Caracas.  More,  the 
number  of  dead-bom  children  is  contained  in  the  number  of 
births,  but  not  in  that  of  the  deaths,  so  that  the  excess  will 
be  considerably  reduced. 

In  Caracas,  with  50,000  inhabitants,  was  the  average  number 
of  deaths  per  week  in  1864,  25,  or  nearly  2*5  per  cent,  per 
annum.  Caracas  is  certainly,  generally  spoken,  a  healthy 
place,  and  in  case  of  sickness,  medical  assistance  can  be  pro- 
cured immediately.  This  is  not  so  in  most  parts  of  the  country; 
and  it  will  not  be  too  far  from  truth  when  2*5  per  cent,  are 
taken  for  the  whole  country,  which  gives  one  death  for  forty 
inhabitants. 

Considering,  finally,  the  repeated  civil  wars  of  this  country, 
the  epidemics,  the  notorious  unhealthy  condition  of  many  parts, 
and  some  reasons  I  shall  expose  hereafter,  I  think  one  per 
cent,  might  be  the  maximum  of  the  yearly  increase,  so  that, 
adopting  the  result  of  the  census  of  1844,  we  get  nearly 
1,500,000  inhabitants  for  1864.  This  per  centage  of  but  one 
per  cent,  is,  in  contradiction  to  a  statement  made  by  Humboldt 
{Essai  pol,  8ur  le  royaume  d,  I,  Nouv.  Esp.  ed.  in  8.,  i,  337), 
'^  On  observe  partout  sur  le  globe  que  la  population  augmente 
avec  uno  prodigieuse  rapidity  dans  des  pays  qui  sont  encore 
pen  habitus,  sur  un  sol  ^minemment  fertile,  sous  ^influence 
d'un  climat  doux  et  d'une  temperature  ^gale,  et  surtout  dans 
une  race  d'hommes  robustes  et  que  la  nature  appelle  tres-jeunes 
au  manage." 

Venezuela  certainly  has  a  great  number  of  the  conditions 
mentioned  in  these  lines,  and  Humboldt  is  right  in  saying  that 
there  exists  precocity  in  both  sexes ;  he  might  even  have  added, 
that  a  birfch  comes  very  often  before  the  marriage.  There  are 
families  with  a  great  many  children ;  I  know  a  man  who  has 
nineteen  from  the  same  mother.  But  these  are  exceptions,  and 
the  progression  comes  very  soon  to  a  standstill.  Amongst  the 
aristocratic  classes  of  the  white  Creoles,  the  young  men  ruin 
themselves  by  sexual  dissipations,  and  become  old  before  the 
time.  The  daughters — and  thiere  arc  generally  more  daughters 
than  sons — remain  very  often  unmanned  ("  quedarse  por  tia". 


REMARKS   ON   THE    POPULATION   OK   VENEZUELA.  277 

remain  as  an  aunt^  say  the  Spaniards) ;  and  even  in  case  of 
a  marriage^  they  do  not  become  mothers  of  a  numerous  and 
healthy  family.  In  all  classes,  boys  and  girls  are  infested  with 
the  vice  of  onanism.  They  learn  it  already,  in  the  very  begin- 
ning of  life,  from  their  wet  nurses,  generally  low  mulatto- 
women,  and  many  other  reasons  help  to  foster  the  vice;  so 
the  young  people  grow,  by  and  by,  to  everything  but  "  une 
race  d'hommes  robustes,^^  and  miscarriages  and  dead-bom 
children  are  very  numerous.  Amongst  the  lower  classes,  many 
children  die  for  want  of  assistance ;  nay,  a  considerable  num- 
ber are  directly  killed.  The  law  is  blind  and  deaf;  the  little 
creatures  become  angels,  '^  angelitos,'^  and  the  unnatural  mother 
gets  very  easily  the  ^'  ego  to  absolve*'  of  a  priest,  when  she 
confesses  her  deed.  It  is  almost  incredible  what  a  corruption 
reigns  amongst  this  part  of  the  population.  The  interior  of 
the  country  is,  of  course,  still  worse  than  Caracas;  idleness, 
drinking,  and  prostitution  is  all  what  fills  their  miserable  ex- 
istence. In  the  beautiful  and  rich  valley  of  Aragua,  I  have 
seen  mothers  who  offered  their  own  daughters,  girls  of  ten  or 
eleven  years,  in  the  most  shameless  manner,  for  a  couple  of 
glasses  of  gin !  Amongst  eight  hundred  and  eighty-six  sick 
persons,  who  entered,  in  1864,  in  the  hospital  '^  mihtar,*'  were 
one  hundred  and  sixty-five,  or  nearly  nineteen  per  cent.,  sy- 
philitic; and  the  druggists  sell  large  quantities  of  all  kinds 
of  remedies,  recommended  as  ^^  especifics'*  against  this  sick- 
ness. Under  such  circumstances,  a  considerable  increase  of 
the  population  is  impossible,  and  one  per  cent,  will,  perhaps, 
be  too  high  a  rate,  but  certainly  not  too  low. 

We  are  inclined  to  overvalue  the  population  of  American  coun- 
tries before  the  time  of  the  conquest ;  nevertheless,  in  Venezuela, 
I  believe  it  to  have  been  greater  than  to-day.  Caulin  {Historia  de 
la  NuevaAndalucia)  mentions  thirty-nine  missions,  with  30,000 
Indians  ("Indies  reducidos'*),  and  says  that  more  than  ten 
times  as  many  were  not  yet  established  in  villages.  Supposing, 
therefore,  only  300,000  inhabitants  for  the  territory  called  then 
Nueva  Andalucia,  we  would  have,  in  the  whole  country,  from 
two  to  three  millions. 

The  50,121  births  of  the  year  1843,  were  25,520  males  and 


278  UEMABKS   ON   THE    POPULATION   OF   VENEZUELA. 

24^601  females.  This  result  is  exceptional^  as  generally  there 
are  more  women  than  men.  This  total  population  contained 
599,647  of  the  latter,  and  619,469  of  the  former,  showing  the 
proportion  of  100  :  103'3.  The  two  provinces,  Apure  and  Ma- 
racaybo,  nevertheless,  make  an  exception ;  the  proportion  of 
the  males  to  the  females,  in  the  first  part,  was  100  :  87 ;  in  the 
second,  100  :  83.  The  maximum  was  in  Coro,  100  :  112*1,  and 
in  Guyana,  100  :  113-4. 

A  memoir  of  the  "  Comision  de  Instruccion  pdblica,^^  1844, 
gives  the  number  of  children,  of  five  to  fourteen  years,  262,622, 
corresponding  to  a  population  of  1,083,239  (two  provinces  were 
not  included),  or  24*2  per  cent. 

II. — Different  Eaces. 

The  constitutive  elements  of  the  population  of  Venezuela 
are  foreigners,  white  Creoles,  mixed  races,  Indian  tribes.  I 
omit  the  Negroes.  In  1845,  Venezuela  had  but  21,000  slaves, 
and  we  may  suppose  10  per  cent,  were  pure  Africans,  as  the 
importation  of  Negroes  was  already  prohibited  in  the  first  con- 
stitution of  the  Republic.  It  is  obvious  that  to-day  their  num- 
ber must  be  reduced  that  it  may  be  allowed  to  neglect  them 
completely.  Venezuela  had  never  many  Negroes.  They  formed 
in  1839  only  five  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  (Cuba,  in  1846, 
36  per  cent. ;  Dutch  Guyana,  1858,  71  per  cent.,  Kloden,  ErcU 
kunde,  iii,  663,  654) .  Slaves  were  principally  kept  in  the  agri- 
cultural districts  near  the  coast,  in  the  valleys  of  Tuy  and 
Aragua,  and  in  the  province  of  Carabobo.  In  the  other  parts, 
there  were  scarcely  any  (Apure,  1844,  seventy-seven  slaves; 
Guyana,  1844,  one  hundred  and  forty-four  slaves),  and  even 
Mulattoes  are  very  rare. 

Amongst  the  foreigners  are  the  Islenos,  from  the  Canary 
Islands,  the  most  numerous.  This  immigration  brought  from 
1832  to  1844,  11,687  inhabitants;  to-day  we  may  suppose 
three  times  as  many.  These  Islenos  are  very  industrious  and 
active.  An  Isleno  begins  generally  his  career  by  selling  ''  ma- 
lojo^^  (zea  mais  L.,  the  green  plants  of  which  are  cut  when  in 
bloom,  and  used  as  fodder  for  horses  and  other  animals) .  By 
this  lucrative  business  and  his  extraordinary,  even  stingy,  eco- 


REMARKS   ON   THE    POPULATION   OF   VENEZUELA.  279 

nomy,  he  gathers  money,  and  by  and  by  sets  up  a  ^^  puelperia^', 
a  small  shop  containing  whatever  belongs  to  the  daily  neces- 
sities of  common  people.  Many  of  them  have  become  very 
wealthy ;  and  some  are  now  at  the  head  of  large  commercial 
establishments,  although  they  are  scarcely  able  to  write  their 
names. 

The  second  in  number  are  the  Germaas.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  the  commerce  of  Venezuela  is  principally  done  by 
German  houses.  The  most  important  places  are  Laguayra, 
Caracas,  Porto  Cabello,  Maracaybo,  and  Ciudad  Bolivar;  but 
none  of  them  is  a  first-rate  market,  so  that  commercial  houses 
that  are  only  in  relations  with  one  country,  cannot  do  much. 
A  Venezuelan  house  must  therefore  work  with  many  different 
countries ;  it  must  have  export  and  import  together,  and  this 
kind  of  business  is,  for  instance,  not  for  an  Englishman.  He 
will  do  excellent  business  where  he  has  to  deal  only  in  English 
articles;  in  Venezuela,  the  English  houses  do  not  prosper. 
The  Germans  have  a  kind  of  universality,  and  they  thrive, 
therefore,  here  very  well.  The  German  colony  Tovar,  however, 
is  a  complete  failure.  France  is  represented  by  several  hundred 
of  her  children,  many  of  them  are  merchants,  or,  as  in  Caracas 
generally,  bakers,  tailors,  and  shoemakers.  Next  to  them 
come  the  sons  of  the  old  Roma.  The  greatest  number  occupy 
themselves  in  mending  tin- ware,  going  from  house  to  house 
with  their  particular  "  nada  di  componer  V  (nothing  to  mend  ?). 
Venezuela  has  but  few  North  Americans,  although  there  is 
much  commerce  with  Philadelphia.  Still  less  is  the  number 
of  Englishmen ;  but  there  exist  other  relations  between  Eng- 
land and  Venezuela,  and  Messrs.  Baring  Brothers  can  tell  more 
about  it. 

There  ai*e  not  1,000  families  of  pure  white  Creoles  in  the 
country^  They  belong  generally  to  the  actually  vanquished 
aristocratic  party,  styled  by  the  people  ^'  Godos'^,  with  refer- 
ence to  their  Spanish  origin ;  or,  '^  Mantuanos",  because  they 
only  had  formerly  the  permission  to  go  to  church  dressed  in  a 
long  cloak,  or  "  manto'\  I  may  be  dispensed  with  charac- 
terising them  by  referring  to  Tschudi^s  excellent  description  of 
the  white  Creoles  in  Lima,  {Travels  in  Peru^  American  edit.,  p. 
65).     C^est  tout  comme  chez  nous. 


280  BEMABKS   ON    THE    POPULATION   OF   VENEZUELA. 

The  census  of  Venezuela  gives  no  information  at  all  con- 
cerning the  number  of  inhabitants  belonging  to  the  mixed 
races.  All  are  "  ciudadanos",  and  a  difference  of  races  does 
not  exist  before  the  law;  it  would  even  be  dangerous  to 
speak  about  it  in  the  public  papers^  and  much  more  so 
to-day.  But  this  difference  does  exist  in  society,  and  wiU, 
perhaps,  never  disappear  completely.  We  have  all  the  nuances 
from  the  deepest  black  to  the  almost  perfect  white,  so  that  the 
colour  is  no  good  criterion.  More  security  is  in  the  hair,  the 
colour  of  the  nails,  which  are  always  much  darker  than  their 
bluish-white  lunula,  and  the  dark  colour  of  the  sexual  organs 
in  coloured  men. 

The  son  of  a  white  father  and  a  negro  mother  is  called  "  Mu- 
latto'^; the  son  of  a  white  father  and  an  Indian  mother  "Zambo''. 
When  a  man  of  mixed  blood  marries  a  woman  darker  than 
himself,  and  his  children  thereby  become  further  removed  from 
the  white  tint,  it  is  said  to  be  '^  un  salto  atras^'  (a  leap  back- 
wards) . 

The  mixed  races  are  actually  the  ruling  part  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  will  be  for  a  long  time.  Their  intellectual  and  moral 
abiUties  and  disabilities  will  form  the  object  of  another  commu- 
nication, which  I  shall  have  the  honour  to  lay  before  the  So- 
ciety, as  soon  as  I  find  leisure  to  write  it. 

Anthropological  Communications  from  Caracas, 
III. — ^The  Mixed  Races. 

There  has  been  said  already  so  much  about  the  intellectual 
and  moral  disabilities  or  abilities  of  mixed  races,  that  it  is  per- 
haps quite  impossible  to  bring  forward  anything  new.  Never- 
theless, I  cannot  help  thinking  that  contributions  towards  the 
final  settlement  of  this  question,  from  whatever  quarter  they 
may  come,  are  not  entirely  superfluous  ;  for  here,  as  in  natural 
history  in  general,  the  ruUng  laws  can  only  be  discovered  by 
a  careful  gathering  and  critical  study  of  a  vast  number  of 
facts. 

The  name  "  gente  de  color  "  or  "  cafS  con  leche ''  is  in  Vene- 
zuela only  given  to  the  Mulattoes  and  Zambas.  The  offspring 
of  the  white  and  Indian  races,  the  mestizo,  "  is  even  in  social 


BEMABES   ON   THE   POPULATION    OF   VENEZUELA.  281 

life  considered  as  a  pure  white  man.  And  very  little  he  differs 
from  the  white  European,  as  for  more  than  a  century  back  the 
greatest  number  of  mestizo-families  had  no  opportunity  to  mix 
with  individuals  belonging  to  the  pure  Indian  tribes. 

The  mixed  races  in  Venezuela  are  of  very  different  character 
in  the  larger  towns  and  in  the  country,  and  it  is  therefore 
absolutely  necessary  to  distinguish  two  classes  with  regard  to 
intellectual  or  moral  conditions.  There  are  two  causes  in  towns 
which  have  a  raising  influence  on  the  lower  mixed  classes  ;  the 
more  or  less  greater  difficulty  of  earning  the  daily  bread,  and 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  of  business  and  industry.  In  the 
country  the  poorest  man  may  satisfy  his  hunger  very  easily ; 
nature  furnishes  a  large  number  of  edible  fruits,  growing  almost 
without  any  care  whatever,  and  considered  as  every  one's 
property ;  the  mildness  of  the  climate  reduces  the  articles  of 
dress  to  a  minimum,  and  an  habitation  is  very  easily  procured, 
when  after  all  wanted.  The  town  people  are  not  so  favoured, 
or,  I  should  like  to  say,  they  are  indeed  more  favoured,  being 
obliged  to  work  at  least  something,  in  order  to  meet  the  neces- 
sities of  their  existence.  It  is  natural  that  the  quantity  of 
work  they  do,  falls  short  when  compared  with  the  work  of  an 
English  or  German  journeyman ;  but  they  do  generally  more 
than  the  individuals  of  the  pure  white  race,  foreigners  excepted. 
There  is  a  good  portion  of  laziness  in  their  character,  but  they 
cannot  keep  back  entirely  in  the  industrial  movement  which 
surrounds  them.  People  of  mixed  blood  are,  therefore,  met  with 
in  all  the  different  classes  of  our  metropolitan  society.  In  mili- 
tary and  bureaucratical  circles  they  are  actually  in  the  majority. 
It  is  well  known  that  Venezuela,  or  as  the  country  in  official 
papers  is  called  "  Lcs  Estados  Unidos  de  la  Federacion  Vene- 
zolana,''  enjoys  now  an  entirely  and  thoroughly  democratic 
government,  but^the  "  demos''  in  this  country  is  of  mixed  blood. 
Military  and  civil  service,  too,  are  not  very  troublesome  with 
us  ;  a  considerable  stock  of  knowledge  is  not  wanted,  the  duties 
of  service  leave  a  good  many  hours  for  smoking  paper-segars 
or  loitering  about  the  streets,  and  for  all  this  hard  work  a  com- 
paratively high  salary  is  paid.  Memoria  de  Ouerra  y  Marina, 
for  1865,  a  kind  of  blue-book,  mentions,  "27  generaJes  en  jefe^ 


282  BEMABKS   ON   THE    POPQLATION   OF  VENEZUELA. 

42  generales  de  divisios,  75  generales  de  brigada^  89  coroneles^ 
53  primeros  comandantes^  34  BOgundos  comandantes^  67  capi- 
tanes^  35  tenientes/'  and  a  few  more  simple  soldiers^  who 
receive  together  nearly  £100,000  pension  a  year;  and  the 
number  of  generals,  colonels,  and  commanders  in  service  is 
nearly  as  large.  I  do  not  think  that  France  and  England 
together  have  to  provide  for  so  many  generals  and  high 
officers. 

In  the  time  of  the  Spanish  government  the  priests  belonged 
all  to  the  principal  families  of  the  country,  and  it  was  quite 
sufficient  to  distinguish  a  family  by  saying  that  one  of  its 
members  was  a  man  in  holy  orders.  This  is  now-a-days  very 
diflTerent.  The  clergy  is,  generally  spoken,  far  from  being  a 
worthy  community,  recruiting  itself  from  the  very  scum  and 
rubbish  of  the  people,  so  that  the  limited  number  of  excellent 
and  truly  venerable  priests — I  mention  first  of  all  the  present 
Archbishop  Silvester — is  diminishing  very  rapidly. 

There  are  many  lawyers  and  physicians  belonging  to  the 
mixed  races.  One  of  the  first,  a  Zambo,  is  a  man  of  really 
eminent  talent,  who  conducted  for  several  years  in  a  most  dis- 
tinguished manner  the  financial  afiairs  of  his  country. 

The  greatest  number  of  the  smaller  shop-keepers,  tradesmen, 
masons,  carpenters,  barbers,  sailors,  are  mulattoes  or  zambos ; 
and  servants,  nearly  without  any  exception,  belong  to  the  same 
classes. 

So  it  might  seem  that  the  mixing  of  races  did  not  produce  a 
depravation  of  the  intellectual  faculties.  Nevertheless,  observed 
more  closely,  it  will  be  discovered  that  this  apparent  progress 
is  but  an  exterior  varnish,  the  result  of  the  remarkably  high 
imitative  faculties  of  races  mixed  with  African  blood.  They 
have  a  certain  amount  of  skill  in  reproducing  whatever  they 
see ;  but  are,  generally  speaking,  neither  able  nor  fond  of  find- 
ing out  something  new.  It  is,  for  instance,  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult to  persuade  a  workman  to  change  a  little  his  routine ;  he 
cannot  accommodate  his  work  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  a  given 
case.  A  mason  begins  a  building  without  making  any  plan,  or 
calculation,  and  often  he  makes  first  the  wall  and  breaks  out 
afterwards  the  windows.      The  great  musical   talent  of  the 


BBMABKS   ON   THE   POPULATION   OF   VENEZUELA.  283 

people  is  another  proof  of  their  imitativeness ;  I  know  a  mnlatto 
who  acts^  sings,  and  whistles  a  whole  opera^  after  haying  heard 
it  three  or  four  times^  and  there  are  many  instances  of  men  and 
women  who  play  pretty  well  on  a  piano  without  having  got  any 
musical  instruction.  But  here  the  matter  stops.  We  have  no 
original  musical  inventions^  except  some  trifling  dances^  not 
even  a  refined  taste  for  music. 

It  is  not  better  in  the  scientific  studies.  When  I  came  first 
in  this  country^  and  began  my  practical  work  as  a  teacher^  I  was 
astonished  with  what  I  saw  of  the  methods  of  teaching  in  difier- 
ent  colleges.  A  text  book  is  adopted^  without  much  care  in 
the  choice^  and  very  often  a  choice  is  impossible^  as  some  text- 
books are  unique ;  this  book  is  simply  learned  by  hearty  very 
often  without  any  explanation.  And  hard  things  have  the  poor 
boys  to  get  into  their  heads^  as  a  great  many  Spanish  school- 
books  are  written  in  the  most  confused  and  unintelligible 
manner ;  I  have  seen  young  men  who  had  passed  in  this  way 
through  a  dozen  of  volumes  on  mathematics  and  physics^  being 
not  very  little  proud  of  their  studies^  and  who  were  nevertheless 
utterly  unable  to  calculate  a  simple  equation  of  the  first  degree^ 
or  to  say  where  the  centre  of  gravity  is  in  a  simple  pair  of 
scales :  "  These  things  had  not  been  in  the  book  ! ''  but  they 
were  immediately  ready  to  define  what  is  universe,  ^'  la  sfntesis 
de  la  voluntad  de  Dios*^  (the  synthesis  of  the  will  of  God).*  I 
tried  to  give  my  lessons  in  a  more  rational  method,  and, 
although  the  number  of  my  coloured  pupils  is  very  limited  (a 
school  establishment  would  not  prosper  when  admitting  pupils 
de  color),  I  must  say  that  I  did  not  succeed  in  the  abstract  ob- 
jects of  instruction,  and  I  feel  sometimes  very  disappointed 
when  I  remember  my  pedagogical  experiences  in  my  own 
country.  I  always  obtained  more  satisfactory  results  in  lan- 
guages, writing,  drawing — in  short,  in  those  branches  where 
imitation  prevails.  It  is  therefore  for  me  an  unquestionable 
fact  that  the  mixed  races,  in  their  intellectual  condition,  are  cha^ 


*  Ibarra,  Alej.,  Manual  de  Firica,  Caracas.  The  quoted  definition  is  at 
the  beginning  of  the  introduction.  The  author  is  professor  of  physics  in 
the  university. 


28  i*  BEMABKS   ON   THE    POPULATION   OF  VENEZUELA. 

racterised  by  a  considerable  degree  of  receptivity  ^  whilst  their  free 
creating  faculties  are  much  less  developed.  Par  more  so  is  this 
the  case  with  country  people ;  they  are  neither  instigated  by 
necessity^  nor  pushed  on  by  a  surrounding  industry^  and  as 
they  never  put  their  intellect  in  action^  unless  for  some  naughty 
deeds,  they  lose  it  by  and  by  entirely.  It  is  true  nothing  is 
done  for  their  education,  but,  I  am  sure,  even  in  the  case  that 
they  had  the  opportunity  to  instruct  themselves,  they  would 
not  do  it.  Their  head  is  full  of  the  absurdest  superstition,  so 
much  more  as  their  priests  generally  are  just  as  civilised  as  the 
flock  is.  A  sketch  of  the  moral  conditions  of  our  mixed  races 
will  also  have  very  deep  shadows ;  sensuality,  luxury,  and  idle- 
ness, are  the  sources  of  all  domestic  and  public  misery  in  this 
country.  The  mulatto  is  much  less  fond  of  drinking  than  many 
northern  nations  are;  but  his  sexual  dissipations  come  very 
near  to  brutality.  Onanism  and  prostitution  are  things  most 
common ;  venereal  diseases  of  all  kinds  and  forms  are  met  with 
throughout  the  whole  country,  and  in  all  classes  of  society; 
their  consequences  being  so  much  more  fatal  as  generally  but 
little  care  is  taken  in  curing  them. 

The  great  inclination  for  luxury  leads  very  naturally  to  many 
dishonest  manners  for  gaining  the  means  of  procuring  it. 
Gambling  is  one  of  the  most  common  vices ;  even  boys  play  in 
the  streets  ^'  cara  y  sello  ^'  (head  or  tail)  with  copper  cents ; 
this  vice  found  fresh  nourishment  in  the  newly  established 
weekly  lotteries,  which  in  one  year,  in  Caracas  alone,  repre- 
sented a  sum  upwards  of  £150,000 ;  a  single  number  is  divided 
in  fifths,  and  costs  two  shillings,  so  that  the  seduction  is  calcu- 
lated even  for  the  poorest  classes.  The  actual  government  has 
given  the  very  interesting  declaration  that,  "  lotteries  are  an 
industry  as  anything  else,^'  which  will  be  a  startling  discovery 
to  students  of  political  economy. 

There  will  be  a  long  discussion  about  the  last  horrible 
events  in  Jamaica.  Enthusiastic  '^  know-nothings"  will  cer- 
tainly represent  the  ^^  poor  black  brethren"  as  sufferers  and 
martyrs;  there  may  be  some  injustice,  the  world  is  nowhere 
perfect ;  but  should  Venezuela  one  day  be  in  a  similar  case  as 
Jamaica  to-day  (Heaven  forbid!),  it  would  be  utterly  impossible 


RBMABKS   ON   THE    POPULATION   OP   VENEZUELA.  285 

to  say  one  word  in  favour  of  the  black  or  coloured  people. 
There  is  plenty  of  work  and  very  high  wages  are  paid ;  even  in 
the  very  neighbourhood  of  the  towns  hands  are  wanted,  not 
only  in  the  time  of  the  crop,  but  throughout  the  whole  year. 
Near  Caracas  two  shillings  and  six  pence  and  three  shillings 
are  the  general  term  of  daily  wages ;  a  friend  of  mine  paid  even 
six  and  seven  shillings  during  the  sugar  crop,  and  he  could 
scarcely  find  people.  A  field-labourer,  or  ^^  peon,"  leaves  very 
often  the  estate  where  he  lives  under  the  most  ridiculous  pre- 
text, and  the  owner  is  in  a  very  disagreeable  dependency  from 
his  people.  The  domestic  service  is  so  bad  that  it  is  nearly  in- 
tolerable. The  ideas  of  independence  and  sovereign  citizenship 
produce  an  impudence  and  laziness  unknown  amongst  the 
serving  class  in  Europe,  and  there  is  no  law  to  regulate  these 
matters.  Here  is  a  nice  problem  for  Mr.  Buskin  !  Venezuela 
is  very  thinly  populated.  There  is  in  Codazzi's  excellent  Atlas 
of  Venezuela  a  map,  where  the  most  cultivated  parts  of  the 
country  are  marked  with  red  colour ;  but  these  are  disappearing 
small  spots  in  the  vast  extent  of  the  republic.  So  Indian  com, 
our  principal  bread  fruit,  is  not  cultivated  sufficiently  so  as  t'O  meet 
the  home  consume,  and  large  quantities  must  be  imported  from 
the  United  States.  It  is  therefore  not  the  want  of  labour  that 
makes  our  labouring  classes  miserable ;  it  is  the  want  of  ac- 
tivity and  industry. 

And  what  means  religion  with  this  people  ?  They  are  just  as 
superstitious  as  the  fetish-adorers  in  Africa ;  the  only  difierence 
is  that  they  have  not  the  same  fetishes.  Fear  only  instigates 
them  to  perform  religious  ceremonies,  not  thankfulness ;  when 
a  week  since  Caracas  was  threatened  by  a  repetition  of  the  awful 
catastrophe  of  1812,  a  great  many  people  ran  to  get  married 
after  having  cohabited  with  each  other  for  many  years.  Their 
religious  feasts  are  disgusting  comedies.  After  a  very  moderate 
computation  it  is  supposed  that  in  Caracas  nearly  £4000  are 
spent  every  year  for  rockets,  which  form  the  most  important 
part  of  those  festivities.  '^  In  ordinary  years  the  value  of  the 
fireworks  purchased  by,  and  for  the  public  amounts  to  from 
£15,000  to  £20,000,  which  rises  to  £25,000  in  a  coronation 
year''  {Chemical  Technology,  by  Th.  Richardson  and  H,  Wa.it%^ 


286  REMARKS   ON   THE    POPUJATION   OF   VENEZUELA. 

reader,  6  May,  1865,  p.  510) ;  this  is  in  England,  with  a 
population  of  nearly  thirty  millions;  so  that  Caracas  (fifty 
thousand  inhabitants)  spends  one  hundred  and  fifty  times  as 
much  in  this  respect. 

The  statistical  documents,  pubhshed  by  the  ministry  of 
justice  every  year,  contain  some  dates  referring  to  the  number 
of  crimes ;  but  they  say  nothing  about  the  difierent  races.  A 
very  large  portion  of  the  population  having  mixed  blood,  we 
shall  not  be  very  far  from  truth  by  taking  the  given  numbers 
as  characteristic  for  the  state  of  legal  morality  amongst  the 
mixed  classes.  The  year  1844  was  a  very  peaceful  one,  and 
President  Soublette  was  desirous  to  maintain  all  in  the  best 
order ;  we  may,  therefore,  suppose  that  no  extraordinary  crimes 
were  committed,  and  that  justice  had  full  opportunity  to  lay 
hands  on  the  perpetrators.  1451  persons  were  put  to  trial, 
1350  men  and  101  women,  which  gives  1  for  675  inhabitants ; 
662  men  and  29  women  were  sentenced.  Amongst  the  re- 
markable crimes  I  mention — 484  cases  for  inflicting  wounds, 
82  cases  of  murder,  278  cases  of  theft  and  robbery,  11  cases  of 
incest  (six  men  and  five  women,  four  of  these  from  the  province 
of  M^rida),  etc.  518  individuals  were  field-labourers,  374 
journeymen,  77  tradesmen;  1051  (76  per  cent.)  had  no  in- 
struction whatever,  306  could  read  and  write,  and  but  34  had 
a  more  advanced  instruction.  The  province  of  Maracaibo  has 
the  maximum  (1*319),  that  of  Caracas  the  minimum  (1'1142). 

In  1856, 1529  persons  were  brought  before  the  tribunals  for 
crimes,  1437  (94  per  cent.)  men  and  92  (6  per  cent.)  women ; 
689  were  sentenced  (664  men,  25  women) ;  425  were  field- 
labourers,  520  journeymen;  1149  (78  per  cent.)  were  totally 
uneducated,  316  could  read  and  write,  18  had  a  somewhat 
higher  education.  The  province  of  Maracaibo  had  again  the 
maximum  (1*374),  the  island  of  Margarita  the  minimum 
(1*1340).  Nineteen  of  the  ninety-two  accused  women  were 
from  Merida;  general  proportion  1*797. 

These  numbers  are  too  low,  and  the  reason  is  simple  :  justice 
is  here,  more  than  elsewhere,  a  blind  goddess,  and  the  public 
conscience  is  far  from  being  very  delicate.  So  it  is  in  private 
life ;  but  the  same  observation  holds  good  in  the  public  afiairs 
of  this  country,     I  will  not  give  any  proofs  of  my  own,  but 


RSMAfiKS   ON   THE    POPULATION    OF   VENEZUELA.  287 

transcribe  two  passages  of  the  "  Prockmas  de  Simon  Bolivar, 
libertador  de  Colombia,"  New  York,  1853,  which  I  hope  will 
be  a  qaite  sufficient  illustration  : — 

"  There  is  no  faith  in  America,  neither  between  individuals 
nor  between  nations.  Treaties  are  papers,  constitutions  books, 
elections  combats,  freedom  is  anarchy,  and  life  a  torment.  This 
is,  Americans,  our  deplorable  situation ;  if  we  do  not  change  it 
it  would  be  better  to  die !" — (From  a  paper  published  in  Cuenca, 
under  the  title  '^  Una  mirada  hacia  la  America  espafiola"  (a 
glimpse  on  Spanish  America)  1828. 

And  on  the  9th  of  November,  1830,  thirty-eight  days  before 
his  death,  the  same  remarkable  man  spoke  the  following  pro- 
phetic words  :— 

''America  is  not  to  govern.  Those  who  have  served  the 
revolution  have  ploughed  the  sea.  The  only  thing  which  can 
be  done  in  America  is  to  emigrate ;  these  countries  will  fall, 
without  fail,  into  the  hands  of  the  unbridled  multitude,  and  pass 
then  into  those  of  petty  tyrants,  almost  imperceptibly,  of  all 
colours  and  races,  raising  themselves  by  crimes  and  extinguished 
by  ferocity.  The  Europeans,  perhaps,  will  not  deign  themselves 
to  conquer  them.  If  it  were  possible  that  a  part  of  the  world 
could  fall  back  into  the  primitive  chaos,  such  would  be  America's 
last  period." 

Here  is  the  original  Spanish  text  of  these  two  interesting 
quotations : — 

1.  ''No  hay  buena  U  en  America,  ni  entre  los  hombres,  ni 
entre  las  naciones.  Los  tratados  son  papeles,  las  constituciones 
libros,  las  elecciones  combates,  la  libertad  anarquia  y  la  vida  un 
tormento.  Esta  es,  Americanos,  n nostra  deplorable  situacion ; 
si  no  la  variamos,  mijor  es  la  muerte." 

2.  "La  America  es  ingobernable.  Los  que  han  servido  &]a 
revolucion  han  arado  en  el  mar.  La  unica  cosa  que  se  puede 
haver  en  America  es  emigrar.  Estos  paises  caerin  infallible- 
mente  en  manos  de  la  multitud  desenfrenade,  para  despues 
pasar  h  las  de  tiranuelos,  casi  imperceptibles,  de  todos  colores 
y  rajas,  devorados  por  todos  los  crimenes  y  estringuidos  por  la 
ferocidad.  Los  Europeos,  tal  vez,  no  se  dignardn  conquistarlos. 
Si  fuera  posible  que  una  parte  del  mundo  volviera  al  cdos  pri- 
mitive, est  seria  el  dltimo  periodor  de  la  ATCv4T\e«i?^ 


288 


XX. — Examinatwn  of  Central  American  Hieroglyph's :  Of 
Yucatan — ivHuding  the  Dresden  Codex,  the  Oiiatemalien  of 
Paris,  and  the  Troano  of  Madrid;  the  Hieroglyphs  of  Pa^ 
Unque,  Copan,  Nicaragua,  Vcraguas,  and  New  OranaAa; 
by  the  recently  discovered  Maya  Alphabet.  By  Williak 
BoLLAERT,  F.A.S.L.,  F.R.G.S.,  Hon.  Sec.  A.S.L.,  Coir. 
Mem.  University  of  Chile,  of  the  Ethnological  Societies 
of  London  and  Now  York,  etc. 

In  the  second  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  London,  1865-6,  will  be  found  my  paper  on  the  re- 
cently-discovered Maya  alphabet  of  Yucatan,  by  B.  do  Bour- 
bourg. 

Repeating,  with  Humboldt,  that  an  alphabet  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  beautiful  inventions ;  what  ages  must  have 
elapsed  before  the  red  men  of  the  New  World  could  have  raised 
themselves  to  decompose  words,  the  analysis  of  sounds — the 
invention  of  an  alphabet. 

I  was  anxious  this  discovery  should  have  immediate  publicity 
in  this  country,  and  the  Council  of  the  Anthropological  Society 
permitted  my  paper  to  be  printed  in  anticipation  of  the  publi- 
cation of  the  second  volume  of  Memoirs,  for  distribution  at  the 
Birmingham  Meeting  of  the  British  Association. 

The  first  region  referred  to  is  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan,  be- 
tween 18*^  and  2V  N.  and  87°  and  91^  W.,  with  its  wonderful 
stone  ruins,  of  pyramids  with  temples  on  their  summits, 
palaces,  and  other  large  buildings.  To  the  south-west,  in  the 
State  of  Chiapa,  are  the  beautiful  Palenque  monuments.  Gua- 
temala is  covered  with  undescribed  ruins.  We  then  arrive  at 
Honduras,  in  which,  with  other  remains,  are  the  statuary  and 
hieroglyphic  monoliths  of  Copan ;  lastly  to  Nicaragua,  Veraguas, 
and  Now  Granada. 

It  is  still  a  question  whether  the  civilisation  of  Central 
America  came  from  Mexico,  or  that,  long  before  the  times  of  the 
Montezumas,  Mexico  may  not  have  been  beholden  to  Central 


BOLLAERT  ON  AMERICAN  HIEROGLYPHS.  289 

America.  But  as  facts  are  steadily  brought  together  in  con- 
nection with  those  countries^  the  time  may  not  be  far  distant 
when  we  may  be  enabled  to  decide  whether  the  Toltecs,  or  even 
an  earlier  people  of  the  red  man  in  Mexican  history  took  a 
civilisation  into  Central  America^  or  that  the  latter  region  had 
had  its  own  for  ages. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  Yucatan,  at  an  early  date,  existed 
the  kingdom  of  Mayapan  in  particular;  and  in  what  may  be  called 
the  Maya  region  there  is  evidence  by  ruins  of  the  existence  of 
numerous  cities  built  at  various  periods,  including  Mayapan, 
the  Memphis  of  Central  America ;  then  follow  Uxmal,  Kabah, 
Chichen,  Izmal,  and  many  others.  There  is  the  enigmatic 
empire  of  Xibalba,  which  appears  to  have  included  that  large 
tract  stretching  from  Tobasco  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Gulf  of  Honduras,  taking  in  a  portion  of  what  we  now  know  as 
Guatemala.  Palenqu^,  the  Thebes  of  America,  may  have  been 
the  capital  of  Xibalba ;  there  was  also  the  considerable  Quiche 
kingdom  in  Guatemala,  which  had  Utitlan  as  its  capital.  Then 
followed  the  powerful  states  of  Copan,  in  the  proximity  of  Hon- 
duras, the  countries  of  Nicaragua,  and  Veraguas. 

The  style  of  building,  modes  of  ornamentation,  and  the  other 
matters  connected  with  the  regions  adverted  to,  are  most 
peculiar,  and  cannot  to  my  mind  be  classed  with  any  of  the 
architecture  or  modes  of  thought  of  what  we  call  the  old  world. 

Seeing  that  there  was  an  empire,  kingdoms,  and  independent 
states  in  Central  America,  ages  must  have  passed  before  the  red 
man  had  so  far  elevated  himself  to  build  extensive  cities  of 
hewn  stone,  profusely  ornament  his  temples  and  palaces,  invent 
pictorial,  symbolic,  and  phonetic  signs,  hieroglyphs,  and  then 
that  key-stone  of  intellectuality,  an  alphabet  (the  Maya  alpha- 
bet) to  record  the  history  of  his  doings,  as  we  see  he  did  iu 
Yucatan.  In  all  probability  alphabets  of  the  Maya  character 
were  known  throughout  Central  America. 

With  the  conquest  of  the  New  World  by  the  Spaniards,  they 
divided  it  into  despotic  viceroyalties,  which  system  lasted  to 
within  our  own  times,  when  the  descendants  of  the  Conquista- 
dores  and  mixed  breeds  rebelled  against  their  masters,  driving 
them  back  to  Europe ;  so,  excepting  the  Portuguese  empire  of 

VOL.   III.  u 


290  BOLLAERT  ON  AMERICAN  HIEROGLYPHS. 

Brazil,  and  the  interior  wildernesses,  Spanish  America  became 
divided  into  a  number  of  military  republics,  very  difficult  indeed 
to  settle  down.  When  the  late  civil  war  broke  out  in  the 
United  States  Napoleon  III  considered  it  probable  that  the 
Southern  States  would  have  been  able  to  hold  their  own,  and 
with  the  wish  of  a  party  in  Mexibo,  induced  the  Austrian  prince 
Maximilian  to  become  the  emperor  of  that  country.  The  South- 
ern States  failed,  the  republicans  in  Mexico  took  fresh  courage, 
assailed  the  empire,  which  ended  on  the  19th  of  June,  1867,  by 
the  shooting  of  Maximilian.  Yucatan  and  Chiapa  are  now 
frontier  Mexican  states ;  Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras, 
Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica  have  been  turbulent  republics; 
Belize,  the  settlement  of  the  British  log-wood  cutters,  is  tran- 
quil. 

Before  comparing  the  hieroglyphs  of  Central  America  by  the 
Maya  alphabet,  hieroglyphs  of  months  and  symbols  of  days,  I 
will  give  the  result  of  my  analysis  of  these  arrangements.* 

The  alphabet  is  composed  of  twenty-seven  characters,  seven 
of  which  may  be  called  simple  forms ;  ten  semi-compound  and 
ten  compound.  The  six  additional  characters  are  composed  of 
a  and  h,  the  signs  ma  (no),  and  ti  (of),  and  the  "  sign  of  aspi- 
ration," probably  meant  for  a  stop. 

Doubtless  the  commencement  of  the  Maya  writing  was  purely 
figurative.  For  ideas  came  characters  or  symbols,  some 
phonetic,  out  of  which  arose  the  alphabet.  We  see  there  were 
seven  simple  alphabetic  characters;  may  we  not  suppose,  if  time 
had  been  given  to  the  Mayas,  they  would  have  arrived  at  an 
alphabet  entirely  of  simple  forms,  like  unto  other  nations  ? 

The  conquest  of  the  country  by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  almost 
annihilation  of  the  natives,  have  thrown  a  dense  veil  over  the 
peculiar  advance  from  the  savage  life  of  Central  America,  as 
well  as  over  that  of  other  portions  of  America. 

There  are  eighteen  compound  characters  for  the  months, 
which  have  seemingly  little  or  no  connection  with  the  alphabet; 
but  they  contain  portions  of  the  symbols  of  the  days.     The 


•  See  vol.  ii.  Memoirs  of  the  Anthropological  Society,  1865-6.  for  plates  of 
the  alphabet,  &c. 


BOLLAERT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS.  291 

symbols  of  the  twenty  days  of  the  month  aro  each  contained 
in  a  circle,  and  have  but  slight  portions  of  the  alphabet. 

C.  R.  Lepsius,  in  his  Standard  Alphabet,  divides  all  languages 
into  literate  and  illiterate,  the  former  commencing  with  the 
Sanscrit  and  ending  with  that  of  Madagascar.  The  illiterate, 
with  no  alphabets,  beginning  with  the  Australian  ending  with 
the  American,  in  the  last  appears  the  Maya.  Naw  the  Maya  has 
its  alphabet.  The  Spaniards  taught  the  Mayas  the  use  of  the 
Spanish  letters,  by  which  the  former  learnt  the  Indian  language; 
vocabularies  were  produced,  then  a  grammar,  showing  the 
Maya  to  be  a  gender  and  literate  language;  and  Padre  Beltran, 
in  his  grammar  of  1 742,  says,  the  Maya  is  polite  in  its  diction, 
elegant  in  its  periods,  and  concise  in  style,  capable  ofttimes  of 
expressing,  in  a  few  words  and  syllables,  the  meaning  of  many 
phrases. 

It  is  generally  stated  that  the  Maya  appears  to  be  the  mother 
of  the  greater  portion  of  the  Central  American  languages ;  but 
B.  de  Bourbourg  asks,  is  the  Maya  the  mother  language  of  the 
Central  American  group,  or  is  it  only  a  sister  to  them  ? 

As  Humboldt  found  no  alphabetic  characters  in  Mexico,  he 
was  led  to  suppose  that  the  progressive  perfection  of  symbolic 
signs,  and  the  facility  with  which  objects  are  painted,  had  pre- 
vented the  introduction  of  letters ;  so  he  concluded  that  there 
existed  no  certain  proofs  of  a  knowledge  of  an  alphabet  by  the 
Americans.* 

Yucatan. 

Traditions  allude  to  a  period  when  the  plains  of  the  interior 
were  covered  with  water,  and  when  isolated  groups  of  families 


•  In  May,  1868,  B.  de  Bourbourg  published  his  Quatre  Leftrea  sur  le 
Mejciquet  &c.  (Triibner),  in  which  he,  as  a  monogenist  and  from  recent 
studies  of  Mexican  and  Central  American  MSS.,  has  come  to  the  startling 
conclusion,  that  man  and  his  civilisation  came  from  the  West,  rather  than 
from  the  EcuL  A  great  cataclysm  of  fire  and  water  was  the  prime  mover 
some  six  or  seven  thousand  years  since.  After  twenty-five  years  of  research 
he  was  certainly  rewarded  by  finding  Landa's  Maya  alphabet,  by  which  he 
examined  Mexican  and  Central  American  hieroglyphs,  and  after  six  months' 
work  he  exclaimed,  "  Eureka."  As  a  polygenist  I  fail  to  see  the  matters 
under  consideration  as  he  puts  them. 

02 


292  BOLLAERT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS. 

lived  on  the  more  elevated  portions ;  *  that  people  came  from 
the  west  under  a  mythic  personage,  Votan,  and  settled,  where 
Palenqu^  was  subsequently  founded.  A  portion  of  Votan's 
people,  under  a  great  priest  chief,  Tzamn&,  Zamn&,  Kukulcan, 
or  Kinch-ahau,  king  or  magician,  went  by  the  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  took  possession  of  Yucatan,  then  called 
Maahya,  land  without  water,  by  the  original  savage  inhabitants, 
who  supplied  themselves  with  rain  water  from  natural  wells. 

The  first  place  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Zamnd  was 
Mayapan,  some  accounts  say  as  late  as  200  a.d.  ;  I,  however, 
think  if  Zamn&  built  Mayapan  a  very  much  earlier  date  must 
be  assigned.  The  temples  and  dwellings  of  Zamn&,  and  those 
of  the  priests  were  within  a  precinct ;  outside  lived  the  chiefs, 
and,  farther  off,  the  people.  Zamnd  became  engaged  in  various 
and  distant  conquests ;  those  of  his  race  were  called  listeners  or 
believers,  and  they  governed  the  conquered  countries.  Zamnd, 
having  attained  a  great  age,  saw  the  progress  of  a  civilisation 
he  had  founded  in  Yucatan,  including  the  invention  of  a  calendar 
and  figures  and  characters  wliich  served  for  letters;  he  went  to 
Itzmal,  when  he  died.  According  to  Lizana,  altars  were  erected 
to  the  oracle  Zamn&  after  his  death,  and  roads  of  stone  made 
to  Tobasco,  Chiapa,  and  G  uatemala,  for  the  pilgrims  who  flocked 
to  his  shrines. 

After  the  death  of  Zamn&,  the  chiefs  chose  their  rulers  from 
the  family  of  Cocomes,  and  the  reigning  king  was  called  the 
Cocom.  The  post  of  high  priest  was  hereditary  in  a  certain 
family.  The  priests  instructed  the  people,  particularly  in  read- 
ing and  writing ;  their  books,  or  analtcs,  written  in  human  and 
other  figures  and  characters,  on  a  strip  of  material  made  of  the 
bark  of  trees,  the  pages  doubled  backwards  and  forwards,  and 
enclosed  in  ornamental  covers. 

The  kingdom  of  Mayapan,  after  years  of  prosperity,  appears 
to  have  been  invaded  by  Toltec  hordes,  which  may  have  left 


N 


*  Yucatan,  according  to  B.  de  Bourbourg,  seems  to  be  a  vast  calcareous 
formation,  composed  of  fossil  shells,  and  in  the  appearance  of  the  immense 
plains,  so  singularly  undulating,  thinks  he  sees  the  result  of  volcanic  power, 
which  has  lifted  the  surface  up,  when  in  a  boiling  stat«,  giving  it  the  appear- 
ance of  sea  wavos. 


BOLLAEBT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEKOOLYPHS.  293 

Tula  in  Mexico  about  150  a.d.,  led  by  a  chief  or  chiefs  called 
Tutul-Xuis,  who  settled  after  a  time,  some  say  about  400  a.d., 
not  far  from  the  city  of  Mayapan,  and  were  friendly  with  the 
Mayas. 

The  Cocomes  t3n:annised  over  their  people  and  called  upon 
the  Aztecs  of  Mexico  for  assistance.  The  majority  of  Maya 
chiefs  rose  against  the  Cocom  of  the  day,  who  was  killed  with 
all  his  race,  except  one  Achel  who  was  absent,  and  Mayapan 
was  ruined  about  1446  a.d.  Achel  who  had  married  a  daughter 
of  one  of  the  priests  of  Mayapan,  established  himself  at  Tekax, 
and  with  him  originated  the  great  family  of  the  Cheles  (holy), 
who  soon  governed  a  large  tract  of  country,  even  to  Itzmal. 

When  the  Spaniards  discovered  the  land,  there  were  three 
reigning  families,  the  Cocomes,  the  Xius  or  Strangers,  and  the 
Cheles,  the  latter  now  a  sacerdotal  class  ;  but  in  consequence 
of  rivalries  between  them,  their  conquest  by  the  Spaniards 
was  easily  accomplished. 

Ti-hoo,  the  principal  city  of  the  Cocomes,  became  the 
Spanish  capital  of  Yucatan  under  the  name  of  Merida. 
Chichen-Itza  was  only  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1697. 
Those  natives  who  submitted  to  the  Spanish  yoke  were 
denominated  Indws  hidalgos ;  those  who  would  not  submit, 
Indios  bravos ;  and  many  have  so  continued  to  the  present  time.* 

CogoUudo  observes  as  to  the  belief  of  the  Mayas,  that  it  was 
one  sole  Deity,  /ormle88,f  and  incapable  of  being  represented, 
it  bore  the  name  of  Hunab-Ku,  from  whom  proceeded  all 
things,  and  not  being  corporate,  was  adored  in  no  imaged 
shape.  Xibalba  was  the  devil,  who  suddenly  appears  and 
vanishes.     Their  sacrifices  were  men,  women,  and  animals. 

In-acal-Voh,  a  powerful  goddess,  was  the  mother  of  Zamnd. 
The  goddess  Yxchebelyax  invented  painting.     Xocbitum  the 

*  A  curiooB  resum^  of  Yucatan  history,  collected  by  Pio  Perez  from  a 
Maya  MS.  written  in  SpaniBh  letters,  will  be  found  in  vol.  ii,  Stephens' 
InddenU  of  Travel  in  Yucatan,  in  Spanish  and  English  ;  also  in  B.  de  Bour- 
bourgfs  Landa'B  Co»as  de  Yucatan  in  Maya  and  French. 

t  This  same  formlese  character  of  the  Deity  is  noticed  among  the 
Quich^  of  Guatemala ;  and  in  a  drawing  preserved  in  a  Quichua  MS.  of 
Peru,  the  same  formless  character  wa9  given  to  the  Deity  in  the  Temple  of 
the  Sun  ut  Cuzco. 


.•3  .—__-. 


•j-^TJWPWBMWaW iS*i<*"^m**"iW»  m(  •STxi 


294  BOLLAEBT  ON   AMERICAN   HlBBOOIiYPHS. 

god  of  poetry.  Ah-Kin-Xooc  the  god  of  music;  of  war 
Ku  Kulcan.  Bacab  wore  the  Atlantoan  gods  and  prototypes 
of  Eolus  and  liis  fellows.  Chac,  a  giant^  was  the  inyentor  of 
agriculture  and  the  ruler  of  lightning  and  thunder.  The  idol 
Kinich  Kakuo  was  fashioned  like  a  sun  with  the  beak  of  a 
bird^  and  descended  to  bum  the  offered  sacrifice  at  mid-day. 
At  Campechy  was  a  god  of  cruelty  Kinchahan-haban ;  at 
Tihoo  his  name  was  Achun  Cam.  The  list  closes  with  the 
deification  of  those  women  who  had  remained  virgins,  and  were 
called  Zunliy  Kak^  or  virgin  fire.* 

I  now  proceed  to  make  the  necessary  extracts  and  comparef 
the  hieroglyphs  of  Yucatan  with  the  Maya  alphabet,  commenc- 
ing with  what  is  found  in  vol.  ii,  Stephens'  Cetitral  America-^ 
Chiapas  and  Yucatan  (I  also  occasionally  follow  Landa,  and  B. 
de  Bourbourg) .  Uxmal,  page  413.  The  elaborate  ornaments  of 
Yucatan  bear  no  resemblance  to  those  of  Palenqu^  or  Copan. 
Page  432.  There  are  no  idols  with  hieroglyphs  as  at  Copan, 
no  stuccoed  figures  or  carved  tablets  as  at  Palenqu^;  but 
Stephens  saw  a  beam  of  wood  ten  feet  long,  on  the  face  was  a 
line  of  cliaractcrs  carved  or  stamped  with  hieroglyphs  almost 
obliterated.  He  had  to  leave  Uxmal  in  haste  on  account  of 
illness,  and  deplores  he  did  not  obtain  this  sculptured  beam. 
He  observes  by  what  feeble  light  are  the  pages  of  American 
history  written.  Except  this  beam  of  hieroglyphs,  though 
searching  earnestly  he  did  not  discover  any  points  of  resem- 
blance, and  the  wanton  machete  (chopper-knife)  of  the  Indian 
may  destroy  the  only  link  that  can  connect  Yucatan,  Copan, 
and  Palenque  together. 

Page  434.  On  one  side  of  the  house  of  the  Governor,  is  a 
large  greque,  maybe  pai't  of  the  symbol  uo,  "  frog.''  The  faces 


*  Waldeck,  Antiq.  Yucatan  et  Palenquc^,  contains  on  interesting  Maya  poem, 
ti-nuslated  into  Spanish,  then  into  French.  The  love  of  the  Vestal  Pizan 
(soul  or  ppirit),  for  the  hunter  Concoh  (the  Puma),  and  the  enmity  of  the 
Uijrh  Priest  Patzin-Can. 

t  For  these  compaiisons  I  have  had  recourse  to  the  Maya  alphabet  accord- 
ing to  Landa  in  his  Relacion  de  las  Cosas  de  Yucatan,  in  which  is  grammar 
and  dictionary  in  Maya  and  French  by  B.  do  Bourbourg,  Padre  Beltran's 
Maya  and  Spanish  grammar  and  diolionary,  1742.  Maya  and  English  voca- 
biliary  in  Norman's  Kamhlcs  in  YfCiitan,  1S33. 


BOLLAEBT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS.  295 

with  figares  more  naturally  drawn  than  in  the  profiles  in  the 
Dresden,  Troano,  and  Paris  codices. 

Page  442.  There  is  no  resemblance  in  these  remains,  in- 
cluding those  of  Copan  and  Palenqu^,  to  those  of  Egypt ; 
thej  stand  alone.  Stephens  says :  "  I  cannot  help  believing 
that  the  tablets  with  hieroglyphs  will  yet  be  read.  .  .  I 
feel  persuaded  that  a  key  surer  than  that  of  the  Bosetta  stone 
will  be  discovered."  The  Maya  alphabet  preserved  by  Landa 
and  recently  found  by  B.  de  Bourbourg  in  Madrid  looks  very 
much  like  a  key. 

Matapan.  I  now  follow  Bishop  Landa.  In  the  principal 
square  were  seven  or  eight  stones,  eight  feet  in  length  with 
inscriptions,  but  so  injured  by  rains  that  they  could  not  be 
made  out.  It  was  thought  that  on  these  stones  had  been 
written  an  account  of  the  foundation  of  this  capital.  It  was 
the  custom  to  erect  a  stone  at  the  end  of  an  epoch  of  twenty 
years,  which  accords  with  the  computation  of  the  cycles.  Ac- 
cording to  Cogolludo,  these  four  periods  of  five  years,  making 
twenty,  having  arrived,  they  called  it  E[atun-Kat,  "  to  ask  ;" 
Tun,  "  stone  ;''  or  the  stone  that  was  to  be  interrogated,  and 
placed  one  graved  stone  upon  another,  set  in  with  mortar  in  a 
wall  in  the  temples  and  dwellings  of  the  priests,  as  we  see 
them  at  this  day.  .  .  When  Mayapan  was  abandoned  by  its 
lords  (1446),  retiring  to  their  domains,  the  priests  in  particular 
took  the  books  of  their  sciences.* 


*  After  this  paper  was  written,  the  Archives  de  la  Commission  Scientifiqtie  du 
Mexique  was  issued,  from  torn,  ii,  livraison  iii,  p.  234.  I  translate  the  fol- 
lowing by  B.  de  Bourbourg :— Whilst  the  Indians  were  clearing  away  plants 
and  trees  of  the  locality  designated  by  Landa,  a  flat  stone,  rounded  at  one 
end  and  broken  at  the  other,  was  found  on  the  ground.  The  characters  of 
the  inscription  were  effaced,  excepting  one,  which  I  identified  by  the  Maya 
alphabet.  The  form  of  each  small  square  was  similar  to  the  cartouches  of 
Palenqu^.  At  ten  paces  another  stone  and  in  better  preservation  was  found, 
but  the  inscription  was  obliterated  by  time  and  the  action  of  water  (a 
drawing  is  g^ven  in  the  work).  It  is  a  true  st^le.  The  lower  portion  broken 
off,  but  in  its  present  condition  1  metre  75 ;  width  0  m^tre  50 ;  and  mean 
thickness  of  0  m^tre  20.  The  profiles  are  similar  to  those  in  the  Codex 
Mexieanus  No.  2  In  the  Bib.  Imp.,  Paris,  and  that  of  Dresden  in  the  Kings- 
borough  collection.  I  am  persuaded,  had  I  been  allowed  by  Senor  Salazar 
to  make  the  necessary  researches  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pyramid  of  Mayapan, 


296  BOLLAERT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS. 

I  now  refer  to  Stepheus^s  Lwidents  of  Travel  in  Yucatan, 
vol.  1,  p.  78.  Tihoo  became  the  Spanish  city  of  Merida,  6th 
January,  1542.  On  a  pyramid  was  the  Yahau-Kiina,  or 
principal  temple ;  here  the  Spaniards  built  a  convent^  also  an- 
other on  the  pyramid  of  Ahchun-Caan.  (Norman,  in  his 
Rumbles  in  Yticatan,  mentions,  that  the  front  of  Dr.  Simon 
Peon's  house  is  ornamented  with  a  relic,  a  huge  doorway, 
elaborately  carved  with  figures  and  lines.) 

Mayapan,  These  ruins  are  like  those  of  Uxmal.  There  are 
besides  representations  of  human  figures,  animals,  and  other 
objects.  A  male  figure  with  a  shield,  on  which  seems  to  be 
the  symbol  muluc^  "  to  unite'';  and  on  the  head  another  symbol, 
probably  the  name  of  the  individual.  There  are  also  mark- 
ings indicating,  probably,  uo,  ''  frog*';  and  the  word  muan, 
"  strength". 

Uxnial.  The  names  given  to  the  various  ruins  aflFord  some 
idea  of  their  character;  they  are  the  houses  of  the  vestals, 
dwarf,  magician,  doves,  turtles,  and  of  the  old  woman. 

Page  1 68.  There  is  a  well-defined  symbol  with  dots,  which 
1  call  the  curved  symbol,  and  may  mean  "  moon"  or ''  month". 

Page  171.  On  the  ornament  of  the  house  of  the  governor 
are  two  symbols,  partaking  of  the  word  lamat,  "  governor  or 
heritage." 

Page  175.  The  character  of  the  faces  on  the  Ticul  vase,  are 
something  like  those  in  the  Dresden  Codex. 

Page  802.  On  a  portion  of  the  western  building  of  the 
vestals  are  two  large  greques,  which  may  be  connected  with 
the  words  t/o,  "  frog",  and  mulm,  "  to  unite." 

Pago  307.  On  the  south-east  angle  of  the  house  of  the 
vestals,  I  trace  muluc,  "  to  unite ;  lamat,  "  governor ' ;  which 
last  symbol  is  often  seen  in  the  Dresden  Codex;  and  eznab, 


J  shonld  have  come  npon  entire  sUiles,  bearing  inscriptions  I  coald  have 
read.  Description  of  the  stdle  by  W.  B.  In  the  npper  portion  are  the 
places  of  six  lines  of  six  cartoaches=36.  No  hieroglyphs  can  be  traced, 
where  once  was  written  the  doings  of  these  figures  underneath.  Then 
follow  four  lines  of  ornamentation  of  angtilar,  circular,  and  castellated  forms 
which  may  have  a  meaning.  Then  follow  the  profiles  of  two  human  figures, 
tiiu  larger  may  be  that  of  a  king. 


BOLLAEBT   OK   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS.  297 


€i 


magician  or  prophet".  Norman,  p.  102,  gives  two  objects  ; 
one  a  well-defined  symbol,  containing  a  double  triangle ;  also, 
a  stone  eight  inches  by  six,  with  numerative  characters.* 

Kahdhy  p.  388.  Here  is  a  large  stone,  with  a  continuous 
line  of  hieroglyphs  j  also,  traces  of  the  curved  symbol,  and  re- 
petitions of  something  like  eznab,  '^  magician". 

Page  405.  Carved  beam  of  sapote  wood,  apparently  repre- 
senting a  female  figure.  The  only  indications  I  make  out  are 
repetitions  of  chiccan,  "  little  maize".  Can  this  be  the  goddess 
of  maize?  The  elaborate  carving  here  seems  to  have  been 
done  by  copper,  bronze,  obsidian,  or  flint  tools.  Norman  says 
the  rock  of  Uxmal  is  calcareous  with  flint. 

Page  412.  Two  sculptured  human  figures  on  jamb  of  door- 
way, I  think  I  can  make  out  muluc,  "  to  unite  ;"  and  lamat, 
*'  governor." 

Prom  ii  vol.  Stephens  Travels  in  Yucutan : — 

Zayi,  page  21.  A  bold  figure  of  a  water  animal  or  serpent ; 
its  symbol  or  name  has  a  portion  of  muluc,  "  to  unite." 

Labna,  page  56.  Here  are  indications  of  uo,  ''frog;" 
muhic,  ''  to  unite ;"  also,  a  large  symbol  of  double  greques  and 
lines. 

KeivicJe,  page  73.  Bright  red  and  green  predominate  in 
the  paintings.  A  human  figure  surrounded  by  hieroglyphs, 
which  doubtless  contain  its  history.  I  make  out  cimij  '^  to 
die ;"  na,  *^  house  or  mother ;"  oc,  "  handful." 

Sctcbey,  page  122.  Symbols  very  indistinct.  Here  is  a  road- 
way of  stone  eight  feet  wide  and  eight  to  ten  inches  high  and 
covered  with  a  cement.  It  is  called  Zac-he-zac,  "  white  ;"  he, 
"  road." 

Labphak  "  means  ruins  or  old  walls.*'  Pag©  164.  Here  are 
carved  tablets  set  in  walls  as  at  Palenqu^,  and  according 
to  Stephens  have  something  of  the  character  of  the  figures 
there. 

Mani,  page  257.  Piles  of  Indian  books  were  burnt  here  by 
the  Spaniards  as  well  as  paintings  I  In  the  library  of  the  Casa 
Real  there  is  a  MS.  of  157  pages  written  in  the  Maya  language, 

*  B.  de  Bourbourg  thinks  he  can  discoTer  representations  of  the  Phallus 
here. 


298  BOLLA.BBT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEBOGLTPHS. 

records  of  events  after   the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards.      The 
Tutul-Xuis  sojourned  here  for  a  time. 

Chichen-Itza,  page  285 ;  chi,  "  mouth ;"  chen,  "  well.'* 
Here  are  extensive  ruins^  including  one^  the  Akatzeeb^  or  the 
building  with  the  writing  in  the  dark. 

Page  292.  Sculptured  figure  with  hieroglyphs  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  door  called  Akatzeeb.  It  was  here  Stephens  first 
found  hieroglyphs  sculptured  on  stone.  The  sitting  figure 
seems  to  be  performing  an  act  of  incantation^  or  religious  rite, 
which  the  writing  in  the  dark  may  explain.  Stephens  ob- 
serves : — "  Physical  force  may  raze  these  buildings,  and  lay 
bare  all  the  secrets  they  contain,  but  physical  force  can  never 
unravel  the  mystery  that  involves  this  sculptured  tablet." 
The  figure  (male)  is  nude ;  the  cap  is  like  those  on  the  figures 
at  Kabah  and  has  an  ornament  round  the  neck ;  the  large 
cruciblo-form  before  him  contains  fire,  in  which  some  small 
animal  is  being  burnt  or  sacrificed.  Comparing  the  hieroglyphs 
on  either  side  of  the  figure  with  the  Maya  key,  I  get  the 
following  words — Ahau,  ''king;"  oc,  ^Meg;"  miiluc,  ''to 
unite  ;"  tfe,  "  courage ;"  cib,  copal ;  eznab,  ''  magician  ;**  uo, 
''  frog ;"  which  may  mean  that  the  magician  has  in  the  crucible 
a  frog  to  be  sacrificed,  in  which  copal  as  incense  is  used. 
The  two  lines  of  hieroglyphs  give  something  like  the  follow- 
ing : — Kings  must  die — they  have  courage,  and  after  death  are 
united  to  those  who  went  before  them.  The  king  is  with  his 
fathers,  the  chief  and  his  family,  bum  copal  and  mourn  for  his 
death. 

Page  293.  On  the  beautiful  ornamented  house  of  the  vestals, 
there  are  among  other  symbols  those  of  king  and  chief. 

Page  294.  On  same  building  a  X  figure  is  seen.  This  form 
is  also  found  at  Palenqu^.  In  the  Maya  symbol  maniJc,  "  feast,'* 
there  is  a  _L  reversed. 

Page  296.  An  apartment  once  ornamented  with  paintings  in 
colours.  There  are  portions  of  human  figures  very  well  drawn, 
the  heads  adorned  with  feathers,  and  in  the  hands  shields  and 
spears. 

Page  300.  The  Chichanchob  or  Red  house.  Along  the  top 
of  the  back  wall  is  a  stone  tablet,  with  a  row  of  hieroglyphs. 


BOLLAEBT   ON  AMEfilCAN    HIEBOOLTPHS.  299 

I  get  out  as  follows — king,  to  die,  to  unite,  "P>  water,  staff  of 
office,  steps,  courage,  to  talk,  breast,  feast  ?  little  or  little  maize. 

Page  308.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  building  of  the  Pumas, 
one  of  the  walls  of  a  chamber  is  covered  with  elaborately  sculp- 
tured male  figures  in  bas-relief  dancing.  This  chamber  is 
called  stohl,  and  this  word  means  an  ancient  dance.  The  out- 
lines are  well  drawn.     Each  has  a  symbol  or  name  before  him» 

Page  310.  In  the  upper  building,  Stephens  says,  is  pre- 
sented  a  casket,  the  greatest  gem  of  aboriginal  art.  The 
sculptural  figures  have  rich  headdresses.  .  .  The  walls  and 
ceilings  are  covered  with  designs  in  painting,  representing,  in 
vivid  colours,  human  figures,  battles,  houses,  trees,  and  scenes 
of  domestic  life ;  conspicuous  is  a  large  canoe.  They  exhibit 
a  freedom  of  touch  which  could  only  be  the  result  of  discipline 
and  training  under  masters.  The  author  of  this  paper  con- 
siders the  profiles  in  the  Dresden  Codex  good  in  design^  but 
these  are  superior  in  every  way. 

Page  341.  Large  carved  and  highly  ornamented  figure  in 
sapote  wood,  the  face  may  have  been  a  portrait.  Tuloom  on 
the  east  coast  and  near  the  island  of  Cozumel  (Ahcuzamel,  or 
that  of  the  swallows,  or  that  a  deity  was  worshipped  here 
having  feet  like  the  swallow).  Here  is  a  symbol  repeated, 
like  one  at  Palenqu^,  but  only  of  four  castellated  niches. 

Itzmaly  'p&gQ  434.  There  was  an  idol  here  erected  to  Zamn&, 
who  when  asked  about  himself,  replied,  ''  I  am  the  dew  of  the 
morning,  or  the  substance  of  the  clouds,**  or  that  he  was  of 
supernatural  origin. 

The  conclusion  I  have  come  to  after  comparing  the  Yucatan 
hieroglyphs  with  the  Maya  alphabet,  seeing  that  I  am  able  to 
read  so  few,  is,  that  they  may  be  of  older  date  than  the 
alphabet,  but  that  the  symbols  of  the  days  of  the  month  are 
nearer  the  date  of  the  hieroglyphs.-  The  painted  profiles  at 
Chichen  are  more  artistic  than  the  profiles  in  the  Dresden, 
Paris,  or  Madrid  Codices. 

The  occasional  appearance  of  the  T  figure  at  Chichen,  but 
in  greater  number  at  Palenque,  would  tend  to  show,  that  there 
had  been  connection  between  the  two  places. 


300  bollaert  on  american  hieroglyphs. 

Palenque. 

Tradition  leads  to  the  idea  that,  between  Yucatan  and  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific,  existed  the  very  ancient  empire  of  Xibalba, 
also  known  as  Ah-tza,  or  Itza,  and  it  may  be  that  Palenqu^ 
was  the  capital.  Del  Bio  and  Dupaix  christened  the  spot  with 
the  name  of  Ototfum.  Stephens  calls  the  river  near  the  ruins 
Otulo.  Tulum,  in  Maya,  means  ''  a  fortification'^,  or  "  stone 
edifice/*  Aguilar  calls  the  place  Palemqu^,  probably  a  Tzendal 
word.  In  a  Tzendal  MS.  Palenqu^  is  called  Ghochan.  Brasseur 
de  Bourbourg  thinks  that  Palenque  may  be  identified  with  the 
Colhuacan,  or  Colhua,  of  Xibalba,  the  capital  of  the  Colhuas, 
or  Chanes,  an  ancient  Mexican  nation.  Ordonez  says,  Chan, 
or  serpent,  was  another  name  for  Colhua, ;  and  that  the  capital 
(Palenqu^)  of  Xibalba  is  identified  with  Na-chan,  the  city  of 
serpents.  Galindo  observes  that  the  place  was  abandoned,  and 
the  memory  of  its  existence  lost,  long  before  the  coming  of  the 
Spaniards. 

The  wonderful  ruins  of  Palenqu^  are  in  about  17®N.  and 
94°  W.  They  were  accidentally  discovered  by  the  Cura  of 
Tumbala,  SoUs,  in  1746.  In  1773,  the  place  was  visited  by 
Spaniards  named  Torres,  Ordonez,  and  others.  In  1 784,  Lieut. 
Calderon  went  ofiScially  and  reported  on  the  ruins ;  he  called  it 
a  great  city,  and  gave  a  list  of  fifty-six  separate  ruins ;  and  it 
appeared  to  him  to  have  been  abandoned  some  three  to  four 
hundred  years.  In  1785,  Bernasconi,  an  Italian  architect,  ex- 
amined and  made  plans  of  the  ruins,  which  Dupaix  and  others 
most  probably  had  means  of  referring  to.  In  1787,  Del  Rio 
was  sent  there  officially.  His  report  and  drawings  remained 
shut  up  in  the  archives  of  Guatemala,  but  copies  were  made  of 
them ;  however,  the  original  MiS.  came  into  the  hands  of  an 
English  gentleman,  who  gave  publicity  to  them  in  London  in 
1822.  i 

Whilst  the  report  and  drawings  of  Del  Rio  slept  in  the  ar- 
chives of  Guatemala,  Dupaix,  an!  Austrian  officer,  accompanied 
by  a  Spaniard,  Castaneda,  were  jsent,  by  Charles  IV  of  Spain, 
to  that  country,  where  they  remained  from  1805  to  about  1808. 
The  Dupaix  MSS.  were  forwardeld  to  Madrid,  then  occupied  by 
the  Fi*ench.  In  1828  they  werA  brought  to  light.  In  1834, 
Lord  Kingsborough  published,  i  n  his  large  work  on  Mexican 


BOLLAEBT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS.  301 

Antiquities,  Dupaix^s  drawings  and  researches.  In  1831,  the 
Literary  Oazette  announced  Palenqu^  as  a  new  discovery  by 
Colonel  Galindo,  who  sent  his  observations  to  the  Geogra- 
phical Society  of  Paris.  Waldeck  passed  some  years  at  Pa- 
lenqu^,  and  made  elaborate  drawings,  which  were  published  by 
the  French  government  in  1865-6,  with  letter-press  by  the 
Abb^  B.  de  Bourbourg.  After  Waldeck,  an  Austrian  officer, 
Fredricksthal,  explored  the  ruins. 

