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intlieCitpotBmgork
THE LIBRARIES
Bequest of
Frederic Bancroft
1860-1945
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sjvAxiAU^^. iO)tkAA^ynJjj^^^^
A MEMORIAL
OF
ANDREW J. SHIPMAN
His Life and Writings
EDITED BY
CONDE B. FALLEN, Ph.D., LL.D.
NEW YORK
ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS, Inc.
23 EAST FORTY-FIRST STREET
9^^- 73
Copyright, jgi6,
The Encyclopedia Press, Inc.
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1. • •• • •
THIS volume is for a testimonial of the high esteem and
admiration in which the late Andrew J. Shipman was held
by his friends, whose names are herein inscribed. It is also, in
a measure, the perpetuation of some of his many achievements
in numerous fields of activity, as well as an inadequate though
affectionate tribute to his virtues as a citizen and a church-
man, whose thought, whose word and whose deed were always
in perfect accord with the high ideal of life which he cherished
so ardently and exemplified so nobly throughout his career.
The editor wishes to express his thanks to the pub-
lishers of "The Catholic Encyclopedia" (Moscow, Glagolitic,
Iconostasis, Hungarian Catholics in America, Slavs in America,
Slavonic Language and Liturgy, Greek Catholics in America,
Rites in the United States, Raskolniks) ; "The Catholic World"
(Spain of To-Day, Recent Impressions of Spain, McClure's,
Archer and Ferrer); "America" (How Ferrer Was Tried,
Latest Tactics as to Spain, The Poles in the United States) ;
"The Columbiad" (A Vision of American Citizenship, Stretch-
ing the Constitution, The Catholic Part in Civic Progress,
Cardinal Raphael Merry del Val) ; "McClure's Magazine" (An
American Catholic's Review of the Ferrer Case) ; "The Mes-
senger" (Our Italian Greek Catholics) for permission to re-
print articles of Mr. Shipman's originally appearing in their
respective publications.
CONTENTS
PoRTRALT OF Andrew Jackson Shipman .... FroYitisptece
FACE
List of Subscribers ^"
Resolutions
Biographical Sketch '^^^
Spain of To-day
Recent Impressions of Spain ^7
An American Catholic's View of the Ferrer Case ... 32
McClure's, Archer and Ferrer 47
The Latest Tactics as to Spain 66
The Situation in Portugal 7i
vIm migration to the United States ^3
v/The Poles in the United States loi
Our Italian Greek Catholics ^^
v<!:atholics of the Eastern Rites in the United States . . 121
Moscow ^^
Glagolitic ^^
iconostasis ^^^
^^ungarian Catholics in America ^55
>^LAvs IN America ^"^
Slavonic Language and Liturgy 182
Greek Catholics in America i^
Rites in the United States ^^3
Raskolniks • ^40
v^t^rvic Integrity ^49
yh Vision of American Citizenship ...... 255
Stretching the Constitution ^^^
vThe Catholic Part in Civic Progress V^
Roman Catholicism ^°^
The Church and Art • .297
Cardinal Raphael Merry del Val 305
Education and Religion • • • 3i9
Manners Maketh Man ^^7
Women in Science ^^^
Address to Graduates of the College of New Rochelle, 191 i . 339
Address to the Graduates of Georgetown University, 1911 . 348
The Proposed Catholic Association 355
SUBSCRIBERS TO
THE MEMORIAL OF ANDREW J. SHIPMAN
Adams, T. Albeus New York, N. Y.
Adikes, John Jamaica, N. Y.
Adrian, J. M New York, N. Y.
Agar, John G New York. N. Y.
Alexander, C. B New York, N. Y.
Amberg, John Ward Chicago, III.
Amy, L. H New York, N. Y.
Anderton, Stephen Philbin New York, N. Y.
Arkell, Mrs. Louisana Grigsby New York, N. Y.
Arnold, Edward A New York, N. Y.
August, Bro. Henry Pocantico Hills, N. Y.
Avery, Brainard New York, N. Y.
Bancroft, Edgar A Chicago, III.
Barrettt, Edmund E New York, N. Y.
Barron, Rev. James, c. ss. r Brooklyn, N. Y.
Beller, William F New York, N. Y.
Bennett, Wm. H Brooklyn, N. Y.
Benziger Brothers • New York, N. Y.
Benziger, Louis G Montclair, N. J.
Benziger, Nicholas C Summit, N. J.
Bernard, Very Rev. Father New York, N. Y.
Berri, William Brooklyn, N. Y.
Bisbee Council K. C Bisbee, Ariz.
Blake, Edward Perry New York, N. Y.
Blandford, Joseph H., Jr Brandywine, Md.
Blandy, Charles New York, N. Y.
Blaznik, Rev. Aloysius Leo. Haverstraw, N. Y.
Bodfish, William: A Pittsburgh, Pa.
Brackett, Edgar T .Saratoga Springs, N. Y.
Brann, Rt. Rev. Henry A., d.d New York, N. Y.
Britt, T. Louis A New York, N. Y.
Broderick, Daniel I Catonsville, Md.
vu
viii SUBSCRIBERS
Brophy, W. H BisBEE, Ariz.
Brozys, Rev. V. T i Mt, Carmel, Pa.
Burke, Martin M. Shenandoah, Pa.
Burr, William P New York, N. Y.
Butler, William , New York, N. Y.
Byrne, James New York, N. Y.
Cahill, John Henry New York, N. Y.
Cahill, Santiago P. New York, N. Y.
Callaway, Wm. T Quogue, N. Y.
Campbell, Francis P. ........ .< New Bedford, Mass.
Canevin, Rt. Rev. J. F. Regis Pittsburgh, Pa.
Cannon, Chas. M New York, N. Y.
Carolan, J. J New York, N. Y.
Carr, Henry P.. .Philadelphia, Pa.
Carton, Harold Jerome New York, N. Y.
Carton, James D.. Asbury Park, N. J.
Cassidy, John H Waterbury, Ct.
Catholic Club of New York City New York, N. Y.
Chamberlain, Mr. & Mrs. Albert S Hartford, Ct.
Chaplinsky, Very Rev. Mgr. Joseph. .Perth Amboy, N. J.
Chidwick, Rt. Rev. John P., d.d Yonkers, N. Y.
Clare, William F New York, N. Y.
Clearwater, Judge Alphonso T .Kingston, N. Y.
CoNATY, Rev. Bernard S Pittsfield, Mass.
CoNBOY, Martin New York, N. Y.
Condon, Martin J.. .Memphis, Tenn.
Connolly, Very Rev. Mgr. J. N .New York, N. Y.
Conrad, Rt. Rev. Frowin, o.s.b Conception, Mo,
Cooke, Abbot S Pittsburgh, Pa.
CoYLE, John G., m.d New York, N. Y.
Creighton University Library. . . ., Omaha, Nebr.
Crimmins, John D.. New York, N. Y.
Cruikshank, Alfred B New York, N. Y.
CsoPEY, Very Rev. Nicholas Wilkesbarre, Pa.
Cunningham, Francis A Merchantville, N. J.
Cunnion, Frank P ,. . . . .New York, N. Y.
Cybulski, Rev. M ,. Sioux City, Iowa
Daly, Rev. John A Dorchester, Mass.
Daly, Joseph F New York, N. Y.
SUBSCRIBERS ix
Daly, Michael J Brooklyn, N. Y.
Davey, Rev. J. C, s.j .Philadelphia, Pa.
Davison, Clarence! S .Tarrytown, N. Y.
De Courcy, Chas. a Lawrence, Mass.
Deitsch, Mary M Brooklyn, N. Y.
De Lacy, George C .New York, N. Y.
Delahanty, Daniel Pelham, N. Y.
Delahunty, John New York, N. Y.
Delany, Rev. Joseph F New York, N. Y.
DEs Garennes, Jean F. P Flushing, N. Y.
Devine, Thomas J Rochester, N. Y.
Devoy, John W Brooklyn, N. Y.
Deyo, Israel T Bingh amton, N. Y.
DiNAND, Rev. Joseph, s.j Worcester, Mass.
DoNLON, Rev. A. J., s.j Washington, D. C.
Donnelly, James F New York. N. Y.
DooLEY, John R New York, N. Y.
Dooley, Michael F Providence, R. I.
Dooley, William J Boston, Mass.
Douglas, Wm. Harris New York, N. Y.
Dowhovych, Very Rev. Waldimir Yonkers, N. Y.
DowLiNG, Rt. Rev. Austin Des Moines, Iowa
DowLiNG, Victor J New York, N. Y.
Downing, Augustus S Albany, N. Y.
Dreier, Katherine S New York, N. Y.
Drennan, Very Rev. M. A Niagara Falls, N. Y.
Duffy, Charles H New York, N. Y.
Duffy, John H New York, N. Y.
DuRoss, Charles E New York, N. Y.
Edwards, Rt. Rev. Mgr. John, v.g New York, N. Y.
Eglin, Geo. A Kalona, Iowa
EvERs, Very Rev. L. J New York, N. Y.
Faour, Dominick J New York, N. Y.
Fargis, Joseph H New York, N. Y.
Farley, His Eminence John Cardinal. .New York, N. Y.
Farrell, Very Rev. Herbert F., v.f. .Far Rockaway, N. Y.
Farrelly, Rt. Rev. John P Cleveland, Ohio
Finegan, Austin New York, N. Y.
FiNEGAN, Thos. E Albany, N. Y.
X SUBSCRIBERS
FiTZPATRiCK, James Philadelphia, Pa.
Flannelly, Rev. Jos. F New York, N. Y.
Foley, Rt. Rev. Mgr. M. F Baltimore, Md.
Franklin, Joseph Lehigh, Ala.
Frey, a. R New York, N. Y.
Frey, Joseph New York, N. Y.
Furey, John Brooklyn, N. Y.
Fyans, Cornelius J New York, N. Y.
Gannon, Frank S New York, N. Y.
Gannon, Frank S., Jr New York, N. Y.
Garver, John A New York, N. Y.
Gaughan, Rev. James H Minneapolis, Minn.
Gennert, Henry G New York, N. Y.
George, Abraham New York, N. Y.
Geringer, E.J Chicago, III.
GiBBS, Michael P St. Johns, Newfoundland
Gillespie, George J New York, N. Y.
Glass, Rt. Rev. Joseph S., d.d Salt Lake City, Utah
Glogowski, Very Rev. George Erie, Pa.
GosTOMSKi, Rev. Francis J., s.t.l Watervliet, N. Y.
Grady, Walter L Brooklyn, N. Y.
Gregg, Rev. Thomas F New York, N. Y.
Griffin, Very Rev. Wm. E. F Winona, Minn.
Grossman, Moses H New York, N. Y.
Guthrie, William D New York, N. Y.
Haggerty, Louis C New York, N. Y.
Haire, Andrew J New York, N. Y.
Halloran, Miss Lizzie Nashville, Tenn.
Hamilton, George E Washington, D. C.
Hanley, Rev. Joseph, s.j Baltimore, Md.
Hanselman, Very Rev. Joseph F., s.j Woodstock, Md.
Hanulya, Very Rev. Joseph Pittsburgh, Pa.
Harkins, Rt. Rev. Matthew Providence, R. I.
Harris, Charles N New York, N. Y.
Hayes, Cady Lanesboro, Minn.
Hayes, Rt. Rev. Patrick J., d.d New York, N. Y.
Healy, James A New York, N. Y.
Heide, Henry New York, N. Y.
Hendrick, Peter A New York, N. Y.
SUBSCRIBERS xi
Herbermann, Chas. G., ph.d., ll.d New York, N. Y.
Herder, B St. Louis, Mo.
Herrick, John R. Ottumwa, Iowa
Heuser, Rev. Herman J Overbrook, Pa.
HicKEY, Rev. David J Brooklyn, N. Y.
HiCKEY, Rev. John F Cincinnati, Ohio
HiCKEY, Rev. Wm. D Dayton, Ohio
Him MEL, Rev. Joseph, s.j So. Norwalk, Ct.
Hine, Charles DeLano Vienna, Va.
Hirst, Anthony A Philadelphia, Pa.
Hirst Library and Reading Room Washington, D. C.
HOENNINGER, JOHN C NeW YoRK, N. Y.
Horsey, Outerbridge New York, N. Y.
Hotchkiss, Howard P New Haven, Ct.
HowLETT, M. P Philadelphia, Pa.
Hume, Nelson New Milford, Ct.
Hurley, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Edw. F Lexington, Mass.
Hynes, Thomas W Brooklyn, N. Y.
Ignatius, Mother M New Rochelle, N. Y.
Jackson, Frederick S New York, N. Y.
Jenks, Jeremiah W New York, N. Y.
Joyce, Henry L New York, N. Y.
Keane, Most Rev. John J Dubuque, Iowa
Keany, Joseph F .Brooklyn, N. Y.
Kearney, Robt. S New York, N. Y.
Keating, Henry Philadelphia, Pa.
Keilty, M.J Geneva, N. Y.
Kellogg, Walter Guest Ogdensburg, N. Y.
Kelly, Edward Jeremiah E. Orange, N. J.
Kenedy, Arthur New York, N. Y.
Kent, Mrs. Percy New York, N. Y.
Kernan, Joseph A New York, N. Y.
Kerrigan, Joseph P Cynwyd, Pa.
Kiernan, Patrick Maywood, N. J.
King, Percy J New York, N. Y.
Kisilowsky, Rev. Filemon Ansonia, Ct.
Knappek, Rev. Paul .Newark, N. J.
Kober, Dr. George Martin Washington, D. C.
xii SUBSCRIBERS
KuBEK, Rev. Emil A Mahanoy City, Pa.
Kuziv, Rev. Michael Northampton, Pa.
Langan, Jno. C Brooklyn, N. Y.
Lavelle, Rt. Rev. Mgr. M. J New York, N. Y.
Law^ler, Joseph A Philadelphia, Pa.
Lawyer, Florence Shipman Yonkers, N. Y.
Lawyer, Marion Shipman Yonkers, N. Y.
Leckie, a. E. L Washington, D. C.
Lee, Thomas Zanzlaur Providence, R. L
Leigo, Kathryn McGuckin Philadelphia, Pa.
Lennon, Maurice F Joliet, III.
Lesley, Eulalia W Haverford, Pa.
Library of St. Joseph's Convent Brentwood, N. Y.
Lilly, Joseph T Brooklyn, N. Y.
LisicKY, Rev. Paul J Lansford, Pa.
Lisiecki, Frank F New York, N. Y.
Lord, Chester S Brooklyn, N. Y.
Louis, Mother M Brentwood, N. Y.
Low, Seth Bedford Hills, N. Y.
Loyola College Library Baltimore, Md.
Loyola School New York, N. Y.
Lynch, John H . .New York, N. Y.
McAlenney, Paul Francis Hartford, Ct.
McAvoy, Thomas F New York, N. Y.
McCabe, Rev. F. X., cm Chicago, III.
McCarthy, Florence J New York, N. Y.
McCuE, Rev. Edward J , New York, N. Y.
McDevitt, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Philip R Philadelphia, Pa.
MacDonald, a. a., m.d Boston, Mass.
McDonogh, M. F Philadelphia, Pa.
McFarlan, Walter Sardo Washington, D. C.
McGean, Rt. Rev. Mgr. J. H New York, N. Y.
McGoldrick, Edward J , New York, N. Y.
McGoLRiCK, Rt. Rev. James Duluth, Minn.
McGuire, Edward J New York, N. Y.
McGuiRE, Wm. J New York, N. Y.
McHugh, Joseph P New York, N. Y.
McIntyre, Rev. James T New York, N. Y.
McKechnie, W. G Springfield, Mass.
SUBSCRIBERS xiii
McKenna, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Edw New York, N. Y.
McKenna, James A.. New York, N. Y.
Mackenzie, Mrs. Jane New York, N. Y.
McMahon, Rev. Jos. H., ph.d New York, N. Y.
McManus, Edward F New York, N. Y.
McNaboe, James F New York, N. Y.
McNaboe, Peter V New York, N. Y.
McParlan, Edward C. m.d New York, N. Y.
McPartland, John E New Haven, Ct.
McQuiLLEN, Paul Wm Passaic, N. J.
Magrath, Patrick F Binghamton, N. Y.
Maloney, Marquis Martin Philadelphia, Pa.
Malville, Neptune J San Francisco, Cal.
Mandeville, H. C Elmira, N. Y.
Mangan, Elizabeth . Brooklyn, N. Y.
Manley, Capt. Alfred London, Ontario
Markham, Francis J New York, N. Y.
Marshall, Louis New York, N. Y.
Mason, Jarvis W New York, N. Y.
Mastick, Seabury C New York, N. Y.
Menahan, p. J Brooklyn, N. Y.
Messmer, Most Rev. Sebastian, d. d Milwaukee, Wis.
Moakley, William P New York, N. Y.
Molloy, Joseph A New York, N. Y.
Monaghan, Hugh L, ll.b Philadelphia, Pa.
Mooney, Edmund L New York, N. Y.
Mooney, Henry W New York, N. Y.
Mooney, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Joseph New York, N. Y.
Mooney, Wm. L Hartford, Ct.
Moot, Adelbert Buffalo, N. Y.
Moran, James, m. d New York, N. Y.
Mount Saint Vincent, College of New York, N. Y.
Muldoon, Rt. Rev. P. J Rockford, III.
Mullen, John J West Springfield, Mass.
Mulligan, James R Newark, N. J.
Murphy, Francis P New York, N. Y.
Murphy, John H New York, N. Y.
Murphy, Nora Ypsilanti, Mich.
Murphy, Rt. Rev. Mgr. W. G New York, N. Y.
Murray, Archibald, m. d New York, N. Y.
xiv SUBSCRIBERS
Murray, Chas New York, N. Y.
Murray, Thomas Edward New York, N. Y.
Newman, James J Brooklyn, N. Y.
Nolan, James C St. Paul, Minn.
Noonan, Rev. Hebert C, s. j Milwaukee, Wis.
NussA, Rafael Lopez, m. d Ponce, Porto Rico
O'Brien, John E New York, N. Y.
O'Brien, Michael C, m. d, . New York, N. Y.
O'Connor, John P St. Paul, Minn.
O'Donnell, Rev. Richard Alderbrook, N. Y.
O'DoNovAN, Charles. Baltimore, Md.
O'DwYER, John Toledo, Ohio
Ohligschlager, Jacob B Louisville, Ky.
O'Keefe, John Philadelphia, Pa.
O'Neill, Rev. John J Brooklyn, N. Y.
O'Neill, Wm. M. A., ll.b Highland Falls, N. Y.
Orr, William C New York, N. Y.
Orun, Rev. Zachary Nanticoke, Pa.
O'Shaughnessy, E. J New York, N. Y.
Pace, Rev. E. A Washington, D. C.
Pajkowski, Rev. Jos. S Chicago. III.
Palen-Klar, Adolphe J Brooklyn, N. Y.
Pallen, Conde B New York, N. Y.
Pavlak, Rev. Alexander Boston, Mass.
Payne, John Carroll Atlanta, Ga.
Pelletier, J. C Boston, Mass.
Pendergast, J. Lynch New York, N. Y.
Phelan, Rev. Thomas P Brewster, N. Y.
Philbin, Hon. Eugene A New York, N. Y.
Philip, Joseph , Dundee, Scotland
Phillips, Samuel K Beacon, N. Y.
PiTAss, Rev. Alex., ph.d., d. d Buffalo, N. Y.
Plaznik, Rev. John Joliet, III.
Poniatishin, Rev. Peter Newark, N. J.
Power, John M Helena, Mont.
Preisser, Rev. Stephen Anthony Syracuse, N. Y.
Prendergast, William A New York, N. Y.
Proffitt, Rev. Chas. C Garnerville, N. Y.
SUBSCRIBERS xv
Prystay, Rev. Alex Syracuse, N. Y.
PuLLEYN, John Joseph New York, N. Y.
QuiNLAN, Francis J New York, N. Y.
Raczynski, Rev. A Cicero, III.
Rainer, Rt. Rev. Mgr. J., v. g St. Francis, Wis.
Rauh, Joseph A New Rochelle, N. Y.
Redemptorist Fathers, St. Wenceslaus' Rectory,
Baltimore, Md.
Reiley, Robert J New York, N. Y.
Reilly, Frederick J New York, N. Y.
Reilly, Richard M Lancaster, Pa.
Religious Sacred Heart of Mary Tarrytown, N. Y.
RiDDER, Henry New York, N. Y.
RiGGS, Thomas L New London, Ct.
Rooney, John C New York, N. Y.
Rooney, John Jerome New York, N. Y.
RowE, Charles T. B New York, N. Y.
RuDULPH, Zebulon Thomas Birmingham, Ala.
Russell, Chas. T New York, N. Y.
Ruth, Anna Frances : . . S. Pasadena, Cal.
Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church of St. George
New York, N. Y.
Ryan, John D New York, N. Y.
Ryder, Thomas J Mexico, D. F.
St. Xavier College Cincinnati, Ohio
Salamon, Rev. John D Elizabeth, N. J.
Schneider, Fred M Brooklyn, N. Y.
Schrembs, Rt. Rev. Joseph Toledo, Ohio
ScHWEBACH, Rt. Rev. Jas La Crosse, Wis.
Scott, Joseph Los Angeles, Cal.
Seitz, Charles Goldfield, Nev.
Seoane, Capt. Consuelo Andrew Fort Bayard, N. M.
Shahan, Rt. Rev. Thos. J Washington, D. C.
Shallow, Edward B Brooklyn, N. Y.
Sheahan, Very Rev. J. F Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
Sheedy, Dr. Bryan D New York, N. Y.
Shepard, Mrs. Finley J Irvington, N. Y.
Shields. George C Mansfield, Mass.
xvi SUBSCRIBERS
Shipman, Carroll San Francisco, Cal.
Shipman, Mary Priscilla Washington, D. C.
Shipman, May P Washington, D. C.
Sisters of Charity. . .Mt. St. Vincent-on-Hudson, N. Y.
Sloane, Chas. W Sands Point, N. Y.
Smith, Edward N Watertown, N. Y.
Smith, Frank W.. . . . .u .New York, N, Y.
Smith, Rev. Joseph F New York, N. Y.
Smith, Walter George Philadelphia, Pa.
Spalding, Hughes Atlanta, Ga.
Spencer, Nelson S New York, N. Y.
Spillane, Re\^ Edward, s. j .Philadelphia, Pa.
Stelle, Peter R New York, N. Y.
Sterniuk, Rev. Myron Detroit, Mich.
Stetson, Eliz. Carroll Shipman Washington, D. C.
Stevens, Frank L.. New York, N. Y.
Stoughton, Mr. and Mrs. C. R New York, N. Y.
Strenski, Rev. Emil F Jamaica, N. Y.
Sullivan, F. W Duluth, Minn.
Synnott, Rt. Rev. Mgr. John Hartford, Ct.
SzABo, Rev. John Toronto, Ohio
Tack, Theodore A Philadelphia, Pa.
Taintor, F. B New York, N. Y.
Tennant, John A New York, N. Y.
Thompson, Mrs. Campau Detroit, Mich.
Thornton, Rev. Thos. A New York, N. Y.
Tierney, Wm. L Greenwich, Ct.
TiHEN, Rt. Rev. J. H Lincoln, Nebr.
ToBiN, Chas. J Albany, N. Y.
Tobin, Jos. S San Francisco, Cal.
Tooley, Francis Laurence, d. d. s New York, N. Y.
Treacy, Richard S New York, N. Y.
Van Antwerp, Rev. F. J., ll. d Detroit, Mich.
Vander Veer, A Albany, N. Y.
Wakim, Rev. Francis New York, N. Y.
Wall, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Francis H New York, N. Y.
Walsh, Jas. J., m. d New York, N. Y.
Ward, Cabot New York, N. Y.
SUBSCRIBERS xvii
Webber, Charles A Brooklyn, N. Y.
Wehrle, Rt. Rev. Vincent Bismarck, N. D.
Welch, Chas. J Port Washington, N. Y.
Westwood, Herman J Fredonia, N. Y.
Wielebinski, Rev. John N Schenectady, N. Y.
Willcox, James M Villa Nova, Pa.
Williams, Michael San Francisco, Cal.
Wingerter, Chas. A., m. d Wheeling, W. Va.
Wolf, Rt. Rev. Innocent, o. s. b Atchison, Kan.
Wolfe, P. B Clinton, Iowa
Wood, Frank S Batavia, N. Y.
WooDLocK, Thomas F Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
Wren, Peter W Bridgeport, Ct.
Wynne, Rev. John J., s. j New York, N. Y.
Yawman, Philip H Rochester, N. Y.
Zeedick, Peter Ivan, m. d Pittsburgh, Pa.
RESOLUTIONS ON
THE DEATH OF
ANDREW JACKSON SHIPMAN
RESOLUTIONS
St. George's Ruthenian Greek Catholic Benevolent
Association
At a meeting of the St. George Ruthenian Greek CathoHc
Benevolent Association, held on November 6, at 28 East
Seventh Street, New York City, resolutions in memory of the
late ANDREW JACKSON SHIPMAN were unanimously
adopted. Mr. Shipman had been for four years the only
honorary member of the association — a signal mark of friend-
ship and grateful esteem on the part of the Greek-Ruthenians
toward a benefactor whose services in behalf of the CathoHcs
of the Uniat churches in this country cannot be overestimated.
That the Greek Catholics feel keenly the loss they have
sustained in Mr. Shipman's death, and cherish gratefully
the memory of the brilliant services he performed for their
welfare and prosperity, the memorial eloquently sets forth.
Tribute is paid to the upright life and noble citizenship of the
deceased, which are pronounced an inspiration to his fellows.
The tribute closed with an expression of sincere sympathy
and condolence with Mr. Shipman's sorrowing family, and
bears the following signatures : The Rev. N. Pidhorecki, presi-
dent ; B. Hociak, O. Sawicki, M. Sterka, Petro Palega, N.
Wisciak.
XXI
xxii RESOLUTIONS
MoHANSic State Hospital
We, the Board of Managers of the Mohansic State Hos-
pital, in annual meeting assembled, to record how highly we
valued the life : how deeply we deplore the death of our
honored and beloved president, do resolve :
Whereas, from the inception of this Board
ANDREW JACKSON SHIPMAN
has been its president and although this was but one of the
many disinterested public burdens that he assumed, he de-
voted without stint his time, his great talents and his wide
learning to its affairs.
Unattended by the acclaim of the multitude he served !
The recipient of no personal reward from the vast interests
for which he labored, he spent with generous prodigality in
the public service a large measure of the life allotted to him.
He was a man upon whom the state leaned and he became
a pillar of her strength, and
Whereas, his kindly, courteous and noble character has
endeared him to us and to all with whom he was associated.
Resolved, that in his death, which occurred on October
17th, 1 91 5, his country and his state lost a model citizen, a
generous patriot and we and all his associates a loved and
honored friend. To his immediate family in their immeasur-
able loss, we can but tender our deepest sympathy.
Resolved, that this resolution be spread upon our minutes
and a copy sent to his family.
A. OuTRAM Sherman,
Secretary.
Helen Gould Shepard Mary Flexner
John J. Crennan Seabury C. Mastick
William D, Granger
RESOLUTIONS xxiii
Georgetown Alumni Society of New York
By the death of
MR. ANDREW J. SHIPMAN
the
Georgetown Alumni Society
of New York City
has lost one of its most distinguished and zealous members.
His ever ready service, his generous co-operation in every-
thing that promoted the welfare of his Alma Mater and the
Alumni Society, his warm friendship for his fellow-alumni,
and his generous assistance whenever the occasion offered,
not only endeared him to all, but made him a shining example
of devotion which few can emulate but none excel.
His generous nature led him to give his time and talents
without stint to every worthy cause.
The distinguished position which he won by solid merit in
his profession, his notable public and civic services which
he gave freely and with largess in more than one direction, his
sturdy and uncompromising love of truth and justice as a
Publicist, the great work which he accompHshed out of the
fullness of his charity for the Catholics of the Uniat Churches
in the United States, make a unique and distinguished record
which is a source of just pride and gratification to his fellow-
alumni.
While his loss in death is the cause of deep grief, his
illustrious example in life is a source of great consolation.
To his afflicted family the
New York Alumni Society
extends its profoundest sympathy.
J. Lynch Prendergast,
President.
James S. McDonogh,
Secretary.
xxiv RESOLUTIONS
The Encyclopedia Press, Inc.
At a meeting of the
Board of Directors
of the
Encyclopedia Press, Inc.
held November, 191 5, the following resolution was upon
motion unanimously adopted.
In the death of
MT^. ANDREW J. SHIPMAN,
a Director of the Encyclopedia Press, Inc., this Company
suffers a loss which can be no more estimated than the grief
of his fellow-Directors can be expressed in words.
Not only is this Company deprived of his most valuable
and generous services, but many other important interests,
both civil and ecclesiastical, suffer likewise.
The readiness, ability and wisdom with which he pro-
moted the enterprise of publishing "The Catholic Encyclopedia"
are entitled to the unceasing gratitude, not only of those with
whom he co-operated in the production of the work, but of
all who in any way derived benefit from its use. His name
should be inseparably connected with this enterprise.
The Directors of this Company and the Editors of "The
Catholic Encyclopedia" express their deepest sympathy with
Mr. Shipman's Widow and Family.
Conde B. Pallen,
President.
W. C. J. Magee,
Secretary.
John J. Wynne
Arthur Kenedy
Thomas F. Woodlock
Eugene A. Philbin
John D. Crimmins
Chas. W. Sloane
Thomas J. Shahan
Edward A. Pace
RESOLUTIONS xxv
Xavier Alumni Society
Cor unum et anima una
At a Regular Meeting of the
Council of the
Xavier Alumni Sodality
of the City of New York
held on the 28th day of November, 191 5, the following
resolution offered by
John B. Doyle
was unanimously adopted :
Whereas,
ANDREW JACKSON SHIPMAN
has passed away, and
Whereas, during the years of his life's work he was con-
stant in his devotion to the
Xavier Alumni Sodality
as Sodalist, as President and in its Council, and —
Whereas, his passing is a loss not only to the Sodality but,
in its deepest significance, to the Church and to the State, for
in him was realized the noblest ideal of a Christian gentle-
man. With a personality of rare simplicity he combined the
choicest gifts of mind and heart; his remarkable talents and
attainments he used ungrudgingly for the benefit of others
and to make our Faith better understood; he pursued the
Law as a vocation of honor and of cherished traditions; he
served the State purely, turning from praise or emolument ;
he ever championed the Right and in particular the Eternal
Right of Christ's Teaching, and by his stainless character,
his respect for her authority, and his observance of her
ordinances, reflected in every day of his life the spirit of holy
Mother Church. Therefore, it is
Resolved, that this be adopted as the unanimous sentiment
at our grief and that it be spread upon the minutes of the
Council of the Xavier Alumni Sodality. And it is
Further Resolved, that a copy hereof be engrossed and
signed by the President and the Reverend Moderator and
presented to the wife of our late lamented member to express
in some measure our sorrow and sympathy.
John A. Ryan,
President.
T. J. Campbell, s.j.
Moderator.
xxvi RESOLUTIONS
Catholic Club of New York
The Catholic Club of the City of New York at its
regular monthly meeting held at the club house on November
nth, 1915, unanimously adopted the following memorial of
MR. ANDREW J. SHIPMAN and directed its entry on the
minutes.
Andrew J. Shipman died at his home in this City on
October 17th, 191 5. He had been a member of this Club
for more than sixteen years. He served as a member of the
Board of Managers in 1908-9. He was one of the Vice-
Presidents in 1909-10-11.
His character was admirable. His intellect was of the
highest order. His personality was charming. He was a man
of great vigor of thought and of loyalty to principle. He
joined to these remarkable qualities an industry which was
probably his most extraordinary gift.
In all his official duties while an officer and manager of this
club he illustrated this vigor, loyalty and industry so well
that when he retired in 191 1, he left behind him a reputa-
tion for efficiency which still continues. He was particularly
zealous in all matters relating to learning and philosophy and
the intellectual life. As chairman of the Library Committee
he served the Club with signal success.
His work in other ways is known to every one. He shed
lustre on our membership by his achievements. Whether at
work in his profession of the law or in public affairs or in
the special field to which he devoted so much of both his
mind and his heart in his later years, the care and protection of
the Uniat Catholics of the Oriental rites ; the fame of his
deeds was received by his fellow members of the Catholic
Club with affectionate satisfaction.
He did excellent work in the Constitutional Convention
of 1915. Indeed it was his zeal and untiring devotion to
his duties as a delegate which broke down his vigorous health
and brought about his untimely death.
In the midst of these great labors he remained one of
the gentlest of men. He endeared himself to all by his genial
disposition and his unselfishness. He was one of our most
beloved members and his passing leaves a real gap among us.
God in His Divine Providence has removed him in the
flower of his activity and success. We are sure that he has
passed to the great reward of His good and faithful servant.
RESOLUTIONS xxvii
Catholic Theatre Movement
The Executive Board of the Catholic Theatre Movement
at its regular monthly meeting held at the residence of
Right Reverend Monsignor Lavelle, 460 Madison Avenue, on
February 7th, 1916, unanimously adopted the following me-
morial of MR. ANDREW J. SHIPMAN and directed its entry
on the minutes.
Andrew J. Shipman had a charming personality, an in-
tellect of the highest order, a character of sterling quality.
He gave all these things to the service of the Catholic
Theatre Movement, joined with an industry which was re-
markable. He was one of the organizers of this society and
helped to mark out the lines for its progress and to find out
the ways for its development. His culture and knowledge
of books and men helped greatly in the formation of the
plans for the beginnings of the difficult work it took charge
of. He continued earnest and interested until his untimely
death.
We desire to record here our sorrow at his departure
from among us and to express to the members of his
family our deep sympathy in their bereavement.
Austin Finegan,
Secretary.
xxviii ■ RESOLUTIONS
The Marquette League
Whereas, The Board of Directors of The Marquette League
for Indian Welfare have learned with profound regret of
the death of ANDREW J. SHIPMAN, for five years one of
the Vice-presidents of this League. He actively shared in the
management of the society and has left the impress of his
forceful personality on all its activities during the period of
his connection with it. The loss of so valued a citizen has
evoked a general and profound expression of regret in which
we, his former associates of The Marquette League, desire
to formally join.
Wherefore, As an expression of the intimate and par-
ticular loss occurring to this society by reason of the death
of Andrew J. Shipman,
Be It Resolved, That this formal expression of regret be
forwarded Mrs. Andrew J. Shipman and that it be spread
upon the minutes of this meeting, the first since Mr. Ship-
man's death.
Eugene A. Philbin,
President.
Alfred J. Talley,
Secretary.
RESOLUTIONS xxix
New York State Board of Regents
Abstract from the Journal of a Meeting of the Board
OF Regents of the University of the
State of New York
Held in the State Education Building, Albany,
October 21, IQ13
The Board of Regents of the University of the State of
New York met in the Regents' Chamber in the Education
Building, Albany, at 10 a. m., October 21, 1915, pursuant to
a call duly sent to each Regent as provided by law.
The meeting was called to order by Vice Chancellor
Vander Veer.
The following Regents were present: Vice Chancellor
Albert Vander Veer, Regents Chester S. Lord, William
Nottingham, Francis M. Carpenter, Abram L Elkus, Adelbert
Moot, Charles B. Alexander, John Moore and Walter Guest
Kellogg. The President of the University and Commissioner
of Education was also present.
The Vice Chancellor reported an excuse for absence from
Chancellor Sexton, which was voted satisfactory.
IN MEMORY OF REGENT SHIPMAN
Vice Chancellor Vander Veer read a letter from Chancellor
Sexton as follows :
October 20, 191 5.
The Honorable Albert Vander Veer,
My Dear Vice Chancellor:
It will not be possible for me to attend the meeting of the
Regents to-morrow, and I respectfully request them to excuse
my absence.
You will have just returned from the funeral of our de-
parted brother, Regent Shipman, whose death has made us
all very sorrowful. To the tributes which will be paid to him
by the Regents and entered in their Journal, I would like
to add an expression of my own great regard for Doctor
Shipman.
My acquaintance with him has been short, having begun
with his entrance into our Board, and our official relations
XXX RESOLUTIONS
therein have been mainly my opportunities for knowing him.
But such association quickly made him a highly esteemed
personal friend, and revealed him to me as an admirable man
of marked ability and earnest devotion to noble purpose.
His usefulness as a Regent of the University was great and
increasing, and his counseling will be missed in our delibera-
tions.
We will be moved to mention at this time our appreciation
of his valuable service to the State in the recent Constitutional
Convention, and we will gratefully recall the quieting satis-
faction we had in knowing that he was one of the leading
members of its committee on education.
The members of the Board will probably wish to have in-
serted in our Journal a portrait of Regent Shipman, together
with a biographical sketch of his general career.
With kindest regards.
Very sincerely yours,
Pliny T. Sexton.
Remarks by Vice Chancellor Vander Veer
My Brother Regents:
We deeply regret the absence of our dearly beloved Chan-
cellor Sexton. His absence, I understand, is due to illness
in his family, though not of an alarming nature. He will be
greatly missed, not only in our official duties for the day, but
during the entire Convocation.
The sudden and unexpected death of one of our asso-
ciates brings us a sorrow that will permeate all our delibera-
tions. In the death of Regent Shipman we are called upon
to part with an unusually able fellow worker. He was un-
tiring in his devotion to his duties as a Regent, and his very
presence was one of cheer and comfort, especially when we
had serious problems to consider. He was a broad-minded
citizen, thoroughly posted upon a great variety of subjects, and
possessed a knowledge with which we can ill afford to part.
It seems proper that we should make record in our min-
utes of our great respect for Regent Shipman and our deep
appreciation for the past few years of beneficial assistance
granted us by him. When we reach our roll call it will be the
saddest in a period of nearly twenty years. To his family
RESOLUTIONS xxxi
how sad must be the parting, and to them we can offer much
in comfort and consolation.
Tribute of Regent Lord
We meet this morning in profound sorrow because of the
departure from us, to return no more, of our friend and co-
worker, Regent Shipman. I am sure that we all had come
to be very fond of him because of his genial and kindly ways,
his overflowing cheerfulness and his splendid companionship.
He was a man of high ideals and of inborn refinement, a
scholar in the fullest sense of the term, a pillar in the church,
a comfort and a delight to his family circle, a man and a citizen
above reproach. Those of us who attended his funeral yes-
terday were profoundly impressed by the outpouring of people
who had come to do him honor, and by the beauty and the
solemnity of the service over his mortal remains.
As a member of this Board he was able and faithful and
willing, always ready to do a little more than his share and
always performing every service with conscientious loyalty.
His knowledge of the ways of the world and his conspicuous
erudition especially fitted him to be an educator. He was a
most useful member and we sorrow over his loss as an ad-
viser and a helper, while we grieve over the departure of a
friend and a cherished companion.
Tribute of Regent Nottingham
This circle has been suddenly and stealthily invaded by
that messenger whose summons in cases like that of Regent
Shipman means rest from earthly cares and labors and a call
to activity in a wider sphere. He went out from us in the
prime of life, with his "shadow just falling to the East," and
in such apparent fulness of strength that we can scarce per-
suade ourselves that he has not just stepped out for a moment,
rather than departed not to return. Regent Shipman brought
with him to this office a full appreciation of its importance
and a keen sense of personal responsibility in the discharge
of its duties. During his term of service, cut short by death,
he evinced, by the study of every question and patient atten-
tion to detail, his interest and love for the work. He enter-
tained positive convictions upon mooted questions, and was
xxxii RESOLUTIONS
always frank and outspoken in debate. Regent Shipman was
an untiring student, and a scholar of wide and varied attain-
ments, with much opportunity for travel and large acquain-
tance with men and affairs. As a lawyer he stood in the first
rank of the profession; and in the recent Constitutional Con-
vention he did most important work. As an associate and
co-worker in this Board I need not say to you that his effi-
ciency, geniality and consideration endeared him to us all.
Tribute of Regent Elkus
It was with keen personal regret that I learned of the loss of
our friend, Regent Shipman. I have personally known him
for many years and respected and esteemed him for his great
ability, his industry and his high character and ideals. It
has been my pleasure to have served with him upon many of
the committees of this Board, and thus to acquaint myself
with the care and consideration which he gave to all his work
and with the absolute fairness and impartiality of his mind and
with the clearness of his judgment. He was a real lover
of the work and the duties of the Board of Regents. The
problems connected with the training of the young and the
education of the elders for the professions, were to him tasks
he esteemed as of the highest order and to which he was
always ready to give his time, his best thought and his ability.
His loss will be a personal one to all of us, as well as a great
one to the cause of education and to the State. He found time
to serve as a member of the recent Constitutional Convention,
and there rendered great service not only in the cause of educa-
tion but in all the problems connected with the administration
of justice and other public matters.
Tribute of Regent Moot
Regent Shipman came to our Board a stranger to me, ex-
cept that I had known of him as a scholarly lawyer of high
repute, who was a member of a well-established law firm in
New York City. After he became a member of our Board,
he served upon committees with me, as well as upon the Board,
and I came to value highly his judgment in matters as to
which we had responsibility. He was so faithful, so modest,
so scholarly, so considerate, so helpful, that our relations
RESOLUTIONS xxxiii
soon ceased to be official relations, and became, rather, the
close, intimate and friendly relations of persons engaged in
some good work who are doing their best to promote the
common weal. At our last session at Buffalo, I could but
notice the modesty with which he received the compliments
showered upon him for his very helpful and intelligent work
in connection with educational matters in the Constitutional
Convention, of which he was a distinguished member ; he being,
in fact, the only member of our body in that convention. He
understood our ways and our policies, and it was an invaluable
service he rendered to the people of this State in making our
ways and our policies known to members of the convention, so
modestly and yet so well that the convention, almost without
discussion, provided in the Constitution for our continuance
in well doing.
I shall never forget the evening after the adjournment of
our Board at Buffalo the pleasure I had in having Regent
Shipman and his wife dine with me; then I became their
guest at a simple entertainment, and once again the genial,
pleasant, companionable and inspiring nature of the man
revealed itself, and once again I saw his devotion to his wife,
and thoroughly understood the cause for it. After the evening
thus spent so agreeably that I shall never forget it, we bade
each other "good-bye," and the next I knew of Regent Ship-
man was the announcement of his death in the public press.
His loss is not only a loss to the State and to our body offi-
cially, but I believe it is a personal loss to each one of us, as
I know it is a personal loss to me.
Tribute of Regent Kellogg
Regent Shipman was a scholar of attainments, a distin-
guished lawyer, hard working, conscientious and thorough in
everything that he did, zealous in his desire to serve the State
and, with his many capabilities, rendering the State a splendid
service. In his death, I have lost a good friend, and we a
valued associate.
Remarks by President Finley
The death of Regent Shipman gave us special shock because
there had been no word preparing us for it. When I last saw
xxxiv RESOLUTIONS
him, at the Regents' Meeting in Buffalo, I put into his hands
some printed information about lake trips, hoping that he
would find in a journey on the Great Lakes rest and refresh-
ment after his unremitting labors of the summer, for I had
had opportunity to know with what diligence and taxing of
his strength he served the State during the months of the
summer. The little room between the Regents' Chamber and
my room was made his room and there he spent many hours
at work until the sittings of his committees and of the Con-
vention compelled his presence at the Capitol.
And it was that intimacy of association which permitted me
to know the breadth of his interest, the tolerance of his spirit
and the quick flaming of his mind in behalf of justice or in
sympathy with those who have suffered oppression or hard-
ship.
I recall with satisfaction and gratitude that he was of
the committee appointed by your Honorable Board to notify
me formally of my election as President of the University
and Commissioner of Education, and that the relationship
which followed was most cordial and fraternal to the very
end.
To have earned distinction in his profession, to have evoked
such tribute as was given him by his church and the church
of the Slavic people whom he befriended, and to have had
a deserved place in the highest educational board in the
State, are witnesses that he served exceptionally his day and
generation.
His death, in its very untimeliness, as it seems to us, in-
tensifies our sense of loss, for we lose not only his presence
but the prospect of his help through years to come.
On motion of Regent Alexander, it was
Voted, That the communication of the Chancellor and the
remarks of the Vice Chancellor and the President of the Uni-
versity, together with a biographical sketch and portrait of
Regent Shipman, be embodied in the Journal of this meeting,
and that Regent Moore be requested to make, on behalf of
the Board of Regents, at the memorial exercises at the Uni-
versity Convocation this afternoon, suitable expression of our
RESOLUTIONS xxxv
deep sorrow in the death of our brother Regent and of our
great appreciation of his high character.
Proceedings of the Fifty-First Convocation of the
University of the State of New York
Auditorium, State Education Building, Albany, N. Y.,
Thursday afternoon, October 21, 1915, 2.30 p. m. The Honor-
able Albert Vander Veer, M. D., Vice Chancellor of the
University, presiding.
Vice Chancellor Vander Veer:
Since this program was arranged, a second sorrow came
to the Board of Regents and the Department of Education in
the sudden and unexpected death of Regent Andrew J. Ship-
man, in memory of whom Regent Moore will now speak.
Address in Memory of Regent Andrew J. Shipman
By John Moore
Regent of the University
"God's finger touched him and he slept!"
That which was mortal of Andrew Jackson Shipman,
lawyer, scholar, churchman, constitutional reviser and Regent
of The University of the State of New York, lapsed gently
into death's embrace, at his home in New York, Sunday night ;
and yesterday we gathered about his bier in St. Patrick's
Cathedral in New York City, where the last honors of the
Church — his holy mother — were bestowed upon a brilliant and
devoted son.
The death of Regent Shipman was wholly unexpected to
his associates and aids in the University, to whom the sad
news came with a force that shocked — and stunned. His de-
mise is a loss to the community in which he lived ; it is a loss
to the Church to which he gave devoutness of heart and
sanctity of purpose ; it is a loss to the State to which he gave
wise and sagacious counsel— to the Regents of the University,
and the cause of public education, to an extent rarely felt in
the passing of a Regent who had served less than three years
xxxvi RESOLUTIONS
on the Board — a board the elder members of which are rightly-
regarded as most distinguished men.
Our beloved associate in his church, professional and edu-
cational life had achievements to his credit, not all known to
the general public, which, when the record of his life is
written will give to him a place of eminence in the law, in
churchmanship, statesmanship and as a patriot, unswerving
and unswervable. He knew how to be useful in these do-
mains, and in many broad ways, but among men, and amid
their activities, he was finely modest in example and action,
for he was of the temper of those who "do good by stealth
and blush to find it fame."
Regent Shipman was an American through and through —
an American Catholic gentleman of the flawless type. He
loved the institutions of his country, and gave the best that
was in him to their promotion and advancement.
Pride of family he rightly had, but he made no display
thereof. Born in the Southland he came to the Empire State
for adoption, and New York never had a truer adopted son.
His birthplace was in Springvale in Fairfax county, Virginia ;
the date of his birth October 15, 1857, so that, dying on
October 17, 191 5, he had just closed his fifty-eighth year.
He was the son of John J. Shipman and Priscilla Carroll, and
his early education was in the common schools of Virginia-
Later he entered Georgetown University and still later New
York University, taking his B. A. degree in the latter in
1878.
For a considerable period he was engaged in the United
States customs service investigating sugar frauds and other
offenses against the national government, a work in which he
rendered the Federal authorities most valuable aid. It was
not until 1886 that he was graduated from the law school of
New York University, and in the three decades which have
elapsed he has achieved distinction not only by the general
practice at the bar, but he has been chief counsel in many
noted cases wherein new law has been definitely expressed,
or, probably more correctly speaking, the true law has been
fnore distinctly defined and established. He was in the
notable litigation known as the St. Stephen's Church cases ;
in many cases involving the relations of employers and em-
ployees where the rights of collective or organized labor were
RESOLUTIONS xxxvii
at stake ; and also in important probate cases, all of great
importance at the time and of equal moment to-day.
Regent Shipman's last conspicuous legal work was as a
delegate to the State Constitutional Convention in session
in Albany during the summer just past, and it is the judg-
ment of his confreres that he was one of the ablest and most
industrious members of that great deliberative body. It is,
I think, the judgment of his friends and of some of his asso-
ciate Regents, that his labors as a student of constitutional
revision, during a long and depressing summer, so under-
mined his constitution and impaired his vitality that he was
unable to combat an illness of pneumonia, with ensuing com-
plications that caused death.
President Finley, in intimate touch with the work of the
constitutional revisers, cooperated freely with Mr. Shipman,
and understands how seriously and laboriously our sleeping
friend applied himself to the task of a revision of the consti-
tution that would command the approval of our citizenry.
There was an incident attending the final work of the con-
vention which evinced the tolerant, courteous and forbearing
attributes of the honored dead. The record shows that when
the final vote was taken to determine whether the prepared
revision should be submitted to the people, Mr. Shipman, an-
nouncing that as written it did not express his ideals, credited
the convention with having wrought with fidelity for the best
as that body saw it, and, therefore, would not oppose its sub-
mission to the people, but voted to do so. This was typical
of the man, of the tolerant and able lawyer, of the fair-
minded publicist — seeking to attain the best in the science of
government.
In the usual acceptation of the term, Mr. Shipman was not
a politician. He was an adviser as to public policies in city
and state, but not a practical performer ; he was wise in coun-
sel, always advocating movements and policies of the better
sort.
It is the ambition of most lawyers of his learnedness in
the law, and of his juridical attainments, or qualities, to look
forward to a seat on the bench of the Supreme Court, or
higher, and it is to his honor if he cherished that ambition.
But for his untimely death such a preference would doubt-
xxxviii RESOLUTIONS
less have been realized, but it would have been a loss to
the Board of Regents.
It was as a Regent that most of his associates here had
come to know and love him. Two years ago last May he
was elected by the Legislature to be a Regent of the Uni-
versity, because he was admirably equipped for the duties
that awaited. We found him at once an associate of fine
mentality, strong in character as he was robust in person,
wealthy in the humanities and ardent in moral, ethical and
educational zeal.