I  now  allude  to  the  masterly  investigations  of  Stephens  in 
1839,  and  the  accurate  drawings  by  his  companion  Catherwood. 
I  compare  the  hieroglyphs  of  Palenqu^  in  vol.  ii  of  Stephens's 
Central  America,  Chiapas,  and  Yucatan,  by  the  Maya  alphabet. 

Page  315.  On  one  of  the  figures  I  trace  something  like  the 
Maya  month  Pojpy  ''mat  of  reeds'\  Page  316.  On  a  bas- 
relief  is  the  symbol  of  ahau,  "  king*',  reversed,  or,  probably, 
that  the  king  is  dead.  We  find  the  T  figure  like  that  de- 
scribed at  Chichen,  in  Yucatan;  also,  an  approach  to  zeb, 
"  rapid''  or  "  prompt".  Page  342.  Outside  corridor.  No.  1 
casa.  The  right  hand  tablet  has  twelve  lines  of  twenty-four 
cartouches  in  each  line.  In  the  first  column,  I  make  out  part 
of  zip,  "  tree".  Fourth  column,  ahau, ''  king",  and  a  form  of 
lamat,  "  chief".  Page  344.  Tablet  of  the  Cross.  In  one  of 
the  squares  I  trace  eznah,  "  magician" ;  a  hand,  or  dz,  is  seen ; 
also,  the  Maya  "  aspiration  sound"  \J  ;  a  part  of  zip, ''  tree". 
The  principal  figures  here  are  a  male  and  female ;  the  former 
presenting  a  child  to  the  sacred  bird.  Amongst  the  hiero- 
glyphs I  only  trace  ahau,  "  king",  a  form  of  zip, ''  tree",  aJcbal, 
"  a  plant",  pax,  "  a  musical  instrument".  Surely  these  Palen- 
qu^  people  must  have  had  some  form  of  alphabet  to  have  com- 
posed such  records. 

The  frontispiece  to  vol.  ii  has  a  perfect  tablet  at  the  back  of 
Casa  No.  3.  The  male  and  female  figures  presenting  young 
children  to  the  emblem  of  the  sun.  In  the  smaller  tablet, 
ahau's,  or  kings,  are  traced,  and  perhaps  db,  ''copal".  In 
the  tablet  on  the  left,  I  find  parts  of  maniJc, "  feast",  zip, "  tree", 
and  lamat,  "  chief"  or  "  governor".  Page  349.  Only  one  statue 
has  been  found  at  Palenqu^;  it  has  all  the  severity  of  the 
Egyptian  style,  and  nothing  like  the  bas-reliefs.     It  holds  in 


302  BOLLAEUT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS. 

its  right  hand^  which  is  on  the  breast,  a  castellated  symbol 
(like  that  described  at  Tuloom,  in  Yucatan) ;  from  the  left 
hand  is  suspended  an  elaborate  symbol,  telling,  doubtless,  of 
his  oflBce.  The  cartouche  at  the  extremity  seems  to  represent 
a  tortoise,  and  numerical  dots  are  seen. 

Page  352.  Bas-relief,  on  side  door  of  altar,  is  a  male  figure; 
and  on  what  may  be  called  the  front  and  back  tail  are  forms 
like  capital  C^s,  with  dots  and  lines.  The  figure  is  blowing 
fire  out  of  his  mouth  through  a  tube;  he  is  probably  a  magi- 
cian. The  figure  has  cartouches  in  front  and  above,  in  which 
I  trace  kings  and  trees.  All  I  can  make  out  is,  that  the  rela^ 
tionship  of  the  hieroglyphs  between  Palenqu^  and  Yucatan  is 
trifling.  The  existence  of  the  few  T  figures  at  Chichen,  in 
Yucatan,  compared  with  the  larger  number  at  Palenqu^,  may^ 
however,  show  connexion  at  one  time  or  other. 

Guatemala. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  empire  of  Xibalba,  and  amongst 
other  states  to  that  of  Quich^  in  this  region.  It  would  appear 
that  hordes  of  Nahuas,  or  Toltecs,  came  from  Mexico,  and  got 
footing  in  the  country,  expanding  themselves  into  Yucatan, 
Nicaragua,  and  perhaps  further  south.  For  recent  researches 
into  the  history  of  this  portion  of  America,  I  refer  to  B. 
de  Bourbourg's  interesting  work,  portions  of  which  I  have 
brought  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  in  papers  en- 
titled Popul  Vuh  :  or,  tlie  Ancient  History  of  Guatemala,  vol. 
vii,  part  ii;  and  the  Babinal  Achi,  a  drama,  read  March,  1862. 

If,  as  it  is  sometimes  asserted,  that  the  Popul  Vuh  of  the 
Quiches  was  the  foundation  of  the  Teo^Amoxtli,  or  sacred  books 
of  the  Toltecs,  surely  there  must  have  been  very  early  writings 
in  Guatemala.  Las  Casas  frequently  alludes  to  the  sculptured 
stones  and  writings  of  the  Quiches ;  and  ho  is  accused  of  burn- 
ing all  the  MSS.  he  could  lay  hands  on  in  this  country,  as 
Landa  did  in  Yucatan  and  Zumarraga,  in  Mexico,  ''because 
they  were  the  works  of  the  devil !''  I  know  not  of  one  ex- 
ample of  an  ancient  MS.  from  Guatemala.  The  Codex  Mexi- 
canus.  No.  2,  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Paris,  is  sometimes 
called  the  "  Guat^malien.''  I  have  examined  and  compared  it 
with  the  Dresden  Codex  and  the  Maya  alphabet,  and  find  both 


BOLLAERT   ON   AMERICAN   HIEROGLYPHS.  303 

Codices  identical ;  the  Paris  one  looks  of  older  date.  It  is  pro- 
bable there  are  Quiche  MSS.  in  some  of  the  convents  of  the 
country,  in  Spain,  and  Rome.  Santa  Lucia  Cozumaluapan,  in 
Guatemala,  is  remarkable  for  fine  sculptured  monoliths,  twenty 
feet  in  height,  which  have  not  been  drawn  or  described.  The 
whole  country  is  strewed  with  ruins  of  pyramids,  tumuli, 
temples,  statues,  etc. 

COPAN. 

The  ruins  known  as  those  of  Copan,  in  Honduras,  are  in 
about  14^  15'  N.  and  89^  W.,  in  the  old  district  of  Chiquimula. 
In  1530,  the  natives  revolted,  and  attempted,  but  without 
success,  to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  the  then  chief  of  the 
country  being  Cop&n-Calel.  Chiquimula  has  been  called  the 
Kingdom  of  Payaqui,  meaning,  between  the  Toltecs  and  Na- 
huas,  and  that  the  capital  was  Cop£n.  It  has  been  a  question 
whether  the  locality  of  the  ruins  was  the  place  defended  by 
Copan-Calel  against  the  Spaniards.  We  may  now,  I  think, 
decide  in  the  negative,  since  Mr.  Squier  has  published  Palacio's 
letter  to  the  King  of  Spain,  dated  1576,  which  contains  the 
earliest  account  of  the  ruins  by  Palacio,  who  visited  them  with- 
in forty  years  after  the  conquest,  and  found  them  nearly  in 
their  present  condition.  He  says,  speaking  of  this  district, 
"  they  have  no  books  now  relating  to  their  antiquities ;  nor  do 
I  believe  there  is  more  than  one  book,  which  I  possess.'*  We 
have  no  account  of  where  this  one  book  may  be. 

Puentes  wrote  about  Copan  in  1689,  and  from  his  MS.  Ju- 
arros  mentioned  the  place  in  1809.  In  1835,  Colonel  Galindo 
sent  a  description  to  the  American  Society  of  Antiquaries,  and 
Geographical  Society  of  Paris.  Stephens  explored  here  in 
1841.  Photographs  were  taken  by  Mr.  Salvin  in  1862,  and 
by  Dr.  Ellery  in  1 865,  who  informs  me  that  the  rock  of  the 
country  is  porphyry.  Stephens  says  that  the  quarries  of  Copan 
are  of  soft  grit;  that  the  sculpture  was  performed  by  tools 
made  of  the  Chaya  stone.  Stephens  held  out  hopes  of  a  clue  to 
the  deciphering  of  the  hieroglyphs  being  obtained  from  the  in- 
dependent Indians,  living  styinewli&i'e  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
Usamacinta,  deriving  that  hope  from  an  account  given  him  by 


304  BOLLAERT  ON   AMERICAN   HIEB0GLTPH8. 

a  priest  at  Quich^^  of  an  Aztec  (?)  city^  lie  said  he  had  seen 
from  the  top  of  a  mountain^  near  to  the  village  of  ChajuL* 

Examination  of  the  Copan  hieroglyphs  in  Stephens's  Oentral 
America^  Chiapos,  and  Yucatan,  vol.  i ;  also,  Salvin's  photo- 

graphs.t 

Page  136, — Stephens.  A  column,  or  idol,  which  give  the 
peculiar  character  to  the  monuments  at  Copdn,  is  H.  14  of 
Salvin.  H.  15  is  a  portion  of  the  carving  of  this  idol  of  two 
parrots'  heads,  having  dots  in  the  eyes  and  on  the  head,  which, 
with  the  horizontal  bars,  may  have  to  do  with  numeration. 

Page  140  is  J.  18.  A  female  figure.  In  the  lower  portion 
I  find  what  may  be  the  Maya  laniat,  "  governor".  Page  141. 
The  top  of  an  altar.  Of  this  Dr.  Ellery  has  given  me  the  pho- 
tograph. It  is  six  feet  square  and  four  feet  in  height;  the  top 
divided  into  thirty-six  tablets  of  hieroglyphs;  it  may  be  a 
ritual.  In  second  line,  second  figure,  are  some  modem  marks. 
Second  figure,  in  third  line,  may  be  aAa?t,  "  king*'.  Third 
figure  like  yasrhin, ''  beginning  of  summer'*.  Fifth  line,  fifth 
figure,  may  be  chlccan,  "  little  maize  seeds".  Sixth  line,  third, 
fifth,  and  sixth  figures  seem  to  have  been  placed  by  a  modem 
hand.  Page  142  and  B.  23.  On  one  side  of  the  altar,  ahau, 
''  king",  appears.  On  another  side  there  is  an  approach  to  Jfe, 
''  courage". 

Pago  151  and  C.  16,  the  back  C.  15.  There  is  a  gfroup  of 
hieroglyphs.     Stephens  says,  "  We  considered  that  in  its  me- 


•  See  "  Notice  of  Aztec  Bace"  (?)  by  Mr.  Cull  and  Profeseor  Owen,  in 
Journal  of  the  EthnoL.  8oc.,  1856.  The  two  children  were  then  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Mr.  Morris.  I  saw  them  exhibited,  by  the  same  person,  in  1864,  as 
Aztecs.  They  had  gprown  considerably ;  and  the  boy  appeared  to  be  more 
idiotic  than  the  girl.  In  JHe.  Univ.,  Paris,  1857,  vol.  ii,  art.  "  Azt^ques/'  M. 
Boursier,  late  French  Consul  in  Quito,  communicated  a  letter  from  General 
Various,  formerly  Governor  of  3.  Miguel,  in  the  Republic  of  San  Salvador, 
in  which  it  is  stated  that  the  children  were  taken  away  from  Jacotal  to  New 
York  for  exhibition,  by  a  Yankee ;  that  they  are  brother  and  sister ;  that  the 
mother  and  father  are  Mulattos ;  and  that  they  were  known  in  the  country 
as  the  monitos,  "  little  monkeys".  In  the  Daily  Teleffraph  of  January  8, 1 867, 
is  an  account  of  the  marriage!  of  the  said- to-be- Aztecs,  Maximo  Valdoz 
Nuiies  and  Bartola  Velasquez  (see  No.  xwi,  Anthro])ological  Review,  April, 
1867,  for  details.) 

t  Published  by  Smith,  Beck,  and  Beck,  Cornhiil,  48  photographic  views. 


BOLLAERT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS.  305 

dalHon  tablets,  the  people  who  reared  it  had  published  a 
record  of  themselves,  through  which  we  might  one  day  hold 
conference  with  a  perished  race,  and  unveil  the  mystery  that 
hung  over  the  city." 

Page  153  and  F  12.  Third  figure  from  the  top  is  a  bird's 
beak  in  the  mouth  of  an  ahau,  or  king.  A  drawing  similar  to 
this  is  in  the  Dresden  Codex ;  there  is  also  a  portion  of  a  cauac, 
or  cavac,  staff  of  oflBce. 

Page  156  and  D  8.  One  of  the  two  principal  cartouches, 
is  an  approach  to  hc^en,  to  expend  with  economy ;  there  is  also 
a  part  of  E,  them ;  a  pgrt  of  ahau,  king,  or  ahaue,  queen. 

Page  158  and  A  2.     Some  ahaus^  kings. 

Stephens  observes  :  "  Copan  may  have  been  a  holy  city,  the 
Mecca  or  Jerusalem  of  an  unknown  people ;  I  believe  that  its 
history  is  engraven  on  its  monuments  '/'  and  he  infers  that  the 
Mexicans  had  the  same  written  language  with  the  people  of 
Copan  and  Palenqu^.  I  do  not  coincide  with  this  view,  but 
rather  that  the  people  of  Copan  and  Palenqud  had  each  their 
own  graphic  arrangement.  In  regard  to  the  people  of  Yucatan 
we  have  had  lately  brought  to  light  their  Maya  alphabet.  As 
yet  no  alphabetic  arrangement  has  been  discovered  in  Mexico. 

Having  examined  the  hieroglyphs  of  Yucatan  and  compared 
them  with  the  alphabet,  they  seem  to  me  to  be  more  ancient  than 
the  alphabet.  In  regard  to  the  hieroglyphs  of  Palenqu^,  I  am  led 
to  believe  that  there  is  more  similarity  between  them  and  those 
of  Yucatan  than  with  those  of  Copan.  As  to  the  hieroglyphs 
of  Copan,  they  stand  rather  alone,  but  if  any  thing,  approach 
slightly  to  those  of  Palenqu^ ;  as  Copan  and  Palenqu^  have 
more  of  the  figurative  character. 

British  Honduras. 

For  years  past  indications  of  ancient  ruins  have  been  mot 
with  of  Yucatan  character.  At  present  there  is  an  expedition 
exploring  the  river  Mopan,  or  Belize,  under  Dr.  Berendt,  who 
has  the  intention  of  going  as  far  as  Lake  Peten.  Seven  fine 
palaces  are  said  to  have  been  fallen  in  with  already,  larger  than 
the  monuments  of  Palenque,  among  the  ruins  of  a  vast  city.* 

*  June  16,  1868,  Mr. presented  stono  head  of  idol,  from  this  district, 

to  the  Anthropolo^col  Society;  looks  like  a  volcanic  stone;  also,  some 
crania. 

VOL.  III.  X 


306  bollaert  on  amekican  hiebogltphs. 

Dresden  Codex. 

With  B.  de  Bourbonrg^s  intimation  that  the  Dresden  Codex, 
and  the  Codex  Mexicanus,  No.  2,  were  in  identical  characters, 
I  proceeded  to  examine  the  facsimile  of  the  Dresden  in  the 
Kingsborough  collection,  and  compared  page  23  with  a  pho- 
tograph from  the  original,  kindly  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Forstermann, 
the  royal  librarian  at  Dresden.  In  this  communication  I  can 
only  give  a  few  results,  reserving  for  another  opportunity  the 
readings  I  may  obtain  from  the  three  Maya  codices. 

According  to  Humboldt,  the  Dresden  Codex  was  purchased 
in  Vienna,  in  1739.  It  is  of  a  material  made  of  the  agave,  and 
in  form  like  those  of  Mexico,  that  is,  a  tahella  plicatiles,  nearly 
twenty  feet  in  length,  containing  forty  leaves,  covered  with 
paintings.  Each  page  is  seven  inches  and  three  lines  in  length, 
and  three  inches  two  lines  wide.  The  form,  analogous  to  the 
ancient  diptychs,  distinguishes  the  MS.  at  Dresden  from  those 
at  Vienna  and  the  Vatican ;  but  what  renders  it  remarkable  is 
the  disposition  of  the  simple  hieroglyphs,  many  of  which  are 
arranged  in  lines  as  a  real  symbolic  writing.  He  also  calls  this 
a  calcuUforme  system  of  writing,  which  term,  I  suppose,  indi- 
cates the  recurrence  of  the  red  and  black  dots  and  the  red  and 
black  lines,  of  which  I  am  ^ot  as  yet  able  to  offer  decided  ex- 
planation, but  they  may  indicate  numerical  value,  particularly 
in  connection  with  periods  of  time.  The  Mayas  counted  as 
follows:  four  5=20,  five  20=100,  four  100=400,  twenty 
400=8000,  twenty  8000=160,000,  and  even  further. 

The  Dresden  Codex  contains  records  of  the  mythic,  historic, 
and  ritualistic  character ;  and,  like  the  other  two,  made  up  of 
profiles  and  writings,  or  that  by  the  side  of  the  profiles,  which 
express  symbolically  the  facts,  are  found  the  explanation  in 
phonetic  characters. 

The  photograph  of  page  23.  I  have  read  from  the  bottom 
upwards,  and  from  right  to  left.*  The  first  group  is  apparently 
a  mother  holding  a  young  girl  before  her,  and  a  younger  one  is 
carried  at  her  back.    The  mother's  name  or  rank  is  designated 


•  In  B.  de  Bonrbourg's  "  Quatre  Lettres,"  etc.,  he  saye  the  MSS.  are  to  be 
read  from  right  to  left ;  then  one  side,  and  then  the  other  of  the  page. 


BOLLAEBT   ON  AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS.  307 

loj  a  symbol  on  the  head.  The  reading  of  the  hieroglyphs  about 
"the  group  seems  to  be  as  follows :  We  come  to  thy  presence  to 
implore.  The  second  group, — a  female  with  a  deity  or  magician : 
The  young  female  implores  before  the  Deity,  she  weeps  hut  has 
courage.  The  third  group  probably  represents  a  king  and  a 
young  female  :  She  has  made  a  vow  about  the  king  to  tJie  magi^ 
dan  .  .  .  the  Icing  is  happy  .  .  . 

The  second  compartment  contains  a  sitting  female  figure, 
who  makes  ofiering  of  a  tortoise.  Here  are  symbols  of  chief, 
magician,  queen,  to  unite ;  may  mean — tJiat  after  her  marriage 
to  the  king  she  presents  an  offering  of  a  tortoise. 

There  are  now  four  lines  of  hieroglyphs,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing may  be  the  meaning :  Tlie  sacred  bird  chel  is  sacrificed,  there 
is  weeping;  the  bride  weeps  for  the  bird,  she  makes  a  vow  or  prays 
for  the  hing,  she  offers  a  tortoise,  a  great  feast  is  given. 

The  third  compartment.  Here  is  portion  of  a  female  figure, 
holding  a  symbol  like  part  of  ik,  courage ;  and.  Thou,  0  king, 
hast  given  us  the  fi^sh  feast ;  we  have  cried  for  joy. 

I  can  only  here  ofier  a  very  brief  summary  of  the  principal 
subjects  contained  in  the  Dresden  Codex. 

1st  section,  pages  74  to  70.  Mythic  personages,  man  and 
woman,  who  have  come  to  Yucatan ;  they  have  procured  water  for 
the  aborigines.  The  symbols  generally  seem  to  have  reference 
to  periods  of  time ;  the  hieroglyphs  to  the  historical  portions. 

2nd  section,  pages  69  to  60.  The  mythic  personages  are 
deified ;  something  like  union  of  the  sexes ;  warriors  appear ; 
canoes  seen;  fishing;  priests;  diviners,  or  magicians;  sacri- 
fices ;  a  chief  taken  prisoner  and  brought  before  a  king. 

3rd  section,  pages  59  to  51.  Symbols  and  hieroglyphs,  pro- 
bably detailing  the  circumstances  of  section  2.  At  page  53,  a 
woman  is  seen  hanging,  and  as  if  dead. 

4th  section,  pages  50  to  46.  Well  drawn  and  finely  coloured. 
50  is  a  man  with  a  book  trembling  before  a  priest,  or  king ;  re- 
presentation of  combats,  in  which  warriors,  priests,  magicians, 
deities,  and  animals  are  depicted. 

5th  section,  pages  45  to  29.  Domestic  scenes,  people  weep- 
ing ;  the  sun ;  warriors  with  tomahawks ;  men  in  canoes ;  war- 
riors killing  a  chief  or  king ;  animal  with  lighted  torch ;  nn 

x2 


308  BOLLAERT  ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS. 

rapto.  Drunken  man  on  the  head  of  tapir ;  woman  with  water ; 
young  woman  in  canoe  with  an  old  man ;  an  apartment,  with 
emblems  before  a  king;  another  apartment^  man  playing  a 
pipe,  another  beating  a  drum ;  a  ladder ;  man  with  tomahawks ; 
men  in  canoes ;  authority,  with  staflF  of  office ;  magician,  holding 
an  animal  by  the  tail  which  is  vomiting  water ;  man  paddling 
canoe. 

6th  section,  pages  28  to  25.  Figures  well  drawn  and  coloured, 
bold  and  expressive;  deities,  with  heads  of  animals;  authorities, 
with  staff  of  office;  kings,  magicians,  priests  or  sacrificers. 
This  section  comprises  religious  doings. 

7th  section,  pages  23  to  16.  Page  23  already  alluded  to. 
Priests,  women,  and  children ;  women  and  children  imploring 
deities ;  women  weeping,  and  apparently  dead  children ;  old 
man  weeping ;  many  women. 

8th  section,  pages  15  to  1.  Deities,  men  and  women;  men 
and  women  making  offerings  of  fruit  and  flowers  to  deities  con- 
nected with  the  dead ;  old  and  young  men,  some  weeping ;  men 
in  the  act  of  carving  symbols  on  stones,  and  by  twirling  an  in- 
strument in  the  hands.  3.  This  is  a  curious  compartment.  The 
principal  figure  is  a  nude  dead  man,  and  the  symbol  of  ahau,  or 
king,  is  observed.  From  the  centre  of  the  body  rises  a  figure, 
with  a  hawk's  head  and  has  four  wings,  having  in  its  beak  what 
may  be  meant  for  one  end  of  the  entrails.  Four  groups  of 
figures  surround  the  corpse.  This  may  be  emblematical  of  the 
soul  or  life  going  to  another  world.  2.  Magician  and  another 
person  performing  an  incantation  over  fire;  male  figures;  a  man 
with  another  on  his  back. 

The  pages  are  mostly  in  three  horizontal  compartments,  and 
these  divided  into  three  perpendicular  ones.  All  the  pages 
have  symbols  and  hieroglyphs,  the  reading  of  which  is  now  oc- 
cupying my  attention.  This  Codex  may  have  come  from 
Mayapan. 

Codex  Mexicanus,  No.  2  of  Paris. 

I  examined  this  Codex  in  Paris,  of  which  there  is  no  account 
of  how  obtained.  It  is  not  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  It 
is  composed  of  twenty-two  pages,  bent  backwards  and  forwards, 
rather  larger  than  in  the  Dresden,  being  about  nine  and  a  half 


BOLIAEBT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEROGLYPHS.  309 

inches  in  length  by  five  wide ;  the  page  generally  divided  into 
three  compartments.  The  colouring  is  much  less  varied  than 
in  the  Dresden,  only  green  with  brown  outline  on  a  white 
ground.     My  brief  examination  is  from  the  photographs.* 

No.  1,  recto,  first  or  front  page. — Illegible.  No.  2,  verso, 
or  back  of  first  page,  I  find — part  of  well  or  water ;  wind ;  king 
(reversed) ;  part  of  staff  of  oflSce ;  chief;  to  talk ;  dots  and  lines 
in  all  the  pages,  as  seen  in  the  Dresden.  No.  3,  recto, — Parts 
of  well  or  water;  moon  or  month;  part  of  summer;  profiles 
less  artistic  th^n  in  the  Dresden.  No.  4,  verso, — Kings ;  to  die ; 
tell ;  him ;  no ;  male  figure  with  hawk^s  head,  apparently  before 
a  deity.  No.  5,  recto, — May  be  two  kings;  male  figure  and 
bird ;  wind  ;  of  him ;  to  die ;  them ;  to  go.  No.  6,  verso, — 
Human  figure  with  head  of  animal,  under  a  canopy ;  them ;  to 
go;  wind;  part  of  summer;  another  seated  figure;  water; 
courage;  two  indistinct  figures;  king  (reversed).  No.  7,  recto, — 
Male  figure;  to  talk;  foot;  male  figure  on  a  fish;  offerings 
of  heads  of  fish ;  kings ;  figure  under  canopy.  No.  8,  verso, — 
two  figures  seated  on  hieroglyph  form  of  the  word  king ;  king ; 
male  figure  making  offering  to  a  king ;  to  die ;  water.  No.  9, 
recto, — Two  figures  seated  on  symbol  of  kings,  one  has  part  of 
to  die  as  an  eye ;  two  kings ;  water ;  to  talk ;  staff  of  oflBce ; 
courage;  human  figure  with  hawk's  head.  No.  10,  verso, — 
Down  the  centre  nine  well  marked  symbols  of  Be-en,  probably 
to  expend  with  economy;  nude  figure  as  if  in  water.  No.  11, 
recto, — Ten  large  symbols  like  Zee,  to  talk,  on  right  male  figure; 
left  male  figure  under  a  canopy,  on  symbol  of  kings ;  a  figure 
painted  black  (a  priest)  with  staff.  No.  12,  verso, — Two  male 
figures  seated  on  symbols  of  kings;  two  kings;  symbol  of 
summer ;  to  die ;  staff  of  oflSce ;  figure  painted  black  with  staff. 
No.  13,  recto, — Two  male  figures  seated  on  symbols  of  kings; 
centre,  an  old  man ;  unknown  symbols ;  king ;  old  man  before 
a  king  or  deity;  to  die.  No.  14,  verso, — Several  indistinct 
figures;  water;  summer;  symbols  like  those  at  page  74  of 
Dresden  Codex ;  six  series  of  symbols,  among  which  I  trace, 
breast,  water,  to  unite,  staff  of  oflSce,  wind,  magician,  kings 

*  A  set  is,  I  believe,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  presented  by  the  French 
Government. 


310  BOLLAEBT   ON   AMERICAN    HIEBOOLYPH8. 

(reversed)^  and  steps.  No.  15^  recto,  about  the  best  presenred 
page. — ^There  are  two  horizontal  lines  of  hieroglyphs ;  then  a 
square  of  twisted  rope,  inside  of  which  are  two  nude  figures. 
On  the  left  is  an  old  man,  on  the  right  a  young  one ;  beloWj 
the  body  of  a  serpent  covered  with  hieroglyphs,  on  the  head  of 
which  are  symbols  of  water,  summer,  trees.  Underneath,  figures 
of  a  young  man  and  young  woman  each  sitting  on  the  tail  of  a 
serpent ;  this  may  be  the  son  of  a  king  about  to  be  married. 
No.  16,  verso, — Female  seated  on  symbol  of  kings;  two  kings; 
a  rabbit  on  symbol  of  kings ;  male  figure  ofiering  to  a  deity ; 
staflf  of  oflSce;  bird  sacrificed ;  king  (reversed).  No.  17,  recto, — 
Figure  on  symbol  of  kings ;  figure  on  a  skull ;  two  kings ;  large 
central  figure  and  animal  with  bird's  head;  king  or  deity; 
kings;  to  die;  wind;  summer.  No.  18,  vcr^o. — To  die;  king 
(reversed) ;  staff"  of  oflSce;  summer;  grotesque  animals;  four 
columns  of  symbols,  apparently  meaning  moons  or  months; 
king;  steps;  may  be  the  sign  4  can  in  the  ahau  katun,  oi 
century  of  the  Mayas.  No.  19,  recto, — Wind;  breast;  sum- 
mer; steps;  king;  copal.  No. 20,  verso, — Three  figures  seated  on 
symbols  of  kings ;  two  kings ;  to  die ;  wind ;  kings ;  water  or 
wells ;  kings  (reversed).  No.  21,  racto. — Two  figures  seated  on 
symbols  of  kings ;  two  kings ;  to  die ;  figure  in  centre.  No. 
22,  verso. — Apparently  plain. 

This  appears  to  be  of  the  ritual,  historical,  and  domestic 
character,  and  may  have  had  its  origin  about  Kabah. 

Codex  Teoano  op  Madrid. 
When  in  Paris,  in  October  1866,  the  Abb^  B.  de  Bourbourg 
informed  me  that  in  the  February  preceding,  being  in  Madrid, 
he  met  with  this  the  third  known  Yucatan  Codex  in  the  hands 
of  Don  Juan  de  Tro  y  Ortolano,*  a  descendant  of  Cortez,  who 
allowed  the  Abb<$  to  bring  it  to  Paris,  when  the  government 
ordered  it  to  be  chromo-lithographed,  under  his  and  M.  L^once 
An  grand's  superintendence.  On  examination,  I  found  this 
codex,  like  the  other  two,  composed  of  similar  material,  a  paper 
of  the  agave  and  white  coating,  and  painted  on  both  sides.  It 
is  pretty  perfect,  has   thirty-five   leaves,    or   seventy   pages. 


*  FrofesBor  at  the  School  of  Charts,  Madrid. 


BOLLAEBT  ON   AMERICAN    HIEBOQLTPHB.  811 

Length  of  page  nine  inches  and  an  eighth  by  nearly  three 
inches.  Like  the  other  two^  the  pages  are  divided  generally 
into  three  eqaal  parts,  horizontally.  The  style  of  drawing  and 
finish  is  like  that  in  the  Bib.  Imp.,  but  better  coloured.  The 
pages  are  made  up  of  profiles,  symbols,  hieroglyphs,  and  red 
and  black  dots  and  lines. 

The  Abb^  gives  me  the  following : — ''  I  cannot  as  yet  tell 
you  exactly  what  kind  of  document  it  is ;  but  I  suspect  it  is 
written  in  one  of  the  Maya-Quich^  dialects,  and  incline  to 
think  it  may  be  a  calendar  used  by  the  priests  and  land-holders. 
You  have  seen  that  it  treats  much  of  beehives.  The  scenes 
for  making  wooden  idols  are  observed  in  this  MS.  The  opos- 
sum is  often  represented.  We  know  by  the  Popul  Vuh,  or 
sacred  books  of  the  Quiches,  that  the  opossum  opening  his 
legs  alludes  to  earthquakes ;  and  in  the  Quich^  language  at 
Babinal,  there  is  a  proverb  in  which  the  opossum  has  to  do 
with  the  rising  sun  after  an  earthquake.  In  the  Codex  Troano, 
we  often  see  the  opossum  chained  and  surrounded  by  water, 
excepting  on  one  side.  * 

Resume, — In  my  communications,  particularly  to  the  Anthro- 
pological Society,  regarding  the  Eed  man  of  the  New  World, 
and  his  doings,  I  have  considered  him  to  be  a  distinct  species, 
when  even  briefly  examined  by  brain,  crania,  skeleton,  physio- 
logy, etc. ;  if,  then,  he  be  distinct  in  physical  points,  is  it  to 
be  wondered  that  what  has  emanated  from  him  is  peculiar  to 
himself,  and  which,  to  my  mind,  has  no  connexion  with  the 
doings  of  other  species  of  mankind.  The  last  proof  we  have 
for  this  view  of  the  subject  is  the  recently  discovered  peculiar 
Maya  alphabet  of  Yucatan,  by  which  the  Mayas  have  written 
their  ancient  history,  its  rituals,  calendars,  and  other  matters. 
By  this  alphabet  I  have  been  enabled  to  read  portions  of 
sculptured  hieroglyphs  and  codices  of  Yucatan,  and  a  few  of 
the  hieroglyphs  of  Palenqu^  and  Copan. 

That  patriarch  of  travellers,  F.  de  Waldeck,  said  to  be  over 


•  In  B.  de  Bourbourg's  "  Quatre  Lettres,"  etc.,  he  offers  for  the  age  of  this 
MS.  one  thousand  years  before  our  era ;  and  that  the  Mayas  preserved  their 
books  by  washing  thorn  with  an  acetate  of  copper. 


812  BOLLAERT   ON   AMERICAN   HIEROGLTPHS. 

one  hundred  years  of  age,  lias  issued  a  prospectus  of  his  Ar^ 
chcKological  Encyclopaedia,  to  contain  more  than  two  thousand 
subjects  of  antiquities  from  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  Pern. 
He  alludes  to  the  probable  origin  of  the  Red  man  and  his 
works,  being ''  either  due  to  the  Old  World,  or  the  Hindoo 
continent/'  With  the  monogenists  he  will  be  the  last  favourite; 
but  with  those  of  the  polygenistic  school  I  have  embraced,  we 
are  at  least  thankful  to  him  for  his  elaborate  drawings ;  as  we 
are  to  Lord  Kingsborough  for  those  in  his  work  on  the  Anti- 
qnities  of  Mexico,  by  which  he  sought  to  prove  the  Jewish  ori- 
gin of  the  Red  man  !  Fictitious  wHtings,  Waldock,  in  his  Voy, 
Pitt,  to  Yucatan,  p.  47,  gives  drawings  of  twenty -eight  alpha- 
betic characters,  engraved  on  a  silver  collar,  reported  to  haye 
been  found  at  Chichen,  in  1778,  round  the  neck  of  an  ancient 
skeleton  !  The  letters  are  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  etc., 
probably  the  joke  of  some  lively  young  monk.  At  p.  64, 
Waldeck  gives  a  drawing  of  what  he  calls  an  aboriginal  saw, — 
the  rostrum  of  the  sawfish,  used  as  a  weapon  of  war,  said  to 
have  been  brought  by  a  Frenchman  from  the  interior  of  Yu- 
catan. On  this  is  a  regular  elongated  Egyptian  cartouche,  with 
five  symbols,  which  do  not  appear  to  me  to  have  any  relation 
with  New- World-glyphs ;  this  I  look  upon  as  spurious. 

Nicaragua. 

For  this  country,  I  have  recourse  to  Squier^s  Travels  in 
Central  America  and  Nicaragua.  Squier  thinks  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Nicaragua  may  have  been  of  Toltec  stock. 
'^  That  the  monoliths  of  Subtiaba  resemble  those  of  Copan ;'' 
but  I  may  observe,  there  is  nothing  of  the  Copan  character  of 
hieroglyph  on  them.  Page  327.  On  idol  No.  1  is  a  symbol 
approaching  the  Maya  eznal,  "  magician^*.  Page  408.  Here 
are  figures  approaching  some  seen  in  Mexican  rituals.  Vol.  ii. 
Lines  and  dots  are  observed,  probably  intended  for  numerals. 
Outlines  of  figures,  generally  more  like  those  of  Chiriqu^  than 
of  Copan,  and  not  very  ancient.  Figures  of  circles  predo- 
minate. Squier  supposes  that  the  Nicaragua  monuments  were 
erected  by  a  people  the  Spaniards  found  there,  and  their  lan- 
guage, the  Niquiran,  brought  in  by  a  colony  from  Mexico. 

Page  347.    The  aborigines  of  Nicaragua  had  MSS.  which  the 


BOLLAEBT   ON  AMERICAN    HIEBOOLYPHS.  313 

Spaniards  called  books^  painted  in  black  and  red  on  deer-skins; 
they  were  a  hand^s  breadth  or  more  in  width,  ten  to  twelve 
yards  long,  and  folded  like  a  screen.  Oviedo  observes,  "  though 
these  were  neither  letters  nor  figures  (Spanish),  they  were  not 
without  their  meaning." 

Chiriqui  in  Vebaguas. 
I  refer,  for  accounts  of  antiquities  connected  with  the  pre- 
sent subject,  to  Dr.  Seemann's  Voyage  of  the  If eraZd,  1848,  Trans, 
Amer.  Ethno,  Soc,  1853,  to  my  Ethnological,  etc,,  Researclies  in 
South  America  (Triibner,  1860),  and  to  a  paper  of  mine  on 
Chiriqui,  Trans,  Ethno,  8oc.,  London,  1863.  It  would  seem 
that  the  tribes  of  Veraguas  have  some  connexion  with  those 
of  Nicaragua.  At  page  30,  of  my  South  American  Antiquities, 
I  give  details  and  plate  of  the  Piedra  Pintada,  or  engraved 
rock  of  Caldera  in  West  Veraguas.  Every  part  is  covered  with 
figures  representing  the  sun,  a  series  of  heads,  scorpions,  and 
several  symbols.  At  p.  155,  same  work,  I  allude  to  examples 
of  symbols  on  ancient  vases ;  but  there  is  nothing  approximat- 
ing to  the  Maya.  South  of  Chiriquf,  and  having  crossed  the 
river  Atrato,  old  Spanish  writers  state  that  the  people  of  Zenu 
had  books  with  writing.     I  know  of  no  example. 

New  Granada. 
At  p.  34  of  my  South  American  Antiquities,  I  allude  to  very 
ancient  carvings  on  stone,  at  Timan& ;  some  are  of  animals, 
and  may  have  had  to  do  with  a  calendar.  At  p.  40,  I  state 
that  about  Nieva,  according  to  Velasco,  there  existed  stones, 
on  which  were  cut  in  relief  strange  characters  at  various  angles, 
.figures  of  animals,  flowers,  and  figures  that  looked  like  numerals, 
these  I  call  pre-Chibcha.  Not  very  far  south  is  the  country 
of  the  Panos,  who  had  their  MS.  books,  details  of  which  will  be 
given  when  treating  (in  another  paper)  on  the  ancient  writings 
of  Peru.  At  p.  32  of  my  same  work,  I  give  details  of  the  later 
Chibcha,  or  Muizca  period,  of  N.  Granada,  and  of  their  calen- 
dars, with  symbols  of  frogs,  notched  sticks  serving  as  numerals, 
snakes,  circles,  gnomons,  human  figures,  heads,  fish,  insects, 
bows  and  arrows,  etc.  However,  all  that  has  been  preserved 
of  the  Muizca  wnting  are  the  representations  of  the  numei'als 


314  BOLLAEBT  ON   AMERICAN   HIEBOaLTPHS. 

1  to  10  and  20^  which  are  of  merely  figurative  origin^  and  have 
no  connexion  with  the  Maya. 

Conclusion, — Comparing  the  Maya,  Palenqa^,  and  Copan 
hieroglyphs  with  those  of  Nicaragua,  I  find  no  connexion  with 
the  latter;  what  there  is  in  Nicaragua,  may  be  some  early 
Toltec  engrafted  on  aboriginal  glyphs,  of  purely  figurative 
character.  The  more  ancient  glyphs  of  Chiriqul,  as  well  as 
later  ones,  are  peculiar  to  that  region.  With  regard  to  New 
Granada,  there  was  a  pre-Chibcha  period,  of  which  there  are 
graphic  records.  In  later  times,  there  was  a  system  of  figura- 
tive symbols,  particularly  for  the  working  of  the  lunar  calendar, 
numeration,  and  other  purposes.  At  no  distant  date,  I  hope 
to  lay  before  the  Anthropological  Society  a  detailed  examina- 
tion, by  the  Maya  alphabet,  of  the  Dresden,  Paris,  and  Madrid 
Yucatan  Codices. 


315 


XXI. — Report  an  the  Researches  of  Dr.  Edouard  Dupont  in  the 
Belgian  Bone-Caves  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Lesse,  By 
C.  Caetbr  Blake,  F.G.S.,  Hon.  F.A.S.L.,  Associ^ Stranger 
de  la  Soci^t^  d'Anthropologie  de  Paris,  Corresponding 
Member  of  the  Sociedad  Antropol6gica  Espanola,  and  of 
the  Anthropological  Section  of  the  Soci^t^  des  Amis  de 
de  la  Nature  de  Moscoa,  Lecturer  on  Comparative  Anatomy 
at  Westminster  Hospital. 

It  will  be  in  the  knowledge  of  many  anthropologists  that  ex- 
cavations have  been  carried  on  for  the  last  two  years  in  the 
province  of  Namur,  and  that  M.  Dupont  has  been  commissioned 
by  the  Belgian  government  to  superintend  work  which  has 
been  defrayed  at  their  expense.  Several  writers  have  pub- 
lished accounts  of  these  discoveries,  and  some  of  these  ac- 
counts have  been  without  the  sanction  of  the  gentlemen  to 
whose  labours  all  the  value  of  the  present  facts  is  due. 

It  has  been  known  for  a  long  while  that  remains  of  man 
and  of  extinct  animals  have  been  discovered  in  the  caves 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  village  of  Furfooz,  near  Dinant. 
These  discoveries  have  been  more  or  less  communicated  to 
English  readers,  by  several  notices  which  have  appeared  in  the 
weekly  press.  It  was  therefore  thought  necessary  by  the  An- 
thropological Society  of  London  to  adopt  the  suggestion  made 
to  them  by  their  active  local  secretary  at  Brussels,  Mr.  John 
Jones,  and  to  send  a  delegate  to  the  Wallon  caves,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  detailed  report  in  conjunction  with 
M,  Dupont.  That  pleasurable  duty  devolved  on  me ;  and  on 
the  5th  of  July,  1866, 1  left  London  for  this  purpose,  and  after 
consultation  with  our  representatives  at  Brussels,  arrived  at 
Dinant  on  the  evening  of  the  9th  July.  M.  Dupont,  who  had 
been  made  aware  of  the  purport  of  my  visit,  received  me  with 
the  utmost  cordiality,  and  placed  that  information  at  my  hands 
of  which  it  will  now  be  my  duty  to  inform  you. 

Prolonged  and  numerous  visits  were  made  by  me  to  the 


31 G         REPORT  OK  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

various  bone-cavos  in  the  Lcsse  valley,  and  I  examined  the 
whole  neighbourhood  with  M.  Dupont.  During  a  part  of  my 
investigations,  I  was  accompanied  by  our  Vice-President,  Dr. 
B.  S.  Chamock.  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  caverns 
on  the  banks  of  the  Lesse.  The  Trou  do  Pont-^-Lesse ;  T. 
Magrite  ;  T.  de  la  roche-tl-Penne ;  T.  de  la  Loutre ;  Des  Blaire- 
aux ;  T.  de  Fours ;  T.  de  la  Naulette ;  T.  de  FHyene ;  T.  de 
Chaleux ;  two  other  caverns  at  Chaleux ;  T.  des  Nutons ;  T.  de 
Frontal ;  T.  Rosette ;  T.  qui  Igne  (qui  fume) ;  T.  Beuviau ;  T. 
St.  Barth^lemy;  T.  des  AUemands;  T.  de  Praules;  and  T. 
de  Gendron  (the  latter  belonging  to  the  age  of  polished  stone). 
In  order  that  my  readers  may  receive  a  clear  knowledge  of  the 
principal  features  of  the  district,  and  attain  definite  ideas  as  to 
the  evidence  of  human  occupation  of  the  caves,  I  shall  here 
quote  from  Dr.  Dupont's  first  report  to  the  Belgian  Minister 
of  the  Interior.  Herein  will  be  found  the  leading  facts  with 
regard  to  the  Trou  de  Nutons,  and  that  of  the  Frontal,  near 
Furfooz. 

From  the  Moniteur  Beige,  Jan.  24,  1865. 

Report  addressed  to  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  on  the  sci- 
entific excavations  made  in  the  Province  of  Namur  during  the 
year  1864. 

Monsieur  le  Ministre. — I  have  the  honour  to  render  you  an 
account  of  the  results  of  the  scientific  excavations  which  you 
have  charged  me,  at  the  request  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences,  to  execute  in  the  caverns  of  the  province  of  Namur. 
I  have  commenced  operations  by  the  exploration  of  some  caverns 
on  the  banks  of  the  Lesse,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dinant. 
This  river  flows  through  a  narrow  and  deep  fissure.  Its  pre- 
cipitous banks  still  present,  at  many  points,  traces  of  pri- 
mitive nature,  such  as  we  like  to  imagine  as  existing  at  the 
period  when  man,  retired  in  caves  of  the  rocks,  lived  on  the 
products  of  hunting  and  fishing,  in  a  state  of  barbarism,  which 
recalls  that  of  the  least  civilised  tribes  of  America  and  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

The  Lesse  filrst  traveraes,  not  far  from  its  source,  the  cele- 
brated grotto  of  Han,  which  yearly  attracts  so  many  visitors. 
It   soon   enters   amongst  the  schistose  and   quartzosc   rocks 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         317 

(known  in  the  country  under  the  name  of  agauches),  the  bar- 
renness of  which,  so  energetically  encountered  elsewhere  by 
the  inhabitants,  ranks  this  country  amongst  the  Ardennes  re- 
gions. The  river  advancing  forms  numerous  and  elegant  wind- 
ings between  two  encampments,  covered  with  thick  woods,  in 
which  are  still  living  wolves,  wild  boars,  and  stags ;  it  traverses 
the  royal  domains  of  Ciergnon  and  of  Ardenne,  and  subse- 
quently again  encounters  the  calcareous  rocks  on  the  limits  of 
the  commune  of  Furfooz. 

The  aspect  of  the  valley  then  becomes  magnificent;  the 
rocks,  rising  vertically,  showing  their  greyish  masses  covered 
with  parasitic  plants  amidst  a  vegetation  of  birch,  oak,  hazel, 
and  eglantine ;  at  intervals,  sometimes  on  one  bank,  sometimes 
upon  the  other,  fair  meadows  extend  themselves  between  the 
inaccessible  walls  of  marble  and  the  limpid  river,  which  forces 
the  rocks  to  yield  to  its  caprices. 

It  is  at  this  spot  where  nature  has  displayed  her  luxuriant 
beauties,  that  in  old  time  and  at  difierent  intervals  man  esta- 
blished his  habitation, — it  is  there,  in  fact,  that  the  conquering 
Romans  constructed  a  formidable  fortress,  which  was  utterly 
overturned  by  the  invaders  of  the  old  empire  of  the  world ; 
and  there,  too,  that  the  aboriginal  tribes  fixed  their  abode  pre- 
vious to  their  destruction,  not  by  man,  but  by  one  of  the  most 
terrible  of  natural  elements, — ^by  water  torrents. 

The  Roman  fortress  of  Hauteraiscenne  is  built  upon  a  table- 
land of  small  extent,  and  almost  inaccessible.  On  the  south, 
abrupt  rocks,  more  than  a  hundred  metres  high,  rise  perpen- 
dicularly, and  the  Lesse  flows  at  their  feet.  A  very  deep  ravine 
separates  it  completely,  on  the  north,  from  the  neighbouring 
plateaux.  This  ravine  is  scarcely  a  hundred  metres*  distant 
from  the  river ;  and  these  rocks  rising  in  the  peaks  of  twenty 
metres  above  the  narrow  ridge  which  unites  them  to  the  moun- 
tain, isolate  the  camp  to  the  east.  The  legionaries,  doubtless, 
did  not  consider  themselves  sufficiently  secured  by  this  natural 
obstacle ;  they  constructed  there  a  redoubt,  which  may  still  be 
clearly  traced,  and  hollowed  in  the  rock  a  deep  fosse,  to  add  to 
the  natural  difficulties  of  the  places. 

•  The  metre  =  1  093633  yard. 


318  REPORT   ON   THE    BELGIAN    BONE   CAVES. 

It  is  especially  upon  the  west  side  of  the  camp  that  they 
accumulated  defences.  Prom  the  redoubt  in  question,  the 
plateau  slopes  gently  towards  the  Lesse,  so  that  in  a  space  of 
from  seven  to  eight  hundred  metres  it  descends  insensibly  to 
the  level  of  the  river ;  in  one  certain  point  only  it  presents  an 
elevation  {mamelon),  with  an  abrupt  edge.  This  surface  was 
too  large  for  a  post  of  this  importance ;  therefore,  the  defences 
were  circumscribed  within  a  space  of  forty  to  fifty  ares.*  The 
Eomans  chose  for  this  purpose  a  place  where  the  encampment 
of  the  Lesse  and  that  of  the  ravine  are  separated  by  a  length 
of  but  fifteen  metres  at  the  most,  and  they  constructed  there 
four  walls  in  masonry,  cased  internally  and  externally  with 
rudely  dressed  stones.     Two  of  these  walls  are  yet  visible. 

In  addition,  vestiges  of  advanced  fortifications  may  be  seen 
upon  the  greater  part  of  the  plateau.  A  trench  with  an  earthen 
rampart,  cut  across  its  entire  width,  formed  an  outer  camp,  in- 
tended, according  to  M.  Hauzeur,  to  protect  from  surprise  the 
camp  followers  and  the  herds  when  they  were  not  pressed  by 
the  enemy.  It  has  yet  to  be  learnt  at  what  period  of  the  Roman 
occupation  this  formidable  fortress  was  established. 

M.  Nicolas  Hauzeur,  who  has  unravelled  with  so  much  talent 
the  history  of  this  period,  so  unfortunate  for  our  countries,  has 
arrived,  with  regard  to  the  position  of  Hauteraisccnne,  and  of 
all  the  Roman  establishments  of  the  province  of  Namur  in 
general,  at  the  most  satisfactory  conclusions,  and  as  he  has 
permitted  me  to  make  them  known,  I  am  going  to  endeavour^ 
M.  le  Ministre,  to  sum  them  up  here. 

When  the  legions  led  by  CcBsar  subjugated  our  countries, 
this  land  was  held  by  a  system  of  occupation  analogous  to  that 
which  the  French  at  present  employ  in  Algiers  to  secure  the 
subjection  of  the  people  whom  they  have  conquered.  Around 
central  points  they  established,  at  short  distances  from  each 
other,  a  number  of  small  posts  of  observation,  which,  in  the 
event  of  the  rising  of  such  or  such  subdued  people,  fell  back 
rapidly,  and  gave  in  a  short  time  the  alarm  to  the  points  most 
strongly  occupied.    These  secondary  posts  have  been  recognised 


*  The  are  =  3-95  English  poles. 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.  319 

by  coins,  broken  pottery,  arms,  &c.,  which  cover  the  soil  of  their 
sites,  and  they  were  so  numerous  that  in  the  district  of  Ciney 
alone,  a  place  which  appears  to  have  been  a  central  point,  M. 
Hauzeur  has  found,  in  not  less  than  forty  different  localities, 
Boman  antiquities  of  the  two  first  centuries  of  the  Christian 
era. 

Towards  the  commencement  of  the  third  century  all  this 
country  was  ravaged ;  the  towns  and  other  positions  burnt  and 
razed.  This  was  the  result  of  a  first  irruption  of  barbarians 
fi*om  beyond  the  Rhine.  Amidst  the  ruins  of  these  habitations, 
in  fact,  only  coins  earlier  than  the  reign  of  Galienus  are  found. 
A  certain  space  of  time  afterwards  elapsed  previous  to  the  re- 
turn of  the  Romans  to  these  localities ;  for  few  coins  are  found 
of  the  middle  of  this  century,  but  a  great  number  belonging  to 
the  end  of  the  third  and  commencement  of  the  fourth ;  a  fact 
which  shows  that  the  legions  returned  only  towards  the  close 
of  the  upper  empire.  But  times  were  then  changed ;  always 
kept  on  the  alert  by  the  barbarians,  who  were  continually  en- 
deavouring to  pass  the  Rhine,  they  had  to  employ  the  most 
available  means  to  resist  them  energetically.  It  is  no  longer, 
therefore,  in  the  positions  most  favourable  for  the  establishment 
of  their  habitations,  that  M.  Hauzour  finds  the  remains  of  this 
period. 

They  constructed  their  fortresses  in  inaccessible  places,  where 
they  could  only  with  difficulty  procure  the  necessaries  of  life. 
Their  constructions  no  longer  exhibit  much  of  their  former 
splendour;  they  serve  only  for  defence;  no  more  vestiges  of 
that  celebrated  symmetry  in  the  arrangement  of  their  camps ; 
the  difficulties  created  by  art  are  added  to  natural  obstacles  to 
render  these  fortresses  impregnable  positions.  The  fortress  of 
Hauteraiscenne  is  one  of  this  kind ;  I  am  about  to  describe  its 
situation,  and  to  show  how  this  position,  with  the  artificial 
obstructions  which  are  accumulated  there,  was  fitted  for  a 
vigorous  defence.  Like  all  the  other  positions  of  the  Romans 
in  this  countiy  it  gave  way  before  the  torrent ;  this  laid  waste 
all  and  the  Franks  came  to  settle  amongst  ruins.  The  camp  of 
Hauteraiscenne  has  not  yet  been  regularly  explored;  some 
medals  of  the  era  of  the  Constantines  and  some  pottery,  are 


320         REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

almost  the  only  things  collected  up  to  the  present  time.  The 
flanks  of  the  escarpment,  upon  which  it  is  constructed,  have  no 
less  than  fifteen  caverns,  more  or  less  deep,  and  in  these  I  have 
commenced  the  scientific  excavations  which  you  have  entrusted 
to  me.  Two  only  in  the  country  bear  names  which  seem  to 
relate  to  the  fortress ;  it  is  that  of  the  gatte  d'or^  (golden  goat), 
a  name  which  is  given  to  all  places  where  vestiges  of  ancient 
buildings  are  found.  It  is  especially  difiused  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  ruins  of  feudal  castles,  and  it  is  established  in  the  belief 
that,  at  the  moment  of  the  taking  of  the  castle,  the  besieged  hid 
their  treasures  in  the  most  secret  places.  The  defenders  of  the 
camp  of  Hauteraiscenne,  according  to  the  legend,  would  have 
deposited  theirs  in  the  grotto  of  the  gatte  d'or.  Another  grotto 
which,  M.  le  Ministre,  I  shall  shortly  have  to  notice  from  another 
point  of  view,  is  that  which  is  called  in  the  country  the  Trou  dns 
Nutons.  A  great  number  of  caverns  in  the  country  are  so 
named,  and  a  legend  respecting  them  is  preserved  amongst  the 
people. 

The  Nutons  would  appear  to  be  little  men,  able  to  work  in 
metals,  to  shoe  horses,  or  to  make  baskets ;  they  inhabited  caves 
and  left  them  only  during  the  night.  The  inhabitants  brought 
to  the  entrance  of  their  subterranean  habitation  their  imple- 
ments which  required  repair,  and  deposited  as  payment  some 
bread,  of  which  these  mysterious  beings  were  particularly  fond; 
but  one  day,  says  the  legend,  they  mingled  ashes  with  the 
dough,  and  the  Nutons,  in  their  indignation,  quitted  the  country 
for  ever.  This  legend  occurs  again  in  Hainan t,  in  the  province 
of  Liege,  and  even  in  Scotland,  if  one  be  willing  to  see  in  the 
romance  of  Kenilworth,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the  history  of  a 
Nuton  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  a  romance  writer.  It 
would  not  be  impossible,  moreover,  according  to  one  of  my 
friends,  M.  de  Reul,  to  trace  this  same  legend  into  Norway, 
Germany,  and  Italy.  It  appears  to  me  -that  all  to  be  learnt 
from  these  details,  is,  that  the  Nutons  are  the  remnant  of  a 
proscribed  race,  who  may  have  taken  refuge  in  the  safest  places, 
and  who  endeavoured  to  live  there  by  skill  in  arts  unknown  to 


*  Anglo-Saxon,  gat,  gaet,  a  goat. 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         321 

the  inhabitants  of  the  country.  Are  the  heroes  of  the  legend 
diffused  through  such  different  and  distant  countries  of  the 
same  race  ?  This  is  a  subject  which  must  be  left  to  the  his- 
torian. 

As  regards  the  Nutons,  who  inhabited  Belgium,  M.  Grand- 
gagnage  is  inclined  to  believe  them  to  be  the  first  missionaries 
of  the  country.  Might  they  not,  with  greater  probability,  be 
considered  to  be  Gallo-Romans  who  had  escaped  massacre^ 
taking  refuge  in  caverns  ;  seeking  to  procure  food  without  en- 
dangering their  safety,  by  impressing  the  superstitious  spirit 
of  the  barbarous  populations ;  by  employing  their  industry  in 
mysterious  ways ;  and  forced  to  quit  the  country  by  vexations 
of  all  kinds.  Or,  again,  might  they  not  have  been  some  re- 
presentatives of  that  race  of  Indian  origin  wandering  about 
the  world  for  some  thousands  of  years ;  establishing  themselves 
in  rock-excavations ;  procuring  the  most  necessary  articles  by 
selling  baskets,  tinning  household  utensils,  shoeing  horses, 
telling  fortunes,  and  even  now  the  object  of  the  contempt  and 
animadversion  of  our  race :  in  other  terms,  might  they  not 
have  been  the  gipsies,  or  Bohemians,  when  they  made  their 
first  appearance  in  our  country  ?  This  opinion,  suggested  by 
M.  de  Reul,  is  certainly  that  which  best  accounts  for  circum- 
stances, and,  for  my  part,  I  avow  that  I  do  not  see  any  very 
serious  objections  to  it. 

The  first  grotto  in  which  I  have  searched  for  the  remains  of 
the  animals  which  peopled  our  country  in  the  latest  geological 
times,  is  precisely  this  Trou  des  Nutans,  at  Furfooz.  It  is 
hollowed  in  the  flanks  of  the  escarpment  upon  which  the  Ro- 
man fortress  is  built ;  turned  towards  the  south,  it  opens  oppo- 
site the  Lesse,  which  flows  at  its  feet,  in  the  midst  of  one  of 
the  most  charming  landscapes  in  the  country. 

It  is  a  long  passage,  wide  open,  in  which  rocks,  and  not  sta- 
lactites, form  figures  and  veritable  draperies,  covered  in  many 
places  with  delicate  green  mould.  The  ceiHng  shows  two  vast 
domes  aux  contours  singuliers  ;  the  sidewalls,  elegantly  scooped 
into  large  receding  masses,  make  of  this  cavern  one  of  those 
works  where  nature  displays  the  plenitude  of  her  inimitable 
caprices.  It  is  bare  rock ;  the  stalactite,  which  is  of  daily 
VOL.   ni.  Y 


322  REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

formation  in  most  caves,  and  which,  as  so  well  known  to  the 
visitors  of  the  Grotte  do  Han,  no  longer  oozes  from  its  walls. 
The  marble,  with  its  severe  tones, — the  protococcus,  with  its 
green  tints, — the  yellow  colour  of  the  clay  in  the  portions 
worked, — the  strong  and  hard  lines  of  the  fractured  rocks, — 
the  clear  and  sharp  shadows  of  their  figures, — the  movement 
and  animation  which  this  cavern,  so  long  abandoned  by  man^ 
presents  to-day  under  active  examination, — the  interest,  the 
emotion,  the  continual  expectation  of  some  antediluvian  objects 
carrying  us  back  to  the  first  ages  of  humanity,  and  even  to 
far  earlier  times, — ^besides  the  legend  of  the  mysterious  in- 
habitants of  the  grot  which  recurs  to  the  mind, — such  are 
the  objects  and  sentiments  which  impress  the  visitors  of  the 
Trou  des  Nutons. 

I  first  caused  to  be  removed  the  superficial  layer  of  the 
cavern ;  it  was  of  black  colour,  and  contained  mixtures  of 
objects  of  human  industry  of  an  antiquity  more  or  less  remote. 
M.  Hauzeur  recognised  amongst  them  money  and  glazed  pot- 
tery of  the  last  century ;  some  pieces  of  vases  of  the  middle 
ages;  some  objects  referrible  to  the  Frankish  period;  frag- 
ments of  arms,  phials  in  glass,  and  pottery;  a  belt-buckle,  per- 
fectly well  made,  etc. ;  some  medals  of  Domitian  and  Anto- 
ninus ;  fragments  of  vases  and  Roman  tiles ;  some  objects  in 
bronze ;  the  end  of  a  bow ;  a  spoon ;  the  clasp  of  a  toga ;  a 
pin,  etc.;  some  horses'  bits,  and  different  utensils  in  iron; 
finally,  a  bead  in  pottery,  which  M,  Hauzeur  refers  to  an  age 
prior  to  the  Roman  occupation.  I  subsequently  cut  into  the 
subjacent  layers ;  a  bed,  of  two  metres  in  thickness,  composed 
of  red  argillaceous  earths,  covered  the  whole  grot.  It  con- 
tained an  enormous  quantity  of  large  limestone  blocks,  dis- 
persed through  the  whole  earthy  mass,  and  mingled  in  a  state 
of  confusion  scarcely  credible,  with  a  great  number  of  bones 
and  objects  of  human  industry.  M.  Van  Beneden,  member  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  has  been  kind  enough  to  de- 
termine the  species  whose  bones  I  have  collected,  and  it  is 
under  the  high  guarantee  of  so  illustrious  a  savant  that  I  name 
the  fauna  of  our  country  at  a  period  so  remote. 

The  rehidf^er,  represented,  besides  the  different  pieces  of 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.  323 

the  skeleton,  by  more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  horns ;  the 
greater  part  have  been  broken  by  the  violence  of  the  water 
which  carried  the  earth  and  blocks  of  stone  into  the  cavern; 
I  have,  nevertheless,  received  several  well-preserved  specimens. 
The  glutton,  an  animal  allied  to  the  bear,  now  only  found  in 
the  coldest  regions  of  the  two  continents.  The  bear,  which, 
after  the  fullest  examination,  appears  to  be  the  brown  bear 
at  present  found  only  in  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  Sweden,  and 
Siberia.  The  chamois,  the  agile  inhabitant  of  the  snowy  crests 
of  the  Alps,  is  represented  by  several  fine  relics.  The  elk, 
whose  habitat  is  restricted  to  the  Arctic  regions.  The  stag, 
which  still  lives  in  our  woods  of  the  Ardennes,  is  very  rare. 
The  fox  appears  to  ofier  two  varieties,  judging  from  size  and 
other  characters.  The  tvolf,  which  ranges  from  Egypt  to  Lap- 
land. The  horse.  The  ox  {Bos  primigenius),  or  the  JJrus  of 
Caesar ;  it  has,  it  seems,  entirely  disappeared.  The  wild  goat, 
which  inhabits  the  most  elevated  summits  of  the  mountains  of 
Europe.  The  amphibious  and  common  campagnols.  The  grouse 
(Coq  de  hruyeres),  which,  like  the  stag,  has  remained  in  the 
Ardennes,  but  whose  principal  habitat  is  also  in  the  north. 
Fifteen  other  species,  at  least,  the  enumeration  of  which  would 
be  less  interesting,  were  found  also  entombed  in  this  argilla- 
ceous earth. 

A  great  number  of  relics  of  human  industry  have  been  ex- 
humed from  amidst  this  ancient  fauna,  so  strange  to  our 
coimtry ;  they  consist  of  cut  flints.  These  are  flakes,  flat  on 
one  side,  and  with  three  faces  on  the  other,  split  by  a  very 
adroit  blow  from  silicious  masses  found  in  our  locaUties,  where 
they  are  known  under  the  name  of  ^^  clavias'\  These  instru- 
ments present  two  types;  the  one,  and  that  which  is  most 
commonly  met  with,  is  a  flake  from  four  to  ten  centimetres 
long,  and  one  and  a  half  to  two  centimetres  wide,  very  sharp 
at  the  edges ;  I  have  not  collected  less  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty  of  them  from  the  Trou  des  Nutons  alone.  The  other 
type  is  rudely  squared,  of  two  centimetres  on  a  side.  Lastly, 
I  have  found  a  great  many  of  the  spoils  of  the  manufacture  of 
these  instruments.  The  first  type  is  known  under  the  name  of 
knives ;  they  are  found  in  the  whole  of  western   Europe  as 

Y  2 


324         BEPOBT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

evidences  of  the  first  industry  of  man  upon  this  part  of  our 
continent^  at  an  epoch  when  the  climate  and  the  fauna  differed 
remarkably  from  those  of  our  days.  I  have,  besides,  found 
some  wrought  bones.  The  first  is  the  tibia  of  a  goat.  This 
bone  of  the  leg  has  been  broken  at  one  end,  and  cut  as  a  flute 
at  the  other ;  it  is  a  whistle,  from  which  sharp  sounds  can  still 
be  drawn.  Afterwards,  two  small  bones  of  the  goat  (astragali) 
polished  on  two  of  their  surfaces,  and  entirely  identical  with 
those  which  children  still  use  in  their  play.  It  is,  then,  to  the 
antediluvian  people  that  we  owe  the  discovery  of  this  toy,  the 
truly  primitive  simplicity  of  which  is  in  due  relation  to  the 
slightly  advanced  civilisation  of  our  aborigines.  I  have  also 
collected  there  needles,  daggers,  arrowheads,  etc.,  evidencing 
a  quite  primitive  degree  of  art ;  fragments  of  vases  in  pottery 
made  by  hand,  and  of  manufacture  so  rude  that  an  idea  can 
scarcely  be  formed  of  it;  the  remains  of  fires  at  which  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  the  Trou  des  Nutons  cooked  their  re- 
pasts ;  finally,  a  great  number  of  bones  of  the  limbs  of  the 
horse,  ox,  reindeer,  etc.,  all  broken  longitudinally  for  the  ex- 
traction of  the  marrow. 

Such  is  the  very  remarkable  ossiferous  layer  which  I  have 
explored  in  the  Trou  des  Nutons,  at  Furfooz.  It  rested  upon 
a  bed  of  stalagmite,  admirably  homogeneous,  more  than  a  foot 
thick,  which  uniformly  covered  the  grotto  over  three-fourths 
of  its  extent.  Under  this  stalagmite  lies  a  great  deposit  of 
sand  and  clay,  well  stratified,  not  containing  bones,  so  far  as 
known ;  it  is  more  than  six  metres  thick ;  I  am  at  present  oc- 
cupied in  working  it,  and  I  shall  have  the  honour,  M.  le  Mi- 
nistre,  soon  to  render  you  an  account  of  the  result  of  my  re- 
searches. 

At  about  two  hundred  metres  below  the  Trou  des  Nutons, 
the  escarpment  which  borders  the  Lesse  affords  a  new  grotto. 
It  is  Hke  its  neighbour,  wide  at  the  opening ;  its  entrance  is 
likewise  surmounted  by  eroded  {decoiipes)  rocks;  but  it  is  a 
great  deal  smaller.  It  is  divided  into  two  chambers ;  the  ex- 
terior hardly  six  metres  in  depth ;  the  other,  which  opens  at 
the  bottom  of  the  last,  is  a  small  deep  passage,  three  metres 
wide  and  two  metres  high.     This  cavern  contained  a  rich  de- 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         325 

posit  of  human  bones^  which  take  thoir  place^  I  think^  amongst 
the  most  interesting  palaeontological  discoveries  made  in  Bel- 
gium up  to  the  present  time. 

On  the  22nd  of  November  last,  profiting  by  a  moment  when 
I  could  not  employ  all  our  workmen  at  the  Trou  des  Nutons, 
and  when  my  presence  there  was  not  necessary,  I  visited,  with 
two  of  them,  this  small  cave.  The  passage  at  the  bottom  was 
completely  obstructed  by  large  stones,  which  choked  the  en- 
trance. I  confined  my  operations,  therefore,  to  the  outer  cham- 
ber. Its  floor  was  covered  with  fragments  of  rock,  to  the 
thickness  of  more  than  two  metres.  I  had  it  dug  into,  and  at 
the  depth  of  thirty  centimetres,  we  found  all  the  vertebrao,  with 
the  ribs,  sternum,  and  pelvis  of  a  bear ;  then  some  pieces  of 
the  skeleton  of  a  goat.  It  was  just  when  night  was  compelling 
us  to  quit  the  grotto,  that  I  found  amongst  the  stones  a  human 
frontal  bone,  well  preserved,  belonging  to  an  individual  of 
fifteen  or  sixteen  years  old.  The  cavern  took  its  name  from 
the  circumstance.  Some  days  afterwards,  M.  Van  Beneden 
visited  these  places  at  my  invitation ;  some  human  limb-bones, 
and  a  great  number  of  animal  bones,  were  the  fruits  of  a  brief 
exploration. 

As  I  desired  that  these  discoveries  should  have  all  possible 
authentication,  I  requested  M.  Van  Beneden  to  return  at  his 
earliest  leisure,  engaging  not  to  continue  the  diggings  until 
several  savants  could  be  present.  On  the  10th  of  December, 
four  of  us  were  at  the  cavern,  Messrs.  Van  Beneden,  Hauzeur, 
De  Eeul,  and  myself.  I  caused  the  small  gallery  at  the  end  of 
the  excavation  to  be  opened ;  a  man,  lying  flat,  squeezed  him- 
self in,  and  found  there  a  jaw,  and  other  human  bones.  The 
aperture  was  enlarged,  and  we  could  judge  of  the  importance 
of  the  ossuary  which  revealed  itself  to  us.  An  enormous 
number  of  bones  of  our  species,  in  a  state  of  incredible  con- 
fusion, were  driven  between  large  stones,  and  surrounded  by 
earth  ;  it  became  evident  to  all  that  a  violent  cause  only  could 
have  placed  these  bones  amongst  them. 

We  removed,  ourselves,  the  earth  and  stones  with  the  great- 
est precaution,  and  very  soon  a  sight,  still  more  unexpected, 
presented  itself.     Upon  a  space  of  about  half  a  metre  square, 


326  REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

were  found  exposed  two  entire  skulls,  well  preserved,  and 
bones  of  every  kind, — shoulder-blades,  ribs,  vertebwe,  limb- 
bones,  etc.,  the  whole  belonging  to  beings  of  our  species, 
disposed  in  inexpressible  disorder.  The  quantity  of  bones  we 
found  that  day  was  so  great  that  two  men  could  hardly  trans- 
port them  to  Dinant.  The  next  week  nine  members  of  the 
Archaeological  Society  of  Naraur  came  to  verify  the  facts  re- 
lating to  the  position  of  these  bones,  and  M.  Van  Beneden  in- 
vited, in  my  name,  the  Academy  of  Sciences  to  assist  at  the 
exhumation  of  these  remains. 

On  the  26th  Dec,  six  savants  were  present.  A  considerable 
number  of  bones  were  again  taken  out  of  the  cavern,  and 
each  could  theorise  for  himself  upon  their  high  antiquity,  and 
the  cause  which  had  thrown  them  into  this  state  of  disorder. 
It  was,  in  fact,  unanimously  admitted  that  these  skeletons  might 
be  referred  to  the  age  when  man,  ignorant  of  the  working  of 
metals,  only  used  instruments  of  stone,  and  that  they  had 
been  mingled  with  stones  and  earth  by  a  great  inundation. 
The  human  bones  found  in  the  Trou  du  Frontal  belong  to  not 
less  than  thirteen  individuals  of  all  ages ;  there  are  some  be- 
longing to  infants  of  scarcely  a  year  old.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  flint  instruments  were  accumulated,  as  well  as  instru- 
ments in  bone,  a  needle,  tips  of  arrows,  etc.  I  recognised 
there  a  whistle,  quite  different  from  that  of  the  Trou  des  Nu- 
tons,  which  I  previously  mentioned.  It  is  a  phalanx  of  the 
reindeer  (which  bone  of  the  foot  is  hollow,  as  is  well  known, 
in  some  ruminating  animals).  A  small  hole  had  been  pierced 
in  the  midst  in  such  a  manner  that,  upon  applying  the  arti- 
cular surfaces  to  the  lips,  a  sharp  sound  could  be  produced. 
This  discovery  has  some  importance,  because  the  French  savants 
have  collected  identical  specimens  in  the  human  bone  caverns 
of  the  Pyrenees;  and  when  we  recollect  likewise  that  the 
flint  instruments  present  the  same  form  in  the  two  countries, 
we  are  brought  to  admit  that,  in  that  remote  period,  there 
existed  a  great  similitude  of  manners  between  peoples  so  dis- 
tant one  from  the  other. 

Another  discovery,  which  tends  to  throw  some  light  upon 
the  manners  of  these  ancient  inhabitants  of  our  country,  was 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         327 

that  of  several  objects  which  we  are  brought  to  consider  as 
amulets.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  a  fossil  shell,  longitudin- 
ally spiral,  which  conies  from  the  French  secondary  formations, 
distant  at  least  fifty  kilometres.  A  hole  is  bored  through  it 
by  artificial  means,  through  which  a  cord  may  be  passed  to 
suspend  the  object.  Then  a  fine  piece  of  a  transparent  violet- 
coloured  material,  called  in  mineralogy  fluorhie,  and  cut  very 
regularly,  is  found  mingled  with  the  human  bones,  and,  like  the 
other  object,  appears  to  me  to  have  come  from  France,  but 
only  from  a  point  about  fifteen  kilometres  distant.  The  num- 
ber of  remains  belonging  to  animals  is  also  very  great,  and  all 
seemed  to  indicate  that  they  are  the  remains  of  the  repasts  of 
the  aborigines.  M.  Van  Beneden  has  recognised  amongst  them 
the  reindeer,  the  horse,  the  ox,  the  bear,  the  wild  boar,  the 
grouse,  etc. 

I  am  not  yet  in  a  position,  M.  le  Ministre,  to  give  you  pre- 
cise information  upon  the  races  to  which  the  men  buried  in  the 
Trou  du  Frontal  belong.  I  hope,  however,  that  this  question, 
so  full  of  interest,  will  be  elucidated  within  a  short  time ;  I 
shall  then  have  the  honour  to  let  you  know  the  opinion  of  the 
very  competent  men  to  whom  it  will  be  submitted.   , 

Another  question  afterwards  arises.  How  came  human  ske- 
letons in  the  cavern  of  Frontal,  just  when  the  waters  preci- 
pitated themselves  there  and  mixed  up  the  bones,  the  earth, 
and  the  stones.  With  regard  to  the  solution  of  this  delicate 
problem,  we  have  to  felicitate  ourselves  that  the  explorations 
have  taken  place  before  a  number  of  highly  competent  wit- 
nesses. As  several  savants,  amongst  whom  I  will  mention 
Messieurs  Van  Beneden  and  Hauzeur,  have  adopted  the  expla- 
nation which  I  have  proposed,  I  shall  endeavour  briefly  to 
state  it. 

We  believe  that  the  inner  gallery  served  as  a  burial-place  to 
the  population  of  this  country,  at  a  time  when  the  reindeer 
lived  in  our  forests,  and  our  people  were  still  in  a  state  of  the 
greatest  barbarism.  They  have  placed  there,  either  at  the 
same  time  or  in  succession,  at  least  thirteen  corpses,  and  have 
closed  the  entrance  of  the  cavern  with  a  large  slab,  which  I 
have  found  below  the  opening,  which  it  fitted  perfectly,   so 


328  BEPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

that  the  corpses  were  protected  from  the  voracity  of  wild 
beasts. 

An  analogous  burial-place  was  noticed  in  the  south  of  France 
four  years  ago,  by  a  celebrated  French  anatomist,  M.  Lartet. 
Seventeen  skeletons  were  discovered  there,  unexpectedly,  by 
a  curious  working  man,  and  had  been  knocked  to  pieces  by 
an  ignorant  population.  M.  Lartet,  when  he  visited  the  spot 
eight  years  later,  could  only  verify  the  different  circumstances 
connected  with  the  period  of  the  inhumation,  and  the  circum- 
stances which  accompanied  it.  He  concluded  that  a  great 
funeral  repast  had  taken  place  before  the  sepulchre,  made  by  a 
people  who  used  only  stone  utensils,  and  who  existed  at  an 
epoch  when  the  country  was  inhabited  by  animals  quite  dif- 
ferent from  those  now  existing.  Ought  we  to  apply  to  the 
burial-place  of  Furfooz  this  opinion  of  the  French  savant,  to 
explain  the  remains  of  feasts  in  the  exterior  chamber  of  the 
cavern  ?  It  is  at  least  seductive.  If  now  we  seek  to  make  a 
history  of  the  phenomena,  of  which  the  two  caverns  of  Fur- 
fooz and  the  surrounding  country  have  been  witnesses  during 
this  remote  period,  we  shall  arrive  at  some  interesting  con- 
clusions as  to  the  antediluvian  history  of  our  country, — ^a  his- 
tory still  involved  in  the  most  profound  mystery. 

I  like  to  imagine  to  myself  our  mountainous  regions  of  that 
epoch,  with  their  hoar-frosts,  their  forests,  their  inhabitants^ 
BO  different  from  those  now  existing.  The  fine  rivers  furrowing 
our  hilly  countries  were  covered  with  ice  during  several  months 
of  the  year ;  the  oak,  the  birch,  the  pine,  and  the  hazel,  adorned 
with  their  sombre  verdure  the  rugged  escarpments  and  were 
laden  with  snow  and  hoar-frost  during  a  long  season;  the 
reindeer  united  in  great  herds ;  the  elk,  with  wide-spreading 
and  branching  horns,  filled  the  forests ;  the  horse  and  the  ox 
grazed  the  tufted  herbage  never  harvested  by  man ;  the  chamois 
bounded  from  rock  to  rock ;  the  bear,  in  its  squat  forms,  nour- 
ished itself  in  summer  on  succulent  roots  and  the  young  shoots 
of  trees,  and  passed  the  winter  in  lethargy ;  the  glutton  with 
its  rapacious  instincts,  wolves  and  foxes  innumerable,  brought 
scenes  of  carnage  amongst  these  gentle  and  peaceable  inhabi- 
tants of  our  forests.    And,  in  the  midst  of  this  natural  scenery. 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         229 

partaking  at  the  same  time  of  the  character  of  the  Alps  and  of 
the  Sweden  of  oar  days^  appeared  man^  not  endowed  with  those 
magnificent  attributes  of  civilisation  which  render  him^  to  some 
extent^  master  of  all  the  elements^  but  in  a  state  of  the  most 
complete  barbarism. 

The  rocks  furnished  him  with  shelter  in  their  sombre  cavities; 
the  skins  of  animals  served  to  clothe  him ;  unceasingly  in  quest 
of  food^  he  passed  the  day  in  the  rime-clad  forests^  chasing  wild 
beasts.  His  industrial  productions  indicate  a  quite  rudimentary 
civiHsation ;  neither  copper,  iron,  nor  any  of  the  metals  which 
constitute  the  power  of  existing  society  were  known  to  him ; 
flints  rudely  worked,  and  bones  cut  to  points  formed  both  his 
arms  and  his  domestic  utensils. 

All  seems  to  indicate  that  his  manners  assimilated  much  to 
those  of  the  Esquimaux ;  the  long  bones  of  ruminants  are  split 
longitudinally,  and  show  that,  like  the  Arctic  people,  fresh 
marrow  formed  their  feasts ;  they  have  still  this  trait,  in  com- 
mon with  them,  that  they  lived  in  the  most  filthy  state,  allowing 
to  accumulate  in  their  habitations  the  greater  part  of  the  re- 
mains of  their  repasts.  All  animals  furnished  them  with  food, 
but  the  reindeer,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  enormous  quantity 
of  remains  found  in  these  caverns,  was  particularly  esteemed. 
They  have  eaten  indifferently  a  great  many  wild  boars, 
horses,  grouse,  pike,  trout,  etc.  Fire  was  known  to  them,  as 
proved  by  the  traces  of  fires  and  the  remains  of  burnt  bones 
collected  by  me.  And  how  could  it  be  otherwise  ?  There  was 
a  time,  certainly,  when  man  was  unacquainted  with  fire ;  Hght- 
ning  and  volcanoes,  doubtless,  revealed  it  to  him.  We  ought 
probably,  as  a  celebrated  Swiss  archaeologist  has  remarked,  to 
see  in  the  perpetual  fire  so  religiously  preserved  in  ancient 
times,  a  proof  of  the  difiiculties  which  the  first  people  experi- 
enced in  obtaining  it,  and  how  much  they  appreciated  the  im- 
portance of  this  element. 

It  is  probable  that,  only  after  this  progression,  the  true  point 
of  departure  of  all  civilisation,  man  was  able  to  inhabit  cold 
countries.  It  is,  then,  during  the  lapse  of  this  second  period 
of  human  industry  that  ho  settled  in  our  regions,  and  to  it  we 
must  refer  the  remains  which  he  has  left  us  in  the  caves  of 
Furfooz.     But  very  soon  a  great  disaster  terminated  these  first 


330  REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

ages  of  our  species.  A  frightful  inundation  entirely  covered 
the  country ;  all  was  ruined ;  the  forests  were  destroyed,  animals 
and  men  alike  annihilated.  The  force  of  the  current  was  such 
that  rock  masses,  which  a  man  can  hardly  move,  were  trans- 
ported to  a  distance ;  the  waters,  forcibly  entering  the  Trou  des 
NutotiSy  produced  by  their  colHsion  the  fall  of  the  way  to  the 
entrance  of  the  cavern.  The  masses  of  stone  produced  by  this 
colossal  disruption  were  mingled  with  the  mud  deposited  by  the 
waters,  and  with  the  large  quantity  of  bones  forming  the  re- 
mains of  the  repasts  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  caves.  The  same 
thing  has  taken  place  in  the  cavern  which  served  them  for 
sepulture,  and  the  great  scattering  of  human  bones  amongst 
the  rock  fragments  is  the  result  of  the  violence  of  the  current. 
At  the  same  time  the  water  rats,  driven  by  this  mighty  flood, 
sought  in  vain  a  refuge  in  the  fissures;  several  hundreds  perished 
in  the  grots  of  Furfooz,  and  their  bones  were  scattered  in  the 
mass  of  earthy  deposit.  The  number  of  their  remains  is  so 
prodigious  that  they  form  one  of  the  most  characteristic  traits 
of  this  yellowish-red  clay  bed,  covering  the  surface  of  all  the 
caverns  where  I  have  made  borings. 

The  indescribable  confusion  which  prevails  in  these  deposits, 
it  is  evident,  can  only  be  explained  by  causes  analogous  to  those 
now  operating  in  nature.  The  elevation  of  the  Trou  des  Nutoiis 
above  the  Beliage  de  la  Lesse,  which  is  thirty-three  metres,  may 
be  nearly  two  hundred  metres  above  the  present  sea  level,  and 
that  of  the  Trou  du  Fro^ital,  which  is  eighteen  metres,  puts 
tbcm,  in  fact,  completely  out  of  the  reach  of  the  highest  floods 
of  this  river.  Do  we  see  there  the  traces  of  that  terrible  phe- 
nomenon of  which  all  races  have  preserved  the  remembrance  ? 
All  I  can  say  in  this  I'espect  is,  that  the  inundation  of  which  I 
endeavour  to  describe  the  disastrous  effects,  is  the  last  which 
reached  the  summits  of  our  table-land.  All  was  subsequently 
restored  to  order;  the  soil  was  covered  anew  with  a  vigorous 
vegetation ;  animals  and  man  reappeared.  The  climate,  mean- 
while, was  very  different  from  what  it  had  been ;  many  animals 
which  formerly  inhabited  our  regions  were  banished,  some  to 
the  heights  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  some  towards  the  Polar 
regions.  The  stag,  the  roebuck,  and  the  fallow  deer  replaced 
the  reindeer,  the  elk,  and  the  chamois ;  man  still  made  use  for 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         331 

some  time  of  flint  for  his  instimments^  but  he  polished  it  and 
made  it  into  more  useful  utensils.  Belgium  had  subsequently^ 
like  Switzerland  and  Denmark,  its  age  of  bronze,  as  proved  by 
the  intelligent  researches  of  the  Archaeological  Society  of  Namur. 
Iron  was  at  length  introduced  and  civilisation  could  take  its 
full  flight. 

Such  are  up  to  the  present  day,  M.  le  Ministre,  the  results 
of  the  mission  which  you  have  deigned  to  confide  to  me.  The 
national  protection  which  is  given  to  these  scientific  operations, 
and  the  grand  thought  which  has  suggested  it,  enables  us  con- 
fidently to  predicate  the  crowning  of  the  work. 

Edouard  Dupont, 

Dinant,  Jan.  12,  1865.  Doctor  of  Natural  Sciences. 

I  next  shall  quote  from  Dr.  Dupont^s  description  of  another 
typical  cave,  the  '^  Trou  Rosette"  : 

'^  At  the  summit  of  the  escarpment,  where  the  ancient  people 
of  Furfooz  fixed  their  habitation,  and  immediately  above  the 
Trou  du  Frontal,  which  served  as  a  burying-place,  is  a  cavern 
called  the  Trou  Rosette.  It  is  divided  into  two  small  galleries, 
about  five  metres  in  length  and  two  in  width,  running  parallel, 
and  communicating  by  a  large  and  nearly  circular  opening. 
The  total  height  is  about  four  metres,  and  it  was  filled  to  a 
depth  of  three  metres  with  yellow  earth  and  stones.  Only  one 
of  the  openings  was  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  an  entrance, 
and  neither  bones  nor  worked  flints  were  visible.  When,  how- 
ever, the  workmen  had  excavated  as  far  as  the  opening  into 
the  other  gallery,  these  objects  were  discovered  in  abundance. 
Bones  of  animals  were  found  mingled  with  those  of  man,  and  a 
careful  exploration  brought  to  light  a  human  skull,  crushed 
between  two  blocks  of  stone,  and  a  number  of  bones  and  flints 
embedded  in  the  yellow  clay.  It  was,  in  some  respects,  a  re- 
petition of  the  spectacle  of  the  10th  of  December  last.  My  first 
care  was  to  stop  the  work,  and  to  invite  M.  Van  Beneden,  and 
other  scientific  men,  to  corroborate  the  authenticity  of  this 
new  discovery.  M.  Van  Beneden  at  once  recognised  the  re- 
mains of  the  reindeer,  beaver,  and  other  animals,  associated 
with  human  bones,  which  were  those  of  three  individuals,  one 
apparently  an  infant,  and  another  perhaps  about  twenty  years 


332  BEPOBT   ON   THE    BELGIAN    BONE   CAVES. 

of  age.  Industrial  objects  were  rare  in  this  new  cavern ;  I  only 
found  some  pottery,  but  no  flints  or  cut  bones.  The  pottery 
was  similar  to  that  discovered  in  the  Trou  des  Nutons  and  in 
the  Trou  du  Frontal.  It  was  of  black  clay,  containing  cal- 
careous grains.  It  was  of  hand  manufacture,  and  was,  in 
some  cases,  marked  with  coarse  furrows.  It  had  only  been 
partially  hardened  in  the  fire.  The  men  of  the  Trou  Rosette 
were  therefore  nearly  contemporaneous  with  those  of  the 
Trou  du  Frontal.  They  lived  principally  on  the  flesh  of  the 
reindeer;  their  tools  were  flakes  of  flint  and  cut  bones,  and 
their  utensils  were  of  unbaked  clay.  Their  dead  were  deposited 
in  rock  cavities,  closed  with  a  flat  stone ;  and  they  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  inundation,  of  which  the  clay  of  our  fields  fur- 
nishes such  indisputable  evidence. 

'^  It  may  be  asked  whether  the  Trou  Rosette  served  as  a  place 
of  sepulture,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Trou  du  Frontal.  I  do 
not  think  so.  These  human  bones  were  collected  together  in 
one  comer  of  the  cavern,  crushed  by  large  stones,  and  were 
not  in  that  state  which  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  the 
skeletons  were  there  when  the  waters  burst  in.  I  believe,  on 
the  contrary,  that  the  bones  were  still  clothed  with  flesh ;  that 
the  corpses  were,  so  to  speak,  pounded  by  the  enormous 
masses  of  rock,  transported  or  dislodged  by  the  current.  The 
absence  of  flint  weapons  and  objects  which  we  must  look  upon 
as  amulets,  corroborates  this  view  of  the  matter,  as  does  the 
absence  of  the  stone  slab,  which  would  preserve  the  corpses 
from  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts.  Were  I  compelled  to  give  an 
opinion  on  these  human  debris,  I  should  be  inclined  to  recognise 
in  them  the  results  of  one  act  of  the  terrible  drama  of  which 
our  country  was  a  witness,  when  every  living  thing  in  those 
regions  perished  by  the  waters. 

'^  It  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  enlarge  upon  the  grandeur  of  this 
catastrophe,  or  upon  the  facts  by  which  its  occurrence  is  proved. 
An  inundation  which  covered  the  summits  of  our  plateaux,  more 
than  two  hundred  metres  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  de- 
posited upon  them  a  thick  layer  of  yellow  sediment,  is  an  event 
of  which  we  must  be  prepared  to  find  traces  whenever  we  study 
these  remote  epochs.     We  have  already  seen  how  it  scattered 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         333 

the  hmnan  dihris  in  the  other  caverns  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Furfooz.  The  Trou  Rosette,  in  my  opinion,  shows  us  how 
the  wretched  inhabitants,  to  escape  the  danger,  sought  refuge 
on  the  plateaux.  In  their  terror  they  imagined  that  shelter 
might  be  found  in  the  gloomy  cavern,  where,  however,  they 
met  their  death  in  the  midst  of  the  waters/' 

The  quaternary  stratigraphical  series  is  composed,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Namur,  of  two  pebble  beds,  each  of  which  is  capped 
by  a  deposit  of  mud. 

The  lower  pebhle  bed  is  formed  of  stratified  rolled  pebbles, 
derived  from  the  rocks  situated  in  Amont ;  and  is  associated 
with  sand  and  gravel.  It  is  surmounted  with  sand  and  clay, 
commonly  alternating  in  thin  layers  with  irregularly  disposed 
veins  of  rolled  pebbles  and  of  sand.  These  veins  are  often  re- 
placed in  the  caverns  by  beds  of  stalagmite.  The  name  of  lehm 
has  been  given  to  this  deposit  of  mud. 

The  upper  pebble  bed  is  composed  of  angular  pebbles,  dis- 
posed pell-mell  in  a  sandy  paste,  and  derived  from  the  immedi- 
ately neighbouring  or  subjacent  earth.  This  deposit  has  much 
raised  the  lower  beds ;  it  is  usually  covered  by  a  siliceous  mud 
(ninety  per  cent,  at  least  of  silica)  of  a  fine  substance,  and 
unstititified.  This  is  the  brick  earth,  or  loess,  properly  so 
called. 

The  angular  pebbles  and  the  loess  do  not  show  any  relation 
with  the  orographical  conditions  of  the  country.  They  cover  it 
over  its  entire  contour. 

The  rolled  pebbles  and  the  lehm  are,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
intimate  relation  with  the  hollowing-out  of  the  valleys  of  which 
they  are  the  consequence. 

A  section,  taken  on  a  natural  terrace  on  the  banks  of  the 
Meuse  at  Agimont,  near  Givet,  and  at  a  height  of  thirty-five 
metres  above  the  river,  indicates  these  deposits  with  their 
principal  characters  and  accidents. 

To  the  end  that  I  may  give,  before  the  more  detailed  exami- 
nation of  the  principal  caverns  excavated  by  M.  Dupont,  a  more 
clear  idea  of  the  composition  of  the  ground  in  which,  at  the 
first  glance,  so  much  mystery  appears  to  prevail,  I  shall  here 
point  out  that  the  composition  of  the  quaternary  soil  in  the 


334 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 


caverns  of  the  province  of  Namur  is  the  same  as  externally. 
Every  deposit  is  identical,  but  these  caverns,  having  commonly 
narrow  openings,  the  aqueous  phenomena  which  have  given 
birth  to  these  deposits,  have  not  always  those  evidences  inside 
which  on  the  outside  are  presented.  The  section  of  the  Trou 
de  Frontal  at  Furfooz  is  complete,  with  the  exception  of  the 
loess,  which  is  therein  badly  developed. 

As  the  quaternary  beds  are  generally  ossiferous  in  the  caverns, 
it  is  therein  that  the  palasontological  character  of  the  beds 
should  be  examined.  The  caverns  have  served  as  lairs  to 
hyaenas,  foxes,  bears,  badges,  or  even  have  been  the  habitation 
of  man.     The  external  part  rarely  contains  bones. 

The  rolled  pebbles  have  only  as  yet  exhibited  in  the  province 
of  Namur  some  remains  of  Elephas  primigenius,  Ursus  spelaeus, 
horse,  and  beaver.  But  the  mud  which  lies  below  these  con- 
tains a  rich  fauna,  whose  characters  agree  entirely  with  that  of 
the  fauna  of  the  rolled  pebble  beds ;  which  demonstrates,  as 
well  as  the  strati  graphical  evidence,  that  these  two  beds  are 
intimately  connected. 

The  fauna  of  the  lehm  is  composed  as  follows  : 


Extinct  species. 

Hyaena  spelaa 
UrsuB  spelaBus 
Elephas  primi- 
genius 
Bhinocertis  ticho- 
rinus. 


Emigrated  species. 

Cervns  tarandus 
Equus  cabaUos* 
Marmot 
Chamois 


Species  destroyed 
by  num. 

Ursus  arctos 
Two  large  species 
of  Bos 


Species  now  existing 
in  the  oountiy. 

Canis  yulpes 
Canis  lupus 
Meles  taxus 
Arvicola  amphi- 
bia 
Bat 

Sus  scrofa 
Cervus  elaphus 


Man  inhabited  the  banks  of  the  Lesse  at  this  epoch. 

Thirteen  caverns  amongst  the  twenty-four  which  have  been 
examined  up  to  the  present  day,  have  furnished  the  fauna  called 
that  of  the  reindeer,  always  at  the  base  of  the  deposit  of  angular 
pebbles. 

The  following  is  the  fauna : 


*  M.  Dupont  thinks  that  the  horae  disappeared  from  the  country  at  the 
same  time  as  the  reindeer,  and  that  it  was  not  again  introduced  till  the 
bronze  period,  when  it  was  domestic. 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 


335 


Emigrated  species. 

CervTis  tarandos 
Oervus  alas 
Oapra  segagrus 
Antilope  rupicapra 
Eqnus  caballus 
Gulo  loscuB 
Antilope  saiga 


Species  destroyed  by  man. 

Castor  Europaea 
Ursus  arctos 
Bos  taurus 


Species  existing  in  the 
country. 

CeryoB  elephas 
Oanis  vulpes 
Oanis  lapos 
Meles  tarns 
Arvioola  amphibia 
Vespertilio 
Sus  scrofa 
Capra  hircus 
Tetrao  tetrix 


The  Loess  has  not  yet  furnished  any  bones. 

The  caverns  which  contain  bones  above  these  beds  produce 
a  fauna  entirely  composed  of  existing  species,  and  of  some  which 
have  been  destroyed  by  man.  The  following  is  the  fauna  col- 
lected in  a  cavern  in  the  middle  of  debris  of  industry  of  the 
poKshed  stone  age :  Sus  scrofa,  Cervus  elaphus,  Capra  hircus, 
Arvicola  amphibia,  Tetrao  tetrix.  Bos  taurus.  When  examined 
in  a  general  manner,  the  quaternary  beds  of  the  province  of  Namur 
are  formed  of  two  series  of  deposits,  which  each  indicate  a  sepa- 
rate epoch  and  distinct  phenomena. 

The  first  series  is  composed  of  rolled  pebbles  and  of  strati- 
fied mud,  or  lehm,  which  are  fluviatile  sediments  deposited 
during  the  hollowing  out  of  the  valley.  M.  Dupont  considers 
that  the  doctrine  of  Mr.  Prestwich  on  this  subject  is  entirely 
correct  with  regard  to  the  Belgian  beds. 

This  first  epoch  is  then  characterised  by  great  fluviatile  phe- 
nomena, which,  according  to  their  extent,  sometimes  hollowed 
out  the  earth,  and  sometimes  deposited  thereon  rolled  pebbles 
or  mud.  The  fauna  of  this  epoch  includes  extinct  species,  as- 
sociated with  species  which  have  now  emigrated  to  colder 
climates  than  our  own. 

The  second  scries  of  quaternary  sediments  formed  of  angular 
blocks  and  of  loess,  is  completely  independent  of  the  first,  by 
its  fauna,  by  its  composition,  by  its  geographical  distribution, 
and  by  the  phenomena  which  it  presents.  In  fact,  the  fauna 
only  presents  the  species  emigrated  from  the  previous  fauna 
and  the  species  now  existing,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  extinct 
species. 

Nothing  indicates  for  the  pebbly  deposit  a  tmnsport  by  water. 


336  BSFOBT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

and  it  thus  forms  a  great  contrast  with  the  lower  pebble-beds. 
It  extends^  with  the  loess  which  caps  it  on  the  plateaux,  over 
all  the  country ;  it  was  a  great  mantle  of  mud  which  extended 
over  all  the  country ;  nevertheless  it  is  evidently  and  entirely 
posterior  to  the  first  series  of  deposits^  as  the  reindeer  fauna  is 
presented  in  its  lower  portion  at  every  height. 

Distribution  of  the  principal  Mammalia  in  the  quaternary 
beds  of  the  province  of  Namur. 

Boiled  pebbles  AngnlAr  pebbles  Becent 

and  lehm.  and  loess.  period. 

Elephas  primigenius 

BhinoceroB  tichorhinus 

Sua  scrofa 

UrsuB  spelffia 

arctoe  

Hyrona  spelsBa 

Oeryus  tarandoB  

elaphns 

Antilope  rapioapra 

Canis  vulpes 

EquuB  caballas _? 


It  appears  that  the  brown  bear  yet  lived  in  Belgium  in  the 
tenth  century.  M.  Dupont  is  led  to  believe  that  the  horse  dis- 
appeared from  the  country  at  the  same  time  as  the  reindeer, 
and  that  it  was  reintroduced  in  the  domestic  state  during  the 
bronze  period ;  according  to  this  view  the  horse  itself  will  be 
an  emigrated  species. 

In  the  open  country,  the  succession  of  beds  is  essentially  the 
same  as  in  the  caves.  The  following  series  can  be  recognised 
from  above  to  below. 

1.  Made  earth,  with  various  objects,  dating  from  the  historic 
period. 

2.  Yellow  clay,  containing  numerous  angular  fragments  of 
limestone  spread  throughout  the  mass.  It  is  in  this  bed  that 
M.  Dupont  has  found  the  greatest  part  of  the  bones,  and  the 
objects  of  human  industry  made  in  flint  and  in  bone.  The 
skeletons  of  man,  reindeer,  glutton,  elk,  bear,  chamois,  ibex, 
and  beaver,  are  common  herein*  The  remains  of  human  in- 
dustry are  composed  of  flint  knives,  worked  bones,  fragments 
of  coarse  pottery,  traces  of  hearths,  etc.  (chief  remains  from 
Trous  de  Frontal,  des  Nutons,  and  de  Chaleux). 


BEPOBT   ON  THE   BELGIAN   BONE   CAVES.  337 

3.  Bed  of  stalagmite. 

4.  Sandy,  stratified  clay-deposit  (lehm),  stratified  and  withont 
pebbles  or  angular  blocks;  osseous  remains  rare;  elephant, 
hyaena,  and  rhinoceros,  have  herein  been  found,  as  well  as  cal- 
careous concretions.     (Jaw  from  Trou  de  la  Naulette.) 

5.  Beds  of  rolled  pebbles,  derived,  as  M.  Dupont  has  pointed 
out,  from  the  Ardennes.  He  found,  also,  a  tooth  of  Ursus  spe- 
Iceua,  and  some  remains  of  a  horse. 

6.  Glauconiferous  gravels,  with  traces  of  peaty  matter,  re- 
mains of  beaver  and  other  animals.     No  human  remains. 

All  these  beds  cannot  be  recognised  in  each  cavern ;  but  can 
be  found  in  the  greater  number  of  sections,  as  well  in  the 
caverns  as  in  the  open  country.  In  this  latter,  the  deposit 
{argile  jamie  avec  cailhux  anguletix)  extends  over  the  plateaux, 
where  it  is  capped  by  loess,  or  upland  brick  earth.  The  occur- 
rence of  the  angular  pebble-bed  below  the  loess,  and  its  wide 
distribution,  is  a  fact  which  is  of  great  interest  to  geologists, 
as  it  points  to  the  more  or  less  violent  action  of  some  physical 
cause,  since  the  men  and  reindeer,  who  were  contemporaries, 
dwelt  in  the  caves  of  Furfooz.  The  angular  pebble  bed  is 
found  both  in  the  caves  and  in  the  open  country.  The  super- 
position of  this  angular  pebble  bed  over  the  clay,  or  lehm, 
which  is  immediately  subjacent,  is  also  a  fact,  which  can  be 
verified  beautifully  in  the  Trous  des  Nutons  and  de  Frontal. 

The  stratification  of  the  lehm  deposit  is  again  a  fact,  which 
can  be  excellently  proved  by  examination  of  the  Trou  de  la 
Naulette.  In  a  letter  which  I  have  received  irom  an  eminent 
English  geologist,  some  doubt  is  thrown  on  this  fact,  and  it  is 
suggested  that  the  leh7n  is  merely  horizontally  bedded.  The 
examination  of  the  deposit,  which  I  have  made  with  the  greatest 
care,  compels  me  to  reject  this  exegesis.  The  layers  of  strati- 
fication in  the  Trou  de  la  Naulette  alternate  with  beds  of  sta- 
lagmite ;  and  no  geologist,  who  has  seen  this  cavern,  could  for 
one  moment  attribute  the  formation  of  the  lehm  deposit  to  any 
other  source  than  that  of  the  slow  deposition  of  river  mud, 
such  mud  being,  probably,  deposited  by  the  Lesse.  The  mi- 
neral condition  of  the  remains  of  rhinoceros,  hya3na,  and  ele- 
phant, perfectly  agrees  with  that  of  the  human  remains. 

VOL.    III.  z 


338         REPORT  ON  THK  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

The  distinction  between  the  remains  found  in  the  Trou  de 
la  Naulette  and  those  found  in  the  Trou  de  Frontal^  and  other 
Furfooz  caves,  rests  especially  on  the  fact  that,  in  the  latter 
cases,  we  have  the  human  remains  from  the  reindeer  beds 
*'  containing  the  angular  pebbles ;  in  the  former,  the  remains 
are  beneath  the  deposit  of  cailloux  anguleux,  in  deposits  con- 
taining elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  hyaena.  Considerations, 
which  M.  Dupont  has  urged  elsewhere,  have  led  him  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  cailloux  anguleux  bed  was  formed  by  some 
more  violent  and  rapid  action  than  that  which  produced  the 
lehm.  Into  this  theoretical  consideration  I  will  not  now  enter; 
suflSce  it  to  say,  that  visual  inspection  of  the  beds  must  con- 
vince the  most  sceptical  of  the  slow  and  gradual  deposition  of 
the  lehm. 

In  the  Trou  de  Chaleux  the  traces  of  man  exist  in  a  bed  of 
about  0'30  metres  in  thickness,  formed  of  sand,  dust,  and 
earth,  perfectly  limited  above  and  below  and  extending  from 
the  base  of  the  escarpment  to  and  over  the  greatest  part  of 
the  cavern,  as  indicated  in  the  figure  at  the  level  of  the  prin- 
cipal chamber  and  in  the  gallery  situated  at  the  extremity  of 
the  burrow ;  the  bones  and  other  objects  left  by  man  are  mixed 
with  yellow  mud,  because  they  were  not  protected  by  the 
fallen  stones.  This  mixture  is  the  general  case  at  Furfooz  for 
the  same  reason. 

The  remains  lefb  by  man  at  this  level  are  as  various  as 
numerous.  They  are  the  remains  of  animals  who  served  as 
repast  for  man ;  several  human  bones ;  worked  bones  ;  various 
objects  wrought  by  man ;  more  than  30,000  flints,  knives, 
splinters,  nuclei,  &c. ;  ashes  from  hearths ;  numerous  frag- 
ments of  sandstone,  psammites,  and  schists.  These  objects 
were  found  on  a  surface  of  75  square  metres  and  in  a  very  thin 
bed.  They  were  covered  by  a  thick  mass  of  stones  derived  as 
was  the  greater  mass  from  the  fall  of  a  part  of  the  roof  of  the 
cavern ;  but  this  fall  was  much  more  considerable  than  the 
first  one.  In  certain  places  it  is  three  metres  in  height,  and  it  ex- 
tends with  continuity  to  the  Lesse.  All  is  covered  by  the 
ordinary  yellow  clay.  This  contains  several  teeth  and  bones 
of  horses  and  more  than  fifty  flint  knives,  which  can  be  easily 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         339 

distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  patina  which  is  present  in 
the  worked  flints  of  the  bed  interposed  between  the  two  fallen 
masses.  The  yellow  clay  has  here,  especially  at  the  opening, 
a  tint  which  is  a  little  more  reddish  than  in  the  other  localities  ; 
I  attribute  this  to  alteration  by  springs  from  the  stratified 
deposit  which  is  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  cavern.  It  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  greyish  yellow  sandy  clay  which  is  analogous  to 
the  loess.  They  both  contain  angular  fragments  of  the  lime- 
stone. Some  modem  insignificant  objects  have  been  collected 
on  the  floor  of  the  cavern.  The  importance  of  the  mass  of 
stones  which  covered  the  ancient  floor  inhabited  by  the  ^'  flint- 
folk'^  can  be  easily  conceived.  While  at  Purfooz  the  remains 
of  the  human  habitation  had  been  mixed  with  yellow  clay 
and  mixed  together  violently  by  water,  the  soil  of  the  cavern 
of  Chaleux  was  yet  found,  when  I  examined  it,  in  the  condi- 
tion in  which  it  was  left  by  the  man  of  the  reindeer  period  ; 
because  a  mass  of  stones  of  three  metres  in  thickness  covered 
this  soil  immediately  after  its  abandonment,  and  it  had  been 
thus  protected  for  a  long  period  against  all  disturbance. 

From  this  consideration,  it  is  evident  that  the  objects  whose 
origin  was  external  to  the  cavern  had  been  brought  there  by 
man  before  the  ehouhment  had  taken  place.  But  in  a  science 
where  all  conclusions  are  generally  received  with  scepticism, 
too  many  proofs  cannot  be  accumulated.  I  shall,  therefore, 
rapidly  examine  the  bedding  of  the  principal  objects,  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  have  been  introduced  in  the  cave.  This 
examination  does  not  leave  any  doubt  of  their  introduction  by 
man. 

M.  Van  Beneden  has  up  to  the  present  time  recognised 
eleven  species  of  mammalia  amongst  the  bones.  These  are, 
the  reindeer,  the  goat,  ox,  horse,  wild  boar,  brown  bear,  fox, 
badger,  polecat,  hare,  and  water  rat. 

The  majority  of  these  animals  have  evidently  served  to 
nourish  man,  and  the  bones  collected  in  these  caverns  are 
nothing  else  but  the  debris  of  human  repasts.  The  horse  was  the 
principal  nourishment  of  these  antique  populations,  as  M.Dupont 
has  been  able  to  count  937  molar  teeth  which  were  left  in  the  ha- 
bitation of  Chaleux.  He  only  possesses  from  the  cave  one  single 

7  ^ 


340         BEPOBT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

complete  limb-bone^  i.e.,  the  tibia  of  a  young  horse.  All  the 
others  have  been  completely  broken.  I  do  not  think  that  I 
exaggerate  when  I  say  that  there  are  more  than  a  cubic  metre 
of  fragments  of  bone,  many  of  which,  according  to  M.  Van 
Beneden,  bear  distinctly  the  traces  of  cuts  made  with  flint. 

The  Arvicola  amphibia  has  left  very  abundant  traces ;  they 
are  found  especially  near  the  hearth,  and  it  may  here  be  the 
place  to  inquire  whether  these  rodents  did  not  form  part  of 
the  human  food.  Several  human  bones  have  been  also  dis- 
covered, of  which  M.  VanBeneden  has  given  the  following  list: — 
"  Separate  teeth  of  which  the  curve  is  worn  down  to  the  cin- 
gulum,  three  scapulsa,  two  radii,  a  tibia,  two  fibulaa,  an  axis, 
rather  strong  lumbar  vertebrae,  two  other  vertebrae  of  a  younger 
individual,  fragments  of  ribs,  and  some  digital  phalanges. 
Since  then  I  have  found  a  fragment  of  the  parietal,  a  cervical 
vertebra,  and  several  other  bones.  All  these  bones  are  far 
from  constituting,  as  may  be  seen,  an  entire  skeleton.  M.  V. 
Benedenhas  also  noticed  that  these  bones  are  very  tender,  and 
that  the  scattered  teeth  clearly  indicate  that  the  bones  of  the 
head  were  completely  decomposed  on  the  spot. 

It  is  in  all  these  cases  very  difficult  to  explain  the  presence  of 
these  human  bones.  To  apply  to  them  the  interpretation 
which  M.  Spring  has  given  for  the  human  remains  of  the  age 
of  polished  stone  found  by  him  at  Chauvaux  would  be  unsatis- 
factory. None  of  them  have  been  discovered  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  hearth.  The  majority  were  found  in  a  lateral  de- 
pression of  the  cavern,  mixed  with  bones  of  horses  and  foxes, 
who  were  the  remains  of  these  men's  food.  The  fragment  of 
parietal  bone  and  of  a  cervical  vertebra  were  found  on  the 
floor  of  the  cavern  under  the  same  conditions.  Besides  these,  the 
long  bones,  of  which  there  are  five,  were  entire.  But  as  I 
have  said  above,  all  the  marrow  bones  of  animals  of  a  certain 
size  were  fractured  by  man,  one  solitary  tibia  of  horse  being 
the  exception.  These  human  limb  bones  agree  in  all  the 
other  conditions  with  those  discovered  at  Chauvaux  by  M. 
Spring ;  so  that  it  seems  to  be  very  difficult  to  see  in  these  in- 
complete remains  of  human  skeletons  evidence  of  the  canni- 
balism of  this  ancient  population. 


REPORT  ON  THE   BELGIAN   BONE   CAVES.  341 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  cavern,  on  the  inside  of  the  parapet 
entered  by  the  fallen  stones,  was  a  hearth  which  occupied  a 
surface  of  not  less  than  a  metre  and  a  half.  This  is  proved 
by  the  charcoal,  ashes,  and  burnt  earth,  and  is  the  strongest 
proof  of  the  habitation  of  this  cavern  by  man  at  this  epoch. 

In  the  middle  of  this,  cinders  and  charcoal,  numerous  burnt 
and  unbumt  bones,  rolled  pebbles,  plates  of  sandstone,  psam- 
mites,  and  schists  have  been  discovered.  These  plates  are 
abundant  in  all  the  caverns  inhabited  by  the  reindeer  man  as 
well  in  France  as  in  Belgium.  It  was  also  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  hearth  that  the  flints  were  most  abundant.  A 
fragment  of  earth  about  as  large  as  half  the  hand  has  been 
preserved  and  it  does  not  contain  less  than  fourteen  knives  or 
chips  of  flint. 

Some  of  these  worked  flints  are  in  phtanite,  principally  in 
phtanite  calcarifere  of  the  bed  V  of  the  Dinant  limestone.  All 
the  others  are  of  foreign  origin,  and  if  it  cannot  be  directly 
proved  that  the  majority  of  them  came  from  Champagne,  at 
least  this  assertion  is  extremely  probable. 

There  were  also  procured  fifty-four  marine  tertiary  shells, 
which  have  been  identified  by  M.  Nyst.  All  these  have  been 
derived  from  Champagne.  Their  introduction  by  man  into  the 
cavern  cannot  be  doubted.  Twenty-five  of  them  are  perforated 
near  the  mouth,  either  by  friction  as  especially  efiected  by 
Naticce  and  Pectunculi,  or  by  means  of  a  pointed  instrument. 
It  is  then  evident  that  they  had  relations  with  Champagne, 
while  every  proof  of  their  relation  with  Hainault  or  with  the 
province  of  Liege,  which  might  also  have  afforded  them  flint, 
has  been  up  to  the  present  day  lacking. 

It  is  a  most  important  and  unexpected  fact  that  it  is  towards 
the  south  that  their  external  relations  seem  to  lead. 

I  was  struck,  this  summer,  with  the  analogy  which  the  sub- 
stance of  several  ^chips  of  flint  for  the  cave  of  Chaleux  bore  to 
that  of  the  flints  from  Pressigny-le-Grand  (Indre-et-Loire). 
This  flint  has  no  analogue,  it  appears,  in  the  cretaceous  beds 
of  Western  Europe.  M.  Gabriel  de  Mortillet  has  said  "  the 
flints  which  you  have  shown  me  are  very  interesting.  They 
are    unquestionably    derived     from    Grand-Pressigny.      The 


342         BEPOBT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

specimen  has  the  reddish  yellow  aspect  of  virgin  wax,  the 
speckling  and  slight  marbling,  the  slightly  homogeneous 
aspect  which  characterises  the  flints  of  this  locality/'  The 
men  of  the  reindeer  period  carried,  then,  their  relations  to  the 
banks  of  the  Loire. 

On  the  26th  May,  1865,  the  workmen  extracted  from  the 
objects  in  the  ashes  of  the  hearth  the  forearm  of  an  elephant. 
It  was  in  an  extremely  friable  state,  which  contrasted  exceed- 
ingly with  the  state  of  preservation  of  all  the  other  bones 
of  the  cavern  ;  it  reposed  on  a  plate  of  psammite  on  the  right 
hand  of  the  hearth  (from  the  side  of  the  opening).  My  opinion 
is  that  these  men  found  it  in  a  fossil  state  and  that  they 
brought  it  into  their  cave  either  as  a  fetish,  or  as  an  object  of 
curiosity. 

The  quantity  of  diverse  substances  which  they  procured  is 
in  fact  scarcely  credible ;  and  could  only  be  used  either  as 
ornaments,  objects  of  curiosity  or  as  fetishes.  I  have  thus  dis- 
covered a  fragment  of  large  ammonito,  derived  from  the  psam- 
mite of  Condroz  ;  two  lumps  of  martial  pyrites;  much  oolitic 
oligiste  like  that  which  is  found  to  the  north  of  the  primary 
basin  at  the  base  of  the  schists  of  Famenne ;  nearly  half  a 
kilogramme  of  fluvine  derived  from  the  Devonian  limestone  ; 
nephrite;  fragments  of  the  laminae  of  elephants'  teeth,  of 
which  they  fabricated  their  elegant  needles ;  of  the  slate  of 
Fumay  which  they  cut  into  various  shapes,  three  fossil  shark's 
teeth,  a  vertebra  equally  fossil  of  the  genus  Garcharias,  and 
the  fifty-four  eocene  shells  mentioned  above ;  numerous  plates 
of  sandstone,  psammites,  and  micaschist.  They  especially 
brought  the  carved  psammites  which  formed  the  summits  of  the 
anticlinal  and  synclinal  folds  of  these  ancient  webs  and  which 
have  thus  a  tile  shaped  form. 

They  also  traced  on  many  plates  of  psammite  lines  probably 
with  flint.  Worked  bones  are  equally  abundant.  They  are, 
except  the  needles,  all  fabricated  of  reindeer  antlers. 

Finally,  amongst  the  30,000  worked  flints  discovered  in  the 
cavern  of  Chaleux  under  this  mass  of  stone,  and  amongst  the 
1,200  derived  from  the  beds  with  reindeer  bones  in  the  Fur- 
fooz  caves,  none  show  any  trace  of  polishing ;  which  from  this 


BEPOKT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVEB.         343 

point  of  view,  appears  to  demonstrate  the  non-contemporaneity 
of  these  men  with  those  who  made  in  this  country  so  many 
polished  instruments. 

It  results  clearly  from  this  summary  examination,  that  all 
these  objects  of  diverse  nature  were  introduced  in  the  cavern 
of  Ghaleux  by  the  man  who  made  his  habitation  therein  at  an 
epoch  of  which  the  date  is  exactly  determined  by  the  fall  of  the 
roof  and  by  the  deposit  of  the  yellow  clay  and  of  the  loess. 

To  conclude ;  the  following  are  the  succession  of  events  which 
have  taken  place  in  this  grotto : — 

1.  Deposit  of  stratified  red  clay,  sand,  &c. 

2.  First  habitation  of  this  cavern  by  man.  This  epoch  of 
habitation  can  be  fixed  by  means  of  the  little  pebble  bed,  and 
thus  correlated  with  the  precise  section  of  the  quaternary  strata. 

3.  Deposit  of  clay-sand  in  which  a  head  of  Ursus  sjpelcevs  and 
other  bones  have  been  discovered. 

4.  Fall  of  a  part  of  the  roof  at  the  entry  of  the  cavern. 

5.  Principal  epoch  of  habitation  of  the  cavern  by  the  man 
contemporary  with  the  reindeer  fauna. 

6.  Fall  of  a  part  of  the  roof  on  nearly  the  whole  extent  of 
the  cavern. 

7.  Third  inhabitation  of  the  cavern  by  man.  He  has  left  few 
remains,  but  he  was  yet  contemporary  with  the  reindeer  fauna. 

8.  Deposit  of  yellow  clay  and  of  loess. 

The  level  of  this  cavern  is  situated  only  1 7  metres  above  the 
level  of  the  river.     (See  Table,  next  page.) 

The  four  caverns  of  the  escarpment  of  Furfooz,  situated  at 
a  maximum  height  of  40  metres  above  the  level  of  the  Lesse, 
only  contain  the  horizon  of  yellow  clay  with  angular  fragments 
which  commonly  becomes  grey  and  sandy  in  its  upper  part. 
Two  of  the  caverns  have  not  furnished  human  remains,  viz.,  the 
Troti  qui  igne  and  the  Trou  St.  Barthelemy. 

The  Trou  Rosette,  on  the  other  hand,  has  furnished  many 
human  remains  and  animal  bones  in  the  middle  of  the  deposit 
of  yellow  clay  and  fragments  of  limestone.  It  had  at  the  base 
some  rolled  pebbles  which  may  be  considered  to  be  from  the 
Ardennes. 

According  to  M.  Dupont,  the  following  table  comprises  the 


344 


BBPOBT  ON  THB  BELQIAN  BONE  CAVES. 


series  of  sedimentary  strata  which  have  been  recognised  in 
fourteen  of  the  caverns. 


I 


I 

I 


? 

I 

i 


OQ 

S 

i 
I 


I- 


I 


Qrand  troa  de  Chaleoz 
2e  Cayeme  of  Chaleuz 

3e  Cayeme  of  ChaJenx •  •  • 

Trou  de  Frontal ...  •  •         •         •         • 

Troa  de  Nutons •         •         •  • 

Trou  de  la  Gatte  d'or    •         •  •  • 

Troa  Eosette       •  «   P 

Trou  qai  Ig^e 
Troa  Benyiau 
Trou  St.  Barthelemy 
Cayeme  de  Montfort 
Trou  Magrite 

le  Cayeme  de  Pont-^-Lesse 
2e  Cayeme  de  Pont-it-Lesse 
le  Cayeme  des  fonds  de  Leffe 
2e  Cayeme  des  fonds  de  Leffe 
Trou  des  Blaireaux 
Trou  de  la  roche-ii-Penne 
Trou  de  I'Ours    ... 
Trou  de  la  Xaulette 
Trou  de  I'Hy^ne  ... 
Trou  de  Praule    ... 
Trou  des  Allemands 
Trou  de  Gendron 

The  Trou  Benviau  contains  the  same  yellow  clay  and  the 
reindeer  fauna. 

The  Trou  de  la  Gatte  d'or,  of  which  the  height  above  the 
Lesse  is  only  30  metres^  contains  the  same  groups  of  beds  as 
tie  Trou  des  Niitons, 


BEPOBT  ON  THE  BELOIAN  BONE  CAVES.  845 

The  Trou  Magrite  at  Pont  h.  Lesse  is  a  large  cavern  analogous 
to  the  largest  one  of  Chaleux.  The  earth  was  extracted  there- 
from thirty  years  ago ;  but  the  rocky  soil  has  not  yet  been 
reached.  The  earth  removed  thence  is  composed  solely  of 
yellow  clay  with  angular  fragments  of  limestone  which  were 
probably  surmounted  by  loess.  M.  Dupont  has  as  yet  been 
able  to  collect  more  than  fifty  worked  flints^  an  eocene  shelly 
some  broken  marrow-bones,  a  molar  of  horse,  &c.  At  the 
time  of  my  visit  (July,  1866)  a  further  exploration  of  this  cavern 
was  contemplated  by  M.  Dupont,  which  doubtless  will  yield 
new  and  interesting  materials.  {See  Journal  A,8Jj.,  vol.  ii,  p.  Ix.) 

The  cavern  at  Montfort,  at  Dinant,  furnishes  the  remains  of 
rhinoceros,  Ursus  spelaeus,  &c.,  with  those  of  reindeer  and  of 
other  species.  These  bones  were  collected  at  the  base  of  the 
deposit  of  yellow  clay  with  angular  fragments  of  limestone 
measuring  in  all  4  metres  of  thickness.  In  some  parts  of  the 
cavern  the  limestone  was  covered  with  pebbles,  of  which  the 
greater  number  were  of  the  size  of  a  pea ;  they  were  cemented 
together,  like  the  pebble  bed  of  the  stratified  sandy  clay 
deposit  of  the  caverns  of  Chaleux  and  Furfooz,  by  a  brownish 
clay,  and  M.  Dupont  is  inclined  to  refer  them  to  this  deposit. 

The  two  caverns  of  Fonds  de  Leffe,  near  Dinant,  only  con- 
tain the  deposit  of  yellow  clay  witli  its  angular  contents,  which 
has  often  become  greyish  yellow  in  the  upper  part.  It  does 
not  contain  bones  nor  remains  of  human  industry. 

To  summarise  the  chief  palasontological  products  of  these 
various  beds : — 

M.  Dupont  has  only  observed  the  red  clay  on  the  Lesse; 
but  as  it  is  there  alone  that  he  has  made  important  excavations, 
no  general  law  can  be  deduced  from  its  distribution.  It  only 
exists  at  Furfooz  in  the  caverns  which  are  situated  at  less  than 
35  metres  above  the  level  of  the  Lesse,  but  it  rises  to  40 
metres  at  Chaleux.  In  all  cases  it  is  possible  to  discover  its 
origin.  The  first  cavern  where  it  was  observed  was  the  Trou 
des  Nutons.  Its  great  purity  and  its  red  brick  colour  led  M. 
Dupont  to  suspect  that  it  was  the  product  of  a  special  descrip- 
tion of  those  filons  d'argile  which  have  been  studied  by  M. 
d'Omalius  d^Halloy  since  1833.     This  view  was  entirely  con- 


w^^timi^mtmmimmi^mmmtUaOiii^iaa§ 


346  REPORT  ON  THS   BIIiQIAN  BOHS  GATIS. 

firmed  by  the  excavations  of  the  Troa  de  Frontal,  where  these 
clays  are  in  Jilons,  and  the  qaestion  takes  here  a  new  aapeot,  as 
it  is  evident  that  they  are  anterior  to  the  deposit  of  sand  and 
turbary^  and  to  the  deposit  of  rolled  Ardennais  pebbles.  M. 
Dupont  has  observed^  near  the  village  of  CeUes,  situated  at  three 
kilometres  to  the  east  of  these  caverns,  Jilons  meubles  formed 
of  this  same  lustrous  pure  clay ;  these  filons  exist  principally 
at  Noisy  in  the  foundations,  and  near  the  month  of  the  rivulet 
of  Cellis,  in  the  Lesse,  in  the  middle  of  the  limestone. 

The  level  of  the  rolled  pebbles  is  only  marked  in  an  incon- 
testable manner  in  the  Trou  de  Frontal.  Some  indices  lead 
me  to  believe  that  there  exist  traces  in  the  Trou  Bosette. 

The  sandy  clay  deposit  with  calcareous  nodules  has  a  more 
constant  distribution  and  in  the  Trou  de  Ghaleux  it  was  par- 
tially posterior  to  the  habitation  of  the  country  by  man.  This 
deposit  contains  the  Ursus  spelceus.  It  is  besides  characterised 
by  a  deposit  of  pebbles  of  which  I  have  found  the  analogue  in 
the  external  quaternary  strata.  It  was  after  this  deposit  that 
the  fauna  of  the  reindeer  was  spread  over  western  Europe  as 
far  as  the  Pyrenees,  and  that  man  developed  himself  over  the 
country.  The  waters  which  had  deposited  the  sandy  clays  with 
calcareous  nodules  had  retired  into  their  bed,  which  nearly,  if 
not  quite,  coincided  with  the  present  bed  of  the  river. 

Man  probably  inhabited  the  Trou  de  Chaleux  for  a  long  time, 
to  judge  by  the  enormous  number  of  tUbris  wliich  he  left  there, 
and  ho  was  probably  driven  thence  by  the  fall  of  a  large  part 
of  the  roof.  The  great  mass  of  stones  which  thus  covered  the 
soil  abandoned  by  man,  removes  these  numerous  and  interest- 
ing iUhris  from  all  suspicion  of  being  disordered  by  any  cause, 
until  the  time  when  the  excavations  of  M.  Dupont  exposed 
them. 

The  man  of  the  reindeer  period  inhabited  a  short  time  the 
Trou  des  Nutons  at  Furfooz,  if  we  can  deduce  this  from  the 
small  relative  number  of  objects  which  he  left  behind  him. 
This  opinion  was  put  forward  by  the  late  Henry  Christy,  and 
by  M.  Laganne,  who  for  many  years  has  excavatod  the  numer- 
ous caverns  of  the  south  of  France.  M.  Dupont  has  deduced 
the  short  time  during  which  man  has  inhabited  this  cavern 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         847 

from  the  coating  of  stalagmite  which  covers  the  sasdy  clay 
deposit  of  the  cave ;  it  is  in  fact  evident^  that  if  man  had  in- 
habited this  cave  before  the  formation  of  the  coat  of  stalagmite, 
this  calcareous  deposit  would  have  contained  traces  of  some 
kind  of  this  habitation ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  of  a  remarkable 
purity  and  homogeneity,  and  contains  neither  earth,  nor 
bones,  nor  remains  of  human  industry. 

The  Trou  de  Frontal  has  served  as  sepulchre  to  these  men 
who  buried  thirteen  bodies  in  this  natural  dolmen,  of  which 
the  entry  was  closed  by  a  large  dolomitic  partition  {dalle), 
Man  has  left  remains  of  his  meals  and  of  his  industry  in  the 
external  chamber  of  the  cavern,  and  the  observation,  with 
regard  to  the  number  of  these  remains  which  we  have  made 
with  regard  to  the  Trou  des  Nutons,  is  equally  apphcable  to 
this  cavern. 

The  Trou  Rosette  also  contained  remains  of  many  human 
skeletons,  but  it  affords  a  less  easy  explanation.  Examination 
of  the  other  phenomena  which  have  been  observed  in  the  pro- 
vince, and  especially  of  the  phenomena  found  in  the  open 
country,  may  at  a  future  time,  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Dupont, 
throw  light  upon  the  conditions  under  which  human  existence 
in  this  cave  has  been  possible. 

The  deposit  of  yellow  clay  with  fragments  of  rocks,  has 
taken  place  solely  after  the  man  of  the  reindeer  period  inha- 
bited the  caverns  of  the  country.  Everyone  must  be  struck, 
in  throwing  his  eyes  over  the  table  of  the  general  repartition 
of  the  beds  of  these  fourteen  caverns,  with  the  constancy  of  the 
geological  horizon  which  is  everywhere  encountered  with  the 
same  characters ;  yellow  clay  at  the  base,  greyish  yellow  sandy 
elements  at  the  upper  part,  and  numerous  angular  fragments 
in  all  the  mass,  and  principally  at  its  base. 

After  these  deposits,  man  only  inhabited  these  caverns 
accidentally.  Nothing  is  found  above  these  sediments,  but 
several,  more  or  less  modem,  objects,  which  prove  by  their 
small  number  a  habitation  of  very  short  duration,  if  ever  there 
was  an  habitation.  The  cavern  which  has  shown  most  of  these 
remains  is  the  Trou  des  Nutons  j  it  has  furnished  remains  of 
all  ages  :  two  splinters  of  polished  stone  and  a  little  point  of  a 
flint  arrowhead;  a  fragment  of  ring  m  ^o^X^^t^^  ^V\Oa. ^s^V^'w^c^ 


348 


REPORT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 


to  be  pre-Roman ;  a  certain  quantity  of  pottery,  many  medals 
and  some  Boman  ironwork  (we  have  seen  that  a  Roman 
fortress  existed  on  the  summit  of  this  escarpment),  and  several 
Frankish  remains  of  middle  age,  and  of  modem  times. 

At  Chaleux  the  objects  found  at  the  surface  are  much  more 
modem  ;  none  of  these  date  even  from  mediaBval  times.  This 
proves  that  the  really  troglodytic  race  of  this  country  was  the 
man  of  the  reindeer  period,  who  had  not  the  art  of  poUshing  flint, 
as  is  shown  by  all  the  sphnter,  which  amount  to  more  than 
32,000,  collected  up  to  the  present  time  in  the  caverns  of 
the  Lesse  valley. 

The  most  important  generalisation  to  which  the  learned 
author  arrives  is  that  in  which  he  attempts  to  correlate  the 
quaternary  series  of  the  valleys  of  the  Seine  and  of  the  Somme 


Valleys  of  the  Meiue  and 
of  the  Lesse. 

r  Loess,  or  brick  earth,  ex- 
isting in  the  plateaux  and 
in  the  valleys. 

Yellow  day,  with  bloeatuB 
Cenms  iaran-  i  of  ancient  rocks  covering 


Upper  stage. 


dU8. 


the  plateaux  and  the  val- 
leys. Beindeer  fauna  in 
the  caverns. 


Valleys  of  the  Seine  and  of 
the  Somme. 

Loes8>  or  brick  earth. 


Sandy  red  clay,  with  bro- 
ken and  angular  flints,  co- 
vering the  plateaux  and 
the  valleys,  and  ravining 
and  lower  beds. 

Diluvium  roug^,  propre" 
mentdii. 


& 

0 

1 


"    Stratified  sandy  day  de-  Sandy  and  marly  day," 

posit,  with  sheUs,  prind-  with  shells,  principally  ter- 

pally  terrestrial,  and  with  restrial,  and  with  calca- 

calcareous  concretions.  reous  concretions. 

Ursiu  speloBUS,  EUphtu 
primigenius,  etc.,  in  the 
caverns.    Lehm. 


Lower  stage. 

ElephcLS  pri"t 

migenitu. 


Quartzose  sand,  with 
shells,  principally  fluvia* 
tile  (accidental). 

Boiled  boulders  of  Ar- 
dennais  rocks,  etc.,  and 
large  unrolled  blocks  com- 
ing from  afar.  Tusk  of 
EUphas  primigenius. 


Quartzose  sand,  with 
shells,  principally  fluvia- 
tile  (accidental). 

Boiled  flints,  etc.,  and 
large  unrolled  blocks  com- 
ing from  afar.  Bones  of 
ElephcLs  primigenius. 


i 


Quartzose    sand   (very        Quartzose    sand    (very 
accidental) .  accidental ) . 


Primary  rocks. 


Secondary  and  tertiary 
beds. 


BEFOBT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES.         349 

with  those  of  the  Mense  and  of  the  Lesse.  On  comparing,  e.g,j 
such  beds  as  those  of  Agimont  and  other  localities  with  the 
sections  presented  by  the  quames  of  Abbeville  and  Amiens, 
the  following  succession  can  be  traced  out.  Like  conditions 
occur  in  each. 

The  occurrence,  in  the  various  caves,  of  beds  of  stalagmite 
above  various  layers  of  the  beds  here  shown,  complicates  the 
stratigraphy  slightly;  at  the  same  time  that  it  measures 
roughly  the  time  which  may  be  supposed  to  have  elapsed 
between  and  the  position  of  each  of  these  layers. 

For  valuable  assistance  and  hospitality  during  my  stay  at 
Dinant,  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  thank  too  cordially  Dr. 
Edouard  Dupont,  Corr.  Mem.  A.S.L.  Those  persons  alone 
who  have  themselves  visited  all  the  caves,  can  appreciate  the 
amount  of  physical  labour  which  it  is  necessary  to  undergo, 
and  which  Dr.  Dupont  has  endured  throughout  the  hard 
frosts  of  the  winter  of  1865,  and  the  great  heats  of  the 
summer  of  1866.  Having  personally  on  the  spot  verified  all 
M.  Dupont^s  sections,  I  can  testify  to  their  perfect  accuracy ; 
I  can  also  testify  to  the  care  with  which  his  facts  have  been 
accumulated,  the  skill  with  which  the  correlation  of  the  various 
beds  has  been  worked  out,  and  the  generosity  with  which 
the  results  he  has  obtained  have  been  placed  at  my  disposal. 
The  disinterested  frankness  with  which  he  communicated  to 
me  all  his  facts  renders  Dr.  Dupont  an  example  of  scientific 
ethics  not  merely  to  Englishmen,  but  to  the  whole  world. 

Our  late  energetic  local  secretary  in  Brussels,  Mr.  John  Jones, 
F.G.S.,  was  the  first  to  place  at  our  disposal  the  knowledge  of 
the  principal  facts  which  were  discovered.  Had  it  not  been 
for  him,  the  Anthropological  Society  of  London  would  never 
have  sent  a  commissioner  to  examine  into  the  subject.  To  his 
influence  amongst  Belgian  scientific  men  much  of  the  success 
which  I  hope  has  attended  my  mission  is  due. 

M.Charles  Dumon,Ing^nieur-en-chef  des  Ponts-et-Chaussdes 
for  the  province  of  Namur,  has  verified  the  sections  through- 
out. His  kind  influence  has  led  in  part  to  the  results  now  on 
the  table. 

My  own  experience  having  taught  me  the  diflSculty  of  obtain- 


350         BEPOBT  ON  THE  BELGIAN  BONE  CAVES. 

ing  reliable  anatomical  information  in  England^  I  proceeded 
to  Paris^  and  had  the  opportunity  of  comparing  the  jaw  with 
collections  in  the  Paris  Museum  of  Natural  History,  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Soci^t^  d' Anthropologic,  and  with  some  most 
important  specimens  in  M.  Pruner-Bey^s  private  collection.  To 
M.  Pruner-Bey  himself,  as  well  as  MM.  Broca,  Lartet,  and 
Quatrefages,  I  am  very  grateful  for  valuable  and  important 
advice. 

The  whole  subject  is  as  yet  entirely  in  its  infancy,  and  I 
trust  that  further  examination  will  be  undertaken.* 

*  For  deecription  of  jaw  found  in  cave  of  La  Naulette^  see  Anthrapologieal 
Review,  vol.  v,  p.  294. 


351 


XXII. — On  Ancient  Peruvian  Graphic  Records.  By  William 
BoLLAERT,  F.R.G.S.,  Hon.  Sec.  A.S.L.,  Corr.  Mem.  Univ. 
Chile;  of  the  Ethnological  Societies  of  London  and  New 
York,  etc. 

In  my  work  on  South  American  Antiquities,*  I  advert  to  the 
graphic  records  and  Quippus  of  the  Peruvians,  and  to  the  state- 
ments of  early  writers,  that  the  ancient  Peruvians  used  a  spe- 
cies of  hieroglyph  engraved  on  stone,  and  preserved  in  their 
temples.  However,  not  one  example  has  been  preserved  to 
show  whether  such  was  hieroglyphic  or  merely  figurative. 

On  reference  to  a  paper  of  mine  in  vol.  i.  Memoirs  of  the 
Anthropological  Society,  1865,  "Introduction  to  the  Palaeo- 
graphy of  America,'^  I  brought  together  all  that  was  then  within 
my  reach.  Subsequently  was  discovered  the  hieroglyphic  Maya 
alphabet  of  Yucatan,  preserved  by  Landa,  which  led  me  to  com- 
pare the  hieroglyphs  and  codices  of  Central  America  in  particular 
by  this  long-hidden  treasure.  The  daguerreotype  of  a  Llama 
skin,  painted  with  characters,  lately  found  in  Bolivia,  has  again 
prompted  me  to  look  into  the  question.  I  will  first  allude  to 
the  very  little  that  is  known  on  this  subject  as  regards — 

Ecuador,  The  first  people  there  is  any  account  of  had  their 
capital  at  Quito,  and  were  governed  by  chiefs  called  Quitus ; 
these  were  conquered  about  a.d.  980,  by  a  coast  nation,  known 
a^  the  Caranes.  No  graphic  records  have  been  handed  down 
of  either  Quitus  or  Caranes.  At  p.  92  of  my  South  American 
Antiquities,  I  have  given  a  plate  of  an  ancient  embossed  earlet 
from  Cuenca,  with  something  like  a  symbol  on  it ;  this  is  the 
only  approach  to  graphic  design  I  have  met  with  from  Ecuador. 

Humboldt,  Researches,  i,  177,  tells  us  that,  in  large  spaces 
between  the  rivers  Atabapo  and  Cassiquiare,  and  destitute  of 
human  beings,  figures  engraven  on  stone  show  that  these  wil- 
dernesses were  once  the  seat  of  some  degree  of  intellectuality. 

*  Aniiq,  Ethno.,  etc.,  Researches  in  PerUf  etc,    Trftbner,  1860. 


352        BOLIiAEBT  ON  ANCIENT  PEBUYIAN   QBAPHIC   BEC0BD8. 

Between  2®  and  4**N.  are  found  rocks  of  granite  covered  with 
colossal  figures  of  alligators^  jaguars^  the  sun^  moon^  and  do- 
mestic utensils.  He  was  inchned  to  view  these  remains  as 
traces  of  an  ancient  civilisation  belonging,  perhaps,  to  an  epoch 
when  the  tribes,  whom  we  now  distinguish  by  various  appella- 
tions, were  still  unknown.  In  his  Travels,  ii,  395,  he  observes, 
the  Amazon  stones  of  green  jade,  found  in  possession  of  the 
Indians  of  the  Rio  Negro,  worn  suspended  from  the  neck  like 
amulets,  are  loaded  with  inscriptions,  not  the  work  of  the  pre- 
sent  owners.  In  his  Researches ,  i,  153,  he  heard  of  inscriptions 
on  granite  mountains,  extending  from  Uruana,  T  5'  N.,  67' 
22'  W.,  as  far  as  the  banks  of  the  Caura.  A  missionary,  Ba- 
mon  Bueno,  having  entered  a  cavern  in  this  district,  saw  a 
block  of  granite  on  which  were  what  he  believed  to  be  written 
characters.  The  missionary  gave  Humboldt  a  copy  of  part  of 
these,  which  had  some  resemblance  to  the  Phoenician  alphabet; 
but  he  doubted  whether  the  monk  had  copied  them  carefully. 
Humboldt  says,  from  such  meagre  facts,  it  results  that  there 
exists  no  certain  proof  of  the  knowledge  of  an  alphabet  among 
the  Americans.  This  was  written  by  the  great  traveller  and 
philosopher  in  Paris,  in  1813;  but  in  1863,  the  Abb^  B.  do 
Bourbourg  accidentally  lighted,  in  Madrid,  upon  Bishop  Landa's 
MS.,  in  which  is  depicted  the  alphabet  of  the  ancient  Mayas  of 
Yucatan. 

Humboldt,  Researches,  i,  1 74,  observes :  '^  We  are  ignorant 
whether  the  tribes  of  the  Toltec  race  penetrated  into  the 
southern  hemisphere ;  but  a  curious  fact,  with  which  I  became 
acquainted  during  my  abode  in  Lima,  leads  to  this  supposition. 
Narcisso  Gilbar,  a  Franciscan,  found  among  the  Panoes,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ucayali,  in  Peru,  north  of  Sarayacu  (6''  57'  S., 
57°  40'  W.)  bundles  of  paintings  resembling  a  quarto  volume. 
Gilbar  was  told  that  these  paintings  contained  hidden  things, 
which  no  stranger  ought  to  know.  He  sent  one  of  these  col- 
lections to  Lima.  Every  page  was  covered  with  figures  of 
men,  animals,  and  isolated  characters,  which  were  deemed  hi- 
eroglyphical,  arranged  in  lines  with  order  and  symmetry.  It 
was  intended  to  deposit  this  MS.  in  the  convent  of  Ocopa ;  but 
whether  the  person  to  whom  it  was  intrusted  lost  it  in  the  pas- 


BOLLAERT  ON  ANCIENT  PERUVIAN  GRAPHIC  RECORDS.    353 

sage  over  the  Cordillera,  or  whether  it  was  sent  clandestinely 
to  Europe,  it  never  reached  its  first  place  of  destination.  Every 
search  to  regain  so  curious  an  object  was  fruitless,  and  the  re- 
gret of  not  having  copied  the  characters  came  too  late.  The 
Panoes  say  that  these  books  were  transmitted  to  them  by  their 
fathers,  and  supposed  to  have  relation  to  wanderings  and  an- 
eient  wars/' 

Tschudi,  Travels  in  Peru,  p.  411,  speaking  of  the  tribes  of 
the  lower  Ucayali  (among  which  are  the  Panoes),  observes, 
that  on  the  birth  of  a  child,  the  name  of  some  animal  is  given 
to  it;  the  witnesses  of  the  ceremony  mark,  with  a  wooden 
pencil,  some  hieroglyphical  characters  on  two  leaves,  and  on 
the  death  of  the  Indian,  the  leaves  are  deposited  in  the  grave 
with  the  body. 