In the Board he was appointed chairman of the committee
on educational extension and a member of the committees
on law, licenses and appointments. On each of these com-
mittees he served with the fullest measure of industry and
with a soundness and discretion that marked him as one
of the strongest and most useful in our councils. He was a
practical aid to the Regents, and a firm adviser of our Presi-
dent, with whose selection he had much to do. For this one
service alone the State and the University should long remem-
ber him with honor and deep appreciation. A more charming
companion and entertaining, informative associate we can
hardly look for in this work-a-day era.
Take him as you will, Regent Shipman was truly ripe and
wholesome. He knew life, and he knew it right, and saw
it wnth eyes wide open, with vision unclouded, battling the
abhorrent and welcoming the benign. His life's endeavors,
and the honors conferred on him before he entered our circle,
made manifest his learning and untarnished humanities.
He was a doctor of laws by decree of his Alma Mater,
Georgetown University. He was president of the Mohansic
State Hospital, an associate manager of the Sevilla Home for
Children, a member of the National Geographic Society, of the
American Society of International Law, of the American
Bar Association, of the New York State Bar Association,
of the Municipal Art League of New York City, president
of the New York City Alumni of Georgetown University, a
member of the Southern Society, of the American Irish His-
torical Society, one of the promoters of and a contributor to
the Catholic Encyclopedia, a leader in the Knights of Co-
lumbus, a member of the Manhattan Club, of the Catholic
Club, of the Deutscher Verein, of charitable and uplift bodies
RESOLUTIONS xxxix
like the St. Vincent de Paul Society, the Holy Name Society
and of other organizations for the promotion of purity; he
was active in the development of a moral stage and the
elimination of immoral plays ; in fact, in the encouragement
of the clean and decent in the drama, in musical farce comedy
productions, etc.
Surely this busy lawyer and peerless Christian gentleman
was well engaged in the work of higher education, before he
was chosen a Regent of the University.
He found time, too, to promote the welfare of the Slavic,^
Hungarian and Italian emigrants on their coming to the
United States ; to write for periodicals and to give public
addresses about Russia, the Slavic peoples and the Eastern
Church. He was accomplished as an Oriental scholar, familiar
with the Slavic language, oral and written, and with the
civil laws of those eastern peoples and the religious tenets,
discipline and ceremonials of the Eastern Church. Many
times he visited these peoples in^their homeland, where he
was impressed by their spirit, their piety and integrity, love
of music and of knowledge. He knew their conditions
their home and church life, and was imbued by their h
hopes and aims.
Lawyers will be interested to know ; the refined, the
scholarly and the seekers for truth and admirers of achieve-
ment will be no less interested when informed that it was
the tact, diplomacy and legal knowledge of Andrew J. Ship-
man which brought into harmony and unity followers of the
Greek rite in the United States with the authorities of the
Roman Catholic church.
The Slavic people are growing in numbers in our great
cities, and have been numerous in the coal and ore mining
districts of the United States. From the Atlantic coast to
the Mississippi, yes to the Pacific coast, our sleeping associate
is revered by followers of the Eastern rite. In their native
land in the east Mr. Shipman was known and honored and
among his choicest possessions when he died were the medals
and decorations bestowed upon him by church dignitaries of
the Greek rite and by Ruthenians who loved him. They will
be treasured mementoes for the bereaved wife, so sympa-
; in I
ligh^
xl RESOLUTIONS
thetic with Mr. Shipman in the deep and wide humanity that
engrossed a part of his useful life.
The mortal part of Andrew J. Shipman sleepeth, sleepeth
until Resurrection's dawn and morn, but the spiritual part
.yvill live forever. Those of us who attended the funeral cere-
monies yesterday can never forget the event. It will be a
memory treasure. Many of you are familiar with the im-
pressive ceremony of final benediction according to the Roman
Catholic rubrics, but few, I venture, have ever witnessed the
ceremony according to the Greek rite. As a special honor
to the dead the highest dignitary of the Eastern church in
this country, assisted by priests of the Greek rite, conducted
the last offices for the dead, with prayers and in chants en-
toned with a pure and silvery sweetness. It was a beautiful
service, the clear voices of the chanters, in chants often in-
tense with the spirit of grief, of supplication, and of bene-
diction, held Catholic and non-Catholic spellbound. The
silvery cadences of the voices in prayer and grief-imbued
chant can not be forgotten.
Now I come to another thought about Regent Shipman
that should not be overlooked, and that was his love of peace,
the peace that goes with honor. Our dead friend the past
year was greatly disturbed in mind and heart over the horrible
warfare in Europe, partly because great peoples observing
the Greek rite were involved, but also because he was an
earnest advocate of peace between individuals and nations, and
had powerfully labored to that end. He held that true peace
can only exist in the domain ruled by sound morality, and
that moral unsoundness is widespread and still growing.
"Just think of it," said he, "it is immoral to steal, but
banks build strong safety vaults. It is immoral to violate the
laws governing the rights of person or property, but the best
communities maintain strong police or armed forces. It is
immoral to kill but the culture of Europe is at war, or armed
to the teeth in readiness for war. Great armies clash with
frightful losses of life, and down the scale of numbers the
fighters lessen until only a handful of men engage in atrocious
combat worse than a dog fight."
In substance, thus spoke this patriotic, stalwart son of
peace and piety. Thus spoke a sincere lover of the humane
human, spoke one who could not father malice or cherish
RESOLUTIONS xli
hate. Free of any bigotry in thought or act he respected
and loved the peoples of every race or creed ; yes, loved them
with a love next to that which he gave to his beloved wife, or
held in memory for a saintly mother. He upheld the lofty
in morals and ethics, first for our schools, and after that for
the rest of mankind. Little wonder that each of his asso-
ciates in this temple devoted to education is sorely bereaved by
his departure, and prays that eternal sunshine be with him.
The author ^ is unknown to me, but a Httle poem of eight
lines appeals as quite fitting as an every-day creed for any
who would emulate the example of our dead friend:
I would be true, for there are those who trust me ;
I would be kind, for there are those who care;
I would be strong, for there is much to suffer;
I would be brave, for there is much to dare ;
I would be friend to all, the foe, the friendless;
I would be giving, and forget the gift;
I would be humble, for I know my weakness;
I would look up, and love and pray and lift.
Measured by the exalted sentiment of these inspiring words
and lines, Andrew J, Shipman failed not.
^ Regent Moore has been informed by one who listened to his address that the
poem quoted was written in Japan some twenty years ago by an American. The
fugitive lines have been read around the world, but nothing further is known
about the authorship.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
OF
ANDREW JACKSON SHIPMAN
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Andrew Jackson Shipman was born at Springvale, Fair-
fax Co., y^' on October 15, 1857, the eldest child of Priscilla
Carroll and John James Shipman. From his mother he in-
herited his quiet simplicity and unselfishness, together with a
kind of gentle aloofness which was manifested except to a
few dear and tried friends. Certain of her physical traits were
his also,— the very dark hair, the deepset eyes and the contour
of brow and cheek. His father gave him that wide sympathy
with all nationalities which became so characteristic of him
in later life, his energetic wholeheartedness and his turn for
practical affairs. The student in him came from his grand-
father, Bennett Carroll.
Andrew's earliest years fell during the upheaval of the
Civil War. Very soon after his birth his parents settled at
Villanova in Fairfax County. The estate lies on the crest of
Pigeon Hill, one of the series of heights which climb in steps
from the Potomac to the Blue Ridge, and it looks over slope
and plain of cultivated fields and patches of woodland. Here
in the spreading old house, built piecemeal around the original
four-room dwelling, the young mother spent those troubled
years with her father and little son. Only from time to time
could the husband come home from the army.
The homestead lay southwest from the chain of forts above
the Potomac guarding Washington, and was not far from
the Federal outposts. It was an everyday affair to see blue-
coated soldiers riding by in squads, either just released from
picket duty or straggling through the orchards, or even bring-
ing their rations to the kitchen in the yard to be cooked by
the indulgent old negro who presided there.
The "little rebel zouave," as Andrew was called from his
yellow-bound gray jacket made by his Southern mother, was
a pet of the Federal soldiers, who sometimes swung him to
the front of the cavalry saddle and carried him away for
long rides. One day he was brought back with a silver
cavalry badge pinned to his gray rebel jacket — a silver circle
with a silver cavalryman on his horse inside the circle, and
xlv
xlvi BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
the name "P. Podd, Co. G. 13th N. Y. Cavalry" on the nm.
The badge, its thin silver tarnished with the years, is still in
possession of the family.
Later, when his string of little sisters, all born after the
war, rambled about with him in the woods, he used to thrill
them by unearthing battered canteens and picking up rusty
bayonet points, or he would show them the grave where the
young Southern soldier — shot in a skirmish along that very
wood road — lay buried under a walnut tree at the far end
of the field.
With the close of the war came the question of education.
Already the boy, who had been taught to read by his grand-
father, was beginning to be fascinated by the printed page.
Books were not plentiful in a young household in those stinted
years, and there were no children's books at all. But at
Strawberry Vale, the house on the hill to the west, just across
the upper pasture, were books in abundance. All the old Eng-
lish novels, Shakespeare and the poets, odd volumes of Scott,
old histories, and rows of leather-bound Latin and French
authors filled cupboards on each side of the fireplace, or were
stacked on shelves under the dim, wooden-faced portraits.
A successful school had once been maintained there and these
scores of volumes, like the old pianos in the upper hall, were
mementoes of the time. Here Andrew spent all his spare
hours. Here he could always be found, and here he learned
early what comes somewhat slowly into the consciousness of
a boy in a rural environment, that life and its expression in
other lands are as vivid and as strong as in his own.
The attic at Strawberry Vale became for years a great
playroom for the Shipman children. Andrew transformed
the place into a theatre ; he built a stage and rigged up a cur-
tain that glided jerkily but safely back to each side, and in-
stalled the realistic feature of tallow candle footlights. He
wrote plays in which all the children took part, and drew
cartoons — mostly Indians in war-bonnets and hatchets —
which still adorn the whitewashed walls of the attic at Straw-
berry Vale.
His first real school was a mile beyond Strawberry Vale.
A Miss Tyson taught a number of small sisters and brothers
and a few children of her neighbors. The road to the house
passed through the pines where the rusty relics of the war
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH xlvii
lay about and, on a high plateau, skirted the walls of an
abandoned Federal stockade and signal tower. The boys — a
young Tyson became his inseparable friend — found the wooden
scaffold, rising with its zigzag flights of steps from landing-
place to landing-place above the brushwood beneath, a won-
derful place for observation. One could see the whole country
spread out like a map, the long indigo rampart of the Blue
Ridge hemming it in, the truncated top of Sugar Loaf looming
up in Maryland, — and lastly the sky and the stars ! This was
the very spot for using the atlas of the heavens from the
Gantts' attic at Strawberry Vale. A little practice brought
out the crying need of a telescope. Fairfax County, as far as
the boys knew, did not contain a telescope. No parent was
willing to invest money in one. There was nothing for it but
to earn it, which was an easy matter in harvest time when
a water-boy is an absolute necessity. The necessary amount
was earned and hoarded gradually ; a lengthy correspondence
with a Philadelphia firm opened, and at last news came that
the precious instrument had arrived in Georgetown, — it could
not be sent by express to Lewinsville. But it came on Satur-
day, — that meant an unendurable wait until Monday and
the impatient owners could not wait. They walked to George-
town, ten miles there and back, arriving home in the middle
of the night, too triumphant in possession of the telescope
to mind the necessary interview with anxious parents ; for of
course they had walked without asking the leave they knew
they could not get.
Miss Tyson's school was soon outgrown and, as public
education was just struggling into existence in those days in
Fairfax, a medley of teachers, more or less competent, suc-
ceeded one another on the platform in the one-room school
house at Lewinsville. The two who had most influence on
Andrew and did much toward developing his bent were, as it
happened, Germans, — a certain Julius Golding and an Aus-
trian ex-army officer, Augustus von Degen. They saw at
once that the boy had abilities above the average and a rather
surprising range of knowledge, and singling him out among
the score of lads to whom books were an unavoidable evil,
they grounded him in Latin, Greek and mathematics. They
took considerable pains with his literary studies and Golding
found that Andrew had a gift for drawing which, if his in-
J
xlviii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
terest in other studies had not proved stronger, might have
influenced his subsequent career in a different direction.
It was von Degen, however, who urged Mr. John Shipman
to send his son to Georgetown in 1871, rather than to Blacks-
burg Agricultural College, as it was then called, where so many
of the Fairfax youths went. Von Degen knew the strength
of the Jesuit teaching and the intellectual value of the long
classical drill.
At that time neither Andrew nor his parents were Cath-
olics, although the five younger children had been baptized at
their birth. His mother was a descendant of a Catholic fam-
ily, but was herself an Episcopalian through the accident of
her grandfather, a posthumous child, being reared by an
Episcopal mother. Andrew's father had as yet no religious
affiliation, but greatly admired the Catholic Church, of which
he became a member later in life. It was his wish, together
with the mother's feeling that her own faith should be Catholic
(as it became not many years afterwards), which had led to the
baptism and Catholic training of the younger children. Mrs.
Shipman taught all of her children Catholic prayers, which
she was accustomed to say herself.
It was at Georgetown that Andrew became a Catholic, but
instead of being baptized in the college chapel, he went alone
to the church of St. Dominic in Washington for his reception.
iFrom the moment he entered college his interest in religious
1 rites, orders and history became absorbing.
He was a teacher by nature as he was a student by nature.
Older by some years than his sisters, he had taken it upon
himself when home to teach them, and he never allowed him-
self to forget his task even while away. Letters written when
he was a lad in the Georgetown preparatory school contain
careful lessons in French and German for his next sister.
Later during his college years he planned a course of study
for his sisters which they followed under their governess.
His holidays were for them a mingling of delight and misery.
Instead of being free, say on a sunny, mild Sunday in March,
to go to the south meadow and gather Johnny- jump-ups,
whitening in a wave the warm slope of the big guUey with
delicate, pale blooms, they had to sit in tongue-tied dismay
face to face with a long, chalked-up line of third declension
Latin nouns or some verb, monstrous with such irregularities
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH xlix
that the various tense forms simply could not be guessed or
invented.
In the autumn of his junior year he developed typhoid
fever and lay very ill for three months. His life was despaired
of more than once. Yet he recovered and, when well, took up
his studies in the last half of the year and finished with
honors.
The doctor at Georgetown and the President of the col-
lege insisted that it was not safe for Andrew to enter at once
upon an indoor occupation until his health should become
firmly established. It was agreed that he should spend ai-,
much time as possible in the open air. But in September,
returning from a vacation, he revolted against the programme
of mental idleness mapped out for him, and threw himself into
the study of languages, German and Italian especially.)
In two ideas he was ahead of his time. By his direction
his sisters studied in the open air on a big verandah which
looked down the green lines of the orchard trees. Here they
remained as late in the fall as the weather permitted and
thither they repaired as early as possible in the spring.
His other idea was that his sisters' studies should be the
same as those at Georgetown ; first the preparatory courses
and then those of the college. He proposed that they should
stand the same examinations as were given in his Alma Mater
and, if it were possible, to be given a degree when they had
made the required studies. This was in 1878 and Andrew
was a Southern young man, bred among rural Southerners
who had not then much sympathy with or faith in the higher
education of women.
His plans in this matter of education were never carried
out completely. As time went by other aims engrossed him, as
they should, and other interests claimed him, although he al-
ways remained full of enthusiasm and encouragement for
his sisters when it was a question of education. He took
them into what would be about the third year of the four
year high school course of to-day and when he left them
they were in their early teens. The grounding they received
in Latin was far more thorough than is given in any high
school. That other teaching, the unconscious, which does
its work by example and association, cannot be too much
emphasized — an intense belief in and reliance on Catholic
y
1 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
truth, an abiding interest in history of the past and in the
making, were some of the many things impressed indeHbly
upon his pupils.
During this time he took an active interest in the little
missionary church of St. James which had been built while
he was away at college. It was three miles from Springvale
near the village of Falls Church. He served as acolyte when-
ever necessary. He undertook the practical, not the musical,
management of the choir, who were volunteers from the con-
gregation ; he purchased the music, saw that order was main-
tained and that reverence ruled in the choir loft.
After three years in the Georgetown preparatory school
Andrew entered Georgetown College in the fall of 1874.
His whole educational career lay along singularly fortunate
lines. We have seen what his early schooling was in the
little country school near his home. It is true that he had
not the presumed advantages of modem methods, such as
smooth the path of learning for the psychological child of
the present hour, but he enjoyed plain straightforward teach-
ing and drilling in the rudiments known as the three R's, and
his mind was trained to realize that knowledge was to be
acquired by mental effort and not absorbed as amusement.
This was an asset of value which the elder teaching possessed,
whatever it lacked as measured by the pedagogic novelties
that set the fashions of to-day. The drudgery of learning
is just as essential as the drudgery of ploughing. No young
mind was ever allured into the path of knowledge as an easy
and roseate way and remained there for long. Andrew Ship-
man was fortunate in being schooled in his early years to
the method of mental work and earnestness, and the sincerity
and genuineness of his character readily yielded the golden
vein to the process. With what a handicap he might have
been burdened had his young powers been pampered and
jellified by the uncertain psychological experiment now-a-days
counting its victims by the tens of thousands.
Von Degen's persuasion of the elder Shipman to send
Andrew to Georgetown was another happy circumstance. The
classical drill and prescribed curriculum of the Jesuit system
gave mental system, balance and the habit of diligence. There
was no line of least resistance by way of electivism on the
part of the pupil. He took the prescribed course willy-nilly
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH li
and learned that education meant work. The co-ordination
of all the studies of the graded curriculum to the one end,
the moulding of character and the integral development of
all the powers of mind and heart, had no better illustration
and exemplification than in the career of Andrew Shipman.
He was a student at Georgetown seven years in all, from
1871 to 1878, three in the preparatory school and four in the
college. During his entire student career he won distinction
in his studies, and more than once first honors in his classes.
In his junior year he won the Philodemic Medal and the Mor-
ris Historical Medal ; in his senior year, the Mechanics Medal,
the Tennyson Prize Essay Medal and the Hoffman Mathe-
matical medal. He was always eager for knowledge, and his
training at Georgetown stimulated his mental appetite. He
was by nature a student and a keen one, but not the pale and
melancholy book-worm so often held up to the popular imagi-
nation as typical. He was robust both in body and mind,
hearty and afifable in manner, but modest and retiring. He
had no athletic proclivities, but at times took part in and en-
joyed the wholesome exercise of some of the games in which
the students of that time indulged. If I remember correctly
hand-ball was his favorite game. In his day at Georgetown
athletics had not developed to the conspicuous and organized
position they now hold in college programmes. The students
played their games with zest but their sports held no major
dignity in the life of the college. They were intended to be
a needed relaxation and the means of building up a healthy
body as the fitting co-ordinate of a healthy mind.
Even in his college days Andrew's mind ran to recondite
and remote things, never, however, to the neglect of his regu-
lar studies. Outside of class hours, the surest place in which
to find him was in the college library. If I remember aright
he was unofficial assistant to the then Hbrarian, Rev. John
Sumner. He knew the library thoroughly, and at a moment's
notice could lay his hand upon any book asked for, no easy
accomplishment in those days, for the library was much
crowded and many volumes were in odd and obscure corners
and not as accurately classified as they might have been. He
was a book-lover, though not a book-worm, a distinction with
a vast difference. He enjoyed books vitally, for their usufruct
in practical application, and not as sepulchres of the dead
Hi BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
past. I recall seeing him one day pouring over a huge tome
in Latin, and jocosely enquired of him what musty, dusty bit
of erudition he was ferreting out at the moment. He imme-
diately proceeded to translate a passage, which, if my memory
serves me after so long a lapse of time, was a disquisition on
the possibilities of a self-propelled air-ship. He himself be-
lieved it was possible, and enthusiastically declared that some
day it would be accomplished ! This was nearly forty years
ago! , . .
Andrew was always ready to put himself at one's disposi-
tion upon any point of research. He was thorough, pains-
taking and keen upon the scent, never resting satisfied with
half results. He relished the quest and enjoyed the conquest
immensely. One of his most characteristic traits, which I
learned to appreciate in those days, was his whole-hearted
faculty of giving himself for others. He was essentially a
giver and delighted in the giving. He would drop his own
task at any moment and take up yours. I never went into
the college library when he was there but I found him eager
to assist me, and his help was valuable, for he always knew
where to go for the nugget requisitioned. He would even
push the enquiry beyond the immediate demand, and bring
up more riches than one might need for the purpose of the
moment. His enjoyment of discovery was enhanced a thou-
sandfold by yours. The source of his delight was not so
much that he had achieved or had helped to achieve the task
but that it had been achieved at all. At such times his face
would light up with pleasure and one could not fail to catch the
glow of his enthusiasm. He had scientific interests also.
While in the lower school at Georgetown he was always work-
ing at photography, making many experiments, first with an
old camera of his father's, afterwards with a better instrument.
In 1879 the editorship of the "Vienna Times" was ofifered
him. Vienna itself was three miles away, but when the office
appurtenances had been delivered and put into place in one
of the innumerable outbuildings belonging to every Virginia
farm, Vienna seemed to have been transferred to Springvale.
The "Vienna Times" was not a "patent insides" journal. It
was set up in type and printed in the little office at the end
of the yard, and in rush times, or when the letters of the
correspondents in far corners of the country were late com-
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH liii
ing in, even the editor's sisters were pressed into service and
put to setting type or dampening the sheets. The office force
was small and sometimes conspicuously absent. Besides the
editorials Andrew supplied a great part of the literary con-
tents himself by translation and articles of his own. The
"Vienna Times" had a fairly wide circulation in Northern Vir-
ginia and extracts were sometimes copied from its pages into
other papers.
After graduation, while engaged with the paper, he grew
interested in the telephone, just then becoming known. As an
entire instrument could not be bought, he purchased the
various parts, put them together, and found himself in posses-
sion of two telephones. With the aid of three young friends
of his own age, he set up the poles, stretched the wires and
established communication between Vienna and his own home.
The four young men did the work with their own hands,
including the cutting of the poles. This was in the open-
ing '8o's.
To the Shipman home drifted every foreigner who en-
tered that end of Fairfax County. That Andrew Shipman
spoke Spanish was well known. More than one Spaniard
or Spanish American family sought him out to explain his
or its situation or to find possible employment. Andrew even
stood as godfather to their babies.
One day in the autumn arrived one Stefan ^Mel zer. That
was only part of his name, for Stefan had a Bohemian father
and a German mother and the Czeckish name was too difficult
for Fairfax throats and lips. Stefan was in his seafaring
costume, a draggled fur cap and a ragged jersey. He had
just landed at Baltimore and had set out to walk until he
found employment. He had been forwarded to Andrew Ship-
man as one who could understand anything a foreigner said.
He had been in the Austrian army and spoke German, which
was the medium of communication between him and Andrew.
Stefan, being a hoch bauer, was anxious to learn and better
himself, and finding the young master of the farm was curious
about languages, exchanged Czeckish for English. This was
the beginning of Andrew Shipman's fruitful interest in the
eastern European languages. When Stefan went West a
year and a half later — the hot summers of the South were
too much for him — Andrew used the tongue with considerable
liv BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
ease, an accomplishment which was to prove of marked as-
sistance to him in his next step in Ufe.
This was his appointment as assistant manager of the coal
mines of W. P. Rend & Co. in Hocking- Valley, Ohio, which
came in the third year after his graduation. Of this period of
his life there are no records. His letters have unfortunately
been destroyed. This appointment lifted him out of the dul-
ness and routine of a country editorship, but the work at the
mines was also ill suited to a man of Shipman's type of mind.
Nevertheless his experience at the coal mines was valuable
in more ways than one and became practically the determin-
(ing factor in awakening and directing his large and fruitful
interest — so manifest in later years in the Slavic peoples of
the United States. I once asked him how he happened to
become so interested in this work; he told me it was through
his contact with the miners of Slavic nationality when he was
with W. P. Rend & Co. in Ohio. He had some acquaintance
with the Czech tongue through Stefan Melzer. This he found
useful in his work among the miners of Hocking Valley. But
it by no means sufficed. The Slavic miners of Hocking Val-
ley spoke various dialects. The assistant manager with char-
acteristic determination proceeded to learn them all. This
established him in the confidence of the men, and his knowl-
edge of their languages enabled him, when differences arose
between employer and employees, to act as interpreter and
intermediary. In one instance he settled a strike, which was
the result of a misunderstanding of tongues, and when official
interpreters were taking advantage of both parties for their
own ends.
It was not however simply Shipman's interest in the Slavic
languages or his official relations as assistant manager or
afterwards as superintendent with the miners that led him
so far and so profoundly in his special pursuit of the history,
rites and customs of these people. His sympathy was wider
and deeper. He found an alien people in a strange land, be-
/wildered and perplexed in their new surroundings, often im-
posed upon, isolated by their own ignorance, clinging tena-
ciously to unwise prejudices brought from the old world,
naturally suspicious and aloof, yet very human and with all
those substantial virtues that make for good citizenship. Ship-
man's was a wide outlook. He saw clearly that the sole
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Iv
consideration of the economic status of these people — and
that was the limited purview of the industrial world — led
not to betterment but to further alienation and to both moral
and civil deterioration. Among these foreigners were a num-
ber of Catholics without clergy of their own tongue and to
whom the Latin rite was like an alien religion. These condi-
tions appealed strongly to his charity. His natural beneficence
was quickened and the supernatural ardor of his deeply rooted
faith aroused. These people must be saved, not only in a
civic, but in a religious sense, and their religious salvation
depended upon their steadfastness in their Catholic Faith.
They were a flock without a shepherd. Lured to America by /
the mirage of the promised land, which they dreamed could i
be found in the United States, they were pouring in great
numbers to our shores. The Church in this country had no
means of meeting the problem and scarcely realized it. An-
drew Shipman, a layman thrown into close contact with them,
did realize it, and proceeded to devote himself to its solution.
He mastered their tongues, studied their history, their rites
and their customs, placed himself en rapport with their sym-
pathies and their aspirations. All this, of course, not in a
moment. First came the idea, and by degrees the means. It
would take time and labor. It was, therefore, in Hocking
Valley, Ohio, that an obscure mining superintendent first felt
the apostolic spirit kindle into flame in his breast and con-
ceived the beginning of the plans, which in later years were to .
grow to such abundant fruit. (
As was characteristic of him, his method was radical and
thorough. He must first learn the people sympathetically and
completely. How well he accomplished his purpose became
manifest in the result. For the last fifteen years of his life
he spent nearly all his vacations among the Slavic people in
Euioge. He made their acquaintance in their original habitat.
He studied their languages, their rites and their history at j
first hand. He came into intimate touch with their clergy in
Europe, acquainted them with the needs of their people in
the United States, urged their interest and their co-operation
and conducted a voluminous correspondence with them. He
also took up the matter with the hierarchy in the United
States and received their help and participation. It was a
great and glorious lay apostolate and a striking exemplar to
/
Ivi • BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
others. It becomes especially noteworthy when we take into
consideration that it was achieved by a busy man, who besides
filling his professional duties with success and distinction,
gave himself unstintedly to many public and private services,
which drew largely upon his time and his energy.
After two years at the mines, young Shipman came to New
York in ^§4, where he obtained a positiQa..in,_the— U, S.
f Customs House by Civil Service Examination, making in his
examinations the TaighesFTecord trp to that time and rarely
surpassed since. He was one of the investigators of the
sugar frauds in the following year, and won high commenda-
tion for his integrity, his thoroughness, his grasp of detail
and untiring diligence in unravelling the tangled skein of evi-
dence in the case. It was during his service in the New York
Customs House that he studied law at the University of the
City of New York. In 1886 he received his degree of LL.B.
and in the course of the same year was admitted to the New
York Bar. In 1891 he formed a law partnership with Edmund
L. Mooney, an association continued uninterruptedly until his
death, though in 1895 the firm was reorganized, upon the ad-
mission of Mr. Charles Blandy, under the name of Blandy,
Mooney and Shipman. Of Mr. Shipman's legal career and
achievements I have no technical knowledge to enable me to
given an account. In lieu, therefore, of any attempt on my part,
I am privileged to quote in extenso one who was closely asso-
ciated with him throughout his professional life and w^iose
knowledge is both first-hand and accurate.
"Andrew Jackson Shipman was a forceful advocate, a wise
counselor and an eminent ecclesiastical lawyer for more than
a generation at the New York Bar.
"He studied law in the Law Department of the University
of the City of New York, whence he was graduated LL.B.
in 1886. He was President of his class and delivered an ora-
tion at the graduating exercises held in the old Academy
of Music. He was admitted to the Bar in the City of New
York in the latter year.
"In his collegiate and law school days he formed friend-
ships that lasted during his entire lifetime, and spread their
branches abroad as much for others as himself. More than
that, he laid the foundations of business and professional
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Ivii
relations that continued without a break, and with ever in-
creasing strength, until his death. One of his marked char-
acteristics was constancy, with warm-hearted devotion to his
associates and friends.
"Early in his career as a lawyer he became identified as
attorney of record and one of the hardest working of an array
of counsel in the notable series of cases known as the St.
Stephen's Protestant Episcopal Church cases, which involved
almost every phase of ecclesiastical law relating to that de-
nomination. These cases lasted from 1890 to 1900 and were
regarded as of such importance to the profession that they
were collected and published together in Abbott's 'New Cases.'
"Another noteworthy litigation in which Mr. Shipman was
leading counsel was that of National Protective Association
V. Cummings, in which he maintained the right of members
of one labor union to work unmolested by members of rival
labor unions. That was a case of labor against labor, not one
of labor against capital ; the cause of the litigation was that
there were too many laborers in one craft — then a new phase
of the complex labor situation. Mr. Shipman had not hitherto
been identified with the laws relating to labor organizations,
but at the request of an old-time client, who had been wholly
prevented from the opportunity to labor, he took up the case
and carried it through all the Courts with the utmost industry
and ardor. The principles for which he fought are now firmly
established.
"Still another remarkable case in which Mr. Shipman was
one of the leading counsel, was the Hopkins Will case, in
which it was held that, notwithstanding the physical cancel-
lation of the signature to a will found in the testator's desk
(the cancellation consising of a number of pen strokes drawn
across the signature) the instrument was entitled to probate,
in the absence of proof that the testator intended to revoke
the will.
"Mr. Shipman acted as trial counsel in many other litiga-
tions of importance, but he preferred constructive work in the
law of real property, wills and corporations.
"At the time of the St. Stephen's cases, to which reference
has been made, Mr. Shipman had no thought that his talents
as a lawyer would again be required in the realms of ec-
clesiastical law, but during the last fifteen years of his life —
Iviii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
without turning aside from his daily practice in the general
body of the law — he became one of the foremost ecclesiastical
lawyers of the Catholic Church, of which he was a member,
and the most eminent authority in America on the laws of the
Orthodox Russian Church. It has been truly said of him
since his death that his successor in this branch of the law is
not now to be found, but must be reared. The distinction
thus acquired was by nightly study at home for years and by
study abroad in every important library of Europe during
his annual vacations, when it is safe to say that he spent half
his time in those pursuits, while the other half was spent in
joyous recreation — for he had the heart of a boy, with all his
wisdom. It was certainly remarkable that one man, while
engaged in his daily vocation, and not prompted by gain, ac-
quired distinction as the exponent of the laws of three great
Churches, whose ecclesiastical constitutions are so different
one from the other. That was another characteristic of his
— he was so broad-minded that his thoughts were world-wide ;
everything in the realm of learning was worth studying and
carrying into practical effect.
"His constructive work as a lawyer was never better shown
than in the last important labor of his life in the Constitutional
Convention, when as a member of two of the most important
committees on the floor, he attended every session and was
consulted by the leaders of both parties. He proved himself
then, as always, a deep well of learning.
"No summary of a lawyer's life would be worth the reading
if silent as to his political faith, for one fuses with the other.
Andrew Jackson Shipman was fitly named, for he was a
staunch Democrat. Yet his last act as a Regent of the Uni-
versity of the State of New York was to nominate for the
degree of Doctor of Laws a distinguished Republican. Mr.
Shipman never sought a favor, political or personal, and,
therefore, received none. He held high positions in the service
of the State, but never of his own seeking and always without
emolimient.
"He possessed in a marked degree personal modesty in
contact with his equals and simplicity with his inferiors, and
yet in the service of a client he was quick to assert himself
to the highest degree. He shunned notoriety, but was not
averse to sincere recognition. He had a deep-rooted respect
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Hx
for the judiciary as a body and was never known to cavil, as
some do. He had not only the respect but the affection of
many foremost judges throughout the land, and of the many
members of the Bar with whom he came in contact. He
harbored no ill will against his adversaries and none was
ever heard to speak ill of him. With him graciousness and
strength were ever combined, and so perfectly blended that
neither outweighed the other. His genuine pleasure and ap-
preciation of the success of others was so great that every
success seemed to be his own. He never turned a client away
from his door for need of a fee, and yet he was successful
in accumulating a competence. He believed that, as every
lawyer received a license to practice from the State without
tax, he was bound to render to the State, through any of its
needy citizens, legal services regardless of compensation.
"On many other occasions and in many ways, Mr. Ship-
man's virtues, his learning, in literature and languages, and
his public services have been extolled. At this time we speak
of the lawyer in the man. Throughout his professional life
his ideals and their daily pursuit were as high and clean and
clear as the day he entered the profession — a difficult life-
purpose in material days. He was more than all else a lawyer,
learned in the law, and from that sprang all his opportunities
and the fine deeds that he achieved for himself and others in
his eminent career."
Notwithstanding the fulness of his legal career and its
many duties, Mr. Shipman gave his time and labor to many c,
enterprises beyond professional limits. He was called upon ^ ^^
in many ways and never failed to respond. Outside of his] J*^,^/*
professional life, he devoted himself chiefly to the interest! ,,;,
of the Slavs in the United States. This work was to him al '^
constant pursuit, and one might say, a second profession. The
obscure assistant-manager of the W. P. Rend Coal Mines back
in 1884 became in later years in (New York the legal advisor,
counsellor, friend and promoter of the cause and welfare of
the Greek Catholics in New Yorkani,adjacent States^ In
1895 he helped to organize, boTFfHy his legal services as an
attorney and by his friendly and ardent assistance as a lay-
man, the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church of St. George on
East 20th Street^ New York City, of which Rev. Joseph Chap-
Ix BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
linski was rector up to 1908, when he was succeeded by Rev.
M. J. Pidhorecky, the present incumbent. The church was
afterwards moved to East Seventh Street, between Second
and Third Avenues. This property was purchased for the
sum of $90,000, the entire transaction having been carried on
through Mr. Shipman. At the dedication of the new church in
East Seventh Street, October 22, 191 1, Mr. Shipman took an
active interest and prepared and pubHshed for use at the
dedication services his translation of "The Holy Mass Ac-
cording to the Greek Rite," a little book of forty-eight pages
in double columns, giving the original Slavic on one side and
}his English version on the other. It was the first time an
'English translation had ever been ma4^.
In 1913 when the "United CathoHc Works," an association
for the closer organization and co-operation of all the Cath-
^olic activities of the Diocese of New York, was established,
Mr. Shipman was chiefly instrumental in bringing the various
Greek Catholic Charitable organizations into the movement,
'and in this way demonstrating to his fellow-Catholics of the
Latin Rite the growth and zealous activities of their fellow-
Catholics of the Greek Rite.
Unfortunately the line of racial demarcation only too easily
keeps people apart, who are fundamentally one in faith, though
divergent in customs. Mr. Shipman was diHgent in seeking
to bring his fellow-Catholics of both rites to a better under-
standing and appreciation of each other, and eagerly seized
the opportunity afforded by the United Catholic Works' move-
ment. He was equally solicitous in bringing about a better
understanding between the different Catholic nationalities of
the Greek Rite in the United States, who naturally clung to
their ancient European jealousies and divisions. It was his
constant advice to them to sink their differences and unite in
the broad and saner platform of their common faith and their
lAmerican citizenship. He realized fully that an immigrant
people could not tear up by the roots their racial traditions
md customs, nor did he wish them to do so, for through
:hose roots comes the nourishment of sturdy and substantial
virtues. Let them remain what they naturally are, for the
preservation of those virtues, but at the same time let them
assimilate gradually the civic elements and principles of their
lew allegiance in America. Mr. Shipman was a man of broad
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Ixi
sympathies and of keen appreciation of the real virtues of^
life. When differences are essential to a people's welfare he
believed in retaining them, for all people cannot be in all re
spects alike. Where differences stand in the way of growth
and development and are in truth but superficial prejudices or
jealousies based upon misunderstanding and ignorance they
should be abolished with charitable tact. He himself con-
tributed much in this direction. He believed that if people, ^
however diverse in origin and tradition, be brought to know \
each other by association in a common cause, they will not |
only soon reach a mutual understanding and appreciation, i
but a broad and sympathetic toleration of each other's differ- i
ences. Such was the spirit and aim of his labors among the^'
immigrant people of America.
His efforts were not limited to the Slavic people in this
country. His assistance and counsel was just as readily given
to the Syrian Catholi£3. He helped them to purchase the
property for their Church in Washington Street and was
their constant advisor. At the time of the dedication of their
Church of St. Joachim he brought a holy stone from Jerusalem
for the occasion. Mrs. Shipman presented them their altar. |
His interest was also extended to the Italian Greek Catholics.;
In fact his zeal took a wide range and no one ever called upon '.
him for aid or counsel that it was not freely and readily
given.
When the late Bishop Ortynsky, the first bishop of the Greek
Rite in this country, came to the United States in 1897, Mr.
Shipman became his advisor. He drew up the charter for
St. Basil's Orphanage in New York and conducted all the
legal and legislative business connected with it.
He took a special interest in St. George's Church in East
Seventh Street. In a sense he was the soul of St. George's
congregation and made a special provision for the church in
his will. He devoted himself in the development of the cele-
brated Ukrainian (Ruthenian) choir of St. George's, consist-
ing of 120 members, and brought it to public notice by having
it give several concerts. How much he accomplished in all
his activities for the Slavic and Greek peoples in this country
will never be known, and would require a much more ex-
tended elaboration than can be given in this brief sketch.
His activities extended not only to promoting the religious
Ixii BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
welfare of the Catholics of the Greek Rite in the United
States, but he was as zealous in protecting their interests
against any movement that might seem to jeopardize them.
When the Russian Orthodox Bishop in the United States
endeavored to get the New York legislature to give legal
sanction to the name "Russian Greek Catholic Church,'' as
applicable to the Russian Orthodox Church, Mr. Shipman suc-
cessfully opposed the measure as an usurpation of the name
and as a source of confusion. When one of the Protestant
denominations in New York and in New Jersey made use
|of the Greek rite and ceremonial to proselytize newly arrived
Slavic Catholics, Mr. Shipman personally investigated and
exposed the deception.
It was characteristic of him never to take anything from
hearsay or at second hand. In the above instance he went
in person to the chapels in question, and determined for him-
self the exact nature and method of the proselytizing attempt
and followed it up by calling it to the attention of the authori-
ties of the denomination under whose auspices the fraud was
being practised. He also wrote several vigorous letters to
the public press protesting against the deception with the result
of having it discontinued. He would frequently make personal
excursions into obscure and remote quarters of New York
City, especially on the East side, seeking information and
often forming in this way valuable acquaintances and friend-
ships. He was prompt and diligent in following up any hint
or clue relative to any interest he might have in hand and
never rested satisfied until he had followed the trail to the
end ; he wanted to see for himself.
A mental habit of this kind necessarily entailed great labor
and time, and he begrudged neither. His many voyages across
the ocean to gather first-hand knowledge and to come into
personal contact with the Slavic people of the Old World
are evidence of his thoroughgoing method, his untiring zeal
and his passion for getting at the bottom of things. A typical
instance was his investigation of the circumstances of the
famous Ferrer trial in Barcelona, Spain. He happened to
be in Spain shortly after the event, and visited Barcelona
with the express purpose of finding out on the spot what had
happened before, during and after the trial. He visited the
scenes of riot in the city, interviewed participators, both ag-
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Ixiii
gressors and victims, witnesses and officials, looked up and
copied records and affidavits, read up the Spanish law both
civic and military, governing the proceedings; in short posted
himself completely and at the source. The result was several
illuminating articles on the subject published in the "Catholic
World" in 1910, and an answer to Mr. Archer, the English
critic, in "McClure's Magazine" of the same year. Mr. Archer
had espoused Ferrer's cause but had not dug down to the facts
nor informed himself upon the Spanish law in the case, as
Mr. Shipman had. Mr. Archer wrote brilliantly and rhetor-
ically, but Mr. Shipman knew the case to the roots; Mr.
Archer's glittering euphemisms were stripped bare by Mr.
Shipman's trenchant array of the facts, which Mr. Archer had
so carelessly neglected.
In 1913 Mr. Shipman was elected to the Board of Regents
of the University of the State of New York to succeed Mr.
Eugene A. Philbin, whose appointment to the Supreme Court
of New York State had occasioned a vacancy. To Mr. Ship-
man the election was extremely gratifying, as it gave him i
the opportunity to enter upon a work especially congenial
and for which he was eminently fitted both by temperament
and training, and as a man of large public spirit always eager
to serve the community to the utmost of his ability. He
regarded it as a crowning public honor to his career and the
fulfilment of his public ambition. How well he performed
the duties of his position and how valuable were his services
as a Regent is amply shown in the Memorial adopted by the
Board of Regents and the Commemorative Addresses at the
University Convocation of 1915, published in this volume.
As a director of the company which has published the
Catholic Encyclopedia, not only was he prompt and diligent
in the ordinary duties of his office, but he was especially con-
sulted and took part in all important matters outside the
usual routine of business. His wisdom was always clear
and practical and he spared no pains to give the company
of his best. A number of the articles in the Encyclopedia!
are from his pen, and his advice was constantly sought by
the Editors, particularly upon such subjects as pertained to
his chosen field or were cognate. His name should be in-
separably connected with the Encyclopedia, in the making of
which he played no small part.
Ixiv BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
In 1915 he was elected from the Nineteenth Senatorial dis-
trict as Delegate to the New York Constitutional Convention,
which convened in Albany during the summer of the same
year. It was a hot and trying season. Mr. Shipman spent
the entire time in Albany applying himself to the work of
the Convention with his customary intensity and energy. He
in fact exhausted himself with his devotion and zeal in this
public service, and returned to New York depleted physically
from his labors. The heavy strain upon his energies entailed
by the work of the Convention was without doubt the founda-
tion of his last illness. Upon his return to New York City,
he sought to resume his professional and other duties, but
found the task beyond his strength. He died on Sunday, Oc-
tober 17, at his home in New York City from an acute at-
tack of Bright's Disease. His funeral took place on Wednes-
day, October 20, from St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York
City, and was attended by people of prominence from all walks
of life, as well as by the representatives of the many char-
itable, fraternal and social organizations with which he had
been affiliated. After the solemn requiem Mass, a burial
.service according to the Greek Rite was conducted over the
bier by the Right Reverend Stephen Ortynsky, bishop of all
the Ruthenian Greek Catholics in the United States, attended
by a number of Greek Ruthenian and Maronite priests. Mem-
bers of the Ukrainian choir chanted the music of the service.
This was the first time the burial service according to the
Greek Catholic Rite was ever seen in a church of the Latin
Rite in the United States.
The variety and scope of Mr. Shipman's writings as pub-
lished in this volume speak for themselves. He was a busy
man, but like all busy men, always found time for additional
tasks. He was called upon frequently and never refused to
respond to a worthy cause or to an occasion where it seemed
to him that he might do good. He was a member of some
twenty-two different organizations, charitable, social, fraternal
or religious, and was active in nearly all of them.^ He was
1 He was a member of the Catholic Club, Southern Society, American Bar
Association, New York State Bar Association. New York Ccuintv Lawyers' Associa-
tion, American Society of International Law, American Geographic Society,
Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, a number of local Church and civic organizations
and the sole honorary member of St. George's Ruthenian Greek Catholic Benevolent
Association.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Ixv
an excellent linguist, speaking no less than thirt^enlanguages.
He was a devoted husband, having married in 1893MTSS Adair
Mooney, the sister of his law partner, Mr. Edmund
Mooney. Mrs. Shipman was a most sympathetic and devoted
helper in all his work. He was a public-spirited citizen who
responded eagerly and practically to any civic cause or move-
ment of merit. His services to the State as Regent and as
delegate to the Constitutional Convention bear ample testi-
mony to his disinterested and practical public spirit.
Much is said in these days about a lay apostolate. Mr.
Shipman exemplified it in many ways. He was in fact one
of its pioneers, of large example and fruitful results. His gen-
erous and large nature saw things in a generous and large
way. He was above all things a giver and his gift was entire ;
he withheld nothing. A lay apostolate is the recognized need
of the hour. It is the layman who comes into constant and
intimate contact with the world, and upon his shoulders falls
the urgent obligation of an apostolate for the Faith before
the world. Andrew Shipman realized all this even to a scru-
pulous delicacy of conscience, and he fulfilled it ably and nobly,
a Catholic layman without fear and without reproach, a son
who proved to the world an illustrious example of the teach-
ings and principle of the Catholic Church.
CoNDE B. Fallen.
We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths ;
In feelings, not in figures on a dial.
We should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best;
Life's but a means unto an end ; that end
Beginning, mean, and end to all things — God.
Philip James Bailey.
SPANISH ARTICLES
SPAIN OF TO-DAY
I. — The Country at Large
THE newspapers have been teeming with news from
Spain regarding the present crisis; but very few facts
have been given their readers upon which to base any
adequate view of events. Even as I write, there are rumors
of civil war. Vague statements are made without names, dates,
or places that the clergy are fomenting it. The Catholic com-
mittees have abstained from their projected protest against the
present policy of the government, and that alone, irrespective
of whether troops were massed or Radical counter-demonstra-
tions were planned, shows that they have no desire to involve
their country in insurrection or war. We have been regaled
ad libitum through the press with extracts from the speeches
of Liberal and Republican, and even of Socialistic leaders, but
not a word has been said of the speeches, in reply, of La
Cierva, Dalmacio Iglesias, Urguijo, and others, quite as notable
in their way from the Conservative standpoint. This is not an
entirely fair attitude for the American press ; it ought to tell
both sides of the story.
Spain is an intensely Catholic country, with Catholic tradi-
tions and Catholic prejudices running back to the earliest ages.
The Spaniards still have much of the Goth in them, much of
the old inflexible spirit which drove out the Moor and pro-
tected all Europe from the Moslem. Spain was at one time
the greatest country in the world, an empire vaster than that
of ancient Rome. People are apt to forget this. The old,
proud spirit that brooked no contradiction and knew no com-
promise, still dominates the people, although they are fallen
from their high estate as rulers of the world. Kings like
Charles V and Philip II, with their strong centralizing ten-
dencies, enhanced the natural national disposition to inflexibility
of character, while lesser men, following the line of their poli-
cies, confirmed and fixed it. We who judge Spain as a whole
must take into consideration this inheritance of history and
2 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
tradition which helps to make nationality and pride of race.
Then, too, Spain is a poor country. It has been devastated
by the English and the French, and has had civil wars of its
own. All this tends to make the Spaniards, somewhat like our
proud Southern famihes after the Civil War, sensitively self-
centered and averse from dealing with those who inflicted so
much injury upon their native country.
Spain is a constitutional monarchy with a written Constitu-
tion, adopted in 1876, very similar to our own Constitution in
its general provisions, and quite the equal of any of the Con-
stitutions of modern states. It embodies all the best principles
of the previous Spanish Constitutions, together with matters
considered fundamental in a modern state, such as a bill of
rights. To Americans, in comparison with our own Consti-
tution, it seems to be defective chiefly in its insufficient checks
to protect the invasion of individual and property rights, as
we understand them. The Constitution is interpreted naturally
according to the habits, usages, and predilections of old Spain,
and its shortcomings must be attributed to those ingrained
ideas rather than to the instrument itself. But it is a strong,
liberal, and far-sighted document, ranking with the funda-
mental law of any modern state.
The executive power under the Constitution rests in the
King, while the law-making power is vested in the Cortes, or
Parliament, and the King. The Cortes is composed of two
houses, the Senate and the Congress, equal in authority and
law-making initiative. The ministry or cabinet may be chosen
from either house, and the ministers may speak in debate in
either house, but may vote only in the house to which they
belong. The Constitution provides that the King is inviolable,
but his ministers are responsible, and all his decrees must be
countersigned by one of them. The Senate is composed of
360 Senators divided into three classes : Senators in their own
right, that is, sons of the King, other than the Prince of As-
turias, sons of the successor to the throne, certain grandees
of Spain, Captains-General, Presidents of the Supreme Coun-
cils, and all the Archbishops; Senators for life (vitalicios) ,
nominated by the Crown, who, together with the preceding
class, cannot exceed 180 in number; the remainder are Sen-
ators elected for ten years by the corporations of the State,
that is, the Universities, Communal and Provincial Assemblies,
SPAIN OF TO-DAY 3
various corporate churches, and certain commercial bodies. To
be either a vitalicio, or elected Senator, the candidate must
have already been a President of Congress (Speaker), or a
deputy who has sat for three consecutive Parliaments or eight
independent ones. Former ministers of the Crown, bishops,
grandees of Spain, lieutenant-generals of the army or vice-ad-
mirals of the navy who have served more than two years, am-
bassadors or ministers who have served five years, directors of
the various Spanish National Academies, and certain others
who have served in various capacities are also eligible. The
lower house or Congress of Deputies is elected by universal
suffrage upon the basis of one deputy for every 50,000 of
population throughout the kingdom. The qualification is that
they must be Spanish and twenty-five years of age, and they
are elected for a term of five years. The Cortes may be dis-
solved by the King at any time upon resignation of the minis-
try, as in the English Parliament. According to the law of
1890 every male Spaniard, twenty-five years of age, who has
been a citizen of a municipality for two years, has the right to
vote. Neither deputies nor senators are paid for their services,
and cannot hold other office, except in the cabinet ministry.