Peru. 

I  now  notice  all  we  at  present  know  of  graphic  records  in 
Peru.  I  put  but  little  faith  in  the  statements  of  Montesinos, 
who  writes  that,  five  hundred  years  after  the  Deluge,  the  Pe- 
ruvian rulers  commenced  reigning ;  that  during  the  reign  of 
the  third,  in  his  list  of  one  hundred  and  one  !  the  use  of  letters 
was  known,  and  the  art  of  writing  on  plantain-leaves  taught ; 
that  in  the  reign  of  his  sixty-fifth  ruler,  Titu,  there  were  civil 
wars,  and  the  use  of  letters  lost ;  that  Titu  looked  upon  letters 
as  the  source  of  public  troubles ;  and  when  a  learned  Indian, 
some  years  afterwards,  invented  a  new  sort  of  character,  the 
Inca  put  him  to  death;  that  the  seventy-eighth  ruler  intro- 
duced the  quippus  of  knotted,  coloured  strings,  by  which  they 
kept  accounts  and  historical  records. 

Acosta,  a  more  reliable  authority,  says,  the  Peruvians  had 
symbolical  paintings ;  for  at  the  conquest  they  made  their  con- 
fessions by  paintings  and  characters.  We  are  not  informed  if 
this  sort  of  painting  had  been  taught  to  the  Indians  by  the 
Spanish  priests,  as  was  resorted  to  in  Mexico ;  or  whether  it 
was  an  aboriginal  aii;.  I  do  not  know  of  the  existence  of  one 
example  of  such  symbolic  mode  of  painting  in  Peru ;  still  it  is 
probable  they  had  some  approach  to  figurative  representation. 

As  a  pre-incarial  example  of  graphic  art,  Tschudi  states  that, 
in  many  parts  of  Peru,  chiefly  in  situations  greatly  elevated 

VOL.  III.  K  K 


■*A.'-J>'i'fc-J-jifc^iB^B^— B^^i^lfaaM— ^M^^^ihj— ■C^^.mJ^^ii       --    «_ 


354        BOLLAERT   ON   ANCIENT    PEBUVTAJJ    GRAPHIC   RECORDS. 

above  the  level  of  the  sea^  are  vestiges  of  inscriptions ;  and  he 
gives  a  drawing  of  a  stone  found  at  Haari^  containing  outlines 
of  a  man^  Uama^  and  other  markings.  At  Corralones^  near 
Arequipa^  are  sculptures  on  granite  stones  of  animals^  flowers, 
and  fortifications,  which  may  be  of  Incarial  times.* 

At  p.  203  of  ray  8.  Amer.  Antiq.,  I  give  a  drawing  of  a  Chima 
(Trujillo)  deity ;  there  are  compartments  on  the  body  contain- 
ing an  approach  to  symbolic  forms ;  also  two  others, — one  like 
a  mountain ;  the  other  of  a  large  flying  insect.  This  I  have 
placed  in  the  British  Museum.  In  the  same  collection  is  a 
specimen  oihuaca,  or  sacred  tomb  pottery,  probably  a  priestess; 
on  the  forehead  are  some  angular  figures. 

At  p.  218  of  my  S,  Amer,  Antiq.,  I  describe,  from  Rivero 
and  Tschudi  (plate  xxvi),  a  sacred  vessel,  probably  from  Pacha- 
camac,  the  shape  of  a  human  figure,  perhaps  a  priest,  having 
round  the  waist  a  mystical  looking  belt.  I  make  nothing  out 
of  this  arrangement.  The  following  may  be  considered  as  Inca 
or  Quichua  work.  Figure  of  a  llama,  carved  out  of  stone,  which 
Gibbon,  Explorations  in  Peru,  calls  a  drinking-cup  j  the  scratch- 
ings  upon  it  may  have  a  meaning.  Gilliss,  JJ.  8.  Astron,  Exp,, 
ii,  138,  gives  drawing  of  an  approach  to  symbols,  on  a  chuspa, 
or  coca  bag.  On  the  huaca,  or  sacred  pottery  from  the  tombs, 
are  indications  of  natural  objects,  in  relief  and  painted,  of  the 
sun,  moon,  stars,  plants,  fruit,  human  figures,  animals,  weapons, 
etc.,  but  no  hieroglyphic  signs. 

At  p.  146  of  my  8.  Amer.  Antiq,,  is  a  plate  representinfjf 

*  Whilst  this  paper  was  at  the  Nottinf^ham  Meeting  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation, 1866, 1  received  from  my  friend  Professor  Baimondi,  his  commonica- 
tion  in  Spanish,  which  I  translated  and  sent,  "  On  Ancient  Engravings  on 
Stones  observed  in  various  parts  of  Peru."  No.  1  to  9  were  from  the  Altos 
de  Caldera,  north  of  Arequipa.  No.  10  to  16  from  Locumba.  The  stones 
are  diorite  (feldspar  and  homblend),  and  at  Caldei'a,  known  as  the  Campanaa 
del  Diablo,  being  very  sonorous.  The  homblend  is  a  compound  of  silicate 
of  lime,  magnesia,  and  protoxide  of  iron ;  this  last,  by  exposure,  becomes  a 
peroxide,  and  it  is  through  a  film  of  this  peroxide  the  engravings  are  made, 
generally  with  a  sharp  pointed  stone  down  upon  the  lighter  coloured  diorite. 
Some  of  these  engraving^  are  much  more  ancient  than  others.  They  are 
all  of  the  first  state,  or  merely  figurative,  as  men,  animals,  birds,  serpents, 
etc.  Professor  Baimondi's  paper  may  appear  in  vol.  iii  of  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Anthropological  Society. 


BOLLAERT  ON  ANCIENT  PERUVIAN  GRAPHIC  RECORDS.    355 

wliat  I  have  called  the  Peruvian  Calendar^  or  Zodiac ;  it  is  of 
gold^  and  the  figares  are  stamped  thereon ;  some  are  figurative^ 
others  appear  to  be  symbolical. 

At  p.  157  of  same  work  is  a  plate  of  the  Pintados,  or  Indian 
pictography,  observed  by  me  in  the  province  of  Tarapadl. 
The  figures  consist  of  colossal  representations  c^  Indians, 
Uamas,  dogs,  circles,  etc.,  scooped  out  on  the  sandy  sides  of 
mountains ;  at  one  spot,  a  body  was  found.  At  Tacna  in  the 
neighbouring  province.  Pintados  are  also  seen.  At  Pisco, 
farther  north,  on  the  peninsula  of  Parracas,  there  is  a  pintado 
of  considerable  size,  in  the  form  of  a  trident ;  at  the  base  is  a 
square,  underneath  it  may  contain  a  huaca,  or  tomb. 

In  1854  I  made  a  journey  into  the  Andes  of  Tarapadl, 
and  a  little  to  the  south-west  of  the  rich  copper  mines  of 
Yabricoya  is  the  Pampa  del  Leon,  20°  10'  S.,  69®  10'  W.,  so 
named  from  a  large  boulder,  having  picked  out  upon  it,  with 
other  objects,  an  Indian  wrestling  with  a  puma,  having  a  very 
ancient  appearance ;  there  is  a  Christian  cross  placed  there  by 
some  Spanish  priest  with  the  hope  of  exorcising  the  original 
paganism. 

At  the  end  of  Molina^  vol.  i.  His.  Chile,  is  an  account  of  a 
pillar  150  feet  in  height !  in  the  province  of  Cuyo,  known  as 
the  giant,  said  to  have  inscriptions  ''  resembling  Chinese 
characters  !"  There  is  also  notice  of  another  engraved  stone 
near  the  Bio  Diamante,  south  of  Mendoza,  containing  ''  cyphers 
or  characters  and  the  impression  of  a  man's  feet  with  figures 
of  animals ;"  the  Spanairds  call  it  the  rock  of  St,  Thomas, 
from  a  belief  that  the  saint  wandered  in  these  regions  I 

When  in  Paris  in  1866,  my  friend  the  Abb^  B.  de  Bourbourg 
showed  me  a  copy  he  lately  made  in  Madrid  of  a  Quichua  MS. 
entitled  Relacion  de  Antiguedades  deste  Bey  no  del  Peru,  by  Don 
Juan  Santa  Cruz  Pachacuti  Yumquiz  Salcamaygua,  contain* 
ing  a  drawing  of  the  back  gable  of  the  Ooricancha,  or  Temple 
of  the  Sun,  at  Cuzco.  The  whole  of  the  said  gable  is  seen  to  be 
covered  with  well  drawn  figures  in  outline.  1 .  Five  stars  and 
oval  outside  the  gable.  2.  Five  stars.  3.  Large  oval  said  to 
represent  the  Creator  in  heaven  and  earth — -the  Great  Unknown, 
and  had  a  glory  round  it,     4.  The  sun.     5.  The  moon.     6.  Star 


356    BOLLAEBT  ON  ANCIENT  PERUVIAN  GRAPHIC  RECORDS. 

of  night.  7.  Venus.  7a.  Clouds  or  winter.  7b.  Stars  or 
summer.  8.  Southern  cross.  9.  Probably  indication  of  the 
maize  harvest.  10.  Man.  11.  Woman.  12.  The  rainbow., 
13.  The  world  or  earth.  14.  The  River  Pilcomayo  issuing  out 
of  the  earth.  15.  Lightning.  16.  Unseen  eyes  that  see  every- 
thing. 17.  The  sea.  18.  A  spring  of  water.  20.  Hailstones. 
21.  A  tree.  22.  Collca-pata,  a  building  carved  with  plates  of 
gold,  and  called  the  Corichanda  or  Temple  of  the  Sun. 

I  conclude  these  observations  with  an  account  of  the  recently 
discovered  Peruvian  figurative  wHtings, 

In  vol.  i,  p.  187,  Memoirs  Anthropological  Society,  I  allude 
to  the  daguerreotype  of  a  llama  skin  in  the  museum  at  La 
Paz  in  Bolivia,  some  thirty-four  inches  by  twenty-five  covered 
with  lines  of  characters.  Tschudi,  to  whom  was  shown  the 
daguerreotype  by  Mr.  Helsby,  of  Valparaiso,  was  led  to  think 
that  the  characters  were  probably  indications  of  some  Christian 
form  of  worship.  In  December,  1865,  my  friend  Mr.  G.  W. 
Helsby,  of  Liverpool,  entrusted  to  my  care  for  examination 
the  original  daguerreotype  taken  by  his  brother  and  Mr  Tier- 
nan  in  1857.  Mr.  Tiernan  tells  me  it  was  the  opinion  of  a 
priest  at  La  Paz,  that  the  figures  were  of  tocient  invention. 

It  was  found  in  the  Peninsula  of  Copacacava  in  the  Lake  of 
Titicaca,  which  is  in  the  old  Aymara  country.  The  height  of 
the  daguerreotype  is  three  and  one-eighth  inches,  in  width  four 
and  two-eighths,  the  figures  generally  one-eighth  to  one-sixth  of 
an  inch.  The  skin  is  much  shriveled,  distorting  the  figures, 
apparently  drawn  with  a  black  composition.  The  skin  is 
stretched  between  two  Indian  weapons,  one  a  stone  axe,  the 
other  a  sort  of  halberd. 

.   The  writing  is  in  ten  lines,  and  I  describe  it  from  top  to 
bottom,  and  from  left  to  right : — 

1st  line.  The  first  representation  looks  like  a  gallows,  and  an 
Indian  hanging  from  it,  a  Spaniard  at  the  spot  may  be  the 
hangman.  The  circle  with  points  may  mean  the  sun  or  day. 
An  Indian  is  seen  falling  as  if  wounded.  Another  is  beings 
flogged  before  a  Christian  cross. 

2nd.  Commences  with    seven   upright  strokes,  may  mean 
there  are  seven  Indians  to  be  flogged.     An  Indian  kneeling, 
being  Bogged  before  a  group  of  SpamaxAa. 


BOLLAERT  ON  ANCIENT  PERUVIAN  GRAPHIC  RECORDS.    357 

3rd  line.  A  Spaniard  firing  an  arqaebuse  at  an  Indian. 
Dots  and  strokes,  doubtless  to  act  as  numbers.  Figure  in  a 
menacing  attitude.     Parties  fighting.     A  monk  or  priest. 

4tli  line.  Man  with  thick  stick.  Apparently  a  Christian 
oratory.  A  man  with  a  weapon,  another  with  an  arquebuse. 
Man  firing  an  arquebuse.  Two  Indians  kneeling.  Spaniard 
blustering.     People  in  conflict. 

5th  line.  Man  attacking  as  if  with  a  lazo.  Strokes.  Spaniards 
with  arms  akimbo.  Kneeling  figure.  Figure  before  a  cross. 
A  priest.  Spaniard  trailing  a  pike.  Two  Indians  kneeling 
before  a  cross.  Indian  prisoners.  Spaniards.  Figure  before 
a  cross. 

6th  line.  Indian  kneeling.  A  priest  and  cross.  Two  figures 
kneeling  before  a  Spaniard.  A  Spaniard  holding  up  an  Indiati 
child  by  the  leg,  the  mother  supplicating  for  it.  Cloaked  and 
armed  men.  Two  more  examples  of  men  holding  up  infants, 
and  mothers  supplicating.  Series  of  strokes.  Spaniards.  Indian 
kneeling  before  a  cross. 

7th  line.  Man  attacking.  Man  with  uplifted  arms.  A  cross. 
Ten  strokes  joined,  and  three  series  of  strokes  not  joined, 
Man  with  a  whip. 

8th  line.  Children.  Indians.  A  tree.  Spaniard  as  if  shoot- 
ing. Another  approaching  with  an  arquebuse.  Kneeling 
figure  apparently  a  priest,  may  be  giving  absolution  before 
execution.     Man  running  away.     A  priest.     Indian.     A  cross. 

9th  line.  Strokes.  Figure  on  the  ground.  Figure  holding 
his  arms  towards  the  latter.  Series  of  strokes  and  circles. 
Two  figures  meeting.  Figure  with  outstretched  arms.  Strokes. 
Circles.     Armed  figure.     A  cross. 

10th  line.  A  priest.  Kneeling  figures.  Woman  kneeling 
before  a  cross.  Two  women  seated.  A  tree.  Kneeling  figure 
before  a  cross.  Same  as  last.  Spaniard  arms  akimbo.  Figure 
before  a  cross.     Same  as  last.     Series  of  fifteen  strokes. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  Tschudi  thought  this  figura- 
tive composition  was  indicative  of  some  form  of  Christian 
worship.  1,  however,  after  careful  examination  of  this  specimen 
of  picture  writing,  interspersed  with  numerical  representations, 
suppose    that  something  of  this  style  Y^a^  e^^n  Vtics^tjl^*^'^^ 


■nnn 


358    BOLLAEBT  ON  ANCIENT  PERUVIAN  GKAPHIC  EECOBDS. 

Ajniard  and  Qoichua  Indians  before  the  conquest^  and  that 
they  thus  in  this  case  represented  the  sanguinary  doings  of 
their  conquerors.  These  paintings  the  Indians  did  in  secret 
and  were  handed  down  to  their  children,  so  that  when  any  op- 
portunity offered  to  be  revenged  on  the  Spaniards,  their  suffer- 
ings  should  not  be  forgotten  and  vengeance  taken,  of  which 
there  are  fearful  instances,  including  that  of  Pumacagua  in 
1780,  that  of  Condorcanqui  some  years  later. 

This  painted  skin,  having  been  found  at  Copacavana,  leads  to 
the  idea  that  it  is  of  Aymard  origin ;  for  as  yet  nothing  of  this 
character  has  been  met  with  among  the  Quichua-Inca  Indians, 
and  may  be  called  a  figurative  and  numerative  document. 

This  is  all  we  at  present  know  of  graphic  art  in  Peru  and 
neighbouring  lands ;  it  is  worth  while  recording  for  the  reason 
there  is  so  little  of  it. 


359 


XXIII. — On  the  Physical  CharacterLstics  of  the  Inhabitants  of 
Bretagne.  By  John  BBDDOB,M.D.,V.-Pres.  A.S.L.,  Foreign 
Associate  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris, 

The  materials  for  this  paper  have  been  obtained  in  part  from 
those  afforded  by  the  several  memoirs  and  papers  of  Broca  and 
Boudin,  on  the  statore  and  other  physical  characters  of  the 
people  of  the  French  empire.  My  friend,  M.  Broca,  has  more* 
over  favoured  me  with  further  information  on  the  subject  dur- 
ing my  intercourse  with  him.  Much  has  been  derived  from 
the  two  valuable  tracts  of  Dr.  Guibert  of  St.  Brieuc,  which 
refer  almost  exclusively,  however,  to  the  department  of  the 
C6tes  du  Nord.  For  me  they  have,  however,  a  peculiar  value^ 
as  Dr.  Guibert  has  done  me  the  honour  to  apply  my  own  me- 
thods of  observation  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  department; 
wherefore,  his  facts  may  be  compared  or  contrasted  with  my 
own,  with  almost  as  much  confidence  as  if  they  had  all  been 
obtained  by  a  single  investigator.  Lastly,  I  am  able  to  refer 
to  the  results  of  a  very  hurried  excursion,  which  I  was  able  to 
make  in  Bretagne  in  the  course  of  last  autumn  (1869),  when 
I  visited  the  stones  of  Carnac  and  Lokraariaker,  and  the  towns 
of  St.  Male,  Dinan,  Rennes,  Auray,  Kemperle,  Kemper,  and 
Morlaix.  Of  these  towns,  the  last-named  four  are  within  the 
limits  of  the  Breyzonnec  language :  it  is  true  that  they  are  all 
situated  on  the  railway  which  girdles  the  country;  but  the 
formation  of  that  railway  is  but  recent,  and  the  native  popu* 
lation  has  as  yet  been  but  little  disturbed.  Indeed,  there  are 
probably  few  portions  of  western  Europe,  of  equal  extent,  in 
which  the  native  population  has  been  less  adulterated  during 
the  last  few  centuries.  This  is  owing  partly  to  the  peninsular 
situation  of  Bretagne,  but  still  more  to  the  deep  and  obstinate 
attachment  of  the  Bretons  to  their  language  and  nationality. 
I  have  it  on  the  best  possible  authority,  that  of  Count  de  la 
Villemarque,  that  the  boundary  line  of  the  French  and  Breton 
languages       is  to-day  precisely  where  it  did  in  the  fifteenth 


360  BEDDOE    ON    THE    INHABITANTS    OP    BBETAGNE. 

century,  which  is  the  more  remarkable  inasmuch  as  it  does  not 
coincide  with  any  strongly-marked  geographical  barrier.  A 
French  colony  may  be  said  to  have  been  planted  at  Brest,  and 
another  at  L' Orient ;  and  the  language  of  law,  and  civilisation, 
and  the  school,  has  gradually  gained,  in  the  other  towns,  on 
that  of  the  market  and  the  nursery ;  but  in  the  rural  districts, 
within  the  boundary,  there  has  been  hardly  any  admixture, 
whether  of  blood  or  of  language.  Exclusive  as  are  the  Welsh, 
and  defended  from  amalgamation,  moreover,  by  stronger  phy- 
sical obstacles,  they  are  probably,  on  the  whole,  a  less  pure 
blooded  people  than  the  Lower  Bretons. 

The  French  speakers — ^who  lie  east  of  the  boundary,  occupy- 
ing the  departments  of  lUe-et-Vilaine  and  Loire  Inf^rieure, 
with  about  half  that  of  C6tes-du-Nord,  and  perhaps  a  third 
of  that  of  the  Morbihan — are  called  by  the  genuine  Bretons 
Oallo.  The  name  may  be  of  some  importance  with  reference 
to  the  question,  when  and  how  the  Bomanisation  or  Prenchifi- 
cation  (call  it  which  you  will)  of  this  extensive  district  took 
place.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  the  word  Gallo  (whence 
Gallec,  applied  to  the  French  dialect  of  Upper  Bretagne)  may 
mean  simply  a  stranger  or  foreigner,  as  Gall  does  in  Erse ;  but 
if  this  conjecture  be  rejected,  we  must  suppose  it  to  date  from 
a  period  when  central  France  was  still  Gallic,  while  the  Armo- 
ricans  distinguished  themselves  as  non-Gallic.  On  this  latter 
supposition,  the  fact  that  the  Carloviugian,  and  perhaps  even 
the  Merovingian  Franks,  were  called  Gall  by  the  Bretons,  need 
cause  us  no  doubt  nor  difficulty,  if  we  recollect  that  the  word 
Saxon,  or  some  variation  of  it,  was  applied,  by  our  British 
Celts,  equally  to  the  Saxons  themselves  and  to  their  Norman 
conquerors.  The  most  simple  view  that  can  be  taken  of  this 
Gallo  population  is,  that  it  resembles  that  of  eastern  Monmouth- 
shire, which  really  consists  of  Welshmen  who  have  lost  their 
language  and  been  slightly  crossed  in  blood,  but  which  is  re- 
garded as  Saxon  by  the  Welsh,  and  as  Welsh  by  the  west- 
country  English. 

The  ethnological  changes  known,  or  supposed  to  have  oc- 
curred in  Bretagne  since  the  beginning  of  history,  are  as 
follows  : — 


BEDDOE   ON   THE    INHABITANTS    OF   BBETAQNB^.  361 

1st.  The  Romans  completely  subdued  the  country^  and  mas- 
sacred^ or  sold  for  slaves^  the  most  important  tribe,  that  of  the 
Veneti  in  Morbihan.  But  it  is  not  likely  that  they  introduced 
much  new  blood. 

2nd.  In  the  fifth  century,  large  immigrations  took  place,  it 
is  believed,  from  the  western  portions  of  insular  Britain.  The 
colonists  occupied  especially  the  northern  coast. 

3rd.  Saxon,  Frisian,  and  Scandinavian  pirates  harassed  the 
coasts  for  centuries,  and  seem  to  have  formed  permanent  set-» 
tlements  on  some  of  the  islands,  and  about  the  mouths  of  the 
Loire  and  other  rivers. 

4th.  The  Franks  made  repeated  attempts,  with  varying 
success,  to  conquer  the  eastern  portion  of  Bretagne,.  but  any 
new  element  introduced  by  these  attempts  would  probably  be 
rather  Romanised  Gallic  than  Teutonic. 

5th.  The  Normans  of  Normandy,  especially  in  the  eleventh 
century,  exercised  great  political  influence  in  Bretagne,  and 
had  at  least  a  military  occupation  of  some  north-eastern  districts. 

The  general  result  of  all  these  partial  changes  in  the  popula* 
tion  should,  one  would  suppose,  be  exhibited  in  an  approxima- 
tion,  so  far  as  regards  the  Gallo  population,  to  the  physical 
characteristics  of  these  nearest  neighbours.  The  people  of  the 
northern  coast  should  show  some  approach  to  the  prevailing 
types  of  the  West  of  England ;  but  the  original  type  should 
still  preponderate  almost  everywhere,  and  be  especially  pure  in 
the  centre  and  south-west.  Facts  seem  to  me  to  bear  oat 
these  inferences  to  a  great  extent. 

The  Breton  is,  as  a  rule,  a  man  of  short  stature,  compact  and 
strongly  built.  His  head  is  broad,  the  ears  wide  apart,  and 
the  zygomata  expanded,  the  cheekbones  also  often  prominent. 
There  are  two  prevailing  types  of  feature,  one  of  which  corre- 
sponds to  some  extent  with  the  Kimric  of  Edwards  and  of 
French  anthropologists  generally :  in  this  the  face  is  long,  the 
nose  long,  aquiline  or  sinuous,  and  the  chin  narrow.  But  much 
more  frequently  the  face  is  broad,  short,  and  squarish,  and  the 
general  aspect  reminds  me  strongly  of  the  mountaineers  of  the 
Apennines.  Dr.  Guibert  speaks  of  a  certain  prominence  of  the 
face,  /.';.,  as  I  take  it,  of  the  central  portion  of  the  face,  as  be- 


862       BEDDOE  ON  THE  INHABITANTS  OF  BRETAONE. 

longing  to  this  tjpe^  which  he  calls  Turanian  or  Iberian^  and 
others  Ligurian^  and  which  is  common  enough  in  most  parts  of 
Wales. 

The  eyes  are  of  various  colours  ;  often  brown  no  doubt,  but 
very  ofben  dark  grey,  or  sea-grey,  what  De  Belloguet  calls 
'*  bleu  de  mer  fonce^' j  they  are  seldom,  I  think,  obliquely  set, 
but  have  ofben  that  almond  shape  and  heavy  eyelid  with  which 
obliquity  usually  concurs.  The  hair  is  generally  coarse  and 
often  somewhat  curled  :  in  about  three-fourths  of  the  people  it 
is  very  dark,  and  in  about  one-fourth,  according  to  my  observa- 
tion, it  is  coalblack.  Dr.  Guibert  and  Dr.  Guiche  make  the 
proportion  of  black  hair  in  the  Cotes  dn  Nord  upwards  of  40 
per  cent.    Bed  hair  is  not  particularly  uncommon. 

My  observations  on  the  colour  of  the  hair  were  a  great  deal 
restricted  by  the  prevailing  fashions  in  Bretagne.  The  men, 
indeed,  cdlow  their  hair  to  grow  long,  and  to  hang  in  shaggy 
locks ;  but  the  women  cut  theirs  short,  and  hide  it  under  a 
close  cap ;  and  this  statement  applies  especially  to  the  peasant 
women,  whom  it  was  most  desirable  to  examine,  but  who  for 
the  most  part  completely  baffled  my  investigations. 

The  Bretons  are,  as  said,  of  low  stature :  they  are  remark* 
able  in  this  respect  even  among  the  French.  Our  data  are 
derived  entirely  from  conscription  statistics,  and  as  these  refer 
to  young  men  of  twenty  years,  they  do  not  indicate  the  full 
adult  stature  of  the  race.  In  a  good  many  cantons  the  average 
number  rejected  for  insufficient  height,  (i.e.,  for  falling  below 
156  centimetre8=5  ft.  1  in.),  equals  or  approaches  40  per  cent.* 
We  may  probably  estimate  the  full  adult  male  stature  in  these 
cantons  as  averaging  5  feet  3  inches.  They  form  part  of  a  dis- 
trict represented  on  the  anthropological  maps  of  Broca  and 
Guibert  as  stretching  from  sea  to  sea  along  the  confines  of  the 
Finistere  and  of  the  two  neighbouring  departments,  and  corre- 
sponding pretty  well,  except  in  its  approach  to  the  sea  at  its 
northern  extremity,  to  that  in  which  the  Armorican  race  may 
be    supposed   to   have  remained  most  free   from  admixture. 

*  Guibert,  who  takes  for  his  basis  of  colcuhvtion  the  numbers  actually 
measured.    Broca  takes  a  dilfercnt  himits. 


BEDDOE  ON  THE  INHABITANTS  OF  BRETAGNB.       363 

Some  of  these  cantons,  but  not  all  of  them,  are  hilly,  barren, 
and  poverty  stricken,  and  those  that  attribute  great  power  to 
*'  media''  or  external  causes,  may  be  disposed  to  credit  poverty 
and  scantiness  of  food  with  producing  the  stunted  stature  of 
the  people,  but  Dr.  Guibert  points  out  that  in  some  cantons 
near  the  northern  coast,  where  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  people 
are  well-to-do,  the  stature  is  but  little  more  elevated.  But  in 
proceeding  eastward  along  the  same  coast,  though  the  soil  is 
less  fertile,  and  the  population  not  richer  than  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood  of  Lannion,  the  change  from  the  Breton  to  the 
Gallo,  i.e.,  from  comparatively  pure  to  mixed  blood,  is  ac- 
companied by  a  considerable  augmentation  of  stature.  And 
the  same  is  the  case  wherever  else  we  have  reason  to  suppose 
the  existence  of  much  mixture  of  blood.  Thus  the  stature 
rises  in  the  Leonais,  the  district  which  community  of  traditions, 
as  well  as  other  reasons,  point  out  as  that  most  freely  colonised 
from  Great  Britain ;  it  rises  in  the  Ule-et-Yilaine,  towards  the 
border  of  Normandy,  and  still  more  in  the  populous,  commer* 
cial,  and  long-Frenchified  department  of  the  Loire  InfSrieure. 

So  much  for  the  stature  of  the  Bretons.  As  for  the  form  of 
the  head,  Broca  long  ago  set  it  down  as  short  and  broad, 
except  in  the  Leonais  district  already  mentioned.  And  Drs. 
Guibert  and  G  uiche  have  put  the  fact  beyond  doubt,  so  far  at 
least  as  concerns  the  department  of  Cotes  du  Nord.  These 
observers  have  measured  no  less  than  866  living  heads,  and 
find  the  average  modulus  of  breadth  in  the  Gallo  and  in  the 
most  purely  Breton  districts,  which  here  coincide,  to  be  about 
84*5,  while  in  the  Breton  coast  lands,  towards  Lannion, 
where  British  immigration  is  suspected,  it  falls  to  81*4. 
Pour  men  from  Finistere  yielded  me  an  average  modulus  of  82. 
Once  more,  as  to  the  colour  of  the  hair  and  eyes.  Dr. 
Guibert's  observations  were  made  on  777  conscripts  of  the 
Cutes  du  Nord,  and  he  has  digested  them  into  a  table  ar- 
ranged on  my  own  system.  His  results  are  curious.  He 
finds  light  eyes  and  light  hair  more  common  in  the  coast  dis- 
tricts of  Lannion  and  Treguier,  already  signalised  for  the 
comparative  dolichokephaly  of  the  people,  than  in  any  other 
part  of   the    department.     Light    hair    is  also  slightly  more 


864       BEDDOE  ON  THE  INHABITANTS  OP  BBETAONB. 

common  in  the  Gtillo  cantons  than  in  the  purely  Breton  in- 
terior, but  light  eyes,  contrnry  to  what  might  perhaps  have 
been  expected,  seem  to  be  less  numerous  in  St.  Brieac  and 
Dinan,  cantons  near  the  coast  of  the  Gallo  region,  than  in 
any  of  the  other  divisions. 

I  myself  tabulated  900  observations  on  the  eyes  and  hair,  of 
which  400  were  taken  in  and  about  St.  Malo,  Dinan  and 
Rennes,  all  in  the  Gallo  region,  133  in  Morlaix,  which  may  be 
taken  as  representing  the  Leonais,  and  368  in  and  about 
Kemper,  Kemperl^,  Auray  and  Camac,  in  the  purely  Armorican 
district.  I  found  the  proportion  of  dark  hair,  estimated  by 
what  I  have  called  the  Index  of  Nigrescence,  e.i,,  by  subtract- 
ing the  red  and  the  fair  from  the  dark  brown  plus  twice  the 
black  ([2N  H-  D] — [R  +  F]  =index)  to  vary  inversely  as  the 
probable  amount  of  blood  mixture.  Thus  at  Kemperld  it  was 
111,  at  Kemper  92,  at  Auray  and  Camac  87,  at  Morlaix  78, 
at  Rennes  about  70*  or  75,  at  St.  Malo  and  Dinard  67,  and 
at  Dinan t  53. 

The  figures  towards  the  close  of  the  series  do  not  differ 
much  from  those  I  have  obtained  in  Wales  and  Cornwall,  but 
those  at  the  head  are  far  more  striking  in  the  direction  of 
darkness  than  any  that  could  be  found  in  Wales  or  Ireland, 
nor  could  those  gotten  at  Kemperl^  be  pai*alleled  anywhere 
on  this  side  of  Rome  or  Naples,  so  far  as  my  opportunities 
enable  me  to  speak. 

Yet  the  likeness  between  the  Bretons  and  the  Welsh  is  as 
undeniable  as  that  between  their  respective  languages.  And 
if  I  may  trust  my  own  eyes,  and  those  of  an  unbiassed  ob- 
server who  accompanied  me,  the  Morlaix  folk  resemble  their 
supposed  kindred  in  the  west  of  England,  in  their  general 
turn  of  features,  as  well  as  in  their  comparative  fairness  and 
length  and  narrowness  of  skull. 


*  I  tinfortiinately  lost  my  Bennes  observations  after  having  tabulated 
them  ;  and  here  quote  them  from  memory. 

t  Where  an  English  colony,  established  some  fifty  years,  may  have  pro- 
duced some  effect. 


BEDDOE  ON  THE  INHABITANTS  OP  BRETAONE. 


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XXIV. — Account  of  the  Shdl  of  a  Ohillak.  Ajipemlix  to  Article 
II,  x>p,  21-40,  "  On  the  Skeleton  and  Skulls  ofAinos"  By 
J.  Barnard  Davis,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Since  the  memoir,  which  appears  in  the  early  part  of  this 
volume  (pp.  21-40),  was  written,  by  the  rare  generosity  of  a 
friend.  Dr.  Isidore  Kopemicki,  himself  a  craniologist  of  emi- 
nence, I  have  had  presented  to  me  a  skull  belonging  to  a  dif- 
ferent race  of  aboriginal  people,  inhabiting  the  same  remote 
part  of  the  globe.  This  is  the  calyarium  of  a  Ghiliak,  a  people 
who  dwell  on  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  the  Strait  of  Tartary,  and  in 
the  Island  of  Saghalien.  For  many  reasons  it  is  desirable  that 
some  account  of  this  Ghiliak  skull  should  be  placed  in  connection 
with  that  of  its  near  neighbours  in  the  island,  the  Ainos. 

The  history  of  the  finding  of  the  Ghiliak  calvarium  is  curious: 
a  Polish  patriot,  exiled  to  Siberia  in  1835,  Mr.  H.  Weber,  was 
engaged  in  making  a  botanical  excursion,  in  1858,  in  the  Trans- 
Amurian  province ;  and  traversing  a  forest  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Lake  Kizia,  discovered  it  in  the  branches  of  one  of  the 
trees.  I  am  not  certain  whereabouts  this  lake  is  situated ;  the 
whole  of  the  Amurian  region  abounds  in  lakes ;  still  it  is  be- 
lieved to  be  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  range  of  mountains  which 
runs  parallel  with  the  Strait  of  Tartary,  not  far  from  the  Tunji 
River.  It  appears  that  the  Ghiliaks  dispose  of  the  dead  by 
placing  the  bodies  in  trees,  like  some  North-American  and 
Australian  tribes,  or  they  bum  the  bodies.*  Mr.  Weber,  the 
botanist,  took  the  skull  carefully  down,  and  sent  it  a  long 
journey  to  Irkutsk,  in  Siberia,  to  another  exile,  Mr,  A.  Giller, 
a  friend  and  relative  of  Dr.  Kopemicki,  who  had  been  solicited 
to  procure  him  cranial  spoils  from  that  country,  Mr.  Giller 
conveyed  the  calvarium  with  him  to  Warsaw,  in  1860,  where  it 
remained  for  a  length  of  time ;  subsequently  it  was  transmitted 

*  La  Perouse  found  that  tho  natives  of  the  Bay  of  Castries,  which  is  a 
little  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  placed  the  dead  in  coffins  upon  ft 
scaffolding  made  of  poles.    {Ante,  p.  30.) 


DAVTS   ON    THE    SKULL   OP   A   OHILIAK.  867 

to  its  owner  at  Paris,  where  it  was  exhibited  before  the  Soci^t^ 
d' Anthropologic  of  that  city,  on  which  occasion  Dr.  Prunerbey 
presented  a  precise  account  of  the  peculiarities  exhibited  in  the 
conformation  of  this  rare  Ghiliak  calvarium.  Its  travels  did 
not  then  cease,  for  I  have  recently  received  it  from  Wallachia^ 
its  late  home. 

In  De  Pauly's  fine  volume  on  The  People  of  Russia^  we  are 
informed  that ''  the  Ghiliaks,  or  Ghilem,  or  Kilen,  as  they  name 
themselves,  are  perhaps  the  most  essentially  fishing  people  of 
any  in  the  world.  This  tribe  but  a  little  ago  presented  all  the 
characters  of  a  nationality  almost  untouched;  but  for  some 
years  its  contact  and  frequent  relations  with  the  Russian  colonies 
founded  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  the  power  of  which  has 
risen  so  rapidly,  have  induced  it  insensibly  to  forget  its  language 
and  its  primitive  manners  to  a  considerable  degree.  The 
Ghiliaks  are  probably  of  the  same  race  as  the  Kouriles,  their 
neighbours,  although  to  our  days  they  have  been  considered  as 
an  absolutely  distinct  people.  They  dwell  upon  the  shores  of 
the  Amur,  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  to  about  one  hundred 
and  thirty  miles  up  its  course,  then  along  the  northern  shore 
to  a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles  from  the  river^  and  towards 
the  south  to  Cape  Lazaret ;  lastly,  on  the  lower  course  of  the 
IJsuri,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Island  of  Saghalien. 
The  first  Ghiliak  village  upon  the  Amur  is  Oukhtar,  which  they 
inhabit  in  common  with  the  Mangoutes,  or  Manguns,  whilst  a 
little  further  down  the  village  of  Kerch  is  exclusively  Ghiliak. 
About  forty  Ghiliak  villages  are  established  along  the  Amur^ 
and  there  are  about  a  dozen  on  the  north  and  south  of  its 
embouchure,  of  which  Kol,  the  most  northerly,  is  situated 
almost  twenty  miles  from  the  winter  station  of  Petrovsk.  The 
whole  territory  of  the  Ghiliaks  is  surrounded  on  the  north  and 
west  by  Tungouse  tribes,  among  whom  they  seem  to  be  in- 
troduced like  strangers. 

^'  The  Ghiliaks  live  absolutely  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
Tungouse  of  the  lower  Amur.  As  a  fishing  and  hunting  people 
they  are  in  the  same  degree  of  civilization  as  these  last,  from 
whom  they  are  distinguished  by  their  exterior,  and  especially 
by  their  language,  which  has  not  the  least  affinity  with  the 


368  DAVIS   ON   THE    SKULL   OP   A   GHILIAK. 

Tungouse  language,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  quantity  of  its 
monosyllables. 

^^  The  Ghiliaks  are  more  strongly  built  and  larger  than  the 
Tungouse,  They  have  the  face  broad,  or  rather  squared,  and 
their  little  black  or  deep  brown  eyes  are  less  oblique  than  those 
of  these  last.  The  mouth,  although  little  and  enframed  in 
thick  lips,  is  not  generally  disagreeable  to  look  at ;  the  nose  is 
short,  thick,  and  turned  up ;  the  eyebrows  are  very  thick  and 
strongly  arched.  The  black  and  thick  hair  is  curled  in  the 
greater  number ;  the  beard  is  stronger  than  among  the  Ton- 
gouses.'^*  The  Ghiliaks  of  De  Pauly's  beautiful  plate  are  of  a 
light  tawny  brown  colour. 

Mr.  Bavenstein  says,  '^  there  are  several  tribes  of  Ghiliaks, 
those  of  the  mainland,  the  Smerenkur  of  the  west  coast  of 
Sakhalin,  and  the  Tro  of  the  east  coast,  but  the  distinction  be- 
tween them  is  trifling.  Nor  do  they  difier  much  in  outward 
appearance  from  their  Tunguzian  neighbours ;  the  features  are 
still  Mongol,  the  nose  is  rather  flat,  the  eyes  are  small,  the  lips 
are  voluptuous,  the  eyebrows  bushy,  and  the  beard  is  stronger 
than  with  the  Tunguzians ;  they  do  not  shave  the  head,  but 
wear  the  hair  tied  up  into  a  thick  tail  or  in  tresses.  The 
Russians  describe  their  women  as  frights,  but  tastes  are  not 
always  the  same,  and  Rimso,  the  Japanese,  says  they  are  very 
comely,  and  doubly  attractive  on  account  of  their  daily  ablu- 
tions.^'t  They  are  represented  as  avaricious,  addicted  to  theft, 
to  murder  not  unfrequently,  and  greatly  to  revenge.  The 
missionary  De  la  Bruniere  was  murdered  for  the  little  mer- 
chandise he  had  with  him.  Rimso  says,  polyandry  prevails 
among  the  Smerenkur  Ghiliaks,  who  treat  their  women  with 
great  indulgence ;  only  those  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  needle 
can  expect  to  get  married.  The  children  are  strapped  down  to 
a  kind  of  board  and  hung  up  to  a  rafter  of  the  house. 

After  these  introductory  remarks,  we  may  now  tui-n  to  the- 
craniology  of  the  people  of  this  remote  part  of  the  globe.  Our 
Ghiliak  calvarium  has  belonged  to  a  man  of  about  thirty-five 


•  Peuples  de  la  Russie,  foL,  St.  Petersburg,  1862. 
t  The  Rwsians  on  the  Amur,  p.  389, 1861. 


DAVIS   ON   THE   SKULL  OP   A   GHILLAK.  369 

years  of  age ;  there  is  already  much  tendency  to  ossification  of 
the  sagittal  and  lambdoidal  sutures ;  and  the  teeth^  of  which 
seven  of  the  molars  remain,  are  a  good  deal  worn  down,  not 
unlikely  by  a  coarse  fish  diet.  The  calvarium  is  a  little  asym- 
metrical, being  slightly  flatter  in  the  right  occipital  and  left 
frontal  regions.  The  face  is  broad,  and  unusually  flat  on  the 
cheek  bones ;  the  space  between  the  orbits  wide  and  unusually 
level;  the  nasal  bones,  barely  half  an  inch  of  their  roots  re- 
maining, rising  only  very  gently;  the  forehead  ascends  for  but 
a  short  distance  slopingly,  when  it  turns  backwards,  meets 
the  interruption  of  the  frontal  protuberances,  and  then  falls 
rapidly  back  towards  the  vertex,  so  that,  although  the  frontal 
region  is  broad,  it  much  lacks  elevation.  The  temporal  regions 
widen  out  as  they  pass  backwards  from  the  external  orbital 
processes,  and  the  semicircular  lines  do  not  ascend  high  up  on 
the  parietals.  The  arch  of  the  palate  is  wide,  and  there  is  an 
exostotic  ridge  along  the  outer  margins  of  the  alveoli,  especially 
on  the  left  side.  The  whole  calvarium  is  low  and  broad ;  the  two 
parietal  bones  meet  for  the  anterior  half  in  a  slight  ridge ;  it  is 
not  a  brachycephalic  calvarium,  still  it  has  a  somewhat  cuboidal 
aspect,  because  its  breadth  and  height  are  the  same,  and  thus 
bear  the  same  proportion  to  its  length.  The  zygomatic  arches 
are  unusually  robust ;  there  is  a  distinct  paramastoid  process  on 
the  left  side.  This  general  outline  of  the  chief  features  of  the 
calvarium  is  given  purposely  before  reading  the  able  and  minute 
description  of  my  friend  Dr.  Prunerbey,  which  shall  now  follow. 
As  two  observers  are  often  led  to  fix  a  difierent  estimate  upon 
various  forms,  it  may  possibly  be  of  some  use  to  mark  the 
writer's  doubts  where  he  is  not  impressed  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  peculiarities  pointed  out  by  this  discriminating  cra- 
niologist;  such  doubts  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  regarded  by  Dr. 
Prunerbey  as  a  homage  to  truth. 

"  This  cranium  certainly  presents  such  a  conformation  as  to 
engage  all  our  attention :  it  is  voluminous,  massive,  and  very 
heavy ;  the  lower  jaw  is  wanting ;  the  upper  teeth  are  but  little 
worn  (?  the  dentine  is  thoroughly  exposed  in  the  two  first  molars, 
on  the  right  side),  when  compared  with  the  progress  of  ossifi- 
cation of  all  the  sutures.    In  fact,  the  lambdoid  is  the  only  one 

VOL.    III.  B  B 


370  DAVIS    ON    THE    SKULL   OF   A    GHILIAK. 

remaining  open  (?).  This  precocious  obliteration  is  sometimes 
observed  in  crania  proceeding  from  the  high  north ;  and  all  tho 
other  characters  indicate  that  the  individual  to  whom  the  skull 
belonged  died  in  the  vigour  of  life ;  save  a  very  slight  occipital 
asymmetry,  the  cranium  is  normal  throughout. 

"  Viewed  in  the  face  the  skull  offers,  in  a  high  degree  (?),  the 
lateral  contour  in  the  lozenge  form  proper  to  the  Turanian  races. 
The  forehead,  receding  towards  the  vertex  and  towards  the 
temples,  is  marked  by  thick,  horizontal  superciliary  arches, 
conjBuent  at  the  glabella ;  great  (?)  horizontal  depression  above 
these  arches,  and  considerable  prominence  of  the  frontal  bosses 
above  this  depression,  the  distance  between  the  two  bosses 
being  only  fifty-one  millimetres.  The  root  of  the  nose  is  flat, 
very  broad,  and  slightly  depressed  towards  its  lower  extremity. 
Nasal  bones  very  narrow  (four  mm.),  and  joined  on  the  flat; 
nose  flattened,  more  even  than  in  some  Esquimaux,  so  that  the 
nasal  processes  of  the  maxillaries  scarcely  exceed  the  plane  of 
the  face  by  three  mm.  Orbital  cavities  placed  entirely  towards 
the  face,  square,  with  horizontal  transverse  axes,  wider  than 
high,  with  the  lower  edge  much  thickened ;  the  eye  has  looked 
forwards ;  external  orbital  processes,  massive  and  very  promi- 
nent; suborbitar  foramina  very  large  and  placed  quite  low; 
region  of  the  malar  sinuses  flat,  broad,  high,  and  without  any 
trace  of  canine  fossa.  Nasal  spine,  without  being  pointed, 
elongated  downwards,  following  the  palatine  suture  (the  suture 
between  the  superior  maxillaries) ;  nasal  aperture  turned  out, 
and  the  external  surface  of  the  incisive  alveoli  hollowed,  in  place 
of  being  prominent.  Considerable  inclination  and  projection  of 
these  alveoli,  especially  those  of  the  canines,  which  form  a  right 
angle  between  the  premolars  and  the  incisors,  which  are  want- 
ing. Teeth  strong,  curved  at  the  roots  in  the  antero-posterior 
direction,  with  white  enamel.  The  canine  is  thick  and  notched 
on  the  internal  surface ;  the  first  premolar  more  voluminous 
than  the  second.  The  wisdom-teeth  are  small  and  crenelated 
on  their  grinding  surface.  The  form  of  tho  palate,  which  is  very 
deep,  approaches  to  a  parallelogram.  Before  quitting  tl:e  face 
let  us  remark  that  the  glabella  projects  over  the  nose,  the  lower 
edge  of  the  orbit  beyond  the  upper,  and  the  alveolar  border 


DAVIS    ON   THE    SKULL   OF   A   GfllLIAK.  371 

beyond  the  nasal  aperture ;  from  this  conformation  there  results 
a  face  inclined  from  above  downwards,  from  behind  forwards, 
and  really  prognathous.  Regarded  from  above,  and  laterally, 
the  supraorbitary  region  of  the  forehead  appears  to  be  sur- 
rounded with  an  osseous  ring. 

'^  Laterally  the  malar  bone  is  broad,  very  high  (thirty-four 
mm.)  and  inclined  downwards  and  outwards;  the  temples  are 
flattened,  greatly  elongated,  and  their  semicircular  lines  are 
elevated  without  approaching  so  near  to  each  other  as  in  certain 
Calmucks,  Australians,  New  Caledonians,  &c.  The  branches 
of  the  zygomatic  arches  are  broad  and  strong,  their  superior 
edge  ascends  from  behind  forwards,  without  being  curved; 
auditory  openings  with  a  wide  aperture,  funnel-shaped ;  mastoid 
processes  not  thick  but  long,  flat  and  directed  forwards ;  hence 
the  cranium  rests  at  once  on  these  processes  and  the  occiput, 
and  very  probably  the  incisor  teeth  will  have  been  supported 
in  the  air,  without  touching  the  horizontal  plane.  Parietal 
bosses,  small  and  projecting  upwards  in  the  last  third  of  the 
cranium ;  parietal  region  of  the  vertex  ogival,  but  yet  less  so 
than  in  the  Esquimaux. 

"  The  occiput  is  slightly  contracted,  prominent,  pentagonal, 
asymmetrical.  Its  scaly  part  is  joined  to  the  muscular  almost 
at  a  right  angle.  At  the  base  which,  in  its  post-auditive  part, 
is  less  wide  than  common  in  the  Mongol  race,  all  the  spines, 
processes,  crests,  etc.,  serving  for  the  attachment  of  muscles, 
are  strongly  developed ;  the  occipital  condyles  prominent  and 
elongated ;  lastly,  there  is  a  trace  of  an  occipital  paramastoid 
on  the  right  side,  and  the  anterior  edge  of  the  occipital  fora- 
men is  more  elevated  than  the  posterior.  The  cranial  sutures 
are  very  simple,  or  linear,  or  with  rude  and  distant  dente- 
lures. 

"  Let  us  recapitulate  all  the  traits  of  animality  we  have  ob- 
served. These  are,  without  speaking  of  the  considerable  re- 
duction of  the  papyracious  lamina  and  of  the  almost  complete 
exclusion  of  the  malar  from  the  suborbital  fissure,  the  volume 
of  the  first  premolar,  the  form  of  the  palate  and  of  the  supra- 
orbital region,  the  presence  of  the  occipital  paramastoid ;  and, 

bb2 


372 


DAVIS   ON   THE    SKULL  OP  A   OHILIAK. 


lastly,  the   disposition   of  tlie   edges   of   the   occipital    fora- 
men/'* 

We  shall  not  follow  Dr.  Pninerbey  in  his  measurementSy  as 
there  seem  to  be  some  misprints  in  this  place,  but  adopt  the 
method  employed  with  the  Aino  skulls. 

Mbabubeicxnts    of   ths    Skulls    of   a   Ghilla.k,    bomb   Alsutian 

ISLANDBBS,   AND    A  KAXTSCHADALB. 

Ohiliak.                         Aleutian  Islanda.  KiamtschAdAle. 

(Von  Baer.)  (Von  Baer.) 

Inches.        MlTlm.      Inches.        Millm.  Inches.       Millm* 

Length 7-2    =    182        69    =    175  68    =    172 

Breadth  5-6p.  142        5-8  148        5*7  145 

Height 5-6  142        50  127        5-3  135 

Least  frontal  width 3*9  100        3*6  91        3-8  96 

Greatest  „    4-7  119        4-3  109        4-6  112 

Parietal  „    55  140        51  130        5*2  132 

Occipital  „    4-9  125 

Zygomatic        „    56  142        5*5  140        6*8  148 

Frontal  radius   4*8  122 

Vertical     „    4-9  125 

Parietal      „    4-9  125 

Occipital    „    4-2  107 

Maxillary  „    4*2  107 

Fronto-nasal  radius 3'9  100 

Circumference    20-8  522      20-4  518      20-4  518 

Longitudinal  arc  14*9  377      140  355      14*2  360 

o.  Frontal  ditto 5*3  135 

b.  Parietal    „    47  119 

c.  Occipital  „    4-9  125 

Frontal  transverse  arc 12*7  322 

Vertical  132  335 

Parietal   13*8  350 

Occipital 11-8  298 

Cephalic  index,  latitudinal        *777  -843  -85 

„  altitudinal...        -777  -721 

Gnathic   '3 

Cubic  Inches.   Cubic  Centim. 
Internal  capacity 100  1638 

By  reducing  this  internal  capacity  of  100  cubic  inches  into 
its  equivalent  of  brain,  making  proper  allowance  for  the  mem- 
branes and  fluids,  we  arrive  at  the  weight  of  the  brain  which 
has  been  contained  in  this  Ghiliak  calvarium,  which  is  51 '51 


•  <t 


Description  d'un  CrAne  de  Ghiliak,  et  note  sur  les  Ghiliaks."  BulleHns 
de  la  8ocidt4  d'Anthropologie,  t.  2e  (2e  s^rie),  p.  571. 


DAVIS   ON   THE   SKULL   OP  A   GHILIAK.  373 

ounces,  or  1460  grammes.  The  result  of  this  investigation  is 
to  show  that  this  individual  Ghiliak  has  had  an  unusually  large 
brain ;  even  among  European  skulls  it  would  be  large.  It  has 
exceeded  in  weight  the  average  brain-weight  of  males  of 
Oceanic  races,  Australian  races,  American  races,  African  races, 
and  even  Asiatic  races,  being  surpassed  solely  by  the  mcJes  of 
European  races.  In  examining  the  ccdvarium  itself,  it  becomes 
apparent  that  it  owes  this  unusual  capacity  to  its  cuboidal 
form. 

In  its  general  configuration,  this  calvarium  is  at  once  seen 
not  to  belong  to  any  European  r€ice.  It  is  quite  unlike  the 
dolichocephalic  skulls  of  western  Europe.  It  does  not  conform 
to  any  African,  Australian,  Oceanian,  or  American  race,  nor  to 
the  skulls  of  Chinese  or  Japanese.  Yet  it  evidently  belongs 
to  a  rude  race,  as  is  apparent  from  its  bony  angularities.  This 
race  must  be  distinguished  for  considerable  flatness  of  face. 
Although  it  cannot  be  strictly  paralleled  with  any  other  ex- 
ample known  in  the  museums  of  Europe,  it  will  be  desirable 
to  compare  it  with  known  skulls  derived  from  the  same  region 
of  the  world, — the  skulls  of  Tunguse,  Kamtschadales,  Aleu- 
tians, and  Ai'nos. 

1.  As  the  Tunguse  live  nearest  to  the  Ghiliaks,  they  may  bo 
taken  first.  Blumenbach's  museum  contains  two  Tunguse 
skulls.  One  of  these  has  been  etched  in  his  Decades  Graniorwm 
(tab.  xvi),  and  also  in  his  l)e  Varietate  Nativa  (ed.  3,  tab.  ii, 
fig.  1).  But  this  skull  was  derived  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Lake  Baikal,  at  a  great  distance  from  the  Gulf  of  Tartary. 
Neither  of  these  figures  is  a  direct  profile ;  they  are,  however, 
taken  at  difierent  angles.  They  both  agree,  in  some  measure, 
with  our  Ghiliak, — in  the  flatness  of  the  face,  in  the  small,  low 
nasal  bones,  and  in  the  wideness  of  the  forehead ;  besides  which 
are  seen  the  robust  zygomata,  and  the  great  prominence  of  the 
external  orbitar  processes,  the  general  conformation  of  the 
calvarium  being  much  the  same.  There  are,  at  least,  three 
Tunguse  skulls  in  the  museum  of  the  Imperial  Academy  at  St. 
Petersburg,  but  these  have  not  been  either  described  or 
figured. 

2.  The   calvarium  of  the  Kamtschadale   of   Blumenbach^s 


374  DAVIS   ON    THE    SKULL   OF   A    GHILL^K. 

"  Decades  Craniorum'^  (Tab.  lxii),  in  all  its  prominent  features, 
closely  resembles  the  skulls  of  the  Aleutian  Islanders  depicted 
by  Choris  and  Von  Baer,  more  so  than  that  figured  by  Van 
der  Hoeven ;  and  it  agrees  in  general  form  with  our  Ghiliak, 
which,  nevertheless,  has  a  better  elevation  of  the  frontal  re- 
gion, but  less  eminent  nasal  bones. 

3.  The  Aleutian  islanders  in  the  sea  of  Kamtschatka.  In 
the  "  Voyage  Pittoresque  autour  du  Monde"  of  Choris,  which 
is  the  atlas  of  Kotzebue^s  voyage,  there  is  a  plate  representing 
two  skulls  of  the  inhabitants  of  these  islands, — one  seen  in 
face,  the  other  in  profile  {Isles  AleoutienSy  pi.  vi).  The  litho- 
graph is  poorly  executed,  and  it  is  probable  that  both  figures 
are  taken  froiii  one  cranium.  But  allowing  for  the  imperfec- 
tion of  the  execution  of  the  plate,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
form  of  the  skull  is  correctly  given,  and  this  is  sufficiently  sin- 
gular to  attract  much  attention.  It  is  a  considerable  exaggera- 
tion of  a  cranial  form  which  appears  to  prevail  in  this  region 
of  the  globe.  The  width  of  the  face;  the  very  widely  sepa- 
rated zygomatic  arches;  the  flatness  of  the  nose;  the  extreme 
want  of  elevation  of  the  frontal  region  which,  after  rising  at 
the  supraciliary  ridge,  falls  away  in  a  rapid  slope  towards  the 
vertex,  even  after  the  figure  is  recalled  to  its  normal  position ; 
the  prominence  of  the  parietal  protuberances ;  the  breadth  of 
the  calvarium,  combined  with  its  lowness,  are  all  most  cha- 
racteristic features. 

There  are  five  skulls  of  Aleutian  islanders  in  the  museum  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  St.  Petersburg.  One  of  these,  a 
calvarium,  has  been  figured  by  Professor  Von  Baer.  He  has 
given  three  plates  of  it  of  the  full  size, — a  profile,  a  face  view, 
and  a  vertical  view.*  These  exhibit  the  same  flatness  of  face 
as  our  Ghiliak,  the  same  small,  low  nasal  bones,  the  same  low- 
ness of  forehead,  and  the  same  roof-like  elevation  of  vertex ; 
the  same  robustness  of  the  zygomata  and  prominence  of  the 
external  orbitar  processes.  Professor  Van  Baer  has  projected 
the  outline  of  another  Aleutian  island  skull,  from  the  island  of 
Atchen,  upon  the  vertical  view,  which  proves  it  to  be  much 
shorter.     His  measurements  vary  a  good  deal  from  those  of 

•  Crania  Selccta,  1850,  Tab.  U,  15,  and  16. 


DAVIS   ON    THE    SKULL   OP   A   GHILIAK.  375 

our  Ghiliak.  The  length  of  his  first  specimen  is  6*8  in.,  that 
of  second,  6' 6  in. ;  the  heights  of  the  two  are  respectively 
4*9  in.  and  5*2  in.,  and  the  breadths  respectively  5'2  in.  and 
5*4  in.  From  these  dimensions  it  is  obvious  that  both  these 
examples  are  much  smaller  than  our  Ghiliak.  The  cephalic 
indices  are  respectively  '72  and  '78.  Van  Baer^s  means  are 
given  in  the  preceding  table. 

He  compared  the  skulls  of  the  Aleutian  Islanders  with  those 
of  Calmucks,  and  points  out  one  or  two  resemblances  and  many 
differences.  He  next  compared  them  with  the  cranium  of  a 
Japanese,  which  is  figured  in  the  great  work  of  G.  Sandifort, 
as  the  Aleutian  Islanders  have  been  said  to  resemble  the 
Japanese,  and  points  out  the  much  more  upright  forehead  and 
higher  calvarium  of  these  latter.  He,  lastly,  compares  the 
Aleutian  island  skulls  with  the  Kamtschadale  figured  in  Blumen- 
bach's  Table,  and  finds  a  considerable  resemblance  between 
the  two.  He  procured  the  measurements  of  the  Kamtschadale 
calvarium,  which  have  been  repeated  in  our  table. 

The  late  Professor  J.  van  der  Hoeven  described  the  skull  of 
an  Aleutian  Islander,  and  added  a  profile  and  vertical  view  of 
the  same,  with  measurements.*  This  complete  cranium,  which 
is  in  the  Rijks  Museum,  at  Leyden,  presents  a  certain  degree 
of  resemblance  to  the  figures  of  Choris  and  Von  Baer.  Its 
most  important  difference  is  seen  in  the  unusual  elevation  of  its 
frontal  region.  The  nasal  bones  are  narrow,  not  much  elevated, 
and  rather  long.  In  the  norma  vertlcalis  it  considerably  re- 
sembles our  Ghiliak. 

Although  there  is  some  general  resemblance  of  form  among 
these  skulls,  the  Tunguse,  the  Kamtschadale,  the  Aleutian 
Islanders  and  the  Ghiliak,  the  measurements  convince  us  that 
there  must  be  a  great  diversity  of  proportions  in  the  series. 
The  Ghiliak  skull  is  dolichocephalic,  whilst  both  the  Kamtscha- 
dale and  the  Aleutians  are  bra chy cephalic.  And  it  equally  re- 
sults from  the  measurements  of  a  series  of  skulls  of  Tsuktshi 
recorded  by  Professor  Jeffries  Wyman,  that  they  also  are  brachy- 
ccphali,  having  a  mean  index  of  80*3. f     From  this  comparison 

*   Ilcschrijving  van  dric  mcrkuaardige  mcnschelijke  Schcdels, 
t   Observations  on  Crania,  IbiiS,  p.  22. 


876  DAVIS  ON  THE  SKULL  OF  A  QHILL^K. 

we  are  justified  in  concluding  that,  although  there  may  be  some 
degree  of  resemblance,  there  is  still  a  considerable  diversity  of 
cranial  form  among  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  remote  eastern 
regions  of  Asia  and  the  surrounding  islands.  It  is  true  that^ 
up  to  the  present  time,  very  trifling  materials  have  been  col- 
lected to  elucidate  the  subject,  nevertheless  this  conclusion  may 
be  confided  in. 

4.  When  we  pass  to  the  skulls  of  the  Atnos,  who  are  a 
people  living  in  the  same  immediate  neighbourhood,  a  people 
occupying  the  southern  end  of  the  same  Island  of  Saghalien, 
the  northern  extremity  of  which  is  the  dwelling  place  of  diffe- 
rent tribes  of  Ghiliaks,  we  meet  with  a  difference  of  cranial 
conformation  which  is  quite  remarkable.  The  skull  of  the  Aino, 
as  described  in  the  preceding  memoir,  offers  no  similarity  worth 
naming  to  the  broad  and  flat-faced  Ghiliak.  On  the  contrary, 
it  exhibits  a  considerable  resemblance  both  in  the  face  and  the 
calvarium  to  our  European  forms.  The  difference  between  the 
Aino  and  the  Ghiliak  is  so  important  and  extends  over  so 
many  features,  that,  at  the  risk  of  being  somewhat  tedious,  it 
will  be  desirable  to  pass  over  these  features  separately,  to  make 
the  differences  fully  obvious.  In  describing  the  compUcated 
forms  of  the  human  skull,  it  is  only  by  very  careful  and  patient 
enumeration  that  they  can  be  duly  estimated,  and  it  is  always 
difficult  to  convey  by  words  that  which  may  be  at  once  per- 
ceived by  the  eye. 

In  the  Ghiliak  there  is  a  broad  flat  surface,  or  plane,  upon 
the  superior  maxillary  bones  covering  the  sinuses,  which  is  seen 
in  a  very  inferior  degree,  or  may,  indeed,  be  said  to  be  wholly 
absent  in  the  Ainos.  The  facial  surface  of  the  malar  bones  is 
considerably  less  in  these  latter.  Measured  obliquely  from  the 
edge  of  the  orbit  to  the  free  space  below  the  zygoma,  in  the 
Ghiliak  it  is  37  mm.  In  the  male  Aino  (No.  1482)  it  is  only 
32  mm.  The  distance  between  the  orbits  in  the  former  is  30  mm., 
in  the  latter  it  varies  from  27  to  28  mm.  The  orbits  of  the 
Ainos  are  more  like  those  of  Europeans.  The  frontal  region  is 
tolerably  well  elevated  and  prominent  in  these  latter ;  in  the 
Ghiliak  it  is  low  and  recedent.  In  the  norma  verticalis  the 
Aiuos  skulls  exhibit  the  regular,  smooth,  ovoid  forms  of  those  of 
Europeans,  whilst  the  GhiUak  is  less  regular,  and  has  upon  the 


DAVIS   ON   THE    SKULL   OP  A   GHILLAK.  377 

whole  a  more  angular  aspect.  The  mean  cephalic  index  in  the 
three  Amos  male  skulls  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Ghiliak  man^ 
viz.,  -77. 

Whether  the  essential  differences  between  these  two  distinct 
series  of  skulls  have  been  made  very  clear  by  this  description 
and  the  accompanying  figures  may  still  be  somewhat  uncertain, 
although  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  have  been  rendered  tolerably 
plain.  But,  when  the  skulls  themselves  are  presented  to  the  eye 
of  the  observer,  they  appear  to  appertain  to  distinct  varieties, 
and  to  have  no  connection,  or  scarcely  any  connection,  with  each 
other.  We  have  not  been  able  to  trace  any  gradation  from 
one  form  to  the  other.  The  two  remain  clearly  marked  out  as 
distinct,  quite  as  distinct  as  the  mild  character  of  the  Ainos, 
from  that  of  the  treacherous  and  cruel  Ghiliaks.  They  must 
both  be  regarded  as  primitive  peoples,  for  the  wildest  imagina- 
tion can  hardly  conceive  of  either  of  them  having  migrated — 
of  an  European  tribe,  for  instance,  having  roamed  to  such  a 
very  remote  and  inaccessible  region  of  Asia  and  planted  itself 
there — still  less  of  their  having  migrated  from  two  different 
and  opposite  sources.  Hence  this  important  fact  of  the  pre- 
sence of  two  different  primitive  peoples  living  in  the  same 
island,  where  they  have  uninterruptedly  resided  for  an  unknown 
and  indefinite  antiquity,  who  are  strikingly  contrasted  in  their 
most  essential  forms,  must  be  added  to  the  large  number  of 
facts  of  the  same  kind,  which  are  continually  presenting  them- 
selves in  the  survey  of  human  races.  No  system  of  anthropo- 
logy can  be  of  any  value  whatever  which  will  not  embrace  a  vast 
multitude  of  facts  of  this  kind. 

The  weight  of  the  brain  in  these  remote  Asiatic  peoples  is 
alone  suflScient  to  prove  that  they  are  not  degenerate  remnants 
of  some  former  more  highly-endowed  race.  On  the  contraiy, 
they  possess  fair  average  sized  brains,  such  as  are  proper  to 
the  races,  not  falling  materially  below  the  mean  volume  of  Euro- 
pean brains.  The  general  average  deduced  from  the  internal 
capacities  of  299  skulls  of  European  men  is  a  brain-weight  of 
48'25  ounces  ;  the  mean  of  the  three  Ainos  skulls  is  45*83  oz., 
and  that  of  the  male  Ghiliak  skull  is  51*51  oz.,  which  is,  as 
before  explained,  no  doubt,  an  exceptionally  large  example. 


378 


XXV. — On  the  TIeadform   of  the  Bancs.      By   Dr.   Beddoe, 
President  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  London. 

Measurement  of  the  living  head,  though  of  course  much 
valued  by  phrenologists,  has  on  the  whole  been  strangely  ne- 
glected by  the  students  of  comparative  anthropology.  The 
presence  of  the  integuments,  and  the  extreme  difficulty  of  find- 
ing fixed  points,  in  bodies  presenting  almost  everywhere  curved 
and  convex  surfaces,  prevents  any  satisfactory  system  of  men- 
suration from  being  devised,  and  scientific  men  have  generally 
passed  by  such  measurements  as  worthless,  or,  at  least,  as 
almost  infinitely  less  valuable  than  those  obtainable  from  the 
bare  skull. 

But  in  most  countries,  civilised  as  well  as  uncivilised,  skulls 
are  not  procurable  without  much  difficulty;  and  the  authen- 
tication of  the  race  and  birthplace  of  the  original  proprietor 
of  a  skull  is  very  often  impossible.  In  several  civilised  coun- 
tries, and  particularly  in  our  own,  few  crania,  save  those  of 
lunatics,  idiots,  paupers,  or  malefactors  (all  unsatisfactory  spe- 
cimens of  a  race),  have  ever  been  measured  or  catalogued. 
Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  surely  very  desirable  that  some 
plan  should  be  devised  whereby  the  abundant  material  on  the 
shoulders  of  our  fellow-citizens  may  be  utilised  to  the  full 
limits  which  the  obstacles,  opposed  by  nature,  will  permit. 
Such  simple  questions  as  those  of  the  relation  of  breadth  to 
length  in  the  European  races,  for  example,  might  thus  be  solved 
almost  immediately ;  whereas  we  may  have  to  wait  half  a  cen- 
tury before  we  can  accumulate  crania  numerous  enough  for 
their  settlement. 

The  system  of  measurement  I  practise  is  my  own ;  it  has 
been  gradually  arrived  at  through  many  additions  and  varia- 
tions, and  its  present  form  has  received  the  valuable  approval 
of  my  friend  Pruner-Bey.  All  I  can  claim  for  it,  however,  is 
that  it  is  expeditious  and  convenient  in  application,  not  re- 
quiring the  aid  of  any  implement  more  costly  or  less  portable 


WESTERN  ISLESMEN. 


No. 


Q^ 


00 


B 


CO 


Birthplace. 


10 


Aarhaos    ... 

Ditto 

Fredrikshavn 
Near  Skag  Poini 


•  •i 


•  I 


Apenrade i 

UxvXiO  ...      ...       «•• 

Near  Apenrade.. 
Sonderborg 
Flensborg 

f  F.  Kjobenhavn 
I M.  Apenrade 
Kjobenhavn 

Ditto 

Sioelland   

Helsing&r 

Middlefart  Fyen 
Langeland 

Moen 

Laaland     

Bomholm 

Ditto 

^LuiaK ...     « •  •     •  • 
Ditto 


Bomo 

Ditto 

Fano 

27  I  Ditto 

28  Ditto 

Averages  of  fourteen 
Ditto  of  fourteen  Jul 
Ditto  of  the  twenty- 
Ditto  of  ten  from  th 


Mast 

51 
4-9 
5-3 


5-5 

5-2 

515 

6-6 

5-4 

5-2 

5-7 

5-7 

6-4 

516 

51 

5-4 

56 

5 

5-3 

5-2 

6-7 

4-9 

53 

4-8 

5-4 

5-6 

5 

5-8 

5-33 
6-22 
527 
5-21 


Circumfereace. 


Gl.  Po. 

Fr.  In. 

21-7 

21-6 

22-6 

22-5 

22-5 

22-3 

23-9 

234 

22-3 

22-1 

22-6 

22-2 

22-8 

22-6 

23-3 

22-8 

22-8 

22-2 

221 

21-9 

23 

22-6 

23-5 

23-2 

22-7 

22-4 

21-6 

21-4* 

23-2 

231 

23-5 

23-2 

225 

21-8 

21-8 

21-5 

22  3 

22-4 

22-3 

222 

22-75 

22-76 

22-4 

22-5 

22-4 

22-2 

22-4 

22-2 

221 

21-9 

23-4 

23  3 

22-7 

22-4 

23-3 

23-2 

22-57 

22-36 

22-76 
22-66 
22-65 


22-47 
22-42 
22-43 


Gl.  In. 

21-4 
22-7 
21-8 
23-4 

22-2 
21-8 
22-6 
229 
22-2 

21-6 

231 

23-3 

225 

21 

22-7 

23 

22-1 

21-5 

22-1 

22-2 

22-7 

22 

22-1 

21-8 
22-2 
23-4 
22-4 
231 

22-27 
22-42 
22-34 
22-47 


Arcs. 

B.  D. 

Naao- 

Inter* 

Inter* 

Cephalic 

Inial. 

helical. 

meatoid. 

Index. ' 

216 

13-3 

12-2 

141 

81-4 

225 

14-6 

12-5 

14-5 

75-6 

22-4 

14-9 

12-8 

14-6 

75-6 

23-7 

14-3 

12-5 

14-7 

82-5 

221 

13-2 

12 

13-8 

81-6 

22-3 

14 

12-6 

14-4 

81-7 

22-7 

14 

12-8 

14-7 

82-2 

23 

14-4 

13 

14-8 

82-6 

22-7 

141 

12-2 

14-2 

79-6 

22-3 

14 

12-2 

13-8 

83-5 

22-6 

14-9 

12-4 

14-8 

79-6 

233 

14-2 

13 

14-7 

833 

22-6 

13-2 

124 

14-5 

84-3 

21-5 

13-5 

12-2 

13-6 

81-6 

22*9 

145 

13-2 

14-8 

83-6 

23-3 

15 

13-8 

15-4 

76-9 

22 

13-5 

11-9 

14 

77-9 

21-6 

12-9 

114 

13-3 

79-6 

22-3 

14 

13-5 

15 

85-9 

22-4 

14 

12-3 

14-2 

76-3 

22-7 

14-2 

12-5 

14-3 

79-4 

22-4 

14-5 

12  8 

14-5 

80-2 

22-3 

14-3 

12-1 

14 

78-9 

22-2 

13-7 

13-2 

14-2 

77-6 

22 

831 

231 

14-4 

12-3 

14-2 

81-4 

22-5 

13-3 

12-8 

14-8 

81-1 

23 

14-1 

12-8 

14  7 

82-3 

22-37 

1405 

12-55 

14-35 

80-B 

22-63 

14 

12-55 

14-40 

80-5 

22-50 

14-02 

12-55 

14-38 

80-5 

22-42 

14-44 

12-37 

78-4 

382         BEDDOE  ON  THE  HEADFORM  OP  THE  DANES. 

few  North  Germans,  have  settled  in  the  country  since  certain 
Wends  colonised  Laaland  and  Falster  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
Nevertheless,  it  will  be  observed,  that  great  variations  in  the 
modulus  of  breadth  occur  in  the  series,  and  in  almost  every  di- 
vision of  it.  For  my  part,  I  believe  such  to  be  the  case  in 
every  race,  however  pure.  The  resemblance  between  the 
averages  of  the  fourteen  Isle-Danes  and  the  fourteen  western 
men,  is  sufficiently  near  to  lead  me  to  think  that  I  have  really 
approached  the  true  average  of  the  maritime  population.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  the  Jutes  of  the  interior  and  west  may  be 
longer-headed. 

The  average  stature  of  fourteen,  known  to  be  aged  23,  or 
upwards,  was  5  ft.  6*9,  or  170  centimeters, — a  fair  average  for 
Great  Britain.  The  mainlanders  were  generally  taller  than 
the  islesmen.  The  eyes  were  almost  always  light,  and  either 
blue  or  blueish-gray,  and  the  hair  generally  either  pale  yellow 
or  light  brown.  The  only  person  of  dark  complexion  was  the 
man  from  the  Isle  of  Moen,  to  whom  I  will  return  presently. 
The  prevailing  form  of  face  was  the  spade,  broad  in  the  fore- 
head, broader  at  the  cheekbones,  and  tapering  thence,  with  a 
gradual  and  regular  curve,  to  a  well-marked  chin.  The  same 
form  prevails  in  Sweden  and  Shetland,  and  in  some  parts  of 
Cumberland  and  East  Yorkshire.  It  was  most  marked  in  the 
Schleswigers,  who  were  all  fine  men,  and  reminded  Dr.  Davies 
and  myself  of  the  old  Norman  type.  The  nose  was  slightly 
aquiline  in  the  Schleswigers,  straight  in  the  Jutes,  variously 
formed,  and  sometimes  concave,  in  the  islesmen. 

If  I  were  to  attempt  to  classify  the  heads  under  any  certain 
types,  I  should  place  them  all,  except  that  of  the  Moen-man, 
under  two:  one  of  these  is  elliptic,  or  rounded-oblong  in  section, 
resembling  the  Saxon  type  of  Lubach ;  the  other  approaches 
the  Frisian  type  of  Lubach,  and  has  some  resemblance  to  the 
oval  Celtic  type  of  Wilson  and  of  myself,  though  the  distinct 
protuberance,  which  is  apt  to  occur  at  the  point  of  greatest 
breadth,  is  placed  rather  more  forward  than  in  the  Celts.  In 
the  finest  men,  the  head  was  elliptic  in  section,  but  the  features 
were  rather  Frisian  than  Saxon. 

One  man  (No.  4)  from  near  the  Skag  point,  in  the  Vend- 


BEDDOE  ON  THE  HEADFORM  OF  THE  DANES.        383 

syssel,  was  a  magnificent  specimen  of  humanity ;  his  head  and 
face  closely  conformed  to  the  heroic  type  of  the  Greeks.  The 
folk  of  the  Vend-syssel  were  formerly  called  Vendels,  and  were 
probably  identical  with  the  Vandals ;  but  whether  the  Vandals 
were  Slavonic  or  Scandinavian,  I  will  not  pretend  to  decide, 
though  I  incline  to  the  latter  view. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Isle  of  Amak  are  said  to  be  de- 
scended from  a  Hollandish  colony.  My  two  Amagers  were  of 
the  Saxon  type.  The  Loesso-raan  was  remarkable  for  his 
harsh  features,  pentagonal  face,  and  large  parietal  tubers.  Of 
the  Bornholmers,  one  had  rather  oblique  eyes  and  a  thick  flat 
nose,  but  he  had  nothing  else  of  the  Tartar  about  him :  the 
other  was  a  good  example  of  my  second  type ;  his  face  was 
spadcformed,  his  temples  rather  flattened  laterally,  his  nose 
aquiline,  and  brows  prominent  though  arched  :  he  might  equally 
well  have  been  a  Frisian,  or  a  Swede,  or  an  Englishman,  not 
untinctured  with  Celtic  blood. 

The  Moen-man  differed  toto  coelo  from  all  the  rest.  His 
complexion  was  swarthy,  his  eyes  dark  and  obliquely  set,  his 
hair  dark,  thick,  and  curly,  his  face  oval,  nose  cocked,  brows 
and  cheekbones  prominent,  lips  thick ;  forehead  squarish,  low, 
and  receding;  head  rather  narrow  and  pyramidal,  with  the 
point  of  maximum  breadth  set  far  back.  His  appearance  did 
not  at  all  suggest  the  presence  of  Negro  blood ;  but  he  would 
have  passed  unnoticed  in  some  parts  of  Connaught  or  South 
Wales ;  and  his  head  reminded  me  of  the  primeval  skulls  dis- 
interred at  Borreby,  in  Moen.  Was  he,  in  truth,  a  descendant 
of  that  ancient  tribe  ? 


The  End. 


334 


XXVII. — On  the  Stature  and  Bulk  of  Man  in  the  British  Isles. 
By  John  Beddob,  B.A.,  M.D.,  F.S.S.,  President  of  the 
Anth.  Soc.  of  London. 

Prefatory  Chapter. 
The  plan  of  the  present  work  originated  in  the  following  way  : 
— In  the  year  1860,  Dr.  Barnard  Davis,  in  view  of  the  chapter 
in  the  "  Crania  Britannica,''  entitled  Ethnological  Relations  of 
the  present  population,  conceived  the  idea  of  printing  and  cir- 
culating certain  queries  as  to  the  physical  characteristics  of  the 
natives  of  various  portions  of  Britain.  He  did  me  the  honour 
to  submit  his  scheme  for  my  consideration  and  approval ;  and 
we  subsequently  circulated  a  good  many  copies  of  his  "  ethno- 
logical queries,^'  and  obtained  thereby  a  good  deal  of  valuable 
material,  an  abstract  of  which  may  be  found  in  Decade  vi  of  the 
great  work  above-mentioned.  I  had,  however,  been  struck  by 
the  unlocked  for,  and,  as  I  thought,  interesting  and  anthropo- 
logically important  character  of  the  information  bearing  on  the 
stature  of  man,  which  Lad  thus  been  obtained ;  and  I  resolved 
to  carry  on  the  inquiry  into  that  branch  of  the  subject  on  a 
more  extended  scale,  by  the  circulation  of  blank  tables,  to  be 
filled  up  with  particulars  respecting  a  number  of  specified  indi- 
viduals. 

The  formula  I  adopted  was  as  follows  : — Surname,  age,  birth- 
place, occupation,  height  (in  feet,  inches,  and  quarters), 
weight  (stones  and  lbs.),  colour  of  eyes  (blue,  grey,  dark 
grey,  or  brown),  colour  of  hair  (red,  fair,  brown,  dark,  or 
black.  Diredians  :  Only  men  between  23  and  50  to  be  mea- 
sured ;  they  are  to  be  taken  indiscriminately  as  to  size,  big  and 
little  as  they  occur,  so  as  to  yield  an  average  sample  of  the 
population,  or  of  the  class  observed ;  mention  whether  measured 
in  shoes  or  not. 

The  returns,  however,  came  slowly  in;  and  I  applied  for 
assistance  in  circulating  the  schedules  to  Dr.  Hunt  and  Mr. 
C  arter  Blake,  then  President  and  Secretary  of  the  Anthropo- 
logical  Society.      Copies   of  my  schedule  were   distributed. 


BEDDOE   ON    THE    STATURE   OP   MAN   IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.     385 

through  their  aid,  to  all  the  Fellows  of  the  Society,  at  that 
time  already  above  five  hundred ;  but,  except  returns  from 
Sir  Duncan  Gibb,  Bart.,  and  from  one  anonymous  correspon- 
dent from  Ireland,  their  appeal  bore  no  immediate  fruit.*  I 
therefore  fell  back  on  my  own  resources,  carried  out  an  exten- 
sive series  of  measurements,  in  the  workshops  of  Bristol,  and 
on  all  the  men,  available  for  my  purpose,  whom  I  encoun- 
tered in  the  course  of  my  professional  work  at  the  Bristol 
Infirmary ;  and  applied  to  a  number  of  ray  medical  and  other 
friends  in  various  parts  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  to  a  few 
other  medical  men,  personally  unknown  to  me,  but  distin- 
guished by  their  zeal  for  natural  history  or  science  in  general. 
For  the  exertions  which  many  of  these  gentlemen  made  to 
assist  me  in  my  object,  I  cannot  sufficiently  thank  them : 
their  names  will  appear  in  connexion  with  their  respective  con- 
tributions ;  but  I  ought  here,  perhaps,  to  mention  several  of 
them  who,  though  they  did  not  all  personally  contribute  to  the 
work,  were  nevertheless  of  the  greatest  possible  service  to  me, 
by  procuring  from  friends  of  their  own  unconnected  with  my- 
self, some  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  reports.  Among  these 
were  Dr.  Barnard  Davis,  F.R.S.,  Dr.  Arthur  Mitchell,  the  Rev. 
Canon  Greenwell,  the  Rev.  J.  Percival,  of  Clifton  College,  Mr. 
Philip  J.  Worsley  and  Mr.  John  Bowman,  both  of  Clifton, 
Dr.  Johnson,  of  Shrewsbury,  and  Professors  Cowan  and 
Gairdner  of  Glasgow,  and  Struthers  of  Aberdeen.  I  subse- 
quently carried  the  inquiry  into  two  other  regions,  and  with 
the  help  of  Dr.  Maudsley  and  others,  procured  details  of  the 
stature,  bulk,  &c.,  of  the  inmates  in  most  of  our  county  lunatic 
asylums.  The  official  recruiting  statistics  appearing  to  ofier 
another  and  a  very  important  field,  I  made  application  through 
the  War  Office,  to  the  proper  authorities  for  permission  to  ob- 
tain and  make  use  of  them.  In  this  I  was  successful,  owing  to 
the  friendly  interest  of  a  number  of  gentlemen,  among  whom  I 
ought  to  particularise  the  late  Director-General  of  the  Medical 
Department,  Sir  James  Gibson,  Deputy  Inspector  General 
T.  Graham  Balfour,  M.D.,  (who  has  himself,  among  his  multi- 
farious contributions  to  statistics,  done  much  on  this  subject)  ; 

*  Ultimately,  however,  I  was  assisted  by  several  of  the  Fellows. 
VOL.  III.  C  C 


386  BEDDOE  ON  THE  STATURE  AND  BULK 

Dr.  Kirk,  H.  M.  Vice-Consul  at  Zanzibar,  and  Mr.  Norman 
Lockyer,  F.R.S.  In  availing  myself  of  the  opportunities  thus 
courteously  granted  me,  I  was  greatly  assisted  by  Inspector- 
General  S.  M.  Hadaway,  Deputy-Inspectors-General  S.  Gurrie, 
M.D.,  J.  D.  Mcllreo,  H.  C.  Reade,  and  W.  L.  Langley,  M.D., 
and  Staff-Surgeons-Major  B.  W.  Marlow,  M.D.,  and  P.  Sinclair 
Laing  ;  and  in  the  classification  of  the  facts  obtained  I  had  the 
valuable  assistance  of  Dr.  David  Christison.  These  facts  em- 
braced the  necessary  particulars  respecting  every  recruit  or 
re- enlisted  man  of  twenty- three  years  and  upwards,  who  was 
inspected  in  the  United  Kingdom  during  a  period  of  two  years^ 
commencing  in  March  1864,  when  the  standard  was  reduced  to 
five  feet  five  inches.  While  the  standard  was  kept  at  five  feet 
six,  it  approached  too  nearly  to  the  average  height  of  the 
natives  of  most  parts  of  the  British  Isles,  to  afford  data  of  any 
value  for  such  an  investigation  as  mine ;  and  for  all  periods 
prior  to  March  1864,  either  the  standard  was  too  high  or  the 
information  in  the  recruiting  books  on  other  points  was  de- 
fective. With  respect  to  limits  of  age,  the  observations  of 
Quetelet,  Danson,  and  Aitken,  seem  to  me  to  indicate  the  age 
of  twenty-three  as  that  when  the  average  man  has  attained  his 
full  stature  and  bulk,  if  not  absolutely  and  always,  yet  nearly 
enough  for  purposes  of  practical  investigation.  In  fixing  on 
fifty  as  the  upper  limit  of  ages  admitted,  I  had  little  to  guide 
me  except  Dr.  Boyd^s  paper  in  the  Philos.  Trans,  for  1861, 
and  the  current  opinion,  which,  basing  itself  perhaps  on  the 
old  doctrine  of  climacterics,  regards  forty-nine  or  fifty  as  the 
point  when  the  decline  of  life  fairly  begins.  Hospital  practice 
of  course  makes  one  comparatively  too  familiar  with  constitu- 
tional weakness  and  early  decrepitude;  and  my  impression 
that  the  inhabitants  of  towns  on  the  average  begin  to  decUne 
rather  before  than  after  fifty  may  therefore  be  erroneous.  Dr. 
Boyd's  figures  would  lead  to  the  inference  that  in  the  class  of 
people  met  with  in  the  Marylobone  Workhouse  Infirmary  there 
is  a  considerable  difference  in  stature  between  the  men  of  forty 
to  fifty  and  those  of  fifty  to  sixty,  while  in  the  Somerset  Lunatic 
Asylum  no  such  decline  is  observed.  Hard  work,  exposure, 
and  perhaps  peculiarities  in  the  food,  bring  on  the  appearance 


OF    MAN    IN    THE    BRITISH    ISLES.  387 

of  age  much  earlier  in  some  agricultaral  districts  than  in 
others ;  and  this  I  have  particularly  observed  in  Berwickshire 
as  compared  with  some  parts  of  England,  though  the  former 
produces  a  breed  of  men  unsurpassed  in  size  and  vigour. 

The  data  procured  from  the  recruiting  books,  and  those 
from  the  lunatic  asylums  and  prisons,  have  been  of  great  value 
to  me,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  commentary  subjoined  to  my 
tables ;  but  they  have  but  a  remote  bearing  on  the  question, 
what  is  the  average  stature  of  man  in  the  several  divisions  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  For  this  part  of  the  subject  I  have  had 
to  rely  almost  entirely  on  the  schedules  filled  up  from  among 
the  civil,  sane,  and  free  population ;  and  I  must  confess  to  a 
feeling  of  satisfaction  not  unmixed  with  wonder,  when  I  con- 
template the  extent  of  the  material  thus  brought  together.  I 
have  been  asked  more  than  once,  by  those  who  took  an  interest 
in  the  progress  of  the  work,  why  I  did  not  endeavour  to  fiirther 
utilise  my  own  labours  and  those  of  my  correspondents,  by 
collecting  at  the  same  time  information  on  some  other  points 
of  importance,  such  as  the  size  of  the  head  and  the  girth  of  the 
chest.  I  had  two  reasons  for  not  attempting  this.  In  the  first 
place,  no  two  men  exactly  agree  in  their  measurement  of  the 
same  head  or  chest.  The  directions  of  the  recruiting  depart- 
ment on  the  latter  point  appear  to  be  as  precise  as  possible ; 
but  the  internal  evidence  of  the  official  books  has  convinced 
me  that  two  inspectors,  equally  experienced  and  skilful,  may 
differ  greatly  in  the  results  they  obtain  in  following  out  those 
directions.  But  my  principal  reason  for  not  attempting  any- 
thing of  the  kind  was,  that  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  my  cor- 
respondents, and  the  trouble  entailed  upon  them,  were  already 
very  great,  and  that  by  asking  too  much  I  should  in  many 
instances  have  deservedly  failed  to  obtain  the  favour  willingly 
granted  to  a  more  moderate  request.  Most  of  my  allies  were 
country  doctors,  members  of  a  class  which,  though  much  over- 
worked, is  perhaps  above  all  others  ready  to  respond  to  claims 
made  on  it  in  the  name  of  either  science  or  philanthropy. 
These  impediments  were  great  and  very  various  in  kind  and 
degree.  The  want  of  ready  access  to  a  weighing  machine  was 
one  frequently  alleged.     It  was  perhaps  a  mistake  to  insist 

cc2 


tn  -im  r-rmmrnmi  '■  %. 


388  BEDDOB   ON   THE    STATURE   AND   BULK 

upon  the  weight  being  taken,  though  some  interesting  facta 
resulted  from  that  part  of  the  inquiry ;  for  the  height  alone 
could  have  been  much  more  easily  gotten.  But  much  more 
important  difficulties  arose  from  the  character  of  the  people  to 
be  examined,  and  some  of  these  are  perhaps  worthy  to  be 
recorded,  and  may  even  have  some  anthropological  interest. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  my  best  and  most  elaborate  con- 
tributions came  from  Scotland.  There,  as  elsewhere,  I  dis- 
tributed a  certain  number  of  schedules  without  receiving  any 
answer  from  the  persons  applied  to ;  but  those  who  did  send 
answers  almost  all  promised  assistance,  and  with  very  few  ex- 
ceptions I  believe  they  all  carried  out  the  engagement.  The 
lower  classes  in  Scotland  are,  as  a  rule,  both  intelligent  and 
obliging;  the  men  examined  generally  took  interest  in  the 
matter,  and  in  only  two  districts  did  I  hear  of  any  difficulty 
being  raised  by  them.  The  fishermen,  however,  of  some 
villages  on  the  east  coast,  proved  extremely  stubborn  and 
suspicious ;  ''  nothing  less  than  an  act  of  parliament  would  do 
it,^^  remarked  one  of  my  allies.  Dr.  Howden  of  Montrose. 
''  Waste  of  workmen's  time ''  was  alleged  as  an  objection  by  a 
Glasgow  manufacturer. 

In  Ireland  the  unsettled  political  condition  of  the  country 
proved  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  those  who  made  attempts  on 
my  behalf.  Some  Tipperary  ''boys'*  fairly  took  to  their  heels 
when  it  was  proposed  to  measure  them. 

In  England  generally  a  good  many  of  those  who  at  first  pro- 
mised assistance  subsequently  failed  to  carry  out  their  engage- 
ments, finding  the  task  more  difficult  than  they  had  expected. 
These  cases  occurred  chiefly,  I  think,  in  the  east  of  England. 
In  the  same  region,  and  particularly  in  the  anthropologically  im- 
portant county  of  Kent,  I  found  unusual  difficulty  in  getting 
people  to  take  enough  interest  in  the  subject,  or  to  comprehend 
its  bearings  sufficiently,  to  be  induced  to  make  the  attempt ; 
the  same  was  the  case  in  Herefordshire  and  some  other  coun- 
ties, where  a  wearisome  series  of  efforts  on  my  part  failed  to 
elicit  a  response.  In  the  south-east  of  England  some  of  those 
who  did  make  the  attempt  reported  that  the  ''  shyness  "  of  the 
^nd  fiutry  was  insuperable,  or  that  they  obstinately  refused 


OF   MAN    IN   THE    BRITISH    ISLES.  389 

without  reason  assigned,  but  apparently  from  some  super- 
stitious motive.  In  the  south-western  counties,  there  was 
generally  little  difficulty  :*  the  lower  classes  there  are,  as  a  rule, 
courteous  and  obliging,  though,  except  in  Cornwall,  perhaps 
not  remarkably  intelligent.  In  Wales  there  was  unusual  diffi- 
culty in  disabusing  the  natives  of  the  idea  that  the  inquiry  had 
been  set  on  foot  by  "  Government,^' and  therefore  must  mean 
mischief;  that  the  men  measured  would  be  carried  off  for  recruits 
or  exported  to  America,  &c. ;  when  this  difficulty  could  be  got 
over  there  was  no  further  objection.  It  was  a  long  time  before 
I  could  procure  much  material  from  Yorkshire,  though  I  did 
ultimately  receive  thence  a  large  number  of  very  valuable  con- 
tributions. In  certain  parts  of  the  county  my  correspondents 
blamed  the  rugged  rudeness  of  the  people,  miscalled  by  them- 
selves independence,  as  the  cause  of  failure.  In  Lancashire 
the  jealousy  or  indiflference  of  employers,  and  the  rudeness  or 
ignorance  of  workmen,  have  made  my  endeavonrs  comparatively 
fruitless.  But  the  bucolic  and  Boeotian  county  of  Hereford  is 
the  only  one  from  which  I  have  failed  to  obtain  any  return 
whatever. 

Eoughly  speaking,  I  should  say  that  failures,  where  they 
occurred,  were  attributable,  in  Scotland,  either  to  greed  of 
time  or  to  superstition ;  in  Ireland,  to  carelessness  or  to  poli- 
tical feeling ;  in  Wales,  to  suspiciousness,  and  in  England  to 
stupidity. 

By  all  these  difficulties  I  have  been  prevented  from  fully 
carrying  out  one  of  my  original  ideas,  which  was  to  get  samples 
of  similar  classes,  and  especially  the  peasantry,  from  each  of  a 
number  of  districts  strongly  marked  in  race  character.  And 
some  interesting  districts,  such  as  Orkney,  East  Caithness, 
Lochaber,  Holdemess,  Thanet,  Lower  Pembrokeshire,  are 
either  insufficiently  or  not  at  all  represented,  from  no  fault  of 
my  own.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  returns  from  the  most 
remote  of  the  islands,  as  the  Shetlaiids,  the  Hebrides,  St. 
Kilda,  and  the  Scillys  ;  from  the  villages  most  elevated  above 

•  According  to  my  firiend  Mr.  D.  Mackintosh^  F.Q.S.,  the  cultivators  of 
natural  science  are  far  more  numerous  in  the  west  than  in  the  cast  of 
England. 


390  BEDDOE  ON  THE  STATURE  AND  BULK 

the  sea,  viz.  Wanlockhead,  AUenheads,  and  Braemar;  from 
the  lowest  districts,  as  Romney  Marsh  and  the  Fens ;  and  from 
districts  more  or  less  peculiar  as  to  race,  as  Flegg  and  Spital- 
fields  ;  or  as  to  mode  of  life,  as  New  Forest,  Sheffield,  and  the 
fishing  villages  of  the  east  coast.  So  much  for  what  may  be 
called  the  extrinsic  difficulties  of  the  investigation ;  the  con- 
sideration of  the  intrinsic  ones  may  be  deferred  till  we  have 
before  us  the  collected  material,  or,  at  all  events,  until  I  have 
stated  the  objects  of  the  inquiry. 

These  were,  in  the  first  place,  to  furnish  some  reliable  fea- 
tures towards  the  composition  of  a  picture  of  the  physique  of 
the  British  population  in  its  several  races  and  districts,  before 
those  races  might  have  been,  through  the  greatly  increased 
facilities  for  interrogation  and  cross-breeding,  so  amalgamated 
as  to  have  lost  all  sharpness  of  distinction.  It  is  probable  that 
more  has  been  done  in  England,  since  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  or  even  during  the  present  generation,  towards  break- 
ing down  these  distinctions  in  a  general  fusion  of  race  elements, 
than  had  been  done  during  the  preceding  six  centuries.  And 
the  process  goes  on  year  after  year  in  an  accelerated  ratio,  as 
the  relics  of  the  laws  of  settlement  are  being  swept  away,  and 
as  travelling  grows  easier  and  cheaper,  and  education  more 
general.  I  wished  to  furnish  standards  of  comparison  for 
fiiture  observers,  who  might  interest  themselves  in  the  physical 
status  of  the  British  people,  or  of  portions  of  it,  whether  from 
scientific  or  philanthropic  motives. 

I  wished  also  to  do  for  Britain  what  a  distinguished  band  of 
anthropologists,  of  whom  Broca  is  the  chief,  had  been  doing 
for  France,  viz.  to  gather  evidence  as  to  the  respective  or  rela- 
tive potency,  in  influencing  human  stature,  of  race  and  of  what 
the  French  call  media;  as  to  the  degree,  that  is,  in  which 
hereditary  influence  can  overcome,  or  is  overcome  or  modified 
by,  such  agencies  as  climate,  soil,  occupation,  and  food.  Here- 


OF   MAN   IN    THE    BRITISH   ISLES.  391 

under  arise  a  number  of  branches  of  inquiry^  interesting  alike 
to  the  naturalist^  to  the  physician^  and  to  the  philanthrope. 
What  is  the  kind  and  amount  of  physical  degeneration^  if  any, 
which  is  taking  place  in  the  population  of  our  rapidly-growing 
cities  ?  Is  it  accompanied  with  any  notable  alterations  in  size^ 
form,  or  colour?  Can  we  at  all  separate  the  effects  of  the 
numerous  agencies  which  most  people  believe  to  be  active  in 
this  process,  such  as  foul  air,  confined  posture,  working  of 
children,  syphilis,  alcohol  and  tobacco  ?  How  far  do  such 
causes  act  directly  ?  or  how  far  through  natural  selection  ? 

The  method  of  investigation  which  I  have  adopted  cannot  be 
expected  to  furnish  solutions  of  all  these  questions,  but  it  may 
probably  advance  us  a  stage  further  on  the  road  toward  such 
solutions. 

I  had  yet  another  subsidiary  motive.  It  was  the  wish  to  be 
able  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  proportion  of  serviceable  young 
men  shut  out  from  the  army  by  the  regulations  as  to  stature. 
The  subject  is  of  national  importance,  though  it  was  not,  I 
believe,  adverted  to  in  the  Report  of  the  Parliamentary  Com- 
mittee on  Recruiting. 

To  return  to  what  I  have  called  the  intrinsic  difficulties  of 
the  investigation.  The  most  important  one  is  that  of  getting, 
and  being  sure  that  one  has  gotten,  a  really  fair  and  average 
sample  of  the  population,  or  of  a  particular  class.  I  have 
generally  left  to  my  correspondents  the  choice  of  means  to  this 
end,  or  at  most  have  suggested  two  or  three  courses  for  choice. 
Most  of  them  have  aimed  at  a  sample  of  the  general  population, 
and  have  picked  up  men  for  their  purpose  just  as  chance  and 
opportunity  favoured  them.  This  plan  might  be  supposed 
likely  to  yield  rather  too  high  averages,  dwarfish  men  being 
more  likely  to  shun  the  measurer  than  tall  ones  ;  but  I  believe 
this  objection  is  not  of  very  great  moment.  I  was  myself  dis- 
posed to  think  some  of  the  returns  from  Scotland,  made  in  this 


392  BEDDOE   ON   THE    STATURE   AND   BULK 

fashiou^  erring  by  excess  ;  but  tbe  facts  that  the  highest  return 
in  Scotland^  or  in  all  Britain^  (No.  54)  is  unexceptionably  fair ; 
that  in  the  two  next  (57  and  50)  special  pains  were  taken  to 
avoid  this  fault ;  and  that  in  another  (52)  in  which  the  results 
appear  rather  high,  all  possibility  of  error  was  guarded  against 
by  the  inclusion  of  the  entire  population,  have  inclined  me  to 
alter  my  first  impression.  The  highest  among  the  English 
returns,  e.g.,  those  from  Richmond,  Bentham,  Flegg,  and 
Scilly,  were  all  made  by  observers  of  the  highest  class,  who 
were  confident  of  their  accuracy. 

To  get  a  true  average  of  the  general  population  a  larger 
number  is  required  than  of  a  particular  class  ;  as  it  is  certain 
than  in  some  districts  the  upper  and  middle  ranks  exceed  the 
lower  rank  in  stature.  I  say  in  some  districts  only ;  because 
in  those  parts  where  the  peasantry  are  of  a  tall  race,  the 
gentry  being  somewhat  mixed  in  breed,  and  nearer  to  the 
genei*al  standard  of  their  class,  have  not  always  the  same 
superiority. 

In  comparing  the  statements  of  difierent  observers  some 
caution  must  be  exercised.  I  have  already  remarked  on  the 
discrepancy  of  the  results,  as  to  girth  of  chest,  obtained  by 
two  skilled  observers  from  two  sets  of  men ;  who,  alike  in 
stature,  weight,  nationality  and  occupation,  must  have  had 
nearly  the  same  average  chest-girth.  This  diflSculty  does  not 
obtain  to  the  same  extent  in  regard  to  stature  and  weight,  but 
one  man  is  content  with  less  exactitude  in  these  matters  than 
another.  In  a  few  of  my  returns  the  particulars  are  given  in 
inches  and  stones  only,  the  want  of  good  weighing-machines 
having  probably  prevented  a  closer  approximation.  But  the 
greatest  discrepancies  occur  in  the  ideas  of  different  observers 
respecting  colour,  and  especially  colour  of  hair.  There  is  no 
standard  of  reference  as  to  the  nomenclature  of  hair-colour, 
except  that  of  M.  Broca  ;  and  it  would  have  been  both  expen- 


OF   MAN   IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  393 

sive  and  otherwise  inexpedient  to  have  distributed  his  chro- 
matic scale  to  all  my  contributors.  The  internal  evidence  of 
the  reports,  together  with  my  own  observations  in  this  de- 
partment, which  have  extended  to  most  parts  of  the  British 
Islands,  have  enabled  me,  however,  to  make  more  use  of  the 
evidence  as  to  colour,  than  would  at  first  sight  have  seemed 
pi'acti  cable. 


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s  t 

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.  26 

For  "  fair" 
imunity;  ct 
mea,  borne 
is  pretty  lar 
feet  above  t 

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ide  some  reds 

hose  with  lig 
a  large  for  a 
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f  food,  but  an 
lage  being  ab 

return,  took 
reme  specimei 

» 

K 

§>2  ^J^^-Z 

=  itel! 

.A.S.L.,  Member  of  the  Anthropol 
6  lbs.  for  clothes.     In  these  retnn 
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Aitken's  report),  the  dark  and  blac 
es  in  all  these  returns  :  11  blue,  15 
dark  brown,  5  black.     The  fair  mas 

to  Dr.  W.  Marshall,  of  Braemar,  th 
nat  be  a  perfectly  fair  sample,  and 
Iba.  for  shoes  and  clothes. 
Bod            VerjEWr 

1 

1 

1  men  are  tallest  and  largest,  espec 
brown".     The  proportion  of  brown 
,  the  return  (No.  26)  from  Kenmore 
'  admixture  of  blood.     Oatmeal  is  th 
the  most  elevated  in  the  kingdom,  t 

and  then,  at  my  request,  added  a  fe 

^1 

Dr.  T.  Aitken,  F 
vemess  Asylum ;  U'' 
surpass  the  dark  and  1 
this  country  (see  Dr. 
prevalence  of  grey  ey 
14  fair,  12  brown,  11 

I  owe  this  retorn 

it  was  compiled,  it  mi 

aUow  1  inot  and  12-6 

Hair 

III 

Tout. 
,           The  black-haired 
probably  have  said  " 
this  ana  other  points, 
the  fairer  men,  testify 
The  district  is  one  of 

Mr.  W.  Armstro 
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No. 

County  of  birth. 

No.  of 
persons. 

354. 

Antrim 

89 

Down 

64 

Derry 

Tyrone 

Armagh 

Monaghan 

Fermanagh 

Cavan 

28 
39 
52 
34 
32 
30 

Donegal 

Tipperary 

Limerick 

28 
69 
71 

Cork 

105 

Waterford 

29 

Clare 

14 

KeiTy 
Dublin 

19 

288 

Kildare 

54 

Wicklow 

31 

Wexford 

35 

Kilkenny 
Carlow 

29 
24 

Louth 

25 

Meath 

47 

"Westraeath 

12 

Longford 

King's  County 

Queen's  County 

Sligo 

Mayo 

Leitrim 

20 
20 
28 
31 
62 
20 

Galway 
Roscommon 

49 
34 

Average  height. 


With 
shoes. 


Without 
shoes. 


Average 
weight. 
(Naked.) 


ft.    in. 


tt.     in. 

5  739 

5  7-57 

5  7-57 

5  7-27 

5  7-34 

5  7-35 

5  7-22 

5  6-94 

5  7-51 

5  7-27 

5  712 

5  7-27 

5  813 

5  8-03 

5  7-88 

5  7-07 

5  7-67 

5  7-62 

5  7-36 

5  7-71 

5  6-98 

5  7-52 

5  7-23 

5  6-89 

5  7-18 

5  7-60 

5  7-08 

5  7-26 

5  6-64 

5  6-99 

5  7-21 

5  6-50 

lbs. 

135-93 

135-61 

136-78 

139-51 

135-57 

138-41 

139-06 

138-36 

135-93 

138-23 

137-28 

138-40 

142-81 

140-43 

135-81 

137-65 

139-83 

141-32 

135-17 

143-00 

137-71 

144-92 

138-36 

138-91 

140-20 

13710 

135-37 

136-45 

137-53 

138-75 

138-38 

18404 


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14 

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^Sa4-si|iii, 

\  \^\ 


i30 


COMMENTARY. 


I  HAVE  endeavoured  to  put  before  the  Society  the  materials  I 
have  gathered  in  as  complete  and  lucid  a  manner  as  possible. 
In  so  doing,  I  may  have  laid  myself  open  to  the  charge  of 
needless  particularity,  by  making  too  minute  subdivisions ;  but 
as  my  object  has  been  to  allow  the  data  to  speak  for  themselves, 
and  not  merely  to  bring  forward  an  array  of  one-sided  facts  to 
support  my  own  theories  or  conclusions,  I  do  not  see  that  I 
could  well  have  done  differently. 

The  returns  may  be  roughly  divided  into  four  classes,  viz., 
private,  lunatic,  criminal,  and  military  returns.  The  last  class 
might  perhaps  have  been  expected  to  yield  the  most  accurate 
and  valuable  data,  at  all  events  for  the  comparison  between  the 
several  counties  and  districts ;  but  I  am  satisfied  that  as  regards 
England,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  such  is  not  the  case,  whatever 
it  may  be  in  Ireland.  The  military  returns  from  Great  Britain 
are  to  a  great  extent  unconformable  with  the  other  three  classes, 
which,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  agree  among  themselves. 
In  my  opinion  this  unconformability  may  in  most  cases  be 
explained  by  the  condition  of  the  local  labour-market.  Thus 
in  Somerset  the  peasantry  are  abundant  in  numbers,  and  the  rate 
of  wages  is  rather  low ;  and  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Malet  (see 
No.  234)  that  the  military  service  is  very  popular,  and  that  a 
great  part  of  those  young  men  who  are  sufficiently  tall  enter 
the  marines  or  other  corps.  Here,  accordingly,  we  find  that 
the  recruits  average  much  higher  than  in  some  other  counties ; 
while  the  private  returns  point  in  a  contrary  direction. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  wages  are  high,  and  where  there 
is  much  demand  for  men  of  superior  physique,  military  service 


BBDDOE   ON    THE    STATURE    OP   MAN    IN    THE    BRITISH   ISLES.     531 

is  less  esteemed,  and  the  recruiting  sergeant  cannot  so  easily 
obtain  tall  men.  In  such  districts  he  has  to  fall  back  on  the 
artizans  and  unskilled  labourers  of  the  towns,  who  are  very 
frequently  undersized.  The  low  position  of  Yorkshire  in  the 
scale  is  probably  due  mainly  to  this  cause,  and  the  very  high  one 
of  the  small  county  of  Bucks  to  accident.  Norfolk,  Cornwall, 
and  Durham  doubtless  fairly  deserve  their  high  places,  and 
London  and  Glasgow  their  low  ones,  but  little  use  can  be  made 
of  those  facts  in  the  face  of  the  contrary  instances  already  cited. 

When,  however,  we  abandon  the  geographical  method  of 
arrangement,  and  classify  these  same  materials  with  a  view  to 
the  occupations  of  the  men,  and  the  industrial  character  of  their 
birth-districts,  we  obtain  from  them  some  coherent  and  valuable 
information. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  remind  the  reader,  before  I  call  his 
attention  to  the  tables  I  have  framed  on  this  principle,  that 
the  differences  of  average  stature  and  weight,  shewn  therein  to 
exist  between  the  members  of  different  occupations,  are  in 
truth  vastly  less  than  they  would  have  been,  had  there  been  no 
minimum  standard.  It  is  obvious  that  the  lower  the  average 
stature  in  any  trade,  the  greater  will  be  the  proportion  of  its  mem- 
bers who  will  be  shut  out  from  the  comparison,  and  the  greater 
will  be  the  difference  between  the  true  average  height,  and  that 
yielded  by  those  men  who  are  tall  enough  to  enter  the  army. 
For  example,  the  average  height  of  the  Connaught  recruits  is 
5  ft.  6.9  ;  of  those  from  Dublin  5  ft.  7.07 ;  and  of  those  from 
Ulster,  Munster,  and  the  remainder  of  Leinster  5  ft.  7.38 ;  yet 
observation  of  the  curves  formed  by  comparison  of  the  numbers 
at  each  measurement,  renders  it  probable  that  the  average 
stature  of  the  class  supplying  the  recruits  is,  in  Connaught,  as 
low  as  5  ft.  5^,  in  Dublin  somewhere  about  5  ft.  6^,  and  in  the 
rest  of  Ireland  not  less  than  5ft.  6|,  the  real  being  2^  times  as 
great  as  the  apparent  difference  between  Connaught  and  Ulster. 

I  have  divided  England  and  Wales  into  five  groups  of 
districts,  basing  the  arrangement  on  the  industrial  character  of 
the  populations  of  the  several  counties.  Thus  the  Sussex  group 
consists  of  Sussex,  Berks,  Herts,  Bedfordshire,  Bucks,  Oxon, 
Cambridgeshire,  Essex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  Wilts,  Dorset,  Here* 

M  M  2 


1 


582  BEDItOE    ON   THE    STATDHB    AND   BULK 

fordsbire,  Salop,  Lincolnsliire,  and  Nortb  Wales,  in  all  of  whicli 
the  agricaltaral  element  preponderates.  The  Kent  group, 
which  holds  an  intermediate  position  in  this  respect,  contains 
Kent,  Hanta,  Northants,  .Somerset,  Gloucestei-shire,  Devon, 
Cornwall,  Notte,  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  Leicester shiro. 
South  Wales,  with  Monmouthshire, andtberuralpartsof  Middle- 
sex and  Surrey.  In  the  third  or  Staffordshire  group  I  have  in- 
cluded Cheshire,  Staffordshire,  Worcestershire,  Warwickshire, 
Derbyshire,  Durham,  and  Northumberland,  with  the  city  and 
coanty  of  Bristol :  in  these,  manufacturing  and  mining  iiidastry 
begins  to  occupy  the  bulk  of  the  population.  A  fourth  group  in- 
cludes the  manufacturing  counties  of  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire; 
and  a  fifth  the  metropolis.  A  sixth  is  constituted  by  Scotland, 
which  could  not  be  satisfactorily  divided.  My  classification  of 
employments  will  explain  itself.  I  have  omitted  some  from  tho 
district  tables  which  appear  in  the  summary,  because  they 
famished  nambera  too  siooll  to  be  of  any  use. 


I. — GENERAL  SUMMARY 

FOR 

GREAT 

BRITAIN. 

Occnpationa. 

fJnmbor. 

Avge.  Statare. 

ATgre.  Weight. 

Miscellaneoua  Outdoor  - 

174 

5  ft 

7-56  in 

142-11  lbs. 

Clerks,  &c. 

242 

5  , 

7-28  „ 

136-74   „ 

Masons,  &c. 

100 

5  , 

713  „ 

139-12   „ 

Labourers    -         .         . 

834 

5  , 

7-11  „ 

140-36   „ 

Ironworkers 

209 

6  , 

7-11  „ 

140-22   „ 

Woodworkers 

200 

5  , 

7-08  „ 

137-07   „ 

Bakers 

34 

5  , 

6-91  „ 

142-06   „ 

Miners 

67 

5  , 

6-91  „ 

138-21   „ 

Tailors  and  Shoemakers 

135 

5  , 

6-89  ,, 

134-49   „ 

Miscellaneous  Indoor    - 

335 

5  , 

6-77  „ 

182-53   „ 

Grooms 

101 

5  , 

0-67  „ 

138-72   „ 

II 

— SUSSEX,  &c. 

Miscellaneous  Outdoor  - 

28 

5  , 

7-55  „ 

145-35   „ 

Labourers    - 

182 

5  , 

7-30  „ 

141-80   „ 

Shoemakers  and  Tailors 

14 

5  , 

7-20  „ 

136-85   „ 

Ironworkers 

25 

5  , 

706  „ 

140-80   „ 

Woodworkers 

30 

5  , 

6-88  „ 

137-70  „ 

Clerks          -         -         - 

30 

5  , 

6-88  ,, 

134-23   „ 

Miscellsneous  Indoor    - 

17 

5  , 

682  „ 

135-41   „ 

Masons,  ^c. 

16 

5 

6-65  „ 

135-40   „ 

Grooms 

32 

5  „ 

6-28  „ 

139-20    ., 

OF    HAM    IM    THE    BBITISH    ISLIB. 


IIL-KENT, 

&c 

Occupations.               Nmnbor. 

Avge.  Stature. 

Avge.  Weight. 

Clerks,  &C.  - 

43 

6  , 

„  7-57  „ 

139-51   „ 

Minera 

12 

6 

.,  7-52  „ 

143-92   „ 

Labourers    - 

166 

5 

.,  706  „ 

140-77   „ 

"Woodworkers 

42 

6 

„  6-90  „ 

136-33   „ 

Miscellaneous  Indoor    - 

87 

5 

„  6-94  „ 

13419  „ 

Grooms 

20 

5 

.,  6-83  „ 

139-90   „ 

Wiscellaneoua  Outdoor  - 

38 

6 

„  6-81  „ 

142-00   „ 

Shoemakers  and  Tailors 

31 

5 

„  6-81  „ 

136-64  „ 

Ironworkers 

30 

6 

„  6-79  „ 

138-71   „ 

Masons,  &c. 

15 

5 

„  6-65  „ 

138-66  „ 

IV. — 9TAFF0EDSH1RB,  &C. 

Miscellaneous  Outdoor  - 

14 

6 

.,  7-72  „ 

14300   „ 

Miners 

18 

6 

„  7-30  „ 

14108  „ 

"Woodworkers 

20 

6 

..  7-28  „ 

138-80   „ 

Ironworkers 

25 

5 

..  7-10  „ 

140-25   „ 

Clerks 

80 

5 

„  710  „ 

136-36   „ 

Labourers    ... 

87 

5 

„  708  „ 

140-26   „ 

Grooma 

IS 

5 

„  703  „ 

143-33   „ 

Sboemakera  and  Tailors 

17 

5 

„  6-91  „ 

133-00   „ 

46 

5 : 

.,  6-84  „ 

135-44  „ 

v. — LANCASHIRE 

AND 

YORKSHIRE. 

Ironworkers 

49 

6 

„  7-37  „ 

139-66   „ 

Miscellaneons  Outdoor - 

40 

5 

„  7-26  „ 

140-05   „ 

Masons,  &c. 

19 

6 

„  7-22  „ 

139-06   „ 

Clerks,  &c.  - 

46 

5 

„  6-92  „ 

137-95   „ 

Labourers    - 

170 

5 

„  6-88  „ 

138-72   „ 

Miscolkneous  Indoor    - 

48 

6 

„  6-76  „ 

132-85   „ 

"Woodworkers 

38 

5 

„  6-75  „ 

137-76  „ 

Shoemakers  and  Tailors 

21 

5 

„  6-66  „ 

132-14   „ 

Spinners,  Weavers,  &c. 

37 

5 

.,  6-63  „ 

13213   „ 

Groom.;;    -         -         - 

12 

6 

„  6-33  „ 

134-66   „ 

Miners 

10 

6 

„  610  „ 

137-90   „ 

VI. — LONDON. 

MiscGllaneoua  Oatdoor  - 

16 

5 

„  7-36  „ 

139-12   „ 

Clerka,  &c.  - 

66 

6 

.,  7-10  „ 

132-30  „ 

Labourers    - 

94 

6 

„  6-91  „ 

137-52  „ 

Musons   Ac. 

10 

6 

„  6-90  „ 

137-70  „ 

"Woodworliors 

30 

5 

„  6-89  „ 

132-70   „ 

Slioemakers  and  Tailors 

20 

5 

„  6-65  „ 

134-30   „ 

Ironworkers 

15 

5 

„  6-46  „ 

137-80   „ 

Miscellaneous  Indoor    - 

67 

5 

,.  6-43  „ 

130-18   „ 

Printers 

10 

6 

„  5-82  „ 

128-20   „ 

534  BEDDOE  ON  THE  STATURE  AND  BULK 

VII. — SCOTLAND. 


Occnpfttione.               Number. 

Ayge.  Stature. 

Arge.  Weiffht. 

Drapers,  &c. 

10 

5  „  8-80  „ 

138-60    „ 

Miscellaneous  Outdoor - 

38 

5  „  7*93  „ 

143-44    „ 

"Woodworkers 

40 

5  „  7-74  „ 

189-67   „ 

Clerks 

40 

5  „  7-72  „ 

14010   „ 

Labourers    ... 

135 

5  „  7-43  „ 

14200   „ 

Masons,  &c. 

31 

5  ,,  7-32  „ 

139-61    „ 

Ironworkers 

63 

5  „  7-23  „ 

141-70   „ 

Weavers,  &c. 

27 

5  „  7-23  „ 

131-44   „ 

Printers       ... 

18 

5  „  7-21  „ 

131-44   „ 

Shoemakers  and  Tailors 

32 

5  „  711  „ 

133-84   „ 

Bakers          -         -         . 

15 

5  „  6-92  „ 

146-06   „ 

Miscellaneous  indoor    - 

49 

5  „  6-87  „ 

131-87   „ 

Miners          ... 

24 

5  „  6-70  „ 

133-54  „ 

Grooms        ... 

15 

5  .,  6-56  „ 

133-00   „ 

In  commenting  on  these  tables,  I  shall  consider  separately 
each  of  the  occupational  classes  into  which  I  have  divided  the 
recruits.  First  in  importance,  as  in  number,  come  the 
"  labourers.'^  It  is  unfortunate  for  my  purpose  that  under 
this  term  are  comprised  in  the  recruiting  books  two  or  three 
sets  of  men  who  diflFer  iu  several  important  respects,  viz.,  the 
agricultural  labourers  or  peasants,  who  are  almost  invariably 
born  in  rural  districts  or  in  villages ;  the  railway  labourers  and 
excavators,  not  so  exclusively  of  rural  birth ;  and  the  general 
labourers,  the  unskilled  workmen  of  towns,  who  are  a  very 
miscellaneous  class,  partly,  indeed,  consisting  of  the  overflow 
and  scum  of  the  peasantry,  but  in  great  part  townsmen  by 
birth  as  well  as  habitation  and  manner  of  life,  and,  as  a  rule, 
inferior  physically  and  morally  to  the  country  folk.  This  last 
section  of  the  ^^  labourers"  contributes  far  more  largely  to  the 
army,  in  proportion  to  its  numbers,  than  does  the  first.  It  is 
probable,  however  that  in  the  Sussex,  if  not  in  the  Kent  table^ 
the  majority  of  the  recruits  are  really  of  the  peasant  class,  the 
class  to  which,  if  my  view  be  correct,  we  ought  to  look  for  the 
supply  and  revivification  of  our  somewhat  effete  urban  population. 
It  is  thus  that  I  should  explain  the  fact  that  the  stature  is 
higher  in  the  labourers  of  the  Sussex  table  than  anywhere  else 
except  in  the  Scotch  one,  and  that  it  declines  pretty  regularly 
with  the  increase  of  the  urban  element.     In  the  Staffordshire 


OF   MAN    IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  535 

table,  indeed,  it  is  a  little  higher  than  it  ought  to  be  on  this 
view  j  but  this  superiority  may  very  well,  if  not  accidental,  be 
a  matter  of  race,  my  Staffordshire  group  including  several  of 
the  more  Scandinavian  counties. 

Clerics  include  shopmen,  commercial  travellers,  &c.  Many 
of  them  are  bom  in  the  middle  class,  and  in  childhood  are  well 
fed  and  exempt  from  labour  :  on  the  other  hand,  the  nature  of 
their  occupation  after  puberty  is  on  the  whole  unfavourable, 
being  more  or  less  sedentary,  and  carried  on  in  towns  and  often 
in  impure  air.  The  results  are  what  might  have  been  antici- 
pated :  the  clerks  are  generally  above  the  medium  stature  and 
below  the  medium  weight. 

Ironwarlcers  and  Woodworkers  are  two  classes  with  several 
points  of  resemblance,  but  which  come  out  with  distinctive 
characters  in  these  tables.  In  almost  all  branches  of  both,  the 
work  is  active,  and  in  most,  especially  of  the  former,  laborious : 
in  most  cases  it  is  carried  on  where  there  is  free  access  of  air, 
and  the  wages  are  sufficiently  good  to  furnish  a  plentiful  dietary. 
Probably  more  of  the  Ironworkers  may  be  looked  upon  as 
picked  men,  some  processes  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  requir- 
ing so  much  exertion  and  endurance  of  heat,  that  none  but 
strong  youths  would  willingly  offer  themselves  for  the  work. 
The  stature  and  weight  are  pretty  much  what  one  might  have 
predicted ;  in  both  divisions  the  former  ranges  rather  high, 
but  there  is  a  pretty  constant  though  moderate  difference  in 
weight  between  the  two,  the  ironworkers  rather  surpassing  the 
average,  the  woodworkers  not  quite  reaching  it.  A  sub-class 
might  be  formed  of  the  cabinet-makers,  carvers,  turners,  Ac, 
who  work  always  indoors  and  with  a  less  free  motion,  and  of 
whom,  as  in  almost  all  the  smaller  or  more  specialised  handi- 
crafts, the  greater  part  are  town-bom.  42  of  them  yield 
averages  of  5  ft.  6*88  in.  and  133*6  lbs.,  which  closely  approach 
those  given  under  the  head  of  Miscellaneous  Indoor  Occupations, 
to  which  they  might  perhaps  with  propriety  have  been  referred. 
The  158  carpenters,  joiners,  sawyers,  wheelwrights,  &c.  who 
remain,  will  yield  averages  of  5  ft.  7*13  in.  138*0  lbs.,  so  that 
their  inferiority  in  weight  to  the  ironworkers  will  still  be  pretty 
well  marked.     Sawyers  are  almost  always  light;  their  work 


530  BEDDOB   ON   THE   STATURE   AND   BULK 

is  extremely  severe,  and  many  of  them  suffer  from  pulmonary 
or  cardiac  disease. 

The  class  of  Masons  (including  stonecutters  and  bricklayers) 
is  hardly  numerous  enough  to  yield  satisfactory  results.  They 
appear  to  stand  pretty  well  as  to  development  in  both  height 
and  weight.  The  chronic  pulmonary  disease,  which  is  so  des- 
tructive  to  stone-masons,  does  not  often  tell  upon  them  until 
after  the  period  of  life  with  which  we  are  concerned;  and,  with 
the  exception  of  the  stone-dust,  the  influences  to  which  this 
class  is  exposed  are  almost  wholly  favourable. 

Miners  also  are  rather  few  in  number,  and  their  position  is 
somewhat  doubtful.  The  lead  and  tin  miners  seem  usually  to 
stand  above  the  colliers ;  but  if  it  be  really  so,  it  may  be  partly  due 
to  differences  of  race  as  well  as  to  differences  of  occupation.  The 
low  stature  of  the  Scotch  miners,  who  are  chiefly  colliers,  may 
perhaps  thus  be  partly  accounted  for  ;  for  the  evidence  of  sur- 
names testifies  to  a  notable  infusion  among  them  of  English 
and  Welsh  blood. 

I  have  set  down  the  Balers  separately,  though  so  few  in 
number,  because  the  short  stature  and  high  weight,  which 
characterise  them  in  the  Summary,  follow  them  through 
almost  all  my  divisions,  so  that  they  may  perhaps  not  be 
merely  accidental.  If  not,  they  can  only  be  accounted  for  by 
the  combination  of  a  mainly  indoor  employment  with  excess 
of  farinaceous  food. 

Grooms  are  a  peculiar  class  bynature  and  by  selection.  Short 
lads  and  men  are  generally  preferred  for  the  work ;  and  more- 
over, unless  I  am  deceived,  the  instinctive  attraction  towards 
the  horse,  found  in  grooms  and  in  so  many  of  what  are  called 
"  sporting men,^^  belongs  to  a  temperament  usually  found  among 
men  of  short  compact  build.  The  occupation  is  a  healthy 
one,  and  the  relative  weight  rules  high. 

Tailors  and  SJtoemakers  I  have  classed  together.  There  is 
a  striking  resemblance  between  them  as  to  the  nature  of  their 
work,  and  the  manner  of  carrying  it  on.  No  trades  are  more 
purely  and  strictly  indoor  and  sedentary  than  these,  and  in  each 
the  labour  is,  generally  speaking,  restricted  to  certain  mono- 
tonous and  cramped  movements  of  the  upper  extremities,  while 


OF   MAN   IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  537 

the  habitual  position  is  such  as  to  favour  the  production  of  vis- 
ceral disease.  There  are,  however,  minor  differences  between 
the  two.  Of  these  the  most  important  lies,  I  believe,  in  the 
fact  that  the  tailors  more  frequently  work  in  Jiot,  crowded,  and 
foul-aired  rooms ;  and  to  this  their  greater  mortality  in  early 
life  is  probably  attributable.  Nevertheless  the  shoemakers,  as 
seen  in  the  out-patient  rooms  of  hospitals,  are,  as  a  rule,  the 
worse  developed  of  the  two,  and  they  suffer  more  from  dys- 
peptic affections  than  any  other  class  of  workmen.  In  the 
recruiting  returns  the  tailors  have  slightly  the  advantage  in 
height;  but  even  in  that  respect  they,  as  well  as  the  shoemakers, 
fall  considerbly  below  the  average ;  while  in  weight  their  inferi- 
ority is  still  more  marked. 

There  remain  to  be  considered  the  numerous  miscellaneous 
trades  and  vocations,  which,  as  they  could  not  be  joined  with 
congruity  to  any  of  the  previous  combinations,  I  have  simply 
divided  into  outdoor  and  indoor.  The  one  division  shades  off 
into  the  other  in  such  a  manner  that  I  have,  in  several  instances, 
had  difficulty  in  placing  the  members  of  a  particular  trade  on 
either  side  of  the  line.  In  such  cases  I  have  generally  decided 
the  matter  in  accordance  with  the  amount  of  exertion  involved, 
classifying  the  more  laborious  with  the  outdoor  employments. 
In  the  outdoor  class  I  have  ranged  the  butchers,  tanners,  cart- 
ers, sailors,  gardeners,  farmservants,  gamekeepers,  plasterers, 
ropemakers,  porters,  millers,  brickmakers,  firemen,  and  the 
like;  in  the  other,  all  those  who  work  in  metals  on  a  small 
scale,  or  in  textile  manufactures,  with  the  printers,  painters, 
plumbers,  potters,  saddlers,  &c.  The  physical  difference  be- 
tween the  two  classes  thus  formed  is  very  great,  for  in  such  a 
case  the  excess  of  ^^  of  an  inch  represents,  as  I  have  already 
endeavoured  to  explain,  an  actual  avei*age  excess  in  the  mass 
of  outdoor  workmen  which  furnishes  the  recruits,  over  the 
corresponding  mass  of  indoor  workmen,  which  may  perhaps 
amount  to  two  inches  or  more.  Nearly  the  same  thing  may  be 
said  as  to  the  differences  in  weight,  though  on  this  subject  my 
data  furnish  more  hazy  indications. 

So  much  for  the  military  returns  from  Great  Britain.  Those  from 
Ireland  wear  a  different  aspect;  they  have  more  of  ethnological 
interest,  and  in  them  the  relations  of  variations  of  mean  stature 


538  BEDDOE    ON    THE    STATURE  AND   BULK 

to  locality  are  somewhat  clearer  and  of  more  value  ;  while  the 
small  number  of  recruits  described  otherwise  than  as  "  la- 
bourers'' would  render  any  comparison  of  occupations,  such  as 
I  have  made  with  n'espect  to  Great  Britain,  almost  wholly  use- 
less. I  shall  therefore  defer  the  consideration  of  these  Irish 
returns  until  towards  the  close  of  my  inquiry. 

The  lunatic  and  the  criminal  returns  have  each  their  own 
special  aspect  and  character ;  but  both  of  these  series  have  a 
general  conformability  with  that  of  private  returns. 

The  predisposing  and  exciting  causes  of  lunacy  and  of  cri- 
minality respectively,  are  so  many,  various  and  complex,  that 
any  physical  character  common  to  the  whole  of  each  series 
could  not  of  course  be  expected  to  appear.  And  when  I  find 
that  both  lunatics  and  criminals  are  on  the  average  shorter 
and  smaller  than  sane  and  honest  men,  I  deduce  nothing  more 
from  the  fact  than  this :  that  there  are  certain  genera  in  each 
of  these  classes  in  which  physical  coincides  with  mental  or 
moral  degradation.  Such  I  believe  to  be— firstly,  hereditary 
lunatics,  and  those  sprung  from  inbred  families;  and,  secondly, 
hereditary  and  professional  criminals. 

It  should  be  noted  that  my  schedules  were  filled  np  with 
such  lunatics  only  as  were  in  fair  bodily  health;  and  that  idiots 
and  congenital  imbeciles  were  expressly  excluded.  I  struck 
out  from  them  also  all  persons  returned  as  ''of  no  occupation'*, 
supposing  such  to  have  been  usually  either  imbecile  or  insane 
from  boyhood;  i.e.,previous  to  the  completion  of  growth.  Those 
disqualified  by  this  rule  were  mostly  Uttle  men. 

It  is  not  possible  to  strike  anything  like  a  perfect  average  of 
either  the  Scotch  or  the  English  lunatics,  because  in  some 
cases  in  Scotland,  and  most  in  England,  I  have  only  a  sample 
of  the  asylum  population ;  and  because,  unfortunately,  there 
are  considerable  gaps  in  the  tables,  Momingside,  Aberdeen, 
and  Dundee  asylums  having  sent  me  no  returns;  and  the  West 
Riding,  Northumberland,  Cornwall,  and  Lincolnshire,  with 
four  other  English  county  asylums  of  less  importance  for  my 
purpose,  being  similarly  deficient. 

The  average  for  Scotland  may,  however,  be  roughly  stated 
as  somewhere  about  5  feet  0*5  inches  and  138  lbs.   (naked) ; 


OP    MAN    IN    THE    BRITISH   ISLES.  539 

the   Borderers   and  Highlanders   exceeding   the   standard   of 
height  considerably,  and  the  Hebrideans  falling  mnch  below  it. 

In  some  of  the  northern  and  north-eastern  counties  of  Eng- 
land the  stature  is  about  the  same  as  in  Scotland.  But  in 
Wales  and  the  southern  counties,  with  very  few  exceptions,  it 
ranges  between  5  feet  5  inches  and  5  feet  6  inches,  and  in  Lon- 
don, Birmingham,  Nottingham  (town),  Devon  and  Glamorgan 
falls  below  5  feet  5  inches.  The  average  weight  varies  more 
in  England  than  in  Scotland,  and  in  some  counties  {e.g.,  Kent, 
Norfolk,  Gloucestershire)  rises  much  higher.  Something  may 
be  allowed  here  for  national  or  racial  varieties  of  temperament. 
The  typical  Saxon  Englishman  is  constitutionally  a  heavy  feeder, 
and  prone  to  corpulence,  as  compared  with  the  other  inhabitants 
of  our  islands.  Differences  in  dietary  must  also  be  taken  into 
account,  and  especially  the  larger  use  of  beer  in  English  asy- 
lums. 

It  would  appear  that  dark  eyes  and  black  or  very  dark  hair 
are  more  common  among  lunatics  than  in  the  general  popula- 
tion. Tall,  dark -haired  persons  seem  to  be  particularly  subject 
to  melancholia,  and  this  fact  accords  with  the  ancient  doctrine 
of  temperaments. 

The  criminals  from  the  General  Prison  of  Scotland,  of  what- 
ever nationality,  surpass  in  size  those  from  the  English  prisons; 
and  the  Scottish  prisoners  surpass  the  Scottish  lunatics:  on 
the  other  hand,  in  England  the  convicts,  as  a  rule,  hardly  come 
up  to  the  lunatics  in  stature  and  weight.  This  may,  I  believe, 
be  accounted  for  by  the  greater  proportion  of  hereditary  and 
habitual  criminals  in  the  EngUsh  prisons.  Somerset,  a  mainly 
agricultural  county,  in  which  professionals  are  comparatively 
few,  furnishes  a  striking  exception  to  this  rule  as  to  stature : 
the  prisoners  at  Taunton  surpassing  the  Somerset  lunatics  in 
that  respect,  and  about  equalling  the  free  population.  (See 
225-240,  315,  and  343-344.)  The  inferiority  of  the  townsmen 
to  the  country-born  criminals  is  in  general  sufficiently  marked. 
The  returns  indicate  no  peculiarity  or  predominance  of  colour 
among  them,  such  as  has  been  noted  to  occur  among  lunatics. 

I  will  now  proceed  to  consider  the  most  valuable  part  of  my 
material — the  private  returns  from  Great  Britain — surveying 


540  BEDDOE   ON   THE   STATURE   AND   BULK 

them  firstly  in  geographical  order,  and  confirming  or  correcting 
their  indications  by  those  of  the  other  three  classes  of  returns ; 
and  thereafter  endeavouring,  partially  at  least,  to  unravel  the 
respective  infiuences  of  race  and  of  the  various  media,  such  as 
soil,  climate,  and  mode  of  life. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  natives  of  Scotland  and  of  the  north 
and  north-east  of  England  exceed  in  stature  those  of  Wales 
and  of  the  south  and  west  of  England ;  the  most  notable  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule  being,  in  the  northern  division,  the  people 
of  certain  large  towns  and  of  some  of  the  Hebrides,  and  in  the 
southern,  those  of  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  Islands. 

The  Shetlanders  seem  to  be  of  fair  stature  (about  5  feet  7"8 
inches,  or  1*723  metre),  but  their  bulk  hardly  corresponds  to  their 
height.  In  the  Western  Islands  there  are  considerable  local  varia- 
tions. The  Uist  men,  for  example,  are  tall  and  large;  the  men 
of  Lewis,  and  of  St.  Kilda,  are,  compared  with  Scotchmen  in 
general,  decidedly  short,  though  they  would  not  appear  so  in 
the  south  of  England,  The  Lochbuy  people,  in  Mull  (No. 
11)  are  remarkable  for  their  huge  size;  but  this  may  not  be 
common  to  the  whole  island.  Taking  the  Hebrideans  all  to- 
gether, they  seem  to  be  shorter,  but  hardly  less  bulky  than 
the  mainland  Highlanders,  and  here  the  lunatic  returns  (263^ 
264)  are  confirmatory. 

With  respect  to  the  Highlanders  of  the  mainland,  contraiy 
opinions  have  been  and  are  still  often  expressed.  Some  speak 
of  them  as  gigantic ;  others  as  stunted ;  others,  again,  more 
discriminating,  say  that  the  descendants  of  the  ruling  families 
or  septs  are  generally  large  and  fair,  those  of  the  commonalty, 
or  of  dependent  septs,  small  and  dark;  or,  lastly,  that  particular 
clans  have  often  a  common  character,  the  Campbells,  e.^.,  being 
red-haired ;  the  Camerons  small,  wiry,  and  dark-haired. 

I  believe  it  would  accord  with  what  has  been  observed  in 
other  mountainous  and  sequestered  regions,  such  as  Switzer- 
land and  Styria,  if  there  were  considerable  variations  in  ave- 
rage stature  between  one  neighbouring  valley  or  district  and 
another.  And,  from  general  observation,  I  think  such  is  the 
case ;  and  I  regret  that  I  have  been  unable  to  procure  returns 
from  some  other  portions  of  the  Highlands,  which  might  have 
brought  out  the  fact. 


OF   MAN    IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  541 

Be  this  as  it  may,  and  whatever  may  have  been  the  physical 
condition  of  the  dependent  Highlanders  in  former  times,  the 
evidence  of  all  the  four  classes  of  reports — private,  military, 
criminal,  and  lunatic — proves  the  modern  Highlanders  to  be, 
as  a  rule,  a  tall  and  bulky  race.  Several  of  the  private  schedules 
were  collected  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  all  suspicion  of  un- 
fairness {e,g.,  17,  20,  22,  23,  25) ;  and  the  averages  yielded  by 
them  (about  5  feet  8*12  inches  and  1534  ^^^s.,  naked,  =  1*731 
metre  and  69*6  kilos)  do  not  differ  much  from  those  of  the 
other  returns.  It  is  probable,  but  not  proven,  that  the  Athol 
and  Breadalbane  Highlanders  (see  No.  26)  generally  exceed 
their  compatriots  in  bulk,  if  not  in  stature. 

Among  the  Scottish  Lowlanders,  the  people  of  the  anciently 
Norse  district  of  Caithness  have  been  ranked  by  several  obser- 
vers as  physically  the  finest  peasantry  in  Britain.  I  should 
have  been  disposed  to  agree  to  this  statement ;  but  my  figures 
(15  and  16)  shew  no  difference  between  them  and  their  neigh- 
bours. In  Buchan  and  in  the  East  of  Scotland  generally  (30 
to  45)  we  have  still  a  tall  and  generally  bulky  race,  with  ap- 
parent exceptions,  however,  among  the  fisher  folk  and  the 
town  artisans. 

The  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  returns  (46  to  48)  are  quite 
exceptional  among  the  private  ones,  and  tend  to  shew  a  con- 
siderable diminution  of  size  in  the  townsmen.  The  military 
and  criminal  returns  (349,  352)  confirm  this ;  the  asylum  ones 
(272,  273)  do  not;  but  some  extensive  observations  on  the 
inhabitants  of  Edinburgh,  published  in  Johnston's  Physical 
Atlas,  yield  further  confirmation,  giving  a  height,  for  the  lower 
and  middle  classes,  of  5  feet  7  J  inches,  including  'shoes. 

Proceeding  southwards,  we  have  from  the  Strathclyde  and 
Galloway  regions  a  very  valuable  and  remarkable  series  of  care- 
ful observations  (49  to  54),  which  suflBciently  attest  the  lofty, 
almost  gigantic  stature,  of  the  local  population.  This  rises  in  Up- 
per Galloway  (whence,  from  personal  observation,  I  had  expected 
to  receive  the  highest  average  in  Great  Britain)  to  about  5  feet 
lOJ  inches  (1*790  metre)   without  shoes.*     The  remainder  of 

*  In  some  copies  these  fi^j^ires  have,  through  inadvertence,  been  placed  in 
the  wrong  column. 


542  BEDDOE  ON  THE  STATURE  AND  BULK 

Southern  Scotland  presents  some  variations  :  if  the  tallest  men 
in  Britain  are  found  in  Galloway,  Berwickshire  must  have  the 
honour  of  producing  the  heaviest  (57).  The  Borderers  in  gene- 
ral equal  or  surpass  the  average  of  Scotland  in  both  re- 
spects. 

The  Borderers  of  the  English  side  have  a  still  more  unequi- 
vocal superiority  over  their  own  countrymen.  Northumberland, 
thanks  to  Mr.  Tate,  is  largely  represented  in  the  returns ;  but, 
unfortunately,  only  64,  71,  and  perhaps  66,  can  be  taken  as 
average  samples.  These  three  yield  a  mean  of  5  feet  8*4  inches, 
and  154  lbs.,  naked  (1*737  metre  and  69*8  kilos.),  which  is  pro- 
bably little,  if  at  all,  over  the  mark.  The  county  volunteers 
(63,  65-69)  are  about  half-an-inch  taller;  the  country-bom 
militiamen  (70),  who  are  taken  from  a  less  favoured  class,  and 
are  certainly  below  the  general  average,  are  a  full  inch  shorter. 
Mr.  Tate  thinks  the  mean  of  these  two  would  be  near  to  our 
desideratum.  Some  items  in  No.  70  may  be  useful,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  323-4-5  and  the  lunatic  returns,  to  enable  us  to  form 
an  idea  of  the  extent  of  national  differences  in  stature. 