There are at present 406 deputies in Congress.
Besides this central government Spain has also local self-
government. Trouble is often caused by a clash between
the central and local governments. Spain has forty-nine
provinces, or, as we would call them, states ; and each prov-
ince has its individual parliament and local government.
The provincial parliament or legislature is called the "Dipu-
tacion Provincial,'' the members of which are elected by con-
stituencies. These "Diputaciones Provinciales" meet in annual
session, and the local government is carried on by the "Comi-
sion Provincial," a committee elected by the legislature. Thus
we see the government by commission is quite usual in Spain,
although it is being heralded as a novelty in the government of
cities in the United States. Neither the national executive nor
the Cortes has the right to interfere in the established provin-
cial or municipal administration, except to annul such acts as
lie outside the sphere of such administration, a system analo-
gous to our State and Federal jurisdictions. The municipal gov-
ernment is provided for by a duly elected Ayuntatniento, corre-
sponding to our aldermen or board of supervisors, which con-
4 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
sists of from five to thirty-nine regidores (supervisors) or con-
cejales (aldermen), according to the size of the municipality,
and by an Alcalde (mayor) who in large places has one or two
Tenientes Alcaldes (vice-mayors). The entire municipal gov-
ernment, with power of taxation, is vested in the Ayuntamien-
tos. Half of their members are elected every two years, and
they in turn elect the Alcalde from their own body. Thus it
may be seen that Spain has a pretty fair local self-government,
one which would be completely effective were it not that pres-
sure is frequently brought to bear upon the local elections
by the central government, conditions which are not wholly
unknown in the United States.
Spain is chiefly an agricultural country and has no largely
populated cities or industrial centres. The total population
in 1900 was 9,087,821 males and 9,530,265 females, making a
total of 18.618,086. The estimated population on January i,
1909, was 19,712,285. The largest cities in Spain are Madrid
and Barcelona ; the former with 539,835, and the latter with
533,100 inhabitants. Valencia follows with 213,530, and Se-
ville with 168,315. Two other cities, Malaga and Murcia, have
over 100,000 inhabitants. It is in the cities of Spain that the
modern radical, socialistic, and revolutionary elements are to
be found, and not among the great mass of people in the
country.
It is difficult to explain the politics of Spain to the outsider,
one may live long in Spain before they are fully grasped.
They are somewhat on the group system ; one or two ideas in
common for a particular purpose, rather than broad platforms
of action such as our great parties use. First of all there is
the Conservative party, now out of power and filling the place
of the Opposition in the Spanish Parliament. It stands for the
old order of things in general, the "make haste slowly" prin-
ciple ; its adherents are of various shades of opinion. The
majority of them are heart and soul for the present monarchy
and for a Constitutional Spain. Others are Carlists and hark
back to the older regime : others still want to see no change
whatever — they are the "stand-patters" of the party. Others
are strong clericals and see in any change an attack upon the
vested rights of the Church. This party was in power for eight
years and accomplished much — much more proportionately
than its successor seems capable of doing. It passed the laws
SPAIN OF TO-DAY 5
of Electoral Reform, giving Spain manhood suffrage; and it
passed the laws of Local Government, providing a larger meas-
ure of autonomy for the cities and provinces of Spain than
they ever before enjoyed. The second large division is the
Liberal party, which believes in developing Spain to the ex-
treme limits of pure Constitutionalism without actually de-
stroying the Monarchical institution, no matter what interests
may suffer. The majority of its adherents are strictly consti-
tutional and devoted to tht monarchy. They are too fond,
however, of adopting foreign ideas and foreign experiments
in government, regardless of whether they are suited to the
genius and temperament of the Spanish people or not. They
want the broadest measure of modern political invention,
whether Spain is ready for it or not. Then comes the Republi-
can party, which may be described as being in the same relation
(in the inverse order) to the Liberals as the Cadists are to
the Conservatives. They are anti-constitutional and anti-
monarchical. They want a republic in Spain as soon as pos-
sible, and unfortunately they have fixed on France as their
model, instead of taking, say, the United States or Switzer-
land. They follow the Radicals, who are the apostles of dis-
content, and whose members are of all shades of opinion,
theorists, socialists, and some even of the ''white glove," or
philosophical school of anarchy. They are the preachers of
political discontent, and are such energetic reformers that
they are prepared to tear down everything and build entirely
anew. They are divided into various groups, such as, Region-
alists, Independents, etc.
The Church is the oldest institution in Spain. Its charter
and inherited rights go back further than the present Constitu-
tion, the present reigning house, or its predecessor, back to the
time before Spain became a united kingdom under the Cath-
olic kings, when the Moslem was driven from Spanish soil.
Its history is the history of Spain, and it is the one enduring
monument which Spain has to tell of its struggles and pro-
gress. In the mind of the Spaniard it is almost impossible
to disassociate the Church from Spain itself, they are one and
indissoluble. It is this viewpoint that makes much of the
present situation in Spain incomprehensible to the outsider.
One might as well try to separate his family identity from
6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
his personal identity ; to the average Spanish mind it is un-
thinkable.
At present the Church is composed of nine archbishoprics or
provinces, with forty-seven suffragan bishoprics or dioceses.
The Archbishop of Toledo is the Primate of all Spain, and
Patriarch of the Indies. There are in all Spain some 17,369
organized parishes, having 22,558 churches and 7,568 chapels,
which are served by 33.303 priests. As a whole the figures do
not show that Spain is abnormally overcrowded with priests,
although in some of the dioceses the dwindling of population
within the last century has left them supplied with more
churches and clergy than possibly they need at the present
day. On the other hand, many places in Spain show that the
Church is under-equipped with clergy. Nearly the entire popu-
lation is Catholic. There were in 1900 some 213,000 foreign-
ers in Spain whose religious affiliations were not counted,
some 7,500 Protestants, 4,500 Jews, and from 18,000 to 20,000
Rationalists, Indifferentists, and others. This is as near as
the census can inform us.
The Constitution requires the nation to support the clergy
and maintain the buildings and equipment of the Church for
public worship, as especially regulated by the Concordat, which
will be mentioned later. This, it must be understood, is not
liberality on the part of the State, although the present genera-
tion is trying to give it that aspect, but is merely a return of
part of the fruits from the estates and property of the Church
which were seized by the State under various pretexts during
the past. It is an indemnity rather than a grace. The esti-
mate of expenditure in this regard for the year 1910 was 41,-
337,013 pesetas, or about ^8,267,000, which was about the
same as for the year 1909. This sum looks magnificent when
it is viewed as a whole, and no account is taken of its actual
application. Some persons reading hastily the figures as given
in the daily newspapers get an idea that the clergy receive the
whole of it. But that is far from being the case. In the first
place the appropriation is used to run the Ministry of Wor-
ship : to pay the salaries of the minister, his assistants, and
all the clerks, employees, and the cost of the statistical and
administrative work.
In the second place the fabric of the cathedrals and churches
must be kept up out of this sum. Most of the cathedrals in
SPAIN OF TO-DAY 7
Spain are national monuments and are more or less in need
of repair. Those who have seen the Cathedral of Barcelona,
with the scaffolding around its towers, or the Cathedral of
Seville, with the extensive works in the courtyard extending
along the northern side, will understand this. When one con-
siders the number of beautiful cathedrals, churches, abbeys,
and church buildings in Spain, models of Gothic architecture
to be kept in good condition or restored, one realizes the
amount of expenditure required. Then come the actual sal-
aries of the clergy. They are certainly not extravagant. The
Primate, the Archbishop of Toledo, receives $7,500 an-
nually; the Archbishops of Seville and Valencia, $7,000
each ; the other archbishops, $6,500 each ; two bishops, Barce-
lona and Madrid, $5,400 each ; four bishops, Cadiz, Cartagena,
Cordoba, and Malaga, $5,000 eacii ; twenty-two bishops, $4,300
each ; and the remaining bishops not quite $4,000 each. Deans
and archdeacons receive from $900 to $1,000 each; regular
canons, $800, and beneficed canons from $350 to $700; while
parish priests in the cities receive from $300 to $500, and those
in the country from $150 up. Assistant priests receive from
$100 to $200 annually. Truly it cannot be said to be a wildly
extravagant rate of pay ; and it needs the usual stole fees, such
as weddings, ceremonial baptisms, and the like, to eke out the
income. The specific appropriations for the maintenance of
worship and ordinary care and cleanliness of the churches are
as follows : each metropolitan cathedral, $4,500 ; each suffra-
gan cathedral, $3,500; and each collegiate church, from $1,000
to $1,500; while parish churches get an allowance proportioned
to their importance from a minimum of $50 up. Besides this,
diocesan seminaries receive an allowance of from $4,500 to
$6,000 each for the instruction and maintenance of candi-
dates for the priesthood. From these figures one can get a
very fair idea of how church expenditure in Spain is ap-
portioned.
Besides the parochial, secular clergy just mentioned there
are several religious orders in Spain. The ordinary newspa-
pers, in reporting this fact, run them up into high figures
which is the veriest nonsense. What they mean, when they
speak of religious orders, are religious houses or separate
communities, and even these numbers they exaggerate. In
1909 there were 597 religious houses or communities of men
8 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
containing 12,142 members, which were devoted as follows:
294 to education ; 92 to training of missionaries ; 97 to educa-
tion of priests ; 62 to manual training for young men and the
sale of their products : and 52 to monastic and contemplative
life. There were 2,656 communities of women, having 42,596
members, divided as follows: 910 for education; 1,029 fo^
hospital work and charity; 717 for a contemplative life. Some
of these religious communities have taken up some sections of
the most desolate and wild lands in Catalonia and the north,
lands which had never been profitable or even cultivated, and
erected monasteries there after the manner of the Middle Ages
or of our energetic missionaries in the Far West.
Education in Spain is not, of course, as far advanced as it
is in the United States, or in Germany, or France. In a
great measure this may be explained by the fact that the great
majority of the Spanish population is rural. All sorts of mis-
leading information about education and illiteracy in Spain
has been given in our daily and weekly press, as well as in
some leading magazines. Some of them have said that there
was 75 per cent of illiteracy in Spain ; but these figures were
taken from the census of i860. Others have said that 68 per
cent of the people were illiterate ; but that was taken from the
census of 1880. The trouble with these writers is that they
utilized the handiest encyclopedia they could find, no matter
what its date was, instead of obtaining the latest available
figures. The census of 1910 is not yet computed, but the
figures for 1900 gave 25,340 public schools with 1,617,314
pupils, and 6,181 private schools with 344,380 pupils, making
a total of 31,521 schools with 1.961,694 pupils. One-ninth of
a population of 18,500,000 is certainly not a bad showing. In
1900 the central government at Madrid spent $9,500,000 on
education, and the local governments about three to four times
as much more. In 1910 the governmental budget for educa-
tion was 53,522,408 pesetas, or about $10,710,000. In 1900
the illiterates of Spain amounted to less than 30 per cent, or
to be exact 2,603,753 niales and 2,686,615 females, making a
total of 5,290,368 persons. I am informed that the age in
Spain at which illiterates are counted is nine years, but these
illiterates were for the most part persons from maturity to
old age.
The pay of a school teacher is never magnificent in any
SPAIN OF TO-DAY 9
country. The close-fisted, hard-headed Spanish peasant has
old-fashioned notions about the necessity of reading and writ-
ing, and will not tax himself to maintain schools, and still
less to pay large salaries to teachers, especially in the primary
grades. For this reason teaching in Spain is not an attractive
profession, and arouses no enthusiasm outside the large cities.
The subjects usually taught in the primary schools are: Chris-
tian Doctrine. Spanish language, reading, writing, grammar,
arithmetic, geography and history, drawing, singing, manual
training, and bodily exercises. In city schools the elementary
notions of geometry, physical science, chemistry, and physi-
ology are taught.
The teacher of the lowest primary grade in a country school
begins with the magnificent salary of 500 pesetas, or $100 a
year. He can be advanced by gradations of 200 pesetas, until
he receives 1,500 pesetas; after that the places are all subject
to competitive examination (oposicion). The highest places
are in Madrid and Barcelona, where the best-paid teachers get
1,500 pesetas, or $500. Secondary education is provided by
what are called institiitos, analogous to our high schools. To
enter children must be at least eleven years of age and pass an
entrance examination. These institutos have a five to six
years' course, and are expected to prepare for an elementary,
professional, or a university course. Then come the normal
schools, the professional schools, and the nine universities. The
number of university students in 1907 was 16,500. The educa-
tion of women is also progressing. In 1907 twenty- two women
students passed through the universities ; in the same year 1,076
women passed through the school of arts and industries ; and
in 1908 this number rose to 1,315. In the normal schools in
1907 some 2,241 schoolmistresses graduated; in 1908 there
were 3,584 women on the list. These refer wholly to the gov-
ernmental public schools. Besides these, there are the pri-
vate schools, managed in part by religious congregations, and
in part by laymen (both Catholic and otherwise) concerning
which I have no adequate figures as to salaries and service.
Spain is a nation of small holders of real property, and has
but comparatively few holders of large estates. Perhaps to
this is due in a measure its poverty, for it is the small land-
owners rather than the manufacturer or trader who predomi-
nates. Oi the 3,426,083 recorded assessments to the real prop-
10 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
erty tax, there were 624,920 properties which paid a tax of
from I to 10 reales (5 to 50 cents), 511,666 from 10 to 20
reales, 624,377 from 20 to 40 reales, 788,184 from 40 to 100
reales, 416,546 from 100 to 200 reales, 165,202 from 200 to 500
reales ($10 to $25) ; while the rest, to the number of 279,188,
are larger estates which pay from 500 to 10,000 reales, and a
few upwards. About 80 per cent of the soil is classed as pro-
ductive. In minerals Spain is very rich, being the largest pro-
ducer of copper in the world after the United States, while
mercury, iron and zinc are largely produced, but the mines
are said to be inadequately worked. The railway communi-
cation comprises 9.025 miles of rail, nearly all single track,
except near Madrid and Barcelona.
II. — The Present Situation
At the present moment there is a report of a threatened
break between Spain and the Holy See, and all sorts of rumors
are being printed about it. It derives from an attempt at a
revision of the Concordat at present existing between Spain
and the Holy See. which is complicated by the repeal of an
existing law and the introduction of two new ones into the
Cortes whilst negotiations are pending. The present Con-
gress, or lower house of the Cortes, is composed of 229 Lib-
erals, 106 Conservatives, 40 Republicans, 9 Carlists and 20
other members of the Integrist, Regionalist, Independent, and
Socialist groups. The Liberals have a clear majority of 54
votes over all the other parties combined. The Senate, how-
ever, leans more towards the Conservative party. After all
the seats had been filled in the late election and by appoint-
ment, the Senate stood 178 Ministerialists, 117 Conservatists, 6
Carlists, 5 Republicans, 29 Indefinites, and 17 Prelates, with
nine others, Regionalists and Palatines. The present Prime
Minister of Spain, or Presidente del Consejo, is Don Jose
Canalejas y Mendez, probably the strongest Liberal in Spain.
He certainly is the strongest and most effective public speaker
and knows how to turn his sentences in a way that even his
enemies must admire. In Spain they use the bull-rings on
off-days in which to hold their political meetings, and they
serve the purpose excellently. At one of his latest addresses
SPAIN OF TO-DAY ii
to his followers Canalejas spoke so forcibly and roused them
up so thoroughly that at the conclusion they tore up the seats
of the amphitheatre and threw them into the ring.
While undertaking to enter into negotiations with the Holy
See for a revision of the Concordat, Senor Canalejas, during
the pendency of negotiations at Rome, promulgated a Royal
Order, which completely changed the interpretation of the
Constitution in regard to non-Catholic bodies, and introduced
into the Cortes two measures, nicknamed the "lock-out" (can-
dado) in the Spanish papers, looking towards the diminution
or suppression of religious orders and houses in Spain. The
Holy See replied that it was scarcely the proper way to carry
on negotiations for one party to put his purpose into execu-
tion and talk revision afterwards. A few words upon the
Constitution and the Concordat will explain the situation.
There have been several Concordats between Spain and the
Holy See, later ones superseding the others. The present
Concordat was entered into on March i6, 1851, and a supple-
ment was added on August 25, 1859. There have also been a
number of Constitutions adopted in Spain. The present Con-
stitution was adopted June 30, 1876, whose general provisions
have already been described. The portion of the Constitution
principally bearing on the present situation reads as follows :
Article XI. The Apostolic Roman Catholic religion is the
religion of the State. The nation binds itself to maintain this
religion and its ministers.
No one shall be molested in Spanish territory on account of
his religious opinions, or for the exercise of his particular form
of worship, provided he show the respect due to Christian mor-
ality.
Ceremonies and public manifestations other than those of the
State religion, however, shall not be permitted.
The first and the last clauses of this article are the ones
creating such a stir just now. Spain is almost entirely Cath-
olic, and as I have said, there are only about 7,500 Protestants
(including many foreigners) and some 4,500 Jews in Spain.
They were an insignificant minority, and in so far as they are
foreigners, Spaniards have never deemed that they should
enjoy privileges to which the Spanish native-born were en-
titled. They are not given the privilege of using the outward
and visible signs of a church upon their houses of worship,
12 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
as that would be a "public manifestation" prohibited by the
Constitution. The doubtful clauses of the Spanish Constitu-
tion are not construed, as with us, by a judgment of the Su-
preme Court. They are interpreted by a decree framed by
the Council of Ministers and signed by the King, which has
all the force of a law. On October 23, 1876, a Royal Order
was promulgated, which undertook to construe Article XI of
the Constitution, as follows :
1. From this date every public manifestation of worship or
sects differing from the Catholic religion is prohibited out-
side of the house of worship or cemetery belonging to them.
2. The foregoing regulation comprises, under the meaning
of public manifestation, every act performed in the public
street, or on the exterior walls of the house of worship or
cemetery, which advertises or announces the ceremonies, rites,
usages, and customs of the dissenting sect, whether by means
of processions, placards, banners, emblems, advertisements,
or posters.
This law has been on the books for thirty-four years, and
Spaniards have never, in any number, petitioned for its re-
moval or change, but on the contrary, have always desired it
to remain in force. There is no need here to go into the
propriety or justice of such a law. In the Southern States
we have a "Jim Crow" law which represents the local wishes
of the community, even if it be indefensible. The United
States has a Chinese exclusion law which no one claims to
be a miracle of justice. And so this Spanish law exactly
fitted the wishes of the great majority of Spaniards, as against
an infinitesimal minority who represented alien religions. We
could no more expect the Spaniards to change their views on
this than we can get our Southern fellow-citizens to abolish
their "Ji"^ Crow" and voting statutes. It is human nature,
that is all, and it must be recognized.
But as this interpretation was made originally by Royal
Order, so, too, it could be revoked by Royal Order. This is
exactly what Canalejas has done ; he has simply repealed and
annulled the former decree which has stood for so many
years, without putting anything in its place. One does not
know to-day whether a non-Catholic church may put up
merely an announcement of its name, or even a cross and stat-
ues of the saints, or may commence a campaign like the
SPAIN OF TO-DAY 13
Methodist institution in Rome. That is what exasperates the
Catholic Spaniard ; for the present Liberal Government has
done this propria motn, without request from any large body
of citizens or any debate on the subject.
The other measures are bills submitted to the two houses of
the Cortes — the so-called "lock-out'' legislation, using the
simile of the factory. One is said to propose the suppression
of the religious congregations which have entered Spain ille-
gally ; the other is said to be a measure to enable the bishops to
suppress unnecessary religious houses within their dioceses.
A great deal of nonsense has been written or telegraphed to
the American press upon this phase of the matter. For in-
stance, it is said that the Concordat limits the number of male
religious orders to three, and that there are now six hundred
male religious orders in Spain. This statement has been re-
peated in numbers of papers here. I have already given the
statistics of the religious orders in Spain, and need only say
that the six hundred can only refer to religious houses or
communities. If the correspondent's fertile imagination holds
out, he will soon reckon each monk as a "religious order."
There is no law in Spain, nor does the Concordat itself use
any terms, restricting the male religious orders to three. I
quote from the Concordat of 1851, which was ratified and put
into execution in Spain by the law of October 17, 185 1 :
Article XXIX. In order that the whole Peninsula may have
a sufficient number of ministers and evangelical laborers for
the prelates to avail themselves by giving missions in the
localities of their dioceses, helping the parish clergy, assisting
the sick, and for other works of charity and public utility,
the Government of her Majesty, which proposes to assist
Colleges for Missions beyond the seas, will henceforth take
suitable steps to establish wherever necessary, after previous
consultation with the diocesans, religious houses and con-
gregations of St. Vincent de Paul, St. Philip Neri, and another
order among those approved by the Holy See, which also
will serve at the proper times as places of retreat for
ecclesiastics, in which to make their spiritual exercises, or for
other pious uses.
There is no restriction in this language, but on the con-
trary these three orders or congregations are made a part of
the State Church. This will be seen from a later article in
the Concordat, where the State is bound to maintain them:
14 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Article XXXV. The government of her Majesty will pro-
vide the necessary means for the maintenance of the religious
houses and congregations mentioned in Article XXIX.
This was really a short method of getting charitable and
eleemosynary work done at the least expense to the State.
There is no restriction upon religious orders in Spain any
more than there is in the United States, and in both places
they have occupied somewhat the same status. Under the
Spanish Constitution it is provided that :
Article XIII. Every Spaniard has" the right ... to form
associations for any of the ends of human life.
This has been uniformly interpreted as the right to form
religious organizations of any kind. This right is expressly
recognized in the Association (or, as we should say, Member-
ship Corporation) Law of June 30, 1887:
Article I. The right of association which is recognized by
Article XIII of the Constitution may be exercised freely, con-
formable to the provisions of this act. Under it associations
may be formed for religious, political, scientific, artistic, and
benevolent purposes, or for recreation or other lawful ends,
which do not have profit or gain as their sole or principal
obj ect.
Article II. From the provisions of this law are excepted:
(i) Those associations of the Catholic religion authorized in
Spain by the Concordat. The other religious associations
shall be regulated by this law, but the non-Catholic ones must
be subject to the limitations prescribed by Article II of
the Constitution. (2) Societies which are formed for mer-
cantile purposes. (3) The institutes or corporations which
exist or act under special laws.
What the Liberal ministers mean, when they say "illegal"
orders, is that many orders have not inscribed themselves, as
to their respective houses or communities, in the books of
registry of the province where they are situated. But the
statistics show that out of a total of 3,253 communities, 2,831
have been duly registered. The Premier Canalejas also desires
to shut out all foreign members of religious orders or congre-
gations from their rights of association, upon the ground that
the Constitution only provides that Spaniards shall have such
rights. This is analogous to our laws providing that Asiatics
shall not become naturalized citizens, or that aliens cannot hold
land in certain states.
SPAIN OF TO-DAY 15
The debates in both houses of the Cortes upon these last
proposals have been very warm. The one of which so much
is made in America — the so-called permission for non-Catholic
organizations to display the insignia of public worship — has
not caused so much comment in Spain. In fact, Catholic news-
papers refer very little to it. It is regarded more as an af-
front to the Pope, as evidence of a desire to avoid a real revi-
sion of the Concordat, and is treated as a cheap bid for popu-
larity. But in regard to the Spaniard's constitutional right to
form associations as he pleases, feelings run deep and strong.
The provision of the bill that orders may be suppressed and
their very interior affairs regulated by officious state meddlers,
has roused general indignation. Protests have been pouring in
by mail, telegraph, and special messenger from every part of
Spain. Sometimes four to five columns of the bare outline of
the protests and the thousands of signatures appear in the
papers. Catholic sentiment throughout the entire country is
aroused, for this is recognized as the opening gun of an as-
sault upon the Church. Canalejas is a Catholic, but his suc-
cessor may not be, and so the Catholic world is rousing itself.
Catholic Spain is fairly well organized. At present there
are 255 Catholic associations or clubs, 47 Catholic labor unions,
556 agricultural associations, 297 Rafifeisen Mutual Banks, 95
artisans' unions. 33 consumers' leagues, 92 indemnity associa-
tions. 33 diocesan councils of different societies, eight popular
libraries, and three credit banks. The Catholic press publishes
60 papers of all kinds. The units of the organizations are the
various parishes which make a focus of religious and social
life.
It has been asserted on the floor of the Cortes, and repeated
over and over again in our press, that Spain is over-run with
religious orders, and that they pay no taxes. Olf course those
that are authorized by the Concordat pay no taxes, for they
are part and parcel of the State Church. I have not the sta-
tistics at hand to show what taxes are paid or what exemp-
tions are claimed, but if one will look at the matter a moment
from an American standpoint it will be seen that ordinary
civilized nations exact no taxes in similar cases. For instance,
here in our own country, schools, hospitals, libraries, asylums,
etc., pay no taxes. Why, then, should the religious orders in
Spain, which conduct such institutions of education, charity, or
i6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
mercy, be required to submit to taxation? I have already giv-
en the statistics of the religious orders in Spain, but the sur-
prising part of the situation is that Spain has fevi^er members
of religious communities per population than many other
Catholic countries or Catholic populations. Here are some of
the figures for the year 1909 :
/- ^ /- ^u 1- D 14.- Individuals in Number per
Country. Catholic Population. Religious Orders, ten thousand.
Belgium 7,276,461 37,905 52
United States 14,235.451 65,702 46
England and Wales. 2,130,000 6,458 30
Germany 22,109,644 64,174 29
Ireland 3,3o8,66r 9,190 27
Spain 19,712,285 54,738 27
In addition to this it is to be noted that in 28 dioceses the
number of individuals belonging to religious communities in
each does not reach 100. In Minorca there are only three;
in Guadix 6, in Astorga 15, and in Siguenza 19. It cannot be
said, therefore, that Spain is overrun with religious orders, or
that its condition in that regard, as compared with other coun-
tries, is remarkable.
The outcome of the parliamentary discussion of the bills
in relation to the orders and religious houses cannot be fore-
seen clearly. It may be said that they will pass Congress, but
in the Senate many of the ministerialists are not strong Lib-
erals, while the Conservatives have a large following and
can also make combinations with other groups.
The unfortunate affront to the Holy See will, of course, not
be allowed to stand in the way of the proper adjustment of
things. That was shown when the massing of the protesting
Catholic organizations was abandoned, rather than allow it to
be used as the entering wedge of Carlism. But the elements
of the situation which I have given will enable the reader to
judge in some intelligent fashion the fragmentary and often
incoherent news that comes from Spain.
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN
Madrid and Toledo
THE railways in Spain are proverbially slow, yet we
found that they went at a fair speed, even judged by
American ideas. There was a good reason in part
for their slowness. The railways of Spain, with the excep-
tion of a comparatively short stretch on the Northern Rail-
way out of Madrid, are single track, and they are rather to
be compared with our railroads west of the Mississippi River
than with those in the east. But we found the sleeping cars
quite comfortable and with much more privacy than is usual
in the American pullman car. The fast expresses have a letter
box or slot on the side of the mail car, and it is no infrequent
sight at the country stations to see the people come trooping
down to meet the train to mail their letters.
The landscape through Castile and New Castile looks deso-
late and deserted to American eyes, so accustomed to farm-
houses nestling among the trees. There are no trees in Cas-
tile and but few in New Castile. The Spanish countryman
has an idea that trees afford merely lodging places for the
birds to lie in wait and steal the grain the farmer plants.
A Castilian proverb says that a lark has to bring his own pro-
visions with him when he visits Castile. The rolling country
and distant hills seem from the railway like large brown sea
waves hardened into earth. Still the Spanish peasant is a
painstaking and hard-working farmer. His fields are tilled
with all the care and minuteness of a garden. Every bit of
land on either side of the railway track was under cultiva-
tion and we were told, produced good crops. As the Span-
ish peasantry dwell in villages and not in scattered farm houses
and go abroad to till their fields, the landscape seemed curi-
ously desolate to American eyes accustomed to the familiar
farm house and barn every few miles.
Arriving at Madrid, at the Atocha Station, at the southern
17
i8 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
end of the Prado, we found a decided contrast to the quiet of
the country. The long line of hotel omnibuses and cabs solicit-
ing travellers showed that Madrid was as active in that regard
as any American city. Indeed, in one respect, it was even
more advanced than New York. The Spanish mail wagons
(correos) were not, as here, drawn by horses, but were smart,
light-running automobiles, which traversed the city with mar-
velous celerity and delivered the mail with expedition.
Madrid, in some respects, is a disappointing city. It is old
enough not to be new, and yet it is not old enough to be an-
cient. Its cathedral, Nuestra Senora de la Almudena, has
not been built above the basement story, and in that it resem-
bles the beginnings of many American churches. This cir-
cumstance made us feel quite at home when we went down
to admire it. The basement is very beautifully constructed and
has a fine organ. Some time, when money is more plentiful
in Spain, the splendid main structure will be built. Another
instance of newness is the Church of San Francisco — the Pan-
theon or Westminster Abbey of Spain — for it looks almost as
if it left the builders' hands only the day before yesterday. It
is a circular church with a very lofty dome like the Capitol
at Washington or St. Paul's in London. The stained glass
is very modern, but it contains examples of the very finest
German and French artists in modern glass-design and color-
ing. The whole effect is one of beauty and harmony. But
the church hardly fulfills its purpose of being the resting-
place of the great men of Spain, as the inscription on its front
"Spain to her distinguished sons" {Espana a sus preclaros
Hijos) proudly proclaims. The commissions entrusted with
the search were unable to find the bodies of Guzman, Cer-
vantes, Lope de Vega, Herrera, Velasquez, or Murillo, whose
resting-places are unknown. Even many of those who were
disinterred and buried here were afterwards removed and re-
stored to their original tombs owing to the vigorous protests
and threatened lawsuits of their descendants and their fellow-
provincials.
New buildings are going up everywhere; a fine new post-
office intended to be very modern and up-to-date, and a still
finer hotel — one of the Ritz-Carlton series — intended to eclipse
anything of its kind, while a host of apartment houses and
minor structures are projected. The first hotel to which we
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN 19
went was being modernized to such an extent that openings
were being made in the walls and the floors to admit a won-
derful steam-heating plant ! The proprietor begged us, with
many courtly bows, to stay, that the installation of the calefac-
cion should not disturb us, for it would be transferred to an-
other part of the house. Notwithstanding his entreaties, and
the fine rooms with special balconies overlooking the Carrera
de San Jeronimo, we took up our quarters elsewhere, giving
a weak-kneed promise of coming back when the calefaccion
was completed.
Madrid cabmen are very independent, self-possessed, chary
of speech, and will seldom abate much of their price for a
drive. They may be said to be the opposite of the Italian cab-
man in these respects. Once I asked a cabman how much he
would charge to drive me across Madrid to the Museo de Arte
Modema, and he answered: "Dos pesetas y medio" (Two
and a half pesetas). I said that I would give him two pesetas,
and all he did was to look at me reproachfully, take out a
cigarette, slowly light it, and begin to smoke. He had named
his price and that ended it. Nor did any of the other cabmen
in the line make a move to secure me as a fare.
The focus of life in Madrid is at the Puerta del Sol (the
Gate of the Sun). Once upon a time, when Madrid had its
beginning and there were walls, there was a Gate of the Sun.
It disappeared long ago, and now one looks directly upon the
rising sun, if one strolls out early enough, without the inter-
vention of walls. The place is now a large oblong plaza, the
starting-point for all the electric street cars in Madrid and
the location of some of the most fashionable hotels. The
population of Madrid surges through it at all times of the day,
and in that respect it may be compared to Fifth Avenue in
New York or to Trafalgar Square in London. From it radi-
ate a number of important streets, of which the Calle de
Alcala is the largest and the best known. It is far wider than
the widest street we have in New York, and it leads directly
to the Buen Retiro, or Central Park of Madrid, passing by the
Prado, a great avenue of trees known all the world over. The
very word Prada brings to memory the magnificent Museo
Nacional de Pintura y Escultura, with its wonderfully fine
collections of the great masters. It contains two rooms respec-
tively devoted to Murillo and Velasquez, the Mecca of the
20 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
admirers of the Spanish painters, to say nothing of the treas-
ures of the ItaHan, Flemish. German, and French schools. It
is especially rich in examples of Rubens and Vandyke, while
the works of the Spanish painters of the various schools can
here be studied as nowhere else in the world. Raphael and
Titian are well represented, and the portrait of Cardinal de
Paira, by the former, is looked upon as one of the greatest
in the world of art. Art critics have done ample justice to
this noble gallery, and it would be but repetition to add my
words of appreciation.
Behind the Museo del Prado is the quiet little white Church
of San Jeronimo el Real (St. Jerome the Royal), the church
in which the sovereigns of Spain are wedded. In fact all this
part of Madrid, in the time of Lope de V^ega, was the "mead-
ows of St. Jerome," where the fashionables of the Court
used to go for recreation. The Church of San Jeronimo and
the great promenade of the Prado are all that now recall it.
In this church also (up to the year 1833) the members of the
Cortes used to come to hear the Mass of the Holy Ghost and
to take their oaths at the opening session of Parliament; a
custom now observed in the breach rather than in the per-
formance. Here, too, the Prince of Asturias (as the heir ap-
parent in Spain is called) used to come to take his oath to
observe the laws of the kingdom. Now, however, the Church
plays no greater historic part than receiving the marriage vows
of the sovereign. It was here that King Alfonso and Queen
Victoria were married on May 31, 1906, in all the pomp and
circumstance of the Spanish Court, only to narrowly escape
death a half hour later on the Calle Mayor on their way back
to the palace. The bomb, concealed in a huge bouquet of
roses, was hurled from the third story of a house by Morral,
an anarchist teacher in the Ferrer schools in Madrid, and
struck directly in front of the royal carriage, killing the horses
and killing and maiming a score of persons. As we entered
the quiet, prim-looking church, escorted by a small boy of
the neighboring school, we tried to imagine the splendor of
that event which so nearly had a tragic ending for the royal
bride and groom. Almost across from the church is the severe-
looking building of the Spanish Academy, while to the south
lies the great Botanical Garden.
The legislative chambers in Madrid are situated widely
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN 21
apart. The lower house of the Cortes meets in the Palacio de
Congreso on the Carrera de San Jeronimo, an unimposing
building, while the Senate meets two miles away to the north
of the Royal Palace, in an old building which was originally
an Augustinian college. Further north is the Central Univers-
ity, made up of the union of the University of Alcala and the
University of Madrid in 1836, and now attended by 6,600
students. The main building of the University is known as
the Noviciado, because it was originally a novitiate of the
Jesuits, when the Society owned the property before their sup-
pression in the eighteenth century. A little further on is the
great Hospital de la Princesa, which, together with the great
Hospital General, make two extensive institutions, probably
the equals of any in the world. In fact, Madrid would seem
almost too well supplied with hospitals for a city of 600,000
inhabitants. It has eleven altogether, besides a special one
for small children. In addition it has fourteen ambulance
stations (Casas de Socorro) scattered over different parts of
the city, affording first aid to the injured.
The number of news-stands and the great sale of illustrated
papers, newspapers, and light novels was noticeable. Span-
ish illiteracy cannot be as great as represented, or these and
the numerous book stores would soon go out of business. On
coming home I looked the matter up. I found the statistics
on the subject were much at variance with the popular ideas
and loose percentages given. For instance, I had heard it
repeated that there was 68 per cent of illiterates among the
population in Spain. That would mean that more than half
the people could not read or write. Yet I never met a person
who could not read or write during my whole trip through
Spain ; on the contrary I saw everybody reading newspapers,
novels, letters, etc. I found that the 68 per cent was true
enough when it was written, but unfortunately the figures were
taken from the Encyclopedia Britannica and referred to the
census of 1880, and could hardly be controlling to-day. When
we reflect that Spain is essentially an agricultural country, with
only a small urban population (even now only two cities have
a population of over 500,000), it will be seen that the diffusion
of education must necessarily be of slower growth. I have
not the figures of any late census by me, but the census of
1900 puts quite a different phase upon the situation.
22 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
The total population of Spain at that time was 9,087,821
males and 9,530,265 females, making a total of 18,618,086.
The elementary schools numbered 25,340 public schools with
1,617,314 pupils, and 6,181 private schools with 344,380 pupils,
giving a total of 31,521 schools with 1,961,694 pupils. In addi-
tion there were ten universities, numerous high and normal
schools, trade, technical, and engineering and professional
schools of all kinds. The illiterates in 1900 amounted to 5,-
290,368, or less than 30 per cent of the population. These illit-
erate persons were, for the most part, persons from maturity
to old age — chiefly hard-headed peasants who had old-fash-
ioned notions about the necessity of reading and writing —
while the younger generation was growing up bright and alert.
The lack of schools is also accounted for. Spain has local
government ; and the thrifty Spanish countryman will not tax
himself to maintain schools, while the stipend derived from the
central government at Madrid (which spends about $9,500,000
a year on education) is in itself too small to maintain schools,
where no local taxation has been provided. An analogous sit-
uation may be found in North Carolina and Tennessee. In
North Carolina in 1900 the illiterates were 28 per cent of the
population, and in Tennessee they were a little over 20 per
cent.
When we compare the sums spent by Spain on the educa-
tion of her children and the school attendance there with the
sums spent in New York State, the comparison is not alto-
gether unfavorable. The various provinces and communes
in Spain supply the largest amount of money to support the
schools. I have not at hand exact figures for 1900, but I am
told that it is between three and four times as much as the
central government furnishes. In the State of New York local
taxation produced $34,721,611 for public education, while the
state government supplied $4,616,769 for the same purpose.
The total population of the State in 1900 was 7,268,012, so
that the State supplied a little over fifty cents per capita. The
attendance in the New York public schools throughout the State
for the year 1900 was 873,157 pupils. Spain, with two and
one half times the population of the State of New York in
1900, supplied twice as many pupils to her public schools, and
the central government supplied for education about twice as
much money as the central government of the State of New
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN 23
York. New York is nearly the foremost, and certainly the
richest and most populous, State in the Union, and when we
find that Spain is by no means lagging far behind the pace
set by the Empire State in the matter of education, we can
see that a prejudiced view — based upon antiquated figures and
compared with recent development here — has been entertained
of Spain in educational matters. She is not as far ahead as
she ought to be ; but she is not so far behind as hostile critics
would make out.
The same thing holds true of the statement that Spain is
"priest-ridden," that there are too many priests, friars, and
monks there. It may be ; and the enjoyment of the endow-
ments of a State Church and ancient privileges may have
dulled their energy and rendered them less active and strenu-
ous in their sacred callings than our clergy. A keen and
exhaustive study of the situation could alone determine that.
Nevertheless I saw and conversed with as bright, keen, and
eager-faced priests in Spain as I ever have in New York.
When stress is laid upon the mere numbers as the root of the
criticism, a little comparison will do much to clear the mind.
When I was in Madrid a Radical newspaper published a
severe article in which it asserted that the vast number of
celibates (priests, monks and friars) — and it particularly gave
the figures for the city and province of Madrid — was an evil,
particularly because it meant the withdrawal from civil life
of many individuals who might otherwise be the honored heads
of flourishing famiHes. But the illustrated journal "A. B. C."
replied in a telling article in which it quoted statistics to show
that in the city and province of Madrid there were already far
more bachelors above the age of thirty years, who were lay-
men, than the entire number of religious mentioned, and it
sarcastically asked why "they did not become the honored
heads of flourishing families" for the welfare of Spain. In
Spain there were in 1900 (I have no later figures) some 11,000
male religious — priests, monks, friars, and lay religious — and
these, in a population of 18,617,000. gives about an average
of one religious or clergyman to every 1,692 persons. By
the United States religious census for 1906 (there are no
figures available for 1900) there were 164,830 ministers and
clergy of all kinds among a population that year of 84,246,250.
This gives our own country one clergyman to every 511 per-
24 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
sons, or over three times as many as Spain possesses per
capita. Yet we are not prone to think that the United States
is "clergy-ridden." A little comparison of the relative situa-
tion of things v^ould make the usual criticism of Spain a little
more charitable and certainly more judicious.
Some eighteen miles away to the northwest lies the village
of Escorial, where Philip II built the pile which has taken that
name to itself in the minds of most sightseers. Escorial
(from the Latin scoria) was a forlorn village surrounding
certain iron mines, where slag and cinders were the chief
ornament of the landscape, at the foot of the Guadarrama
mountains. This spot was selected by Philip II to erect the
great building which is at once a palace, a temple, a monas-
tery, and a tomb, and which was the abiding-place of that
monarch in the declining years of his life. When the traveller
arrives by train, a dashing automobile takes him from the
station up the hill to the centre of the village, where the
famous buildings are. The dull gray stone and severe archi-
tecture make it a part almost of the frowning Guadarramas
which lie behind it. High up on the mountain side is a little
plateau called "Philip's Chair" (La Silla de Felipe) where it
is said that the king caused a large throne-like chair to be
placed in which he sat and watched the workmen build the
Escorial.
The gray building is situated in an enormous courtyard,
with still an inner court. Toward the east is the temple or
church, which is built in a severe style of architecture, simple,
yet resembling St. Peter's Church at Rome. The high altar
has a retablo or reredos of carved wood, rising to the ceiling.
Oin the Gospel side, in a niche over the sanctuary, are the
figures of Charles V and his family kneeling and facing the
altar. On the epistle side is a similar bronze group of Philip
II and some of his family in a similar attitude. High up in
the rear of the church is the famous coro alto, the choir in
which Philip sat in his stall as a monk and which had the
little postern door by his side through which he entered and
received communications. He was kneeling here when the
news was brought to him that Don John of Austria had won
the battle of Lepanto ; he immediately rose and commanded the
choir to sing the Te Deum. This choir loft is supported upon
a single flat arch or vaulting which trembles under footsteps.
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN 25
It is said that the architect was told that it would fall if it
remained as he built it ; thereupon he placed an elaborate
pillar in the centre of the vaulting underneath, and requested
his critics to examine it. They walked over the vaulting again
and again and pronounced it entirely safe. Whereupon he
took them down into the church below and showed them that
the central pillar did not reach the vaulting by nearly an
inch and that it was made of painted paper! The choir loft
also contains a huge reading-desk some fifteen feet high for
the great antiphonals to rest upon, and yet at the slightest
touch of the hand it will turn in any direction, so delicately
is it balanced.
Under the high altar, down a long staircase, lie the sarco-
phagi of the kings of Spain and their wives who have borne
kings. Queens who were childless, or whose sons did not
succeed to the throne, are not interred in these vaults. There
they range from Charles V (or rather Charles I, as he is
known in Spain) down to Alfonso XII, the father of the
present king, and there are yet thirteen granite coffins un-
named and to be filled. Beyond here and to the south lie
the tombs of the Princes of Spain, some of them quite beauti-
ful and all quite modern. The most beautiful is the tomb to
Don John of Austria, the famous victor of the naval battle of
Lepanto against the Turks in 1571.
The monastery of St. Lawrence covers the whole of the
southern portion of the building and possesses a fine library
with some magnificent early Greek and Latin manuscripts.
A peculiarity about the placing of the books on the shelves
is that the gilt edges are turned towards the on-looker while
the backs are turned towards the wall — the reverse of the
ordinary book shelf. In the great courtyard of the Hebrew
kings (so-called because of the gigantic statues of David,
Solomon, Josias, Josaphat, Ezechias and Manasses) the sol-
diers and sailors of the ill-fated Armada were blessed before
they set sail for England. High up on the side of the great
central dome over the church is what looks like a speck of
gold, but is actually half the size of a man's hand, placed there
by the bravado of Philip, as a proof that he had not, as his
enemies said, spent all the gold of his kingdom in building
the Escorial, but had still some to spare to adorn the roof.
The palace is on the northern side of the vast pile, but is too
26 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
formal and gloomy and has never been occupied except for
brief occasions by the Spanish Court. Perhaps the royal
occupants realize too keenly that they will come one day
to the Escorial to stay, and do not care to anticipate that
last coming.
We parted from the gray buildings with keen regret, for
our stay had been too short to explore them thoroughly, as
every room is filled with history. The study, bedroom, and
antechamber of Philip II, where he spent his last days and
where he died, made everything a reality to us. A walk
through the park and a visit to the Prince's palace, a modern
French toy-house, almost, set at the end of the Park by
Philip V, completed and rounded out our visit by bringing
it down to the times of the Bourbon kings. Just near the
station is a little Spanish posada, the mistress of which pro-
vided us with as nice a cup of tea (and Upton's tea at that!)
as can be furnished anywhere in England or America.
The city of Toledo lies some fifty miles from Madrid and
was the ancient capital of Spain. Here it was that the Gothic
kings ruled and here King Reccared and King Wamba held
court in the days when Spain was converted to Christianity
a second time after its invasion by the Goths and Visigoths.
It was not until towards the end of the Middle Ages that the
capital was transferred to Madrid. Toledo sits high upon a
hill where the River Tagus sweeps round it in a semi-circle.
It was for many centuries a stronghold of the Moors when
they held more than half of Spain. It defied capture from the
river side, but was at last taken by the Castilians from the
land side. Outside the church of San Juan de los Reyes
there hang on the walls countless numbers of iron chains and
shackles which were stricken from the limbs of Christian
captives at the taking of the city. The city bears a distinctly
Moorish character in its narrow, winding, and confused
streets. It is said to be one of the hardest Spanish cities
to find one's way around in, and we marvelled much at the
dexterity of the driver who successfully piloted the carriage
without scraping the doorways on either side or squeezing
the passersby flat against the walls of the houses.
Two bridges cross the Tagus by which one may enter
Toledo. One, the Bridge of Alcantara (Arabic, cd-kantara,
the bridge), leads from the railway station directly into the
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN 27
main part of the city by a winding road past the wall and
the Alcazar or citadel, which is now a military training school
— the West Point of Spain. This bridge, as might be surmised
from its Arabic name, goes back to the time of the Moors.
The lower Bridge of St. Martin is further down the river
at the other end of the city and has a romantic story con-
nected with it. The architect who first planned the bridge
had nearly completed it ; the wooden scaffolding was still in
position and the arches were about to be finished. On going
over his calculations he discovered that his bridge would
not be strong enough to bear the weight, and that when
the king, court, and clergy passed over it the arches would
fall. He was wild with despair and confided his discovery
and grief to his wife. In the dead of night, while the city
was all asleep, the devoted wife crept down to the water's
edge and set fire to the scaflfolding which supported the cen-
tering. When the whole bridge fell the people and court
attributed the calamity to the fire. The architect remodelled
his plans and the bridge was built again, and has stood firm
and true ever since. When it was finished the wife publicly
confessed her doings to Archbishop Tenorio, but instead of
making her husband pay the expenses of rebuilding the bridge,
he complimented him on the treasure that he possessed in
such a wife.
The Cathedral of Toledo is, of course, the great centre
of attraction and its history dates back as far as 587. St.
Ildefonso was one of its early archbishops (A. D. 667) and
a national hero of Spain. The Moors conquered the city in
the year 700. In 712 they turned the great church into their
Masjid-al-djami, or chief mosque, and held it for 300 years.
When Alfonso VI captured the city in 1085 he permitted the
Moors to retain it for Moslem worship. But in a year or so
dissensions broke out between the Moslems and the Chris-
tians, and in 1087 the Christians took forcible possession of
the building and turned it into a church again. St. Ferdinand
(Ferdinand III) caused the old building to be torn down and
in 1227 laid the foundation stone for the present cathedral.
It was completed in 1493, the year after the discovery of
America. After the taking of the city from the Moors, the
Archbishop of Toledo was made the Primate of Spain, and
it has been the primatial See ever since. The Court which
28 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
was established here under Alfonso VI remained until 1561,
when Philip II transferred the capital to Madrid. The
great Archbishops of Toledo are known all over the world.
The names of Cardinal Gonzalez de Mendoza, the friend of
Columbus, and of Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros, the great
patron of learning, are among the brightest in history. The
cathedral itself is one of the most imposing Gothic monuments
of Europe; it is 400 feet long and 195 feet wide, covering
about the same area as the Cathedral of Cologne, and its
stained glass windows are the finest of their time. The only
defect which jars upon the exquisite harmony of its per-
fectly executed Gothic architecture is the aperture pierced
through to the roof over the ambulatory behind the high altar
by Narciso Tome in 1732 — a fricassee de marbre as a disgusted
Frenchman called it. It is called the trasparente or skylight
by the Spaniards, and amid the chaos of angels and clouds
which adorn it in full rococo fashion, is the Archangel
Raphael kicking his feet in the air and holding a large golden
fish in his hand.
The capilla moyor or high altar, as in all Spanish cathe-
drals, is separated from the choir and enclosed by a beautiful
reja or iron screen, a monument of the art of the blacksmith,
with all the beauty and tracery of delicate sculpture. Behind
the altar is the retahlo, or wooden reredos, made of larchwood
gilded and painted in the richest Gothic style, erected under
Cardinal Ximenez. Its five stories or stages represent scenes
from the New Testament, the figures being life size and larger.
The choir, which is in the centre of the cathedral, and its
choir stalls are magnificent specimens of carved walnut. The
54 medallions represent scenes in the conquest of Granada
and the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. The marble
outside of the choir is studded with bas-reliefs of the Old
Testament.
The most peculiar thing about the cathedral — ^that which
differentiates it from other cathedrals in and out of Spain
— is the Mozarabic Chapel in the southwest angle, below the
great tower. The rite of Spain originally seems to have been
the Gothic rite, not the Roman, or as it is also known, the
rite of St. James. The Goths and Visigoths of Spain, when
converted to Christianity, seem to have used this rite alto-
gether. However, on the rise of Arianism, the Gothic races
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN 29
of Spain seem to have readily embraced the error, and for
a long time Arianism flourished upon Spanish soil, teaching
its doctrine that the Son was not equal to the Father. When
King Reccared in 586 renounced the errors of Arius and
became a true Catholic, the Gothic rite, which had been prac-
ticed and used alike by Catholic and Arian, became in some
way seemingly identified with Arianism. The advent of the
Moors and their domination in Spain left the question of
rites undetermined. The Catholic Christians of Toledo and
other Spanish cities were allowed by the Arabs to practice
their religion under certain restrictions, but they adopted the
Arabic language and many Moorish customs, and in conse-
quence became known as Mozdrabes or "half Arabs." The
Mass which they celebrated and the rites which they followed
were the old Gothic Mass and ritual. In the north of Spain,
in Aragon and Castile, the Roman rite was followed, and the
Gothic rite became practically unknown, or at least disused.
After the conquest of the southern part of Spain by Christian
arms and the expulsion of the Moors, the Christians of Toledo
came again into their own.
But those disturbed times and the Gothic rite gradually
waned and there came grave question as to whether it should
be used by the Church or not. There is a legend that it
was determined to try the question by fire, and two Missals,
one of each rite, were cast into the flames. The Roman
Missal leaped out of the flames unscathed ; the Gothic Missal
remained there unconsumed. It was decided, therefore, that
both rites were proper. In a later age Cardinal Ximenes
came to the rescue for perpetuity. He had beautiful editions
of the Gothic Missal printed — some of these editions may be
seen in New York at the Hispanic Museum — and established
the Mozarabic Chapel in the Cathedral of Toledo, where the
Gothic rite was to be used as long as the Cathedral should
stand.
I had long been acquainted with the rite and had been in
correspondence with Don Jorje Abad y Perez, the Capellan
Capitular of the Mozarabic Chapel at Toledo. Through his
courtesy several years ago I became possessed of a fine Gothic
Missal, and the Hispanic Museum is indebted likewise to his
courtesy and advocacy for the fine specimens of the Gothic
Missals which it possesses. When we had inspected the cathe-
30 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
dral as much as we cared to for the first time, we made our
call upon Don Jorje. He begged us to excuse him for recit-
ing the vesper office in choir, but when that was finished — and
we saw the Mozarabic canons file into their stalls and recite
the office — he put himself entirely at our service, and not only-
accompanied us over the cathedral again, but went with us
around the city and for a long excursion outside the walls and
across the Tagus. Altogether he was a charming man, his
chief regret, as he expressed it, being that he did not speak
English. One could tell by looking at him that he was of
Gothic origin, for I was asked to translate to him the remark
that he was one of the few Spaniards we had seen with brown
hair and the bluest of blue eyes. He accompanied us to the
Hotel Castilla and took cofifee with us, and on parting hoped
that he might some day visit New York, which we had de-
scribed to him, I am afraid somewhat grandiloquently.
Up to i860 there were six Mozarabic churches in Toledo,
besides the chapel in the cathedral; now there are only two.
The Mozarabic Mass is said in the others at certain intervals
during the year, notably on St. James' day. There are also
some five other places in Spain where the Mozarabic rite is
celebrated on certain days in the year, so that the rite his-
torically may never die out there. The rite is a personal and
family privilege and belongs to those whose families have
always been Mozarab. Others who follow the Roman rite are
not permitted to pass over to the Mozarabic rite, nor are the
Mozarab families or individuals permitted to take up the
Roman rite except in case of marriage, where division of the
family may result from separate rites. The decay of the
Mozarabic rite represents, therefore, the dwindling numbers
of the representatives of the old Mozarab families.
The Mozarabic Mass is peculiar in many points, and quite
Oriental in many of its characteristics. In some respects its
Latin is quite archaic, and the names for the various parts of
the Mass are quite different from the familiar names to which
we are accustomed. The Psalms are from the old Italic and
not from the Vulgate, and the expression Oremus is only
twice used in the Mass; once before the Agios, a prayer not
found in the Roman Mass, and again before the Pater Noster.
The Gradual is called the Psallendo, the Offertory, the Sacri-
iiciiim, the Preface, the Inlatio; while the Sanctus begins in
RECENT IMPRESSIONS OF SPAIN 31
Latin and ends in Greek. The Creed, which is usually called
the Bini (couplets), is said immediately after the consecra-
tion, in couplets, each one divided off from the other, and im-
mediately after, the Our Father is sung by the priest, who
pauses at each petition while the choir responds Amen. For
those who are learned in liturgies, I may add that the Moza-
rabic rite is the only western rite which has an epiclesis which
is said as the post-pridie on the feast of Corpus Christi. In
the Mozarabic Mass they read the Prophecy, the Epistle, and
the Gospel, and have besides a Preface or Inlatio for nearly
every feast day and Sunday in the year. Father Abad y Perez
has compiled an excellent little Mozarabic Mass-book, contain-
ing the whole Mass in Latin and Spanish called "Devocionario
Muzarabe," which is sold for a very modest sum at all the
Toledo book shops.
In addition to the cathedral and its old-fashioned cloisters
with quaint decaying frescoes, the church of Santo Tome is
well worth a visit, if it be only to see the pictures of El Greco.
Besides there are two old Jewish synagogues, afterwards
turned into churches : Santa Maria la Blanca and La Sinagoga
del Transito, afterwards called San Benito. Both are now
merely architectural monuments, no longer used for worship.
The cloisters adjoining the church of San Juan de los Reyes
have been skillfully restored and show all the delicate tracery
of column and arch designed by the Gothic architect. Close
by is the Escuela de Industrias Artisticas, where young To-
ledans are taught in both day and night schools to revive and
continue the ancient arts of Spain.
Toledo is remarkable for its manufacture of swords and for
its inlaid gold upon steel and iron. It has also a modern arms
factory just outside the walls, but the traveler's attention is
chiefly directed to the beautiful swords and daggers twisted
into curves and knots in the armorer's show-windows. You
are asked to buy the armas blancas or armas negras — either
of glistening steel or dull iron containing the marvelous tracer-
ies of bright, flashing gold imbedded in Moorish patterns.
You may see in Toledo also the posada or inn where Cervantes
lodged and where he is said to have written, or at least con-
ceived, a portion of "Don Quixote." We were told that
if one brought his own food, he could lodge and dine there
even now at a peseta (20 cents) a day.
AN AMERICAN CATHOLIC'S VIEW OF
THE FERRER CASE
IT has been said that the execution of Francisco Ferrer
at Barcelona in October, 1909, was due to the fact that
he instituted for the first time in Spain a system of edu-
cation, and that clerical prejudice and clerical hostility exer-
cised through the religious orders had encompassed his death.
This view of the case tends to become the common one, and
has caused a feeling of indignation and hostility not only
against the Church in Spain, but against the Catholic Church
in general. If the story of his trial and execution had re-
flected merely on the military or judicial authorities of Spain,
it might have been a matter for them to right; but the story
also arraigned the Catholic Church — one of the factors in our
every day American life — and it is but proper that the facts
surrounding the case should he given. In its last analysis, it
is the case of an anarchist who was tried for his participation
in rebellion and riot.
From the story as generally told, one would naturally sup-
pose that there had never been any schools of any consequence
in Barcelona except the Ferrer schools. But the statistics of
Barcelona for the year 1909 show the following results : pub-
lic schools, 860 ; private church schools conducted by religious
communities, 268; private schools conducted by Catholic lay-
men, 564; Protestant schools, 22; Ferrer "laic" schools, 43.
This does very well for the city and province of Barcelona,
containing a total population of 1,052,977.
It has been said that the schools of Spain still leave 75 per
cent of the people illiterate. Those are the statistics of i860 —
fifty years ago. According to the census of 1900 (before
Ferrer ever began his schools), Spain had 25,340 public
schools, with 1,617,314 pupils, and 6,181 private schools with
344,380 pupils, making a total of 31,521 schools with 1,961,-
694 pupils, out of a population then of 18,618,086 — some-
32
THE FERRER CASE 33
where approaching the same average as the State of New
York at that date had in her public schools. This is excluding
high schools, seminaries, and the ten universities. Spain has
largely increased her educational facilities in the ten years
since 1900. The Spanish school-teachers of to-day seem fairly
intelligent, and have their congresses for improvement in edu-
cation, just as here in America.
We Americans, in the strenuous swiftness of our civic Hfe,
often forget our own history, or at least do not call it sharply
to mind. We had in the United States, some twenty-five years
ago, the very duplicate of the Ferrer case, except that here
the death and devastation was not so great as in Barcelona.
On May 4, 1886, a bomb was thrown in Haymarket Square
in Chicago, which killed six policemen, and together with the
firing which followed, wounded sixty persons. For this crime
August Spies, Albert Parsons, Michael Schwab, Samuel
Fielden, Adolph Fischer, George Engel, and Louis Lingg were
found guilty and executed. At the trial it was conceded that
none of the convicted persons threw the bomb with his own
hands, for the man who was believed to have done so was
blown to pieces by its explosion. The prisoners were charged
with having aided, advised, and encouraged the throwing of
the bomb. Their guilt was shown by numerous extracts
from papers published by them advocating riot and dynamite,
by the fact of their speeches encouraging the workman to rise
against the capitalist by force, and the incitement of their fel-
lows to anarchy. The nearest overt act was the making of
impassioned speeches at a meeting by Spies, Parsons, and
Fielden, which was concluded just before the police came
upon the scene and the bomb was thrown. The wording of
these newspaper articles, the general tenor of the speeches,
and the history of the events can be read in the law reports of
the case of Spies (Volume 122 of the Illinois Reports, pages
1-266), and the whole reads singularly like the events in
Barcelona for which Ferrer and others suffered death. We
have forgotten that we have had our own Ferrer case, in
which we acted exactly as the Spanish Government did ; and
we have forgotten, too, the principles of law carried out in
our own case of riot and anarchy. In this Chicago case, the
court said :
"He who inflames people's minds, and induces them by vio-
34 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
lent means to accomplish an illegal object, is himself a rioter,
even though he take no part in the riot. ... If he set in
motion the physical power of another, he is liable for its result.
If he awaken into action an indiscriminate power, he is
responsible.''
Here in the State of New York our Penal Law provides
(Sec. 2) that a person who aids or abets in the commission of
a crime, whether present or not, or who counsels, commands,
or induces another to commit a crime, is a "principal," and
shall be dealt with accordingly. It also provides (Sees. 160,
161) that the advocacy of criminal anarchy is a felony; also
(Sees. 1044, 1045) that murder in the first degree is punish-
able by death ; and that any person who, even without premedi-
tated design, causes the death of another while committing a
felony, is himself guilty of murder in the first degree. Trea-
son (Sec. 2380) is defined as "a combination of two or more
persons by force to usurp the government of the State or to
overthrow the same, shown by a forcible attempt made within
the State," and (Sec. 2381) it is punishable by death. These
principles of our own law will enable us to take a saner and
clearer view of the Ferrer matter than to rehearse merely
the statutes of rebellion and treason in the Spanish law under
which he was convicted. Lest it may be said that "The dice
were loaded, the game was not honest," we will keep in mind,
for the sake of analogy, what our own laws in the United
States provide in like cases, and what they have already meted
out in a similar situation.
The nexus of events leading up to the revolution and riot
in Barcelona, July 26-31, 1909, is too long to be told here, but
we may briefly set down a short outline of them. Catalufia
has been the discontented child of Spain, as well as one of
the great manufacturing provinces. The soil for revolt is
there, and an appeal to its local passions often finds re-
sponse. In 1908 the Spanish Government granted a franchise
to an iron company to mine the rich ores in Africa. The com-
pany sold its entire product, for many years to come, to Ger-
man syndicates. The Spanish company found the richest ores
at the extreme frontier of the Spanish possessions in Africa,
if not actually upon Moroccan Riflf territory. They en-
croached upon Moorish territory, or at least the natives
thought they did ; and finally the clash came when they were
THE FERRER CASE 35
driven off by the Riffians. Troops were sent to protect them ;
they, too, were beaten by the Moorish mountaineers ; battles
ensued, and in the month of June, 1909, Spain had a Httle
war on her hands. Reserves were called to the colors, and
in Barcelona this was sharply resented. The Barcelonese
were something like our former militia ; they wanted no mili-
tary service outside of Spain. Besides, they thought the war
debt would be largely paid by them, being one of the wealthi-
est provinces in Spain. Moreover, the whole war seemed to
be a Madrid scheme to enable a syndicate to make money on
its contract with Germans. Hence feeling ran high and all
political parties in opposition to the government in power
aroused the Barcelona public by continual agitation. But the
ministry insisted on the reserves going to the front, and dur-
ing the early part of July, 1909, troop-ships sailed from Barce-
lona to Melilla. Just after the departure of the last one, on
July 23, and after a week's incessant political agitation and
fiery speech-making, a general strike was ordered to express
the workingmen's opposition to the government measures.
The factories closed, thousands of idle workmen met or
paraded the streets ; all was at a fever-heat, and it needed but
a spark to start the explosion. We know too well in America
how strikes in a flash degenerate into disorder.
This was the supreme occasion for which Ferrer and his
school had been waiting. For eight years he had carried on
the so-called Escuela Moderna (Modern School), a name he
did not invent, but boldly filched from the works of one of
the ablest scholars in Spain, Don Rafael Altamira, and used
for a time as a disguise to cover his teaching. His associates
who managed the teaching and direction of the school were
all anarchists or of the anarchistic type. They were not
merely the advocates of disorder ; they went deeper than that.
They sought to eliminate from the pupil's mind all basic ideas
of religion, patriotism, and morality. It was not a mere teach-
ing against Catholicism or religious orders, as the correspond-
ents of our newspapers have suggested, but, along with con-
crete intellectual training given in their schools, the very ideas
of the flag, the country, lawful marriage, property, the family,
and the reciprocal relation of State and citizenship were de-
stroyed in the minds of their pupils.
It would take too much space to give extracts from the
36 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
school-bcx)ks embodying these ideas, but the Ferrer schools
were the very antithesis of what we teach in our pubUc
schools in the United States. Take merely the extracts from
his Third Reader, known by the title of "Patriotism and Col-
onization," where the children are taught such gems as these :
"Don't get excited for the sake of the flag ! It is nothing but
three yards of cloth stuck on a pole!" "The words 'country,'
'flag,' and 'family,' are no more than hypocritical echoes of
wind and sound." "Industry and commerce are names by
which merchants cover up their robberies." "Marriage is
prostitution sanctified by the Church and protected by the
State." "The family is one of the principal obstacles to the
enlightenment of men."
Ferrer carried out the last doctrine literally ; for he deserted
and then divorced his wife, Teresa, left his children, Trinidad,
Paz, and Sol, to shift for themselves, while he took a mistress
by whom he had illegitimate children.
His teachers represented the same line of thought. Mme.
Clementine Jacquinet, his chief instructor for girls, was a
French anarchist who had been expelled from Egypt by the
British authorities, and who described herself frankly as "an
atheist, a scientific materialist, an anti-militarist, and an anar-
chist." She had a large hand in preparing the school-books
used in his schools. Among his other professors were Mateo
Morral, who threw the bomb at King Alfonso on his wedding
day, and Leon Fabre. who led in the attacks against the
churches in Barcelona, and other local teachers who took part
in the rioting. It was the teaching of these schools and
their allied clubs and societies which prepared the soil for the
events which followed upon the embarkation of the troops for
Africa. The anarchists had been waiting for years for such
a chance, and here was one made ready to their hands. Nay,
more ; every idler, every thug and criminal, every rascal and
jailbird, was ready to pitch in and help at the sight of riot
and plunder.
The "Bloody Week" in Barcelona, from July 26 to 31, 1909,
is too terrible to record in a few words. At the time of the
strike there were only sixteen hundred troops and police
left in the city. On the 26th, roving bands of rioters paraded
the streets, and frequent collisions with the police took place.
Banks, post-ofiices, credit companies, stores, hotels, ware-
THE FERRER CASE 37
houses, and public buildings were guarded as well as possible
by the slender force at hand. No one thought of guarding
churches, convents, schools, etc., and so these were left unpro-
tected. That night the street-cars were overturned, trolley-
lines cut, telephone and telegraph wires disabled, and gas and
electric lights rendered useless. Rioting occurred, policemen
were shot, and firemen stoned and wounded. The authorities
were thoroughly alarmed, and the riot act was read and posted
in the public places. The next day the city was declared under
martial law, and all powers were handed over to the military
governor. Proclamations to that effect were posted in con-
spicuous places throughout the city.
But on the second day, July 27, the storm broke. The revo-
lutionists and anarchists had been holding meetings, and had
determined on a program of looting the banks, stores, and
public buildings. These, however, were too well guarded by
cordons of military and police and well-equipped employees.
All the morning attempts to pillage and rob were made, but
the rioters were driven off. Then, in the outlying districts,
they tore up the paving-stones and began to barricade the
streets. They broke into an armory and sacked it of its arms.
Railway tracks were torn up and all means of communication
were completely shut off. The police frequently heard of out-
rages hours after they had occurred. A mob of young thugs
broke into one of the churches and plundered everything there
and in the sacristry, set fire to the church, and went howling
into the streets with their booty. It was the first-fruits of the
anarchist program, and it supplied an easy quarry for the
anarchists and revolutionists. The churches, schools, and
convents were not guarded at all ; and, besides, there would be
plunder for everybody. The riotous crowd of anarchists and
their allies now had a chance to exploit their hatred for reli-
gion and order, and proceeded to carry it out with all the
brutality and savagery of which they were capable.
The day of July 27 was a ghastly one, filled with smoke,
murder, and terror. The kerosene-can was used after looting
had secured every valuable article, and before midnight the
mob had attacked and burned some twenty-two institutions in
the newer and outer part of Barcelona. The police pursued
them as best they could; but the revolutionists were divided
by their leaders into sections, attacking churches, schools, and
38 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
houses simultaneously at remote distances from one another.
During the night the King and ministry, who were communi-
cated with by cable — for all telegraph lines were cut — sus-
pended the constitutional guaranties, leaving the city and
province in an actual state of war. All day on the 28th the
burning, looting, and destruction of churches, convents, and
schools went on ; but by nightfall the troops had broken a few
of the barricades and begun to subdue some sections of the
rioters. On Thursday (the 29th) they had the rioting under
control and the revolt was crushed. On Friday the roving
bands of anarchists, rioters, and idlers were entirely stopped,
and the next day street trafific began again.
It is sickening to tell of the savagery of the mob. Even the
dead nuns were dragged from their coffins, and paraded with
revolting and obscene orgies, and then thrown into the gutters.
Clerical teachers in the schools were stripped, tortured, and
shot. Even little children were not spared. Churches that
had stood as monuments from the days of the Crusades were
destroyed ; while everything valuable was plundered from
them and from schools and religious houses. They even stole
the clothes and petty jewelry of the girls in the boarding-
schools.
It has been alleged that the rioters were incensed against
the religious orders because they manufactured goods and
sold them cheaply, thus depriving workmen of possible em-
ployment. As a matter of fact, no attacks were made on any
of the working orders, for there are none within the city of
Barcelona ; but the anarchists confined themselves chiefly to
churches, schools, and convents of women, all of which were
an easy prey. If it had any element of a movement in favor
of enlargement of popular education, it had a singular result.
These are some of the educational institutions destroyed and
the number of pupils that were being educated in them :
Pious schools (escolapios), 500 scholars, 200 of them free;
San Andres Asylum, 150 workingmen's children, free; Asy-
lum-Nursery of the Holy Family, kindergarten for 80 children
and 5(X) girls, free ; College of St. Peter, 400 scholars, day and
night schools, free; Convent of Loreto, 150 girls, boarders;
Franciscan Nuns, 150 girls, free: Immaculate Conception, 250
girls, boarders ; Girls' College of Salesian Sisters, 300 stu-
dents, 70 night students, free; Convent of the Adoration, 80
THE FERRER CASE 39
girl students ; Workingmen's Free Schools at San Andres, 600
workingwomen scholars, free ; Boys' College at San Jose, 250
students ; Workingmen's Institute at Pueblo Nuevo, 200
pupils ; Catholic Club at Pekin, 80 fishermen's children, free ;
Manual Training School, 100 boys, free; Asylum in Aldeva
Street, 800 children of workingmen, educated free ; Dominican
Nuns, 150 girl students; College of San Antonio, 500, part of
them free ; and others which dispensed education along with
other forms of charitable relief. This leaves out entirely the
destruction of the hospitals, homes, etc., unconnected with
education. Altogether the rioters burned and wrecked the
following buildings : churches and chapels, 22 ; convents, 14 ;
schools and colleges, 20; asylums, homes, and charitable insti-
tutions, 22 ; official buildings and private houses, 19 ; making
a total of 97. In doing so, they killed 102 persons and seri-
ously wounded and maimed 312. There is nothing since the
Reign of Terror or the Commune in Paris to equal it in feroc-
ity and destruction.
It was for his connection with this outbreak of revolution
and civil war that Ferrer was tried and condemned. One of
his closest friends, Emiliano Iglesias, said lately in the Span-
ish Cortes that Serior Maura should be killed for his death,
and when Seiior Maura passed through Barcelona, shortly
thereafter, he was fired upon as he alighted at the railway
station. Thus they object to an execution according to law,
but are willing to pass sentence of death and have it immedi-
ately executed without even the formality of notifying the
victim. The press of the United States made no adverse
comments upon this turn of affairs. As the city of Barcelona
remained under martial law for some four months after the
outbreak, and the civil courts were suspended, Ferrer was tried
by court-martial.
Although there were four trials and executions of ring-lead-
ers in the revolt, no outcry was made about any of them ex-
cept Francisco Ferrer y Guardia. When Miguel Paro was
shot over a month before Ferrer, nothing was said in the
press. There have been executions since, and several sen-
tences to long terms in prison, for the participants in that
awful week, but the press of the world has been mute. The
competency and integrity of the court-martial that tried him
have never been assailed. All the venom has been reserved
40 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
for the Catholic Church and the religious orders, with not one
word of sympathy or regret for the awful deeds of murder
and pillage wrought upon them. This court-martial consisted
of a presiding judge and six captains : Colonel Eduardo de
Aguirre, Captains Pompeyo Marti, Sebastian Calleras, Mar-
celino Diaz, Manuel de Llanos, Aniceto Garcia Rodriguez, and
Julio Lopez Marzo. The prosecutor was Captain Jesus Maria
Rafales, of the Infantry, and the counsel chosen by the defend-
ant was Captain Francisco Galceran y Ferrer, of the Engi-
neers, who made a most determined effort for his client.
The military code under which Ferrer was tried was passed
by the Liberal Parliament in 1890. The formation of the
court-martial is automatic, being made by designation of a
number of officers six months in advance, so that a special
court-martial is not formed to try a prisoner. The accused is
notified of the formation of the court, and can object to any
member and then another must take his place. The rules of
evidence are the same as in the Spanish criminal courts. The
trial of Ferrer lasted for twenty-eight days ; over seventy per-
sons were examined as witnesses ; the majority of those testify-
ing to facts against him were practically of his own side ; they
were Republicans, Liberals, revolutionists, labor leaders, and
anarchists, and it was their testimony which demonstrated his
complicity in the riots of July. Not a clerical witness or one
connected with the churches or religious orders was called
against him.
Francisco Ferrer y Guardia, during his residence in Barce-
lona prior to July 28, 1909, wore a full beard ; when he was
captured by the police in the latter part of August he was
smooth shaven. He pretended that he was a tourist and a
delegate to the European convention, and was not recognized
^t the country place where he was taken into custody. A few
days later it was ascertained that he was Ferrer, and he was
brought to Barcelona. In his country villa, Mas Germinal, at
Mongat, about six miles out of Barcelona, a quantity of tele-
grams, correspondence, circulars, and memoranda were dis-
covered, and in the Solidaridad Obrera (his headquarters in
Barcelona) still more were taken. These alone made up fifty-
four packages, or files of exhibits, of the documentary evi-
dence presented at the trial. They contained urgent calls to
rise against capital, seize the banks, destroy the churches, dis-
THE FERRER CASE 41
able the railroads, etc. One of them winds up with : "Work-
men, prepare yourselves. The hour is at hand!" Annexed
thereto is a recipe for the manufacture of dynamite.
Among other things they clearly demonstrated that Ferrer
had been actively connected with every conspiracy to overturn
established authority in Spain since 1883; that on every occa-
sion he was in active correspondence with the leaders of those
movements, and was in touch with everything they did — the
years 1885, 1892, 1898, clear down to the attempt to kill the
king in Madrid in 1906, by Mateo Morral. It was a curious
coincidence, to say the least, that he was always on hand on
each of these occasions, and always in close consultation with
the men who did the deeds. His correspondence, circulars,
and statements all preached social revolution and advocated its
bringing about by force and rebellion. He himself claimed
toward the last, and his partisans nowadays maintain, that
he was merely a philosophic anarchist, and that he had aban-
doned his former doctrines of violence and dynamite. But
they do not deny that he was an anarchist, and in active touch
and correspondence with the advocates of violence, even
almost down to his death.
The prosecution adduced proof which followed Ferrer's
acts throughout the riots until the troops began to subdue
the rioters — when Ferrer disappeared from the city — covering
three days in all. The summary of this evidence may be here
given, day by day.
On Monday, July 26, the day when the rioters began to
clash with the police, Ferrer was seen by the witnesses, Angel
Fernandez Bermejo, Claudio Sanchez, and Manuel Cabro,
among certain riotous groups in formation in the Plaza de
Antonio Lopez, at about six o'clock in the afternoon. A de-
tachment of mounted men dispersed these rioters, and Ferrer
thereupon went toward the Puerta de la Paz, where he was
again engaged in addressing another group. On the police
coming toward them, he went on down the Rambla, the prin-
cipal street in Barcelona. The proprietor of the Hotel Inter-
nacional, on the Rambla, testified that Ferrer dined there.
Francisco Domenech, a barber and a partizan of Ferrer, testi-
fied that he met Ferrer at the Hotel Internacional at half-past
nine that night, and from there they went to the editorial office
of "El Progreso," "to see how the comrades were getting on."
42 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
After coming away, they went to the Cafe Aribau, where
Ferrer met Calderon, Ponte, Tuban, and Litran, all of whom
were afterward mixed up in the rioting. Then Ferrer, with
Domenech, went back to the office of "El Progreso," saying that
he wanted to see Iglesias, its editor (the same Emiliano Igle-
sias who advocated the assassination of Maura upon the floor
of Congress in Madrid), and tell him not to sign the contem-
plated protest to the government against the war in Melilla,
"because the revolution will be here and the signers will be
marching at the head of the populace." On his way from
this interview Ferrer met Moreiio, to whom he said that the
Solidaridad Obrera should take sides with the rioters, for it
was already compromised, and those who did not would be
treated as traitors were treated in Russia.
On the same evening of July 26, after the rioting of the
day, Lorenzo Ardid, who was a mild anarchist and a close
companion of Ferrer prior to the riots, was taking his coffee
in the Casa del Pueblo (the successor to the Escuela Mod-
erna), when Ferrer entered and, after salutations, said:
"What do you think of the events of to-day?"
Ardid answered : "That is over, but it is a kind of protest
that ought to go no further."
Then Ferrer turned on him sharply : "Don't believe that
this will go no further !"
Ardid began to answer him excitedly. Ferrer grew heated,
and Ardid turned his shoulder and said : "You are taking
the wrong road."
In the confrontation of witnesses, Ferrer admitted he had
met Ardid there, but denied the language used.
On Tuesday. July 2^, the day of the burning of so many
churches, schools, and convents, Ferrer left his country villa
and came into Barcelona. On that day Claudio Sanchez and
Miguel Calvo saw a man, dressed in a blue suit and a straw
hat with the front drawn down, haranguing a group of riot-
ers in the street. Sanchez went up to him and, pointing to the
proclamation on the wall, said, "Can't you read that?" and
dispersed them. Both of these witnesses afterward identified
Ferrer during the examination on three different occasions,
among a number of similar persons, as the man wearing the
blue suit and straw hat. Francisco de Paula Colldeforns testi-
fied that between seven-thirty and eight-thirty that same even-
THE FERRER CASE 43
ing he saw a group of rioters on the Rambla in front of the
Lyceum, apparently commanded by a man whom he closely
observed from the manner of his actions. He heard him
order the rioters to march through the Calle de Hospital. As
soon as he afterward saw a photograph of Ferrer, he recog-
nized him. On the examination, he readily picked out Ferrer
as the person he had seen. Ferrer never denied that he wore
a blue suit and a straw hat during those days.
On Wednesday, July 28, the second great day of the riots
and pillage, Ferrer was exceedingly active, according to the
witnesses. In the morning he came to the barber shop of
Domenech and ordered him to get the president of the Repub-
lican Committee, Juan Ventura Puig (alias Llarch), and see
if he could not do something. Puig came, and Ferrer pro-
posed to him to go to the City Hall and proclaim the Repub-
lic; but Puig refused, saying that he would not compromise
himself. Puig, while on the witness-stand, declared that once
before, in a cafe in Calle de Puerto Rico, when he objected
to doing such things because the people ought to be behind
him in such a movement, Ferrer insisted that "then he ought
to begin by stirring up the people, so that a lot of them would
go out and burn churches and convents." Puig further ob-
jected that he did not see how the Republic would come by
such means, but Ferrer cut him short with, "The Republic
doesn't matter ; the question is, there should be a revolution" ;
and then added a moment later : "Very well, we will have to
destroy everything."
Esteban Puigmollens testified that later in that day he saw
Ferrer addressing a group of rioters, and Salvador Millet said
that a number of them entered the mayor's office at Masnou
and began to address the crowd in the name of Ferrer. On
this same day, the witness, Francisco Valvet, testified that at
half-past twelve at the club-house of the Fraternidad Republi-
cana at Premia (a village on the outskirts of Barcelona) two
persons presented themselves, one of whom was Puig and the
other a man in a summer suit and straw hat, who said, "I am
Ferrer Guardia," and thereupon sent for the mayor, Domingo
Casas Llibre, who came over, accompanied by the witnesses
Antonio Mustareo, the vice-mayor, and Jose Alvarez Espinosa,
the aldermanic clerk. When they arrived, he again announced
that he was Ferrer, and, turning to the mayor, said :
44 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
"I come to tell you that you must proclaim the republic in
Premia."
The Mayor said : "Seiior, I won't take those orders."
Then Ferrer said : "Why not, when the Republic is pro-
claimed in Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia, and other cities?"
The witnesses who testified to these facts were not only
Valvet, but the mayor, vice-mayor, and clerk, and also Jaime
Comas, Pedro Cesa, Lorenzo Amau, and Jaime Calve, who
were present in the club-house at the interview. Ferrer was
squarely confronted on four occasions with the witnesses
Lorenzo Ardid, Ventura Puig (or Llarch), Casas Llibre, the
mayor, and Alvarez Espinosa, who maintained to his face
their testimony as to his actions and statements; and Ferrer
had to admit the fact that he was with them.
A carpenter, Rosendo Gudas, testified that on July 27 he
was fixing a door in Ferrer's house, and Ferrer stopped, in
passing, and said to him : "Now what does Tiana (a nick-
name for the village) think? It is about time now to burn
down everything."
On the 28th a street orator at Masnou, at the edge of Barce-
lona, explained to the crowd of rioters which he was address-
ing that he had just come from Ferrer and that Ferrer could
not get around to address them. A multitude of other pieces
of circtmistantial evidence, pointing to Ferrer's presence and
activity during those days in different parts of the city, show-
ing all the elements of suggestion and direction, was also
offered. A curious fact, much more than mere coincidence,
was that detachments of the rioters were officered by the
teachers in Ferrer's schools, and that the severest outbreaks
took place in precisely the districts where those schools and
allied clubs were situated.
Francisco Domenech, the Masnou barber, testified that on
the morning of July 29 he shaved Ferrer completely, taking
off his beard. Bruno Humbert on that afternoon found
Ferrer's villa locked and bolted and the occupants gone.
Among others who testified to Ferrer's activity preceding the
riots were Manuel Jimenez Moya, a newspaper man of radical
opinions like Ferrer's, Marcisco Verdaguet, Baldomero Bonet,
himself prosecuted for arson in the riots, Modesto Lara, and
Alfredo Garcia Magallon, most of whom had had close rela-
tions with the accused.
THE FERRER CASE 45
Against this mass of testimony Ferrer offered no witnesses.
He only claimed that he did not belong to the school of mili-
tant anarchy. No attempt was made to prove what Ferrer
did from the 26th to the 29th day of July, while the horrors of
murder, pillage, and arson were going on. He did not under-
take to prove that he never wore a blue suit and a straw hat,
or why he shaved off his beard and ran away. If he had been
innocent, the simplest thing would have been for him to go
before the authorities on the first day of the riots and offer
his services to restore order. That would have tested the
kind of man he was, and would have proved the most effective
alibi. It has been said that his mistress, Soledad Villafranca,
who was deported by the authorities to Teruel, two hundred
and fifty miles away, could have proved his innocence, but her
testimony was not taken. Yet she was not called as a witness,
although the trial lasted twenty-eight days. Nor was any
request made to take her testimony by deposition, although
that method was open at all times. During all this time the
radical and anarchist press throughout Europe was ready to
publish anything that might tend to exculpate Ferrer; yet
Soledad Villafranca and the others said not a word. Nor
have they detailed any facts since.
Ferrer's counsel. Captain Galceran, wanted the trial sus-
pended until he could get declarations from abroad in France,
Italy, and Belgium, principally of distinguished anarchists,
"that the ideas of Ferrer were opposed to every kind of act
of violence," which would show he was incapable of taking
part in the July rioting. The court properly rebuked Captain
Galceran that such a line of defense was not proper, and that
Ferrer was being tried for his acts and their consequences,
not for his ideas. This rebuke was afterward magnified into
a report, first, that Galceran had been shot for his energetic
defense, and, later, that he had been court-martialed for it.
As a matter of fact, nothing occurred.
The trial was in the open court-room, and the illustrated
papers in Spain and France had large double-page illustrations
showing a hundred persons or more present. It lasted twen-
ty-eight days, ten of which were allotted for the defense to
use. After deliberation, the sentence of the court on October
9, 1909, was that Ferrer was guilty of rebellion and treason
under aggravating circumstances. This sentence was con-
4.6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
firmed by the Captain-General of Cataluna on October lo,
and it was afterward approved by the ministry. The law it-
self, under Article 238, fixed the penalty therefore as death,
and this penalty was carried out on October 13, 1909.
In view of all the circumstances involved in the Ferrer case,
we think the matter should be considered in a similar light to
cases occurring in our own country, for thereby we can obtain
a fairer and more unprejudiced view of the situation.
He had a trial, and there was evidence produced against
him, and, moreover, the evidence was of substantially the
same nature as that for which we ourselves sent seven men
to death for a like crime. The law under which he was
tried was framed by the anti-clerical party, while his daily
associates furnished the principal evidence against him. The
case should therefore be judged upon the actual facts involved,
and not upon prejudice and hostility.
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER
McCLURE'S MAGAZINE for November has an arti-
cle entitled "The Life and Death of Ferrer," writ-
ten by the English correspondent, William Archer,
who, it is said, went to Spain for the particular purpose of
ascertaining the facts concerning Ferrer. To judge from
the first installment of his work Mr. Archer might per-
haps have saved himself the trouble: for, no matter what
he gathered, he has written down only what was contained
in McCabe's "Martyrdom of Ferrer," the anonymous "Un
Martyr des Pretres," and other books of Hke import. There
seems to have been no investigation on his part of any of
the Spanish officials, merchants, bankers, men of substance,
persons interested in preserving the good name and char-
acter of Barcelona. All the investigation and all the re-
sults shown in the installment of the November number seem
to have been wholly directed towards Ferrer's late com-
rades and sympathizers alone; and even the majority of
such results, as stated, are copied out of the above-named
books. Spanish official records, statistics, memoranda, and the
like were not difficult to get at in Barcelona, yet they never
seem to have been consulted, or even as much as mentioned.
To judge from Mr. Archer's report it would seem that there
was only a slight "unpleasantness" ; and yet Ferrer alone was
executed for its occurrence. Certainly that is the impression
he has studiously endeavored to create.
Yet, even with that, he has to admit that Ferrer, after all,
was not the beau-ideal of a teacher of children, a moulder of
infancy, either in morals or rectitude, as understood among
us. For instance, he admits that Ferrer had relations with
at least two women other than the particular one who was
the direct cause of the outburst of jealousy against him by
47
48 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
his wife when she shot at him ; he admits that Ferrer's
personal character as to sex relations was such as we could
not tolerate in a teacher or professor in any school ; he admits
that Ferrer was an anarchist, or, as he calls it in politer terms,
an "acratist," which he tells us means merely that Ferrer
was "anti-religious, anti-monarchical, anti-patriotic, anti-mili-
tarist and anti-capitalist." If there be any other "antis" —
such as those relating to family and marriage, quite apart
from religion — he must have inadvertently omitted them.
But Mr. Archer frankly says that Ferrer would not be per-
mitted to carry on his schools in the United States or Eng-
land for, "there are very few countries in which teaching so
openly hostile to the existing form of government and to the
whole social order would be endured."
He then proceeds to make a distinction to the effect that
Ferrer himself was not an "anarchist of action"; that per-
sonally he did not favor the bomb, the torch, and the rifle;
that he did not directly advocate arson and murder, although
he and his subordinate teachers taught anarchy, revolution
and rebellion openly in his schools and text-books and care-
fully prepared the immature minds of children and half-taught
men and women to do the deeds which he personally feared
to advocate with his own utterances. Certainly, no one read-
ing the admissions which Mr. Archer was compelled to make
about Ferrer can help conceding that Ferrer was nearly all
that his opponents have painted him. The summary of what
Mr. Archer has given is the picture of a man who has care-
fully set the springs of human action so that they will do
the most diabolic work, and thereupon stands aside to wit-
ness the result, and when it has been accomplished, saying
smugly and cowardly: "I never raised my hand to that work,
for it cannot be shown that I took part, for I was most care-
ful to keep away." This is the utmost to which Mr. Archer
can carry his investigation, confined as it seems to have been
to Ferrer's friends and present-day advocates.
Certainly one may well doubt the truthfulness and correct-
ness of assertions in Mr. Archer's article, undertaking now
to overturn the results of a trial of one year ago, when the
very facts in front of him, mathematical, obvious facts, are
wholly mis-stated. It does not argue well for the thorough-
ness of his research, or the honesty with which he states facts.
r
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 49
For instance, he says: "More than fifty per cent of the
Spanish population is illiterate; and most of those who can
read and write have been miserably taught by underpaid mas-
ters in unsanitary and ill-provided schools." He knows, or
should know, that that statement is not true. In reality it is
copied from pages 44 and 53 of McCabe's "Martyrdom of
Ferrer," and pages 8 and 24 of "Un Martyr des Pretres" ; so
that Mr. Archer need not have gone to Spain for that. The
census of Spain in 1900 showed that the general illiteracy then
was not over 30 per cent; and Spain has made large strides
since 1900 in all branches of education. That percentage of
illiteracy includes the peasantry of Galicia and the Basque
mountaineers of the Pyrenees, neither of whom are anarchists
or in rebellion, although they are woefully lacking in book
knowledge.
Barcelona was the focus and hotbed of the uprising; and,
as a matter of fact, the illiteracy of Barcelona in 1908- 1909
was between six and eight per cent, as Mr. Archer could easily
have ascertained by consulting "La Estadistica Escolar de
Espafia," published at the beginning of 1910. Any one
who has ever been in Barcelona knows the prevalent habit of
cabmen, porters, etc., of reading their books of rules to a
traveller upon the slightest controversy as to fees, prices, and
the like. Certainly the obvious was overlooked in regard to
the statement about illiteracy, for Barcelona is one of the
cities abundantly provided with schools, and about the first
thing the mob did was to destroy a great many of them.
About the only schools in that city which are small and miser-
able in comparison with most of the others are the Ferrer
schools ; only eight or ten of them were of good size and
comfortable, usually they were in the cramped quarters of a
private school. It was not the lack of schools and education in
Barcelona that caused Ferrer to start his propaganda ; it was
the lack of the particular kind of schools which Ferrer fa-
vored, and which would teach the elements of anarchy and
revolution. It is evident that Mr. Archer made no attempt
to visit and compare the real schools of Barcelona with those
which Ferrer established.
Then, too, he insists continually in his article that "it was as
'author and chief of the rebellion' — '<mtor y jefe de la rehelion*
— that he [Ferrer] was found guilty and shot," and again and
50 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
again emphasizes it and builds several sentences on it, to
the effect that Ferrer was tried as the sole "instigator and
director of the rising." Either he did not know, or did not
care to say, that this Spanish phrase was nothing more than
the technical legal expression in Spanish of our word "prin-
cipal" in criminal law, as distinguished from "accessory" or
"accomplice." Our law here in America has often condemned
criminals as "principals" who have had substantially no physi-
cal participation in the crime.
Further on Mr. Archer says regarding the religious orders :
"Exempt from taxation, some of the religious houses compete
in the production of certain commodities; and this unfair
competition is keenly resented by the people." Then he goes
into almost the A. P. A. hysterics about conventual life, citing
for it an absolutely discredited anonymous work, and draws
the conclusion, "for reasons above indicated, the religious
houses were chronically and intensely unpopular." This is to
give a basis for events. Notwithstanding all this, he tells us,
"it [the mob] did not single out for destruction those institu-
tions which competed unfairly in confectionery, laundry work,
or other industries." Not a building of that kind was touched.
What the rioters burned and destroyed were chiefly the
schools, day-nurseries, kindergartens, and charitable institu-
tions of defenseless women. Not a complaint had ever been
raised about them; but to a cowardly, raging mob of anar-
chists they were easy game.
In speaking of this anarchistic mob, he says: "They were
bent on destruction, not on theft. ... No bank was attacked ;
no store, other than gun-stores" ; and he is extremely anxious
to show that there was "no sack," even proclaiming in head-
lines that there was "no massacre and no sack." Yet the
slightest inquiry, to cite merely one case, would have shown
Mr. Archer that at the working women's schools, in San
Andres, the mob looted everything they could carry, and some
even came with wheelbarrows and small carts to carry off
beds, pillows, sheets, chairs, sewing-machines, typewriters,
dishes, and the like ; while they piled up the heavy furniture,
tables, pianos, harmoniums, and desks, for a bonfire! Also
that every chalice, paten, jewel, and ornament was stolen from
the churches and convent chapels before they were set on fire.
He knows very well, or could have found out easily that the
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 51
reason no bank or public building was attacked, was because
they were all well protected ; and that very fact left no police
to protect churches, schools, and convents. It was not due to
any thought fulness on the part of the revolutionists; it was
only because they did not dare to take the risk of being shot.
In speaking of the three days' unbridled rioting, Mr. Archer
is at exceeding great pains to minimize it. Yet he might easily
have interviewed a hundred persons who could have given
him the details. Had he done so, or had he even gone around
and looked at the blackened ruins throughout the newer part
of Barcelona, he need not have condensed his story of ruin,
terror, and destruction into twenty-two short lines, thus indi-
cating that it was a matter of hardly any consequence at all.
He might even have discovered that the Padres Esculapios are
chiefly lay brothers of the Pious Schools (Escolapios) . It
does not appear in his story of investigation that he ever con-
sulted with any one who was on the side of law and order, or
who suffered from the awful series of events. But he seems
to have taken particular pains to get in touch with all the
Ferrerites of high and low degree. This is hardly the work
of an unbiassed investigator.
Yet, notwithstanding that Barcelona had about 600,000 pop-
ulation, Mr. Archer sums up the case of the destruction of
the schools, colleges, and convents of the religious orders with
the words : "They [the religious orders] are, in truth, almost
entirely outside the law ; and the populace in moments of
revolt is apt to pronounce and execute sentence of outlawry
upon them." But he knows, or ought to know, that eight or
ten thousand rioters and revolutionists in a city of that size
are most emphatically not "the populace." They are, how-
ever, the pliable tools which master-minds in the background
can most easily use ; minds, which, when use has been made
with disastrous result, are the quickest to deny any participa-
tion in anarchy or riot.
In endeavoring to smooth over and minimize that diabolic
outrage, the disinterment of the buried nuns, he says : "But
it is no less certain that the motive of this profanation was a
desire to ascertain whether there was any sign of the nuns
having been tortured or even buried alive. It was found, as
a matter of fact, that many of the bodies had their hands
and feet bound together, and although this is susceptible of
52 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
a quite innocent explanation, it was not unnaturally taken at
first as confirming the most sinister rumors. To the Anglo-
Saxon mind it would seem that when a community walls itself
in from the world, and admits no intervention of the law, no
public inspection of its practices, whether in life or death, it
should not complain if suspicions arise as to the nature of
these practices. The alleged design of the rioters was to take
the bodies to the ayuntamiento or town-hall, that their condi-
tion might be publicly verified." This is a fine specimen of
an unbiassed statement ! But he did not take the trouble to
find out that there are only nine cloistered convents of women
in Barcelona, and that the other religious orders are unclois-
tered and are not "walled in from the world," but are Little
Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of Charity, Third Order of St.
Francis, Sisters of Mary Immaculate, Sisters of the Immacu-
late Conception, etc., who go in and out of their houses as
their duties require, and who are seen regularly by their
friends, scholars, patients, and others exactly as the same reli-
gious orders are seen here in New York. It was from these
that the bodies were taken. If Mr. Archer had made any
inquiry he would have found that the town-hall of Barcelona
is called the casa consistorial, and that it is in the centre
of the old city, not far from the cathedral, and that the rioters
carried the bodies of the nuns in the opposite direction, away
from the town-hall. His explanation does not explain ; neither
does it show why these dead bodies were treated with the most
revolting grossness.
But it would take too long to go over his article in extenso.
In every portion of it are found evidences of insinuation
against the clergy, nuns, and members of religious orders in
general, while the riotous mob and its anarchist leaders are
uniformly credited with good intentions. Certainly this is not
the mere detailing of facts ; it is the addition of coloring mat-
ter. It is not the calm statement of an unbiassed investigator;
it more nearly inclines towards the statement of a prejudiced
journalist, who desires to exploit only one side of the case.
Take as an example the sentence : "The fact that the Cortes
was not sitting left the Maura cabinet the unchecked despots
of Spain ; and the fact that Senor Maura declined to summon
the Cortes showed that this despotism was essential to the
carrying through of his policy," which sounds so unbiassed.
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 53
An ordinary biassed correspondent of the usual stamp who was
sent out to get the whole story, would have consulted Senor
Maura himself, and let him give his own explanation.
II
There is a continuation of the history of the trial and con-
demnation of Ferrer in the December number of "McClure's,"
thereby concluding Mr. Archer's article upon the subject. Had
that portion of the article been seen by me at the time I penned
the remarks in the last number of this magazine ("Catholic
World," Dec. 1910) I would have pointed out several other
instances of seeming bias, unfairness, and lack of informa-
tion upon the part of the author. As it is, one must con-
fess that the article as a whole bears out nearly all that was
said by Catholics regarding the death of Ferrer or any part
which the Church or the religious orders might have taken
to effect the result. In his second article Mr. Archer,
by his omission of any statement of the kind, seems to
acquit them, as he concentrates all his criticism upon the
Spanish government and military officers. There is no wish
on the part of any Catholic to champion the civil or military
administration in Spain; its faults and shortcomings may be
manifold, but when the Church and her religious orders are
made the authors and instigators of the prosecution of Ferrer,
and are charged directly with putting him to death without
even the form of a trial, it is, indeed, time to protest vigor-
ously and to examine the case in all its bearings.
Certainly Mr. Archer's article shows clearly, even from the
testimony of one who has mixed closely with Ferrerites and
kept aloof from his opponents, that such expressions as were
used by Mr. Perceval Gibbon in his article on Ferrer in
"McClure's" of one year ago are untrue. There is certainly no
basis for the latter's statement that, after the Madrid episode,
"the government and the orders had lost the first round of
the fight, but they had gained experience, which served them
well when Ferrer again fell into their hands. This time
[Barcelona trial] they improved even on a special court and
no jury; they abolished witnesses and limited the discretion
of the man they themselves nominated to conduct the defense,"
i<
54 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
or the other statement of Gibbon, in concluding the descrip-
tion of the trial of Ferrer : "The government and the orders
had won the second round of the game. The dice were loaded,
it is true ; the game was not honest" ; to say nothing of the
dozens of innuendos scattered throughout the earlier article.
For this much we must be thankful to Mr. Archer; he has
amply proved that there was a trial and that there were wit-
nesses, and he does not lay the blame and execration on the
orders and the Church.
But Mr. Archer, as was pointed out in the December number
of this magazine, does not take the trouble to ascertain all the
facts, or divest himself of his prejudices, even where he might
easily have done so. This causes him to overlook the obvious
and easily ascertainable, and very justly casts discredit upon
the efficiency and impartiality of his work. A few instances
of this kind in his concluding article may be pointed out.
For instance, he drags in "La Ley de Jurisdicciones," which
has little or nothing to do with the case. It certainly did not
apply to Ferrer and the Barcelona riots, although by its terms
it might well have done so. It is a law defining the jurisdiction
of military tribunals for offenses committed (a) directly
against the army or navy, as for example by soldiers on duty
or in uniform; or (b) where it may be doubtful as to the
nature of the offense, which essentially may be an offense by
civil law, but committed where the army or navy are already
in control. But it is a law applying directly to acts committed
in peaceful times. We have almost analogous provisions in re-
gard to Federal and State jurisdictions, and an offense com-
mitted in the corridor of a LTnited States court house or post-
office, or the boundary line thereof, immediately divests the
State courts of jurisdiction and turns the prisoner over to the
United States courts. It must be remembered that Barcelona
was under martial law from July 26, 1909, until near Janu-
ary, 1910; the civil powers were superseded, and the whole
city was under the control of the military commander. The
writer was present in Barcelona when General Valeriano Wey-
ler succeeded the commander, Don Luis de Santiago Manescau,
who had issued the July proclamation which suspended all
civil authority and declared the city in state of war and subject
to the provisions of the Military Code. Articles 3 and 4 of
his proclamation read :
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 55
Article 3. Jurisdiction of offenses affecting public order in
any political or social sense comes under my authority; and
the authors [autores, Mr. Archer's favorite word] of them
can be tried by summary court-martial.