The  average  of  Cumberland  and  Westmoreland,  exclusive  of 
Carlisle,  comes  out  5  feet  8*1  inches  and  152  lbs.,  naked,* 
(1'730  metre  and  68*9  kilos.),  that  of  Westmoreland  being,  as 
it  probably  should  be,  the  higher  of  the  two.  That  of  Durham 
is  evidently  rather  lower ;  but  the  county  is  insuflSciently  re- 
presented. This  cannot  be  said  of  the  great  county  of  York, 
whence  we  have  a  large  number  of  returns,  from  all  parts  and 
from  all  classes ;  if  one  might  presume  to  strike  an  average 
for  a  county  within  whose  limits  there  is  very  great  variation 
in  all  the  media,  though  little  in  the  race,  it  would  come  out 
about  5  feet  7*2  inches  and  146  lbs.,  or  1.707  metre  and 
66*2  kilos.  But  this  is  an  average  of  very  discrepant  elements. 
The  unmixed  and  undwindled  Yorkshire  breed,  in  the  hills  and 
valleys  of  the  east,  north,  and  north-west  of  the  county,  rise  to 
about  the  same  level  with  the  peasantry  of  Scotland  and  of  the 
English  border.  No.  84  yields  the  tallest,  and  No.  88  the 
heaviest  of  the  English  averages.     Of  the  contrast  afforded  by 

*  Henceforward,  all  measurements  and  weights  spoken  of  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  taken  without  shoes  or  clothing. 


OF    MAN   IN   THE    BRITISH    ISLES.  543 

the  manufacturing  towns  I  will  speak  hereafter :  it  affords  a 
partial  explanation  of  the  low  position  of  Yorkshire  in  the  mili- 
tary returns. 

Lancashire  is  a  very  exceptional  county.  The  true  native 
breeds  used  undeniably  to  be  tall  in  the  northern  and  rather 
large  in  the  southern  districts ;  but  all  the  four  classes  of  re- 
ports, private,  lunatic,  criminal,  and  military,  concur  in  ave- 
raging as  low  as,  or  lower  than,  those  of  England  generally. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Danish  counties  of  the  North  Mid- 
land region,  Lincolnshire,  Nottinghamshire,  Derbyshire,  and 
Leicestershire,  excluding  only  the  large  manufacturing  towns, 
range  rather  high  in  stature.  The  averages  for  Lincoln- 
shire are  5  feet  7'5  inches  and  149  lbs. ;  for  Notts  nearly 
5  feet  7  inches  and  142  lbs.  That  for  Northamptonshire  is 
hardly  less ;  but  we  are  now  coming  to  the  frontier  of  under- 
sized men.  Part,  at  least,  of  Staffordshire  belongs  to  the  north 
of  England  in  this  point  of  view  (see  121  and  123) ;  but  the 
comparatively  high  weight  is  the  ruling  characteristic  of  Staf- 
fordshire. 

Betuming  to  the  eastern  counties,  we  find  a  number  of  re- 
ports from  Norfolk.  Taken  in  connection  with  the  military 
and  lunatic  statistics,  they  seem  to  indicate  a  generally  high 
average  of  both  stature  and  weight,  culminating  in  the  north- 
eastern and  ethnographically  remarkable  district  of 'Flegg  (141 ) ; 
but  sinking  low  in  the  central  and  perhaps  other  parts  of  the 
county.  Suffolk  stands  low  as  to  height,  but  comparatively 
high  in  weight.  The  Isle  of  Ely  seems  to  produce  rather  tall 
men ;  but  in  the  southern  part  of  Cambridgeshire,  and  the 
south-midland  counties  generally,  we  find  a  decidedly  under- 
sized population.  Among  the  reports  from  this  region,  the 
Harpenden  one  (159,  161)  is  very  valuable  as  being  both  ex- 
tensive and  unexceptionably  fair ;  it  yields  averages  of  little 
more  than  5  feet  5*4  inches  and  137  lbs.  (1*663  metre  and 
63-2  kilos.) 

I  hope  that  the  publication  of  this  paper  may  lead  to  further 
observations  on  the  physical  condition  of  the  working  classes 
of  the  metropolis.  My  own  efforts  in  that  direction  have  had 
but  slender  results;  but  No.  162  is  a  valuable  specimen  of  a 


544  BEDDOE    ON   TBE    STATCBS    AND    BULK 


1 


cointnnnity  wbo  Beem  to  have  dwindled  down,  under  the 
fluc'iice  of  unfavourable  media,  to  an  extent,  it  may  be  hoped, 
unparalleled  in  Europe.    The  military,  lunatic,  and  criminal  re* 
turns  all  agree  in  placing  the  native  Londoner  very  low  in  the 
euile  of  stature. 

Turning  again  to  the  west,  we  find  the  averages  at  Birming-   , 
ham  not  BO  mndi  lower  tiian  those  of  the  surrounding  country  ' 
as  thoae  at  Sheffield.     Woroestenhire  appears  to  stand  well,  i 
Salop,  whence  the  mateiitda  are  pretty  plentiful,  yields  averages  | 
(No.  180)  modi  resembling  tfac»e  trf  the  neighbouring  North   j 
Wales.     The  character  of  tbe  Welsh  generally  is  moderate  or 
rather  short  atatnre,  with  a  bulk   more  than  proportionate.   < 
Judgiog  from  my  niaterislB>I  ahoolct  estimate  the  unean  height  i 
at  little,  if  at  all,  more  than  5  feet  6  inches,  and  the  vfeight  at   ' 
145  lbs.  (say  1-680  metre  and  65*7  IdloB.}     But  there  are  por- 
tions of  W^es  (see  186, 187)  where  the  satire  breed  ia  tall  as 
well  as  bulky. 

Data  are  deficient,  as  already  remarked,  for  the  interesting 
county  of  Kent,  except  only  Romney  Marsh,  whence  192  yields 
averages  of  5  feet  7*1  inches  and  145  lbs.  But  the  general 
position  of  the  south  and  south-east  of  England  is  rather  low 
in  the  scale.  The  asylum  reports  for  Sussex,  Hants,  and 
Wilts,  being  exhaustive,  give  valuable  indications,  and  if  we 
allow*  an  inch  for  the  excess  of  stature  in  the  sane  over  the 
insane,  we  get  an  average  of  5  feet  64  inches,  or  rather  less. 
One  of  5  feet  6'3  inches,  with  a  weight  of  1406  lbs.,  comes 
out  from  a  summary  of  all  my  Gloucestershire  reports  (210- 
219)  ;  but  the  purely  rural  population  would  somewhat  exceed 
this  standard.  The  Somerset  averages  (224-240)  are  lower 
than  those  for  Gloucestershire,  and  the  asylum  reports  bear 
out  tho  fact ;  yet  Somerset,  for  reasons  already  touched  upon, 
stands  high  in  the  scales  of  the  military  and  criminal  series. 
In  the  city  of  Bristol  (220)  the  average  of  5  feet  5-8  inches  and 
132J  lbs.  (1'67  metre  and  60  kilos.)  is  probably  very  nearly 
correct,  though  it  might  have  been  elevated  a  trifle  if  I  could 
have  included  in  the  tables  a  fairer  proportion  of  the  middle 


OP   MAN   IN   THE    BRITISH   ISLES.  545 

class.  The  Devonshire  men  are  (except  towards  the  border 
of  Cornwall)  of  short  stature,  apparently  averaging  about  5  feet 
6  inches ;  but,  like  the  Welsh,  they  are  comparatively  of  good 
weight.  Finally,  the  Cornish  evidently  merit  the  reputation, 
which  they  have  enjoyed  for  centuries,  of  being  a  tall  and  stal- 
wart race.  I  regret  that  I  have  no  opportunity  of  testing  the 
private  reports  by  one  from  the  county  asylum ;  but  from  the 
former  I  should  deduce  a  probable  average  stature  of  5  feet 
7i  inches,  and  a  weight  of  150  lbs.  (1*709  metre  and  68  kilos.); 
and  even  this  standard  is  clearly  exceeded  with  respect  to 
height  by  the  people  of  SciUy,  whose  proportions  certainly 
give  the  lie  to  the  current  notion  that  men  and  quadrupeds 
must  degenerate  in  small  islands.* 

What  may  be  the  average  stature  of  adult  Englishmen  is  a 
matter  of  speculation  and  curiosity,  on  which  one  cannot  give 
any  but  a  cautious  and  guarded  opinion.  Without  doubt  it 
lies  somewhere  between  5  feet  6  inches  and  5  feet  7  inches 
(]*076  and  1*702  metres).  The  mean  of  my  private  returns 
(excluding  those  which  consist  mainly  or  wholly  of  picked  men) 
would  occur  somewhere  about  5  feet  6|  inches  (1*693  metre); 
but  the  number  of  those  reports  whose  average  greatly  exceeds 
this  mean  is  greater  than  that  of  those  whose  average  falls 
greatly  below  it.  The  mean  of  the  English  lunatic  reports 
would  be  somewhere  about  5  feet  5  j  inches ;  and  comparison 
of  these  with  the  private  reports  leads  me  to  think  the  average 
of  able-bodied  lunatics  to  be  nearly  an  inch  below  that  of  the 
sane.  The  criminal  statistics  point  to  nearly  the  same  conclu- 
sion, f  Recruits  over  23  years,  including  rejected  men,  ave- 
rage, as  has  been  shewn,  about  5  feet  7  inches ;  but  the  cul- 
minating point  of  the  curve  yielded  by  the  numbers  of  men  at 
each  grade  of  stature  faUs  short  of  5  feet  6^  inches.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  classes  from  which  most  of  these  recruits  are 
obtained,  are  certainly  inferior  to  the  rest  of  the  population  in 

*  The  natives  of  the  Isle  of  TTshant  are  taller  than  other  Bretons;  and 
the  O'Driscols,  who  inhabit  the  Island  of  Cape  Clear,  are  also  said  to  be 
remarkable  for  high  stature. 

t  Quetelet  found  the  convicts  in  Vilvorde  prison  to  average  nearly  '8  inch 
(2  centimetres)  below  the  free  inhabitants  of  Brussels. 

VOL.  III.  ^  ^ 


546  BKPDOS  OB  rat  ct&tckb  asd  bdle 

stature  as  weQ  aa  id  boiiu9  other  respects.  On  tJie  whole,  my 
estimate  would  be  5  ff<et  6*6  inches  or  1*690  metre. 

The  average  for  ScotJand  mast  certainly  be  very  much 
higher,  perhaps  as  high  as  5  feet  7i  inches ;  but  this  can  bo 
little  better  tlian  a  mere  gaesa.  That  for  Irelaad  cannot  differ 
much  from  that  for  England ;  as  may  be  gathered  from  tie 
following  indications: — Ist.  The  English  private  retnms  nra 
higher  than  the  Irish  ones  {258,  359);  bnt  many  of  the  former 
are  taken  from  more  favonred  classes  of  the  population.  2nii. 
The  Irish  military  returns  (353)  overtop  the  English  ones  (352) 
by  a  quarter  of  an  inch ;  bnt  here  the  comparison  of  classes  is 
probably  faTonrahle  to  Ireland.  3rd.  The  Irish  Innatics  aboot 
equal  tho  English  lunatics  in  stotaro,  bat  fall  below  them  in 
weight.  4th.  The  Irish  criminals  (326,  348,  351)  eqnal  or 
surpass  the  English  criminals ;  but  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
former  are  n  on -professionals  in  crime;  and  it  is  the  profesBional 
criminal  who  contributes  most  to  pull  down  tho  average  stature 
of  prisoners.  5th.  In  the  Newcastle  militia  (70)  the  Iriahmen 
hold  a  fair  medium  position. 

The  recruiting  and  other  returns  aeem  to  indicate  a  slightly 
greater  nniformity  of  stature  among  the  Irish,  veiy  tall  and 
(probably  also)  very  short  men  being  comparatively  rare  among 
them. 

There  is  a  remarkable  nniformity  in  the  several  classes  of  re- 
turns as  to  the  average  weight  of  Irish  peasants  and  lahonrera 
—an  uniformity  depending  partly  no  doubt  on  the  ntter  ab- 
sence of  corpulent  persons  among  them.  The  naked  weight 
may  be  estimated  at  about  138  lbs.  (62-6  kilos.)  The  averse 
of  both  Englishmen  and  Scotchmen,  and  indeed  of  Welshmen 
also,  seems  to  exceed  this.  My  private  returns  would  lead  me 
to  put  that  of  Enghshmen  somewhere  about  145  lbs.,  and  that 
of  Scotchmen  10  lbs.  higher;  but  in  the  latter  case,  and  per- 
haps in  the  former  also,  sufficient  allowance  is  not  made  for  the 
under-sized  and  ill-fed  population  that  crowds  our  large  towns, 
sad  of  which  Nos.  47  and  48  are  the  only  specimens  in  the  re- 
turns from  Scotland. 

Data  suitable  for  comparison  with  mine,  taken  from  other 
countries  and  races,  are,  so  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  extremely 


OF  MAN   IN  THB   BRITISH   ISLES.  547 

scanty.  The  conscription  returns  for  France,  which  have 
yielded  such  valuable  results  in  the  hands  of  Broca,  Boudin, 
Guibert,  and  Butillon,  consist  of  young  men  in  their  twentieth 
year,  and  who  consequently  have  not  attained  their  full  stature; 
and  nearly  the  same  may  be  said  of  other  conscription  returns. 
Dr.  Short^s  careful  observations  on  natives  of  the  Dravidian 
portion  of  India,  are,  for  the  most  part,  applicable ;  and  it  is 
noteworthy  that  some  castqs  in  that  region  appear  to  surpass 
in  stature  the  average  Englishman,  though  they  all  fall  below 
him  in  weight.  Dr.  Thomson^s  observations  on  the  Maoris* 
are  also  fairly  comparable,  and  some  of  those  of  the  Novara  ex- 
pedition. But  the  only  ones  near  home  with  which  I  am 
acquainted  are  some  of  those  of  Qnetelet  on  the  Belgians.  He 
found  the  adult  inhabitants  of  Brussels  to  average  1*684  metre 
(5  feet  6-3  inches)  and  63-4  kilogrammes  (139-8  lbs.)  My  380 
Gloucestershire  men  gave  me  exactly  the  same  height,  with  a 
weight  of  63*7  kilos.  (140'5  lbs.) ;  but  of  the  Brussels  men  a 
considerable  number  belonged  to  the  middle  class,  while  of  the 
380  not  more  than  a  twentieth  part  were  above  the  labouring 
class.  The  average  weight  of  40  Frenchmen,  inhabitants  of 
Massy,  near  Paris,  was  found  by  Tenon,  in  1783,  to  be  62  kilo- 
grammes (136' 8  lbs.)  These  figures  indicate  less  difierence  in 
favour  of  southern  Englishmen,  compared  with  their  nearest 
Continental  neighbours,  than  is  generally  supposed  to  exist. 
The  common  but  erroneous  opinion  is  no  doubt  derived  partly 
from  comparison  of  British  with  French,  Belgian,  or  Rhineland 
soldiers.  In  most  continental  countries,  a  far  smaller  per- 
centage of  the  population  is  excluded  by  the  regulations  as  to 
stature,  than  with  us  in  England.  In  France  the  proportion 
is  77  per  thousand ;  while  I  have  found  in  Northamptonshire, 
taking  5  feet  5  inches  as  the  regulation  height,  210  per  cent, 
of  adults  beneath  it;  in  Wilts  and  Somerset,  260  to  280;  in 
Bristol,  353 ;  and  in  Hertfordshire,  41 7.  In  point  of  fact  the 
regulation  height  has  more  often  been  fixed  at  5  feet  6  inches 
than  at  5  feet  5  inches ;  and  it  is  applied  to  growing  youths  of 

*  He  found  the  Maoris  to  average  5  feet  6*25  inches,  and  140  lbs.  (1'683 
metre  and  63*5  kilos.  )>  thus  exactly  eqnaUing  the  Brossels  and  the  Glouces- 
tershiro  men. 

NN  2 


548  BEDDOE   ON   THE    STATUBS  AND  BULK 

19  or  20  equally  with  the  grown  men  of  28  and  upwards,  who 
alone  figure  in  my  tables;  and  we  may  therefore  confidently 
assume  that  in  many  parts  of  southern  England,  and  particu- 
larly in  some  large  towns,  a  large  majority  of  young  men  are 
excluded  from  the  army  by  the  regulations.  Many  of  these 
men  have  every  qualification,  except  stature,  for  making  ex- 
cellent soldiers ;  and  the  impolicy  of  so  narrowly  circumscribing 
our  choice  of  recruits  is  self-evident. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  dissect  the  evidence  already  laid 
down  in  its  bearings  on  the  great  question  whether  race  or 
media  have  the  greater  influence  in  determining  the  average 
size  of  the  British  people.  In  valuing  the  potency  of  race — 
that  is,  of  indefinitely  remote  hereditary  character — we  are 
encompassed  with  diflSculties,  and  are  in  danger  of  being  re- 
duced to  arguing  in  a  circle;  for  the  characteristics  we  are 
accustomed  to  attribute  to  the  several  races  which  we  believe 
to  enter  into  the  composition  of  our  nation,  are  derived  as 
much  from  observations  of  types  now  existing,  or  imagined 
to  exist,  as  from  authentic  descriptions  of  those  prevailing 
among  our  most  remote  ancestors,  or  positively  identification 
of  their  traits  by  means  of  ossuary  remains. 

We  know,  indeed,  that  at  the  period  of  the  Roman  con- 
quest the  Caledonians  were  remarkable  for  their  huge  frames, 
and  that  certain  other  Britons  were  conspicuously  tall ;  while 
we  have  reason  to  think  (whether  we  adopt  or  reject  Dr. 
Thumam^s  views)  that  in  certain  parts,  at  least,  of  Britain, 
men  of  medium  or  short  stature  were,  or  had  been,  numerous. 
We  have  reason  also  to  suppose  that  the  Eoman  Conquest 
introduced  an  element  of  population  into  the  east  and  south  of 
Britain,  among  which  a  rather  short  stature  prevailed.  The 
"  Saxon'^  invaders  are  thought  to  have  been  tall  men  ("  Saxones 
vero  staturfi,  et  vigoro  maximi,''  says  Henry  of  Huntingdon) ; 
and  some  of  them  were  so  ;  but  we  have  not  much  evidence  on 
the  subject.  The  modem  Frisians  are  certainly  tall ;  but  the 
Low  Dutch  race  who  dwell  to  the  south  of  them,  and  whose 
kindred  seem  to  have  co-operated  with  them  in  the  conquest 
and  settlement  of  eastern  England,  are  of  a  shorter  and  thicker 


OF   MAN   IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  o49 

build.*  The  next  element  introduced — the  Scandinavian — 
on  the  whole,  much  resembled  the  Frisian ;  t}ie  mean  stature 
of  the  Norsemen  was  high.  The  modem  Norwegians  are 
generally  large  men ;  and  of  20  Icelanders,  whom  Dr.  Jon 
Hjaltehn,  of  Reykjavik,  kindly  measured  and  weighed  for  me 
as  a  sample  of  their  countrymen,  the  average,  corrected  for 
shoes  (or  rather  rivlins)  and  clothing,  was  about  5  feet  8*5, 
and  156  lbs.  (1*740  meter  and  707  kilos.)  Immigration  from 
France,  during  and  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  from  the 
same  country  after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  may 
have  tended  sUghtly  to  lower  the  stature  in  London,  Norwich, 
and  some  other  places  or  districts  in  the  south  and  east  of 
England,  but  hardly  anywhere  else.  And  still  more  recently, 
several  other  cities  have  had  their  population  more  or  less 
modified  by  the  infusion  of  a  more  purely  Keltic  element — 
Irish  in  Glasgow,  Welsh  in  Bristol,  both  Irish  and  Welsh  in 
Liverpool. 

If  we  look  at  our  facts  in  a  broad  and  comprehensive  way, 
we  may  be  disposed  to  think  that  they  present  a  certain  degree 
of  conformity  to  what  a  student  of  race  history  might  have 
expected.  Thus  we  find  that,  wherever  the  Scandinavian 
element  is  proved  to  be  strong  by  historical,  topographical,  or 
linguistic  evidence,  the  stature  is  decidedly  high.  This  is  the 
case  in  Shetland,  Caithness,  the  eastern  lowlands  of  Scotland 
generally,  in  Dumfries-shire,  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  Lons- 
dale, Durham,  Yorkshire  (except  SheflSeld  and  Haworth),  Lin- 
colnshire, Nottinghamshire,  and  Leicestershire,  and  in  the 
hundreds  of  Flegg  in  East  Norfolk.  The  island  of  Lewis  does, 
indeed,  furnish  an  exception ;  but  the  evidence  of  Captain 
Thomas,  Dr.  Mitchell,  Mr.  J.  F.  Campbell,  and  others  (see 
the  Cran.  Brit.),  would  lead  us  to  ascribe  this  to  the  presence 
of  an  aboriginal  substratum  of  population  of  Finnish  type  and 
short  stature ;  and  in  the  district  of  the  Butt,  where  other 
Norwegian  characteristics  break  out  vividly,  the  stature  is  said 
(though  I  can  give  no  statistical  evidence  of  the  fact)  to  be 
decidedly  superior  to  that  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Lewis. 


*    Lubach.    The  faet  is,  however,  one  of  common  observation. 


MbGeatgBt^cVndarXi^Bi^Cbn-.ftfHn^cfT.  DotdXlesa 
Atf  AflgjiM  cikaHBt  fnnBa  Ihm  ,  bat  it  is  diScnIt  to  Mip> 
p«w  ttift  tka  evcaia  of  the  denntk  nsnur  can  have  left 
VorAambeAmi  oAanB  tksi  deeplj  nnctored  with  the 
Dniib  Uood  eflb*  MM  oTDnn. 

Ha  dmactecHtie  %«v  cf  tbe  Smj^naTim  noe  is  not  so 
ToboBt  u  it  u  oftm  itiaibcd,  but  lends  ratber  to  be  giscefb) 
nod  cTfin^'.  It  soajr  be  obserred  tbat  in  Sietland,  CninberlaDd, 
tbe  Eut  Biding^  NottiogiunMbiie,  &c,  the  sTer^o  weigbt  ia 
bjr  no  nwuu  larg9  in  proportian  to  the  slatore. 

In  tbv  eztnuivc  Kod  importftst  region  of  the  south  and  east^ 
where  Tevtonie  characteristics,  inodifiGd  hy  rarioos  admixtures, 
bat  almost  entirely  free  from  anything  Scandinarisn,  may  be 
looked  for,  oar  d&ta  indicate  a  good  deal  of  variety;  bat, 
on  tbe  whole,  the  statare  is  comparatively  short,  and  the 
weight  rather  high  in  proportion.  Some  of  the  apparent  varia- 
tions may  be  dae  to  race-difierences ;  e.g.,  the  taller  statare  in 
Homo  parts  of  Kent  may  have  to  do  with  the  presence  there  in 
large  proportion  of  Jutes  and  Frisians,  who  are  recognised  by 
Mackintosh  and  other  close  observers.  The  Anglians  (mora 
or  lees  crossed)  of  Northamberland  and  the  Merse  are  very 
tall  and  large  men. 

Tiiking  into  account  history,  language,  and  physical  charac- 
turiHticH,  tho  so-called  Kelts  of  our  islands  may  be  divided  as 
follows : — 

\nt.  'Die  aticiont  and  modem  Caledonians.  Here  there  is 
iio  difllciilty :  the  £anie  tall,  large,  and  often  red-baired  people, 
wtio  Mt^utipiod  the  Grampians  in  Agrioola's  time,  do  so  in  oar 
own  tiiriu  without  apparent  modification. 

^lu).  'I'hu  undoubted  Gael  in  Ireland  and  the  western  High- 
IhiiiIn,  tfio.  Always,  probably,  a  toll  race;  generally,  as  we 
kiiiiw  tlicin,  Homowlmt  bony  and  spare  of  fiesh,  but  our  returns 
(i\m\  Sciilliiiul  show  in  goncral  very  good  weight.  This  race 
iH  I'liriviitly  buliuvod  to  exhibit  groat  variation  oader  the  in- 


I 

i 


OF   MAN   IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  551 

flaence  of  media.     On  tbis  point  see^  fartber  on^  a  discussion 
of  the  Irish  miUtary  statistics. 

3rd.  The  remnant  of  the  northern  Kymri  in  the  hilly  country 
to  the  west  of  Clydesdale,  and  in  Upper  Galloway.  The  same 
race,  but  with  a  stronger  cross  of  the  Teutonic  (Anglian,  or 
Anglo-Northman)  element,  seems  to  extend  eastwards  along 
the  prolongation  of  the  Cheviots,  and  to  remain  in  Allendale, 
in  South  Northumberland  (No.  71.)  Its  modem  character « 
istics  are  very  tall  stature,  comparatively  moderate  weight, 
with  usually  light  eyes,  and  dark  hair.  Of  its  ancient  ones  we 
know  nothing,  except  that  very  tall  men  did  occur  among  these 
people  in  the  days  of  Llywarch  H^n.  In  Cumberland,  West- 
moreland, and  the  south-eastern  lowlands  of  Scotland,  it  is 
strong,  but  is  not  the  prevailing  element ;  and  in  less  propor- 
tion is  recognisable  in  many  other  parts  of  the  north  of  Eng- 
land (and,  according  to  Lhuyd,  of  North  Wales). 

4th.  The  Welsh,  the  people  who  still  speak  the  Kymric  lan- 
guage. Of  their  ancient  characteristics  we  know  no  more  than 
what  is  told  us  by  Tacitus  of  the  Silures :  among  their  modem 
ones  are  short  stature,  with  good  weight,  and  a  tendency  to 
darkness  of  eyes,  hair,  and  skin.  The  Devon  men  are  a  good 
deal  like  them  in  most  respects. 

5th.  The  Cornish.  Much  like  the  Welsh,  and  still  liker  the 
Devonians,  these  difiFer  from  both  of  them  by  their  large  stature, 
which  has  been  a  Cornish  characteristic  since  mediadval  days, 
at  the  least. 

At  the  risk  of  some  repetition,  I  have  been  thus  particular 
in  discriminating  the  several  existing  varieties,  or  divisions,  of 
the  British  "  Kelt,^'  in  order  to  exhibit  the  serious  difficulties 
that  lie  in  the  way  of  the  application  of  Broca's  theories  to  the 
British  population.  The  3rd,  4th,  and  5th  divisions  just  enu- 
merated, have,  or  have  had,  the  same  politics  and  traditions, 
and  languages  nearly  related,  or  separated  merely  as  dialects. 
Why,  then,  do  they  differ  so  remarkably  in  stature  ?  If  we 
say  that  the  Cornish  are  the  remains  of  the  Lloegrians,  and  are 
not  true  Kymri,  why  do  not  the  Devonians  rank  with  them  in 
stature  ?  and  why  are  the  Armoricans,  who  are,  or  were, 
nearer  in  language  to  the  Cornish,  liker  to  the  Welsh  iel  tfe^^xs: 


i 


&52  BEDDOE   OK   THE   CTATl'BE    AHU    Bt 

short,  compact  baild?  And  if  we  ftcknowlcdgB  a  diflferenc 
race  between  the  Stratliclfde  Cumbrians  and  Uie  WoU 
•SilDrian  stock,  and  suppose  the  former  to  have  the  tme  Ky 
the  tall  race  of  Edwards  and  Broca,  and  to  have  conquered 
latter  nnder  the  guidance  of  Cyneddha  ttnodig,  the  diffic 
etill  romains  that  the  two  had  a  common  language.  I  ab: 
from  saying  that  these  points  are  incapable  of  being  c1eare< 
on  the  theory  of  permaneace  of  race-type  in  statare  ;  and  b 
conjectural  explanations  suggest  themselrea  to  me ;  bat 
difficulties  are  certainly  grave. 

The  inferiority  in  size  of  the  people  of  several  large  toi 
especially  Sheffield,  ia  obviously  inexplicable,  unless  we 
knowledge  other  modifying  agencies  than  those  of  race. 

Two  minor  questions  fall  to  be  considered  in  connection  \ 
that  of  the  influence  of  race  on  stature.  The  first  is  the 
the  results  of  close-breeding  and  cross-breeding  respective 
the  second  that  of  the  relation  of  stature  to  complexion. 

The  belief  is  prevalent  that  in-breeding  has  a  teudencj 
cause  the  breed  to  dwindle  in  size  as  well  as  in  numburs. 
the  first  blush,  M.  Broca's  results  obtained  in  Bretagne  conJ 
this  view,  the  Bretons  of  the  central  cantons,  whore  little 
mixture  of  blood  has  taken  place,  being  far  smaller  men  t 
their  compatriots  in  general.  But  the  greater  elevatioi 
stature  in  some  islands  and  other  secluded  districts,  where 
population,  while  far  from  being  purely  Armorican,  has 
been  recently  crossed,  points  to  the  essential  character  of 
race,  rather  than  its  freedom  from  admixture,  aa  the  caust 
its  remarkably  low  etature  ;  and  such  is  the  opinion  of  Bi 
himself. 

I  am  able  to  quote  a  series  of  facts  from  my  Welsh  listi 
prove  that  the  stature  of  the  native  Welsh  breed  is  elevated 
an  English  cross.  Thus,  in  No.  181,  the  men  with  Eng 
names  average  1'3  inch  (33  millimetres)  above  those  ^i 
Welsh  ones;  in  IQi;  18o,  they  surpass  the  latter  by  exai 
half  an  inch;  in  183,  190,  and  191,  taken  together,  by 
inch;  and  in  No.  138,  together  with  a  report  from  ' 
Struvi!,  of  Coed  Park,  which  was  too  late  for  insertion, 
Welshmen,  with  English  surnames,  exceeded  U  with  We 


OF   MAN   m   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  553 

surnames  by  no  less  than  1*8  inch  (46  millimetres).  In  the 
other  returns  from  Wales  no  English  surnames  occur,  but  in 
185  and  186,  though  the  district  is  now  thoroughly  Welsh, 
the  ancient  Flemish  cross  may  have  left  its  traces  in  the  greater 
size  of  the  people. 

It  is  possible  that  here,  as  in  Bretagne,  the  superiority  is 
inherent  in  the  intrusive  or  crossing  race,  and  not  duo  to  the 
mere  fact  of  a  cross  in  blood.  For  the  English  of  Mercia  are 
in  general  taller  than  the  Welsh,  though  not  very  conspicu- 
ously so.  In  the  border  county  of  Salop,  where  about  half  the 
surnames  seem  to  be  of  Welsh  type,  the  Enghsh-named  men 
in  my  lists  have  the  advantage  by  nearly  half  an  inch,  so  that 
the  same  elevation  of  stature  does  not  follow  on  the  crossing  of 
the  Mercian  by  the  Welsh,  as  on  the  crossing  of  the  Welsh  by 
the  Mercian  stock. 

Another  side  of  the  Qame  problem  may  be  illustrated  from 
the  Scottish  returns,  wherein  the  Boyndie  and  Rathen  hsts 
(30  and  32)  exhibit  the  fishermen,  very  closely  inbred  commu- 
nities, as  inferior  in  size  to  the  agricultural  population.  In  42 
and  142,  the  diflerence  is  less  strongly  marked;  in  59,  60,  and 
197,  it  is  doubtful;  and  in  66  and  79  does  not  appear.  In 
249,  the  number  measured  is  too  small  to  yield  evidence  for  so 
large  a  population  as  the  Brixhamites.  203  is,  I  beUeve,  a 
sample  of  an  inbred  community  of  rather  small  men ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  88  furnishes  a  conspicuous  counter-examj5le. 
The  researches  of  Dr.  Arthur  Mitchell*  show,  however,  that 
the  extent  of  in-breeding  in  many  districts  has  been  greatly 
overestimated.  On  the  whole,  the  results  of  my  tables  tend 
to  support,  but  only  in  a  feeble  way,  the  current  opinion  as  to 
the  advantageous  efiect  of  crossing  upon  size. 

The  relation  of  stature  to  complexion,  or  rather  to  hair- 
colour,  has  been  investigated  to  an  extent  greater  than  its 
apparent  importance  might  have  warranted,  in  the  hope  of 
educing  some  law  respecting  the  manner  and  consequences  of 
the  interblending  of  races.  The  results  are  by  no  means  con- 
clusive, but  are  not  altogether  void  of  promise.  In  most  parts 
of  Britain,  the  average  stature  of  fair-haired  is  higher  than  that  of 

*  Published  in  the  Edin.  Medical  Journal. 


554  BBDDOB    ON   TIIE    STATCKE   AND    BCLK 

dark-haired  men ;  but  in  eeveral  districts  the  men  who  com- 
bine ]if,'ht  eyes  with  dark  hair  cany  off  the  palm :  Bach  ia  the 
case  in  Mull,  Mar,  Kenmore,  and  Lesmahagow.  The  only  five 
considerable  towns  from  which  I  have  returns,  viz.,  Bristol, 
Sheffield,  London,  Birmingham,  and  Glasgow,  all  conform  to 
the  rule  J  and  the  county  of  Leicester  is  the  only  important 
exception  in  the  south  of  Britain,  except  Harpenden,  in  Herts, 
and  the  Scilly  Isles,  and  perhaps  Cornwall. 

In  the  Innatic  asylums,  tho  relations  of  statore  to  colour  ate 
oflen  ni'ariy  the  same  as  in  the  reports  from  the  same  popula- 
tion ;  but  where  there  ia  any  difference  between  them,  it 
consists  almost  always  in  the  dark-hairod  lanatica  being  taller 
than  their  fellows.  Such  men  are,  I  betieve,  generally  melan* 
chobacs. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  any  valuable  conclusions  conld  be 
drawn  from  this  part  of  the  investigation,  unless  it  wore  carried 
out  very  much  further.  In  the  mcantimCj  I  am  led  to  form 
the  following  hypotheses : — 

Ist.  Individual  differences  in  stature  are  closely  connected 
with  differeaces  in  temperament,  and  more  remotely  with  dif- 
ferences in  complexion.  Thus,  in  this  country  at  least,  the 
majority  of  men  of  sanguine  temperament  have  light  brown 
hair,  of  melancholic  men  dark  brown,  of  men  of  nervous  tem- 
perament either  fair  or  black,  and  so  forth. 

2nd.  Of  the  several  races  believed  to  have  taken  part  in  the 
ancestry  of  our  British  population,  those  most  distinguished 
for  tall  stature — e.g.,  the  Norsemen  and  Frisians — were  gene- 
rally fair-haired.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  pre-Saxon 
races  of  tall  frame  inhabited  Caledonia  (red  or  black-haired), 
Cumbria  (brown,  or  dark-haired),  and  perhaps  also  Leicest«r- 
shire  and  Cornwall. 

3rd.  In  a  homogeneons  race  temperament  is  the  great  de> 
terminer  of  stature,  and  as  the  divisions  of  temperament  and  of 
complexion  intersect  each  other  to  some  extent,  it  comes  to  be 
little  more  than  a  matter  of  chance  whether  dark  or  fair  men 
average  higher  in  a  list  of  moderate  number,  such  as  most  of 
mine  are. 

4th.  Where  tho  admixture  of  races  is  recent,  or  the  races 


OF   MAN   IN   THE   fiBITISH    ISLES.  555 

have  been  unconformable,  and  have  never  become  thoroughly 
blendedj  the  taller  race  will  continue  to  be  represented,  in 
complexion  as  well  as  height,  and  other  physical  characters,  in 
the  existing  population. 

For  example,  I  lookupon  the  Shetlanders  as  an  heterogeneous 
mixture  of  two  incongruous  races ;  one,  by  far  the  more  nume- 
rous, of  Norse  descent,  tall,  fair,  and,  on  the  whole,  of  sanguine 
temperament ;  the  other,  either  Finnish  (descended  from  the 
thralls  of  the  Norse  settlers)  or  aboriginal,  short,  dark-haired, 
IJgrian  in  feature,  and  melancholic  in  temperament.  And  in 
Bristol  and  the  surrounding  counties,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Severn,  I  find  the  fair  men  generally  taller  than  the  dark,  and 
more  often  presenting  in  feature  and  headform  an  approach  to 
the  Saxon  and  Frisian  types.  Nearly  the  same  thing  may  be 
said  of  Lincolnshire,  Nottinghamshire,  and  the  East  Biding, 
where  the  Danes  furnish  the  most  important  light-haired 
element. 

The  idea  that  climate,  'peft  se^  has  any  influence  upon 
stature  is  very  little  supported  by  our  materials.  At  the  first 
blush,  we  might  be  disposed  to  think  that  a  northern  position, 
and  a  somewhat  rigorous  climate,  operated  favourably,  pro- 
bably by  natural  selection.  But  Cornwall  furnishes  a  counter- 
exception  too  conspicuous  to  be  disregarded.  And  the  climate 
of  Upper  Galloway  (No.  54),  where  the  tallest  men  are  found, 
is,  compared  with  that  of  Scotland  in  general,  rather  mild  than 
severe.  Kerry,  again,  has  the  mildest  chmate  in  Ireland,  but 
its  people  are  physically  superior  to  those  of  Connaught,  the 
climate  of  which  diflers  in  no  wise  from  that  of  Kerry,  except 
in  being  rather  colder  and  less  genial.  CUmate,  where  it  does 
influence  the  breed  of  men,  probably  does  so  either  through 
natural  selection,  or  by  afiecting  his  food  and  mode  of  life. 

Difierences  of  elevation,  at  least  such  moderate  diflerences 
as  occur  in  the  British  Isles,  seem  to  be  unimportant.  See  Nos. 
25,  51-2-3,  71,  93,  121,  184-5,  which  include  most  of  the 
very  elevated  districts  in  Great  Britain;  and  102,  104-5-6-7, 
141,  152,  192,  which  are  the  lowest.  Corpulence  is  rare  at 
high  levels,  however. 

Malaria  has  been  recognised  in  some  countries  a^^^^^^^^ 


556  BEDDOE  ON  THE  STATURE  AND  BULK 

cause  of  physical  degeneration ;  but  I  am  not  aware  that  i1 
over  been  shewn  to  affect  the  average  of  stature ;  and  ] 
confident  that  it  does  not  do  so  in  our  latitudes.  Thus. 
Zealanders  and  the  Frieslanders  are  well  known  to  be  g 
rally  tall  men ;  and  my  returns  from  the  fens  of  the  Isle  of 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Boston,  and  Romney  Marshy  p 
in  the  same  direction. 

On  the  supposed  direct  influence  of  soil  on  its  inhabits 
I  have  little  or  nothing  to  say.  Dr.  Latham,  long  ago,  poii 
out  to  me  the  possibility  of  such  an  influence  on  the  colo 
tion  of  eyes  and  hair ;  but  I  have  not  hitherto  been  able  to 
it  to  the  test.  M.  Durand  de  Gros  has  lately,  in  an  impor 
paper  on  the  influence  of  "  milieux  "  in  the  Aveyron,  claii 
a  higher  stature  for  the  natives,  human  as  well  as  bovine 
the  calcareous  districts  in  that  department.  My  tables  do 
bear  fairly  on  the  point.  Any  influence  of  this  nature  wo 
probably,  be  exercised  through  the  food  and  water. 

Variations  in  the  quantity  and  quality  of  food  may  plausi 
be  supposed  to  have  considerable  influence  on  the  developm 
of  the  body ;  but  what  is  the  exact  kind  of  influence  exerci 
may  admit  of  much  doubt.  M.  Broca,  if  I  have  rightly  apj 
hended  his  meaning,  thinks  that  scantiness  of  food,  short 
actual  famine  and  the  production  of  disease,  does  not  prev 
the  growth  of  the  body  to  the  length  proposed  by  nature, 
remarkable  instance  in  favour  of  his  views  is  to  be  found  in 
Upper  Nile,  where  the  tribe  of  the  Keks  is  described  by  numer 
travellers  as  living  in  a  state  of  chronic  starvation,  and  skelet 
like  emaciation,  yet  as  being  of  great  stature  and  length 
limb.  There  are,  however,  a  number  of  reputed  facts  that  b 
against  this  view,  and  an  argument  by  analogy  may  be  brouj 
against  it  from  a  consideration  of  the  variations  in  size  of 
breeds  of  cattle  and  horses,  which  seem  to  be  related  to  Ic 
differences  in  quaHty  of  pasture.  In  this  country  we  are  mi 
in  the  habit  of  confounding  what  we  call  poverty  of  fc 
with  insufiicient  quantity  of  the  same.  If,  by  the  fore 
term,  we  imply  the  comparative  absence  of  costly  luxuri 
such  as  fleshmeat  and  fermented  drinks,  there  can  be  no  doi 
that  such  poverty  is,  per  se,  quite  guiltless  of  any  doteriorati 


OF   MAN    IN   THE   BRITISH    ISLES.  557 

eflPect  on  stature  and  bulk.  But  positive  scantiness  and  in- 
suflBciency  of  alimentary  material  is  quite  another  thing,  which 
is,  fortunately,  not  often  observed  in  this  country,  except  in 
unfavourable  seasons,  or  in  the  most  miserable  classes.  Edward 
Smith  has  shewn  cause  for  behoving  that  the  Scotch,  the 
Welsh,  and  even  the  Irish,  are  usually  better  off,  as  to  quantity 
of  food,  than  the  bulk  of  English  peasants  and  the  lower  class 
of  townsfolk,  though  their  food  may  be  less  costly,  and,  in  one 
sense,  poorer ;  and  if  stature  be  really  affected  by  chronic  in- 
sufficiency of  food,  the  only  parts  of  the  British  Isles  where 
the  results  are  at  all  likely  to  appear  are,  I  believe — 1st.  Some 
of  the  southern  counties  of  England,  where  labour  is  super- 
abundant and  wages  are  low.  2nd.  Connaught.  3rd.  Some 
of  the  Hebrides.  4th.  A  few  of  the  largest  towns.  And,  in 
fact,  it  is  precisely  in  these  four  quarters  that  almost  all  the 
instances  of  very  low  average  stature  do  really  occur.  There 
is  one  important  article  of  food,  in  the  use  or  neglect  of  which 
great  local  differences  are  known  to  exist — I  mean  milk.  From 
the  great  abundance  of  phosphatic  salts  contained  in  milk,  it 
may  reasonably  be  imagined  that  among  ill-fed  populations 
a  great  deficiency  of  milk  may  sometimes  be  attended  with 
arrest,  or  lessening,  of  physical  development.  The  fact  that 
some  pastoral  and  milkeating  races,  such  as  the  Kirghiz,  are 
known  to  be  of  small  stature,  can  hardly  be  said  to  militate 
against  this  supposition :  an  excess  of  the  phosphates  may 
be,  and  probably  always  is,  rejected  by  the  organism,  which, 
however,  has  no  power  of  supplementing  an  absolute  defi- 
ciency. Milk  is  much  more  used  in  Scotland  and  Ireland 
than  in  South  Britain ;  but  within  the  limits  of  England  and 
Wales,  also,  the  differences  are  great.  The  counties  in  which 
the  use  of  milk  by  the  peasantry  seemed  to  E.  Smith  to  be 
large  and  universal  are  the  following,  which  I  have  arranged 
in  the  order  of  quantity  used : — Westmoreland,  Northumber- 
land, North  Lancashire,  Wales  (but  especially  North  Wales), 
Yorkshire,  Cornwall,  Devon,  Notts,  Worcestershire,  and 
Cheshire ;  Derbyshire,  Northamptonshire,  and  Leicestershire, 
stand  next  below. 

Of  all  this  list,  Wales  and  Devon  are  the  ouly  two  provinces 


558  BEDDOB   ON   THE   STATUBE   AND   BULK 

in  which  the  stature  is  below  the  English  average;  and  in 
these  two  it  is  probable  that  the  inflaence  of  race  is  per- 
ceptible :  moreover,  in  some  parts  of  Devon,  the  wages  are 
notoriously  low,  and  food  of  other  kinds  probably  rather  scanty. 
The  exceptional  position  of  Cornwall  favours  the  theory  of  the 
importance  of  a  constant  and  plentiful  supply  of  food  for  the 
full  development  of  stature ;  for  the  abundant  supply  of  fish, 
the  seafaring  opportunities  of  the  long  and  indented  line  of 
coast,  and  the  wide  difiusion  and  prosperity  of  mining  industry, 
must  for  geu  orations  past  have  put  the  labouring  classes  of 
Cornwall,  on  the  whole,  in  a  better  and  more  secure  position 
than  those  of  Devon  and  Wales,  where  these  advantages  have 
been  enjoyed  to  a  far  smaller  extent. 

I  have  particularly  investigated  the  nature  of  the  customary 
diet  in  some  of  the  districts  where  the  greatest  development 
in  size  seems  to  be  attained;  such  are  Nos.  54,  57-58,  and  88, 
in  all  of  which  meal  and  milk  form,  or  did  lately  form,  the 
staple  food  of  the  people.  On  the  other  hand,  in  large  towns, 
where  I  shall  presently  show  that  stature  tends  to  decline, 
white  bread  is  eaten;  the  supply  of  milk,  and  even  the 
demand  for  it,  is  small ;  and  the  people  are  worse  oflf  in  this 
respect  than  others,  except  those  of  some  dairy  districts  in 
the  south  of  England. 

The  apparent  influence  of  certain  occupations  on  the  stature  of 
those  who  exercise  them,  has  already  been  partially  discussed  in 
connexion  with  the  English  military  returns,  and  will  come  again 
under  notice  when  we  consider  the  results  of  massing  people  to- 
gether in  large  towns ;  but,  in  the  meantime,  the  private  returns 
relating  to  miners  may,  perhaps,  yield  some  noticeable  facts. 
Nos.  52,  53,  71,  89,  184,  250,  251,  252,  and,  to  a  great  extent, 
254  and  255,  consist  of  lead  and  tin  miners;  Nos.  76,  188, 
214,  215,  and  223  bis,  of  coal  miners.  Dr.  Greenhow,  in  his 
medical  reports  to  the  Privy  Council,  has  shewn  that  there 
exists  a  great  difference  between  these  two  classes  in  their 
liability  to  pulmonary  disease,  the  lead  and  tin-miners  suffering 
severely  from  asthma  and  consumption,  or  diseases  so  called, 
and  being  supposed  to  transmit  a  hereditary  susceptibility  to 
tieir  children.     They  are  not  otherwise,  however,  an  unhealthy 


OF   MAN   IM    THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  559 

set  of  men,  and  the  causes  wliich  bring  about  this  particular 
kind  of  mischief  do  not  seem  to  operate  unfavourably  on  the 
development  of  the  body,  for  the  average  stature  among  them 
rules  high,  and,  in  some  instances,  as  near  Tavistock  and 
Fowey,  seems  to  surpass  that  of  the  general  population.  Colliers, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  often  short  men.  It  is  true  that  short 
but  strongly-made  men  must  be  better  adapted  for  the  work 
of  excavating  thin  seams  of  coal  than  taller  men ;  and,  there- 
fore, some  process  of  unconscious  selection  may  account  for 
the  tendency,  which  is  most  pronounced  in  No.  223  bis,  to  the 
production  of  a  breed  exhibiting  short  stature  combined  with 
heavy  weight. 

The  differences  between  the  upper  and  lower  classes  are  con- 
siderable, and  may  be  traced  with  probability  to  several  causes, 
viz.,  1st.  Selection,  natural  or  conjugal,  the  latter  very  little 
operative  in  the  present  state  of  society.  Somehow,  the  Scan- 
dinavian type  tends  to  prevail  among  the  aristocracy ;  and  the 
Saxon  among  the  trading  class,  whether  through  natural  apti- 
tude or  the  effect  of  media.  2nd.  Greater  advantages  in  food 
and  air  during  childhood  and  youth;  and  3rd,  and  perhaps 
most  important,  freedom  from  overwork  during  the  same 
period.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  observations  of  Pro- 
fessor Forbes  at  Edinburgh,  and  those  taken  at  Cambridge, 
and  sent  by  Dr.  Whewell  to  M.  Quetelet,  referred  to  students 
of  the  upper  class,  and  not  fully  grown,  and  therefore  in  neither 
respect  average  representatives  of  the  British  people,  as  they 
are  sometimes  assumed  to  have  been.  Erroneous  inferences 
as  to  national  differences  have  also  been  drawn  from  the  supe- 
riority of  Forbes's  Irishmen  to  his  Scotchmen  and  Englishmen, 
in  height  and  strength,  the  fact  being  that  the  Irish-bom 
students  in  Edinburgh  are  generally  descendants  of  the  Ulster 
colonists,  more  Scotch  than  English,  and  more  English  than 
Irish  in  blood. 

The  extent  to  wliich  the  upper  classes  surpass  the  lower  in 
stature  varies  very  much  in  different  districts  :  so  far  as  I  can 
judge  it  is  least,  as  a  rule,  in  those  where  the  general  average 
is  highest ;  and  this  is  what  might  be  expected,  as  the  dif- 
ferences in  mode  of  life,  and  even  in  blood,  lesaeiL«a»^^"aaRfe\s^ 


560  «EDDOE    ON    THE    STATURE    AND    BULK 

tLe  social  scale,  A  good  speoimen  may  be  found  in  the  retnm 
of  Bristol  Volunteer  Riflemen,  No.  223,  and  another  in  No. 
220.  It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  wherever  I  have  stated 
that  the  middle-class  element  is  large  in  any  private  return,  the 
average  is  almost  invariably  rather  high. 

Farmers  and  furm -labourers  —  two  classes  differentiated 
chiefly  by  the  accidents  of  social  position — are  mingled  i 
largo  number  of  returns  ;  and  in  some  inst-ances  I  have  sepa- 
rated the  former;  e.g.,  in  Noa.  51,  5-J,  69,  88,  and  228.  They 
enjoy,  as  a  class,  almost  all  poeaible  advantages  for  physical 
development  {including  hereditary  endowments,  for  they  may 
almost  be  said  to  form  a  caste),  and  accordingly  wo  find  that 
their  average  size  almost  always  rules  high.  233  is  a  notablo 
example  of  this,  inasmuch  as  the  labouring  classes  of  West 
Somerset,  who  are  by  no  means  highly  paid  or  highly  fed,  a 
shewn  by  several  other  returns  to  be  generally  of  small  stature. 
The  nvcrngos  of  agricultural  labourers  viiry  greatly,  and 
such  a  way  as  to  lead  one  to  suppose  that  they  are  influenced 
both  by  selection  and  by  meJia,  Thus,  in  the  Merse  and  in 
Flegg  (57  and  141),  the  labourers  about  equal  the  farmers 
in  stature  ;  in  the  former,  as  in  Galloway  (54),  and  many 
other  northern  districts,  they  have  the  advantage  of  not  being 
constantly  overworked  in  early  life,  the  Scotch  peasant  valaing 
education  too  much  willingly  to  deprive  his  children  of  its  ad- 
vantages. In  Lincolnshire,  the  agricultural  labourers  seem  to 
fall  below  the  rather  high  standard  of  the  rest  of  the  popula* 
tion  ;  whether  this  fact  may  be  at  all  connected  with  the  for- 
midable proportions  assumed  in  this  generation  by  the  per- 
nicious system  of  agricultural  child-gangs,  I  am  unable  to  say. 
In  the  counties  round  London,  again  (and  especially  in  159  and 
101),  the  farm-labourers  are  an  undersized  class.  This  I  believe 
to  depend  partly  on  the  great  demand  in  the  metropolis  for 
tall  and  well  grown  men,  for  policemen,  railway  porters,  &c., 
which  makes  it  so  easy  for  such  to  better  their  condition,  that 
the  residuum  of  farm  labourers  may  be  considered  to  be  a  sort 
of  caput  morluum.  I  am  disposed  to  think  that,  in  some  in- 
stances [e.g.,  165),  the  inferior  development  of  the  labourers 
may  be  traced  to  the  fact  of  their  ancestors  having  degenerated 


OF   MAN   IN   THE    BRITISH   ISLES.  561 

under  the  influence  of  manufactures  formerly  existing  in  the 
district ;  but  I  am  not  able  to  make  out  a  case  in  support  of 
this  view,  and  mention  it  merely  as  interesting,  and  capable  of 
investigation.  In  South  Gloucestershire,  35  farm-labourers 
yield  a  net  average  of  5-6'3  and  156  (1*684  met.,  and  70*75 
kilos.),  and  this  heavy  weight  runs  through  all  the  returns  from 
which  the  list  is  compiled,  and  appears  to  be  characteristic  of 
the  breed  of  men  thereabouts,  which  difiers  manifestly  from 
the  neighbouring  Somerset  peasantry. 

The  physical  differences  between  countryfolk  and  townsfolk 
are,  perhaps,  the  most  important  ones  developed  in  my  tables. 
To  the  indications  of  degeneracy  in  the  latter,  the  attention  of 
the  Social  Science  Association  was  called  in  two  papers  of  my 
own,*  and  subsequently  in  one  by  Dr.  Morgan,  of  Manchester ; 
but  the  statistical  evidence  which  I  can  now  adduce  converts 
conjecture  on  this  subject  into  certainty.  Compare,  for  ex- 
ample, Nos.  46  and  47  with  any  of  the  Scottish  rural  returns, 
or  even  with  48.  Again,  in  70,  observe  the  gradual  elevation 
of  stature  of  the  militia-men,  as  we  proceed  from  natives  of 
Newcastle  to  those  of  Gateshead  and  the  other  suburbs,  and 
then  to  those  of  the  small  towns  and  villages.  It  would  be 
unfair  to  bring  into  strict  comparison  the  gigantic  rural  volun- 
teers in  the  preceding  Northumbrian  returns ;  yet  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  latter  are  for  the  most  part  only  artisans  and 
labourers,  and  that  social  superiority  will  certainly  account  but 
partially  for  the  contrast.  Next  observe  the  SheflBeld  return 
(No.  95) ;  the  genuine  natives  of  that  town  will  be  seen  to  fall 
considerably  short  of  their  fellow-workmen  bom  in  the  sur- 
rounding towns  and  villages,  and  these  again  very  much  below 
the  general  population  of  Yorkshire  and  the  other  adjacent 
counties  (78,  92,  101,  111,  117,  118,  121).  At  Haworth  (93, 
94,  99),  the  population  of  weavers  is  stunted  in  comparison 
with  Yorkshiremen  in  general,  but  even  among  them  the 
natives  of  towns  fall  below  the  natives  of  villages,  so  that  the 
degradation  of  stature  would  appear  to  be  gradual  and  pro- 
gressive.    The  Lancashire  and  Norfolk  returns  are  insufficient, 

*  Trans.  Social  Science  ABSociation,  1857,  1861. 
VOL.  III.  ^  ^ 


5(J2  BEDDOE    OJI    THE    STATUBB   AND    BDLK 

Ute  NottiDgbamshire  and  Staffordshire  fuller  and  more  decided, 
but  &1]  point  in  the  Bamo  direction.  In  those  from  Birming- 
bam  and  Shrewabtiry  there  is  less  difference ;  bat  the  in- 
feriority of  the  Briatol,  Bath,  and  Exeter  men  (220, 223,  224, 
21-7),*  to  their  ntighboura  is  pretty  well  marked.  Finally,  the 
London  return  (lOi),  which  certainly  does  not  err  by  deprecia- 
tion, is  lunch  below  the  average  of  England  ;  and  the  remark- 
able one  from  Spitalfields  exhibits  a  standard  far  inferior  even 
to  that  of  the  kindred  of  these  poor  weavers,  who  dwell  in  tho 
south  midland  regions  of  Fracce.t 

The  lunatic,  criminal,  and  mihtary  returns  generally  snpport 
the  private  ones ;  and  in  tho  case  of  the  metropolis  (303,  341, 
352)  their  unanimity  is  very  striking. 

It  may  therefore  be  taken  as  proved  that  the  stature  of  man 
in  tho  lai'ge  towns  of  Britain  is  lowered  considerably  below  the 
standard  of  the  nation,  and  aaprobahle  that  such  degradation  is 
hereditJiry  and  progresaivo.  And  wo  must  put  aside,  as  unfor- 
tunately not  applicable  to  ourselves,  the  observations  of  MM. 
Quetelet  and  Villerm^,  who  found  the  inhabitants  of  Brnssels 
and  certain  other  towns,  at  the  age  of  10,  slightly  snpenor  in 
stature  to  those  of  the  surrounding  country.  This  last  fact 
may  be  accounted  for,  partly  by  the  probability  that  aa  puberty 
arrives  later  in  the  country,  so  the  full  growth  ia  not  so  qniokly 
attained ;  partly  also  by  the  collection  into  the  towns  of  Bel- 
gium and  France  of  the  majority  of  the  upper,  weO-fed  and 
comfortable  classes,  and  by  the  inferior  advant^es  enjoyed 
there  by  the  rural  population. 

What  are  the  causes  which  determine  these  variations  of 
stature,  which  I  have  shown  to  exist  in  townmen  and  artisans? 
There  are  several  which  do,  or  may,  or  have  been  supposed  to 
contribute  to  the  result,  but  I  think  they  may  all  be  arranged 
under  the  following  heads : — 

1.  Birth  and  rearing  in  f  A.  InEuences  prior  to  birth, 
town  or  country  ...  (  B.  „  subsequent  thereto. 


■  CoDipam  hIho  221.  222. 

t  Stature  rutea  low  in  the  CevoDHeE,  but  jet  above  tliat  of  in;  SpttaUdds 


OF   MAN   IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  563 


2.  Selection  and  elimina-  (  c.  Nataral  or  spontaneous. 

tion    I  D.  Artificial. 

3.  Nature  of  employment. 

4.  Habits  of  life  during  youth. 

1 .  Most  of  the  workers  in  the  smaller  or  more  specialised 
trades  are  town-bom ;  for  these  trades  are  usually  exercised  in 
towns  only^  and  it  is  much  easier  for  lads  who  are  on  the  spot 
to  gain  admission  to  them.  Thus,  I  have  found  in  Bristol  that 
almost  all  the  potters,  ropemakers,  cabinet-makers,  book- 
binders, etc.,  are  townsmen,  natives  of  Bristol,  or  other  con- 
siderable towns.  This  does  not  apply  so  much  to  tailors  and 
shoemakers ;  for  their  arts,  like  those  of  the  carpenter,  mason 
and  smith,  are  needed,  and  therefore  exercised,  everywhere  to 
some  extent. 

A.  Under  this  head  comes  the  influence  of  race.  In  Bristol, 
for  example,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  Welsh ;  in  London  and 
perhaps  in  Norwich,  of  French  blood;  and  the  Irish  element  is 
beginning  to  leaven  the  town  population  everywhere  to  a  sUght 
extent.  Here  may  also  be  mentioned  the  greater  facilities 
which  feeble  and  physically  degenerate  persons  find  in  towns 
for  contracting  matrimony,  and  reproducing  their  defects  and 
infirmities  in  another  generation.  There  may  be  other  heredi- 
tary influences  apart  from  race  and  from  disease,  and  the  classes 
of  grooms  and  miners  are  among  the  most  likely  to  be  aflected 
in  this  way.  Other  possible  influences  prior  to  birth  are  those 
derivable  from  habitual  drunkenness,  or  from  phthisical  or 
syphilitic  disease  in  the  parents ;  or  from  insufiicient  feeding 
of  the  pregnant  mother,  or  from  too  early  marriage  ;  but  only 
the  third  of  these  can  be  positively  affirmed  to  have  any  efiect 
on  the  development  of  the  body  as  to  size.  All  of  them  are 
probably  more  frequent  in  town  than  in  country. 

B.  Hereunder  are  included  various  errors  in  the  mode  of 
bringing  up  children ;  the  efiects  of  close  and  impure  air  on 
children,  and  of  insufficient  or  unwholesome  feeding.  The 
more  frequent  deficiency  of  breast-milk  in  the  mothers  in 
towns  is  a  great  cause  of  high  mortality  and  slow  develop- 
ment, and  may  possibly  influence  the  subsequent  growth  of 
the  ofl*spring ;  and  the  want  of  a  supply  of  good  cow's  milk^ 


564  BIDDOE   ON    THK   STATURE    AND    BPLK 

asd,  indeed,  of  a  demand  for  it  among  the  tower  classes,  is  of 
very  serious  importance,  and  anhappily  affects  tfao  inlial)itant3 
of  certain  pastoral  distrii^ts  in  England  to  a  greater  extent 
than  even  those  of  lai^e  towns. 

2  C.  By  natural  or  spontaneous  selection  I  mean  the  kind 
of  inilnences  that  send  to  the  sea  the  lad  who  has  an  adven- 
turons  dispa'iition  (with  which  generally  concars  &  compact 
and  well-developed  frame),  or  who  lives  on  the  sea  coast. 
This  subject  borders  on  that  of  hereditary  inflnencc.  I  have 
elsewhere  spoken  of  the  ponxlble  effect  of  coiijngal  selection  in 
modifying  the  type  of  a  race, — {Anihrop,  Review,  i,  310.  On 
the  supposed  increasing  prevalence  of  Dark  Hair  in  England). 
In  certain  states  of  society  conjugal  selection,  either  sponta- 
neous or  according  to  rule,  operates  towards  maintaining  the 
beauty  and  vigour  of  the  race.  Under  onr  present  circmn- 
fitances  it  is  veiy  doubtful  whether  it  continues  to  do  so. 
Physical  qualities  have  no  lon^r  the  value  they  used  to  have 
in  the  matrimonial  market ;  but  I  do  not  know  that  this 
applies  specially  to  any  particular  classes  of  the  population. 

By  natural  elimination  I  mean,  for  example,  the  eSect  pro- 
duced in  a  trade  in  which  phthisis  is  very  rife  (such  as  that  of 
the  tailor),  by  the  early  death  or  withdrawal  of  those  here- 
ditarily or  otherwise  predisposed,  who  have  often  a  peculiar 
bodily  type.*  Some  of  the  agencies  mentioned  under  1  B,  3 
and  4,  may  probably  affect  the  physical  type  of  succeeding 
generations  of  townsmen  chiefly  in  this  kind  of  way. 

D.  The  effect  of  artificial  selection  is  more  generally  recog- 
nised, and,  as  I  think,  even  overrated.  It  is  true,  however, 
that  a  small  active  lad  is  often  chosen  to  be  a  jockey  or  groom,  a 
weakly  one  to  be  a  tailor  or  bookbinder,  a  tall  strong  one  to 
be  a  porter. 

3.  Influences  from  the  nature  of  employments  are  numerous 
and  various ;  we  are  concerned  here  only  with  those  which 

*  TftU  youths  ore  certainly,  on  the  whole,  caterti  jiaribui,  mora  liable  timn 
others  to  phthisiB ;  but  it  is  not  at  all  clear  that  this  applies  to  adults.  Dr. 
Hill  of  Ljmin^n  found  the  average  height  (with  shoes)  of  thirty  phthiaicftl 
adulta  in  Brampton  Hospital,  to  be  5  ft.  7'2  inches.  They  were  Grom  ail 
parts  of  England. 


OF   MAN   IN   THE    BRITISH   ISLES.  565 

affect  the  development  of  the  body  in  size  or  weight,  which  are 
not  necessarily  or  always  identical  with  those  which  conspicu- 
ously shorten  the  duration  of  life.  Thus,  butchers  and  stone- 
masons are  on  the  average  rather  short-lived,  owing  to  causes 
which  need  not  here  be  specified ;  but  both  are  placed  under 
conditions  favourable  to  bodily  development  during  the  years 
from  fifteen  to  twenty-five,  when  growth  is  being  completed. 
The  agencies  which  are  really  powerful  are  probably  foul  close 
air  (as  in  tailors),  cramped  position  (as  in  shoemakers),  small 
wages  yielding  insufficient  food  (more  likely  to  delay  than  to 
stop  development),  and  long  hours  with  insufficient  sleep. 

4.  The  early  and  copious  use  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  have 
the  reputation,  probably  well-earned,  of  stopping  growth ;  and 
are  notably  more  rife  in  some  trades  than  in  others.  The 
want  of  opportunity  and  stimulus  for  the  development  of  their 
physical  powers  by  young  persons  in  towns,  the  earlier  oc- 
currence of  puberty,  itself  an  effect  of  complex  causes,  and 
the  greater  frequency  of  youthful  profligacy,  may  all  be  noted 
here. 

Such  are  the  numerous  possible  causes  of  the  comparative 

lowness  of  stature  in  particular  classes.     Do  the  tables  in  the 

present  paper  throw  any  Ught  on  their  relative  importance  ? 

They  appear  to  me  to  do  so.     But,  perhaps,  the  indications  of 

the  tables  may  be  rendered  clearer  by  the  following  epitome 

of  the  military  ones. 

TABLE   VIII. 

A.  Favourable  Clabs.  B.  UKrAVODBABLs  Class. 

(Iron,  Wood,  Mmoub,  Labourer*,  Taikirt,  Sboemaken,  and 

aud  MiscuUaaeouB  Outdoor.  MiaocUaneous  lodoor. 

No.           Statura.  No.           Suture. 

Ft.     Id.  Fu     Id. 

Scotland 307  5  7-49  141  5  7-03 

Sussex  &  Kent  Groups  .  572  5  7*07  99  5  6-92 

Staffordshire  Group        .  155  5  7*23  62  5  6-87 

Lancashire  and  York     .  316  5  7-01  106  5  6-67 

London 165  5  6*90  100  5  6-42 

Neglecting  for  the  present  the  Scottish  recruits,  we  have 
here,  in  class  B,  a  regular  decline  as  we  proceed  from  the  rural 
to  the  metropolitan  district,  and  probably  we  should  have  the 
same  in  A,  but  for  the  interference  of  the  element  of  race  in 
the  Staffordshire  group ;  as  it  is  there  is  a  general,  but  mode- 


566  BEDDOB   ON   THS   STATUBE   AND   BCTLK 

rate  and  irregular,  decline  in  A.  Thus  is  exhibited  the  unfa- 
vourable action  of  those  causes  which  may  be  compendionsly 
described  as  those  affecting  the  town-bom  more  than  the  mral 
population.  On  the  other  hand,  the  action  of  the  causes  con- 
nected with  the  employment  itself  is  brought  out  conspicuously 
by  the  facts  that  in  every  territorial  division  class  B  stands 
below  class  A,  and  that  in  the  metropolis,  contrary  to  what 
might  perhaps  have  been  expected,  the  difference  is  greater 
than  anywhere  else.*  It  would  seem,  in  fact,  that  the  influ- 
ence of  town-birth  is  greatest  in  class  B,  and  that  the  influence 
of  unfavourable  occupation  is  greatest  in  the  towns;  that 
while  each  class  of  agencies  has  a  moderate  deteriorating  in* 
fluence  while  at  work  separately,  its  effect  is  very  greatly 
increased  when  it  co-operates  with  the  other.  These  results 
agree  very  satisfactorily  with  those  I  have  obtained  from  per- 
sonal observation  in  Bristol  and  elsewhere,  and  from  the 
reports  of  my  correspondents.  Thus  30  natives  of  Bristol, 
employed  by  Messrs.  Derham  Brothers  as  rivet-shoemakers, 
yielded  an  average  stature  and  weight  of  5  ft.  4.90  in.f  and 
125.67  lbs.,  while  the  same  number  of  men  bom  in  the  county 
of  Somerset,  and  employed  in  the  same  place  and  manner  by 
the  same  firm,  yielded  averages  of  5  ft.  6' 74  in.  and  134*0  lbs. 
And  Mr.  P.  J.  Worsley  found  that  of  the  men  employed  in  the 
Netham  Chemical  Works,  15  natives  of  Bristol  averaged  only 
5  ft.  5' 76  in.  and  ]35*70  lbs.,  and  30  of  the  suburban  parish 
of  St.  George's  5  ft.  6*24  in.  and  138-13  lbs.,  while  27  from 
the  rural  parishes  of  Bitton  and  Hanham  rose  to  5  ft.  8*0  in. 
and  145*16  lbs.  So  much  for  the  influence  of  birth;  that  of 
occupation  seems  to  come  out  best  in  the  details  of  the  Shef- 
field and  Bristol  returns  (96  and  220).  Pending  further  inves- 
tigations, I  am  disposed  to  think  that  the  facts  are  best  ex- 
plained by  the  theory  of  a  hereditary  and  progressive  physical 
degeneration  in  certain  classes  of  the  inhabitants  of  towns. 
But,  be  this  as  it  may,  there  can  hardly,  I  think,  be  any  ques- 

^  -    .  -  -I       ^    I       ■    I  ^-^^^^m  ^— .^— ^^^    ■       ■       »^^^^^_^^^^^i^^^_^  ^ 

ft 

•  There  is  a  wider  opportunity  for  selection  in  towns  than  in  the  country, 
and  men  more  often,  probably^  enter  those  trades  for  which  they  are  bodily 
qualified. 

t  The  following  figures  include  shoes  and  clothes. 


OF   MAN   IN   THE   BRITISH   ISLES.  567 

tion  of  the  great  national  importance  of  the  whole  subject,  at 
a  time  when  the  British  people  is  rapidly  being  transformed 
from  an  agricultural  into  a  manufacturing,  from  a  rural  into  a 
civic  people;  when,  with  an  increasingly-felt  necessity  for 
keeping  up  our  military  power,  we  have  an  increasing  difficulty 
in  obtaining  recruits ;  and  when  the  truth  that  both  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  national  body  require  physical  as  well  as  mental 
and  moral  cultivation  and  development,  is  becoming  more  and 
more  distinctly  acknowledged.  Thews  and  sinews  may  not 
be  so  universally  and  pre-eminently  valuable  among  civilised 
as  among  uncultivated  peoples ;  but  in  all  ages^  since  the 
English  became  a  nation,  their  position  among  other  nations 
has  been  in  a  great  measure  due  to  the  frequency  among  them 
of  individuals  of  great  strength  and  physical  energy;  and 
when  we  as  a  nation  fall  below  others  in  this  respect  we  shall 
suffer  for  it  not  merely  in  our  military  but  in  our  commercial^ 
and  even  in  our  scientific  position. 

I  do  not  wish  it  to  be  supposed  that  I  place  a  high  value  on 
superiority  of  stature  as  an  individual  advantage,  or  that  I 
ignore  the  disadvantages  that  often  attend  it.  I  allow,  too, 
that  in  nations,  as  in  individuals,  the  greatest  amount  of 
physical  vigour  and  hardihood  by  no  means  always  accompanies 
the  greatest  size  and  stature.  But  if  we  examine  only  a  single 
race  or  reputed  race  at  a  time,  we  shall  find,  I  believe,  that 
wherever  that  race  attains  its  maximum  of  physical  develop- 
ment it  rises  highest  in  energy  and  moral  vigour.  Thus  the 
inhabitant  of  Oude  or  the  Punjab  is  as  superior  in  courage  and 
energy  to  the  puny  Bengali  as  he  is  in  bodily  conformation. 
And,  to  come  nearer  home,  I  have  shown  that  Scotland  in 
general,  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  parts  of  Yorkshire, 
etc.,  and  Cornwall  are  the  portions  of  Great  Britain  which 
produce  the  finest  and  largest  men.  I  think  it  will  be  acknow- 
ledged that  they  also  yield  more  than  their  share  of  ability  and 
energy  for  the  national  benefit. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  STATURE  AND  BULK  OF  THE  IRISH. 