Article 4. Persons publishing notices or directions in any
form whatsoever tending to disobedience of military orders
will be considered as guilty of sedition ; as well as those who
make attempts against freedom of labor, or cause impediment
or destruction of railroads, street car lines, telegraph or tele-
phone lines, or any other conductor of electricity, or water
mains or gas pipes.
Mr. Archer does not tell us of these things ; yet he might
easily have inquired about them. They were the reason why
Ferrer was tried by court-martial, and extra indulgence was
given to him, since he might have been tried summarily instead
of having a formal trial of twenty-eight days, the testimony
of which filled 1,200 written pages, not one of which Mr.
Archer seems to have examined, contenting himself solely
with the resume in the "Juicio Ordinario" (which he calls
the "Process"), nor does he seem to have examined the fifty
odd packets or files of exhibits likewise adduced in the case. It
is very evident, therefore, that the "Ley de Jurisdicciones" is
simply lugged in to make coloring matter.
Again in eliciting sympathy for Soledad Villafranca, the mis-
tress of Ferrer, and blaming the authorities for not taking her,
and her friends' evidence, he says :
Meanwhile Soledad Villafranca was eating her heart out at
Teruel, in total ignorance of what was passing at Barcelona.
She and some of her comrades in exile were the persons who
could best speak as to Ferrer's employment of his time during
the week of revolt ; and they naturally expected, day after day,
to be called upon for their evidence. This expectation was
encouraged (unofficially, of course, and very likely in good
faith) by their jailers. A member of the Palace police . . .
bade her wait patiently and the summons would come in
due time.
Mr. Archer does not tell us that the provisions of the Span-
ish military code forbid the examination of the prisoner's
family and relatives as witnesses against him by the prosecu-
tion. He does not tell us either that that Code provides (Arti-
cle 479) that the prisoner shall be present at the examinations
of witnesses, even though he be held incomunicado, nor that
(Articles 362 and 365) he can reply in writing or orally at
every moment of the trial (sumario) to any accusation made
56 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
by any official, and that (Article 465) he may give his declara-
tions or testimony as many times as he likes ; although Mr.
Archer does admit that, according to Article 458, the accused
may testify "without being required to take an oath," thus re-
lieving a prisoner from the charge of perjury if his testimony
be false. This last privilege Mr. Archer curiously turns into
an excuse for Ferrer's obvious falsehood as to having been at
the Casa del Pueblo and having there met with Ardid. The
sumario may be extended (Article 548) for further testimony,
the ratification of witnesses, and the summons of further wit-
nesses may be requested by the accused in cases of "common
offenses," or for the "further taking of proof which he thinks
would protect his rights" (Article 548). Mr. Archer speaks
of the "common offenses," but kindly omits the latter provi-
sions. To say that the prosecution was bound to summon wit-
nesses for the defense, where the accused and his counsel
failed to call them, or to request them to be called, when testi-
mony was being taken, is somewhat of a novelty.
The Auditor pointed this out in his dictamen or opinion
rendered in the case ("Process," p. 59) :
If, as the defense asserts, the affidavits of Soledad Villa-
franca and the other associates of the accused, now residing at
Teruel, could have exculpated Ferrer Guardia, they had time
to make such affidavits in the twenty-eight days during which
the sumario lasted, and besides the accused might have sum-
moned them in his investigations ; but they would have been
required to submit to examination in the same manner in
which all such persons were interrogated who had been cited
in them. But not having requested any such testimony until
after the case had been taken up in plenario, it was not pos-
sible to accede to his petition on account of the prohibition
of paragraph 5 of Article 552 of our Code.
In other words, the defense did not answer orally or in
writing to the accusations and proofs adduced, did not offer
witnesses in his behalf during twenty-eight days, because, as
the Auditor points out, they would have been examined, per-
haps, so as to incriminate themselves, him, or others. But they
waited until the other witnesses were dismissed or dispersed
and then made an offer themselves to testify — it does not ap-
pear that the accused ever called for them orally or in writing.
Mr. Archer gives us to understand that the court-martial
should have halted its procedure, which had got past the point
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 57
of taking testimony, and of its own motion called witnesses
in defense of Ferrer.
It must be remembered that Ferrer was a man of some edu-
cation — he is lauded as being a man of learning and foresight
by his partisans — that he wrote numerous letters, and that
even in prison he was permitted to write his own account of
the matter, which was sent to Charles Malato on October i,
1909, as Mr. Archer shows in a foot-note in the November
number of "McClure's." Hence he could easily have written
his defense for the court, detailing exactly where he was during
every day of the riots, yet he did nothing of the kind. Mr.
Archer makes much of the foul dungeon or cell in which he
says Ferrer was confined in the fortress of Montjuich. Yet
my friend, Don Casimiro Comas, a lawyer of Barcelona, says
Ferrer was confined in the Model Prison ("Carcel Celular")
of Barcelona (which apparently is as much up-to-date as the
Tombs Prison of New York), where his trial also took place,
until he was sentenced. Even Mr. Archer in the November
"McClure's" gives the date of his letter to Malato as the "Car-
eel Celular, October i, 1909." But these facts are kept in the
background in his article.
Later on he proceeds to review in extenso the evidence in the
case, carefully separating it into diflferent portions, thus break-
ing the connection between events. One hardly knows just
what to make of his analysis, for it is difificult to know whether
he is reviewing the trial of Ferrer or reviewing the methods of
Spanish judicial procedure. If Ferrer had been tried by an
ordinary Spanish criminal court, with a jury, the method of
procedure and the taking of evidence would have been the
same. Of course, in no event could Ferrer have been tried by
the usual processes of English or American law. He would
have had to be tried according to Spanish law and procedure,
and hence all criticism of the method or procedure is entirely
beside the point. It is like "going out and swearing at the
court."
For instance, he speaks of "unsupported opinion and hear-
say." That is allowable under the Spanish rules of evidence,
and that kind of evidence would have been received in the ordi-
nary criminal trials in Spain. We have, in America and Eng-
land, the rules of evidence so refined that nothing but direct
evidence — with certain exceptions — is received; and hearsay
58 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and opinion evidence (other than that of certain experts) is
completely barred. But upon the continent of Europe, under
the Roman law, it is not so ; there they say that the same meth-
ods that a man takes in the ordinary affairs of life to establish a
fact, whether by hearsay testimony or not, should be followed
to establish a fact in court. They point out that the business
and reputation of every man in the world would go by the board
were direct evidence alone required in the affairs of everyday
life. I am not arguing the point, I am only stating the prac-
tice. This practice Mr. Archer seems entirely to overlook,
and desires thereby to score a point, in judging a Spanish trial
by comparison with the standards set up by the English com-
mon law.
When, however, the evidence is direct evidence, Mr. Archer
undertakes to step, in imagination, upon the bench of the trial
judges at the court-martial, sift the evidence and decide that
it is not against Ferrer. Even our appellate courts here do not
do that, at least not in theory of law. They always say that the
trier of fact, whether jury, referee, or judge, saw the witnesses,
was nearer to the facts, and knew more about them than per-
sons who see them in print long afterward. Hence we can
very well assume that the seven judges of the Ferrer court-
martial knew better what weight to give to the direct evidence
then, than Mr. Archer could after the lapse of nearly a year.
This will be more apparent when we come to take up the
specific case of the testimony of Don Francisco de Paula Coll-
deforns, who testified that between seven-thirty and eight-
thirty in the evening of July 2.^, 1909, he saw a man, whom he
recognized from photographs as Ferrer, "captaining a group"
near the Lyceum Theatre on the Rambla in Barcelona. I have
had the very spot pointed out to me by a cabman. One may
very well recognize Mr. Roosevelt, or Mr. Taft, from having
seen their photographs, although one had never laid eyes on
them before. We must remember that Ferrer had not long be-
fore been implicated in the bomb explosion in Madrid, when the
attempt was made on the lives of King Alfonso and Queen Vic-
toria, and his portrait was published dozens of times in all the
Spanish and French illustrated papers, and he was as well
known by portraiture as any political or aviation celebrity is
here. Hence it was not such an unusual thing for a newspaper-
man to be able to recognize him from a photograph.
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 59
Mr, Archer makes much of the fact that the recognition took
place between seven-thirty and eight-thirty, according to the
testimony, and reasons that it was too dark to see any man's
features then. Now the sun went down in Barcelona about
seven-twenty during the week of July 26th, and twilight lasts
until nearly nine o'clock at that period of the year. Barcelona
is situated somewhere near the latitude of Providence or Bos-
ton ; and one can test the point any time between July 26 and
31 of the year.
Again Mr. Archer, in reviewing this evidence, says that
Mongat, where "Mas Germinal" is situated, is "eleven dusty
miles" from Barcelona. It is only eleven kilometres, so Mr.
Archer's pen must have slipped unwittingly, as that would be
but about six miles from the Rambla or Plaza de Colon, in the
very heart of Barcelona. He also says that, "the authorities
had carefully refused to admit the evidence of Ferrer's family,
who (now, in 1910) assert that he never quitted Mas Ger-
minal that day." Yet on the very morning of the 27th he took
Francisco Domenech, the barber, to breakfast at Badalona,
which is a village two miles or more from Mongat on the
way to Barcelona. To walk all the way from Mongat to Barce-
lona requires only from two to two and a half hours. Hence
it may very well be that Ferrer, now that things were becoming
lively in Barcelona, stayed away for a large portion of the
day — the heated portion, it will be perceived — and in the after-
noon went into Barcelona. His "family" could easily swear
he was at home that day, and Senor Colldeforns likewise see
him "captaining a group" on the Rambla in the city. Ferrer,
with his experience in the Morral bomb case, and in previous
cases, would naturally be strong on making out an alibi.
And just here Mr. Archer has put in a piece of innuendo.
There is nothing in this second article which directly asserts
any connection between the Church or the orders and Ferrer's
trial. But he found it necessary to put a head-line, "The
Catholic Journalist," and to repeat the phrase two or three
times in that part of the article. It supplies an apparent miss-
ing link, because it connects the Catholic Church in some indefi-
nite way with the prosecution. Well, the army officers were
Catholics, the court officials were Catholics, all the witnesses
were Catholics where they were not the anarchist and atheist
companions of Ferrer. Why single out the journalist who
6o ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
saw Ferrer? It seems as if it were done with the motive of
accenting the Church as a prosecuting witness.
As a matter of fact "El Siglo Futuro" is not a church paper.
It is the Carlist paper, and merely incidentally, as part and
parcel of its politics of Throne and Church, puts forward
CathoHcism. Of course the newspaper man was "a Catholic
journahst," but to have called him a Carlist would have left
out much of the peculiar attitude of Mr. Archer.
Then he insinuates that the authorities put Ferrer in such
a woe-begone garb in the rueda, or group of prisoners, that
his recognition by Seiior Colldeforns was a foregone conclu-
sion. In other words, he charges deception on the part of
the court, without a single fact to support it. The law of
recognizing and identifying the accused is plain (Articles 422
and 424) : "The rueda must be constituted of at least six
persons of similar appearance to the person who is to be iden-
tified." As Ferrer was completely shaven when captured, and
if he were allowed no toilet accessories while in prison, as
Mr. Archer declares, he must have been covered with a gray,
stubby beard, which would necessarily make his identification
amid six others similar to him very difficult to Senor Collde-
forns.
So much for the analysis and reasoning indulged in by Mr.
Archer. When his whole article is gone over in this manner,
the fact stands out pre-eminently that there was evidence
against Ferrer which even Mr. Archer cannot put out of the
way. Space forbids a complete analysis of the entire article,
and a discussion of Mr. Archer's statement that "the documen-
tary proofs consisted of two papers." In fact, there were fifty
odd files of dockets of them offered in evidence, consisting of
correspondence, circulars, reports, and memoranda of all kinds.
Yet even with Mr. Archer's special pleading — for he does
not seem to have endeavored to interview Seiior Colldeforns,
or to analyze the dockets of the documentary evidence, or even
look over the original evidence testified and sworn to by the
witnesses — he concludes that : "I am not at all sure that, had
Ferrer been fairly tried under reasonable rules of evidence
(query, under English common-law evidence), he would have
got oflF scot-free."
This is certainly a vindication from the rampant assertions
that were made that the Catholic Church had "railroaded"
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 6i
Ferrer to death. Judicial errors may be made in any country;
but it is quite another thing to say that a person was done to
death without trial and without witnesses. We Catholics only
ask that in these matters the same yardstick be used to measure
events in Spain as would be used to measure events in New
York or Oklahoma.
Ill
I have been asked whether Ferrer's previous character and
teachings may not have had something to do with his con-
demnation. This question cannot be answered by any one
outside of Spain, for he did not keep himself by any means
aloof from the events which counted against him. There were
some six revolutionary events before the July riots ; he was
on hand at every one of them. It may have been a coincidence,
but it was a coincidence that had a sinister aspect. One in-
stance is the bomb explosion of Alay 31, 1906, when the King
and his young bride narrowly escaped instant death on the
Calle Mayor, Madrid. The man who threw the bomb, which
killed ten persons, and who was executed for it, was Mateo
Morral, a professor in La Escuela Moderna, placed in that
position in Madrid by Ferrer. Ferrer, at that time, was in
Madrid, living in the same block with Morral, and was visited
from time to time by him and various noted anarchists. Fer-
rer was arrested, along with many others, and kept for eight
months in the Model Prison in Madrid, but, while many cir-
cumstances pointing to his complicity were brought out, no
evidence directly connecting him with the bomb-throwing was
discovered. It is absolutely untrue that there was a special
court organized to try him on that occasion. But these ques-
tionable facts and circumstances may have weighed against
him when it came to a question of clemency.
Ferrer was not a man of much education. He was the
founder of a school, but never wrote a book. His writings in
correspondence and his verses are exhibitions of passion rather
than reason. He was the type of man who is leader by virtue
of his ability to arrange things and provide the means. Of
his life I need say little. He was born in Alella, in the province
of Barcelona, and became a railway brakeman, and then con-
ductor, had some trouble in smuggling on the French frontier.
62 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and then went to Paris, where he fell in with anarchists and
imbibed their doctrines. He quarrelled with his wife, deserted
her, and afterwards obtained a separation, and left her to
take care of his three children. All were disinherited in the
will, which he made at Montjuich, just before his death, and
his fortune left to Soledad Villafranca, his mistress, who was
younger than his eldest daughter. He died a comparatively
rich man, for he obtained from Mile. Ernestine Meunier, a
pious old lady of Paris, money to found children's asylums
in Barcelona, which were to be operated under Catholic aus-
pices as religious institutions. He even gave her a statue of
Our Lady of Mount Carmel, in token of how he was conduct-
ing them. At her death, she left him property in Paris, upon
which he realized over a million francs. She died a Catholic,
putting that very expression in her will, and left legacies for
Masses for her soul.
After her death, he changed his asylums into La Escuela
Moderna (the Modern School), a name which he took over
bodily from a greater man, the historian, Don Rafael Altamira
y Crevea, one of the foremost professors of the University of
Oviedo, who had used it for many years and had used it in a
religious sense. After the bomb-throwing episode of 1906,
the various branches of La Escuela Modema were closed, and
a new name, La Escuela de la Casa del Pueblo, was adopted.
A bookselling and journalistic venture was added to it. Books
from the French and new books written in Spanish, in which
all mention of God or country were omitted, were compiled.
As a rule, these books are inferior to the text-books used in
the Catholic and government schools, as a comparison of the
two sets of books upon any subject will demonstrate. His
chief instructor for the girls' schools was Mme. Clementine
Jacquinet. She was a French anarchist, who kept a school at
Sakha, in Egypt, for several years. This school was closed
by the British authorities and Mme. Jacquinet banished from
Egypt on account of its anarchistic character. She describes
herself as "an atheist, scientific materialist, and anti-religious,
because religion, dividing men, constitutes the real obstacle to
progress, an anti-militarist and anarchist." She had a large
share in preparing the school books for La Escuela Modema.
A glance at some of the teachings of the text-books of
La Escuela Moderna, intended for the minds of tender young
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 63
children, shows them a Httle too advanced for use in the United
States. In the Third Reader, known as "Patriotism and Colo-
nization," we read (page 12) :
"Drop the soldiers' musket as though it were hot iron!
For this refusal [to drill] you will be treated as rebels, as
cowards and as lacking in noble sentiments. But what of that ?
Do not shoulder the musket! If they point out to you that
an enemy is invading the country, why, let him invade ! Even
if they show you that he is tearing down the throne or the
presidential chair! What do you care for those trifles?"
On page 15: "Don't get excited for the sake of the flag!
It is nothing but three yards of cloth stuck on a pole !"
On page 33 : "One's country is not made up by territorial
boundaries nor by the citizens who dwell therein, no, they are
mere despots who exploit those ideas."
On page 80: "The words, 'country,' 'flag,' and 'family,'
do not excite in me more than hypocritical echoes of wind and
sound."
On page 84, and following: "When I think of the evils I
have seen and suffered, which proceed from national hatreds,
I recognize that they all rest upon a gross lie, the love of one's
country."
"The flag is but the symbol of tyranny and misery."
"Industry and commerce are the names by which they [mer-
chants] cover up their robberies."
"Marriage is prostitution sanctified by the church and pro-
tected by the state."
"The family is one of the principal obstacles to the enlight-
enment of men."
In the "Bulletin of the Modern School," Vol. V, No. i, page
5 (1908), an article reads: "Religion has retarded the evolu-
tion of man, has prolonged his primitive weakness, has made
him retrograde to his ancestral brutishness, has cultivated and
augmented the terrors arising from ignorance of phenomena,
the miseries which those sufifer who do not know how to mod-
ify natural effects to their advantage, and the injuries which
are the results of general incapacity and of various obsessions ;
and finally it has been wonderfully united with brute force to
assist the material and moral authority of the violent and the
astute as the oppressors of the great mass of humanity."
And on page 6 following, in speaking of the separation of
64 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Church and State, it adds : ''Separate two authorities equally
hateful ! It is imperative to suppress both of them !"
In the "Compendium of Universal History," written by
Mme. Clementine Jacquinet, we find the following gems — on
page ^/: "It is believed that Jesus Christ was- a Buddhist
monk, who came from Mt. Carmel, and who devoted himself
to preaching the religion of Buddha to the Jews."
On page 40: "Would not God have done better to have
begun by making man as he desired him to be? Can you con-
ceive of a father communicating to his son a terrible disease
for the pleasure of curing it afterwards and then proclaiming
himself thereafter as his benefactor ? This God of the Chris-
tians is a wicked God, which every honest conscience ought to
reject ; or, if not, he is a useless one, powerless to prevent evil
or to assure the good which one desires."
On page 41 : "We desire to observe here that the only act
of justice accomplished by this God was to get himself killed
as the author of all the evils which men suffer."
On page 42, speaking of the crucifixion: "What does the
deed represent? Why, the part of a low-minded, ambitious
person, infatuated with the very idea of his own wisdom."
On page 46 : "We will always see Christianity, in the course
of history, face to face with progress in order to obstruct the
latter's path; with a negation of science because it impeaches
dogma; supporting firmly absolutism, inequality of the social
classes ; as an oppressor of the human conscience in its torture-
chamber of false morality, with a hateful flag in whose shadow
every crime has been committed, as a vampire always thirsting
for blood to whom milHons of victims have been sacrificed !"
In the work called "Nature and the Social Problem," writ-
ten by Enrique Lluria, used in the advanced schools, the
preface (page 7) explains the design and tendency of the
work:
"At the end of two generations in which catechism is not
taught, and it is scientifically explained that what is called
creation is but the uncreated existence of the universe, only
the atavistic eflfects of a religious belief will remain. There
will be left then only its annihilation, and when its atrophy
commences its annihilation will be rapid. For this purpose
the Modern School of Barcelona has been founded, its library
and free schools created to extend the work."
McCLURE'S, ARCHER AND FERRER 65
Other extracts from the various text-books might be multi-
plied to show the animus of the authors, and stabs and side
remarks at Christianity and Christian civilization abound all
through them. Observe that it is not against the Catholic
faith or belief, as such, that these are directed; it is against
all religion and religious ideas, though Christianity is especially
aimed at, that the attack of this remarkable series of text-books
and the teaching of the Modern School was directed.
The Constitution of Spain (Article 13, Section 1) guaran-
tees the right of free speech and free press, and, although the
Modern School, in its various branches, was founded at Bar-
celona in 1902, and since in other cities, the teachers and writ-
ers of it have never been molested or called before any tribu-
nal for their speeches or writings ; in the city of Barcelona they
even made application to a Catholic city council for a portion
of the public funds for the support of their schools and the
application was granted. For eight years, therefore, Ferrer
taught what he wanted in his schools and no one interfered
with him. It was only when he, Morral and some militant
teachers in the Modern Schools participated in riots, arson and
slaughter, that they were taken before the courts and tried.
There are plenty of teachers in La Escuela Moderna who have
never been molested, notwithstanding the bloodshed of the
Barcelona riots. In this country such occurrences would likely
bring them under more than police surveillance.
Events in Barcelona have resulted in a strong movement
among its people to counteract the influence of the Modem
Schools and in the establishment of anti-anarchistic schools.
The month of December last saw a great outpouring of teach-
ers, professors and others in the Educational Congress held
there in the Palace of Fine Arts the week after Christmas to
devise plans and find means for the building and equipment
of newer and finer schools to take the place of those destroyed
by the rioters.
THE LATEST TACTICS AS TO SPAIN
Letter to "America"
THE defamers of the Church in Spain have devised cer-
tain new tactics, of which the readers of "America"
should be informed, for they are sure to appear in
some shape in our daily press. A writer, who signs himself as
"Gerundio, a former monk," has just published a book in Bar-
celona, entitled "El tormento en los Conventos" (Torture in
the Convents), and the press agencies there are kindly sup-
plying the Spanish radical papers and the entire European
press with copious extracts from the book. In it are given
alleged statistics of the clergy, religious orders, and the wild-
est stories of confinement and torture in the convents and re-
ligious houses, the kind with which we used to be regaled in
this country in the flourishing A. P. A. times of not so long
ago. Doubtless after they have been repeated in the European
press of different countries, they will be solemnly copied into
our papers, as showing how Spain is wholly under the domina-
tion of the monk and the clerical to a far greater degree than
was ever known in any other country in the world.
It is hardly worth while to go over the entire work, which
starts out with an assumption of historical learning, and pur-
ports to give the history of monasticism and religious orders
in Spain from the Napoleonic years of 1808-14 down to the
present time. Scattered all through the book are statistics of
the various periods, showing the growth of the monastic orders
or congregations, and if the figures given there are no more
correct than the ones I shall presently mention, the whole book
is little more than a mass of misinformation. No doubt we
shall later hear of these things from the eminent gentlemen,
who do not read Spanish and who do not examine the Spanish
official reports, in their narration of things they have found
out regarding the religious situation in Spain. For this reason
I have deemed it proper to communicate to you in advance
some of the information contained in this book and in the
press excerpts from it.
66
THE LATEST TACTICS AS TO SPAIN 67
After speaking about the religious orders in Spain and the
activity of the Jesuits in particular, in order to give point to his
remarks, the author then continues :
"The struggle of the government with the religious orders
ended by the former's capitulation to them. To-day they hold
a position in Spain in regard to number, property and political
influence such as religious orders never had before in any
other country.
"Comparative statistics are the best proof of this fact. Spain
is simply filled with monasteries and religious houses. In the
year i860 there were in the Diocese of Barcelona, which is pro-
portionately the wealthiest and by far the most enHghtened,
only 22 nuns, and on the other hand there were no male reli-
gious at all. To-day there are in this diocese about 500 reli-
gious houses, of which 95 per cent devote themselves to educa-
tion and particularly to business enterprises, factories, trades
and also commerce. Many monks have the superintendence
over penal institutions, asylums, orphanages and hospitals,
both governmental as well as local and private ones.
"Besides this, there exist in said diocese, which has not much
more than a million inhabitants, six thousand associations,
brotherhoods and establishments, which are subject to the man-
agement of the religious orders. For the maintenance of these
'Centros Catolicos' (Catholic clubs), religious houses, cathedral,
diocesan seminary, 280 parish priests, two bishops, the canons
and the rest of the clergy, constituting some 2,000 persons, the
government gives every year 8,000,000 duros, that is $30,000,-
000. In other words, each individual inhabitant of the Diocese
of Barcelona must pay annually the sum of $30 for the main-
tenance of bishops, priests and the male and female members
of religious orders.
"And now we will give a statistical sketch of the whole of
Spain in this regard. According to the official figures for the
year 1908, there were religious houses as follows : In the
Province of Barcelona, 480; in Madrid, 229; in Lerida, 116;
in Tarragona, 152 ; in Gerona, 146; in Alava, 55 ; in Guipuzcoa,
112; in Vizcaya, 124; in Navarre, 117; in Avila, 44; in Burgos,
98 ; in Santander, 86 ; in Murcia, 89; in Albacete, 35 ; in Seville,
169; in Huelva, 29; in Cadiz, 150; in Cordova, 105; in Gra-
nada, 90 ; in Malaga, 86 ; in Jaen, 89 ; in Almeria, 32 ; in Badajos,
73; in Caceres, 53; in Coruiia, 57; in Orense, 31 ; in Soria,
68 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
28; in Segovia, 41; in Logrona, 66; in Zamora, 48; in Leon,
54 ; in Salamanca, 67 ; in Valladolid, 96 ; in Palencia, 53 ; in
Toledo, 96; in Cuenca, 41 ; in Ciudad Real, 49; in Guadalajara,
43; in Saragossa, 112; in Teruel, 48; in Huesca, 63; in Cas-
tellon, 68 ; in Valencia, 167 ; in Alicante, 92 ; in Pontevedra, 43 ;
in Lugo, 38; in Oviedo, 60; in the Balearic Islands, 164, and in
the Canaries, 32.
"According to the above figures Spain has four thousand
three hundred and thirty monasteries of religious houses, and
near them exist many other members of religious orders some-
what secretly under various pretences, so that the government
and the people may be deceived. These statistics are sufficient
to justify the steps taken by Canalejas in the matter of the reli-
gious orders."
I give this extract so that the readers of "America" may
recognize the source whenever they see them printed as newly-
made investigations in Spain. It is needless to say that they
are untrue, and that they are given with a prolixity and verisi-
militude that would deceive the average reader who has not the
requisite books on Spain and Spanish affairs with which to
elicit the truth.
As a sample of what this unknown author has promulgated,
let us take the one upon which he places the most emphasis,
the Diocese of Barcelona. I have by me the statistics of the
religious houses in that diocese (1910) and an account of the
work they are doing. There are in the Barcelona diocese 388
religious communities. O'f these 72 are composed of men and
316 of women. There are 865 male members of the religious
communities and 3,974 women. There are besides, 1,194
priests at present in charge of 263 parishes. The population of
the Diocese of Barcelona is 1,054,540, of which 980,000 are
reckoned as Catholics. The amount of the population there
and the number of the clergy and members of religious com-
munities are about the same as for the Archdiocese of New
York, reckoning only the Catholic population.
In Barcelona the male religious orders have communities de-
voted as follows : To contemplative life, 2 ; refuges, protec-
tories and manual training schools for children, 5 ; asylums for
old people, i ; charitable associations, 17; schools and colleges,
47. The female religious orders have the following communi-
ties : Contemplative life, 27 ; houses of refuge, protectories
THE LATEST TACTICS AS TO SPAIN 69
and training schools for girls. 5 ; hospitals, asylums and homes
for old people, 63; schools and colleges, 221. In the schools
and colleges free instruction is given to 75,000 annually, and
among them are included kindergartens, day nurseries and re-
ception rooms for the children of the poor, while their parents
are at work during the day. All these are maintained at their
own expense and efforts, are entirely exclusive of the state
public schools, hospitals and charitable institutions — except in
regard to three religious orders, who perform at state expense
in the public homes and hospitals the works of charity and
mercy carried on by those institutions. If they were displaced
that expense would be vastly increased by the employment of
lay persons in the service of the state.
But this anonymous author never so much as alludes to
these facts. Moreover, he includes as religious organizations
the various Catholic clubs, fraternal societies, Christian Doc-
trine confraternities and sodalities which exist in connection
with every Catholic church the world over, and which are
always associations of laymen who pay their own meagre ex-
penses in every instance, and are in no sense religious com-
munities. In no single instance is there one cent contributed
to their support or maintenance by the government. The state-
ment of the anonymous author in this regard is an absolute
invention. It is likewise untrue that any religious orders in
Barcelona are engaged in business or trade, or carry on fac-
tories for the sale of their products. The official Hst before
me shows that there is none there which is so engaged.
The author goes even further in the realm of invention.
He says the Spanish government gives every year some 8,000,-
000 duros (that is 40,000,000 pesetas) or $30,000,000 (!) for
the support of the clergy, religious orders and lay associations
of Barcelona. In the first place a duro is the Spanish word for
dollar, and is equal to five pesetas, so that $30,000,000 is
almost more than four times the amount actually given! In
the second place, the sum of 8,000,000 duros or 40,000,000
pesetas, is the sum spent by the Spanish government for the
entire Church in all Spain. It goes to pay the secular salaries
of the Minister of Worship and his clerks, the upkeep of
church buildings, and finally the salaries and stipends of the
clergy in actual charge of the churches and parishes. The re-
ligious orders and lay associations get none of it, except the
70 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
three orders actually engaged in the charitable and benevolent
institutions of the state, who receive their bare maintenance as
individuals in lieu of a salary.
The total revenue of Spain is about 1,090,750,000 pesetas
(or $218,150,000), and the Church — including the civil officers,
who are paid out of the appropriation — receives a little over
40,000,000 pesetas (some $8,000,000), or about 3 6/10 per cent
of the Spanish revenue. As Spain has 19,000,000 inhabitants,
the Province of Barcelona (conterminous with the diocese)
pays merely 1/19 of the total sum set aside for the Church, and
accordingly, to use the methods of the anonymous author, each
individual inhabitant of Barcelona has to pay 42 cents annually
(instead of $30) for the support of the Church. If the mem-
bers of our congregations (of any creed) in America could
be let off so cheaply, they would be proud to acclaim it.
It would take up too much time to go over the figures given
seriatim and show their falsity — the number of religious
houses in Spain has already been given in "America" — but the
rest of the figures in this latest book are about as true as the
figures which the anonymous author gave for the Barcelona
diocese, and which I have just analysed. The whole publica-
tion is intended to affect public opinion in regard to the state
of affairs in Spain by the time the Cortes meets again, and the
religious questions are once more to the front. It is, however,
well to be able to recognize these figures for what they are,
gross falsehoods and not true statements of fact.
THE SITUATION IN PORTUGAL
THAT portion of the Iberian peninsula, formerly the
Kingdom, but now the Republic, of Portugal, has been
notoriously before the public in several instances within
the past few years. It was only a few years ago that the king
and crown prince were assassinated in the public streets of
Lisbon, and only a few months have passed since the new
republic was proclaimed amid a general attack upon the re-
ligious orders and clergy, while the king and royal family were
driven from the land. We have had many newspaper de-
spatches concerning these events, but very little real informa-
tion as to the land itself, its people and their church and its
organization. We know that Portugal was once a world
power and vied with Spain and England as the mistress of the
seas. Its navigators explored Africa and Asia, and explored
and settled a large part of South America. One of its greatest
colonies became first the Empire and afterwards the Republic
of Brazil. Its land has furnished poets, warriors, navigators
and colonizers, but alas, few statesmen of the calibre which
the world reckons as great.
The Portuguese are, of course, regarded as a Latin race,
and the Roman domination, from the time of the conquest of
the peninsula which makes up Spain and Portugal, has left its
mark upon language, people and institutions, although the re-
mains of Roman art, architecture and civilization are not so
plentifully found as in Spain.
Anciently, Portugal, together with a portion of what is mod-
ern Spain, was known as the Roman province of Lusitania.
The Latin language is the base, if not altogether the sole ele-
ment, of the Portuguese language, which in its orthography
seems closer to Latin than the Spanish, but further from it in
pronunciation and grammatical structure. The Portuguese
are not a people of diverse race origin, as are the Spaniards,
who spring from a mixture of Iberian, Roman, Gothic and
Visigothic elements. They seem to be chiefly of Iberian stock,
71
72 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
on which the Vandals and Goths made Httle impression, with
only a modern and slight intermixture of other races, chiefly
Moorish and African.
The Portuguese are literally the longest-headed people in
Europe ("Cranial Index" 75, yj), and they are below the aver-
age height. Blond-haired Portuguese are practically unknown,
while ordinary dark or black hair is found among about a
fifth of the population ; very jet-black hair is the rule. This
at once differentiates them from their neighbors, the Spanish ;
and their language does so even more. To an English-speak-
ing person the Portuguese language seems like sloppy Spanish
pronounced in a French fashion. It is so much like Spanish
as to be deceptive, and differs from it widely just when one
thinks they ought to be alike. The Portuguese language shows
signs, even more than the French, of the influence of that
strange Gaelic habit of ellipsis, or the dropping of a letter in the
middle of a word.
Of course, the very name, Portugal, indicates that it was a
country of the Gaels, for the name is derived from the ancient
Latin name for the present city and province of Oporto, which
was in Latin Partus Cale, or Partus Gale, that is, the Port
of the Gaels. From this city the name spread to the whole
country, and it was accordingly called Portugal. Notwith-
standing the original inhabitants and their descendants talked
a Latin jargon acquired from their Roman conquerors, which
finally developed into the present Portuguese language, they
could not forbear the Gaelic habit of ellipsis. The French, or
Gauls (who were really Gaels), did this, as in the Latin words,
pater, mater, from which they made pcre and mere. So the
Portuguese, for example, when they used the Latin generalis
(general), plural generates, first dropped the "n" and said
geral, and in the plural they also dropped the "1" and said
geraes, a regular nasal telescopic way of pronouncing a word.
Thus the genius of the Portuguese language has differentiated
it more and more from the Spanish, and, while the two are
derived from the same colonial Latin, the result has been
curiously different, yet sufficiently alike to be perplexing to
the student.
Spain and Portugal were not originally separated, any more
than they are geographically separated to-day. Portugal, after
Roman times, and when the Gaelic and Gothic tribes descended
THE SITUATION IN PORTUGAL 73
to dismember the great empire, came under the rule of the
kings of GaHcia (which is now northwestern Spain) — another
instance of where the name Gael is still imbedded in a purely
national name. It was also conquered by the Moors, and re-
mained under Mohammedan rule for two hundred years. Ber-
mudez. King of Galicia, reconquered it in 997, and St. Ferdi-
nand, King of Castile and Leon, nearly completed the con-
quest and expelled the Moors from all the northern part of
the country. In 1109, the country freed itself from the rule
of the Galicians, and later threw off all allegiance to Castile.
This was the beginning of Portuguese independence as a sepa-
rate kingdom. The creators of the kingdom's greatness were
King Denis (1279-1325) and his successor, Alfonso IV (1325-
1357)-
In 1383, the dynasty died out, and John I was elected king
(1383-1433). He married Philippa, daughter of John of
Gaunt, in England, and thus commenced the close relations of
Portugal with England. He was the first foreign monarch to
receive the Order of the Garter, and with him the heroic age
of Portuguese history began. He forever put an end to Span-
ish sovereignty, expelled the last of the Moors, and sent out
navigator after navigator to explore the world. Madeira was
occupied in 1420, and Guiana the following year. Bartholo-
mew Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope in i486, and in
1498 Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India. Bra-
zil was discovered and settled in 1500 by Pedro Alvares Ca-
bral. Magellan (in Portuguese, Magalhaes) went to Brazil
in 1 5 19, rounded Cape Horn in 1520, discovered the Philip-
pine Islands in 1 52 1, doubled the Cape of Good Hope in 1522,
and before the end of that year was back again in Portugal,
having successfully completed the first voyage around the
world. Not only was Brazil colonized, but conquests and colo-
nies followed in India, China, Africa and Mozambique.
In 1580, however, this kingly line in turn became extinct
and Portugal was annexed to Spain. For sixty years the Por-
tuguese endured the harsh rule of Philip II and his successors,
but in 1640 they revolted. The nobles and clergy succeeded in
freeing the country from Spanish rule and in placing the Por-
tuguese Duke of Braganza on the throne under the name of
John IV. But, during the Spanish rule and the succeeding
wars, Portugal had declined in power and wealth. Her mari-
74 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
time trade had vanished, many of her Indian provinces were
taken by the Dutch, and the country, loaded with debt, had
practically become a commercial dependency of England.
When its formal independence was acknowledged in 1668 by
treaty with Spain, only the vestiges of its former glory re-
mained. In 1703, the Methuen treaty was negotiated with
England, by which the latter secured and ever since has kept
the trade supremacy of Portugal. In 1750, Joseph, the grand-
son of John IV, ascended the Portuguese throne. It was
during his reign (1750-1777) that the Marquis de Pombal
took entire charge of the reins of government. He carried on
a relentless war against the old nobility and the clergy, and as
a result of his efforts, the Jesuits were expelled in 1759, and
for many years thereafter all the property of religious orders
was confiscated and secularized. The republican revolutionists
of to-day are merely repeating what Pombal did over a hun-
dred and fifty years ago.
During the Napoleonic wars, the French invaded Portugal,
and were about to partition the country with Spain, much after
the manner of Poland. John VI, King of Portugal, in order
to escape the French invaders, went to Brazil and set up his
throne in Rio de Janeiro, in 1807. During the Peninsular
Wars, the English and Portuguese troops under Sir Arthur
Wellesley freed Portugal from the French invaders. The
transfer of the seat of government from Portugal to Brazil
was a source of humiHation to the Portuguese, and, although
King John might have returned to Portugal after the battle of
Waterloo, in 1814, when Napoleon's power was broken, he
stayed in Brazil until 1821, when Napoleon died in St. Helena.
When he returned to Portugal it was to find a constitution pro-
claimed. He left his son, Dom Pedro, as regent in Brazil, but
in 1822 Brazil declared its independence and made Dom Pedro
its first emperor.
From that time to this the fortunes of Portugal have varied,
with but little improvement in the prospects of the country.
In 188 1, the so-called Republican party commenced its active
propaganda, determined to oust the royal family and overturn
most of the existing institutions. The country became bank-
rupt in 1892, and in 1901 its revenues were practically seques-
tered to pay the foreign debts, and the management of the
revenue was put in the hands of a commission, including repre-
THE SITUATION IN PORTUGAL 75
sentatives of England, Germany and France. In other words,
Portugal for the past two hundred years has been a pawn on
the chessboard of her creditors, without revenues, without
energy and without any definite hope. Nearly all her defi-
ciences may be ascribed to lack of means and the lack of man-
hood arising from financial slavery.
The Church in Portugal has been during the last two cen-
turies in a precarious condition. One hears much of the domi-
nation of the priesthood, but the fact is that the Church, viewed
merely as organism of the body politic, is completely domi-
nated by the State. This does not refer to the present provi-
sional government, but to the old monarchical regime. For in-
stance, the late Constitution (Chap. 2, Art. 75) empowers the
king and his ministers "to appoint bishops and bestow ecclesi-
astical benefices," and this power was always exercised as the
ministry saw fit. Whatever deficiences there may be among
the hierarchy or higher clergy who have the direction of eccle-
siastical affairs and who rule the parochial clergy, they may be
ascribed to the endeavor to make the Portuguese Church little
more than a bureau of the government. Nor would the gov-
ernment brook any rival. Religious teaching orders were ex-
pelled even under the late government ; the Jesuits were first
expelled in 1759, and all the remaining orders banished in
1834. Hampering restrictions were placed on ecclesiastical
seminaries and vocations to the priesthood. During the past
thirty years some few religious orders were allowed to return
in order to meet the dearth of schools, but even they have
usually been expelled whenever the authorities thought fit to
sign a decree.
The clergy have always been excluded, under special laws,
from having anything to do with secondary or higher educa-
tion in any of the government institutions. Their religious
instruction in the primary schools where catechism, Christian
doctrine, and church history is provided by law and is in
theory taught, has been hampered by all sorts of vexatious
decrees. It must also be remembered that Jansenism made
great headway among the Portuguese and induced an indiffer-
ence to the frequent reception of the sacraments. Within the
past seventy years Freemasonry of the political continental
kind has been most powerful in Portugal, nearly every official
of State or officer of the army and navy belonging to it. Be-
^^ ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ing a secret society, political propaganda went almost unno-
ticed. All the members of the present provisional government
are said to be Masons of the virulent European brand and
very anti-Catholic.
The population of Portugal was, in 1900, 5,016,167, or about
that of the State of Ohio. In geographical area it is slightly
larger than Ohio. The people of Portugal do not live in cities,
but are rural and agricultural exclusively ; only a little less
than one-third (32.4 per cent) of the population being dwell-
ers in cities and towns. There are no large cities in the king-
dom. Lisbon, the capital, had in 1900 only 356,000 inhabi-
tants; Oporto, 167,950; Braga, 24,200; Setubal, 22,074, and
Coimbra, 18,150, Hence, the whole population are practically
penniless country farmers and farm hands, with all the disad-
vantages and backwardness which that fact implies. The ex-
ternal and internal debt of Portugal is approximately about
$140 for each man, woman and child in the kingdom, and taxa-
tion is proportionately heavy.
For this population the number of parishes in the whole of
Portugal is 3,736, and the number of priests about 6,840. The
Church in Portugal is constituted as follows: Patriarchate
of Lisbon, in the centre of the kingdom, with two suflfragan
bishops, Guarda and Portalegre; Archbishopric of Evora, in
the south, with two sufifragan bishops, Beja and Faro; Arch-
bishopric of Braga, in the north, with five suffragan bishops,
Braganza, Coimbra, Lamego, Porto and Vizeu, thus making
twelve dioceses for the whole of Portugal. In addition to them
there is the Archbishop of Goa in India, with four suffragan
bishops of Cochin, Damao, Macao and Meliapur in the Portu-
guese East Indies ; and also the bishops of Angola, Augra and
San Thome in Africa, Funchal in Madeira, Santiago in Cape
Verde, which are subject to Lisbon. There were very few
religious orders in Portugal, only teaching and charitable ones
being allowed after 1870.
Education, of course, is backward. The rural population do
not see its necessity ; they are too poor to provide schools, and
the government is bankrupt. The latest Constitution was
adopted in 1842 and it contains (Art. 145, Sec. 30) the declara-
tion : "Primary instruction shall be free to all citizens." No
government so far has ever carried this out, or been able to
furnish the means whereby such education should be freely
THE SITUATION IN PORTUGAL 'jj
tendered to all citizens. A law was passed thirty years ago
making primary education compulsory, but the law could not
be enforced because the government could not provide the
schools. It is said that in 1900 the illiteracy of the Portu-
guese ran as high as 70 per cent, but in the cities they are
fairly well versed in elementary knowledge, chiefly owing to
the excellent church schools. There were then some 4,500
public and some 1,200 private primary schools, with an attend-
ance of 240,000 pupils, besides a number of special primary
schools for adults, with some 7,000 pupils. Secondary schools
are maintained in the chief towns and had an attendance of
5,860 pupils in 1904. Besides law, professional and technical
schools, there is the University of Coimbra, with an attendance
in 1904 of 1,056 students. Every attempt to enter as students
of theology is handicapped by all imaginable obstacles ; but,
on the other hand, the study and graduation in law is all the
rage. Portugal suffers from an over-abundance of penniless
advocates and clientless lawyers.
As to the government of Portugal, it is hard to say just
what its form now is. Of course, up to last October it was
a monarchy under a liberal Constitution, at least on paper,
modelled much after English institutions. It would be useless
to describe that now, since it is practically abrogated. It, how-
ever, provided that every man of 21 years of age, with an an-
nual income of $100, should be entitled to vote (Title IV,
Chapter 5, Article 5), that all religions may be permitted
(Title I, Art. 6), and that no one shall be prosecuted because
of his religion, provided he respects the religion of the State
and does not offend pubHc morals (Title VIII, Article 145).
Just what the future constitution or future government of
Portugal will be no one can tell. They call it a republic ; but
so far a committee of seven men comprise the whole govern-
ment. No one elected or appointed them; they have no man-
date from the people that they should take and hold office, nor
have they any Constitution, rules or form of government to
define their powers and to limit their acts. No minister of the
fallen government has ever dared to do things which they
have done in the name of liberty and democracy. Even
Franco, who suspended a section of the Constitution tempo-
rarily, acted uprightly for the most part, and respected prop-
erty and individual rights.
78 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
The very origin of their assumption of self-conferred power
behes any grounded spontaneous outburst on the part of the
people for their rule. A rebellious garrison, traitorous guards
and a seditious navy enabled them to effect the revolution and
climb into power. The heroes of this revolution, who are
hailed as martyrs, are two men who did but little to effect it,
one of whom died by the hand of a demented patient in his
own hospital, and the other committed suicide on his ship
because he thought the uprising was a failure. Yet Dr. Miguel
Bombarda and Vice-Admiral Candido Dos Reis received a
magnificent public funeral through the streets of Lisbon,
as though they had fallen bravely fighting at the head of vic-
torious troops. All the Masonic lodges were represented offi-
cially, and the long procession was filled with banners and pen-
nants bearing Masonic emblems, thus making it a personal as
well as an official manifestation.
The moment that the seven men formed the provisional gov-
ernment of the so-called Republic of Portugal they commenced
war on the Church. Here are their names, so that their his-
tory may be scanned: Teofilo Braga, president; Alfonso
Costa, minister of justice; Bernardino Machado, minister of
foreign affairs; Antonio d Almeida, minister of the interior;
Luiz Barreto, minister of war ; Amaro Acevedo Gomes, min-
ister of marine ; and Basilio Peyes, minister of commerce and
agriculture (faaenda). We shall see how large their names
loom in the coming history of Portugal.
Without any Constitution, law, rules of procedure, court,
jury, accusation or trial, these seven men constituted them-
selves the most despotic government on the face of the earth.
They drove monks from their cloisters, nuns from their con-
vents, and the regular clergy from their homes. They arrested
every member of a religious order without warrant and with-
out charges, marched them as the vilest criminals through the
streets, threw them into the foulest prisons, where they ex-
isted without the ordinary conveniences of life. When the
jails showed signs of being full, without further trial, or with-
out being charged with any disorder or crime against the coun-
try or its people, these religious were summarily banished from
the country.
The vilest stories were told about the nuns and sisters ; they
were subjected to almost every form of insult ; while the wild-
THE SITUATION IN PORTUGAL 79
est and most improbable stories of underground passages and
subterranean flights were spread broadcast about the regular
clergy, who were expelled from their religious houses. All
the insults, cries and contempt were for the irmas, or sisters,
and the frades, or brothers, as the members of the religious
orders were called in Portuguese. Not even the Sisters of
Charity were spared. A correspondent calls attention to the
way in which two different groups of prisoners were treated
by the revolutionists. One group of men came along as pris-
oners conducted in a polite and suave manner by the soldiers.
They were not unfrocked frades, but they were three private
soldiers in uniform, who had broken down the door of the
church of San Salvador and plundered everything valuable
there which they could lay their hands upon. Shortly after-
wards a few nuns were hustled along, with insults, cries and
whistling. Among them were three Spanish women, one a
widow, 79 years of age, and her two daughters, all of them
discalced Carmelite nuns, who were thrust across the border
into Spain without funds or resources.
For three days no order whatever was observed by the revo-
lutionists in Lisbon. Churches were dismantled or closed and
all services ceased. Yet there was one exception. The Irish
Dominican Church, which has stood for 150 years in Lisbon,
was wide open and services went on uninterruptedly. The
British flag was hoisted over it and the Union Jack was draped
over the doorways, while each Dominican monk wore a tiny
Union Jack as a buttonhole ornament. The so-called republic
did not dare arrest or expel these religious, nor make any
attack upon their church or convent. So they made them the
general exception to the expulsion of religious, and that, too,
without any representation, diplomatic or otherwise, from Eng-
land. But the brave government of seven knew that if they
touched an Irish Dominican friar, save after charges duly pre-
ferred, and a formal trial and conviction for violation of some
law which they had infringed, the new government would hear
in no uncertain manner from Great Britain.
The new government of seven, before there is a Constitution
or legislature in existence, has begun to promulgate decrees
having all the effect of law, and put into practice the following
as far as possible: Separation of Church and State, which
also spells confiscation of church property; a law of divorce
8o ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
which goes so far as to permit divorce by consent ; lay neutral
schools, in which anti-Catholic doctrines are taught while the
church or religious teaching is excluded, and a law permitting,
if not almost commanding, parish priests to marry, notwith-
standing their vows or the rules of the Church. At present
they are considering laws prohibiting religious rites for any
of the state, army or navy, so that the government may be
kept free from any alleged clerical influence, and also a law
permitting the equality of inheritance and legal rights between
legitimate and illegitimate children.
Portugal has had a glorious and heroic past, but the last
two centuries have been centuries of impotence and dishonor.