For  this  I  have  to  rely  mainly  on  the  military  returns  : — 

The  whole  number  of  men  they  contain  is  151 7,  a  number 
sufficient,  probably,  for  the  determination  of  the  average 
stature  of  the  classes  that  yield  recruits,  but  too  few,  unfortu- 
nately, for  some  of  my  more  important  objects . 

I  will  first  endeavour  to  determine  the  average  stature  of 
these  classes  in  Ireland  and  in  the  several  provinces,  and  will 
state  the  averages  of  weight  and  chest  girth.  Next,  I  will 
compare  the  Irish  with  the  English,  Scotch,  and  Welsh,  and, 
in  the  last  place,  will  attempt  to  investigate  the  relations  of 
stature  to  race  in  the  several  provinces. 

It  is  the  peasantry,  the  artisans  and  handicraftsmen,  and, 
above  all  the  non-agricultural  or  general  labourers,  that  fill  the 
ranks.  Of  the  classes  that  furnish  very  few  recruits  some,  as 
the  gentry,  professional  men,  and  farmers,  are  generally  rather 
above  the  average  of  physique ;  others,  as  sailors  and  factory 
operatives,  fall  below  it  in  stature  or  bulk,  or  in  both. 
These  exceptional  classes  are  less  numerous  in  Ireland  than  in 
England ;  and,  owing  to  this  fact,  and  to  the  higher  rates  of 
wages  in  some  parts  of  the  latter  country,  I  think  the  recruit- 
ing returns  there  a  loss  trustworthy  guide  to  the  subject  in 
hand.  Probably  the  Irish  recruits  almost  equal  in  stature  and 
fall  somewhat  below  in  weight,  the  average  of  that  part  of  the 
genei*al  population  which  exceeds  5  ft.  5  in.  in  height. 

The  means  yielded  by  the  figures  in  the  books  are  5  ft. 
7.25  in.  and  138.03  lbs.  The  weights  thus  given  admit  of 
little  correction,  but  the  statures  admit  of  and  require  much. 
Some  of  the  examining  officers  take  no  note  of  fractions  of 
inches ;  with  them  every  man  ranging  from  a  little  below 
5  ft.  8  in.  to  a  little  below  5  ft.  9  in.  is  set  down  at  5  ft.  8  in. ; 
and  even  those  who  measure  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  must  in 
most  cases  allow  a  small  surplus  of  height,  averaging  probably 
about  1-1 0th  of  an  inch,  unaccounted  for.  If  we  allow  0'15  in. 
and  47  lbs.  for  the  unregistered  surplusages  we  shall  havo 
57-40  (1-712  metre)  and  138-00  lbs.  (62-8  kilog.)  for  the  exact 


APPENDIX.  569 

average  height  and  weight  of  a  full-grown  Irish  recruit.  The 
average  girth  of  the  chest  is  34*73  in.,  but  on  this  point  it 
is  impossible  to  compare  the  observations  of  diflTerent  ob- 
servers together  with  any  confidence. 

In  all  the  provinces,  but  most  of  all  in  Connaught,  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  population  must  fall  below  the  standard 
height  of  5  ffc.  5  in.  The  average  stature  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation, including  these  short  men,  may,  however,  be  estimated, 
or  at  least  conjectured,  from  the  culminating  points  of  the 
curves  formed  by  the  numbers  at  each  inch  in  the  scale,  or  be- 
tween every  two  inches  in  the  scale.  In  this  way  I  arrive  at 
the  following  means  :  for  Dublin,  about  5  ft.  6*4  in. ;  for  Ulster, 
Munster,  and  remainder  of  Leinster,  about  5  ft.  6*8  in.  or 
5  ft.  6*9  in.  (1"697  metre) ;  for  Connaught,  probably  as  low  as 
5  ft.  5*5  in. ;  while  the  labourers  of  Leinster  birth,  taken  sepa- 
rately from  the  artisans  and  others,  rise  to  5  ft.  7*3  in.  or  there- 
about, and  the  agricultural  labourers  of  Ulster  and  Munster 
are  probably  equally  tall.  For  all  Ireland  the  mean  would  be 
5  ft.  6*5  in.,  or  a  trifle  more.  Some  data  supplied  by  Dr. 
Graham  Balfour  in  the  Array  Medical  Reports,  lead  me  to 
think  this  rather  under  than  over  the  mark.  See  also  Nos. 
258,  259,  322,  326,  348,  351,  in  my  own  tables;  84  Irish 
reapers  from  Connaught  and  Ulster  averaged  5  ft.  6*27  in.  and 
146  lbs.  (in  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas),  but  it  is  not  stated 
whether  shoes  were  included  ;  they  were  mostly  from  counties 
where  the  stature  appears  from  my  tables  to  be  inferior. 

I  have  already  stated  that  I  think  the  English  and  Scotch 
recruiting  returns  less  trustworthy  as  indicators  of  the  average 
stature  than  the  Irish  ones.  Still  I  have  thought  it  worth 
while  to  compare  them  together.  The  Scotch  recruits  are 
about  equal  to  those  of  Leinster  and  Munster  in  stature  and 
weight,  and  superior  in  both  respects  to  the  Irish,  taken  col- 
lectively, and  they  clearly  exceed  in  girth  of  chest  both  Eng- 
lish and  Irish,  though  the  Welsh  may  equal  them  in  this  point. 
The  Welsh  recruits  weigh  heaviest,  but  their  stature  is  consider- 
rably  lower  than  that  of  the  Irish.  The  English  vary  very 
much ;  some  agricultural  counties  yield  large  men ;  but  on  the 
whole  they  do  not  quite  equal  even  the  Welsh  in  stature  or  the 
Irish  in  weight ;  and  this  seems  to  be  mainly  due  to  the  low 
average  of  the  recruits  from  the  metropolis  and  from  manufac- 
turing districts,  and  to  the  short  stature  (perhaps  a  race  cha- 
racter) prevailing  in  the  south-eastern  or  Saxon  part  of  Eng- 
land. At  Bristol  the  Munster  men  inspected  compare  pretty 
favourably  with  those  from  the  neighbouring  districts,  to  whom 
they  are  decidedly  superior  in  girth  of  chest ;  and  at  Liver- 


570  APPENDIX. 

pool  the  Irish  have  the  advantage  in  all  three  respects  of  the 
native  Lancashire  recruits. 

In  comparing  the  natives  of  the  several  provinces  of  Ireland^ 
I  have  separated  the  men  described  as  labourers  from  those 
attributed  to  all  other  occupations.  This  distinction  would  have 
been  of  more  use  if  farm  labourers  and  peasants  had  been  set  apart 
from  ordinary  town  labourers,  who  are  to  a  great  extent  a  dif- 
ferent class ;  but  this  has  been  done  in  the  Cork  and  Belfast 
reports  only.  I  have  also,  with  a  view  to  testing  the  connection 
between  variations  of  race  and  of  stature,  placed  on  one  side 
all  the  names  of  purely  Irish  origin,  such  as  O'Shaughnessy, 
Sullivan,  etc.,  together  with  a  few  such  as  Hart,  King,  Fox, 
and  Harrington,  which  are  known  to  have  been  adopted  from 
the  English  by  Irish  septs,  or  to  be  translations  of  genuine 
Erse  surnames.  A  few  of  mixed  Scandinavian  and  Celtic 
origin,  as  Cottar  and  MacAuliff,  have  been  included.  On  the 
other  side,  I  have  placed  all  the  Anglo-Norman  and  Early 
English  introductions,  such  as  Fitzgerald,  Burke,  Joyce,  and 
all  the  later  ones,  whether  English,  Welsh,  Scotch,  Huguenot, 
or  Palatine,  including  here,  not  without  some  doubt,  names 
from  the  Scotch  highlands,  whore  these  can  be  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  genuine  sons  of  Ulad. 

The  percentage  of  exotic  or  un-Irish  names  among  the  re- 
cruits appears  to  be  as  large  as  42 f  per  cent.,  and  to  vary  from 
62  J  in  the  three  north-eastern  counties  to  28^  in  Connaught. 
The  diversity  between  counties  is  even  greater,  but  the  num- 
bers for  most  of  the  counties  are  too  small  to  be  of  value.  In 
Leinster  the  distribution  of  the  two  classes  seems  tolerably 
even,  while  in  Ulster  the  foreign  names  decrease  pretty  regu- 
larly as  one  proceeds  westward ;  in  Munster,  Tipperary  and 
Limerick  abound  with  foreign  names ;  and  in  Connaught,  Sligo 
and  Mayo  exceed  the  average  of  the  province. 

Whether  these  percentages  represent  with  anything  ap- 
proaching to  accuracy  the  proportion  of  the  foreign  blood  in 
Ireland  may,  of  course,  very  well  be  doubted.  The  most 
remote  counties,  which  yield  the  smallest  proportion  of  exotic 
names  {e.g.,  Kerry,  Clare,  Donegal)  yield  also  very  few  re- 
cruits. My  own  observations  go  to  show  that  while  the  great 
majority  of  the  landed  and  professional  classes  bear  names  of 
English  or  Scotch  origin,  the  preponderance  of  native  names 
among  the  lower  classes  of  all  parts  of  the  country,  except, 
perhaps.  Forth  and  Bargy,  in  county  Wexford,  is  far  greater 
than  my  table  indicates.  It  is  highly  probable,  and  consists 
with  what  we  know  of  the  corresponding  races  in  France, 
Scotland  and  Wales,  that  the  invading  race,  so  far  as  it  has 


APPENDIX.  571 

remained  in  any  degree  separate,  being  more  adventurous  and 
less  bound  by  family  ties,  may  be  much  more  disposed  to  enlist. 
The  mixture  of  blood  is  probably  nowhere  complete,  even 
where  differences  of  religion  have  not  interposed;  and  the 
fact  that  in  every  province,  and  in  almost  all  the  counties,  the 
proportion  of  labourers  to  artisans,  etc.,  is  greater  among  the 
native  names  may  be  taken  as  a  proof  of  this.  I  am  disposed 
to  think  that  the  proportion  of  so-called  Danish  blood  in  Ire- 
land is  usually  under-estimated ;  the  Anglo-Norman  sack  and 
massacre  of  Waterford,  for  instance,  could  not  have  obliterated 
a  tribe  that  had  thriven  there  for  hundreds  of  years  ;  and  I 
recognise  the  Scandivanian  features  and  complexion  in  a  large 
proportion  of  the  people  about  the  Waterford  and  Wexford 
estuaries.  But  setting  the  Danes  aside,  and  beginning  from 
the  Anglo-Norman  invasion,  it  seems  probable  that  the  as- 
sumption of  English  names  by  the  Irish,  and  the  comparative 
paucity  of  women  among  the  invaders  and  colonists,  must  have 
more  than  made  up  for  antagonising  influences,  and  rendered 
Irish  names  less  prevalent  than  Irish  blood. 

I  have  already  remarked  that  the  numbers  belonging  to 
single  counties  are  too  small  to  be  at  all  trusted  as  data  for 
averages.  The  great  discrepancy  between  Kilkenny  and  Carlo  w, 
two  counties  which  inmost  respects  greatly  resemble  each  other, 
is  an  illustration  of  the  fact.  It  can  hardly,  however,  be  the  re- 
sult of  accident  that  ten  out  of  the  thirteen  counties  whose 
recruits  fall  below  the  mean  of  Ireland  lie  together  in  a  ring 
fence,  as  it  were,  extending  from  Dublin  Bay  to  the  Atlantic, 
nor  yet  that  the  figures  belonging  to  Dublin  and  Connaught, 
in  Table  I,  fall  in  every  case  below  the  average  of  stature. 

Can  these  facts  be  best  explained  by  allowing  that  in  Ireland, 
as  in  France,  the  average  stature  varies  with  the  race,  and  not 
with  the  influences  (of  climate,  food,  etc.),  to  which  the  race  is 
subjected  ?  Or  do  they  rather  point  to  the  influence  of  un- 
favourable ^^  media ''  in  causing  degeneration  ?  We  will  begin 
with  the  former  supposition.  I  do  not  believe  the  Gaelic 
Irish  to  have  been  homogeneous;  but  not  even  Sir  William 
Wilde,  nor  yet  any  one  of  those  four  able  labourers  in 
the  ancient  Irish  field,  who  have  all  left  it  and  us  so  lately — 
not  Petrie,  O'Donovan,  0' Curry,  nor  Windele — could  give  us 
reliable  grounds  for  a  local  division  of  their  several  tribes. 
Taken  altogether,  they  evidently  were  and  are,  at  all  events 
under  favourable  media,  a  tall  race.  (Compare  O^Donovan^s 
Paper,  Froissart's  informer.  Dr.  Davis*s  measurements  from 
Kerry  in  the  Crania  Britannica,  and  the  figures  for  Kerry  and 
Donegal  in  the  present  paper).     Whatever  an  importation  of 


572  ATIE.VIUX. 

old  Norsemen  and  modern  Scotchmen  may  hara  done,  one  of 
modem  southern  English  and  Welsh  is  more  likely  to  hare 
lowered  the  standai-d  than  to  have  raised  it.  But  if  so,  why 
are  the  people  of  southern  Leinster  as  tall  or  taller  than  the 
Munstcr  men,  and  these  latter  so  much  taller  than  the  Con- 
naughters  ?  Evl-h  the  Danes  will  hardly  serve  to  confront  this 
difficulty.  In  Connaught  the  people  with  exotic  names  are  the 
shorter,  as  they  ought  to  bo  on  this  theoryj  but  on  the  other 
hand  in  Leinster  and  Munster  the  proportiona  vary,  and  are  on 
the  whole  adverse  to  it.  The  theory  of  permanence  might  to 
somo  extent  be  helped  out  by  supposing  the  existence  in 
aomo  districtB,  e.g.,  in  Conuemara  aud  Northern  Roscom- 
mon, of  a  small,  dark-haired,  and  often  dark-eyed  race 
(possibly  tho  true  Firbolgs),  left  as  islands  by  the  flow  of 
the  tide  of  large-boned,  long-headed,  bard -featured,  grey- 
eyed,  dark-brown-haired  men,  who  yield  the  common  type 
of  the  Irish  Kelt.  If  bo,  the  people  in  County  Cavan,  wliom 
Wilde  describes  as  rounder- headed  and  fairer  than  other 
Kelts,  may  possibly  be  relics  of  tho  Danaans,  and  not,  as 
I  used  to  believe,  mere  Saxon  pnrn'iiiiii.  But  if  all  this 
must  he  siiuuiiai-lly  ilisiui-^scLl  as  nic-frtdied,  let  os  see  wluit 
can  be  made  of  the  popular  solution  of  tho  matter,  the  theory 
that  the  Connaughters  had  degenerated  under  the  influence 
of  semi- starvation,  until  their  kinsmen  across  the  Shanaon 
would  no  longer  acknowledge  the  connection.  This  view  was 
brought  forward  years  ago  by  a  writer  in  the  Dublin  University 
Magazine,  and  so  forcible  and  graphic  was  the  picture  he  drew 
of  the  dwarfish,  pot-bellied,  abortively -featured,  progaathons 
"  spectres  of  a  people  once  able-bodied  and  comely "  that 
haunted  Sligo  and  Mayu,  that  it  has  been  quoted  by  every  mo- 
nogenist  writer  at  home  and  abroad  ever  since.  The  passage 
ia  entirely  a  libel  on  the  natives  of  eastern  Sligo;  but  as  I  never 
visited  Mayo  I  am  not  prepared  to  deny  that  it  may  be  more 
applicable  there.     It  does  not  apply  to  Connemara,  where  the 

Jeople,  though  small,  are  well-built  and  well-favoured,  nor  to 
oyce'sand  O'Flaherty'a  country,  near  Galway,  where  they  are 
notoriously  tall. 

The  evident,  though  moderate,  degeneration  of  stature  in 
Dublin,  where  the  race  elements  are  pretty  well  known,  does, 
however,  incline  me  to  think  that  the  same  thing  may  have 
really  gone  on  in  Mayo  to  a  greater  extent.  If  so,  its  occur- 
rence, and  the  fact  that  it  appears  to  have  been  greatest  in  the 
people  with  exotic  names  (if  we  may  trust  to  so  small  a  number), 
may  possibly  be  explained  in  the  following  manner.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  a  large  number  of  the  landholders  and  townsmen  in 


APPENDIX.  573 

the  three  other  provinces,  with  their  families  and  dependents, 
were  '^  transplanted  "  into  Connaught  at  the  time  of  the  Crom- 
wellian  Settlement.  Probably  most  of  these  may  have  subse- 
quently returned  :  but  the  ultimate  result  can  hardly  have  been 
anything  else  than  that  the  more  helpless  remained  in  little 
communities,  to  a  great  extent  of  English  blood,  in  an  unge- 
nial  climate  and  among  a  half-alien  people,  until  they  sank  into 
a  lower  condition  than  those  natives  themselves,  and  were 
finally  absorbed  by  them. 


INDEJ    OF    SUBJECTS. 


Allendiilo,  430 
iOniriclc.  42fl,  42S 
AtDbleaide,  430 
Ainericiui    tiieroglypbs, 

£88 
Ancient  Britieh  aknlls, 

41 
Anglesey,  468 
Angna.  40».  410,  498 
Animal  type,  ^asticity 

of,  81 
Arbroath,  410 
Arsryll.  40B.  «9 
Atran,  406 
Aspatria,  430 


BallacliDliah,  406 

Baira,  S96 

Burro  WB,  round,  of  South 

of  Engluid,  114 
Boafibhue,  406 
Bath,  482 
Bayaderes  of  Southam 

Bedfordahire,  460 

Bedmiiister,  462 
Belsiaii  bone  caves,  315 
Bellord,  426 
Benbeoulo,  396 
Bengal,  girpBioH  of,  120 
Bentbam,  436 
Berbshirc,  474 
Berwickafaire,  422,  424 
Berwick -on-T«eed,  426 
Boverley,  436 
Bilton,  478 
Birmint^ham.  464.  522 
Bone  cavcH.  Belgian,  3 1 5 
Boston,  443 
BoDlmer,  426 
Brecknockshire,  470 
Bretagne,     inhabitants 

of.  869 
Bridport,  488 
BriKhton.  472 
Bristol,  *»0.  510,  524 


British  Isles.  Statnre 
and  Bulk  uf  Han  in 
the,  384 

Brjtiiji  abnlla,  ancient. 


Burnmoatb,  4E4 
Burton-on -Trent,  44S 
Biuy  St.  Edmutida,  4o6 

Caernarvon,  466 
Caithness  caims,  2 1 6,266 
Cairns  in  Caithnass,  SI6, 

266 
Cairn  at  Get,  243 
CaJthnfiss,  400,  402,  496 
Cambridgeshice,  508 
Canisbay,  Caithn?aa,400 
Cardiganshire,  468,  S12 
CanuurUienBliirc,  512 
Castleton   of   Braomar, 

401 
Cov«s,  Belgian  bone,  315 
Central  American  hiero- 
glyphs, 288 
Character  of  Scotch,  167 
Character  of  voice,  244 
Chatton.  4S6 
Chirnside,  422 
Cheltenham.  176 
Cheshire,  450,  501,  622 
Cleveland.  432 
Colne,  442 
Colonsay,  398 
Congletoa,  450 
Cork,  101 
Cornwall.  492 
Cottenhatn,  458 
Cottesmore,  453 
Climate,  655 
Cross- Breeding,  552 
Cumberlajid,  43U,  S02 

Danby,  432 
Dancing  girls,  183 
Danes,  hoadform  of,  37H 
DayuB  of  Sarawak.  195 


'Dedham,  458 
Dwhysiiire.  44S.  504 
Devon, 488,490,518,SH  j 
Devonport.  518 
Dorset.  516,  524 
Dovnend,  478 
Dundee,  4  It) 

Dnndonald.  414  i 

Danfermline,  412 
Dnrham.  432,  502,  523 
Dnntlrieashire,  418,  423,    , 
500 


Edinbai^h,  414,  600 
Blasticity     of     animal 

type,  81 
Elevation,  556 
Ely,  458 
EngUsh,  520 
Epiglottis,  pendencv  of, 

106 
Bskdale.  433 
Eoaei.  458 
EicuTationB    in    Cuth- 


Fens,  tho  444 
Fifeahiro,  410,  412 
Fishing  Indiana  of  Van- 
couver's Island,  260 
Flegg.  454 
Flintshire,  466 
Food,  556 
FosBJJ  pottery,  163 
Fowey,  400 
France,  & 


OiLinabonni$;b,  442 
Galloway,  420 
Gateshead,  428 
Qet,  cairn  at,  243 
Qhiliak,  skull  of,  366 
aitlingbam,  488 
Glamorgan.  470.  512 
Glasgow,  414,  500 


INDEX  OF   SUBJECTS. 


675 


Glenkens  district,  420 
Gloucester,  476,  608,  622 
Grantham,  444 
Graphic  records,  351 
Grasmere,  430 
Grassington,  436 
Gypsies,  120 


Hair-colour,  653 

Hambrook,  478 

Hampshire,  476 

Hampshire,  614 

Harpenden,  460 

Harris,  306 

Hants,  476 

Haswell,  432 

Haverhill,  466 

Headform  of  Danes,  378 

Herefordshire,  510,  522 

Heyford,  462 

Hieroglyphs,  Central 
American,  288 

Highlanders,  620 

Horned  cairns  of  Caith- 
ness, 266 

Hovas,  1 

Hull,  436, 604 

Hurst,  474 

India,  Marvar  tribes  of, 

201 
India,  Bayaderes  of,  182 
Indians     of     Mosquito 

territory,  148 
Inverness  (town),  402 
^^— ^    (county),  404, 

496 
Ireland,  494,  618,  624 
Islay,  400 

Eenilworth,  462 
Eenmore,      Perthshire, 

404 
Kent,  472,  614,  624 
Kidderminster,  464 
Kilmarnock,  414 
Kincardine,  408 
Knighton,  466 
Kingswood,  478 
Kirkcaldy,  412 
Kirkdale,  434 

Lanarkshire,  416 
Lancaster,  440,  602 
Langport,  486 
Laxfield.  456 
Leadhills,  418 
Leatherhead,  472 
Leamington,  462 
Leicestershire,  460,  606 


Lesmahagow,  416 
Leverton,  444 
Lewis,  396,  474 
Lincolnshire,  444,  622 
Liverpool,  622 
Lochalsh,  Wester  Boss, 

402 
Lochbny,  Mull,  398 
London,  462,  612,  624 
Longnor,  448 
Long  Sutton,  444 
Lothian,  424 
Luton,  460 
Lydeard,  Bishop,  480 
Lynby,  444 
Lynn  Begis,  466 

Madagascar,  character- 
istic tribes  of,  I 

Malaiia,  666 

Malton,  434 

Mankind,  psychological 
unity  of,  134 

Manchester,  442,  622 

Marches,  Eastern,  424 

Marvar  tribes  of  India, 
201 

Mining,  668 

Monmouthshire,  610 

Montgomeryshire,'  610 

Morpeth,  426, 428 

Mosquito  territory,  In- 
dians of,  148 

Munster,  494 

Nairn,  496 

Names,  indigenous,  629 
Neath  valley,  47u 
Newark,  446 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  428 
Newcastle-in-Emlyn,470 
New  Forest,  474 
Norfolk,  466,  608,  624 
Northamptonshire,  452 
Northumberland,     426, 

602 
Norwich,  466,  606 
Nottingham,  446,    604, 

622 

Occupation,  influence  of 

on  stature,  630 
Ormesby,  464 
Ormsby,  parish,  432 
Oxfordshire,  4fi2 

Pembrokeshire,  612 
Pendency  of  epiglottis, 

106 
Penryn,  492 


Pentland  Firth,  400 

Perthshire,  420,  498 

Peruvian  graphic  re- 
cords, 361 

PiU,482 

Population  of  Venezuela, 
274 

Potteiy  from  Ecuador, 
163 

Psychological  unity  of 
mankind,  134 

Beawick  and  Lunnas- 
ting,  Shetland,  394 

Becoras,  graphic,  361 

Becruits  examined,  626 

Bichmond,  434 

Bingwood,  476 

Bipon,  436 

Bochford,  468 

Bockhampton,  476 

Bomney  Marsh,  472 

Boss,  402,  496 

Bound  barrows  of  South 
of  England,  114 

Butland,  462,  606 

Salop,  466,  610,  622 
Saracens  in  France,  167 
Sar&wak,  Dayas  of,  195 
Scarpa,  Harris,  396 
Scilly  Islands,  492 
Scotch,  character  of,  167 
Scotland,  424,  620,  624 
Sherwood,  446 
Shetland,  394,  496 
Shields,  N.,  428 
Shrewsbuiy,  466,  610 
Silverstone,  462 
Skye,  398 
Spitalfields,  462 
Social  position,  664 
Soil,  666 
Somerset,  482,  484,  480, 

616,  624 
Southampton,  474 
Staffordshire,  448,  604 
Staffordshire,  448,  622 
Staithes,  432 
Stature  and  Bulk  of  Man 

in  the  British  Isles, 

884 
Stature,  race  and,  648 
St.  Kilda,  390 
St.  Neots,  468 
St.  Stythians,  492 
Stourport,  464 
Surrey,  612 
Sussex,  614 
Sustead,  464 
Sutherland,  402, 496 


^— ^^^^^^^^^B 

576                             iKxmx  OP  subjects. 

4 

Thorney,  458 

Witbeodh.  4G; 

of.  274 

Witney,  468 

Btflture,  540 

VoiM.  chartMtwof.SM 

Woolc^,  484 

TweedmoulU.  428 

Woolar.    R. 

Tynemouth,  4S8 

berUnd,4a 

I^pe.  uumal,  elMticit; 

Wales,  4&S.  51S.  634 

Wootton  Bu! 

ol,  81 

Wslesbr.  443 

Waaloc'U.ea.1.  419 

523 

TJiBt.  30e 

Wapley,  478 

Wrington,  tft 

Unity  of  mankind,  psy- 

WttTwict,  462,  533 

cholosriesl.  137 
Dnst.  Siietiftnd,  391 

WellingboroaBh,  454 

Welton.  M8 

York,  N.  Bidi 

Weaterldigh,  47S  ■ 

E.  Ridii 

VancoDTCr's  Island. 

W.Ridi 

Pishing    IndiaM    of, 

WUitby.  43S 

in    gen 

sm 

WUtsMre.476.51fi.  51ti 

530 

577 


INDEX    OP    AUTHORS. 


Acoeta,  853 

AdBjfL,  Mercer,  443, 465, 

497 
Adams,  479 
Addison,  497 
AgoilAT,  300 
Aitken,  386,   403,  405, 

523 
Alexander,  415,  427 
Alston,  417,  419 
Anderson,  Jos.,  216,  266 
Andrew,  453 
Aristotle,  82 
Armitage,  439 
Armstrong,  405 
Atkinson,  433 
Aveling,  439,  449 


Baoon,  509 
Baer,  Von,  374 
Baker,  481 
Balfour,  385 
Barham,  491 
Bateman,  44,  49,  51,  54 
Bates,  1,  2 
Bath,  517 
Batt,  463 
Beales,  452 
Bechstein,  87 
Beddoe,  118,  359,  378, 

884 
Beeohey,  8 
BeU,  87 
Bellognet,  362 
Beltran,  294 
Beneden,  Van,  322,  323, 

327,  339 
Bennett,  483 
Bernard,  479 
Bemasconi,  300 
Bertillon,  58,  547 
Beverley,  457 
Biggs,  513 
Blake,  Carter,  44,  114, 

243,315 
Blatchford,  491 
Blumenbach,  97,  373 
Bo^g,  E.  B.,  260 
Bojer,  1 

VOL.  III. 


BoUaert,  W.,  163,  288, 

351 
Bond,  475,  525 
Borrow,  120 
Boorboorg,  B.  de,  306, 

291,  297,  355 
Boudin,  547 
BoniUet,  162 
Bonrsier,  304 
Bowman,  385, 451,  469 
Bower,  505 
Brett,  461 
Brice&o,  275 
Broca,  58,  66,  78,  359, 

379,  390,  547,  552,  556 
Broughton,  35 
Browne,  429,  489 
Bruce,  409 
Buck,  453,  507 
Burton,  140 
Busk,  27, 37,  380 


Caesar,  43,  89, 168 
Caldemi,  300 
CampbeU,  399,  401,  549 
Carpenter,  481 
Carr,  550 
Carrington,  449 
Carter,  463 
Cartwright,  443 
Casson,  441,  503 
Catlin,  138 
Caulin,  277 
Chaffer,  503 
Chapman,  511 
Chilty,  459 
Choris,  374 
Christie,  503 
Christy,  H.,  346 
Christison,  386,  521 
Clapham,  459 
aarke,  B.,  256 
Clark,  455 
Cleghom,  J.,  167 
CHve,  204 
Clouston,  503 
Cock,  473 
Codazzi,  274,  285 
Cogulludo,  293 


Cole,  451 
CoUhison,  148 
Columbus,  93 
Combe,  180 
Cooper,  477 
Corkran,  463 
Comforth,  465 
Comer,  110 
Covemton,  467 
Cowan,  385,  407 
Crawfurd,  4, 51 
Cretschmar,  88 
Crisp,  475 
Crossman,  479 
Cull,  304 
Cunnington«  52 
Currey,  431 
Cuvier,  88,  93 

Danson,  386,  523 
Davidson,  411 
Davis,  Arthur,  "491 
Davies,  380,  471 
Davis,  J.  Barnard,  21, 44, 

49,52,60,72,118,366, 

880,  885, 395, 425, 449 

493 
Defoe,  252 
Del  Bio,  300 
Depping,  157 
Derham,  481 
Desmonlins,  36 
Devis,  C.  W.,  81 
Dewar,*413 
Douglas,  427 
Dubois,  122 
Dumon,  349 
Duncan,  403 
Dupaix,  300 
Dupont,  315,  331,  334, 

349 
Durand  de  Gros,  557 
Dyer,  477 

Eassie,  471 
Ecker,  22,  62 
Eddowes,  467 
Eddy,  437 
Edgar,  401,  403 
Edmondston,  395 


LIST  OF  FELLOWS 


or  TBB 


^ntl^r0p0l00kal  S^acittjf  af  'Kantian, 


{Corrected  to  August  lat^  1869.) 


COUNCIL  OF  THE 


FOB 

1869 


JAMES  BEDDOE,  Esq.,  M.D.,  For.  Asboo.  A.S.  Paris,  etc. 

ffx<^re0tt)mt0. 

JAMES   HUNT,  Esq.,  Ph.D.,  F.S.A.,  For.  Assoc  A.S.  Paris,  ete. 
CAPT.  RICHARD  F.  BURTON,  H.M.  Consul,  Damasous. 

Ftce<^re0ttimt0. 

HERMANN  BEIGEL,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P. 

R.  S.  CHARNOCK,  Esq^  Ph.D.,  F.S.A.,  For.  Assoo.  A.S.  Paris,  etc 

J.  BARNARD  DAVIS,  Esq..  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  For.  Assoc.  A.S.  Paris,  ete. 

Snt  G.  DUNCAN  GIBB,  Babt.,  M.D.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  etc. 

LUKE  OWEN  PIKE,  Esq.,  M.A. 

JBirector. 

T.  BENDYSHE,  Esq.,  M.A. 

Creasuret. 

Rev.  DUNBAR  I.  HEATH,  M.A. 

®t|ier  iWembetd  of  (ITounca. 

H.  G.  ATKINSON,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

J.  GOULD  AVERY,  Esq. 

A.  BENDIR,  Esq. 

S.  E.  COLLINGWOOD,  Esq. 

W.  C.  DENDY,  Esq. 

LANGDON  H.  DOWN,  Esq.,  M.D. 

C.  HARDING,  Esq. 

GEORGE  HARRIS,  Esq.,  F.SJl. 

RICHARD  KING,  Esq.,  M.D. 

MAJOR  S.  R.  I.  OWEN,  F.L.S. 

E.  PEACOCK,  Esq.,  F.S.A. 

CAPTAIN  BEDFORD  PIM,  R.N. 

C.  ROBERT  DES  RUFFIERES,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

BERTHOLD  SEEMANN,  Esq.,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S. 

W.  TRAVERS,  Esq.,  L.R.C.P. 

W.  S.  W,  VAUX,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.S.A.,  etc. 

C:  S.  WAKE,  Esq: 

C.  WALFORD,  Esq. 

A.  WILTSHIRE,  Esq.,  M.D. 


Aecretars  BtiH  ILfinrartaiu 

J.FRED.  COLLINGWOOD,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  For.  Assoc  A.S.  PariSr 


LIST    or    THS    rSLLOWS 


or  TBI 


ANTHKOPOLOGICAL    SOCIETY    OF  LONDON. 


The  narms  with  *  attached  to  them  are  thoee  of  Feltowi  who  have  com- 
pounded/or their  Anmud  Subecriptions, 

H  These  Fellows  have  contributed  Papers  to  the  Society* 
t  These  Fdlows  are  Members  of  Council. 
X  These  Fdlows  are  also  Local  Secretaries, 


Tear  of 
Kleotion. 

1867    Agnew,  Joseph,  Esq.    47  Bath-street,  Glasgow 

1863  Aitken,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D^  Member  of  the  Anthropologioal  Society 

of  Paris.    District  Lunatic  Asylum,  Inverness 

1866  Allan,  J.  MoGrigor,  Esq.    26  Park-street,  Southampton-street,  Cam- 

berwell,  S    (f) 

1867  AUin,  George,  Esq.,  14  High-street,  St.  Albans,  Hertfordshire 
1866  Alpe,  Charles  Hamond,  Esq.    14  Camden-avenue,  Peckham,  SE 
1866  Alston,  Crewe,  Esq.    38  Belsise-park,  Hampstead,  NW 

1868  Arbuthnot,  William,  Esq.    Oriental  Club 

1864  Armitage,  W.,  Esq.    Townfield  House,  Altrincham,  Cheshire 

1868  Arnold,  Edward,  Esq.,  F.G.8.,  Mem.  Phren.  Soo.   11  Prince  of  Wales 

Road,  Norwich 

1866    Arnold,  Richard,  Esq.,  M.D.    Savannah,  Georgia,  XJ.S. 

1865  Arthur,  Rev.  W.  A.,  M.A.,  M.  Roy.  Asiat.  Soc.  and  E.  S.    Methodist 

College,  Belfast 

1869  Ascher,  Isidore,  Esq.    6  Guildhall-chambers,  Basinghall-street 
1864    Ash,  Charles  Frederick,  Esq.    20  &  21  Upper  Thames-st.,  EC 

1868  Atkins,  Charles,  Esq.    4  Belmont  Hill,  Lee,  SE 

1863  Atkinson,  Henry  G^rge,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    18  Upper  Glouoester-place, 

N.W.    (t) 

1869  Atkinson,  George,  Esq.    Cottimore,  Walton-on-Thames 

1864  Austin,  Richard,  Esq.     Pemambuco,  Brazil    (t) 

1863  Avery,  John  Gould,  Esq.    40  Belsize  Park,  NW    (t  IT) 

1864  Babington,  Charles  Cardale,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  Sec. 

Cambridge  Phil.  Soc.,  Professor  of  Botany.    Cambridge    (*) 

1863    Babington,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    82  Hereford-road,  Bayswater,  W 

1866    Bailey,  C.  Stuart,  Esq.    Felixstowe,  Suffolk ;  and  8a  Waterloo- 
place,  8W 

186fi    Bain,  James,  Esq.    3  Park-terrace,  Glasgow,  and  Junior  Carlton 
aub,  London    {*) 

1863    Baker,  J.  P.,  Esq ,  M.R.C.S.    6  Tork-place,  Portman-square,  W 

1866  Barnard,  Captain  Christopher,  4th  W.  I.  Regiment.    Sierra  Leone 


1663    Barr,  W.  B^  Bii.    Ftek  Hilli,  Sto^port 

1863  Barr,  Jowph  Hcsrfy  Biq^  ILR-OS.    Aidwidic  Gfeen,  MaadMi 

1865  Barrett,  T.  Sqnira,  Biq.p  ILA.    Lui|^  Honn^  Qsfn^hsoe, 

b€rwell,8.    (♦) 

18^5    Barrington,  The  y iMoant,  F.0.&,  F.B.0 A  90  OaTenduhriqiiai 

1864  Bartlett,  William  Edw.,  Eiq.,  F.S.A.    6  Bath-place,  Keonngtoi 

1866  Batei,  Ernest,  Esq.,  G.&     (>cjiiioar-grove.  Old  Tnllbrd,  '. 

Chester ;  and  Momombe  House,  Grai^e,  Newt(m-in->Oartme 

1867  Battye,  Wm.,  Esq.,  MJUaS.,  M.BJ9.8.  S8  Oxfoid-place,  Flyn 

1865  Baxter,  James  Bainbridge,  Biq.,  M.B.CJ3.IiOiid.,  L.SJL    Ironb 

Cottage,  Brixton,  8 

1864  Beal,  The  Ber.  8.,  M.R.A.S.,  Chapkin  Bojal  Marine  Artil 

Fort  Cumberiand,  Portsmoath 

1863  Beddoe,  John,  Esq^,  M.]>.,  M.A.,  F.BJ9.,  Foreign  Associate  a 
Anthropological  Dodetj  of  Paris,  Pubidmt,  4  Lansdowne-j 
Clifton,  Gloucestershire    (t  Y) 

1865  Beige],  Hermann,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Yioi-PnmnBiiT,  Vice-Pnsident 

perial  Academy  of  t^resden.    3  Finsbnry-sqnare,  EC    (t) 

1867  Bell,  C.  W.  Bowdler,  Esq.,  LIi3.,  BIA.,  B.1L,  B.a  Trinity  Col 

Dublin,  Comet  6th  noyal  Lancers,  Lucknow.    Oare  of  M( 
Clack,  50  Leicester-square,  WC 

1865    Bellamy,  Edward,  Esq.    10  Duke-street,  St.  James's-square 

]Kf)7     Bcndir,  A.,  Esq.    1  Lansdowne-terrace,  Stock  well,  8    (t) 

18G3  Bcndysbe,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Dibectob.  King's  College,  < 
bridge    (♦  t  IT) 

1807  Bennett,  Charles,  Esq.  General  Post  Office.  F.C.  Care  of  M< 
Q.  Phillips  and  Co.,  1  Peninsular  and  Oriental-buildings,  S( 
ampton 

1865    Bennett,  John,  Esq.,  F.R.A.R.     65  Cheapside,  EC 

1806    Bennett,  Thomas  John  Wesley,  Esq.    39  Moorgate-street,  EC 

1863  Benson,  W.  F.  G.,  Esq.     South-road,  Waterloo,  near  Liverpool. 

1H68  Benson,  William  Ralph,  Esq.,  Bengal  Civil  Service,  Barriste 
law.     Allahabad,  North-west  Province,  India 

1864  Bertram,  George,  Esq.     Sciennes-street,  Edinburgh 

1H64    Best,  The  Hon.  Capt.    Convict  Prison,  Princetown,  Dartmoor,  D 

1868  Biddies.  John  Henry,  Esq.,  Solicitor.      12  South-square,  G 

Inn,  WC 

18G6    Bilderbeck,  John,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  Civil  Surgeon.    Cuddalore,  Mi 

186\  Bischoff,  James,  Esq.,  F.Z.8.  10  St.  Helen Vplacc,  Bishops^ 
street ;  and  49  Queen's- terrace.  Regent's  Park,  NW 

1806  Blanc,  Henry  Jules,  Esq.,  M.D.Paris,  M.H.C.8.E.,  B.S.,  B.A 
Bedford-street,  Bedford-square,  WO 

18f)3     Bledsoe,  A.  T.,  Esq.,  LL.D.     Richmond,  Virginia,  U.S. 

1863  Boliaert,  Wm.,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  Corr.  Memb.  Ethn.  Socs.  Lob 
New  York,  and  Univ.  Cbile.     21a  Hanover-square,  W     (IT) 

1806  Bonncrjce,  W.  C,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

18()9  Bonsor,  James,  Esq.     Fore-street  Warehouse,  104  Fore-street,  i 

18<i9  Bonwick,  James,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.     13  Alfred -road,  Acton 

1865  Borthwick,  Cunningham,  Esq.     5  Austin  Friars 
1863  Boulton,  George,  Esq.     1  Gordon -square,  WC 


i) 


1863    Bouyerie-Pusej,  S.  E.  B.,  Esq.,  F.E.S.    7  Green-street,  W    (T) 

1863    Boreham,  W.  W.,  Esq.,  F.R.A.S.     Hayerhill,  Suffolk 

1866  Bowman,  Thomas  William,  Esa.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  M.C.P.,  F.R.S-L. 
South- terrace,  Gainsford,  Darlington ;  and  11  OamarTon-strcct, 
St.  QeorgeVroad,  Glasgow 

1866  Bowyer,  The  Rey.  W.  H.  Wentworth.    The  Rectory,  Glapham,  S 

1863  Boys,  Jacob,  Esq.    Grand  Parade,  Brighton 

1864  Brabrook,  E.   W.,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.S.L.,  F.R.S.N.A.  Copenhagen, 

F.I. A.,  Barrister-at-Law.    1  Elm-court,  Temple    (IT) 

1865  Braby,  F.,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    Mount  Henley,  Sydenham  Hill,  SE 

1864  Brady,  Antonio,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    Maryland  Point,  Stratford,  Essex 

1867  Brady,  P.  A.,  Esq.,  M.D,    Bradford,  Yorkshire 
1863    Brainsford,  C,  Esq.,  M.D.    Hayerhill,  Suffolk 

1867  Brankstone,  Thomas,  Esq.    5  St.  Germain*s-place,  Blackheath 

1867  Brebner,  A.  C,  Esq.    Audit  Office,  Somerset  House 

1863  Brebner,  James,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Adyocate.    20  Albyn-place,  Aberdeen 

1865  Brett,  Charles,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S. 

1866  Brodie,  Dayid,  Esq.,  M.D.,  L.R.C.S.E.    Institute  for  Education  of 

Imbeciles,  Larbert,  Stirlingshire 

1865  Brown,  Edwin,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  Hon.  Sec.  Midland  Nat.  Hist.  Soc. 
Burton-on-Trent 

1864  Brown,  James  Roberts,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.S.N.A.,  Copenhagen.    5 

Langham-chambers,  Langham-place,  W 

1865  Brown,  John  Allen,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.    The  Laurels,  The  Hayens, 

Ealing,  W 

1867  Browne,  The   Rey.  Thomas  Henry,  F.G.S.     Stuart  Lodge,  High 

Wycombe,  Bucks 

1867    Bruce,  Robert,  Esq.    Seafield  House,  Dundee 

1867    Bryant,  George,  Esq.,  F.  Ent.  S.     India  Office,  SW 

1867    Bull,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S.     King*s-road,  Chelsea 

1863  Bunkell,  Henry  Christopher,  Esq.  1  Penn-road,  Caledonian-road, 
Holloway,  N 

1863  Burton,  Captain  Richard  Francis,  F.R.G.S.,  M.R.A.S.,  H.M.  Consul, 

Damascus.     Damascus  ;   and  14  Montague-place,  W.     Care  of 
Foreign  Office,  SW    (t  IT) 

1867  Busteed,  William  John,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Zillah  Surgeon,  Chingleput ; 
Assistant-Surgeon  H.M.I.A.    Madras 

1864  Butler,  Henry,  Esq.    Admiralty,  Somerset  House,  WC 
1867     Butler,  James,  Esq.     35  Lansdowne-road,  Notting-hill,  W 
1864    Byerley,  J.,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.,  F.L.S.    Seacombe,  Cheshire 

1864    Cabbell,  Benj.  Bond,  Esq.,  P.R.S.,  F.S.A.  52  Portland-place,  W    (♦) 

1866  Campbell,  Francis,  Esq.,  M.D.     145  Elizabeth-street,  Sydney,  8. 

Australia 

1864     Campbell,  Henry,  Esq.     29  Ingram-street,  Glasgow 

1864  Campbell,  J.,  Esq.,  Surgeon  R.  N.,  F.R.G.S.,  H.  M.  Consulate  Bang- 
kok, Siam.    Care  of  Messrs.  Smith  and  Elder,  Comhill     (*) 

1869  Campbell,  George,  Esq.,  Chief  Com.  Cen.  Proy.  India.  60  St. 
GeorgeVsquare,  SW. 


1864  Gaplin,  J.  F.,  Biq^  M.D.    9  Yoik-phee,  PMoMa-ifm^  W 

1868    Cardi,  C.  N.  de,  Bmi.    BaH  ItivWp  W.  AftioA ;  ufll  UvHipocl 

1868    GumidiML  0.  H.  K,  En^  BJL,  Trimtj  Ooixig^,  Ozftid.    Dm 
ment  of  M88.,  Britkh  JfiiMOiih  Wa 

1863    Cartwright,  SuniMl,  FrafeMor.    M  Old  Burifaigtoi  rti—t^  W, 

1865  Carey,  Captain  W.  D.,  K^    ShoebntynMi    (•) 

1867  Carlill,  J.  Burfoid,  Biq.,  ILD.    4A  W^ymootk  lUta^  W, 

1866  Castle,  Pirofatiar  Hcttiy  Jamei.    King's  OoU^ge^  Lonkii 

1868  Castro,  Daniel  de,  Eeq.    Mitre-€Oiirt»  Temple 

1865    Cavafy,  J^  Beq^  M.B.,  M-ILOP.  5  WhitehaU,  Gharinf-emH^  BW 

1865  Chains,  J.  H.,  Biq.,  F.ZiL    30  8t  JameeViOMe,  8W    (•> 
1863    Chamberlin,  William,  Bsq.    4  Herr^-tenMe,  Bkii^kton 

1863  Chambers,  Chat,  fiaroonii^  Esq^  M.A.y  F.BbG&   SChediMipLi 

1864  Chamber!,  William,  Biq.    Abetystwith,  OudifuiahiTO 

1866  ChampIey,Jae.,Biq^iLD.  8  Albion-plaoe,  WeelfaniiiA  Beaibon 

1865  Charles,  The  Be?.  Darid,  ILA.,  F.G.H.a    AbenM%  mm  H«w] 

Monmouth 

1864  Charlton,  Heniy,  Beq.    Krmiwgham 

1863    Chance,  F.,  Bsq.,  M.D.    OroA  Lodge,  BartOB-fOul,  OuDbiidgo 

1866  Charlesworth,  B.,  Bsq.,  F.GJ3.    Whittington  Qab,  Arundel  it,  1 

1863  Chamock,  Richard  Stephen,  Beq.,  Ph.D.,  F.&A.,  F.ILa.8.,  F.B..a,  fi 
Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Pluis,  Fc 
dation  Member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Northern  Antiquai 
Corresponding  Member  of  the  New  England  Historio-Ciene 
gical  Society.  Vice-Pbesident.  8  Gray's  Inn-square,  WC  ; 
30  The  Grove,  Hammersmith    (t  %) 

1866  Cheetham,  Samuel,  Esq. 

1863  Chignell,  Hendrick  Agnis,  Esq.    Eton 

1865  Childers,  Robert  Csssar,  Esq.    Laurel  Lodge,  Bamet,  Herts 

1865    Chinnery,  Samuel,  Esq.   78  Rue  Lafayette,  Paris.   Care  of  67  Lc 
Thames-street 

1865  Chipperfield,  William  Nathan,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  L.S.A.,  Professo 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  Madras  Medical  College.   Madras.   ( 
of  Mr.  U.  K.  Lewis,  136  Oower-street,  WC 

1867  Chittenden,  P.  H.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S.,  L.S.A.     South  Lodge, 

Park,  Blackheath 

1864  Clarendon,  The  Right  Honourable  the  Earl  of,  E.G.,  G.C.B.  F.] 

Her  Majesty's  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affiurs.    GrosTei 
crescent,  W 

1866  Clarke,  Lieutenant  Henry  Wilberforce 

1864    Clarke,  Hyde,  Esq.,  K.C.M.,  K.H.S.,  K.C.,  LL.D.,  Member  of 
German  Oriental  Society,  of  the  Academy  of  Anatolia,  of 
American  Oriental  Society,  of  the  Bysantine  Literary  Societj 
the  Royal  Society  of  Northern  Antiquaries,  of  the  Institute 
Civil  Engineers  of  Vienna.    32  St.  GeorgeVsquare,  SW    (IT* 

1868  Cleghom,  John,  Esq.    Wick,  Caithness,  N.B.    (IT) 

1869  Cleghom,  John,  Esq.    The  Mount,  York 

1863    Clement,  Wm.  James,  Esq.,  M.P.    The  Council  House,  Shrewsbi 
■1864    Clerk,  Colonel  II.,  R.A.     Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich 

1867  Coates,  F.  W.,  M.D.     10  Westover  Villas,  Bournemouth 


864  Cock,  John,  Bsq.,  jun.,  F.B.HJS.,  M.S.A.   South  Molton,  Peronihirt 
868  Golohester,  W.  P.,  Btq.    Baasmgboum,  Boyston,  Herto.    ■ 

865  Cole,  Yicai,  Esq.    8  Yietoria-road,  Konnngton,  W 

864  Cole,  Henry,  Esq.,  C.B.   Science  and  Art  Department,  Kensington,  W 

868  Coleman,  E.  W.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  R.N.    Royal  Hospital,  Haslar,  Gosport 

863  Collingwood,  J.  Frederick,  Esq.,  F.R.S.L.,  F.G.S.,  Foreign  Associate 
of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris.  Seo&btabt  avd  Libba- 
BiAN.    4  St.  Martm's-place,  WC    (*) 

863  Collingwood,  S.  Edwin,  Esq.,  F.Z.a    4  St  Martin Vplace,  WC    (t) 

866  CoUinson,  John,  Esq.    9  Clarendon-gardens,  Maida-hill,  W    (IT) 

869  Conway,  Moncure  W.,  Esq.    61  Netting  Hill-square 
869    Cooke,  Samuel  John,  Esq.    57  Camden-sqnare,  NW 

864  Cooke,  W.  Fothergill,  Esq.    4  Cayendlsh-road,  Leeds 

866  Coote,  Holmes,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.,  Professor  of  Anatomy  at  St.  Bartho- 
lomew's Hospital.    13  Princes-street,  Hanover-square,  W 

866  Cooper,  Frederick,  Esq.    131  Piccadilly,  W    (•) 

863  Cooper,  Sir  Daniel,  Bart.    20  Prinoe's-gardens,  Soulh  Kensington 

867  Copperthwaite,  William  0.,  Esq.,  M.B.C.S.    New  Malton,  Yorkshire 

865  Cotton,  F.  L.,  Esq.    Member  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris. 

29  Gracechurch-street,  EC 

864  Courtauld,  Samuel,  Esq.    76  Lancaster  Gate,  Hyde  Park 

867  Courthope,  F.  G.,  Esq.    40  Wilton-crescent,  W 

866  Cowper,  H.  Augustus,  £^  H.B.M.  Consul,  Puerto  Bico,  West 

Lidies.    Agents,  Messrs.  Woodhead  and  Co.,  44  Charing-cross 

864  Cox,  J.  W.  Conrad,  Esq.,  B.A.,  F.G.S.,  Member  of  the  Anthropo- 
logical Society  of  Paris 

864    Cozens,  Frederick  Wm.,  Esq.    Larkbere  Lodge,  Clapham  Park,  S  (*) 

867  Craster,  Thos.  Wm.,  Esq.,  M.BC.a  Middlesboro-on-Tees,  Yorkshire 

868  Craston,  Tom,  Esq.,  jun.    Bomsey-road,  Stockwell  Park,  StockweU, 

8  ;  and  Femand  Yai,  W.  A. 

868  Crawford,  Bobert  Esq.,  of  Westbrook.    Beform  Club,  Pall  Mall,  SW 

864    Crowley,  Henry,  Esq.    Corporation-street,  Manchester 

867  Curt^is,  E.  B.  Hodges,  Esq.,  M.A.  Leasam  Park  House,  Bye, 
Sussex ;  and  Conseryative  Club 

867    Cuthbert,  John,  Esq.    Belmont  House,  Winchmore  Hill 

863    Cuthbert,  J.  B.,  Esq.    Chapel-street,  Liverpool    (*) 

867    D'Almeida,  W.  Barrington,  Esq.,  F.B.G.S.    19  Green  Park,  Bath 
863    Daniell,  Hurst,  Esq.    4  Highbury  Park  West,  Highbury  Hill,  N 

867  Dartnell,  G.  Bussell,  Esq.,  Inspector-General  of  Hospitals.    Arden 

House,  Henley-in-Arden,  Warwickshire 

868  Dashwood,  Arthur,  Esq.    St.  David's  College,  Lampeter,  Cardigan- 

shire 

868  Davey,  J.  G.,  Esq.,  M.D.    North  woods,  near  Bristol 

867    Davidson,  John,  Esq.    MorrisonVcrescent,  Wellgate,  Dundee 

867  Davies,  J.  C,  Esq.,  M.D.,  L.B.C.P.,  M.B.C.S.,  L.S.A.  Ivy  House, 
Holywell 

869  Davies,  William,  Esq.    County  Asylum,  Shrewsbury 
866    Davis,  Edmund  F.,  Esq.    6  Cork-street,  W. 


ISeS    Dkrii,  J.  Bunwd,  Biq.,  JLD^  S.&B.,  F.S.A.,  lLB.aS.,  F.R&. 

BpoDdu^  M«mber  of  tbe  SeriwfabJ  Afttktopol6gie»  E«aaol&,  of  the 
Academy  of  N>tanl  Scumcca  ot  Pbil>d«)p)u>,  dell'  Acodmn 
ftdle  di  Hedkmft  di  Torino,  uid  <if  tlie  Am«rieui  Bthndogicd 
Society-    Tiob-Fkkjdht.    Shelton,  SuffbnlibiTe    (t  5) 

1863  DawsoB,  George,  E*q.,  M.A,  P.Q.S.  Hawkeslej,  Wt«  He»ih,  n«« 
fiirmingham 

1867  Dendy,  Wftlter  C,  Eeq.  PaM  Prerideut  of  the  Medic*l  Society  of 
London,  Cotuultiag  SurgeoD  t«  the  Koy>l  iDfimtkry  for  Woraen 
and  CbildrcD,  CorrespoDdiag  Fellow  of  the  Aotdeiny  of  Surgery 
in  Madrid,    fi  Suffolb-place,  Pall  nuU,  SW     (t^) 

1B64  Di1>lcy,  G.,  E*q-  Amarvitb  Hoiue,  King  HenryVroad,  9t.  Jofao's 
Wood,  NW 

1&63    Dickoun,  Beary,  Esq.,  Colonial  Surgeon.    Ceylon 

1863  Dingle,  Ber.  John,  MX     Lanchetter,  near  Durham     (') 

1864  Doijion,  Thomaa  J.,  Esq.     Kingston -upoD- Bull 
1S66    Donovan,  Dr.     106  Strand,  WC    (^) 

1865  Down,  J.  lAogdon,  B.,   8««)-,  M.D.  London,  Profeasor  of  Materia 

Medica  and  TberapeuticB  at  the  London  Boapitai  Medical  College, 
M.R.C.P.  Lood.    39  Wclbeck-dUcet,  W  (t) 
1867     Downing,  Lieutenant  Arthur  Edward.     Bengal  Army,  Bengal 

1863  Dntkc,  Francis,  Esq.,  F.O.S.     Leicester 

18C6  Drakeford.  The  Rev.  D,  I.,  M.A.     Eira  Grove,  Lower  Sydenhim 

1860  Drew,  Bobert  A.,  Eiq.    6  Stanley-place,  Duke-itreet,  HaDchest«r 

1864  Drummond,  Qeneral  John,  F,R.Q.S.     The  Boyce  Court,  Qlouceiter 

1866  Duckworth,   Frederick,   Esq.,    M.D.,    Assistant-Surgeon    H.M.LA. 

MadiV'     Ttanquebar,  Uadrat 
1667    Dudley,  Reginald  R.,  Esq.,  F.R.C.8. 

1866  Duggan,  Dr.  D.  W.    Foebabari,  Morayshire,  Scotland 

I8S8  Duncan,  Alexander,  Esq.  Fortbarriugton  Home,  Athy,  Ireland. 
Agents,  Messrs.  Leaf,  CJon  and  Co.,  Old  Change,  EC 

1867  Duncan,  Captain  F..  B.A.,  M.A.,  D.O.L.,  F.G.S.,  F.R.G.S.     Royal 

Artillery  Barracks,  Woolwich 
1867    Dunlop,  R.  H.  W.,  Esq.,  C.B.,  F.R.O.S.    LakeSeld  Qlen,  Urquhart, 

iDTernesB-sbire  ;  ana  14  St.  James's- square,  SW 
1667    Dyce,  Robert,  Esq.,  M.A.     IG  Uniou-tenace,  Aberdeen 

1867    Esdie,  Bobert,  Esq.    Bleydou-on-Tyne,  Durham 

1864    Esssie,  William,  Esq.,  F.L.8.,  P.Q.8.,     S  Bath  TiUas,  The  Bath, 

Qloucester    (•) 
1866     EdmondstoD,  Thomas,  Esq.,  F.R.S.L.     Buness,  Unst,  Shetland  Islea 
1869     Edwards,  J.  Passmore,  Esq.     31  Tav  is  lock -street,  WC 
I8G5     Ecles,  Charles  William,  Esq.,  R.N. 
1SC5     Ellorton,  John,  Esq.,  House  Surgeon  North  Riding  Infirmary.    Mid- 

dlesburgh,  Yoik 
18G7     Ellis,  Lieutenant  C.  H.  F.,  R.A.     Shoeburyness 
1866     Epstein,  Jacob,  Esq.     11  Newgate- street,  EC 
1864    Evans,  E.  B.,  Kiiq.     Whltbouruo  Ball,  near  Worcester 


9 

1863  Evans,  John,:B8q.,  F.R.8.,  F.G.S.,  F.S.A.,  Secretary  of  the  Geological 

Society  of  London,  Honorary  Secretary  to  the  Numismatic  Society 
of  London    Nash  Mills,  Hemel  Hempstead 

1867    Eyanson,  Richard  Tonson,  Esq.    Home  Hurst,  Torquay 

1867    Ewen,  Arthur  B.,  Esq.     Long  Sutton,  Lincolnshire 

1864  Eyre,  Edw.  J.,  Esq.,  late  Qovemor  of  Jamaica.    Adderley  Hall,  Salop 

1867    Fairbaim,  William,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.E.S.    Manchester 
1864    Fearon,  Frederick,  Esq.    Stoke  Green  Cottage,  Slough 

1864  FirebracOf  Frederick,  Esq.,  Lieutenant  Royal  Engineers.    Calcutta. 

Care  of  22  Queen Vgaidens,  W 

1866  Fischer,  James,  Esq.,  Agent  and  Manager  of  the  Sheyagunga  Ze- 
mindary.    Madura,  Madras. 

1866  Fischer,  Robert,  Esq.,  B.L.    Madura,  Madras 

1863    Fleming,  G.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  F.R.G.S.  Royal  Engineers,  Chatham 

1867  Forbes,  Duncan,  M.,  Esq.     The  Rookery,  Eastwood,  Nottingham- 

shire 

1865  Fox,  Colonel  Aueustus  Lane,  F.S.A.,  F.G.S.,  F.H.G.S.     10  Upper 

PhOlimore-gardens,  Kensington  ;  and  Guards*  Club,  SW    (IT) 

1866  Eraser,  Alexander  Colvin,  Esq.    Colchester 

1666    Eraser,  John,  Esq.    5  Arthur-street,  Park  Hill-road,  Liyerpool 

1868  French,  Sydney,  Esq.    37  Gloucester-street,  QueenVsquare 
1663    Fuller,  Stephen  D.,  Esq.     1  Eaton-place,  SW 

1865  Fumell,  M.  C,  Esq.,  M.D.    Cochin,  Madras  Presidency    (t) 

1866  Gage,  Richard  M.,  Esq.    Mobile,  Alabama 

]  864    Gardner,  Charles  H.,  Esq.    5  Clarendon  Villas,  Loughborough  Park,  S 

1866    Gaus,  J.,  Esq.     Bathurst,  Gambia,  Africa 

1866    Genthe,  Alex.  Nidda,  Esq.,  LL.D.  8  Bedford-place,  Russell-sq.,  WC 

1863  Gibb,  Sir  George  Duncan,  Bart.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.  Vice- 
Pbesidbnt.  1  Bryanston-street,  Portman- square,  W  ;  and  Falk- 
land, Fife,  N.  B.    (t  IT) 

1866  Gibson,  William,  Jun.,  Esq.,  Solicitor.    Nottingham 

1865  Gilmour,  Andrew,  Esq.,  M.D.,  L.R.C.P.     Linlithgow,  N.  B. 
1863  Glaucopides,  S.,  Esq.  7  Maitland  Park-cres.,  Hayerstock  Hill,  N. 

1866  Gloyer,  John  Hawley,  Esq.,  Lieut. -Goy.  of  Lagos.   Lagos,  W.  Africa 

1865  Goadby,  Edwin,  Esq.    Western  Daily  Mercury  Office,  Plymouth 

1866  Godrich,  Dr.  Thomas 

1865  Goldsmid,  Augustus,  Esq.,  F.S  A.,  F.Z.S.  Old  Library  Garden 
Court,  Temple  ;  and  Conseryatiye  and  Junior  Carlton  Clubs 

1867  Goodman,  Charles  Rowland,  Esq.,  MJ>.,  M.R.C.S.    205  Tork-street, 

Cheetham,  Manchester 

1865  Gordon,  Arthur  Gordon,  Esq.    Gaboon,  W.  Africa  ;  and  13  West- 

bourne-place,  Victoria-park,  Clifton,  Bristol 

1867  Goyer,  Charles  Edw.,  Esq.,  Principal  of  Male  Orphan  Asylum,  Pota- 
camund.  Agents,  Messrs.  Gladding  and  Co.,  Aldine-chambers, 
13  Paternoster-row,  EC 

1866  Go  wans,  James,' Esq.     1  Calton-street,  Edinburgh 

1867  Graves,  Ryvcs  Wm.,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.     80  Barton-street,  Gloucester 


10 

1867  Chreoi,  Oeoige  Oowtlioipe^  Baq.    Emndik,  Wl^^aut,  Mo 
1869    GreeD,  Fred«ridk  King,  Biq^  lLRbO.8.    BnrfM 

1863  Gregor,  Be?.  WAlter,  M.  A.  Pitdigo  ICmim^  BotehMrtj,  AlMvdk 

1865  Griffin,  IVaderiek,  Biq.    1  Pftkoe-flud«ii%  W 

1866  Griffin,  Lepd,  Biq. 

1865  Griffith!,  Fiftneii,  MJ>„  M.B.O.8.,  LJB.A^  and  IkH,  Loetun 

Medicad  JuriBixnidenee  uid  Ph^ologT  in  the  Sheffield  ft 
Medioine.  Beehelier-^Leltrei  UniT.  Ftei%  F.  OhiemSedl,  M 
Pftthologml  Sooleties  of  Louden,  ete.    U  Todotr-ftiee^  G 

1864  Griffiftf,  JuMi  Olifl^  Eiq.    6  Orown  Offioe-iow,  Temple,  BO 

1868  Gunn,  Be?.  John,  M.A.,  F.G.&,  Fkeiident  of  the  Nonrieh  ei 

folk  Geologioftl  fioeie^.    Iirtead  Beetoiy,  Hocfblk 

1866  Guppy,  Stmuel,  Bfq.    45  GrealMwlhommgbHrtnefe,  W 

1869  Hamilton,  Ohailei,  Eiq.    Kel?edon,  E«ez 

1867  Hareourt,  George,  Bsq.,  MJ)^  F.B.0.8.    OhertMj,  Soxiej 

1864  Harcourt,  Olarenoe^  Beq.    8  Moorgate-ttreet,  BO ;  and  GSB 

Ladjwell,  Lewiaham 

1865  Harding, Ohae.,Bsq.,FJLGiL,BJ3A,B.&£X.  990uinoB-et, 
1865    Harding,  Wm.,  Baq.,  H.B.aa    4  Peiey-efcnet,  Bedloid-eqiu 

1864  Hardman,  Will]an^  Bsq.,  M.A^  FJLQ.S.|  ItJZJB.    HoilHtoi 

Kingiton-on-Thamei 

1867  Harland,  Henry,  Bsq.,  M.D.    liiddle  Home,  Mayfield,  SniM 

1865  Harraden,  Samuel,  Esq.    32  St.  John's  Wood  Park,  NW    {* 

866  Harris,  Arthur  B.,  Esq.,  M.D.    Bank  House,  Falmouth,  Con 

1864  Harris,  George,  Esq.,  F.S.A.    Iselippa  Manor,  Northolt,  S< 

W(tl) 

1865  Harris,  John  Meyer,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.     (!) 

867  Harris,  J.  Penn,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.    5  Rodney- street,  Liyerpool 

1868  Harrison,  W.  H.,  Esq.    Wilmin-yilla,  Chaucer-road,  Herne-l 
865    Harvey,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.    41  Hill-street,  Berkeley-square, ' 

1866  Haserick,  F.  Augustus,  Esq.     Oakfield,  Ash  ton,  Mersey    (*) 
1864    Hawkins,  G.  Esq.    88  Bishopsgate-street  Without,  EC 

867    Hayle,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D,  M.R.C.S.E.    Rochdale 

1864    Healey,  Edward  C,  Esq.    Wyphurst,  Cranleigh,  Guildford 

1864  Heath,  The  Rev.  Dunbar  I.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.L.,  M.R.A.S.,  late 

of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    Tbeasubeb.    Esher,  Surre; 

1869  Heath,  Captain  G.  J.  D.,  Assist.  Commissary- General,  Madras 

Madras 

1868    Heatou,  John,  Esq.    Eastwood,  Notts. 

1865  Hector,  Alexander,  Esq.    7  Stanley -gardens,  W 

1864  Hepworth,  John  Mason,  Esq.,  J.P.    Ackworth,  Yorkshire 

^869  Hertz,  Henry,  Esq.    27  Fenchurch-street,  EC 

1868  Hewitt,  J.  B.,  Esq.    3  Crown-court,  Threadneedle-street,  EC 

[863  Hewlett,  Alfred,  Esq.     The  Grange,  Coppull,  near  Wigan 

1863  Higgin,  James,  Esq.     Hopwood  Avenue,  Manchester 

1863  Higgins,  Alfred,  Esq.  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthrop< 
Society  of  Paris.  War  Office,  Pall  Mall,  SW  ;  and  26  Man< 
street,  W    (IT) 


11 

1865  Higgs,  SanraJjEEsq.,  Jan.,  F.G.S.,  Secretary  to  the  Royal  Qeological 

Sw^iety  of  O&nwall.    Penzance 

1866  Hinde,  Benj.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Medical  Sta£    Tarbert,  co.  Keny,  Ireland 

1864  Hobbs,  W.  G.  K,  Esq.,  F.R.G.8.    The  Grammar  School,  Waredde, 

Ware,  Herts. 