Its magnificent churches, hospitals, monastery buildings and
abbeys testify to the time when the Catholic faith was a living
and quickening reality there. But, as the State gradually fet-
tered the Church, tying it limb by limb, the State grew om-
nipotent and paralyzed all independent action on the part of
the Church. Only so long ago as last August the Archbishop
of Braga suspended a religious paper, *'A Voz de Sao Fran-
cisco," for some infraction of ecclesiastical discipline, and was
prosecuted by the government for not having obtained permis-
sion from it to do so. The present Bishop of Beja, Dr. Sebas-
tian Leite de Vasconcellos, was driven from his see by the
revolutionists and fled to Spain for safety; he was accused
and condemned by the revolutionary government for being
absent from his see without leave. These instances show how
tight a rein the Portuguese government held over the Church,
and how little initiative or power was left to the clergy to do
their work as in other countries. Add to this the poverty of
the people, the heavy debts and incapacity of the government,
and we have the elements which make for backwardness and
immobility of a race which is largely scattered among its
country districts. But the faults, shortcomings and defects in
Portugal are really the result of State supremacy, and it re-
mains to be seen how much good can come out of the new
order of things which calls itself a republic, without being one
even in form.
THE VARIOUS NATIONALITIES IN THE
UNITED STATES AND THEIR RITES
IMMIGRATION TO THE
UNITED STATES
I. — The Earlier Immigration
THE early immigration to the United States, considered
in the large, was almost wholly from English-speaking
countries. The vast Irish immigration between 1830
and i860 consisted of English-speaking people, who were thus
readily appreciative of the conditions which they found in the
United States and easily capable of making themselves and
their race understood in this great EngHsh-speaking republic.
This republic was founded upon English laws and traditions,
but by a commingled stream of English, Scotch and Irish colo-
nists, who found their common language a unifying element.
In fact, the Irish immigration lent a steadying force to the
ideas expressed in the Declaration of Independence and the
constitution and establishment of these United States — the
ideas of political equality and opportunity and of separation
from Great Britain and her monarchical institutions. Never-
theless, the English language, which the United States had
inherited, as well as many of its legal forms and expressions,
was charged with prejudice towards and misunderstanding of
the Catholic Church. Consequently, the Irish immigrants were
misunderstood and depreciated in one respect. They were
almost to a man staunch adherents of the Catholic faith and
consequently did not command sympathy or respect, but rather
excited contempt and distrust among the citizens of the grow-
ing republic. Nevertheless, in the course of several decades
they managed to win both respect and sympathy, as well as to
live down a bitter persecution founded chiefly on hatred to
their form of religion, but also on the fact that they were alien
born and presumed to claim the advantages and privileges of
American citizens.
To them succeeded the German immigration of 1848 and
after. This began during the "Sturm und Drang" period of
83
84 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
German history, when the smaller German thrones were over-
turned and sceptres smashed in the revolutionary excitement
of the times. Small German principalities disappeared, feudal
systems were abolished, and larger German kingdoms arose
to succeed them. During this formative period thousands and
thousands of Germans sought refuge in the United States.
Between them and the American of those days stood the bar-
rier of language and strange customs. This made them mis-
understood, and, being poor and forlorn, likewise despised
amid the general contempt for the poor and homeless from
other lands. As the Germans were largely Catholic, the gen-
eral hatred and contempt for the Catholic Irish became their
portion also. But the German persevered, accumulated prop-
erty by his thrift and economy, learned EngUsh and the cus-
toms and ideas of his new fatherland, and in every way showed
his worth. His habits of industry, frugality and saving were
valuable assets to our national body. The time came when
the German was no longer looked upon as of a strange race ;
his culture and history were appreciated, and he was welcomed
as a real addition to our national forces. Both the German
and the Irishman distinguished themselves in the Civil War
between the States, North and South, and henceforth all
America knew that patriotism and devotion to the new father-
land was a virtue which each possessed in as eminent a de-
gree as the native elder American, whilst in courage and self-
denial they might outdo him.
Meanwhile the nations heard the call of opportunity in the
new world and promptly responded. At first the inhabitants
of Scandinavia — the Norwegians, Danes and Swedes — came
hither, and we made them welcome, for they were only one
remove from the German and did not have the obstacle of the
Catholic faith as a stumbling-block. The French, Swiss and
Belgians came, too, but in limited numbers, and then the heter-
ogeneous inhabitants of the Austrian monarchy began to ar-
rive. By that time we had grown in a measure more tolerant
of those who were born across the seas. We welcomed them
as fleeing from adverse conditions at home and as material to
make up the fibre of our American civilization. Perhaps the
fact was that we of the elder stock of Americans had become
so far educated that we now knew who these people were, as
well as something of their languages, culture and history.
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 85
After the Civil War between the North and South our coun-
try began to expand rapidly, to grow great and to exploit
every form of industry and trade known to man and to make
use of the thousands of new inventions which the eager minds
of this and other countries had devised. The original Eng-
lish-speaking American stock went further afield and began to
settle and occupy the great West which lay between the Middle
States and the Pacific Ocean. To undertake the necessary
hard work and pioneer labor, fresh importations and immigra-
tion from Europe were demanded. The immigration from the
English-speaking races and from Teutonic lands was beginning
to slacken and in some cases had almost ceased. The immi-
grants of those races already here had entered upon the second
stage, that of property owners and the employers of labor
themselves, whilst the demand for labor in America — labor
of the cheapest and commonest sort, requiring brawn, muscle
and endurance — was ever increasing. New projects for the
development of the United States and its varied industries
were constantly evolved and strong and stout men were re-
quired to realize them. Then it was that the Eastern and
Southern parts of Europe awoke to the fact that America
needed strong muscles and willing arms.
In the '8o's the movement towards America set in strongly
from Austria, with its varied races, and from Italy, with its
industrious and facile workmen. It has been a steadily in-
creasing stream ever since, the numbers year by year mounting
higher and higher. To it have been added new races, those of
Turkey and the Balkans and of Asia Minor and Egypt. Fur-
ther Asia (the extreme Orient of China, Japan, Siam and
allied races) has contributed but little, owing to our exclusion
laws. Yet even the aggregate of their numbers throughout
the United States is large. Russia, the great consolidated em-
pire of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, has sent us her
immigrants, consisting mostly of non-Russian peoples, Jews,
Poles, Lithuanians, Finns and other subject peoples. Her
own race, the Russians of Slavic blood, she encourages to
emigrate to Siberia, which she is settling with a rapidity greater
than we displayed in our Western States.
Thus, the older class of immigration has gradually passed
away. The peoples from the east and south of Europe and
from Asia and Africa bordering on the Mediterranean, consti-
86 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
tute the majority of our immigrants. Owing to improved con-
ditions at home, in Germany and Ireland, as well as the Scan-
dinavian countries, immigrations from those localities have
practically ceased, when viewed alongside the figures of immi-
gration from other places. For example, the immigration into
the United States for the preceding year was about 1,014,500,
while only 86,130 English, 81,714 Germans, 50,488 Irish, 56,910
Scandinavians, and 33,105 Scotch, making a total of 303,350
in all, came in. Thus, less than one-third of the total immi-
gration is composed of the races constituting the earlier im-
migration. This, in the opinion of those who have carefully
studied the subject, is not likely to change ; except that the pro-
portion of the older form of immigration may sink to one-
fourth of the total, or perhaps lower.
This immigration of races with whom we, considered as a
people at large, are not acquainted, whose language, history
and customs we know but in the slightest, is the problem which
we have to face earnestly and seriously. Often one talks of
the "ignorant" immigrant and despises him accordingly ; but
it is really we who are ignorant, for we do not know them and
in most cases do not care to do so. As to mere illiteracy, less
than 20 per cent (183,000) do not know how to read and
write, out of those landed within the past year. But business
men and oftentimes statisticians have come to look upon the
immigrant as the barometer of prosperity or panic. As soon
as the immigrants depart from America in great numbers, re-
turning to their native land, depression in business, failures,
strikes, etc., are foretold. Surely if the immigrant knows so
keenly the conditions of labor and trade, he cannot be called
ignorant, at least not in the contemptuous sense of the word.
But the point which interests us much is the fact that a
very large amount of this immigration is Catholic, perhaps the
majority of it. The statistics kept by the United States Immi-
gration Bureau do not show the faith professed by newcomers,
although the questions asked are so searching as to show age,
sex, literacy, amount of money, friends and relatives, trade
and occupation, disease and the like.
The ascertainment of a few additional facts relative to their
professed faith would not impose any hardships upon the im-
migration officials, and might provide useful statistics. Never-
theless, we know, although not accurately, that a very large
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 87
proportion of this immigration is Catholic. In the past, dur-
ing the time when the bulk of the immigration was Irish or
German, it was said that no helping hand, or at least no ade-
quate helping hand, was held out to them in the way of retain-
ing them in their ancestral faith, and so, great leakages oc-
curred, whereby many souls were lost to the Catholicity of
America. Perhaps a sufficient answer to the complaint of
leakage may be in the fact that in those earlier days there was
a fierce, determined hostility — both among the high and the
lowly — to Catholicism, and that, at the same time, the Church
was desperately poor, with meagre resources to provide for
the great tide of newcomers. The conditions are changed to-
day. Great as has been the mission field about us in these
United States, we have progressed so far that we have built
splendid churches, schools, hospitals and charitable institu-
tions, and have provided the material equipment for Christian
training throughout the entire country. At the same time the
fierce hostility of old towards the Catholic Church has abated.
The field of endeavor in regard to the immigrant is greater
than ever before, and more urgent in many senses than in the
earlier immigration to these shores. We ought to make the
most of our opportunity and avoid any omission of our duty
towards the immigrant, and above all toward the immigrant
of Catholic faith.
II. — The Present Immigration
THERE are now pouring into the United States every
year over one million of immigrants, of whom up-
wards of 600,000 are from the east and south of Eu-
rope and from Asia and Africa bordering on the Mediter-
ranean. These may be roughly classified as follows by race
or nationality (leaving out some 90,000 Jewish immigrants) :
Armenians 4,000
Bohemians 10,000
Bulgarians and Servians 16,000
Croatians, Slavonians and Dalmatians 40,000
Greeks 40,000
Italians (from north) 50,000
Italians (from south) 180,000
Lithuanians 20,000
Magyars (Hungarians) 25,000
Poles 120,000
88 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Portuguese 8,000
Rumanians 12,000
Russians 6,000
Ruthenians (Little Russians) 20,000
Slovaks 30.000
Spanish 8,000
Syrians 7,000
Of these, it can be seen that the Latin and Slav races pre-
dominate. The Latin races amount to 258,000: being 230,000
Italians, 12,000 Rumanians and 16,000 Spanish and Portu-
guese. To them may be added 20,000 French from
the countries of Western Europe. The Slavic races fol-
low as a close second, amounting to 242,000: being 120,000
Poles, 40,000 Croatians and Slavonians, 30,000 Slovaks,
20,000 Ruthenians, 16,000 Bulgarians and Servians, 10,000
Bohemians and 6,000 Russians. The non-Latin, non-Slavic
races of Eastern Europe and adjacent Asia amount to 96,000
more ; being 40,000 Greeks, 25,000 Hungarians, 25,000 Lithu-
anians, 7,000 Syrians and 4,000 Armenians. All this repre-
sents the yearly flood now pouring in on us of the various
Christian nationalities from the parts of Europe little known
to us, except Italy.
When we inspect this table of nationalities and races still
further, we shall find that the various peoples represented in it
have little or no affiliation with Protestantism, or any of the
dominant Protestant sects in the United States. They are
nearly all of them of the Catholic faith or of the elder schis-
matic churches, which have kept the Catholic faith almost in-
tact. A bare handful of the Armenians are Protestants ; the
great majority are of the Gregorian Armenian or schismatic
church, while quite a considerable minority are Catholics of
the Armenian Rite. The Bohemians are very largely Catholic ;
a minority are Free-Thinkers and some Protestants. The Bul-
garians and Servians are almost wholly of the Greek Ortho-
dox Church. The Croatians, Slavonians and Dalmatians are
almost wholly Catholic. The Greeks are nearly all of the
Greek orthodox faith. The Italians of the north of Italy are
all Catholics, except such few as are socialists or anarchists.
The Italians of the south of Italy are Catholics, with the excep-
tion of the socialists or anarchists, and a small minority are
Catholics of the Greek Rite. The Lithuanians are principally
Catholics, a very small minority being Free-Thinkers, with
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 89
occasional Protestants. The Hungarians (Magyars) are over
three-fifths Catholic; the minority being Protestant and Free-
Thinkers. The Poles are almost wholly Catholic. The Por-
tuguese who come here, and who settle chiefly in New Eng-
land and California, are largely Catholic, the immigration
caused now by the efifort to escape the disadvantages of the so-
called Portuguese republic. The Rumanians are three-fifths
Greek Orthodox and two-fifths Catholics of the Greek Rite.
The Russians are about one-half Greek Orthodox and one-half
free-thinking and anarchistic. The Ruthenians or Little Rus-
sians are nearly all Catholics of the Greek Rite. The Slovaks
are about three-fourths Catholics, the majority being of the Ro-
man Rite and remainder of the Greek Rite, while one-fourth
are Protestant. The Spanish, who are widely scattered, are all
Catholic, except the few socialistic groups. The Syrians are
about equally divided : one-half being Catholics of the Greek,
Maronite and Syrian Rites, and the other half being Greek
Orthodox. Thus, it will be seen that the larger part of this
particular immigration is Catholic, and it behooves us as Cath-
olics to do our part in looking after it.
When we examine how the immigrants have acquitted them-
selves in America, we shall find that the later ones have suc-
ceeded quite as well as the earlier nationalities which preceded \
them. They have established churches, schools, business
houses and newspapers, and have given every evidence of
ability and progress. When we consider that for the most part
they come from countries which have but little (except the
Christian religion) in common with us, that they are ignorant
of our language, laws, history and customs, and that their
own languages furnish but little in the way of grammar, root- ,
words and starting-points, in which to acquire ours, we may i
well be astonished at the progress they have made in the years \
they have been here. Recently in an address which I delivered
in New York City, upon "The Peoples of New York," I omit-
ted all mention of the English-speaking, German-speaking and •
French-speaking peoples dwelling in that great metropolis, yet
I found occasion to mention some twenty other nationalities
and races there, and commented favorably upon their progress
and development. In the course of my lecture I produced and
exhibited to the audience some 93 newspapers printed in vari-
ous foreign languages and published either daily or weekly
90 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
fwithin the City of New York. To publish and send through
Ithe mails, or sell upon the news-stands so many journals, im-
plies thousands of readers, and I am informed that their vari-
ous circulations range from i,ooo to 25,000 copies each. These
j journals keep the immigrant who has not yet acquired a com-
' mand of English acquainted with the chief current events of the
day, often clipped from our own "yellow" journals, the news
! of his home country, and the chances of work, business and
occupation, and the usual chronicles of birth, marriage and
death, and of the national or mutual benefit societies with
'which he may be connected.
1/^ The unfortunate thing regarding the immigrant is the fact
J\Qi congestion in the great cities. It is a natural outcome of
the human desire for society, and the forlorn immigrant is apt
^o seek out and remain with those who come from his native
/ Wllage or district, especially if they be his relatives by blood or
marriage. Then, again, in the older and more eastern coun-
tries of Europe there is a settled lack of individual initiative :
"things are done rather en masse, by concerted action. This
,lias resulted in the formation of societies, and every newly
arrived immigrant feels at once that he must belong to one.
Sometimes these work for good, as when they provide for
work, sick benefits or savings in one shape or another. But
in the majority of cases they work for evil, by localizing the
limmigrant, making him subject entirely to the societies' offi-
cers, and keeping him from becoming acquainted with the lan-
guage, laws and customs of the land to which he has come.
This is an important factor making for the congestion of the
cities and sometimes has the baleful effect of permitting the
old world governmental authorities to keep control of the
immigrant even while in America. It even enables the old
world secret societies, under the ban of their own governments,
to retain a hold and sometimes exercise terrorism over the
immigrant unacquainted with our usages.
The evil of congestion may be considered also in the light
of the occupation of the people whom it afifects. Take for
example the Italians, who are said to number nearly 600,000
in New York City, thus making it the third Italian city in
the world. They are for the most part country people, accus-
tomed to agricultural work in the open, such as the orchard,
the vineyard and the sheepfold. They are diverted from
^
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 91
the occupation which they know and have practiced from ^
childhood and set at tasks which ruin their health and
physique; and while herding together in cheap tenements
amid the temptations of the streets, the saloon and moving 1
picture shows, they lose their habits of sobriety and thrift, to
say nothing of the ruin of their morals and health. Were 1
they placed in an agricultural environment they could give
better account of themselves and sooner become active, pros- >
pering American citizens, retaining their faith, their healthj
and their morals.
The attitude of the immigrant to the Church as an institu-
tion, even where they are Catholics, is most evident. The
growth of the Church in the United States has been marvel-
lous through the faithful support of the Irish immigrant or
American-born, while the German Catholic has been a noble
rival. Aside from the providence and grace of God, the
human element may be seen in the fact that for the past few
centuries the Irishman in his own green isle has had to fight
for the very existence of his faith in every material form.
The fight for the welfare of the Church has become ingrained '
as it were. The same is true of the German in the face of
a hostile and aggressive Protestant majority in his fatherland
and successive hostile enactments against the Church by a
dominant majority. It has created a will to assist in the ma-
terial and spiritual progress of the Church, because the gov-
erning powers have been for the most part indifferent or
hostile.
On the other hand, where the Church was established by
law, and politicians, particularly of an ecclesiastical turn of
mind, seized the best things from a worldly point of view,
and administered churches more from a political than a spirit-
ual outlook, the interests of the common layman waned. When
ifi addition to this he contributed to church revenues through
the medium of taxes and imposts, and not through the medium
of direct charity and interest in the Church itself, he rather
looked upon the Church as one of the wheels of government.
That has produced its effect even in America. The Italian,
for instance — and there are other nationalities — has looked'
upon the Church as something the State provided for him.
much as it provided streets, roads, public Jjuildings and the
like, and he continues in this frame of mind even when he 1
92 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
/comes to America where there is no State Church. In fact,
some assumed that they had left the Church, as an institution,
behind them in Italy, and some whom I have known were
much astonished to know that we had any laws here whatever
in regard to religious worship and decorum or church owner-
ship. Consequently they have not made an advance in church
life commensurate with their numbers. On the other hand,
nationalities such as the Slovaks or the Ruthenians, who have
for nearly two centuries struggled to maintain their language,
'nationality and oftentimes their Church, are fired through and
i through with the idea of making their church the nucleus of
Vheir settlement and progress here in America. This has
made them as eager as the Irish to build and maintain their
churches against all odds, and they have willingly and cheer-
fully given of their substances to do so. It is needless to
say that these immigrants are eager for and readily respond
to the influence which the Church seeks to bring to bear upon
them. In their desire to erect and maintain their churches
they regard them too often as their individual property and
are not amenable to ecclesiastical supervision, and too often
break out into factious disturbance and difference; but all
this may be paralleled in the history of the Irish Catholics in
the United States between 1815 and 1850. A distinguished
.ecclesiastic in New York City once assured me that until the
immigrant learned enough English and became actively inter-
) ested in American politics, it was no matter of surprise that
he made a great deal of trouble and dissension in the parochial
politics of his particular local church. It was the only thing
he could take a vital, exuberant interest in, and he oftentimes
overdid the matter. But it was a sign of life, nevertheless, and
worth many times the conduct of mere indifference.
Another thing from which the immigrants suffer in America
is the firm grasp which their home governments try to hold
over them. Emigration to America is not so much a matter of
,-4nere volition, of desire originating in the breast of the immi-
■ grant, as it used to be. It is now a matter of commercialism
,v^ >, - to a very large extent. Steamship companies and ticket agents
V§' 'go through Europe stimulating emigration to America by
^ every device they can invent, whether by advertisement, can-
vassing, moving pictures or other means, to set forth the
advantages of America. Enterprising labor agents, notwith-
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 93
standing the provisions of the contract labor law, take a hand
in it also. But beyond and above this the central governments
of European countries, notably Hungary, enter into agree-
ments with steamship lines for the exclusive shipment of
their emigrants to the United States. Much of this is done
under cover of caring for the welfare and good treatment of
the emigrant whilst crossing the Atlantic. It is needless to
say that such contractual relations do not make for the sending
of the best class of emigrants.
The immigrant having arrived in America, the solicitude of
the home government does not cease. That government ap-
points priests, clergymen of other denominations, attaches
of consular offices and of bankers and exchange offices to keep
a general supervision of the immigrant while in America and^
to induce him in the end to return to his fatherland. This |
parental supervision often takes the form of preventing him',
in a thousand indirect ways from becoming a citizen of the
United States. At all times it exercises the pressure of |
national feeling, national custom, national song and language
to keep him as alien as possible to the country in which he
finds himself. He is to regard himself as a bird of passage
as far as possible. Where the call and prompting of religion
can produce efifect, it is used as an instrument to produce the
same result. In the case of a Russian mission here, the
inmates are always taught the words Amerikamkaya Rus
(American Russian-land) and to use the words "our Lord,
the Czar," thus directing them towards that empire as their ^
over-lord. This indicates the agencies from without which)
take oversight of the immigrant and which do not work for/
his good either in citizenship, morals or religion. -
The worst form of espionage of the newly arrived immi-
grant is the sharper of his own nationality. He may be the
so-called banker or ticket agent (who is happily being weeded
out by severer laws), or the boarding-house keeper or labor
broker who is to procure him a job, and the darker form of
employment agency which makes it a business to prey upon
women newly arrived. They speak the language, they are
often of immediate practical service, and use every device to
ingratiate themselves into the good graces of the arriving
immigrant. Only the application of the law in full severity
can have a deterrent effect upon their activities. They have
94 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
their agents oftentimes upon the other side, and develop a
surprising knowledge of the immigrant, the locality and family
when he or she meets one of them. This is a field in which
the Church from the practical side might be of the greatest
service by preventing the spoliation of the immigrant.
III. — The Church and the Immigrant
The immigrant upon arriving in America needs not only
care at the time of his arrival, but he needs it for long after-
wards. While I use the word "he" as a generic term, the femi-
nine immigrant needs care a hundredfold more than the man,
but the one word shall stand for both sexes.
The homes for receiving immigrants have been touched upon
as practical institutions by other speakers, and consequently
I shall devote but a small amount of space to them. But the
immigrant needs a place of reception here in this land, so
strange to him, which shall in some measure respond to his
national and racial ideas. Imagine the cheerful reception
which an Irish immigrant would experience in a home run
entirely by well-meaning English Catholics, whose every man-
nerism and idea was different from those of the Celt. In the
same way the Ruthenian in a Polish receiving home, feels
himself alien and out of place. The common basis of a mutual
Catholicity cannot altogether bridge the chasm, although it
helps wonderfully. Therefore for those who take part in
I the first reception and care of the newly arrived immigrant,
there should be a knowledge of the language, locality, history
and customs of the immigrant. They should be able to
sympathize with him from the standpoint of his home feel-
ing, and to explain America to him from that viewpoint.
Above all, they should understand his religious feelings, as
' developed by the local mannerisms and devotions of his native
land. In this way the immigrant will feel that a real interest
is being taken in him from the very start.
But it must not be forgotten that the primary purpose for
which the immigrant comes is to obtain work. I maintain that
it is here that the church organizations can do the utmost
good in putting the immigrant in touch with the persons,
localities and opportunities offering work. One Ruthenian
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 95
pastor in New York makes a specialty of obtaining work for
his congregation, and boasts that a certain office building
employs as scrub-women, window cleaners, furnace men, all
sent by him. In one street in New York I counted sixteen,
labor bureaus or labor agencies within two avenue blocks,
mostly run by sharp-eyed, anaemic-looking Hebrews. Now,
if as many as these can be conducted for profit by private
persons, certainly some church charity could run it, too. It
might even be made self-supporting. One of the principal
things I saw offered in the signs was house-servants, and one
knows the scarcity of them.
Another thing is to help the immigrant to get and keep
the opportunity of earning a living. That is almost a correla-
tive of the congestion in the large cities. A young woman who
is very much interested in church and charity work writes me
of the need of a day nursery in a crowded Italian quarter in
New York. There is one nearby run by a talented woman
who is unrelenting in her endeavors to wean the Italians from
their Catholic faith. The Italian mothers frankly say to this
young woman that they are obliged to place their young '
children in the non-Catholic institution by the day if they are
to earn their livelihood. The children, and eventually the
mother and family, grow to appreciate the ones who care ,
for them. A similar Catholic institution would prevent all '
this. And this may be duplicated in any of our large cities, i
It could be avoided in large measure if willing Catholic hearts I
and hands would provide the like in quarters where they are I
needed. The loss to the faith through the lack of such oppor- f
tunities is simply incalculable. When we add to this clubs or
rooms where young women may meet and have innocent
amusement, we see another means of invading the Catholic
faith of the immigrant. They are taught moral lessons,
inculcated from the non-Catholic point of view, invited to
prayers, addressed and assisted in every way by those hostile
— whether consciously or not — to the teachings of the Catholic
faith. Something like this must be provided on our part \
for the children of the immigrant if the tide in that direction 1
is to be stemmed. We must remember that Catholic mission-
ary work can be done most effectually sometimes in an indirect
manner and that the Church must supplement its direct wor-
ship and teachings by an appeal to the other qualfties of men
96 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and women. Above all, this indirect method greatly helps to
guard the growing youth from running into evil ways and
from abandoning or becoming indifferent to the ancient faith
or of losing his heritage of Catholicity.
It behooves us to be on our guard against the traps which
are deliberately laid to ensnare the immigrant and deceive him
in regard to his faith and worship. The establishment of the
charitable nurseries and settlement houses which are frankly
non-Catholic may be ascribed to motives of mistaken charity
I and not to proselyting principles, but nothing of the kind
can excuse the pseudo-CathoHc missions and chapels which
are now being established to attract the immigrant of Catholic
faith, or of faiths allied to CathoHcism. Only bad faith and
a species of malice can explain such things.
In a large Protestant Episcopal chapel of Trinity Church
on the East side in New York City there is a sign which
reads in Italian : "Ogni Domenica LA MESSA alle 9 ore,"
that is, "Every Sunday MASS at nine o'clock." And in this
chapel at nine o'clock on Sunday morning a Latin Mass is
said in the usual Roman vestments. More than that, it is
said by a former priest who has connected himself with this
mission. Now this is a church which repudiated the Mass
and the Latin language some three hundred years ago, al-
though the extreme high churchmen are trying to revive it.
But it was never thought that they would use it as a bait to
attract raw Italian immigrants to the Protestant Episcopal
Church. Lest this be regarded as an isolated individual case,
attention is called to the fact that the late General Convention
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in session at New York
City "empowered the Missionary Board of that church to
bring to this country Syrian, Greek and Russian priests to
minister to congregations in need of them in American
churches, and communicants of the Roman faith lacking a
church are invited to take part in this hospitality, and in
case a priest of the foreign church is not available, priests of
the Protestant Episcopal Church are authorized to hold serv-
ices as nearly as possible according to the foreign rites." It
may be hospitality on the part of the Protestant Episcopal
Church, but how about the deceived foreign immigrant?
Other churches, not given to liturgy and ritual like the Epis-
copal Church, have gone as far as it in their endeavor to
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 97
reach out for the immigrant. Two years ago, in "America,"
I described the singular performances of the Presbyterian
Board of Home Missions, which I discovered by chance. In
Newark, New Jersey, and upon the East Side in New York
City, it was engaged in running a complete imitation of a
Catholic chapel of the Greek Rite. Probably they thought
that, as the Mass-books and language were in the ancient
Slavonic, they would not be easily detected. Catholics of
the Roman Rite are not familiar with either the language
or the ceremonies of Catholics of the Greek Rite. An exami-
nation of the Mass-books upon the altar showed that they
were the official editions of the Diocese of Lemberg, while
the altar itself could not be distinguished from any other
Greek Catholic altar, since it had candles, crucifix and gospels
as prescribed. The officiating celebrant had a set of gorgeous
Greek vestments, bought as I afterwards ascertained from
a Catholic importing house on Barclay Street, New York.
He made the sign of the cross at the usual times in the
pseudo-mass and gave the crucifix and the gospels to the
people to kiss, as is usual in the Greek Rite. The prayers to
the Blessed Virgin were intoned and recited in regular form
and the choir sang the antiphon "Through the prayers of the
Mother of God, O Saviour, save us!" At the consecration
the people knelt in worship, making repeated signs of the
cross in the Greek manner. No one except a liturgical ex-
pert, versed in the Greek Rite, could have told it from
the Mass celebrated in the Greek Catholic Church. Yet not
only did the Presbyterians support both of these missions —
and I am told a third one in Pittsburg — but they actually
advanced $20,000 to build a church for these Ruthenians in
Newark, where these pseudo-rites might be celebrated. The
celebrant at the New York chapel was a Ruthenian graduate
of the Bloomfield Seminary who had received only Presby-
terian ordination. Yet they were calmly telling the Ruthenian
immigrant that the Latin Church was not providing his rite
and they were supplying the defect, hoping to make him
non-Catholic eventually, but indulging him in his religious,
peculiarities for a time at least. The matter was fully de-'
scribed in "America" at the time, and I am glad to say that
several fair-minded Presbyterians took the matter up, and
through their religious papers severely criticised the parties
98 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
concerned. They have now modified the form of worship to
the extent that the celebrant wears a black Geneva gown in-
stead of the elaborate Greek vestments.
The Baptist Church has also taken a hand in trying to
capture the immigrant. On Washington Square, south, in
New York City, they have near the Italian quarter a huge
phurch — the Judson Memorial Church — with a blazing electric
jcross, and services inside modelled in some fashion after
Catholic ones. In Tompkins Square, New York, and in Penn-
,sylvania and Canada they have the strange anomaly, the 'Tnde-
ipendent Greek Baptist Church" with a liturgy and services bor-
rowed word for word from the Greek Catholic missal. The
Archbishop of Lemberg visiting among the Ruthenians in Can-
ada writes : "Among others, there is a Protestant catechism
published in Ruthenian to ensnare people. For example, it
admits the seven sacraments, the doctrine of the Holy Trinity,
the name of the Catholic Church and masks the heresies under
incomprehensible names. They have adopted the whole
Ruthenian Rite, even with those forms most repugnant to
Protestants, censers, holy water and the like." I have been
unable to visit other large cities and find out just what
chapels, services and the like are made to attract the immi-
grant under the guise of an imitation of Catholic services, but
I am told that they occur in every locality.
Another somewhat subtler method of attracting the im-
migrant is practiced. The average immigrant from Eastern
and Southern Europe is usually highly gifted in music. Con-
sequently he loves his national songs, his peculiar music, and
everything musical, expressive of his nationality. In Poland
they have a lay vespers in the Polish language, and I have of-
ten heard the Psalms chanted in the cathedral by an enthusi-
astic congregation. In the Greek Ruthenian Catholic churches,
the congregation often sings the entire liturgical parts of the
Mass through by heart, changing with necessary antiphons and
troparia for the day. In the Italian Greek Catholic chapel in
New York I have heard the choir of girls and young boys,
whose native tongue is Italian and acquired tongue English,
sing the entire antiphons, troparia, responses and liturgy of the
Mass through in ancient Greek. None of our congregations
ever use the Latin of the Roman Mass in such a facile man-
ner. The immigrant, therefore, loves music, particularly the
IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES 99
music of his Church and his country. Lately the Young Men's
Christian Association throughout the country has undertaken
to develop this musical ability of the immigrant and has
frequently held "concerts of all nations," and sought in every
way to get the immigrant or his children actively interested
in their association. Settlement houses have taken up the
same idea and have sought out the musical talent of the
immigrant. But I have yet to learn of the matter being
taken up seriously in the Catholic missionary or charitable
work. Here is a field which we may work with excellent
results.
Where the immigrant from Eastern Europe is a Catholic
of an Oriental Rite care should be taken to approach him
from that point of view. Although they are Catholics, they
have a dread of being "latinized" or being made adherents of
the Roman Rite. It amounts almost to an obsession, but
racial warfare and history cannot be lightly expunged from
their minds. Besides, the Holy See has sternly forbidden
time and time again any meddling with the question of their
rite. Nevertheless, our American Catholics do not always
understand this, and treat the immigrant as though he were
not a Catholic or at best only a pretended Catholic after all,
simply because he does not understand or care for the Roman
Rite, and cannot understand the Latin language. Conse-
quently, misunderstandings are apt to occur, and harm is done.
It would be well, now that this immigration has assumed suchi
proportions, that seminary students in our various diocesan
seminaries should be taught the elements, or at least th^
obvious points, of the Greek or other Oriental Rites, so that
they might themselves comprehend and be able to explaii-^
to other American Catholics the peculiarities of those rites.i
Thereby the immigrant would have a less hostile feeling even ;
where he is Catholic, and our countrymen be more effective in j
good towards the newcomer in this land.
The entire matter of the relation of the Church, Church
authorities and workers towards the immigrant is one of
vast proportions, and I have but briefly touched upon them.
The Church can not only afford him the spiritual oversight
and care which it is ever eager and willing to do, but can
also afford in a great measure oversight of his immediate
temporal and physical needs. If any serious effort is to be
100 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
made to better his situation and to prevent future losses and
leakages to the Qiurch, his welfare from every standpoint
will have to be considered. We have done excellently in the
past, but in the future we must surpass all that has hitherto
been accomplished. Otherwise a succeeding generation may
have just cause to complain of us.
THE POLES IN THE UNITED STATES
ATTENTION has been directed of late to the Poles,
the predominating Slavic race in the United States,
by the recent celebration of the memory of two Polish
heroes of the American Revolution, Kosciusko and Pulaski,
and by the latest commemoration of the battle of Griinwald,
near Tannenberg, in East Prussia, which, five hundred years
ago, shaped the destiny of the Polish people and made them
a great nation. The first was a celebration of their union
in heart and soul with America in the memories of our po-
litical birth and development at a time when the star of
Poland was setting; the other a glorious retrospect of five
centuries that meant the unity and development of their own
people. The glory of their ancient land and people has been
dimmed by conquest and the parcelling of their territory
among alien rulers, but their life, language and faith have
withstood the shock, and have made the Poles still a factor in
the world's culture and civilization. Their later history may
be called that of Slavic Ireland, while many of the dates and
disasters of both are curiously coincident.
The Poles are mingled with our earliest history. How
they came to the United States in those early days is a
mystery. It is even said that a Pole discovered America
before Columbus. John of Kolno (a town in Russian Po-
land) commanded a Danish vessel which is said to have
reached the coast of Labrador in 1476. Albert Zoborowsky
(Zabriskie) settled near Hackensack in New Jersey in 1662,
and his name is found as interpreter on an Indian contract for
the sale of land dated 1679. All the New Jersey and New
York Zabriskies are said to be descended from his family. In
1659 the Dutch on Manhattan Island hired a Polish school-
master. In 1770 Jacob Sodowsky settled in New York and
his sons were frontiersmen in the early settlement of Ken-
tucky. One tradition says that the city of Sandusky was
lOI
I02 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
named after them. Our Revolution brought from Poland
Kosciusko, the hero of two lands ; Pulaski, who died at
Savannah, and Niemcewicz, the Polish biographer of Wash-
ington. After the partition of Poland, and in the early part
of last century, occasional Polish emigrants arrived. The
Polish insurrection of 183 1 sent us a considerable and more
abiding contingent, many of whom settled in Texas.
Their success may have induced others to come, for in 1855
a large body of them, headed by the Rev. Leopold Moczy-
gemba, a Polish Franciscan, settled in Texas, where their
first colony was named Panna Marya (Our Lady Mary) and
where the first Polish church in America was built. The
Panna Marya settlement was quickly followed by other
Polish colonies in Texas, five of which founded churches the
next year and eleven others in the course of the next two
decades. The next settlement was at Parisville, Michigan,
in 1857.
The Poles also settled early in Wisconsin. The earliest
settlement was Polonia, in Portage County, in 1858, where
they also established a church. The church (dedicated to
the Sacred Heart) is there yet, now a structure towering over
the country-side, built at a cost of $70,000. There is a
magnificent school beside it, and the entire community, who
are almost all Poles from Russia, is said to be prosperous.
Other Polish colonies took root in Wisconsin, which now has
over 250,000 Poles, foreign-born and native. In 1866 they
settled in Missouri; in 1869 in Chicago, Illinois, and in 1870
in Pennsylvania. Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, New York, Min-
nesota, follow in order of Polish settlement. In the twenty-
six years from 1855 to 1880, there were eighty-five Polish
churches founded, for the Pole, like the Irishman, is usually
a practical Catholic and insists on having his Church and
Faith expressed visibly as soon as he can.
The great mass of Poles who came to this country after
1870 were the poorest of all our immigrants in the goods
of this world. The great mass of them went to the coal
and iron mines of Pennsylvania. Some one has said of their
coming: "At one time they came in batches, shipped by the
carload to the coal fields. When they arrived they seemed
perfectly aimless. It was hard for them to make themselves
understood, and sometimes they would go up into the brush
THE POLES IN THE UNITED STATES 103
and undergrowth, and build a fire and sleep, or if it was too
cold, just sit around there on the ground." But as they
worked in Pennsylvania they saved their money, went into
small businesses and became landed proprietors in a small
way. But in the eastern States the Pole found a way to
take up land and become independent in a much better way.
He became a farm laborer from the start, saved his earnings,
and when he had learned the American way of doing things
bought the land from his employer. In this way hundreds of
what used to be called "abandoned farms" in New England
have passed into Polish hands. And they are making great
inroads upon the eastern end of Long Island in the same
way. One of the men concerned in settling the Poles upon
New England farms says: "Agents at New York told the
incoming immigrants stories to make the Pole see the Con-
necticut valley farms as the promised land. Being new and
green to America the Pole at first paid the highest price and
was given the small end of the bargain. But they succeeded.
They make good citizens. Almost without exception they
are Roman Catholics and are faithful to their obligations.
They are willing to pay the price to succeed." Another wit-
ness, a New England college professor, says: "The Polish
farmer uses as up-to-date implements as the American does.
The crops of the Poles compare very favorably with those
raised by Americans. In one particular (that of upland farm-
ing) the Pole has taught the Americans a lesson." The
Connecticut valley and western Rhode Island bid fair to
become New Poland in the course of time. Meanwhile in
Pennsylvania, Illinois, New York, Wisconsin and Michigan
the Poles prospered and increased in ever-mounting numbers.
The story of their struggles and successes is no mean one.
Father Waclaw X. Kruszka, in his "Historya Polka w
Ameryce, Poczatek, Wrost i Rozwoj Osad Polskich w Stanch
Zjednoczonych" (Polish History in America; Origin, Growth
and Distribution of Polish Settlements in the United States)
— thirteen slender volumes — gives facts, statistics, anecdotes
and historical gleanings of every kind in regard to his coun-
trymen here, and makes a fascinating record of their work and
triumph down to the present day. He estimated the total
Polish immigration at about 2,000,000 and the total number
of Poles in the United States in 1907 (including the Amer-
I04 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ican-born children) at over 3,000,000. The "Prasa Polska"
(Polish Press) of Milwaukee, at the close of the year 1908,
reckoned the Polish population of the United States, including
foreign and American-born, at nearly 4,000,000, and investi-
gation has seemed to justify these figures. The latest results
show the wonderful growth and increase of the sturdy Polish
race in this land of freedom.
Pennsylvania leads off as the greatest Polish State, having
525,000 Poles within her borders. New York State follows
close with 502,000, of whom nearly 250,000 are to be found
within the limits of Greater New York, and 80,000 in Bufifalo.
Illinois comes next with 450,000, and then Massachusetts with
305,000. Wisconsin and Michigan have each 250,000, while
New Jersey has nearly 200,000. They are scattered through-
out the length and breadth of the United States, no State
being without them; even Alaska is said to have 150 of them.
Nor have they forgotten to bring their national names along
with them, as witness the various villages (some of them
growing into towns) of Pulaski, Sobreski, Krakow, Gniezno,
Radom, Opole, Wilno, Tarnow and Chojnice, here in the
United States.
The Poles, like the Irish, have been so situated historically
that their poHtical and religious antagonisms coincide, intensi-
fying both. The schismatic Russian tyrant, the Protestant
Swedish invader and the later Prussian oppressor have all
tended to make devotion to Church and country one mingled
and indistinguishable sentiment. They found the Catholic
Church here also, but to them it was in charge of an alien
race speaking an alien tongue. It therefore became their
natural desire to have churches and priests of their own
language and national and historic aspirations. Elsewhere
the founding of the first churches has been mentioned. But
they have kept the good work up even to the present day.
Up to last year they had 517 churches and 546 Polish priests
in the United States. And there is room for many more, for
they have some 810 colonies or settlements scattered at various
points throughout the United States. Their clergy have risen
to many of the higher dignities in the Church and a Pole is
now the Assistant Bishop of Chicago. There is no need
to speak about the Polish parochial schools ; they are attached
as soon as possible to every Polish church, and the pages of
THE POLES IN THE UNITED STATES 105
the "Catholic Directory" give them at length. Nor are they
deficient in higher institutions of learning. I need only men-
tion St. Stanislaus College in Chicago, the Seminary of Sts.
Cyril and Methodius in Detroit, and the high schools of Mil-
waukee, Chicago and Shamokin. There are also advanced
schools which will grow into greater institutions of learning
as time goes on. All these educational institutions are bi-
lingual and the students are taught to be Americans while
not forgetting that they are of Polish blood and must know
the language and history of the land of their ancestors.
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS
A Sketch of Their Rite in Italian America
A LARGE portion of Southern Italy was settled by
the Greeks long before the Roman republic fell, and
by the time the Empire was established under the
Caesars, that portion of Italy was known as "Magna Graecia" —
greater Greece. At times in its history it rivalled the older
lands of Attica and the Peloponnesus. From Naples south-
ward the Greek tongue and Greek manners and customs pre-
vailed, while in Sicily the country and cities were wholly
Greek. It was in Southern Italy that the Romans had their
first close contact with Greek learning and civilization. The .
provinces of Italy proper, where the Greeks were the chief
inhabitants and the Greek language and culture prevailed,
were Apulia, Basilicata and Calabria, and the greater por-
tion of the present province of Naples.
The Romans in their conquest of the east and the west
loomed great as a world power, but their might and energy
had nowhere to be exerted more strongly in the Latinization
of neighboring peoples than in the southern confines of Italy
itself. The Empire, as vast and as strong as it was, never
succeeded fully. The Greek population of Italy lived side
by side with their Latin neighbors, yet never became thor-
oughly Latin. The Christian church did what the pagan world
could not do, and made these people one in religious thought,
but even that did not fully extinguish the Greek upon Italian
soil. Even to-day in Southern Italy the Greek still lingers
as a spoken language in some seaport towns and country
places, and the inhabitants have long been bi-lingual, keeping
their ancient tongue whilst acquiring a new one.
The Italian Greeks followed the fortunes of both old and
new Rome. When Christianity came on the scene of the
world's history, the Greek portion of Italy and Sicily re-
io6
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS 107
sponded eagerly to the call of the Master and became Chris-
tian. It was even easier than in Latin Italy because they
spoke the language of the New Testament and of the earliest
disciples, and could be reached by any appeal to Greek thought
and Greek ideas. St. Paul himself on his voyage to Rome
was at Syracuse in Sicily, at Reggio in Calabria, and at
Puzzoli near Naples.^
Being Greek in language and in blood, it was but natural
that the Greeks of Southern Italy should take their rites and
ceremonies from the Eastern Church in the language of the
New Testament and the earliest Fathers and Councils. When
Constantinople became the seat of government of the Roman
Empire after the recognition of Christianity under Constantine,
the Greek Rites of Southern Italy naturally aligned themselves
according to the rites of the Greek Church (St. Sophia) of
Constantinople. That noble rite was the final embodiment and
ultimate form of the rites of the Oriental Church using the
Greek language, as modelled by Saints Chrysostom, Basil and
Gregory, and its use was made well-nigh universal in the
whole Greek-speaking world, by the pre-eminence of Con-
stantinople, the New Rome, the capital city first of the whole
Roman Empire after Constantine, and then of the Eastern
Roman Empire. The Greek Rite in the East became like the
Roman Rite in the West ; it dominated and overcame the vari-
ant rites around it. Thus, from the early ages of Christianity
down to the time of the schism of the East and the West, the
Italian-Greeks of the south of Italy looked towards Con-
stantinople and its Oriental Rite.
Greek was their language and their form of Christian wor-
ship, while the Latin Rites and the Latin language were in a
measure strange to them. Nothing concerning the faith was
involved in this — they were Catholics and continued in the
unity of the faith with the Roman Church — but it involved the
external manifestation of that faith. They were, as I have
said, and I use the expression advisedly to-day, all Catholics;
for that word connotes at once universality and unity, and
one cannot conceive logically of a Catholic separated from
the centre of unity. At the same time, however, they were
Greek Catholics and not Roman Catholics, inasmuch as they
used the Greek and not the Roman Hturgy and worship. So
i Acts, xxviii, 12, 13.
io8 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
did eighteen of the Popes who sat in the chair of Peter at
Rome, one of whom wrote or compiled the Mass of the
Presanctified as it is used in the Greek Church to-day,
whether Catholic or schismatic. Therefore, in all my state-
ments I use the word Catholic as indicating the faith, and
Greek or Roman as indicating the rite.
When the division of the Roman Empire into the East and
the West under Valentine and Valens came, Southern Italy
was regarded as forming a part of the Eastern Empire. Dur-
ing the Prankish wars and the invasion of the Goths, Southern
Italy remained Greek. Nay, more; during Justinian's reign
and long after, the Greek Eastern part of the Empire made
inroads upon Latin Italy. Witness the Exarchate of Ravenna
and the holding of the Eastern coast of Italy. It was not
until Leo the Isaurian, Emperor of Constantinople and the
Eastern Empire, openly espoused the cause of the Iconoclasts
and forbade the use of images or pictures in the churches in
726, that the northern and central Italians rallied against the
Greeks upon Catholic lines. The southern part, however,
remained Greek and semi-independent.
When the break between Rome and Constantinople came in
the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western Churches,
the Greeks of Italy held firm to the faith professed by the
Roman See. Sicily at times was wavering, for some of its
bishops were Photians and some — perhaps the majority —
were Catholic. Indeed, the schism was in its beginning mainly
political, arising out of the fierce party strife around the
Imperial throne at Constantinople, but a theological basis and
a complete diflference of rite embodied it forever in the minds
of the people. In Italy, however, these bitternesses were
lacking. Italy indeed had passed through the devastating
campaigns of the Goth and the Vandal, the Lombard and the
Greek, and all the changes of the monarchies of the North,
but at its southern end the Greeks lived mainly in harmony
with their Latin neighbors, and so one chief incentive to
schism was lacking. Even in Sicily the schism rapidly died
out and at no time was it violently opposed to the Roman Rite
with which it had so long lived in unity and harmony.
During the early period of the schism of Constantinople,
when the break was at its bitterest, we can cite no better
example than St. Nilus and St. Bartholomew of Calabria, of
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS 109
whom we shall speak later more at length. Both were Greek
Italian saints, and earnest lovers of the Greek Rite. The first
founded in 1002 that noble Greek monastery, just outside
of Rome on the Alban hills, which now for nearly a thousand
years has kept up the praises of God in the Hellenic tongue
and Eastern Rite, and which Pope after Pope has praised and
bidden go its way, unchanging, as a witness of the union of
the East and the West. And St. Bartholomew, the pupil of
St. Nilus, labored equally hard to make that monastery the
exponent of Greek monastic thought and art, which at last it
became. Yet in the days of St. Nilus, a Calabrian Greek
bishop, by the name of Philagathus, had managed to secure
some votes as Pope, declared himself elected and assumed the
name of John XVI, Pope of Rome. One would have supposed
that with the Photian controversy not yet died away, that he
would have supported the Greek prelate in his assumption of
the Pontifical Throne, but instead of that he espoused the
cause of the Latin Gregory V, the Pope legitimately elected,
though perhaps by an exceedingly slender majority. It was
the espousal of Gregory's cause and the honor paid the Roman
See which afterwards led to St. Nilus going to Rome and
there founding the celebrated monastery, as related in his life
by Saint Bartholomew.
Although the Italian Greeks held both to their faith and
their rite, as it was before the schism of 860, being Greeks
continuously and uninterruptedly in communion with Rome,
nevertheless, the mere fact that they ceased to be in harmony
with their Eastern brethren caused them to dwindle. And,
after the schism, there grew up among the Italians of the
Roman Rite the idea that the Greek language and the Greek
ritual was in some way identified with and indicative of schism.
It took two or three hundred years or more for this idea to
take firm hold, but, after the various attempts at reunion,
and finally after the Council of Florence, the failure of the
Greeks to adhere to the Union there proclaimed made the
Greek Rite and the schism almost identical in the uneducated
mind. These causes operated strongly to diminish the use of
the Greek Rite in Italy, and gradually the ItaHan Greeks, as
they lost their Greek mother-tongue, ceased to practise their
Greek ritual and assumed the Roman Rite instead. In this
manner they ceased to be Greeks and became Italians, so that
no ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the Roman Rite took a larger hold on them as they became
Latinized in tongue. Lack of close ties with Constantinople,
and the practical cessation of intercourse with it and the East
after the domination of the Turk was also gradually turning
them into Roman Catholics. The Greek Rite became more
and more confined to monasteries, religious houses and coun-
try towns. Whilst the Greek Rite, descended from people of
the original Greek stock of Italy, would never perhaps have
died out altogether in Southern Italy and Sicily, yet it was
destined to be reinforced in a singular way by the churches
of Greece and Constantinople, through a people who claim to
be older than the days of Homer and the twilight of the Greek
gods.
In Albania, the ancient Epirus of the Greeks, there lived a
race of mountaineers, some of whose descendants still dwell in
the land of their fathers. They spoke a language which is
said by philologists to be older than the Greek — in fact, the
ancient Epirate tongue — and they claimed to be the original
inhabitants of the Greek peninsula, driven gradually inland by
the colonizing force of Greek civilization. Certain it is they
were in the mountains of Albania, had their own language'
and customs long before the Greek came there. Early in the
days of Christianity these hardy mountain folk were converted
to Christianity and followed the Oriental rite. But they did
not use the Greek language, as the Greeks in Italy did, as their
vernacular. The liturgy was never translated into their
tongue, as it was for the Slavic races by Sts. Cyril and Me-
thodius. They always used the Greek language in the Mass
and church rites, in the same manner as the Germanic peoples
received the Latin, and as the Latin is used among the English-
speaking people to-day in the church — i.e., as a dead language.
It was during the early days of the Greek or Eastern Empire
of Constantinople that the name of Epirus was dropped and
the name Albania used. Although Greek in rite, the Albanians
were only nominally Greek in subjection to the Empire. Dur-
ing the decline of the Empire, they rose to distinction and at
1 The language itself is very strange. "Questa lingua albanese, che deve essere
Skyiperia is the Albanian name for una della piii antiche d'Europa, forse
Albania; the Albanian language is anche della piu antiche del mondo.
Skyiptar. It does not seem to resemble Questa sembra essere I'antica lingua
any other European language. "Po pelasga, da cui hanno preso tanto i
Skyiptari tak i hoi, isht si szogka jasht greci che i latini." Vannutelli, Le
folees." But Albanians in a strange Colonie Italo-Greche, p. 58.
land are like birds out of their nest.
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS in
last to independence. They maintained their independence
against the Bulgarian Slavs, against the Greek Empire of East-
ern Rome, and for a long time against the Turk. As they had
gained their independence against Constantinople before the
schism, or before it had made any progress among them, they,
while Greek in rite, remained steadfast to the unity of the
Church. Their independence of Constantinople accentuated
their steadfastness to the Holy See.^
The Turks and Saracens had threatened all Europe during
the Middle Ages. By 1400 they had occupied all the richest
and most flourishing provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire,
and were threatening Constantinople itself. They invaded Al-
bania and subjected it to their rule. They took away the son
of the hereditary prince, the little George Castriot, as a hos-
tage and kept him at the Ottoman Court, where he was brought
up under Mussulman surveillance as an officer in the Turkish
military service. There he received the name of Alexander
Bey (called by the Albanians Skanderbeg) and distinguished
himself under the Sultan Amurath II. In 1443, while on an
expedition against the Huns, he heard that his father had died
and that he was prince of Albania. About the same time John
Hunyadi defeated the Turkish army which Scanderbeg had
left. Scanderbeg then boldly proclaimed himself a Christian
prince and fought for the liberty of Albania. His countrymen
rallied around him and for twenty years a fierce but unsuc-
cessful war was waged for liberty and faith.
After the battle of Croia, in 1443, he sent to Pope Eugene IV
for a refuge in Christian lands, where his people might rest
secure from Turkish power, and the first emigration of the
Albanians began. Gradually the Turkish forces captured the
cities of Albania, utterly destroying them, and in 1448 a new
emigration of the Albanians under Demetrio Reres and his two
sons, George and Basil, took place. They and several thousand
of their countrymen helped the King of Naples to put down a
rebellion in his kingdom. For this King Alfonso of Naples
granted them lands in Calabria, where they settled in the vi-
cinity of the Greek religious houses and monasteries. As Scan-
derbeg was again and again defeated, larger emigrations of the
i"GH Albanesi venuti in Sicilia non 1736, p. 71- Amico, Lexicon Typo-
aderivanno alio scisma, ma professa- graphicum, vol. II, p. 86. Rodota,
vanno invece il rito greco unito, come Sforia del Rito Greco, vol. Ill, P- i?°-
affermano Giovanni di Giovanni, De Schiro, Gh Albanesi a Leone XIII,
Diinnis Siculorum OfKciis, Panormi, p. 9."
112 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Albanians took place, going into and settling in Sicily. By
the help of the Sicilians, the tide again turned in favor of Scan-
derbeg, and in 1450 Amurath II undertook to make peace with
him. At this time the third and greatest emigration of the
Albanians took place, and they settled chiefly at Palazzo Adri-
ano, Mezzojuso, Contessa, Piana dei Greci and Palermo in
Sicily. After the death of Scanderbeg, in 1467, and the taking
of Croia by the Turks, larger migrations of the Albanians fol-
lowed. These settled in Basilicata, Calabria, Sicily, and even
the Abruzzi. From 1460 to 1506 the Kings of Naples were
continually making land grants to the Albanians all over their
territories.^
Bringing the Greek rite and Greek language (as a learned
and ecclesiastical tongue) with them, they naturally accommo-
dated themselves to the Greek population they found around
them, and followed on Italian soil the beloved rite and faith
which they had so valorously defended against the Turks.
And they in Southern Italy and Sicily had good reason to
make common cause with them, for the yoke of the Saracen
had been lately removed from them. Pope after Pope con-
firmed their rights to their Greek forms and strange tongue,
and the civil powers enforced them. Leo X and Paul III par-
ticularly defended these strangers of the Greek rite.
Gradually, however, they became Italianized, and in the
course of three centuries bi-lingual. Even now the Albanian
language remains among them in remote country districts like
the Irish used to be in Ireland. I have had pointed out to me
in New York an old Italo-Albanese woman, of whom it was
said she spoke only Albanian and no Italian. But that is rare,
and the average Italo-Albanese or Italo-Greek is hard to dis-
tinguish except by his devotion to the Greek Catholic rite.
All these people in Southern Italy and Sicily are miserably
poor. In Calabria and Basilicata they have little or nothing to
live on. Their very poverty has contributed to the decline of
their Greek rite. They could not keep up their churches beau-
tifully, decently and in good order, nor could they spare their
sons for the priesthood. Every effort had to be made to strug-
gle for a bare livelihood, and the luxury of sending a sturdy,
^ Giustppe Ls. Mantia, I CapitoH delle II Rito Greco in Italia, Rome, 1758,
Colonic Greco-Albanesi, Palermo, 1904- 3 vols. Vincenzo Vannutelh, Sguardt
Francesco Tajani, U Istoria Albanesi, all' Oriente, XVI, Rome, 1890.
Salerno, 1886. Pietro Pompilio Rodoti,
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS 113
healthy boy to school and college, whence he might or might
not emerge a suitable candidate for the seminary, was put
aside in favor of the active duties of peasant life. It was the
struggling priest, and often the priest's own family, which re-
tained the Greek rite and furnished its candidates for the
priesthood amid such poverty. Thus it became easier and
more direct for the Greek peasant to turn to the Latin churches
around him for the Sacraments and worship, because of the
lack of his own.
The Italian Greek Catholics of to-day are therefore com-
posed of the descendants of the Greek inhabitants of Southern
Italy and the descendants of the Albanians who came to Italy
in 1443-1490. Many of their villages have changed to the
Roman rite, partly because of the influence of their Latin
neighbors around them, and, within the past thirty years, be-
cause of the abolition of the monasteries by the Italian govern-
ment since 1870. Of the eight Greek Catholic monasteries,
which were in Sicily and Southern Italy prior to 1870, not two
remain. They were the central points for keeping alive the
Greek rite, a task which the parish priest with the multitude
of his labors cannot so well do. The only Greek monastery
now left is that of Grotta Ferrata of the monks of Saint Basil
founded in 1002 by Saint Nilus. It has been declared a "Na-
tional Monument" by the Italian Government, and hence re-
mains undisturbed. There is an Oratorian monastery at Plana
dei Greci, in Sicily, which is a curious example of a Latin
order taken up by Greek priests in 1730, but only two priests
of the order are left. There are also the Greek College at
Rome, the College of San Adriano in Calabria and the Semi-
nario Greco of Palermo, for the education chiefly of candidates
for the priesthood according to the Greek rite. There is a
Greek convent for women, Santa Macrina, at Plana dei Greci.
The number of Greek Catholics in Italy is hard to ascertain
exactly. I have inquired of the Italian governmental authori-
ties in vain; and I cannot say that the church authorities of
either the Roman or the Greek Rite have returned much more
satisfactory answers to the questions addressed to them. But
from all my inquiries and a study of the latest Italian census
tables (the census of 1901) it seems that the Greek Catholics
in Italy (according to origin or descent) are about as follows :
Albanesi, 93,000; Greek descent, 31,200; Slavic descent, 30,-
114
ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ooo ; making a total of 154,200.^ On the other hand, the Greek
Orthodox in Italy are given as amounting to 3,472. All of
these make but a small number in a total population of thirty-
three million.
Cardinal Vincenzo Vannutelli, in his "Colonie Italo-Greche,"
says large numbers of the Greek Catholics have emigrated
from Calabria and Sicily to America, and tells of having found
whole Calabrian villages nearly deserted, save for a few old
people, the younger generation having all emigrated to Amer-
ica. The Italian figures of emigration seem to show the same
thing. For example, in 1903, there were 230,622 emigrants
from Italy to the United States. Of these the chief provincial
figures were as follows: Sicily, 58,820; Calabria, 33,999 5
Abruzzi, 46,349; Apulia, 21,210; making a total of over two-
thirds of the whole emigration that year from Southern Italy.
The figures of Calabria are peculiarly suggestive. These emi-
grants went away forever, since only 878 are marked down
as intending to return.
In and around Rome there are three Greek Catholic
churches, of which the fine Church of San Atanasio dei Greci,
at the corner of Via del Babuino and Via dei Greci, is the
largest and finest. It stands next to the famous Greek College,
where students, whether Pure Greek, Ruthenian Greek, Ru-
manian Greek, or Melchite Greek, are educated according to
their rite. This church has its greatest festival in the Solemn
High Mass according to the Greek Rite celebrated on Epiphany,
when the Greek ritual is seen at its best. In the College of the
Propaganda Fide, in the Piazzi di Spagna, Greek students are
also educated and have their own chapel.
The most magnificent church near Rome is that of the Basi-
lian Monastery, at Grotta Ferrata, twelve miles from the city.
In Calabria, Basilicata and Apulia, in Southern Italy, there
are some 34 churches, Greek-Catholic, and in several other
villages both the Latins and Greeks worship in the same
Roman church. -
iThe Albanesi are given as distrib-
uted through Foggia, Avedino, Potenza,
Teramo, Campobasso, Lecce, Palermo,
Messina, Girgenti, and the Calabrian
mountains. The Greeks are in Calabria,
Basilicata, Consenza and Puglie. The
Slavic races (originally from Dalmatia,
Montenegro and other trans-Adriatic
sources) are in Larino, Campobasso,
Chieti, Abruzzi, Lanciano and Udine.
2 The Greek churches are in the fol-
lowing localities: in Calabria, Vac-
carizzo, San Giorgio Albanese, San
Demetrio, San Cosmo, Macchia, San
Adriano, Santa Sophia d'Epiro, Spez-
zano, Lungro, San Benedetto Ullano,
Castroreggio, Acquaformosa, Farneta,
Rossano, Civita Firmo, Frassineto,
Marri, Percile, and San Basilio: in
Basilicata, San Paolo, San Constantino,
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS 115
At Bari, in Apulia, there is the Greek Catholic Church of
San Nicolo di Mira, where the body of St. Nicholas of Myra —
the great saint of the Greek Church — is entombed. It was
brought from Lycia by the Crusaders ; and Greeks from Italy,
Greece, Russia, Austria, Rumania, Turkey and Asia Minor
come here every year to venerate his shrine.
In Sicily there are 20 Greek-Catholic churches, chiefly in the
Dioceses of Monreale and Palermo.^ The Church of San
Nicolo dei Greci, in Palermo, has a fine iconostasis, and is the
church of the Greek seminary. The Church of San Demetrio,
in Piana dei Greci, has been declared a "National Monument."
There are also Italian Greek Catholic churches in Naples, Va-
letta in Malta, Chieti and Villa Badessa in the Abruzzi, Leg-
horn, and in Cargese in Corsica. There are also Greek Catho-
lics in Venice, Ancona, Florence and Ravenna. In Venice and
Ancona, t4ie Greek churches, which were formerly Greek Cath-
olic, are now Greek Orthodox, having turned schismatic. The
Greek Church of San Giorgio, in Venice, is a very handsome
edifice. In Naples, the Greek Orthodox have, after a long Hti-
gation, commencing in 1871, also won the finest and largest
Greek church, leaving the smaller one to the Greek Catholics.
The Greek Catholic clergy in Italy are under three bishops,
none of whom has diocesan jurisdiction, being only titular
bishops of Oriental dioceses, but who have jurisdiction in mat-
ters pertaining to the Greek rite, and who ordain all the Greek
clergy, and in most cases give the sacrament of confirmation.
In Italy, the Greek Catholic priests do not confer the sacra-
ment of confirmation, as is usual elsewhere in the Greek rite.^
I have not been able to ascertain the number of monks at
the Basilian monastery of Grotta Ferrata. The number of
Greek Catholic priests in Sicily is 50, and in Calabria and
Southern Italy about 60; while the number of Greek clergy at
Rome (including intended missionaries and monks of Basil)
is probably about 50. Besides these, there are from one to two
Greek priests at each of the churches in the other parts of
Italy and the islands of Malta and Corsica.
The priests are either an Arciprete, that is a rector of the
Montalbano, Casalnuovo: in Apulia, Contessa, Entellina, Piano dei Greci,
Lecce, Taranto, Otranto, Bari, Nardo, and Messina, Girgenti, besides some
Bau, Galatino, Barletta and in many of country districts and small places,
the surrounding villages. * Constitutio Benedicti XIV, "Etsi
^ The Greek churches in Sicily are pastoralis," June i, 1742, III, 4.
at Palermo, Mezzojuso, Palazzo Adriano,
ii6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
principal church (chiesa madrice), or an eiimerios, or ordi-
nary parish priest, or assistant clergyman. All priests are
called Papas, answering to our "Reverend" or "Father." The
Greek priests of Italy are required to keep more closely to the
forms and usages of the Greek rite than the Greek Catholic
priests of Galicia and Hungary who use the Slavonic liturgy.
The Italian Greek priests are not allowed to be shaven, but are
required to wear beards, like their brethren of the Orthodox
church, to distinguish them from the Roman clergy, and they
all use the distinctive dress of the Greek church. They all
wear the camilaiio, or Greek biretta, and the flowing Greek
cassock, while the Ruthenian Greek Catholic priests are in
most cases shaven and wear the Roman cassock and a curious
biretta, resembling a Greek bishop's mitre, but which is neither
Greek nor Roman in form.
The language of the liturgy is the ancient Greek, as used
in Constantinople, Athens and the East. The pronuncia-
tion of this Greek is not what we have been taught in the
schools and colleges of America. It is neither "continental"
nor "Erasmian." The Greek of the Mass and religious rite is
pronounced exactly as the modern Greek of Athens is. A
Greek priest in Rome or Sicily will utter the words of the
Holy Liturgy with the same pronunciation as a Greek priest
in Athens, Constantinople or Jerusalem. The only differences
in the words of the Mass are that at the Great Synapte the
Greek Catholics pray "for our Supreme Pontiff, the Pope of
Rome," while those of Athens pray for the Synod and its bish-
ops, and at Constantinople for the Patriarch and his bishops.
In the article on the Greek Ruthenian Church, I have de-
scribed the rites of the Greek Church, and they are substantially
the same in Italy and Sicily. I was struck by the fact that the
Italian singing of the Greek of the Mass seemed to me to be
finer and fuller than that of the Greeks of Greece and Con-
stantinople in their services. I was told that the Greeks of the
East have never sung well like the Russians and Italians, be-
cause they were so long under Turkish rule and feared to let
their voices out harmoniously in Christian worship, and this
continuing for centuries had produced the muffled nasal form
of singing so often heard in the Greek churches of Greece and
Turkey. One can easily hear it in the Greek Orthodox Church
of the Holy Trinity in East 72nd Street, in New York City,
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS n?
where the Greeks maintain a beautiful church, with a priest
from Athens.
The Greek Catholics of Italy and Sicily differ from the
Greek Catholics and Greek Orthodox of the rest of the world
in one particular: they observe the Gregorian calendar and
not the Julian calendar/ so that their immovable and Easter
festivals, which coincide with the Latin ones, fall upon the
same days as the ones in the Roman calendar, instead of being
thirteen days, or sometimes more, behind, as in Austria, Rus-
sia, Greece and Turkey. Of course, the purely Greek feasts
and fasts fall as provided in the Greek calendar, but as ad-
justed to the Gregorian or New Style.
The Greek Catholics of Italy in some respects are more
tenacious of purely Greek rites than those of Austria. They
say that it is their national rite from the very beginning, and
that the rite must be altogether Greek or altogether Latin, and
that there should be no mixing of the two rites. Of course,
this cannot always be avoided. Yet Cardinal Vannutelli relates
that when he was at Cargese, Corsica, a celebrated mission
preacher came to hold a mission there, which lasted a week at
the Greek church and a week at the Roman church. All the
inhabitants who could come attended both churches. In the
Greek church all the hymns were sung in Italian, because the
Roman Catholics knew no Greek, and the next week the com-
pliment was returned in the Latin church, because the Greeks
could not sing Latin hymns, and so they were again all sung
in Italian.
One thing the Greeks of Southern Italy have retained from
the ancient Church, which has changed everywhere else, and
that is the form of chief vestment of the Mass. The Greek
vestments used in Italy and Sicily correspond to those used in
the Greek Orthodox Church, and consist of the stichario or
alb ; the epitrachilio or stole, which joins in one piece ; the zona
or girdle ; the epimanica or cuffs, corresponding to the maniple
of the Roman rite; the felonio or chasuble. Originally the
vestments of the Church, both Roman and Greek, particularly
the chasuble, were the same. It consisted originally of the
magnificent senatorial mantle or planeta, the finest official dress
of the Romans. Since the time of the schism of the East and
the West, both the Greek and Roman churches have been al-
1 Constitutio Benedict! XI\^ "Etsi pastoralis," June i, 1742, IX, 2-6.
ii8 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
tering and cutting away this vestment until it has lost its origi-
nal form, and each has cut it in a different way. Undoubtedly
it hampered the arms ; so the Roman church authorities cut it
away at the sides, until all of it covering the arms was gone,
and so produced their modern chasuble, while the Greeks of
the East and of Russia cut it away in front, until only a small
portion was left, thus making the Russo-Greek chasuble of
to-day totally different from the Roman one. But in Italy
and Sicily the ancient form has been preserved, and a Greek
Italian priest, when vested, has a flowing chasuble, or felonio,
which comes down equally on all sides, just as it did in the
beginning.
The Greek bishops, however, wear other and different Mass
vestments from the priests. Instead of the felonio, they wear
the sc£co, a sort of chasuble with sleeves, which was origi-
nally a court dress, conferred on bishops in the Emperor Con-
stantine's time, but which has become the chief episcopal vest-
ment. Over this is the omoforio, or pallium, which is a broad
band, knotted in front with one end thrown over the shoulder.
It was originally a scarf of wool. On the right side is the
epigonazio, or thigh shield. This is a curious vestment worn
by bishops and high prelates. It dates from early times, when
the bishops of the Eastern Church were placed on a rank with
princes and generals, who always were required to appear in
public wearing their swords, and who wore a piece of cloth to
prevent their swords from rubbing their vestments. Being
men of peace, the churchmen contented themselves with wear-
ing only the piece of cloth, usually with a sword embroidered
on it, and to indicate their peaceful mission also wore it on the
right side. It was a symbol that they must guard their flock
from evil. The Greek mitre is a round head-dress, containing
a picture or embroidery of the four evangelists, and usually
surmounted by a cross. The present Roman mitre was derived
from the habit of folding this head-dress, or cap — a thing
which the Greeks did not do. The crozier is a staff with two
curving serpents' heads, in allusion to our Saviour's command,
"Be ye wise as serpents." ^
Their sacred vessels consist of the chalice, the patena, the
lance, the star, and the spoon, besides certain veils and corpo-
rals not used in the Roman rite.
1 Matthew, X, 16.
OUR ITALIAN GREEK CATHOLICS 119
I have elsewhere described the rites of the Greek
Church, as regards the Mass and the sacraments. The Greeks
of Italy, however, follow more closely the ancient liturgical
forms than do the United Greek Ruthenians or Rumanians.
They even are allowed to say the creed without the addition of
"and from the Son," on account of the ancient usage, which
they have never altered, and because they have never differed
from the Roman pontiff.
As I have said, the people of Southern Italy have immi-
grated in large numbers to the United States. The census re-
turns for Italy in 1901 say that there are over three million
Italians outside of Italy, who have left their homes either per-
manently or temporarily. In New York City alone there are
said to be 450,000 Italians. The Greek Catholic population of
Southern Italy has sent between a quarter and half of its num-
ber to the United States. There are in the United States
perhaps as many Italian Greek Catholics as there are now re-
maining in Italy.
During the year 1904, an energetic young Italian Greek
Catholic priest, the Papas (Rev.) Giro Pinnola, of Mezzojuso,
came to the United States to gather up the scattered flock of
Greek Catholics. He is now a priest of the New York diocese.
He says that, being used to the language and rites of the Greek
Church, these Italians have not adopted the habit of attending
Roman Catholic churches, which in a measure do not appeal
to them, because of their unfamiliarity with the rites, and they
have become the prey of all sorts of missionary experiments
to undermine their allegiance to the Church. Father Pinnola
has found many who, because they were not of the Roman rite,
attended other churches and missionary chapels. They were
easier to pervert than the ordinary Italian of the Roman rite.
He estimates that there are about 25,000 Itahans (Alba-
nesi) of the Greek Rite, or possibly more, within the Greater
City of New York. There are, besides, a large number in
Newark, Elizabeth and Jersey City. There is even quite a
colony out on Long Island. Father Pinnola has, as yet, not
travelled far afield, but has confined his labors to New York
and vicinity. All these people are very poor, with an excep-
tion here and there, and have been as yet unable to build or
equip a church. They are, however, contributing their dimes
and quarters to that end.
120 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Nevertheless, they have found means to print and publish
in New York a tiny, four-page paper, "L'Operaio," which is
devoted to their interests and their Greek Rite. They have
several Albanese Greek Catholic societies, each of which is
said to have a good membership.^
The Italian Greeks frequently attend one of the Italian
churches of the Roman Rite, to celebrate many of their Greek
festivals, but they ardently desire to have a church of their
own. They also attend the Ruthenian Greek Catholic churches,
but here their unfamiliarity with the Slavonic tongue is a bar.
Some of them even have had their baptisms and weddings
celebrated in the Greek (Hellenic) Church of the Holy Trin-
ity, or in the Russian Cathedral of St. Nicholas, New York
City. But they need to be gathered up into one compact body,
where they may practice their ancient rites and where their
children may be taught the faith as well as the devotions of
their ancestors.
It is said that the Italian is becoming well-to-do here in
America, and that in a few years he will also be a political
force to be reckoned with. To be a good citizen, he must also
be a good man, true to his faith and his country. There is no
better method of bringing these wandering sheep of our great
Catholic fold back to the active practice of their faith than by
placing before them the opportunity to enjoy the rites and wor-
ship of that glorious faith according to the Eastern form, which
they and their fathers have used ever since the days of the
Apostles.
1 The chief of these are: Societa San Albanese, Societa San Bartolomeo Al-
Giorgio, Societa Italo-Albanese, Societa banese, Societa San Paolo, and Societa
Uguaglianza, Societa San Giuseppe, Stella Albanese, all of Manhattan, New
Societa Gabriella Buccola, Societa Cuore York,
di Gesu, Societa Civitese, Societa Sicula-
CATHOLICS OF THE EASTERN RITES
IN THE UNITED STATES
THE Catholic Church, with its expansion in every land
throughout the world and its existence since the days
of the Apostles, has always kept the faith intact. But
in doing so it has not at all times and in all places imposed the
same form of worship in every detail upon the faithful, nor
insisted upon the same language being used. This variation in
form and language constitutes the diversity of rite.
In the beginning this could hardly have been otherwise.
The Apostles and their disciples scattered to various lands,
with various races and languages. In each locality the Church
grew up separately, save for the bond of union — the same-
ness and identity of the faith. Difference in manner of wor-
ship might be permitted, but no divergence in matters of
faith was allowed.
The powerful, the civilized and cultivated East, with its
peculiar variations and attempts to break away from the faith,
elaborated one form of worship, whilst the West, uncivilized
except as to the Italian peninsula and Spain, elaborated an-
other form of worship, while both retained the same faith.
The Eastern and Western Church
The Catholic Church has existed in many lands and its wor-
ship has found many forms of expression throughout the ages
since the times of the Apostles. The two principal forms of
its worship, and particularly that of the Mass (or the Holy
Liturgy, as it is called in the Greek Church), have been the
one followed in the Eastern or Greek Church and the one in
the Western or Roman Church. The former was celebrated in
the Greek language, and the latter has always been celebrated
in the Latin tongue. The various rites and ceremonies of the
Mass, the usages and vestments of the priests, and the form of
the altar and sanctuary gradually grew to be quite different in
121
122 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
each part of the Church, although they had a common origin.
Finally in the year 1054 came the separation of the two
churches, the greater part of the Greek Church lapsing into
schism or opposition to the unity of the Catholic Church.
With that schism came also some later differences of doctrine.
Still all the Greek part of the Church did not leave Catholic
unity; and later on during the subsequent centuries and par-
ticularly in 1695-1700, millions of separated Greeks returned
to the unity of the Church. Thus these Greeks who never
separated from unity and those who returned to it represent
to-day the Catholic Church of the East, united with the West,
as it stood before the great schism. To express this idea more
clearly, they are sometimes called Uniats, for while Greek
indicates their rite, Catholic expresses their faith. They are
Catholics in faith and unity with their brethren throughout
the world, and are subject to the Vicar of Christ as the Head
of the Church upon earth, but they still follow their own pecu-
liar forms of worship, rites and ceremonies, just as they used
to do before there was ever any thought of disruption or sepa-
ration of churches.
Prior to the year 1054 the Catholic Church was undivided
throughout the Eastern and the Western Roman Empires. In
the East the people generally followed the Greek or Constanti-
nople form of saying Mass and administering all the sacra-
ments, and used the Greek language chiefly in the Church
services. In the Western part of Europe they followed the
Roman form and used the Latin language. Political and theo-
logical dissensions ensued, based principally upon misunder-
standings, and in 1054 the Church of Constantinople was ex-
communicated for disobedience or schism. That made a break
between the Eastern and Western parts of the Church, al-
though the Eastern separated Church still retained all the es-
sentials of Christian doctrine and belief defined up to that date.
Matters only grew worse with the lapse of time, although
reunion took place twice for a short period in the General
Councils of Lyons (1275) and Florence (1438). The Greek
Church, with the exception of a few in Italy, remained in
schism; the differences between the two Churches being only
on two or three points.
The principal peoples who are Catholics using the Greek
Rite are:
EASTERN RITES 123
1. Ruthenians, who use the Greek Rite in the ancient
Slavonic language.
2. Melchites, who are Syrians, who use the same rite in
the Arabic language, or who use Arabic or Greek inter-
changeably.
3. Rumanians, who use the Greek Rite in the Rumanian
language.
4. Greeks of Constantinople, Syria, Greece and lower Italy
and Sicily, who use the Greek Rite in the original Greek
language.
The Slavonic Liturgy
The Mass, according to the Greek Rite, was originally cele-
brated in the ancient Greek language, but in the year 868 it
was translated into Slavonic by Sts. Cyril and Methodius for
the conversion of the Bulgarians, Ruthenians, Moravians and
other pagan Slavic tribes, and this translation was approved
by Pope John VIII at Rome in 879. Afterwards it was also
translated into Arabic and into Rumanian, so that nowadays
Greek Catholics celebrate Mass in one of these four languages,
in the various countries where those languages represent the
ancient tongue of the people. The use of one single language,
like the Latin in the Roman Rite, has never been the practice
among the Greek Catholics in celebrating Mass. None of
these things have been interfered with by the Holy See, which
has always permitted ancient rites and privileges which date
back to the time when the Church was not disturbed by schism
or separation.
The language used in the celebration of the Mass by the
Ruthenian clergy is the Ancient Slavonic (Church Slavonic)
of St. Cyril. This language bears about the same relation to
the ordinary vernacular of the people that the language of
Chaucer does to current English. The people can understand
it with some difficulty and readily sing the church responses,
but it is very quaint and archaic to them and numerous words
have to be translated. In addition to this, it is written or
printed in a peculiar church alphabet or type called the
Cyrillic.
Sts. Cyril and Methodius translated all the Greek service
books into Slavonic and said Mass in that language. This
gave offense to some German missionaries of the Roman rite,
who maintained that the Mass and the sacraments should be
in either Latin or Greek, or in the Hebrew of the Old Testa-
124 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ment, and not in the uncouth, barbaric language of a pagan
tribe.
In the year 867 Sts. Cyril and Methodius were summoned
to Rome by Pope Nicholas I in this matter, and, arriving
there after his death, were warmly received by his successor,
Pope Adrian II, to whom they gave a full account of their
missionary work. In 869 St. Cyril died in Rome, and was
buried in the Church of St. Clement, where there is now a
splendid chapel to his memory. St. Methodius was sent back
to the Slavonic tribes, and the Pope made him Archbishop of
Pannonia, or Eastern Austria.
Again in 879 complaints were made against St. Methodius
on account of the use of the Slavonic language in the Mass,
and he was again summoned to Rome by Pope John VIII,
but he gave so good an account of his missionary efforts and
his success in converting the people through the services in
the Slavonic language, that the Pope said : "We rightly extol
the Slavonic letters invented by Cyril, in which praises to
God are set forth, and we order that the glories and deeds of
Christ our Lord be told in that same language. Nor is it in
anywise opposed to wholesome doctrine and faith to say Mass
in that same Slavonic language, or to chant the holy gospels
or divine lessons from the Old and New Testaments duly
translated and interpreted therein, or other parts of the divine
offices; for he who created the three principal languages,
Hebrew, Greek and Latin, also made the others for His praise
and glory."
Thus the Slavonic language became one of the liturgical
languages of the Catholic Church, and the conversion of the
Slavonic tribes went on with great success. The offices and
liturgy of the Greek rite so translated into Slavonic have re-
mained substantially the same down to the present day, and
are used practically in the same form as Sts. Cyril and Me-
thodius left them in the ninth century. All the church books
in Russia, Bulgaria, Servia and in Austria-Hungary (whether
in the Greek Catholic or the Greek Orthodox churches) are
printed in the Old Cyrillic alphabet and in the Old Slavonic
tongue. The translation is accurate and follows the Greek
almost word for word. As has just been said, the Greek
Church did not sever its relations with Rome until 1054 —
nearly 190 years after Sts. Cyril and Methodius — and the
EASTERN RITES 125
Slavonic Church did not follow it until nearly 200 years later,
so that there was one united Catholic Church using the Cyril-
lic alphabet and the Slavonic language for almost 400 years
after the conversion of these Slavs to Christianity.
But the Church using the Slavonic language in its Mass and
religious services gradually followed Constantinople in its
schism and so fell away from unity with the Holy See. The
many wars with the Poles and the Teutonic Knights of Ger-
many, both of whom were of the Roman Rite, helped to ac-
centuate the differences of the two rites, and made the Slavic-
speaking peoples of the Greek Rite dislike everything that was
Roman or Latin.
Their Return to Unity
From 1438 to 1442 the Council of Florence was held for
the reunion of Christendom. It was attended by many Greek
prelates, among them six Russians. Isidore, Metropolitan
(Archbishop), first of Kieff and then of Moscow, with many
others, voted for the union of the Eastern and Western
Churches, and it was accepted by several bishops of southern
Rus. In the north the Russian bishops subject to Moscow
would have none of it, and even expelled Isidore when he re-
turned to Moscow. In Kieff the new metropolitan, Michael
Rahosa, united his whole southern province with Rome, and
Kieff remained until 163 1 with the Greek Rite in full com-
munion with Rome. In the latter year a newly-elected metro-
politan, Peter Mogila, broke away from unity and turned to
Constantinople and Moscow with his people.
But in the Ruthenian portion of the Kingdom of Poland
the Greek Orthodox bishops and people found themselves neg-
lected, because the Turks had taken Constantinople and fhe
Moslems threatened all Europe. Besides, Protestantism was
making inroads upon the Greek churches. The effect of the
Council of Florence had not died out. Moreover, the Jesuit
fathers, then newly established in Poland, set themselves ear-
nestly to effect a reunion of the two churches. In 1595 the
Greek Ruthenian bishops of Lithuania and Little Russia de-
termined to return to unity with the Holy See, and in that
year held a council at Brest-Litovsk, where a decree of union
126 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
was passed. Two Greek bishops, Ignatius Potzcy and Cyril
Terletzky, were sent to Rome to make their submission to the
Holy See. They declared that they desired to return to the
unity of the Catholic Church as it existed before the schism
of Constantinople in 1054.
The Pope accepted their return to unity, and no change in
their Greek Rites was required — not even a change in their
calendar (the Old Style), which was then ten days and is now
thirteen days behind the New Style or Gregorian calendar.
The whole of the ancient Greek Catholic liturgy, service and
discipline — including the ordination of married men as priests
— was approved by Pope Clement VIII in the Bull "Magnus
Dominus," December 22, 1595, and was repeated in his Brief
"Benedictus Sit Pastor," of February 7, 1596, addressed to the
Ruthenian bishops and people.
On the 6th day of October, 1596, the union between the
Eastern (Greek) Church and the Western (Roman) Church
was formally proclaimed and ratified throughout all the Ru-
thenian and Russian-speaking part of Poland. A large num-
ber of the Greek bishops and their priests and people immedi-
ately went over to union with Rome. Besides the bishops who
were present at the Council of Brest-Litovzk, the Bishop of
Kholm in 1597, the succeeding bishops under the jurisdiction
of Kieff during the following twenty-five years, the Bishop of
Munkach in 1646, the Bishop of Przemysl in 1691, the Metro-
politan of Lemberg in 1700, and their flocks, became obedient
to the Holy See, and the majority of all that vast reunion has
remained steadfast ever since.
It numbers now in Austria-Hungary some 4,000,000 people
and is under the jurisdiction of seven Greek-Catholic bishops.
In Austria the dioceses are : Archdiocese of Lemberg, and
the Dioceses of Przemysl and Stanislau, all in Galicia, and
Kreutz (Crisium) in Croatia. In Hungary the dioceses are:
Munkach, Eperies and Hajdu-Dorogh, all in the north, near
the Carpathian mountains. They have now a flourishing press
and fine churches, seminaries and institutions, despite their
poverty and the fact that the Ruthenian nobility long ago gave
up its nationality and rite and became Polish. They also have
a Ruthenian Greek-Catholic college in Rome, on the Piazza
dei Monti, where many students are educated for the Greek
priesthood among the Ruthenians.
EASTERN RITES 127
RuTHENiAN Immigration to America
The Ruthenians are now firmly established in America. In
the United States they number over half a million, and in
Canada there are some two hundred and twenty thousand.
Every steamer brings more of them, and as they have raised
large families, the native born of Ruthenian parentage in-
crease steadily. As they are hard-working and eager to get
on and being steadily Americanized, it is our duty to co-oper-
ate with them, to understand their Greek rite and forms of
worship, their history and the ties which unite them with the
old country from which they came.
Ruthenian immigration began about 1880, chiefly to Penn-
sylvania. As they increased in numbers they brought their
church here, too. In 1884 Father Ivan Volanski, the first Ru-
thenian Greek-Catholic priest in America, came from Galicia
to Shenandoah, Pennsylvania. In the following year he built
the first uniat Greek-Catholic church there. Two years later
another church was built at Hazletown, Pa., and the year fol-
lowing two more at Kingston and Olyphant, Pa. In the fol-
lowing year (1889) two more were established at Jersey City
and Minneapolis. The priests who immediately followed
Father Volanski were Revs. Zeno Lachovich, Constantine An-
drukovich, Theophan Obuskevich. Since then the Ruthenian
clergy have come in greater numbers, and the building of
churches and schools has gone on with increasing success.
Many very fine churches have been built in Pennsylvania, and
many churches have been purchased from Protestant denomi-
nations and turned into Catholic churches.
Owing to the large cost of real estate in New York City
the Ruthenian Greek Catholics were late in establishing a
church here. But in 1905 the Ruthenian Greek Catholic
Church of St. George (originally on 20th Street, but now on
7th Street, near Cooper Union) was first organized and made
such progress that they purchased a larger building from the
Methodists. In 191 2 the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church
of St. Mary's was also organized. In Yonkers there are two
Ruthenian Greek Catholic churches, St. Nicholas of Myra
and St. Michael the Archangel. In Peekskill there is a Ru-
thenian Greek Catholic missionary chapel. There are also the
128 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Ruthenian Greek Catholic churches of St. Nicholas, at Troy;
St. Nicholas, at Watervliet, Sts. Peter and Paul, at Cohoes.
There are now about 165 Ruthenian Greek Catholic
churches in the United States and some 40 more in Canada,
as well as numerous missionary stations in both countries.
The Greek Catholic clergy here number 156 priests and one
bishop, and in Canada one bishop and 52 priests. The Ameri-
can-Ruthenian Greek Catholic bishop is the Right Rev. Soter
Ortynski ^ of Philadelphia, Pa., appointed by the Pope in
1907, and the Canadian bishop is the Right Rev. Nicetas
Budka, of Winnipeg, Manitoba, appointed by the Pope in
1 91 2. A full account of the Ruthenian Greek Catholics will
be found in the Catholic Encyclopedia, volume VI, under
"Greek Catholics in America." and in volume XIII, "Ru-
thenians." Their numbers have increased since that was
written, and they are making as rapid strides in progress, edu-
cation and wealth in America as any other nationality coming
here under the same conditions.
They come of a race which is alien, or rather unknown to
us, in rite, in language and in history. They were very poor,
since their fate, in being under the rule of other races — the
Poles and the Hungarians — was singularly like that of Ire-
land, and like the men and women of the Irish race they have
kept alive their nationality and their Eastern Rite, and above
all they have kept up their language and their Slavic traditions.
Being of the Greek Rite, they have been misunderstood and
neglected even by the American Catholics of the Latin Rite.
This has left them in some cases a prey to the proselyter, who
has installed sectarian services and under the guise of priest,
altar and missal leads them alike from their rite and their
Catholic faith. Two or three of these attempts have been suc-
cessfully checked. The Greek Orthodox Church of Russia
has also endeavored here in America to win them away from
Catholicism, and in many cases has succeeded.
It behooves all Catholics to help their brethren, even if their
venerable, historic Eastern Rite be strange and almost unknown
to them. Remember that their Greek Catholic Rite is the rite
of St. John Chrysostom, St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen.
St. John Damascene and St. Cyril, and that sixteen of the
Popes were of this Eastern Rite. Among the Popes since the
1 Died March 26, 19 16.
EASTERN RITES 129
Council of Florence, Clement VIII, Benedict XIV, Pius IX,
and Leo XIII, have done special and signal acts in regard
to the Greek Rite, and the Encyclical of Leo XIII, "Dignitas
Orientalium," deserves especially to be remembered. Pope
Pius X is to be remembered likewise for his magnificent (15th)
centenary celebration of St. John Chrysostom, held at the Vati-
can in 1908, when Pontifical Greek Mass was celebrated there,
for the first time since the Council of Florence, by the Patri-
arch of Antioch, in the presence of twenty-six Greek Catholic
bishops and numerous Greek clergy from all parts of the Ori-
ental Catholic world and a host of Roman prelates and clergy.
Piux X appointed two Greek Catholic bishops for America.
Besides the Ruthenians there are also the Melchites or
Syrians speaking the Arabic language, who follow the Greek
Rite and are Catholics in communion with Rome. They be-
gan coming here in 1886, and are now spread throughout the
country. Their name comes from Melek, the King, back in
Arian times, when Catholics were followers of the Emperor
of Constantinople, as against the Arians who were not, and
even remained Catholics when Constantinople left unity.
When Cyril V, who was elected Patriarch of Antioch in 1700,
left the schism and submitted to unity, they obtained a re-
stored line of Catholic hierarchy. They have about fifteen
churches and sixteen clergy in this country. Their church
books are printed in Arabic and Greek in parallel columns and
a priest may say Mass either in Greek or Arabic. There are
probably about 15,000 of them here.
The Rumanians are chiefly the inhabitants of Transylvania
in Hungary. The Rumanians of Rumania mostly belong to
the Orthodox Greek Church. Until 1878, Rumania was a
Turkish province, whilst Transylvania has been an enlight-
ened state in Hungary for the past two hundred years. They
say the Greek Mass in the Rumanian language, which is a
Latin tongue, and their church books are printed in Roman
letters. Their unity with the Holy See dates back to 1700.
The Italian Greek Catholics boast that they have never
been in schism. They come from the lower part of Italy,
which was once known as Magna Grsecia, where the Greek
language was spoken. They hold the tradition that they were
converted by St. Paul. Their church language is, of course,
the ancient Greek, in which all their church books are printed.
130 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
The Greek Catholic Church and Rites
The language, liturgy and ceremonies of the Greek Church
are substantially the same, whether the persons using them
are Catholic or schismatic. Such changes in the public pray-
ers for the church authorities as will indicate whether they
are in unity and harmony with the Holy See at Rome are
made, but in general, the same service books can be used for
all the principal parts of the Mass alike in the Greek Catholic
or in the separated Greek Churches. There are some differ-
ences of faith, however, nowadays, between the Catholic and
separated Churches.
The form of the Greek altar and sanctuary, and even of
the entire church, is different from the Roman or Western
ones. The Ruthenian and Russian churches are fond of a
peculiar cross, known as the Slavonic cross, which consists
of the usual cross with the head-board and the foot-piece
added to it. Usually the foot-piece is expressed by being
placed slanting across "the upright stem. This form of cross
is used outside of the churches, and on the outside of prayer-
books, etc., and is not used in the Greek churches of other na-
tions. The Ruthenian or Russian churches are usually sur-
mounted by bulbous domes of Byzantine-Slavic origin, which
have a mystical significance. Where one central dome alone
is used, it represents Our Lord ; where three are used, it is
either the Trinity, if they are of equal size, or Our Lord
and the Old and New Law, if two of them are smaller; and
where there are five domes on the church, it represents Our
Lord surrounded by the four Evangelists.
The altar is usually nearly square in form and is arranged
so that the clergy may pass entirely around it. On the north
or "gospel" side of the altar (usually against the wall), is a
smaller altar or table of oblation, on which the Proskomide
or first part of the Mass is said. The sanctuary is divided
from the rest of the church by the Iconostas (Greek, ikonos-
tasis) or picture-screen, which has three doors in it. The
icons, or church pictures, which must be in every church, are
Our Lord on the right-hand (or epistle) side, and Our Lady
on the left-hand (or gospel) side. Other pictures may be and
usually are added to beautify the iconostas. This is simply the
EASTERN RITES 131
chancel rail of the Roman church raised up to a great height
and adorned with pictures. In America, the Greek CathoHcs
have not always been able to supply their churches with the
iconostas as soon as they are opened for worship, but add it
later when they become wealthier.
The vestments of the Greek clergy were once the same as
the Roman ones, but now look quite different. The Roman
vestments have been clipped or changed for convenience in
one place, whilst the Greek vestments have been changed in
another, thus making a curious case of parallel evolution.
The bishop wears over his cassock the stikhar or alb ; then the
epitrakhil or priestly stole, which is joined together in one
piece ; then the poyas or girdle, which is a band or belt. On
both wrists he wears the narukzdtsy or cuffs, which answer to
the Roman maniple. At his side he often wears the nebedren-
nik, a diamond-shaped vestment, peculiar to Greek bishops,
but sometimes omitted. Lastly, he wears as the principal
vestment the sakkos, a vestment somewhat like a dalmatic,
but which answers to the chasuble. Over this comes the omo-
phor or pallium, which is indicative of the bishop's office and
powers. For the purpose of giving the solemn episcopal bless-
ing he uses two sets of candles, the trikir, consisting of three
candles (representing the Trinity) in his right hand, and the
dikir, consisting of two candles (representing the divine and
human natures of Our Lord) in his left hand. His episcopal
staff ends in two entwined serpents between which there is a
cross, while his mitre is in the shape of a crown surmounted
by a small cross.
The priest is vested in the napleshchnik (amice), the stikhar
(alb), the epitrakhil (priestly stole), the poyas (girdle), and
narukvitsy (cuffs), and over them the phelon or chasuble.
This Greek chasuble is long and flowing at the sides and back,
but has been almost entirely cut away in front. The Roman
chasuble has also been cut away at the sides, for the same
reason of convenience, and neither form of chasuble to-day
quite represents the flowing vestment of the earlier ages. The
deacon is vested in stikhar (alb) and narukvitsy (cuffs), and
wears the orar (or deacon's stole), a plain band with "Agios"
on it, outside of the alb pinned to the left shoulder. The dea-
con, between the Lord's Prayer and the Communion, winds
his stole in a cross-like shape around his body.
132 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
The sacred utensils of the Mass are greater in number than
in the Roman Rite. The Greek Rite uses the Diskos or paten,
the potir or chaHce, the Asterisk {Svyezd) or star, the Kopie
or lance, and the Loshitsa or spoon. The Greek host is called
the Agnetz or Lamb, and is square in shape, and is cut from
round pieces (Prosphora) of leavened bread. Several smaller
portions of the prosphora are also used for consecration along
with the large square Agnetz. Communion is given in the
Greek Rite in both kinds, with the spoon.
The sign of the cross is made from right to left by the
Greek Catholics, who hold the thumb and two fingers together
(symbolizing the Trinity) in making it. Instrumental music,
such as organs, is not used, and the choirs sing without ac-
companiment. The people generally know the responses of
the liturgy by heart and often sing them without the choir.
The Italo-Greeks on the East Side in New York City know
all these changeable and unchangeable parts of the Mass by
heart, although Greek is a stranger language to them than
Latin is to us. Many of the men who work on the streets
and girls who work in clothing factories are capable of sing-
ing all the parts of the Mass.
The Greek Mass
The Mass, according to the Greek Rite, is divided into three
parts : I. The Proskomide, or preparation, which is all said
secretly at the little side altar, called the Zhertvennik or
table of Oblation. II. The Liturgy of the Catechumens, which
consists of the Ektenes (or litanies), the Antiphons, the Lit-
tle Entrance, the Apostle (Epistle), the Gospel and the pray-
ers for the Catechumens. III. The Liturgy of the Faithful,
which begins just before the Great Entrance, includes the
Creed, the Preface, the Consecration, Our Father, Communion
and the Dismissal of the Mass. These divisions refer to the
ancient discipline of the Church ; parts II and III are said
aloud and really constitute the Mass which a visitor to a
Greek church usually sees.
Besides this, the Greeks have three forms of Mass which
are said at different times throughout the year. They are :
I. The Mass of Saint John Chrysostom, which is the normal
EASTERN RITES I33
or ordinary form of the Mass. II. The Mass of Saint Basil
the Great, which is said some fourteen times a year, princi-
pally on New Year's day, St. Basil's day, all through Lent and
a few other feast days. III. The Mass of the Presanctified,
which is ascribed in their missals to Saint Gregory, Pope of
Rome. This Mass is said on Wednesdays and Fridays through-
out Lent, instead of merely on Good Friday, as with us.
In the Greek Mass, a great deal more is said aloud than is
the case in the Roman Mass. The consecration is said aloud,
and the priest is answered by the people. Communion is
given in both kinds. The priest mixes the bread and wine in
the chalice, and a tiny particle is given by means of a spoon
directly to the people. The Greeks use leavened bread, not
unleavened bread, as the Roman Rite requires, for consecra-
tion in the Mass.
Another peculiarity in the Greek Catholic Church is the
married priesthood. With a view of not making any radical
distinction to the Catholic priesthood in the United States,
the Pope has directed that only celibate or widowed priests
should come to America to take charge of churches. But
remember that the rule in the Greek Church is the same as
the rule in the Roman Church; no priest may marry. The
Greek rite, according to the custom from antiquity, will ordain
married men to the diaconate and priesthood, while the Ro-
man rite has ceased to do so. The Catholic Church, therefore,
is the only Church which can fairly say that it knows the
advantages of an unmarried priesthood, because it has them
both, according to the respective rites.
The Greek Calendar
Among the customs and privileges which the Greeks have
retained is that of the ancient calendar. The new calendar
introduced by Pope Gregory was never made obligatory on
them. They, therefore, keep the calendar according to the
Old Style, which is now about thirteen days behind the new
or everyday one, and which will continue to drop one day
behind every century. Consequently all the feast days fall
much later than in the Roman Rite. Thus, for example,
Christmas (December 25th) falls upon January 7th, New
134 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Style, and so on throughout the year. Easter is quite difficult
to reconcile with the same feast in the Roman Rite. This year
(191 5) it fell upon the same date, and both the Roman and
Greek celebrations coincided. Next year it will be a week
later, and some years the feast in the different rites can be
as much as a month apart. Being reckoned from the first full
moon of spring, the difference of thirteen days in reckoning
when March 21st comes, throws the two rites far apart.
The Greek year is reckoned quite differently in its starting
point. For immovable feasts the Greeks count by the old
Roman year, starting at September i. For movable feasts,
they start with Easter. The Roman Church, on the contrary,
starts with Advent, about December i, and makes everything
else come into line. Many saint's days come on different dates
in the Greek calendar (leaving out the fact of being thirteen
days behind). Thus the Immaculate Conception falls in the
Greek calendar on December 9th, and not December 8th. All
Saints is celebrated on what we call Trinity Sunday; while
the celebration in honor of the Trinity comes on Monday after
Pentecost. There is no All Souls' day in the Greek Rite ; they
have four Saturdays in the year in which they offer Mass for
the dead. It would take too long to detail all the differences
in the calendar alone.
Other Eastern Rites
Besides the Greek Catholics, there are other Eastern Rites,
united with the Holy See, here in the United States. They
are not as numerous as the Greeks, who all together make over
8oo,o(X) persons who are united with the Holy See, to say
nothing of half as many more who belong to the so-called
Orthodox or schismatic Church.