1667    Holden,  J.  S.,  Esq.,  M.D.    Glenarm,  co.  Antrim    (IT) 
1866    Holgate,  Jennings,  Esq.    Penton  House,  Staines,  Middlesex 

1865  Holmes,  William,  Esq.    Thurlow-place,  Lower  Norwood,  8 

1863  Hotze,  Henry,  Esq. 

1868  Hoyenden,  Frederick,  Esq.    93  and  94  City-road    (t) 

1865  Howard,  W.,  Esq.    London  and  County  Bank,  21  Lombard-st.,  EC 

1868  Howell,  Oswald  Bloomfield,  Esq.    39  King-street,  EC 

1864  Hudson,  Professor  F.,  F.C.S.    68  Corporation-street,  Manchester 
1864  Hudson,  Henry,  Esq.,  M.D.     GleuTille,  Fermoy,  co.  Cork 

1868    Hulcee,  J.,  Esq.,  M.D.     Louisyille,  U.S.  America 

1864  Hunt,  Augustus  H.,  Esq.    Birtley  House,  Chester-le-Street 

1863  Hunt,  G.  S.  Lennon,  Esq.,  H.B.M.  Consul.  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Care 
of  Foreign  Office,  SW 

1863  Hunt,  James,  Esq.,  Ph.D,  F.8.A.,  F.R.S.L.,  Honorary  Foreign 
Secnretary  of  the  Rojal  Society  of  Literature  of  Great  Britain ; 
Doctor  of  Medicine,  Honoris  eaiudy  of  the  University  of  Giessen  ; 
Member  of  the  Imperial  Dresden  Academy  ;  Foreign  Associate  of 
the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris  ;  Correspon&ig  Member  of 
of  the  Sociedad  Anthropol6gica  Espafiola  ;  Honorary  Membw  of 
the  Soci6t6  des  Amis  de  la  Nature  of  Moscow,  Geographical  So- 
ciety of  Dresden,  Soci6t6  Parisienne  d^Arch6ologie  et  d'Histoire, 
Medical  Association  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  Upper  Hesse  Natural 
History  Society,  Congr^s  International  d*Antnropoloeie  et  d'Ar- 
ch6ologie  pr6historiques,  Honorary  Fellow  of  tne  Ethnological 
Society  of  London.  4  St.  MartinVplace,  WC  ;  and  Ore  House, 
near  Hastings    (*  t  H) 

1865  Hutchinson,  G.  A^  Esq.    The  Villa,  Idmiston-road,  Stratford,  Essex 

1863    Hutchinson,  Jonathan,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.    4  Finsbury-circus,  £.0 

1863  Hutchinson,  T.  J.,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.S.L.,  F.E.S.,  Membre  Titu- 
laire  de  Tlnstitut  d*Afrique  2k  Paris,  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Liyerpool.  H.B.M.  Consul 
at  Bosario,  Argentine  Confederation ;  care  of  F.  Alston,  Esq., 
Foreign  Office,  SW    (1) 

1868  Inman,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D.    Liverpool 

1863  Jackson,  Henry,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    Trinity  College,  Cambridge  («) 

1863  Jackson,  H.  W.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.     Surrey  County  Asylum,  Tooting 

1863  Jackson,  J.  W.,  Esq.     39  S.  GeorgeVroad,  Glasgow     (t) 
1865  James,  Horatio  Gay,  Esq.     East  Point,  Hongkong 

1869  Jeffery,  Frederick  J.,  Esq.    Wooltan  Hall,  Wooltan,  Liverpool    (*) 

1865  Jeula,  H.,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.S.S.  Lloyd's,  EC  ;  and  Reigate  Villa, 
Wickham-road,  Lewisham-high-road,  S£ 

1864  Jennings,  William,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.    13  Victoria-street,  SW    (*) 

1863  Jenyns,  The  Rev.  Leonard,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.  Darlington-plaoey 
Bathwick,  Bath 


JepsDD,  WUIittm,  Eiq  ,  M.D.,  F.B.C.8.     Salfori^MlDchest 
ISQG     Jcssop,  Henrj  Ednd.,  E«q.,  M.R.C.S.,  S  Ckrenoa-puade,  Cheltenbun 

Joad,  George  C,  E«i ,  K.Z.8.  Patching,  Arundol  (*) 
i869  Johnson,  Arthur,  Eitj.  Church -house),  Oatlnnds,  Buire; 
1867     Johnstone,  J.  C.  Hope,  Esq.     48  Upper  Baker-slreet,  NW 

Jonas,  C.  Treasure,  Esq.,  M.R.A.S..  ll.M.  Consul.     BtilWh  Consulite, 
ShaogbM 

Jones,  Rer.  Robert,  M.A.    AU  Stints  Vic&nge,  Rotherhitho     ^^^ 
.867     Jo?,  Algernon,  E«q.,  A.J.C.E.     Church-etile,  Rochdal*  ^^M 

Juch,  I)r.  Ernst,     93  London  Wall,  EC  ^^| 

Kaioes,  Josejih,  Esq.     13  Finsbury-pUce  south,  EC  ^^^ 

Kaye,  J.  W.,  Esq.,  F.R.8.L.     56  Qrosrenor-ptirk,  Cumborwell,  N. 
:667     Ker,  C.  B.,  Esq.,  M.D.     Uadle;- house,  CbeUeuham 

Kemahsn,  Rev.  James,  M.A.,  PkD.     51)  Greeuwood-road,  Dalston, 

NE 
Kesleven,  William  B.,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.     S  lansdoirne- place,  Hollo- 

KillL-k,  Joshua  Edward,  Esq.     137  Strand,  WC 

Kincaid,  Captain  Willinni,  2ind  Regiment  Madras  Native  Infantr;, 

Assistant  for  BouudHrjr  Settlements  in  Bbopai.     Sehorc,  Centnl 

India.     Alexander  Fletcher  and  Co.,  10  King's  Arms  Yard,  EC 

.861     King,  KelWme,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Lecturer  on  Anatomj,  Hull  ;  President 

Hull  Literary  and  Phil.-Mpb.  t-'ocicij.     27  aeorge-ai.,  Uull  (1) 

866  King,  Richard,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.E.8.     S6  Queen  Anna-street,  W   (t) 

867  Kirkwood,  Robert  Raid,  Esq.     Gaboon,  W.  Africa 

867    Kisch,  8.  Esq.,  M.D.    ]4  Great  Oeoige's-squate,  Liverpool 

TjA  Barte,  Rev.  W.  W.,  M.A.    St.  John's,  Nawbury,  Berks 
867    Laing,Tho.Jasiab,Esq.,F.G.S.,RefonDCIubGhamb.,106PallMBU,SW 
86*     Laing,  Samuel,  Esq.,  F.Q.8.  6  Konsington-gardens-torrace,  W  (•  1> 

863     Lancaster,  John,  Esq.,  F.Q.S.     Belton  Orange,  Rugbj 

809     Lane,  Vavasour  Joseph,  Esq.,  1st  Ijattalion  4th  Foot.     Dover 

865  Lang,MajorQen.Wm,,H.M.BombajAnnj.  CraigeQd,Milngabi«,H.B. 

866  Latto,  Wm.,  Esq.,  Messrs.  Latta  &  Smith.    67  Wilson-street,  Qlugow 
866    Laurie,  Thomas,  Esq.    4  LoDgstone-terrace,  Qreeuvich 

665    Lawson,  J.,  Esq.    Windmill-street,  Lower  Moslej -street,  Manchester 
866     Lawson,  William,  Esq,     Brajton,  Cumberland 
667     Lee,  George  Byrne,  Esq.     27  Richmond-road,  Weatbourae-grove 
.863    Lees,  Samuel,  Esq.     Overston-terrace,  Cheetham-hill,  Manchester 
1866     Laggatt,  W.  Benjamin,  Esq.,  C.E.     Chiagleput,  Madras 

Leigbton,  Henry,  Esq.,  F.Z.S.  53  Upper  Seymour-street,  W 
Leitner,  G.  W.,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R-A.S.,  F.E  8.,  F.P.a,  late  Prof, 
of  Arabic  and  Mohammedan  Law,  and  Dean  of  the  Oriental  Sec- 
tion, Ring's  College,  London  ;  Hon.  Member  and  Master  of  the 
Free  German  HocbetifE  ;  Examiner  in  Oriental  languages  at  the 
College  of  Preceptors.     Oovemment  College,  Lahore,  India 

1666  Lewis,  Alfred  Lionel,  Esq,  45  Church-road,  De  Beauvoir~square  (1) 

1667  Lobley,  James  L.,  Esq.     50  Lansdowne-road,  Kensington-park,  W 


13 

1863  Lonsdale,* hJI^,  Esq.,  M.D.    Carlisle 

1803  Lord,  Edward,  Esq.    Canal-street  Works,  Todmorden 

1868  Lovery,  Basil,  Esq.,  Principal  of  Patcheapah*s  High  School.  Madras 

1 864  Lucy,  W.  C,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    Claremont  House,  Gloucester 
1864  Lukis,  Rev.  W.  C,  M.A.    Wath  Rectory,  Ripon 

1866  Lund,  E.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Lecturer  on  Anatomy.    Manchester 

1869  Lush,  John  Alfred,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.P.    Salisbury 

1864    Luxmoore,  Coryndon  H.,  Esq.,  F.8.A.  18  St.  John's- wood  Park,  NW 

1867  Lyle,  Henry  B.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.Eng.   123  Graham-road,  Hackney,  1<E 

1864    M^Arthur,  Alexander,  Esq.,  F.R.G.8.     Raleigh-hall,  Brixton  Rise 

1869    Macartney,  John,  Esq.,  Agent  to  His  Highness  the  Rajah  of  Soondoor. 
Ramandrooz,  Bellary,  Madras. 

1 863  McClelland,  James,  Esq.    32  Pembridge-square,  W. 

1864  Mackenzie,  Kenneth  Robert  Henderson,  Esq.,  F.S.A.     8  Tavistock- 

place,  Tavistock-square,  WC      (IT) 

1863  Mackinder,  Draper,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.S.     Gainsborough 

1864  Mackintosh,  Charles  E.,  Esq.    New  Cross,  8£ 
1867    Mackintosh,  David,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

1867    Maclean,  Charles  Donald,  Esq.,  B.A.,  Mus.Doc.  Madras  Civil  Service 

1867  Maclean,  Hector,  Esq.    Ballygrant,  Islay,  Hebrides,  N.B. 

1864  McCallum,  Lieut.  Arthur  E.,  91st  Highlanders.    Dover  Barracks, 

Dover 

1865  McCallum,  Andrew,  Esq. 

1868  McCormick,  John,  Esq     River  Congo,  West  Africa,  care  of  Mr. 

Struthers,  Fernando  Po. 

1865  McCoskry,  W.,  Esq.    Lagos,   West  Africa;    and  care  of  Messrs. 

McCoskry  and  Eidd,  4  Cook-street,  Liverpool 

1866  McCrevey,  James,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Assistant- Surgeon  66th  Regiment. 

Fort  Albert,  Aldemey 

1864  McDonnell,  John,  Esq.,  F.C.S.L.    Clare  Villa,  Rathmines,  Dublin 
1863    McLeod,  Walter,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.    Military  Hospital,  Chelsea,  SW 

1866  Martin,  H.  Victor,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S.,  F.  Obstet.  Soc. 
1863  Martindale,  N.,  Esq. 

1865  Mason,  the  Rev.  Joseph.     Loughborough,  Leicestershire 
1868  Mason,  W.,  Esq.    4  Victoria-street,  SW 

1863  Mathieson,  James,  Esq.    22  Belitha  Villas,  Bamsbury-park,  N 

1863  Matthews,  Henry,  Esq.    60  Gower-street,  WC 

1867  May,  Edward  Hooper,  Esq.,  M.D.    High  Cross,  Tottenham 
1867  Mayne,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D.     Barrow-in-Furness,  Lancashire 

1866  Meadows,  Thomas  Tyler,  Esq.,  H.M.  Consul.    Newchwang.    Care  of 

Smith,  Elder,  and  Co.,  Comhill,  EC 

1867  Meadows,  Barr,  Esq.,  L.R.C.P.,  M.R.C.S.    ^9  Dover-street,  Piccadilly 

1863    Medd,  William  H.,  Esq.    The  Mansion-house,  Stockport 

1867    Medd,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S.,  L.S.A.   Elm-place,  Stratford-road, 
Manchester 

1867    Medlicott,  Charles  William  Carter,  Esq.,  L.M.,  M.D.  County  Asylum, 
Wells,  Somerset 


14 

1867  Mallo,  Ber.  J.  IIagai%  ILA^  f  .049.  a  ThiimJ^|ifTlnij.  Bn 
Ohettorfiald 

1866  Meniifli,  BoWrt,  Biq.,  BaigMn  leth  &r^gftda,  Biqral  Ar^^ 

xBfikpoTOy  ObleattA 

1867  Mendithy  Svaa  Pow«ll,  li|«    Agiiiooiirt-iqiiai«|  Momnimtt 

1866    M^,  MoDf.  Stiame  GviteYe.    G»boom  W«it  Afirioft 

1863  Michie,  Aleiaiidflr, Bfq., F.R.G.8.  flhMigJMMs OhiiUL  Owol 
Smith,  Bldcr,  uid  Go.,  Ounhfll,  BO    (|) 

1865  Middkton,  JTohii  H.,  Bm.,  MJ>^  L.B.O.PJMd.,  1ULQL& 

Mtrie  da  BourgogiM,  Bmitols 

1866  Mignot,  Louii  Heniyy  Biq.    37  Afaaue  Joilphlni^  Puii 

1 867  MillflT,  John,  Baq^  BuTutor-ftt-I*Wy  Admiwittimtar-QaBwal. 

Pnodenqr*  ludimg.    Cueof  W.  aBixd,Biq^83  King-at; 

1866  Biilli,  Henry  F^  Bsq.  Lftgoi,  Wait  OoMi,  Aftiaa^  and  Un 
Highar  Bronghton,  Manohaatar 

1863  Milliffin,  Jaaaph,  Baq.,  MJ>.,  F.GjL  FJJS.,  M.B.AiL    II 

umbarlaDd-Btiaaty  Stnnd,  WC;  ana  Boyil  Gkwiatj  of  Ti 
Hobart  Town 

1869    Milne,  Thomaa,  Baq.,  M3.,  O.M.    New  Dear,  AbardaanaUn 

1864  Milton,  The  Bight  Hon.  the  Lend  Yiaoonnl^  M.P.,  M-A.,  I 

17  Gzoifanor-ttreet  (*) 

1865  MitchaU,  Arthur,  Bsq.,  M J).    LaTavodc  Bank,  Trinilj,  Bdfa 

1868  MiteheU,  J.  Barr,  Biq.,  M.]>. 

1864  Mivart,  St.  George  J^  Bsq.,  F.R  S.,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  M.R.I.,  1 
on  Comparative  Anatomy  at  St.  Mary's  Hospital.  (Care  o 
Institution,  Albemarle-st.,  and  7  North  Bank,  Regent's-pi 

1869  Moir,  J.  MoCrae,  Esq,,  M.A.    Pump-court,  Temple 

1869    Moir,  Alexander,  Esq.     16  Little  Trinity-lane,  Queenhithe 

1864  Montgomerie,  F.,  Esq.     2  Cleyeland-row,  St.  James's,  8' 

Conseryative  Club,  St.  James's-street,  SW 

1865  Moore,  Henry  Reginald,  Esq.     6  Featherstone  Buildings,  Holl 

1866  Moore,  Robert  Waters,  Esq.    Adelaide,  South  Australia 
1864    Moore,  John,  Esq.    104  Bishopsgate-street,  EC 

1864  Moore,  George,  Esq.,  M.D.    Hartlepool 

1865  Moore,  James  H.,  Esq.    Brook-street,  Cheetham,  ManchesU 
1868  Moore,  William  G.,  Esq.     Sydney,  Australia 

1866  Mootoosaumy,  Modeliar  P.  S.,  M.  R.C.S.  Manargoody,  Tanjore 

1863  Morgan,  Fortescue  J.,  Esq.     High-street,  Stamfoni 

1866  Morgan,  William  Henry,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.,  Surgeon  23rd 
Ixifantry,  Quilon,  Travancore,  Madras 

1868  Morgan,  Thomas  H.,  Esq.     Oakhurst,  Ore,  near  Hastings 
1863    Morison,J.  Cotter,  Esq.,  F.R.S.L.   7  Porchester-square,  Bays 

1863  Morris,  David,  Esq.,  F.S.A.     Market-plaoe,  Manchester    (t 

1866  Morris,  Major  H.  C. 

1864  Morris,  J.  P.,  Esq.,  Corr.  Mem.  Anthrop.  Soc,  Paris.    Uh 

1867  Morrison,  Capt.  R.  J.,  R.N.    44  Park-crescent,  Brighton 

1869  Morrison,  James  Holmes,  M.D.    Lewes,  Sussex 

1855  Moriarty,  Thomas  B.,  Esq.,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Staff  Assistant-i 
The  Grange,  Co.  Limerick,  Ireland 


15 

1804    Mortimer,  John,  Esq.    Pippingh&m-pftrk,  Uokfield,  S 

1866  Mosse,  G.  B.,  Esq.,  B.A.,  L.  R.  &  Q.C.P.Dub.,  M.R.C.S.,  Staff  Sur- 

geon, Cape  Coast  CasUe,  West  Africa 

1867  Muirhead,  Henrj,  Esq.,  M.D.    Bushy-hill,  Cambuslong 
186S  Mullins,  Richard,  Esq. 

1868  Murray,  Edward,  Esq.    27  Mulgrove-terrace,  Gateshead 
1865  Morxaj,  John,  Esq.,  A.M.,  M.D.    Wickham,  Hants 

1867  Murray,  J.  C,  Esq.,  M.D.,  L.R.C.P.   90  Newgate-street,  Newcastle- 

on-Tyne 

1865  Napier,  Charles  Ottley  Groom,  Esq.,  F.G.S.  8  Chippenham-terrace, 
Harrow-road,  W    (f) 

1868  Nash,  R.  L.,  Esq.    Craven  Cottage,  Finchley,  NW 
1865    Natusch,  F.  B.  Bernard,  Esq.    Erith,  Kent 

1863    Nesbitt,  G.,  Esq.  Mercantile  Chambers,  56  Fountain-st.,  Manchester 

1863  Newnham,  The  Rot.  P.  H.,  M.A.  Frome  Yauchurch  Rectory, 
Dorchester 

1865    Newton,  Alfred  Vincent,  Esq.    66  Chancery-lane,  EC 

1863  Nicholson,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.G.S.,  F.R.A.S.      26 

DeTonshire-place,  Portland-place,  W 

1864  Noel,  The  Hon.  Roden.    Warlies,  Waltham  Abbey 

1868    Nordmann,  Karl  Y.,  Esq.,  C.E.,  Assist.  English  Department  Public 

Works.    Calicut,  Madras 

1867  Norsworthy,  H.,  Esq.,  M.A.Ozon.,  Esq.,  F.Z.S.  and  Botanical  Society 
of  London.    Chesterfield-house,  Maidenhead    (*) 

1863  North,  Samuel  W.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.    31  Castle-gate,  York 

1867  Nottingham,  John,  Es^.,  F.R.C.S.,  M.R.C.P.,  Corr.  Mem.  Med.  Soc 

of  Emulation  of  Pans;  Corr.  Mem.  Royal  Med.  Soc.  of  Berlin ; 
MenL  Academy  of  Medicine  and  Surgery  of  Madrid  and  Barcelona ; 
Corr.  Mem.  Acad.  Natural  Sciences  of  Spain ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Soc.  of  Northern  Antiquaries  of  Copeimagen ;  F.R. A.S.  London. 
20  Roscommon-street,  Mverpool  (*) 

1865  Nunn,  R.  M.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.    Gray*s,  Essex 

1866  O'Callaghan,  Charles,  Esq.,  M.D.    Killamey,  Lreland. 

1864  O^Connor,  Major-General  L.  Smyth,  Inspecting  Field  Officer,  Com- 

manding the  Forces.  Jamaica.  F.R.G.S.  Care  of  Messrs.  Barron 
and  Smith,  26  Duke-street,  Westminster,  SW 

1864    Ogston,  G.  H.,  Esq.    22  Mincing-lane,  EC 

1868  Oliver,  S.  P.,  Esq.,  Lieut.  R.A.,  F.R.G.8.    40  Hauteville,  Guernsey 

1864  Ormathwaite,  Lord,  M.P.,  F.R.G.S.  28  Berkeley-square,  W ;  and 
Cariton  Club,  Pall  Mall,  SW 

1864  O'Sulliyan,  The  Honourable  J.  L.  (of  New  York),  late  U.S.  Minister 
to  Portugal.    8  Park-place,  Clarence-gate,  Regent*s-park. 

1864  Osborne,  Lieutenant-Colonel  J.  W.  Willoughby,  C.B.,  F.G.S.  Sehore 
Presidency,  India.  Care  of  Messrs.  Grindlay  and  Co.,  55  Parlia- 
ment-street, SW  (♦) 

1868  Owen,  Lieutenant  J.  F.,  R.A.  Knockalla  Fort,  Rathmullan,  County 
Donegal,  Ireland 

1863  Owen,  Robert  Briscoe,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.L.S.    Haulfre,  Beaumaris 

1864  Owen,  Major  Samuel  R.  I.,  H.M.  Bengal  Army,  F.L.S.,  F.R.M.S., 

Assoc.  King's  College,  London,  etc.  4  St.  Martin's-pl.,  WC  (t  t  *) 


Ifi 

1867     P&me,  Ilenrj  James,    Biq.,   M.D.,  M.lt.C.S       11    CTO«khcrl>l«wii, 

Cudiff 
1867     Paley,  Dr.  WUiitm.     BipoD,  Yoritsbiie 
1863     Parker,  J.  W.,  E«).     Wamn  Comer  Haute,  near  FarDb&tn 
1666     Parr,  J.  CharlloD.  Esq.  Qnppenhall  Qeje«,  WtrnogtAn  ;  and  Jijaioi 

Carlton  Club 
1863     Partridge,  T.  E-,  Esq.     nille^lay,  near  Wotl4>o-UDder-E(lge 
1867     Partridge,  T,   D'Orrile,   E*q„  M.aC.8.,  L.R.C.P,     Care  of  Xeasn. 

Bathgate  and  Co.,  Old  Court  House-street,  Calcutta 
1866     Payne,  R.  W.,  Esq.     Old  Sieaford,  Lincolnsbire  (•  T) 
18»4     Peacock,  Edward.  Esq..  F.8.A.     Botte»ford  Manor,  Brigg  (1  t) 
1863     Peacock.  Thomas  Bevill,  Esq.,  M.D„  F.B.C.P      SO  Piiuburr-circue, 

,      EC  n) 
1685     Pcaooeke,  George.  Esq..  M,D„  Jl.A.     Naval  and  Military  Club,  8W 
1887     Pearse,  Charlea  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D-,  M.R.C.S,     SR  Maddoi-streec, 

W 

1665  Pearae,  Frederick  Edward,  Esq..  L.R.C.P.Ed.,  M.B.C.S.  High  Crosi, 

Sampford  Paverell,  Devon  (I) 

1666  Pi-chell,  A.  H„  Esq.,  B.A.,  Barrister-at-Law.     Barton-on-H umber 
1S66     Peel.  Robert,  Esq.,  Assistant  Colonial  Surgeon.     Resident  Surgeoa 

Mount  Gatabia  Hospital,  Adelaide,  South  Australia 
1B63     Peiser,  John,  Esq.     Bamsfield  House,  Oxford-street,  MancheEter 
1H67     Perrot,  Aueiistus    E.  0.,  Esq.,   late  Commaadcr  U.S.  Navy;  U.S. 

Consul.     Gaboon,  Wait  Africa 
1863    Petherick,  Horace  W.,  Bw].    2  Denmark  Tillu,  Wadnm  Ne«  Road, 

Croydon,  8 
1866     Phillips,  Bamet,  Esq.     Savannah,  D.8. 
1363    Pike,  Luke  Owen,  Esq.,  H.A.    Tici-PauiDm.    Fleetwood  Houae, 

201  Maid*  Vale,  W  (+  IT) 
1866     Pirn,  CapUin  Bedford,  R.N.,  F.R.Q.8.,  Awociate  Civil  Engineen.  11 

Belsize- square,  Hampstead,  HW  (t  H) 
1866    Pinchis,  Thomas  R.,  Esq.    27  Oxenden-street,  Hajmarket 
1863    PinkertoQ,  W.,  Esq..  F.8.A.    8  Pownall-gardens,  Honnslow,  W 

1866  Plant,  J.,  Esq.,  F.O.S.    Peel  Park,  Salford,  Hancberter 
1663     Prigg,  Henry,  Esq.,  jun.     Bur;  St  Edmund*. 

1867  Porter,  R.  B.,  Esq.,  Engineer,  Lincoln 

1869    Pope,  Captain  R.,  R.A.     Madras.    Agents,  Messrs.  Cox  and  Co. 

1868  Price,  F.  0.  H,,  Esq.     12  Upper  Berkeley-street,  Portmau-square 

1869  Price,  Captain  William  Edwin,  M.P.,  F.G.S.  Tibberton  Court,  Qlou- 

castersnire 

1865  Pritfhard,  T.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.RC.P.     Abington  Abbey,  Northampton 

1866  Pringle,  G.,  Esq. 

1866    Pritchard,  T.,  jun.;  Esq.,  Deputy  Collector  Madras   Presidency, 

Madras 
1456    Purdon,  H.,  Esq.,  M.D.    Clonlion  House,  Kilcock,  county  Meatb, 

Ireland 

1865  Quaritch,  Bernard,  Esq.,  F.Z.S.     16  Piccadilly,  W 

1866  Quin.  William,  Esq.     Care  of  T.  F.  Quin,  Esq.,  57  Old  Broad-street, 

EC.    Bathurst,  River  Oambia,  West  Africa 


17 

1864  Rae,  James,  Esq.,  F.  R.O.S.  32  Phillimore-gardens,  KeDsington,  W  («) 

1866  Rao,  G.  W.  Gujputter,  Esq.   Yizagapatam,  Madras.  Agents,  Messrs. 

Arbuthnot  and  Co.,  Madras. 

1867  Ramsay,  William  F.,  Esq.,  M.D.    15  Somerset-street,  Portman- 

square,  W 

1863    Ramsay,  A.,  jun.,  Esq.,  F.G.S.     45  Norland-square,  Notting-hill,  W 

1865  Ramskill,  Spence  J.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.O.P.    5  St.  Helen Vplace,  £0 

1868  Ransom,  Edwin,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.     Kempstone,  Bedford  («) 

1863    Ratcliffe,  Major  Charles,  F.L.S.,  F.S.A.,  F.G.S.,  F.E.S.,  F.R.G.S. 
The  Wyddringtons,  Edgbaston,  Birmingham 

1867    Rawson,  James,  Esq.,  A.B.,  M.D. 

1865    Reade,  Charles,  Esq.,  D.C.L.    Garrick-club,  WC. 

1863    Reade,  William  Win  wood,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  Corresponding  Member 
Geographical  Society  of  Paris.    ConservatiTe  CIud,  SW  (IT) 

1863  Renshaw,  Charles  J.,  Esq.,  M.D.  Ash ton-on -Mersey,  Manchester  (*) 

1867    Riccard,  Edward  Jackson,  Esq.,  M.D.  Aberdeen,  M.R.C.S.  England. 
63  George-street,  Mauritius.  Care  of  Messrs.  Smith,  Elder  and  Co. 

1867    Richards,  Thomas,  Esq.     12  Addison-crescent,  Kensington,  W 

1864  Richards,  Colonel.    Wyndham  Club,  St.  JamesVsquare,  SW 

1864  Richardson,  Charles,  Esq.    Almondsbury,  Bristol 

1865  Richardson,  James  C,  Esq.,  F.G.S.    Glanragon,  Swansea    (*) 

1866  Rivers,  Rey.  H.  F.,  M.A.    Sydney-yilla,  Luton,  near  Chatham 

1867  Robertson,  Alexander,  Esq.,  M.D.    Town's  Hospital,  Glasgow 

1864  Robertson,  D.  B.,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.KS.,   H.M.   Consul,   Canton. 

Care  of  Messrs.  Smith,  Elder  and  Co.,  Comhill) 

1865  Robinson,  William,  Esq.,  Member  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of 

Paris.    Caldecot-house,  Clapham-park,  S  (*) 

1865    Roch,  S.,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S. 

1867  Rogers,  George,  Esq.,  M.D.    Longwood-house  Asylum,  Bristol 

1863    Rogers,  Alfred  S.,  Esq.,  L.D.S.     St.  John's-street,  Manchester 

1865    R6nay,  Rev.  Hyacinthe,  M.D.,  Membre  de  TAcad^mie  Hongroise  de 
Pest.    Care  of  Mr.  Jamrach,  14  Henrietta-street,  Covent-garden 

1868  Rose,  John  Anderson,  Esq.     11  Salbbury-street,  WC  ;  and  1  Wands- 

worth-common 

1865    Row,  W.  Bridges,  Esq.,  B.A.,  F.I.A.     15  Austin  Friars,  EC 
1865    Rudd,  T.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Scots  Greys.     Dublin 

1863  Ruffi^res,  C.  Robert  des,  Esq.,  F.R.S.L.,  F.G.S.,  F.E.a   Wilmot-lodge, 

Rochester-road,  Camden  New  Town,  NW    (t) 

1867  Rugg,  H.  Hodson,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.    11  Grove-terrace,  Grove-road,  St. 

John^a-wood,  NW 

1864  Ruskin,  J.,  Esq.,  LL.D.    Denmark-hill 

1863    Russell,  Captain  A.  H.-  Hawke*s  Bay,  Napier,  New  Zealand  {t) 

1868  Russell,  Captain  C,  2nd  West  India  Regiment,  Assistant  Civil  Com- 

mander.   Accra,  Cape  Coast,  West  Africa.    Agents,  Messrs.  Barron 
and  Smith,  26  Duke-street 

1867    Ryan,  John,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S.    Gell-street,  Sheffield 


1863    St.  Clair,  George,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  F.E.S.     Banbury  (J) 

B 


F.R-R.8.,  F.a,S.,  Prt«<l«i«*f  x3u  &ojmt  Sodeqrot 

Abergwjti  Palace,  timr  Caiawrthen  i  ftn4  I  BegeBt-«lTMt,  W 
ims    St.  Jabn,  RpcBoer,  Biq.,  P.R.O.S.    H.U.  CcnwuL     BA;tL    Cm  of 

Kureign  Office,  SV 
IfiB?     Salmon,  C.  S.,  E«q.     Sb«rbro',  Wut  Ginit,  A&ic* 
1863    Salting,  WilliwoS.,  E«q.,  F-R-Q-S.     60  St.  J»mM'i-ttwet,  SW  (•) 
lHfi6    SiLudAlc,  James,  Btq^  ll.l>.,  6lh  Dngoon  Oiurd*.     Publin 
1X64     San']en.   Alfred,    Eiq.,    M-Et-CS..   F-L.S..   F.Z.S.      CiMCiicc-plac«, 

OiHTeaend,  Kent  (^J) 
IHno    Scalcergood,  W.  D.,  E&q.,  34  Wrotham-road,  CamdeD  Tovu 
Iftti7     Bcharlieh,  W.  St..  Etq.,  Birrivteiat-iaw.     Madras.     Care  of  W.  C. 

Bird,  Eiq„  33  King- street.  Cheap  side 
1867     Sohumaim,  Prof.  A..  Ph.D..  B.A.     OosJow-vUla*,  St.  JohnVpark 
ie63     SchvBTCK,  Julius,  Esq.,  Ph.D.,  F.O.S,.  Correa ponding  Metnh«r  E  S., 

Member  of  the   Qungarian  Academy  of  Sciences.  Deput;  iu  the 

IIuDg»rian  Parliament.     Stuhlweigsenburg,  Uuogarj  (_X  ^) 
IHTifi    ScbneiCzer,  Theodor  Richard,  Es<i.     36  tIigliburj-grt>Te 
ISm     Swtt,  John,  E^.,  M.D.     8  ChaDdoa-ttreet,  Cavoiidiah-si|u&re,  W 
1863     Scott,  The  Rev.  Robert  8.,  H.A.,  D.D.    IG  Vietoria-ciescent,  Dowan- 

hiU,  Glasgow 
1805     Seaman,  J.  Eglonton,  Esq.,  M.D.     Pinetown,  Nalal 
1863     gecmtinn,  Bertiiold,  F,«ii.,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S,,  F.RiI.S,,  Adjunct   Prmidii 

of  tbs  imperial  L.  C.  Aeademfa  Natuno  Uurioiomm.    07  Wimdaor- 

Toad,  N  ;  and  4  Wettminater  Chamben,  Victoria -street,  SW  (1 1) 
1666     Semper,  Hugh  R.,  Esq.     Hermitage,  Uoottenat,  West  Indiei 
1S68    Sewttll,  L.  E.,  Esq.,  H.D.     13  Pleasaut-itreet,  Boston,  Uoited  StttM, 


1864    Sharp,  Peter,  Esq.,  F.R.Q.S.    Oakfield,  Bkliog,  W 

1864    Sharpe,  W.  J.,  Esq.,  F.B.0.8. 

1S66    Shaw,  Frederick  Geone,  Esq.,  M.R.C.T.S.,  Hon.  Fellow  Veterinu; 

College,  London.    TeterinaTj  Surgeon,  Oasoor,  Madru  (*} 
1R66     Bbftw,  Robert  Barkle;,  Esq.     East  House,  Dhurmsala,  Punj&b,  Indi» 
1864     Sheridan,  H.  B.,  Esq.,  M.P.     17  Westboume-terrace,  W 
1863    Shortt,  John,  Esq.,  M.D..   F.R.C.P.  and  S.,  iDspeetor-OBDeial  of 

Vaccination.     Madras  (T) 
1663    SitTft-Ferro,  Don  RamoD  de,  F.Q.S.,  F.B.0.8. 
1667    SimoDBon,  8.  F.,  Esq.,  F.R.C.S,     SI  St.  James's-street,  SW 
1860    Simpson,  Dr.  Fntik,  H.M.  Medical  Staff.    Cape  Gout  Csatle,  Gold 

Coast.    Agents,  Bir  J.  Kirkland,  17  Whitehall-pUce,  SW 
1867    Simpson,  H.  V.,  Esq.,  L.R.C.P.,  M.R.C.S.     167  Citj-rwid,  EC 
1SQ6    Skues.   Dr.   Frederick  M.,   Staff  Assistant  SurgeOD.      1  JuuctioD- 

villas.  Junction-road,  Dpper  Uolloway     (*) 

1863  Skues,  Dr.   Mackenzie,  Surgeon  Her  Majesty's  109th  Regiment.     4 

Alfred-road,  St.  John's-road,  Upper  Uollowaj  (•) 

1864  Smith,  Sir  Andrew,  K.C.B.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.    16  Alexander-square, 

Brompton 
1867    Smith,  G.  Hill,  Esq.,  M.D.    Stevenage 
1863    Smith,  John,  Esq.,  F.E.S.     Stroud-green,  Upper  Holloway 
1863    Smith,  Piotheroe,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.P.    2S  Park-street,  W 


19 

1863  Smith,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.O.P.     Portland-house,  Cheltenham 

1667    Smith,  Thomas  £.,  Esq.     Gosforth-house,  Newcastle-on-Tyne 

1665    Smith,  Worthington  Q.,  Esq.,  F.8.L.     12  North  Grove  West,  Mild- 
may-park,  N 

1868    Smithers,  Sydney  James,  Esq.     1  College-street,  St.  Alhans 

1667    Snaith,  Frederick,  Esq.,  M.D.     The  Square,  Boston,  Lincolnshire 

1667    Southhy,  Philip,  Esq.,  F.Z.S.,  Barrister  at-Law,  Middle  Temple. 
1  Yerulam-Buildings,  Qray's-inn,  WC    (♦) 

1868    Sparhawk,  J.  B.,  Esq.     Fernando  Po,  West  Africa 

1664    Spark,  H.  K.,  Esq.     Greenbank,  Darlington 

1867    Spencer,  R.  J.,  Esq.     Oxford 

1864  Spooner,    The    Rev.    Edward,    D.D.,   LL.D.,   Ph.D.,  M.R.H.S.L., 

M.R.A.S.,  etc.    Kirk  Harle-vicarage,  Newcastle-on-Tyne  (t) 

1865  Sprague,  T.  B.,  Esq.,  M.A.,  Vice-President  of  the  Institute  of  Actu- 

aries.   18  Lincoln Vinn-Fields,  WO 

1867  Spurrell,  Flazman,  Esq.,  F.R.C.P.  Edinburgh,  F.R.C.S.  England. 

Belvedere,  Kent 

1863    Stanbridge,  W.  E.,  Esq.     Wombat,  Victoria,  Australia    (*  X) 

1664    Stanley,  The    Right   Honourable  the  Lord,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  D.C.L., 
F.R.G.S.,  M.R.A.S.    23  St.  James Vsquare,  SW    (♦) 

1865  Stanley,  Lieutenant-Colonel  The  Hon.  John.    40  Dover-street,  W 

1868  Stanley,  Rev.  T.  C,  LL.D.,  Chaplain  to  the  Forces.     14  Prospect- 

row,  Old  Brompton,  Chatham 

1667    Stark,  A.  B.,  Esq.,  M.D. 

1863  Stenning,  Charles,  Esq.     4  Westboume-park-place,  Bayswater,  W. 

1867  Stepney,  W.  F.  Cowell,  Esq.,  Membre  titulaire  de  la  Soci6t6  d*An- 

thropologie  de  Paris.     9  Bol ton-street,  Piccadilly,  W. 

1868  Stewart,  A.  A.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Staff  Assistant  Surgeon.    Cape  Coast 

Castle,  West  Africa.      Agents,  Sir  J.  Kirkland,  17   Whitehall- 
place,  SW ; 

1866  Stirling,  John,  Esq.,  M.A.     1  Robert-street,  Adelphi 

1864  Stone,  Mr.  Alderman  D.  H.     13  Poultry,  EC 

1865  Stone,  Robert  Sydney,  Esq.    Civil  Hospital,  Port  Lours,  Mauritius 

1865    Story,   W.,   Esq.,  M.D.,    K.St.F.,    F.R.C.S.     Grove-street,  South 
Hackney,  NE 

1867  Stourton,  J.  M.,  Esq.    5  Bennett-street,  St.  James*s,  SW 

1868  Struthers,  Andrew,  Esq.     Fernando  Po,  West  Africa 

1868    Strathern,  James,  Esq.     Old  Calabar  River  and  Glasgow 

1865    Studart,  J.  W.,  Esq.,  British  Vice  Consul.     Cear^  Brazil.     Care  of 
Foreign  Office,  8W 

1865    Swinburne,  Algernon  C,  Esq.,  M.A.     22a  Dorset-street,  W 

1865    Symonds,  J.  A.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.     Clifton- hill-house,  Bristol 

1868  Tait,  Lawson,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S.     Wakefield,  Yorkshire 

1865  Tate,  Thomas,  Esq.     Crowborough,  Tunbridge  Wells    (t) 
1867  Tatham,  Thomas  R.,  Esq.,  M.D.    Nottingham 

1866  Taylor,  John,  Esq.     316  St.  Vincent-street,  Glasgow 

1869  Taylor,  Richard  Stephens,  Jun.,  Esq.    22  Lloyd-stjuare,  N 
1863  Taylor,  W.  £.,  Esq.     Enfield,  near  Accrington 

B  2 


I 

1863  TenUcD,  E.  T.  Rynn,  E>^ ,  M.D.  B  Keitti-ter.,  SfacpheiAd 
1667  Texas,  Rt.  Eer.  Alciundct  <Jrceg,  O.D.,  Bishop  of.  Qalvnto 
1&66    Theobald,    W.,   Jun..    Eic]..  P.G  S..   Sufwrintendent   of  G 

Survej  of  Pegu.     BAOgooa.    Care  of  Memn.  Scott  and  < 

goon    <I) 
IH(14     ThompioD,  F.,  Esq.     South  Pande,  Wakefield     (*> 
IbGd     Thompson,   Alfred    Bobert,    E«<i.,   Deputy   AssUUnt    Coi 

General 

1666  Thompson,  George  C,  Esq.     Haswell-terraee,  Cardiff 
1669     ThomKin,  Arthur  D;ott,Esq.,  M.A.,Ba11lol  College, Oxford, I 

at. Law.     Belredere.  Tuuhrtdge  Wells 
1669     Thresh,  J.  T.,  Esq..  B.A.,  F.R.G.S.     Old  Palace,  Richmond 
1804     Thunmrn,   Juhn.   Esq..   M.D.,   F.R.C.P.,   F.8.A.,    F.E.S., 

Associate  o(  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris.     Devti: 

1865  Tininiins,a,Esq.,P.a.S.L.  Elvetbam  Lodge, Edgbaston, Bin 

1667  TulhuTst,  John,  Esq.     Glcnbrook,  Beckeoham,  Kent 

18C7     Tootal,  Albert.  Enn.     Hio  de  Janeito.     Agents,  Messrs.   '. 

stone  and  Co.,  6  Great  ^t.  Helen's 
1S83     Trailers.  William,  Esq,.  F.R.C.8.,  L.R.G.P.     25  Lovrer  PI 

place,  Kensington,  W    (t) 
1803     Trcvelyan,  Arthur,  Esq.,  J.P.     Teinholm  House,  Tranent,  ] 
18(!3     Triihner,  Nicolitmt,  Esq.     60  Patemoetcr-row,  EC 
1864     Tuckett,  Charles,  Jun.,  Esq.     British  Museum,  WG 
1867     Turner,  Wm.  F,  J.,  Esq..  M.D.     9  Meltille-at.,  Bjde,  Isle  « 
lees     Tutrell,  Arthur,  Esq.     New  York,  U.S. 

1866  UnderiToad,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.  Robertson-street,  Hastings 
16GS     Usaher,  Herbert  Taylor,  Esq.,  CommiesoriaC  Staff.     CiTil  Ser 

1863     Vaux,  Willlnm  Sandys  Wright,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  ?.SJ. 

Hon.  Sec.  R.S.L.,  M.B.A.S.,  Fres.  Numiamatic  Society  ol 

British  Museum.  WC     (t) 
1863     Vernon,  George   Venables,   Eiiq.,   F.R.A.S.,  M.B.M.S..   Mi 

8oc.  Scot.,  Membre  de  la  Socii'iu    M6l&]rologiquo  de  Id 

10  Usbornc-place,  Old  TralTord,  Manchei^ter 
1866     Villin,  Edouard,  Esq.,  F.R.S.L. 

186fi     Wade,  Thomaa  P.,   Esq.,  H.M.  Sec.   Legation.     Peking. 

Foreign  Office,  8W 
1863    Wake,  Charles  Staniland,  Esq.    3  Bay mood-biiil dings,  Gr 

WC    (It) 
I860     Walford,  Cornelius,  Esq.,  P.S.S.     Little  Park,  Enfield,  KE 

1866  Walker,  Alexander,  Eaq.  Frestou,  Kirkbean,  Dumfries,  N 
18CS     Walker,  Colonel  C.  P.  Beauchamp,  C.B.,  P.R.O.S,  A.QM.G 

Eastern  Division.   British  Embassy,  Berlin  (care  of  Forei 
8W).     17  Onslovr-Bquare  ;  and  Dnitcd  Service  Club,  8W 

1867  Walker,  Alexander  Macuamee,  Esq.,  M.D.,   M.A.      Susse 

llojftl  Parade,  Tunbridge  Wells 
1863     Walker,  Robert,  Esq.     42  Camar  von -street,  Glasgow 
186-1     Walker,   Rohert   Bruce   Napoleon,   Esq.,  F.B.OS.,  Corr.  ^ 

GbIioou.    Wcbt   AfricH.      Ciira   of  E.   C.   Morley,  Esq, 

Bench  Walfc,  Ttmple.  EC     (J  ^) 


21 

1667  Walmsley,  Captain  J.,  Qovernment  Resident  Agent,  Port  Natal 

1866    Wanklyn,  James  Alfred,  Esq.,  F.O.S.,  Prof.  Chemistry  London  In- 
stitution.    London  Institution,  Finsburj-circus,  £0 

18(57     Warden,  J.  Wm.,  Esq.     Warwick  Cottage,  Park  Village  East,  NW 

1865    Waring,  James  J.,  Esq.,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Obstetrics,  Medical  Col- 
lege, Savannah,  Georgia,  U.S. 

1865    Washboum,  Buchanan,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.R.C.P.,  F.S.S.     East  Gate 
House,  Gloucester 

1864  Waterfield,  0.  C,  Esq.    Temple  GroTe,  East  Sheen,  SW 
1863    Watson,  Samuel,  Esq.    12  BouTerie-street,  EC 

1863    Westropp,  Hodder  M.,  Esq.     Rookhurst,  Monkstown,  Cork     (%) 

1865  Wevill,  J.  R.,  Esq.     14  Almorah-road,  Downham-roud,  Islington 
1863    Whitehead,  Peter  0.,  Esq.     Belmont,  Rawtenstall,  Manchester 

1863  Wickcs,  Henry  William,  Esq.     PixBeld,  Bromley,  Kent 

1864  Wickes,  Thomas  Haines,  Esq  ,  Executive  Engineer,  Suburban  Muni- 

cipality.   58  Lower  Circular-road,  Calcutta 

1866  Wilkinson,  Thomas,  Esq.    Tamatave,  Madagascar 
1»66     Williams,  Captoin  C.  R.,  4th  W.  I.  R. 

1863  Williams,  Eric,  Esq.     Whittington  College,  Highgate  Hill 

1867  Williams,  Frederick  M.,  Esq.,  M.P.     Truro     (♦) 

1867    Williams,  H.  G.,  Esq.    Care  of  Chon tales  Mining  Company,  Gresham 
House,  EC 

1867     Williams,  John,  Esq.,  M.D.  Nantlle,  near  Carnarvon,  North  Wales 

1867  Williams,  John  Wilkins,  Esq.,  M  .R.C.S.     34  Bru  ton -street,  W 

1866    Wilmot,  Sir  J.  E.  Eardley,  Bart.    3  Elvaston-place,  South  Ken- 
sington, W 

1865  Wilson,  Andrew,  Enq.     Oriental  Cottage,  Twickenham 

1866  Wilson,  Frank,  Esq.     41  Arlington-street,  Glasgow  ;  and  Fernando 

Po,  W.  Africa 

1867  Wilson,  John  Leigh,  Esq.,  C.E. 

1865  Wilson,  R.,  Esq.,  M.D.     Tinnevelly.     Care  of  Messrs.  Smith,  Elder 

and  Co.,  Cornhill 

1868  Wiltshire,  Alfred,  Esq.,  M.R.C.P.,  M.D.Ed.     Privy  Council  Office, 

Medical  Department,  8  Richmond-terrace,  Whitehall     (t) 

1866  Windham,  W.  S.,  Esq.     Carlton  Club 

1864  Windus,  Commander  A.  T.,  F.R.G.S.,  H.M.  late  Indian  Navy 

1866    Wise,  Thomas  Alexander,  Esq.,  M.D.    Rostellan  Castle,  Cork,  Ireland 

1869  Wodderspoon,  J.,  Esq.    The  Chesnut,  Waltou-on-Thamcs 

1668  Wolber,  F.  G.  C,  Esq.     Gaboon,  West  Africa  ;  and  Hamburg 

1866  Wood,  Edward,  Esq.,  F.G.S.     Richmond,  Yorkshire 

1868  Wood,  J.  W.,  Esq.,  M.D.  Atlanta,    Georgia 

1865  Wood,  Robert,  Esq.     26  Cable-street,  Liverpool 

1863  Wood,  Rev.  William  Spicer,  D.D.    The  bchool,  Oakham,  Rutland 

1863  Woodd,  Charies  H.  L.,  Esq.,  F.G.S.     Roslyn,  Hampstcad,  NW 

1865  Wrentmore,  Frank,  Esq.     3  Little  Argyll -street,  Regent-street,  W 

1867  Wucherer,  Dr.  Otto.     Bahiu,  Brazil 

1867     Wyatt-Edgell,  Rev.  Edj^ell,  M.A.     Stamford  Hall,  Rugby 

1865     Youngc,  Robert,  Esq.,  F.L.JS.,  Hon.  Mem.  York  Phil.  Soc.     Grcj- 
stones,  Sheffield    {*) 


^^•n\nsf 


9f 
99 


^<"^o«...Rojal  Society 
"  «oyal  Asiatic  Socict 

^ocetyofAiitiouar 
Royal  ficographial 

7Vjro«<o  '"'•'/ /,'np«^^nal  Academy 

'""PenaJ   Academy 

"oienccs 


'"''   ""&  ?<^»i!'''  ^'-f-0. 

JJaer,  M.  c«rl  Ernst  Von   F, 
■""»KC,  Charles  Pn^*^-   t. 


23 

1863  Broca,  Dr.  Paul,  S^r6taire-g6n6ral  k  la  Soci6t6  d'Anthropologie  de 
Paris.     1  Rue  des  Saintsp^res,  Paris    (Y) 

1867  Dally,  Dr.  E.,  Assist.  Qcn.  Secretary  Anthrop.  Soc.,  Paris.     Paris 

1863  Dareste,  M.  Camille,  Prof.  Sci.  Fal.  de  Lille.    Rue  de  TAbbaye,  Paris 

1863  Darwin,  Chas.,  Ksq.,M.A.,F.R.S.,P.L.S.,F.G.S.  Down, Bromley,  Kent 

1867  Diiben,  Prof.  Von.     Stockholm 

1867  Ecker,  Prof.  A.,  University  of  Freiburg,  Qrand  Duchy  of  Baden. 

Qermany 

1863     Eckhard,  M.,  Prof,  of  Physiology  at  the  (Jniy.  of  Qiessen.     Gicsseu 

1863  Kingsley,  The  Rev.  Charles,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  Rector  of  Eversley, 
Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
Eversley,  near  Winchfield,  iiants 

1863  Lartdt,  M.  Edouard,  For.  Member  G.  S.,  President  of  the  Anthrop. 
Society  of  Paris.     Rue  Lac6p6de,  15.     Paris 

1863    Lucae,  Dr.  J.  C.     Frankfort 

1863  Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.S.,  Eq.  Ord. 
Boruss.  "pour  le  m6rite,"  Hon.  M.R.S.Ed.,  F.S.L.    63  Harley-st.,W 

1863  Meigs,  Dr.  J.  Aitken,  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Anthropological  So- 
ciety of  Paris.     Philadelphia 

1 863  Milne-Edwards,  Dr.  Henri,  Member  of  the  Institute,  For.  Memb.  R.S., 
For.  Mem.  G.  S.,  Prof,  of  Nat.  History,  Jardin  des  Plantes.    Paris 

1865    Miiller,  Professor  Max.    Oxford 

1868  Nicolucci,  Dr.  Giustiniano,  Isola  di  Sora,  Italy 

1865    Nilsson,  Professor.     Stockholm 

1863  Kott,  Dr.  J.  C,  For.  Associate  of  the  Anthropological  Society  of  Paris. 
16  West  Twenty-third-street,  New  York,  U.S. 

1863  Owen, Richard,  Esq., D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.R.C.S.E.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.L.S., 
Hon.  M.R.8.Ed.,  Hon.  F.  R.  College  of  Surgeons  of  Ireland,  £q. 
Ord.  Boruss. "  pour  le  nitrite,*"  For.  Assoc,  of  the  Anthropological 
Society  of  Paris,  Chev.  Leg.  Hon.  Institut  (Imp.  Acad.  Sci,),  Paris, 
Director  of  the  Natural  History  Department,  British  Museum. 
British  Museum  ;  and  Sheen  Lodge,  Richmond  Park,  SW 

1863     Pruner-Bey,  Dr.     Place  St.  Victor,  28,  Paris 

1863  Quatrefagos,  M.  Alphouse  de,  Prof,  of  Anthropology  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  Paris.     Rue  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire,   Paris 

1863  Renan,  M.,  Membre  Uonoraire  de  la  Societe  d' Anthropologic.  Rue 
Madame,  55,  Paris 

1867  Schaaffhausen,  Prof.     B6nn     (1) 

1865  Squier,  The  Honourable  E.  G.  135  East  Thirty-ninth-street,  New 
York,  U.S. 

1868  Tscherowsky,  Prof.  Emeritus  Gr.     Moscow 

1865  Velasco,  Professor  Gonzalez,  Vice-Presidente  de  la  Socicdad  Antro- 
pol6gica  Espafiola.     Calle  de  Atocha,  90,  Madrid 

1868    Virchow,  Professor  Rudolph.     Berlin 

1^164     Vogt,  Professor  Carl,  Professor  of  Natural  History.     Geneva 

1863  Wright,  Thomas,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  Hon.  F.R.S.L.,  Oorr.  Mem.  of 
the  Imperial  Academy  of  Paris.    14  Sydney-street,  Bronipton,  SW 


CORRESPONDIKG   MEMBERS. 

1868     BoTisdorff,  Professor  Ecerl  Juliue.     Uelaiugfora,  PinUnd 

1»63     Brucke,  Dr.     Vienna 

1866     Uourbourft.  M.  TAbbf  Brasseut  de.      Rue  d'Aan*,  7,  Puis 

Buchaer,  Dr.  Ludwig.    Darmsudt 
1863     Burgholihsuseii,  Counl  A.  F.  Marachul!  ran.  For.  Oorr.  0.  S.,  Cham- 

betlaiu  do  I'EnipeTeur.  WoIIkciI.  Vieunk  {%) 
18S4  Buimeister,  Proftiisor  HermaDn,  Buengg  Ajres 
1863     Buschtnaan,  Professor.     Berlia 

1863  CaateluiiU,  M.  de.     Paris 
Catlia,  Qeorgc,  Esq.     Bruseelii 
Daa,  Profegsor.     Ctiristiania,  Nomaj 
DesDoyets,  M.  Jules,  For.  Corr.  Q.  S.     Paris 
D'Omaliua  d'llalloj,  Professor,  For.  Mem.  Q.  9.     Cine;,  Belfpiun 
Dom,  General  Bvrnard.    St.  Petewburg 

Duhousset,  M.  lo  Commandant.     (French  Armj  in  the)  Atlas 
Dumon,  M.,  IngcDiour  en  chef  dei  ponti  et  chauisees.     Namur 
Dupont,  Br.  Bdouaid,  BiTecteur  du  Musge.     BruEsals     (t) 
Erlanger,  Victor  Baron  von.     Wiesbaden 

1868     Fleuriol  De  Langle,  Le-Contre  Amiral   Vicomte  Alphonse   de,  U 
(Jb&IeBU  de  Pradalou,  4  Morlai,  Fioistgrc,  FraDce 

Oaddi,  PrafesBor  Puoln.     Modena,  Ital; 
1868     Garbiglietti,  Professor  An  to  oio.     Turin,  Italy     * 

GerTttia.  M.  Dr.,  Foreign  Correspondent  G.  S.     Paria 
1865    Oirald6s,  M.,  Prof.  d«  H^  k  I'HOpital  des  Bn&iu  TrouT^     Paria 

1864  Qobineau,  H.  le  Comte  de.    Rio  de  Janeiro 
1863    Ooue,  M.  A.  L.  (pdre).    OeDsva 

Goue,  M.  H.  J.    Geneva 

Ilallier,  Professor  Ernest.     Jena,  Germany 
1868     Hammond,  William  A.,  Eaq.,  M.D.,  Frofeaaor  of  Mental  PhiloMphy 
in  tlie  Belle-Tite  Hospital  Medical  College,  New  Vork 

Haven,  Samuel  F.,  Esq.     Worcester,  MassachuKttI 

His,  Professor.     Basle 

Hochstetter,  Profesaor  von.     Vienna 

Hon,  M.  te,  Chcv.  Ord.  Uop.,  H.  Q6ol.  8oc.,  France.    Bnizelle* 

Hyrtl,  PiofeMOT.    Vienna 

Jugo,  Dr.  Delgado.     SO  Calle  de  San  Bernardo,  Madrid 
1863?   Knup,  Professor,  Dr.,  For.  Corr.  0.  8.     Darmstadt 

Khanikuf,  1^1.  de,  Mem.  8oc.  Antrop.,  Paris,  Conseiller  d'6l»t  to  the 
Emperor  of  Russia.     Rue  de  Cond£,  Paris 

Eopemicky,  Dr.  Isidore.     Bucharest,  Turkey 

Luenians.  Dr,,  Director  of  the  Rojal  Museum.     Leyden 

LcKUFLj   M,  L<>uis.    Rue  de  la  Salute  Chapelle,  3,  Paris 
1863    Leu  chart,  M.    Giessen 

Logan,  J.  R.,  Esq.    Penang 
ISKt    Martin- Magron,  M.     Rue  Madame,  S6,  Paris 


25 

1868  Miraglift,  Dr.  Car.  B.  Q.,  Pres.  Ital.  Phrenopathic  Society  of  ATorsa, 
Director  of  the  Royal  Manciomio  of  Aversa,  near  Naples.    Italy 

1868  Mitra,  Babu  Rajendr&l&l^  Esq.    Calcutta 

1864  Moleschott,  Professor.    Turin 

1868  Newton,  Robert  S.,  Esq.    30  East  Nineteen-street,  New  York. 

1868  Petermann,  Dr.    Gotha 

1863  Pictet,  Professor  F.  G.,  For.  Corr.  G.  8.    Geneya 

1866  Pott,  Professor.    Halle 

1863  Pouchet,  George  M.    Paris 

1863  Raimondy,  Professor.    Lima 

1863  Reichert,  M. 

1866  Rhyg,  Professor.    Christiania,  Norway 

1863  Rickard,  iMajor  F.  I.,  F.G.S.,  F.C.S.,  Argent.  Repub.  21  a,  HanoTer-sq. 

1868  Ruge,  Dr.  Sophus,  Pres.  of  the  Dresden  Geographical  Soc.    Dresden 
1863  Riitimeyer,  Professor.    Basle 

1863  Scherzer,  Dr.  Carl  Ton.    Vienna 

1863  Steenstnip,  Professor,  Dr.,  For.  Corr.  G.  S.    Copenhagen 

1863  Bteinhauer,  Herr  Carl.    Copenhagen 

1869  Swaving,  Dr.  C.     Batavia,  Java 
1863  Uhde,  C.  W.  F.  Herr.    Brunswick 

1863  Yibraye,  Marquis  de,  For.  Corr.  G.  S.    Abbeville,  Paris 

1869  Weisbach,  Dr.  A.    Austrian  Hospital,  Constantinople 

1863  Wilson,  Professor  Daniel.    Toronto 

1868  Winthrop,  Benjamin  R.,  Esq.,  Pres.  New  York  Institut.  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb.    New  York 

1863  Worsaae,  Professor.     Copenhagen 

1867  Wyman,  Jeffreys,  Esq.    Boston,  U.S. 


LOCAL  SECRETARIES  (GREAT  BRITAIN). 

1864  BEDTonDBimE  If igham  Ferrari  Rev.  W.  Monk,M.A.,F.S.A.,F.R.A.S. 

1864  Bekkshire    ,„ Newbury  J.  Palmer,  Esq.,  M.D., 

1863  Cheshire  BebbingUm   Craig  Gibson,  Esq.,  M.D. 

1866  Devorshire  ...Torquay    W.   Pengelly,  Esq.,   F.RS.,  F.G.S., 

Lamoma,  Torquay  (IT) 

1866  „  Tiverton   Frederick   Edward  Pearse,  Esquire, 

F.  A.S.L.,  L.R.C.P.Ed.,  High  Cross, 
Sampford  Peverell,  near  Tiverton 

1867  „  PlymmUh William    Battye,    Esq.,   M.&.C.S., 

F.A.S.L.,  28   Oxford-place^'TJy- 
mouth 
1863  DoRSETBHiRB    Bradford  Abbas,  Professor  Buckman,  FJkS.,  F.G.S. 

near  iiherbome 

1 866        „  Blandford William  Shipp,  Esq, 

1863        „  Pooh Frederick  Travers,  Esq. 

1863  Durham Stockton- on-Tees  Dr.  Farquharson 

18b5  Gloucester-     Gloucester J.  L.  Lucy,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

shire 


1864  C 
1863  E 


Ker.  W.  S.  Sjmonds,  P.G^. 


H 


Rey.   e.  F.  RiTers,  M.A.,  F.A.S.L, 
LutOD,  seai  Chatham     {^) 

Wed  Kent... Rst.  John  George  W<«)d.  M.A.,  P.L.8, 

Belicdere,  Erith     t^  ) 

Laitcashibx  ...Liverpool  W.  G.  IleUb;,  Esq,,  I  Churcb-ftrect , 

LiveTpoi>l 
„  DiTid  Morris,  Esq.,  F.8.A.,  F.A.a.L, 

Market- place 
Li!icoL!>8HIbB(,£tRi^/)u(n'rt)Edvard    Ptacoek,   Esquire,   F.a.A., 
F.A.8.I.,  BotiesTord  Msooi     (1) 

NoHTODNBER-  AlnvUi George  Tate,  £«).,  F.Q.S.,  Snneur; 

LAKD  to   the   BerwicluhiTe    Kkhmlisti' 

Field  Club.  Corr.  Mem.  of  Ibe  Boc. 
of  Antiij..  Scotland 

OlfoBSSBIRl    Oxford  The    Rev.   Jowpb    Boiworth,   D.D., 

F.E.8,  F.8.A.  SOBettuniont-squttre 

Banbury    Ra».GeorgeSl.Cl»ii,F.G.8.,F.A.8.L., 

F.E,8. 

SoMB&BETBHlBS  Soth K.  T.  Gore,  Esq.,  P.R.C.S.  GQuoenV 

square,  Bath  (^) 

SoBSEX   Brighton  HendrikAguUCbigaell,Ecq.,F.A.S.Ii. 

„  Lemt Mark  Authooj  Lower,  Esq.,  P.S.A. 

V/AHViaKiRiAKBinungAam   ...Dr.  BuItbasar'W.  FoBter.  £S  Haglej- 
road.  Edftbuton 

1864  YoBKBSiBE    ...iTuK  Kelburne  King.  Esq..  M.D.,  F.A.S.L. 

27  George-Btreet,  Hull 

1865  „  Eipon    B.    PostoD    Fiiby,    Esq.,    Qievel- 

thoTM,  BipoD 

„  Biehmond Edward  Wood,  Esq.,  F.O.S. 

„  Scarborough James  Chftmple7,Eiq.,H.D.,  F.A.S.L. 

„  York Samuel  W.   North,  Esq.,  M.B.C.S., 

F.A.S.L.  31  Castlegaie,  York 
Jkbbet  St.Bdier't James F.  Draper,  Esq.    ISDubamel- 


1865 
18C3 

1803 

18a3 

1863 

186.1 
:866 
1865 


1867 

1606 
1866 

1865 


ptoc 

1865  Caitbhbbb With Joseph  AndersoD,  Esq.    (1^) 

1863  Lahabkbhibb  OUugow J.  W.  Jftckeou,  F.A.S.L.     39  St. 

QiMTge's-iDad,  Qlftsgow 
1861  PiTMHiu .St.  Andrm'i Prof.  W.  MaodoDald,  F.L.S.,  F.O.S. 

Prof.  Civ.  k  Nftt.  Hist.,  St.  An- 

1863  Hbbridh  lilay Hector  Maclean,  Esq.,  F.A.S.L.,  Bal- 

lygiaat,  IsUy,  N.B. 

1866  Obkitbi EirhtaU   Oeorge  Petrie,  Esq.,  Corr,  Mem.  Soc 

Antiq.,  Scotland.  (1) 

186^2btlark    Lermet George  Smith,  Esq. 

ISSIVUlstbk BeifeuC   Brice  Smyth,  Esq.,  M.D.  13  College- 
square 

1867  „                         „  JohnGratt«n.Esq..M.R.C.S,F.A.S.L. 
1867         „                   Londonderry W.  Forester,  Esq.  (Messrs.  Ricbesand 

Co.),  Belfast. 

1864  CoHHADOUr   ...Oalioay W.    King,    Esq.,  Professor  of    Geo- 

logy, Queen's  ColUge 


27 


LOCAL    SECRETARIES    (ABROAD). 

1868  Africa  (West  Coast)  Andrew  Struthers,  Esq.  River  Congo 

1868        „  John  M*Cormack,  Esq.    Fernando  Po 

1866        „  Abheoikuta Henry  Mills,  Esq.,  K.A.S.L. 

1866        „  Gaboon R.  B.   N.  Walker,    Esq.,  P.R.aS., 

F.A.8.L.  (IT) 
1866        „  Oamhia W.  H.  Sherwood,  Esq.,  M.D.,  F.A.S.L. 

1864  Aloebia Thomas  Callaway,  M.R.C.S.  (Exam.) 

1844,  F.R.C.S.  (Exam.)  1847,  Mem. 
Fac.  Med.  Algeria  (Exam.)  1862, 
Mem.  Med.-Chir.  Soc.  Lond.  Maison 
Limozin,  Place  Reason,  Algiers. 
Care  of  Montague  Gossett,  Esq.  4 
Coleman  Street,  City 

1865  Argentine Ri-^M«no«  Ayrea  ...Facundo  Carulla,  Esq. 
1868      PDBLio  „  Daniel  Maxwell,  Esq. 

1866  „  Bosarto Charles  W.  Bollaert,  Esq. 

1866  „                   Gran  Chaco  ..4...W.  Perkins,  Esq.,  F.R.G.8. 
1863  AusT&iA Vienna M.  Franciscus  Miklosich 

1867  „  Briinn  Dr.  Kalmus 

1865  „  Hungary  Dr.  Maximilian  Herz 

1863        „  8tuMweiuenburg  Dr.  Julius  Schvarcz,  F.G.S.,  F.A.S.L. 

Member  of  the  Hungarian  Academy 
of  Sciences    (^) 

1867  „  Peaih Armin.  Yamb^y,  Esq.,  Prof,  in  the 

UniT. 

1863  „  Prague Dr.  Anton  Fritsch,  Director  of  the 

National  Museum  of  Bohemia 

1866  AuBT&ALiA    »„ Adelaide    Robert  Waters  Moore,  Esq. 

1868  „  Sydney  W.  Gosling  Moore,  Esq. 

1868        „  „  T.  A  Campbell,  Esq.,  L.T.P.  and  8. 

Glasgow,  L.M. 

1867  Barbadoes Rev.  T.  W.  Webb,  Principal  of  the 

Training  College,  Barbaaoes 

1864  Belgium    Brussels M.  Octave  Delepierre 

1866        „  LiSye M.  De  Kdninck 

1866  „  Namur M.  Alfred  Becquet 

1 863  BoBNEO Sardwak    E.  P.  Houghton,  Esq.,  M.D.,  M.R.C.S. 

(V  > 

1867  „  „  Alfred  Robert  Houghton,  Esq. 

1865  Bbazil  San  Salvador  de  Don  Antonio  de  La  Cerda,  jun. 

Bahia 

1866  „  Pard Alfred  Henry  Wilson,  Esq. 

1866        „  Rio  de  Janeiro  ...Richard  Austin,  Esq.,  F.A.S.L. 

1865  British  Columbia Captain  Edward  Stamp         ^ 

1866  Burmah Rangoon    William  Theobald,  Esq.,jun.,KA.S.L. 

1863  Canada Montreal   George  E.  Fen  wick,  Esq.,  MJ). 

1865  „  Labrador  The  Rev.  C.  Linder. 

1 863        „  Toronto Professor  Hincks 

1866  CniNA    Whami>oa  Dr.  H.  F.  Hance,  H.M.  Consul 

1863        „  William  Lockhart,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S. 

1863        „  A.  G.  Cross,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S. 

1865        „  Skanghae  A.  Michie,  Esq.,  F.A.S.L. 

1863  Ecuador J.  Spotbwood  Wilson,  Esq.,  F.R.G.S. 


X.MM  „  „ 


iSi'iO  IxDiA  Ahme'Inhnd  {(hizerat)!) 

l-^'u  „  Punjab  (Umhallah)    1) 

1«G7        „  J\ibb\dpor€y  JJeccan..,^. 

1866  Italy Turin Pi 

1867  „  Lugo^   Provime  di     Dr 

Ravenna  ( 

1863  Java Batavia Dr. 

1863  „         Cocos  lUands     J.  ( 

1866  Japah Jesso Sigi 

1866  J AUAic A,.. Kingston  Ale. 

1868  „  „  Cha 

1865  Madras  ...  J.  ^ 

1867  Malacca   Penang W. 

1865  „  Cochin  M.  C 

1866  Mexico  ...Mexico  W.  1 

1866  „  Real  Del  MonU    Ilenr 

1869  „  Zos  Af-amoSf  Province  ¥nxL 

of  tSonora 

1864  Natal    ...Spriiwvale    The 

1867  „  Port  Natal   Dr.  S 

1866        „           Pieter  Maritiburg  ...Jamc 
1866  New  Qranada  Panama M.  A 

1863  New  Zealand  Captt 

1866        „  Auckland Dr.  S 

18«6  ^OKW AY... Uergen  Dr.  ¥ 

1866        „  Throndjheim    S.  M( 

1864  NiCAKAQDA  Capt. 

1868  „  Matayalpa T.  H 

1868  ),  OrnnnA^ 


29 

1865  Russia   ...Moscow M.  Alexis  Fedschenko,  Secretanr  of 

the  Anthropological  Section  of  the 
Soci6t6  des  Amis  de  la  Nature, 
Moscow    (1 ) 

1864  Saxony  ...Leipzig Dr.  Alfred  von  Kremer 

1866   SlEKRA 

Leon  E  . . .  Freetoicn  Theodor  A.  Rosenbusch,  Esq.,  F. A.S.Ii. 

1864  Spain Oibraltar  Captain  Brome 

1867        „  Madrid Don  Julio  Yizcarrondi.    4  Oalle  del 

Soldado,  Madrid 

1864  ^^^ji'KSi  ...Stockholm Cand.  Med.  Gustaf  Retzius 

1867        „  Gotland Professor  Hildebrand 

1864        „  „  Dr.  Gustaf  Lindstrdm 

1867  TvRKEY... Smyrna James  McCraith,  Esq.,  M.D.,F.R.G.S. 

1867        „  Erzeroom  J.  Q.  Taylor,  Esq.,  H.M.  Consul 

1867        „  Broitssa Dr.  Zohrab 

1867        „  Constantinople Charles  W.  Heyland,  Esq.,  M.R.C.S. 

1867  „  „  Dr.  Pospuli 

1869        „  Cyprus  Dr.  Euclide.    Leucosia 

1868  United      Memphis  Frank   Ramsay,    Esq.,  M.D.,  M.A., 

States  Memphis 

1868        „  Louisville Dr.  H.  J.  Hulcee,  Louisrille,  U.S. 

1866  „  ^ew  York  Dr.  M.  H.  Henry,  Surgeon 

1867  „  Savannah James  J.  Waring,  Esq.,  M.D.,F.A.S.L. 

1864  „  San  Francisco R.  Beverley  Cole,  Esq.,  M.A.,  M.D., 

Ph.D. 
1863  Yanoouyeb's  Edward  B.  Bogge,  Esq.,  R.N. 

Island 

1865  Venezuela  Car(ira«   A.  Ernst,  Esq. 

1866  ViCTOBiA  Murray  River  George  Mott,  Esq.,  Momingside,  Al- 

bany, Murray  River 


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CwU«BUa,»»J«H«i.raJiJ..    OM>iA,»>o,rp.lU.raw9>, 


Tax  Puruun  or  tkb  Hrxu  Ru».  B7  Oaorge  Powlict,  ILD^  IJn«: 
Kt.Sd«a«t,Oi»r.lUnA.Ai*hiiey.So«.ofLBnJptt.  TnulMeiaBdl 
beo  lb*  gMMd  EMlkw,  tj  tb*  lM«  Hasti  J.  &  Bcana,  P.J.A.  FJ 
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Ti.  OiL,  clodh.   Lmmum. 

Lccn-u*  oa  Hu-  n*  Mam  id  Cnaliao,  nd  in  Um  HiMatT  ot  th»  1 
Bj  Dr.  CaA  Vagi,  PmUmmt  of  Huonl  HuLocy  in  ihe  Dninnilr  of  & 
Forrlfn  Jlawidilo  ol  Iba  AodiropQlogieal  Socutf  of  Parii,  bdJ  Hm 
Pullo*  ot  lb*  Aalkr^ologjed  BouUj  of  London.  EiUted  bj  Ihe  Uu : 
lloiit,  Focmder  4od  Flnt  Praridsnt  of  Ibe  Anthropologinl  Sode^oTLii 
One  foU  Sio,  pp.  l(li>i,  wiUi  127  Woodmts,  prife  I6«.,  cloth.    LoiaxAi 

Buixttn*eii  (J.  F.),  Liteb  axd  AanmopoLOGiciL  TosATuei  of,  incladii 
Ue  Utamit  Bninaiii  VarieUte  N*ti>ft,  snd  the  Dissenatia  Inangnn 
l>r.  JobD  HoDter.  Tnoilated  and  Bdited  bj  T.  Bendjshe,  U.A.,  FJ 
Fellow  of  King'ii  College,  Canbridge.    Ofis  voU  8to,  pp.  420,  prise  ISi 

LiKC  nieiTtnoni  un>  Puk-IIiitobic  Beiuiirt  in  the  Tnrbarie*  and  Had 
of  Votthera  and  Central  Italy.  By  Bartolomeo  GasUldi,  Profess 
MInaralogy  in  the  Sebool  of  Engineeiintt  of  Turin.  Translated  froi 
iMllan  and  Edited  by  Charles  Hareourt  Cbambers,M.A.,F.B.O.S,F.j 
Ona  vol.,  6to,  pp.  l'J8,  price  7b.  Sd, 


MEMOIRS. 


Vol.  I,  price  £1  Is. — containing 

1.  On  the  Nogro'a  Flaoe  io  Mttare.    By  the  UU  James  Hant,  Ph.D.,  F 
I'res.  A.S.L. 

a.  Od  the  Weight  of  the  Brain  in  the  N«gro.    By  Tbomaa  B,  Peacock, : 

F.R.S.,  F.A.S.L. 
n.  ObtervBtloan  od  the  Past  and  Preient  PopolaliooB  ot  the  New  World. 
W.  llollHeti,  F.A.3.L.