Among these others are the Maronites, who use the ancient
Syriac in the Mass, and who are proud to boast that they still
use the very language which Our Lord spoke whilst He was
on earth. They are Syrians, mainly from Mount Lebanon,
who have retained their Mass and liturgy. They speak Arabic
as their ordinary tongue, but use the Syriac upon the altar;
but they are all Catholics.
Then, too, there are the Armenians, who use the ancient
EASTERN RirES i35
Armenian in the Mass. The Armenian CathoHc Church is
pecuHar, in that it is a Church of only one people, the Arme-
nians. No one who is not an Armenian belongs to it, and only
Armenians are ordained to the priesthood. They have their
missals and church books in Armenian, but there are also
the disunited or Gregorian Armenians, who do not belong to
the Catholic Church.
Besides these, there are a few small communities of Chal-
deans, from eastern Turkey in Asia and from Persia. They
also use the ancient Syriac in the Mass, but in a varied form
from the Maronites.
These are the Catholics of the Eastern rites in the United
States, who have come hither to make up part and parcel of
the Catholic Church in America. It behooves us to know
something about them, to welcome them, and to see that they
do not stray from the faith.
MOSCOW
THE ancient capital of Russia and the chief city of the
government (province) of Moscow is situated in almost
the centre of European Russia. It lies on both sides
of the River Moskva, from which it derives its name; another
small stream, called the Yauza, flows through the eastern part
of the city. Moscow was the fourth capital of Russia — the
earlier ones being Novgorod, Kiefif, and Vladimir — and was
the residence of the Tsars from 1340 until the time of Peter
the Great in 171 1. It is the holy city of Russia, almost sur-
passing in that respect the city of Kiefif, and is celebrated in
song and story under its poetic name Bielokamennaya, the
"White-Walled." The population, according to the latest
(1907) available statistics, is 1,335,104, and it is the greatest
commercial and industrial city of Russia. It is the see of a
Russian Orthodox metropolitan with three auxiliary or vicar
bishops, and has 440 churches, 24 convents, over 500 schools
(with high schools, professional schools, and the university
besides), some 502 establishments of charity, mercy, and hos-
pital service, and 23 cemeteries. The population is composed
of 1,242,090 Orthodox, 26,320 Old Ritualists, 25,540 Catholics,
26,650 Protestants, 8,905 Jews, and 5,336 Mohammedans, to-
gether with a small scattering of other denominations.
Historically, the city of Moscow, which has grown up grad-
ually around the Kremlin, is divided into five principal parts
or concentric divisions, separated from one another by walls,
some of which have already disappeared and their places been
taken by broad boulevards. These chief divisions are the
Kremlin, Kitaigorod (Chinese town), Bielygorod (white
town), Zemlianoigorod (earthwork town), and Miestchansky-
gorod (the bourgeois town). The actual municipal division
of the city is into seventeen chasti or wards, each of which
has a set of local officials and separate police sections. The
city hall or Duma is situated on Ascension Square near the
Kremlin. The Kremlin itself is a walled acropolis and is the
136
MOSCOW 137
most ancient part of Moscow, the place where the city origi-
nated ; it is situated in the very center of the present city, some
140 feet above the level of the River Moska. The Kitaigorod,
or Chinese town, is situated to the north-east and outside of
the Kremlin, and is in turn surrounded by a wall with several
gates. It is irregularly built up, contains the Stock Exchange,
the Gostinny Dvor (bazaars), the Riady (great glass enclosed
arcades), and the printing office of the Holy Synod. Just
why it was called the Chinese town is not known, for no Chi-
nese have ever settled there. The allusion may be to the Ta-
tars, who besieged and took Moscow several times, camping
outside the Kremlin.
The Kremlin and Kitaigorod are considered together and
known as the "City" {gorod), much as the same word is ap-
plied to a part of London, The enormous walls surrounding
them were originally whitewashed and of white stone, and are
even yet white in places, thus giving rise to the poetic name.
Just outside of it lies the Bielygorod, or white town, extend-
ing in a semicircle from the Moskva on the one side until it
reaches the Moskva again. The Bielygorod is now the most
elegant and fashionable part of the city of Moscow. Con-
taining as it does beautiful and imposing palaces, many fine
public monuments and magnificent shops, theaters, and public
buildings, it presents a splendid appearance worthy of its
ancient history. Around this, in a still wider semicircle, is the
Zemlianoigorod, or earthwork town, so called because of the
earthen ramparts which were constructed there by Tsar Mi-
chael Feodorovich in 1620 to protect the growing city in the
Polish wars. They have been levelled and replaced by the
magnificent boulevards known as the Sadovaya (Garden Ave-
nues).
The wealthy merchants and well-to-do inhabitants dwell
here, and fine buildings are seen on every side. The remainder
of the city is given over to the industrial and poor classes,
railway stations, and factories of all kinds. In addition, there
is that part of the city which lies on the south side of the
Moskva, the so-called Zamoskvarechie (quarter beyond the
Moskva), where the Tatars dwelt for a long time after they
had been driven from Moscow proper. Now it is the Old
Russian quarter, where old-fashioned merchants dwell in state
and keep up the manners and customs of their fathers. The
138 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
famous Tretiakoff art galleries are situated here. There are
six bridges across the River Moskva connecting both parts
of the city.
The name Moscow is mentioned in Russian chronicles for
the first time in 1147. In March of that year Yuri Dolgoruki
(George the Long-armed), Grand Duke of Kieff and son of
Vladimir Monomachus, is said to have met and entertained
his kinsmen there at the village of the Moskva. So pleased was
he with the reception which he had received and so impressed
by the commanding location of the situation that he built a
fortified place on the hill where the meeting took place, just
where the present Kremlin is situated. The word Kremlin
(Russian Kreml) seems to be of Tatar origin, and means a
fortified place overlooking the surrounding country. Many
other Russian cities dating from Tatar times have kremlins
also, such as Nizhni-Novgorod, Vladimir, Kazan, and Sa-
mara.
In the beginning of its early history Moscow was nothing
but a cluster of wooden houses surrounded by palisades; in
1237 the Tatar Khan laid siege to it, and his successors for
several centuries were alternately victors and vanquished be-
fore it. In 1293 Moscow was besieged and burned by the
Mongols and Tatars, but under the rule of Daniel, son of
Alexander Nevsky, its fame increased and it became of im-
portance. He conquered and annexed several neighboring
territories and enlarged his dominions to the entire length of
the River Moskva. In 1300 the Kremlin was enclosed by a
strong wall of earth and wooden palisades, and it then received
its appellation. In 13 16 the Metropolitan of Kieff changed
his see from that city to Vladimir, and in 1322 thence to Mos-
cow. The first cathedral of Moscow was built in 1327. The
example of the metropolitan was followed in 1328 by Grand
Duke Ivan Danilovich, who left Vladimir and made Moscow
his capital. In 1333 he was recognized by the Khan of Kazan
as the chief prince of Russia, and he extended the fortifica-
tions of Moscow. In 1367 stone walls were built to enclose
the Kremlin. Notwithstanding this, the city was again plun-
dered by the Tatars two years later. During the rule of
Dimitri Donskoi in 1382 the city was burned and almost en-
tirely destroyed. Vasili II was the first Russian prince to be
crowned at Moscow (1425).
MOSCOW 139
The city, although still the greatest in Russia, began to de-
cHne until the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505). He was the
first to call himself "Ruler of all the Russias" {Hospodar
vseya Rossii), and made Moscow pre-eminently the capital
and centre of Russia, besides constructing many beautiful
monuments and buildings.
His wife, who was Sophia Palaeologus, was a Greek princess
from Constantinople, whose marriage to him was arranged
through the Pope, and who brought with her Greek and Italian
artists and architects to beautify the city. But even after that
the Tatars were often at the gates of Moscow, although they
only once succeeded in taking it. Under Ivan IV, surnamed
the Terrible (Ivan Grozny), the development of the city was
continued. He made Novgorod and Pskoff tributary to it,
and subdued Kazan and Astrakhan. He was the first prince
of Russia to call himself Tsar, the Slavonic name for king or
ruler found in the church liturgy, and that name has survived
to the present time, although Peter the Great again changed
the title and assumed the Latin name Imperator (Emperor).
This latter name is the one now commonly used and inscribed
on public monuments and buildings in Russia. Moscow was
almost completely destroyed by fire in 1547; in 1571 it was
besieged and taken by Devlet-Ghirei, Khan of the Crimean
Tatars, and again in 1591 the Tatars and Mongols under
Kara-Ghirei for the last time entered and plundered the city,
but did not succeed in taking the Kremlin. During the reign
of Ivan the Terrible the adventurer Yermak crossed the Ural
Mountains, explored and claimed Siberia for Russia ; the first
code of Russian laws, the Stoglav (hundred chapters), was
also issued under this emperor, and the first printing-ofiice
set up at Moscow. Ivan was succeeded by Feodor I, the
last of the Rurik dynasty, during whose reign (1584-98) serf-
dom was introduced and the Patriarchate of Moscow estab-
lished. During the latter part of the reign of Ivan the Terri-
ble, Boris Godunoff, a man of high ambitions who had risen
from the ranks of the Tatars, attained to great power, which
was augmented by the marriage of his sister to Feodor. To
ensure his brother-in-law's succession to the throne, he is said
to have caused the murder of Ivan's infant son, Demetrius, at
Uglich in 1582. When Feodor I died, Boris Godunoff was
made Tsar, and ruled fairly well until 1605. The year before
140 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
his death the "False Demetrius" (Lzhedimitri) appeared. He
was said to have gone under the name of Gregory Otrepieff,
a monk of the Chudoff monastery (Monastery of the Mira-
cles) in the Kremlin, who fell into disgrace, escaped to Poland,
gave himself out as Demetrius, the son of Ivan the Terrible,
who had in some way escaped Boris Godunofif, another child
having been murdered. King Sigismund of Poland espoused
his claims, furnished him an army, with which and its Rus-
sian accessions the pretender fought his way back to Moscow,
proclaiming himself the rightful heir to the throne. All who
looked on Boris Godunoff as a usurper flocked to his standard,
the widow of Ivan, then a nun, recognized him as her son,
and he was crowned in the Kremlin as the Tsar of the Rus-
sias. For ten months he ruled, but, as he was too favorable
to the Poles and even allowed Catholics to come to Moscow
and worship, the tide then turned against him, and in 1606 he
was assassinated at his palace in the Kremlin by the Streitsi
or sharpshooters who formed the guard of the Tsars of
Russia.
After seven years of civil war and anarchy Michael Ro-
manoff, the founder of the present dynasty, was elected Tsar
in 1 61 3. But Moscow never regained its earlier pre-eminence,
although it became a wealthy commercial city, until the first
part of the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725). He sent
persons abroad, and, having observed the advancement and
progress of Western Europe, determined to improve his realm
radically by introducing the forms of western civilization. All
the earlier part of his life was spent in war with the Swedish
invaders and the Polish kings. In 1700 he abolished the
Patriarchate of Moscow, left the see vacant, and established
the Holy Synod. These acts set Moscow, the old Russians
and the clergy against him, so that in 171 2 he changed the im-
perial residence and capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg,
which he had caused to be constructed for the new capital on
the banks of the Neva. After the departure of the Tsars from
Moscow, it diminished in political importance, but was always
regarded as the seat and centre of Russian patriotism. In
1755 the University of Moscow was founded. In 1812 during
the invasion of Russia by Napoleon, the Russians determined
after the Battle of Borodino to evacuate Moscow before the
victorious French, and on September 14, 1812, the Russian
MOSCOW 141
troops deserted the city, followed by the greater part of the
inhabitants. Shortly afterwards the French entered, and Na-
poleon found that he had no submissive citizens to view his
triumphal entry, but that the inhabitants were actually burn-
ing up their entire city, which was even then built largely of
wood. He revenged himself by desecrating churches and de-
stroying monuments. The Russian winter begins in October,
and, with a city in smoking ruins and without supplies or pro-
visions. Napoleon was compelled, on October 19-22, to evacu-
ate Moscow and retreat from Russia. Cold and privation
were the most effective allies of the Russians. The recon-
struction of the city commenced the following year, and from
that time hardly any wooden buildings were allowed. In
May, 1896, at the coronation of Nicholas II, over 2,000 per-
sons were crushed and wounded in a panic just outside the
city. In 1905 the Grand Duke Sergius was assassinated in the
Kremlin and revolutionary riots occurred throughout the city.
Although Moscow is no longer the capital, it has steadily
grown in wealth and commercial importance, and, while sec-
ond in population to St. Petersburg, it is the latter's close rival
in commerce and industry, and is first above all in the heart
of every Russian.
In the religious development of Russia Moscow has held
perhaps the foremost place. In 1240 Kieff was taken by the
Tatars, who in 1299 pillaged and destroyed much of that
mother city of Christian Russia. Peter, Metropolitan of
Kieff, who was then in union with Rome, in 13 16 changed his
see from that city to the city of Vladimir upon the Kliazma,
now about midway between Moscow and Nizhni-Novgorod,
for Vladimir was then the capital of Great Russia. In 1322
he again changed it to Moscow. After his death in 1328
Theognostus, a monk from Constantinople, was consecrated
Metropolitan at Moscow under the title "Metropolitan of
Kieff and Exarch of all Russia," and strove to make Great
Russia of the north ecclesiastically superior to Little Russia
of the south. In 1371 the South Russians petitioned the Pa-
triarch of Constantinople: "Give us another metropolitan for
Kieff, Smolensk, and Tver, and for Little Russia." In 1379
Pimen took at Moscow the title of "Metropolitan of Kieff
and Great Russia," and in 1408 Photius, a Greek from Con-
stantinople, was made "Metropolitan of all Russia" at Mos-
142 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
cow. Shortly afterwards an assembly of South Russian bish-
ops was held at Novogrodek, and, determined to become inde-
pendent of Moscow, sent to the Patriarch of Constantinople
for a local metropolitan to rule over them. In 1416 Gregory I
was made "Metropolitan of Kieff and Lithuania," independ-
ently of Photius who ruled at Moscow. But at the death of
Gregory no successor was appointed for his see. Gerasim
(1431-5) was the successor of Photius at Moscow, and had
correspondence with Pope Eugene IV as to the reunion of
the Eastern and Western Churches. The next Metropolitan
of Moscow was the famous Greek monk, Isidore, consecrated
under the title of "Metropolitan of Kieff and Moscow." When
the Council of Florence for the reunion of the East and West
was held, he left Moscow in company with Bishop Abraham
of Suzdal and a large company of Russian prelates and the-
ologians, attended the council, and signed the act of union in
1439. Returning to Russia, he arrived at Moscow in the
spring of 1441, and celebrated a grand pontifical liturgy at
the Cathedral of the Assumption in the Kremlin in the pres-
ence of Grand Duke Vasili II and the Russian clergy and
nobility. At its close his chief deacon read aloud the decree
of the union of the churches. None of the Russian bishops
or clergy raised their voices in opposition, but the grand duke
loudly upbraided Isidore for turning the Russian people over
to the Latins, and shortly afterwards the Russian bishops
assembled at Moscow followed their royal master's command
and condemned the union and the action of Isidore. He was
imprisoned, but eventually escaped to Lithuania and Kieff,
and after many adventures reached Rome.
From this time the two portions of Russia were entirely
distinct, the prelates of Moscow bearing the title "Metropoli-
tan of Moscow and all Russia" and those of Kieff, "Metro-
politan of Kieff, Halich, and all Russia." This division and
both titles were sanctioned by Pope Pius II. But Kieff con-
tinued Catholic and in communion with the Holy See for
nearly a century, while Moscow rejected the union and re-
mained in schism. After Isidore the Muscovites would have
no more metropolitans sent to them from Constantinople, and
the grand duke thereupon selected the metropolitan. Every
effort was then made to have the metropolitans of Moscow
independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople^ After the
MOSCOW 143
Turks had captured Constantinople, the power of its patriarch
dwindled still more. When the Bishop of Novgorod declared
in 1470 for union with Rome, Philip I, Metropolitan of Mos-
cow, frustrated it, declaring that, for signing the union with
Rome at Florence, Constantinople had been punished by the
Turks. This hatred of Rome was fomented to such a point
that, rather than have one who favored Rome, a Jew named
Zozimas was made Metropolitan of Moscow (1490-4); as,
however, he openly supported his brethren, he was finally de-
posed as an unbeliever. Yet in 1525 the Metropolitan, Daniel,
had a correspondence with Pope Clement VII in regard to
the Florentine Union, and in 1581 the Jesuit Possevin visited
Ivan the Terrible and sought to have him accept the principles
of the Union. In 1586, after the death of Ivan, the archiman-
drite Job was chosen Metropolitan of Moscow by Tsar Feo-
dor under the advice of Boris Godunofif. Just at that time
Jeremias II, Patriarch of Constantinople, who was fleeing
from Turkish oppression, visited Russia and was received with
all the dignity due to his rank. In 1589 he arrived at Moscow
and was fittingly received by Boris Godunoff, who promised
to take his part against the Turks if possible, and who re-
quested him to create a patriarch for Moscow and Russia, so
that the orthodox Church might once more count its five
patriarchs as it had done before the break with Rome. Jere-
mias consented to consecrate Job as the Patriarch of Moscow
and all Russia, and actually made him rank as the third patri-
arch of the Eastern Church, preceding those of Antioch and
Jerusalem. This patriarchate was in fact a royal creation
dependent upon the Tsar, its only independence consisting of
freedom from the sovereignty of Constantinople.
In 1653 the Patriarch Nikon corrected the Slavonic liturgi-
cal books of the Eastern Rite by a comparison with the Greek
originals, but many of the Russians refused to follow his re-
forms, thus beginning the schism of the Old Believers or Old
Ritualists, who still use the uncorrected books and ancient
practices. The Patriarchate of Moscow lasted until the reign
of Peter the Great (that is no years), there being ten patri-
archs in all. When Patriarch Adrian died, in 1700, Peter
abolished the office at once, and allowed the see to remain
vacant for twenty years. He then nominally went back to the
old order of things, and appointed Stephen Yavorski "Metro-
144 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
politan of Moscow," but made him merely a servant of the
Holy Synod. To emphasize the new order of things more
strongly, it is related that Peter himself sat on the patriarch's
throne, saying in grim jest : "I am the patriarch." Not until
1748 was the Eparchy or Metropolitanate of Moscow canon-
ically established by the Holy Synod under the new order of
things. In 1721 Peter published the "Ecclesiastical Regula-
tions" (Dukhovny Reglament), providing for the entire re-
modelling of the Russian Church and for its government by a
departmental bureau called the Holy Governing Synod. This
body, usually known as the Holy Synod, has existed ever since.
Its members are required to swear fidelity to the Tsar by an
oath which contains these words: "I confess moreover by
oath that the supreme judge of this ecclesiastical assembly is
the Monarch himself of all the Russias, our most gracious
Sovereign" {Reglament, Prisiaga, on p. 4, Tondini's edition).
The Holy Governing Synod is composed of the Metropolitans
of St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Kieff, several other bishops,
and certain priests, but its active affairs are carried on by lay
government officials (the bishops act rather as consultors or
advisors), and the Chief Procurator, a layman, directs its
operations, while none of its acts are valid without the ap-
proval (Sokvoleniya) of the Tsar. No church council or de-
liberative church organization has been held in Russia since
the establishment of the Holy Synod.
The chief and most historic buildings in Moscow are situ-
ated in the Kremlin, which is a triangular enclosure upon a
hill or eminence on the north bank of the Moskva. It is sur-
rounded by a high wall of brick and stone, provided with high
towers at intervals, and has five gates, one (for pedestrians
only) in the wall on the river side and two in each of the other
walls of the triangle. The most celebrated gate is the Spassa-
kaya Vorota, or Gate of the Saviour, opening out upon the
Red Square. It contains a venerated image or icon of Christ,
and all persons passing through the gate must remove their
hats in reverence. Inside the Kremlin are churches, palaces,
convents, a parade ground, a memorial to Alexander II, also
the Senate (or law courts building), the arsenal, and the great
Armory. Directly inside the Gate of the Saviour is the Con-
vent of the Ascension for women, founded in 1389 by Eu-
MOSCOW 145
doxia, wife of Dimitri Donskoi. The present stone convent
building was erected in 1737. Just beyond it stands the Chu-
doff monastery, founded in 1358 by the MetropoHtan Alexis,
and here in 1667 the last Russian church council was held.
The present building dates from 1771. Next to it is the Nicho-
las or Minor Palace built by Catherine II and restored by
Nicholas I. In front of this and across the parade ground
near the river wall of the Kremlin is the memorial of Alexan-
der II, very much in the style of the Albert Memorial in Lon-
don. A covered gallery surrounds the monument on three
sides, and on it are mosaics of all the rulers of Russia. To
the west of the Minor Palace is the church and tower of Ivan
Veliky (great St. John) with its massive bells. At the foot of
the tower is the famous Tsar Kolokol (king of bells), the
largest bell in the world. It was cast in 1734, and weighs 22
tons, is 20 feet high and nearly 21 feet in diameter. A trian-
gular piece nearly six feet high was broken out of it when it
fell from its place in 1737 during a fire. Towards the north
of the great bell in front of the barracks at the other end of
the street, is the Great Cannon, cast in 1586, which has a cali-
bre one yard in diameter, but has never been discharged. Be-
hind Ivan Veliky stands the Cathedral of the Assumption, the
place of coronation of all the emperors of Russia, and the place
where all the patriarchs of Moscow are entombed. The pres-
ent cathedral was restored and rebuilt in part after Napoleon's
invasion. Across a small square is the Cathedral of the Arch-
angel Michael. Here lie buried all the Tsars of the Rurik and
Romanoff dynasties down to Peter the Great. He and his
successors lie entombed in the cathedral in the Fortress of Sts.
Peter and Paul in St. Petersburg. To the west lies the Cathe-
dral of the Annunciation, in which all the Tsars before Peter
were baptized and married, still used for royal baptisms and
marriages.
Towards the westerly end of the Kremlin is the Great Palace
in which all the history of Moscow was focussed until after
the time of Peter the Great. It is the union and combination
of all the ancient palaces, and contains the magnificent halls
of St. George and St. Alexander and also the ancient Terem
or women's palace, which is now completely modernized. In
the centre of the courtyard of the palace stands the Church of
146 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Our Saviour in the Woods (Spass na Boru). It was origi-
nally built here at the beginning of the thirteenth century,
when the Kremlin was but a hill still covered with forest trees,
and hence its name. Ivan I, m 1330, tore down the primitive
wooden church and replaced it by a church of stone. Outside
the Great Palace is the Armory, one of the finest museums of
its kind in Europe, being particularly rich in collections of Rus-
sian weapons and armor. The building towards the north
of the palace, known as the Synod, was the residence of the
patriarchs of Moscow and the first abiding-place of the Holy
Synod. To the east of the Kremlin, outside the gates of the
Saviour and of St. Nicholas, is the well-known Red Square,
where much of the history of Moscow has been enacted. At
the end of it towards the river stands the bizarre church of
St. Basil the Blessed, of which Napoleon is said to have or-
dered : "Burn that mosque!" The Historical Museum is at
the other end. At the east side of the Red Square is the Loh-
noe Miesto or Calvary, to which the patriarchs made the Palm
Sunday processions, and where proclamations of death were
usually read in olden times. Behind it are the magnificent
Riady or glass-covered arcades for fine wares, while at the
northern entrance of the square behind the Museum is the
chapel of the Iberian Madonna (Iverskay a Bogoroditza), the
most celebrated icon in all Russia. It was sent to Moscow in
1648 from the Iberian monastery on Mount Athos.
One of the most celebrated modern churches in Moscow is
the Temple of Our Saviour and Redeemer, built as a memorial
and thank ofifering in commemoration of the retreat of the
French from Moscow. It was consecrated in 1883, is probably
the most beautiful church in Russia and is filled with modern
art adapted to the requirements of the Greek Rite. There are
two Arches of Triumph in Moscow — one celebrating 1812, near
the Warsaw station, and the other called the Red Gate, com-
memorating Empress Elizabeth. At Sergievo, about forty
miles to the east of Moscow, is the celebrated Trinity Monas-
tery (Troitsa-Sergievskaya Lavra), which is intimately bound
up with the history of Moscow, and is one of the greatest
monasteries and most celebrated places of pilgrimage in Rus-
sia; it played a great part in the freeing of Russia from the
Tatar yoke. There are three Roman Catholic churches in Mos-
cow : the large church of St. Louis on the Malaya Lubianka,
MOSCOW 147
the church and school of Sts. Peter and Paul in the Milutinsky
Pereulok, and another small chapel. There is also a Greek
Catholic chapel recently founded by a priest converted from
the Old Believers with a handful of worshippers.
GLAGOLITIC
AN ancient alphabet of the Slavic languages, also called
in Russian bukvitsa. The ancient Slavonic when re-
duced to writing seems to have been originally written
with a kind of runic letters, which, when formed into a regular
alphabet, were called the Glagolitic, that is the signs which
spoke. St. Cyril, who, together with his brother St. Method-
ius, translated the Greek liturgy into Slavonic when he con-
verted the Bulgarians and Moravians, invented the form of
letters derived from the Greek alphabet with which the church
Slavonic is usually written. This is known as the Cyrillic al-
phabet or Kirillitsa. The Cyrillic form of letters is used in all
the liturgical books of the Greek Churches, whether Catholic
or schismatic, which use the Slavonic language in their liturgy,
and even the present Russian alphabet, the Grazhdanska, is
merely a modified form of the Cyrillic with a few letters omit-
ted. The order of the letters of the alphabet in the Glagolitic
and in the Cyrillic is nearly the same, but the letters bear no
resemblance to each other, except possibly in one or two in-
stances. Jagic upholds the theory that St. Cyril himself in-
vented the Glagolitic, and that his disciple St. Clement trans-
formed it into Cyrillic by imitating the Greek uncial letters
of his day. There is a tradition, however, that St. Jerome,
who was a Dalmatian, was the inventor. Some of the earliest
Slavic manuscripts are written in the Glagolitic characters.
The Cyrillic alphabet continued to be used for writing the
Slavonic in Bulgaria, Russia and Galicia, while the Southern
and Western Slavs used the Glagolitic. These Slavs were con-
verted to Christianity and to the Roman Rite by Latin mis-
sionaries, and gradually the Roman alphabet drove out the use
of the Glagolitic, so that the Bohemians, Slovenians, Moravi-
ans, and part of the Croatians used Roman letters in writing
their languages. In Southern Croatia and in Dalmatia (often
treated as synonymous with Illyria in ancient times) the Gla-
148
GLAGOLITIC 149
politic has continued in use as an ecclesiastical alphabet in
writing the ancient Slavonic. Although the Slavic peoples
bordering on the Adriatic Sea were converted to the Roman
Rite, they received the privilege, as well as their brethren of
the Greek Rite, of having the Mass and the offices of the
Church said in their own tongue. Thus the Roman Mass was
translated into the Slavonic, and, in order to more fully distin-
guish the Western Rite from the Eastern Rite among the Slavic
peoples, the use of the Glagolitic alphabet was reserved exclu-
sively for the service books of the Roman Rite, just as the
Cyrillic was used for the Greek Rite.
The use of the Glagolitic Missal and office books, while per-
mitted in general among the Slavs of Dalmatia and Croatia
from the earliest times since the Slavonic became a liturgical
language under Pope John VIII, was definitely settled by the
Constitution of Urban VIII, dated April 29, 163 1, in which he
provided for a new and corrected edition of the Slavic Missal
conformable to the Roman editions. In 1648 Innocent X pro-
vided likewise for the Slavic Breviary, and by order of Inno-
cent XI the new edition of the Roman-Illyrian Breviary was
published in 1688. In the preface to this Breviary the Pope
speaks of the language and letters employed therein, and gives
St. Jerome the credit for the invention of the Glagolitic char-
acters : "Quum igitur lUyricarum gentium, quae longe lateque
per Europam diffusse sunt, atque ab ipsis gloriosis Apostolorum
Principibus Petro et Paulo potissimum Christi fidem edoctae
fuerunt libros sanctos jam inde a S. Hieronymi temporibus, ut
pervetusta ad nos detulit traditio, vel certe a Pontificatu fel.
rec. Joannis Papse VIII, praedecessoris nostri, uti ex ejusdem
data super ea re epistola constat, ritu quidem romano, sed
idiomate slavonico, et charactere S. Hieronymi vulgo nuncu-
pato conscriptos, opportuna recognitione indigere compertum
sit." The new edition of the Roman Ritual in Glagolitic form
had previously been published in the year 1640.
The latest editions of the Missal and ritual are those of
the Propaganda, "Missale Romanum, Slavica lingua, glagoli-
tico charactere" (Rome, 1893), and "Rimski Ritual (Obred-
nik) izdan za zapoviedi Sv. Otca Pape Paula V" (Rome,
1894). There was a former edition of the Glagolitic Missal,
^'Ordo et Canon Missse, Slavice" (Rome, 1887), but on account
of the numerous errors in printing and text it was destroyed,
150 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and only a few copies are in existence. The use of the Latin
language in the Dalmatian seminaries since the year 1828 has
had the effect of increasing the use of the Latin in the Roman
Rite there, and the use of the Glagolitic books has accordingly
diminished. Of course the non-Slavic inhabitants of Dalmatia
and Croatia have always used the Latin language in the Roman
Rite. At present the Slavonic language for the Roman Rite,
printed in Glagolitic characters, is used in the Slavic churches
of the Dioceses of Zengg, Veglia, Zara and Spalato, and also
by the Franciscans in their three churches in Veglia, one in
Cherso, two in Zara, and one in Sebenico. Priests are for-
bidden to mingle the Slavonic and Latin languages in the cele-
bration of the Mass, which must be said wholly in Slavonic
or wholly in Latin.
ICONOSTASIS
THE Iconostasis is the chief and most distinctive feature
in all Greek churches, whether Catholic or Orthodox.
It may be said to differentiate the Greek church com-
pletely from the Roman in its interior arrangement. It con-
sists of a great screen or partition running from side to side
of the apse or across the entire end of the church, which divides
the sanctuary from the body of the church, and is built of solid
materials such as stone, metal, or wood, and which reaches
often (as in Russia) to the very ceiling of the church, thus
completely shutting off the altar and the sanctuary from the
worshipper. It has three doors : the great royal door in the
middle (so called because it leads directly to the altar upon
which the King of kings is sacrificed), the deacon's door to
the right, and the door of the proskomide (preparation for
Mass) upon the left, when viewing the structure from the
standpoint of a worshipper in the body of the church.
Two pictures or icons must appear upon every iconostasis,
no matter how humble, in the Greek church ; the picture of
Our Lord on the right of the royal door, and that of Our Lady
upon the left. But in the finer churches of Russia, Greece,
Turkey and the East, the iconostasis has a wealth of paintings
lavished upon it. Besides the two absolutely necessary pic-
tures, the whole screen is covered with them. On the royal
door there is always the Annunciation and often the four Evan-
gelists. On each of the other doors there are St. Michael and
St. Gabriel. Beyond the deacon's door there is usually the
saint to whom the church is dedicated, while at the opposite
end there is either St. Nicholas of Myra or St. John the Bap-
tist. Directly above the royal door is a picture of the Last
Supper, and above that is often a large picture (deisus) of
Our Lord sitting crowned upon a throne, clothed in priestly
raiment, as King and High-priest. At the very top of the ico-
nostasis is a large cross (often a crucifix in bas-relief), the
151
152 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
source of our salvation, and on either side of it are the pictures
of Our Lady and of St. John.
Where the iconostasis is very lofty, as among the Slavonic
nationalities, whether Orthodox or Catholic, the pictures upon
it are arranged in tiers or rows across its entire length. Those
on the lower ground tier have already been described ; the first
tier above that is a row of pictures commemorating the chief
feasts of the Church, such as the Nativity, Annunciation,
Transfiguration, etc. ; above them is another tier of the twelve
Apostles; and above them a tier containing the Prophets of
the Old Law ; and lastly the very top of the iconostasis. These
pictures are usually painted in the stiff Byzantine manner, al-
though in many Russian churches they have begun to use mod-
ern art; the Temple of the Saviour, in Moscow, is a notable
example. The iconostases in the Greek (Hellenic) churches
have never been so lofty and as full of paintings as those in
Russia and other countries. A curious form of adornment of
the icons or pictures has grown up in Russia and is also found
in other parts of the East. Since the Orthodox Church would
not admit sculptured figures on the inside of churches (al-
though they often have numerous statues upon the outside)
they imitated an effect of sculpture in the pictures placed upon
the iconostasis which produces an incongruous effect upon
the Western mind. The icon, which is generally painted upon
wood, is covered except as to the face and hands with a raised
relief of silver, gold, or seed pearls showing all the details
and curves of the drapery, clothing and halo; thus giving a
crude cameo-like effect around the flat painted face and hands
of the icon.
The iconostasis is really an Oriental development in adorn-
ing the holy place about the Christian altar. Originally the
ahar stood out plain and severe in both the Oriental and Latin
Rites. But in the Western European churches and cathedrals
the Gothic church builders put a magnificent wall, the reredos,
immediately behind the altar and heaped ornamentation, fig-
ures and carvings upon it until it became resplendent with
beauty. In the East, however, the Greeks turned their atten-
tion to the barrier or partition dividing the altar and sanctuary
from the rest of the church and commenced to adorn and beau-
tify that, and thus gradually made it higher and covered it
with pictures of the Apostles, Prophets, and saints. Thus the
ICONOSTASIS 153
Greek Church put its ornamentation of the holy place in front
of the altar instead of behind it as in the Latin churches. In
its present form in the churches of the Byzantine (and also the
Coptic) Rite the iconostasis is comparatively modern, not
older than the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries. It was
never used in the Roman churches or any of the Latin churches
of the West, and was unknown to the early Church. The
modern chancel rail of the Latin Rite correctly represents the
primitive barrier separating the altar from the people. In the
great Gothic cathedrals the choir screen or rood screen may be
said in a manner to be the analogue of the iconostasis, but that
is the nearest approach to it in the Western Church. None
of the historians or liturgical writers of the early or middle
Greek Church ever mention the iconostasis. Indeed the name
to-day is chiefly in Russian usage, for the meaning of the
Greek word is not restricted merely to the altar screen, but is
applied to any object supporting a picture. The word is first
mentioned in Russian annals in 1528, when one was built by
Macarius, Metropolitan of Novgorod.
In the early Greek churches there was a slight barrier about
waist high, or even lower, dividing the altar from the people.
This was variously known as KiyxXts, grating, Spv^aKxa, fence,
Siao-TvXa, a barrier made of columns, according to the manner in
which it was constructed. Very often pictures of the saints
were affixed to the tops of the columns. When Justinian con-
structed the "great" church, St. Sophia, in Constantinople, he
adorned it with twelve high columns (in memory of the twelve
Apostles) in order to make the barrier or chancel, and over
the tops of these columns he placed an architrave which ran
the entire width of the sanctuary. On this architrave or cross-
beam large disks or shields were placed containing the pictures
of the saints, and this arrangement was called tcjuttXcv (tem-
plum), either from its fancied resemblance to the front of the
old temples or as expressing the Christian idea of the shrine
where God was worshipped. Every church of the Byzantine
Rite eventually imitated the "great" church and so this open
tc^ttXov form of iconostasis began to be adopted among the
churches of the East, and the name itself was used to desig-
nate what is now the iconostasis.
Many centuries elapsed before there was any approach
towards making the solid partition which we find in the Greek
154 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
churches of to-day. But gradually the demand for greater
adornment grew, and to satisfy it pictures were placed over
the entire iconostasis, and so it began to assume somewhat the
present form. After the Council of Florence (1438) when
the last conciliar attempt at reunion of the Churches failed, the
Greek clergy took great pleasure in building and adorning their
churches as little like the Latin ones as possible, and from then
on the iconostasis assumed the form of the wall-like barrier
which it has at present. As its present form is merely a mat-
ter of development of Church architecture suitable and adapted
to the Greek Rite, the iconostasis was continuously used by
the Catholics as well as by the Orthodox.
HUNGARIAN CATHOLICS IN AMERICA
THE Kingdom of Hungary (Magyarorszag) comprises
within its borders several races or nationalities other
than the one from which it derives its name. Indeed
the Hungarians are in the minority (or perhaps a bare ma-
jority) when contrasted with all the others combined; but
they outnumber any one of the other races under the Hun-
garian Crown. It therefore frequently happens that immi-
grants to the United States coming from the Kingdom of Hun-
gary, no matter what race they may be, are indiscriminately
classed as Hungarians, even by persons fairly well informed.
The Kingdom of Hungary, which is separate from Austria
except in matters affecting foreign relations, comprises within
its borders not only the Hungarians proper, but also the Slo-
vaks, Ruthenians, Rumanians, Slavonians and Croatians, as
well as a large number of Germans and some Italians. Repre-
sentatives of all these races from the Hungarian Kingdom
have emigrated to America. Their mother tongue is of Asiatic
origin and is quite unlike any of the Indo-European languages
in its vocabulary, structure, and grammatical forms. All its
derivative words are made up from its own roots and for the
most part are wholly native. Although it is surrounded and
touched in social and business intercourse on every side by
the various Slavonic tongues and by the Italian, German and
Rumanian languages, besides having the church liturgy and
university teaching in Latin, the Hungarian (Magyar) lan-
guage has nothing in it resembling any of them, and has bor-
rowed little or nothing from their various vocabularies. It re-
mains isolated, almost without a relative in the realm of Euro-
pean linguistics. This barrier of language has rendered it
exceedingly difficult for the Hungarian immigrant to acquire
the English language and thereby readily assimilate American
ideas and customs. Notwithstanding this drawback the Hun-
garian Americans have made progress of which every one may
155
156 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
well be proud. Although Count Beldy and his three compan-
ions, Boloni, Wesselenyi and Balogh, settled in America in
183 1, immigration to the United States from Hungary may be
said to have set in, after the revolution of 1848-49 in Hun-
gary, by the coming of Louis Kossuth to the United States, in
December, 185 1, on the warship Mississippi, after the failure
of his struggle for Hungarian liberties. He was accompanied
by fifty of his compatriots and many of these remained and
settled in various parts of the country. During the Civil War
and the wars between Germany and Austria, m.ore and more
Hungarian immigrants arrived, but they were then for the
most part reckoned as Austrians.
It was not until 1880 that the Hungarian immigration really
set in. Between 1880 and 1898 about 200,cx)0 Hungarians
came to America. The reports of the Commissioner of Immi-
gration show that the number of Hungarian (Magyar) immi-
grants from the year 1899 to July, 1909, amounted to 310,869.
The greatest migration year was 1907, when 60,071 arrived.
There are now about three-quarters of a million of them in
the United States. They are scattered throughout the country
from the Atlantic to the Pacific and fill every walk in life.
This immigration, while caused in a great measure by an ef-
fort to better the condition of the Hungarian of humbler cir-
cumstances, has been largely stimulated by the agencies of the
various European steamship companies, who have found it a
paying business to spread tales of easily earned riches among
dissatisfied Hungarian laborers. Peculiar political conditions,
poverty among the agricultural classes, and high taxes have
contributed to cause such immigration. But it cannot be said
that a desire to emigrate to other lands is natural to the real
Hungarian, for his country is not in the least overcrowded and
its natural resources are sufficient to afiford a decent livelihood
for all its children. There are but few Hungarians emigrating
from the southern, almost wholly Magyar, counties. They
come either from the large cities or from localities where the
warring racial struggles make the search for a new home de-
sirable. While a very large part of this immigration to the
United States is Catholic, yet the combined Protestant, Jewish,
and indifferentist Hungarian immigrants outnumber them, so
that the Catholics number not quite one-half of the total. The
Hungarians in the City of New York are said to number over
HUNGARIAN CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 157
100,000. They are numerous in New Jersey and Connecticut;
and every city, mining town, iron works, and factory village
in Pennsylvania has a large contingent; probably a third of
the Hungarian population resides in that State. Cleveland and
Chicago both have a very large Hungarian population, and
they are scattered in every mining and manufacturing centre
throughout Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, while West Virginia has
numbers of them in its mining districts.
For a long time after the Hungarian immigration began no
attention was paid, from the racial standpoint, to their spir-
itual needs as Catholics. They worshipped at German and
Slavic churches and were undistinguishable from the mass of
other foreign Catholics. During the eighties their spiritual
welfare was occasionally looked after by priests of the Slavic
nationalities in the larger American cities, for they could often
speak Hungarian and thus get in touch with the people. About
1891 Bishop Horstmann of Cleveland secured for the Txlagyars
of his city a Hungarian priest, Rev. Charles Bohm, who was
sent there at his request by the Bishop of Vac to take charge
of them. The year 1892 marks the starting-point of an earnest
missionary effort among the Hungarian Catholics in this coun-
try. Father Bohm's name is connected with every temporal
and spiritual effort for the benefit of his countrymen. Being
the only priest whom the Hungarians could claim as their
own, he was in demand in every part of the country and for
over seven years his indefatigable zeal and capacity for work
carried him over a vast territory from Connecticut to Cali-
fornia, where he founded congregations, administered the
sacraments, and brought the careless again into the Church.
He built the first Hungarian church (St. Elizabeth's) in Cleve-
land, Ohio, as well as a large parochial school for 600 pupils,
a model of its kind, and also founded the two Hungarian Cath-
olic papers, "Szent Erzsebet Hirnoke'' and "Alagyarok Vasar-
napja." The second Hungarian church (St. Stephen's) was
founded at Bridgeport, Connecticut, in 1897, and the third
(St. Stephen's) at McKeesport, Pennsylvania, in 1899. Be-
sides those named, the following Hungarian churches have
been established : ( 1900) South Bend, Indiana ; Toledo, Ohio ;
(1901) Fairport, Ohio; Throop, Pennsylvania; (1902) Mc-
Adoo and South Bethlehem, Pennsylvania ; New York City,
New York; Passaic, New Jersey; (1903) Alpha and Perth
158 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Amboy, New Jersey; Lorain, Ohio; (1904) Chicago, Illinois;
Cleveland (St. Imre's) and Dillonvale, Ohio; Trenton and
New Brunswick, New Jersey ; Connellsville, Pennsylvania ;
Pocahontas, Virginia; (1905) Buffalo, New York; Detroit,
Michigan; Johnstown, Pennsylvania; (1906) Dayton, Ohio;
South Norwalk, Connecticut; (1907) Newark and South
River, New Jersey ; Northampton, Pennsylvania ; Youngstown,
Ohio; (1908) East Chicago, Indiana; Columbus, Ohio; (1909)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There are about thirty Hunga-
rian priests who minister to the spiritual wants of these con-
gregations, but more priests are urgently needed in order ef-
fectually to reach their countrymen. Although there are nearly
half a million Hungarian Catholics in the United States, in-
cluding the native born, only thirty-three churches seem a
faint proof of practical Catholicity ; yet one must not forget
that these Hungarian immigrants are scattered among a thou-
sand different localities in this country, usually very far apart
and in only small numbers in each place. Only in a few of
the larger places, such as New York, Cleveland, Chicago.
Bridgeport, is there a sufficiently large number to support a
church and the priest in charge of it. Besides it has been
found extremely difficult to procure Magyar priests suitable
for missionary work among their countrymen here in America.
An attempt has been made in various dioceses to supply the
deficiency. In the Diocese of Columbus, Ohio, Rev. Roderic
McEachen, of Barton, and Rev. Joseph Weigand, of Steuben-
ville, have devoted themselves to the Magyar language and
have become sufficiently conversant with it to meet the reli-
gious needs of their Hungarian parishioners. In Pocahontas,
Virginia, Rev. Anthony Hoch, O. S. B., is familiar with this
difficult language, having spent over a year in Hungary at the
request of his superiors, in order to learn the Hungarian
tongue. The late Bishop Tierney of Hartford, in order to
meet the wants of his diocese, sent eight of his young clerics
about two years ago to study theology and the Magyar lan-
guage in Hungarian seminaries [six to Budapest and two to
Karlsburg (Gyulyafehervar)], where they are preparing for
the priesthood and learning the language and customs of the
people. Two of them have just returned, having been ordained
at Budapest. It is not intended by this policy to place Ameri-
can priests over Hungarian congregations, but to supply mixed
HUNGARIAN CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 159
congregations, where Hungarians are numerous, with priests
who can speak their language and keep them in the practice of
their religion.
While Catholic societies and membership in them are con-
stantly increasing everywhere in this country, the Hungarian
element can boast of only a relatively small progress. The
Magyars have one Catholic Association (Sziiz Maria Szovet-
seg), with headquarters at Cleveland, Ohio, which was founded
in 1896 under the leadership of Rev. Charles Bohm, assisted
by Joseph Pity, Francis Apathy and John Weizer. This asso-
ciation has 2,500 members, comprising about eighty councils
in different States. Besides being a religious organization it
is also a benefit association providing life insurance for its
members. There are also several other Catholic Hungarian
benefit societies throughout the country, the largest being at
Cleveland, Ohio, the Catholic Union (Szent Erzsebet Unio),
with 800 members. There are many other non-Catholic Hun-
garian societies, to which Catholic Hungarians belong, the two
largest being the Bridgeporti Szovetseg with 250 councils and
Verhovai Egylet with 130 councils. The Hungarian Reformed
Church has also a church association based upon the same
lines as the Catholic societies and with about the same mem-
bership. In 1907 the Hungarian National Federation (Ameri-
kai Magyar Szovetseg), an organization embracing all Mag-
yars of whatsoever creed, was founded with great enthusiasm
in Cleveland, its object being to care for the material interests
and welfare of Hungarians in America. Julius Rudnyansky,
a noted Catholic poet and writer, was one of the founders.
Despite its good intentions, it has failed to obtain the unquali-
fied support of Hungarians throughout the country. The pa-
rochial schools established by the Hungarians have grown
rapidly. The finest was built in Cleveland, Ohio, by Rev.
Charles Bohm, and now contains 655 pupils. There are alto-
gether (in 1909) twelve Hungarian parochial schools contain-
ing about 2,500 children. No attempt at any institutions of
higher education has been made, nor are there any purely Hun-
garian teaching orders (male or female) in the United States
to-day.
The first Hungarian paper was a little sheet called "Magyar
Szamiizottek Lapja" (Hungarian Exiles' Journal), which made
its first appearance on October 15, 1853, and lived a few years.
i6o ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
The next one was "Amerikai Nemzetor" (American Guards-
man) in 1884, which has long since ceased to exist. The "Sza-
badsag" (Liberty) w^as founded in 1891 in Cleveland, Ohio, by
Tilmer Kohanyi, and is a flourishing daily pubHshed there and
in New York. Catholic Hungarian journalism in America pre-
sents but a meagre history. Soon after the arrival of Father
Bohm he started a religious weekly at Cleveland called "Magya-
rorszagi Szent Erzsebet Hirnoke" (St. EHzabeth's Hungarian
Herald). Two years later this weekly developed into a full-
fledged newspaper of eight pages, called "Magyarok Vasar-
napja" (Hungarian Sunday News), and became quite popular.
In the beginning of 1907 the Hungarian Catholic clergy, hop-
ing to put Catholic journaHsm on a stronger foundation, held
an enthusiastic meeting at Cleveland and took the "Magyarok
Vasarnapja" under their joint control and selected as its editor
Rev. Stephen F. Chernitzky, from whom in great part the facts
for this article have been obtained. But notwithstanding his
hard work in Catholic journalism the panic of 1907 deprived it
of financial backing and it lost much of its patronage. At
Cleveland there is also a Catholic weekly "Haladas" (Progress),
started in 1909. Rev. Geza Messerschmiedt, of Passaic. New
Jersey, is conducting a monthly Catholic paper, "Hajnal"
(Dawn), and there is also another Catholic Hungarian
monthly, "Magyar Zaszlo" (Hungarian Standard), pubUshed
at McKeesport, Pennsylvania, by Rev. Colman Kovacs. Other
clergymen like Rev. Alexander Varlaky, of Bethlehem, Penn-
sylvania, and Rev. Louis Kovacs, of New York City, have
undertaken the task of keeping alive small Catholic weekly
papers for the benefit of their countrymen.
A great many of the Hungarians in America are indiflfer-
entists and free-thinkers and from them the Liberals and So-
cialists are recruited. But a large number are Protestants of
a Calvinistic type, somewhat similar to the various Presby-
terian denominations in this country. Although actually less
numerous than the Catholic Hungarians, they have more
churches here. There are forty in all, consisting of thirty-
nine Reformed churches and one Hungarian Lutheran congre-
gation. One division of the Reformed Church is aided by the
Reformed Board of Missions in Hungary, having under its
control 19 churches and 20 ministers, while 8 churches of the
other division are controlled and supported by the Board of
HUNGARIAN CATHOLICS IN AMERICA i6i
Home Missions of the Reformed Church in America, and 12
by the Presbyterian Church of America. The Lutheran con-
gregation is located at Cleveland, Ohio. Too short a time has
elapsed since the establishment of Hungarian Catholic churches
in America to speak of the distinguished participants therein,
except as they have been incidentally mentioned above, since
nearly every one of those interested in spreading and keeping
the Faith among the Hungarian immigrants is still alive and
engaged in active work. There is also a slowly growing settle-
ment of Hungarian colonists in three provinces of British Can-
ada, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, with headquarters
at Winnipeg. Two of these farming centres have been named
Esterhaz and Kaposvar, after towns in southwestern Hun-
gary. Rev. M. Erdujhelyi undertook in 1908 to found churches
in the country places for them, but was unsuccessful because
of the great distances between their respective settlements.
The spiritual welfare of the Magyar farmers and settlers has
been chiefly taken in charge by three Canadian born priests,
Rev. Agapite Page, Rev. Joseph Pirot and Rev. Francis Wood-
cutter, who undertook to acquire the Hungarian language and
thus put themselves in close communication with the immi-
grant settlers.
SLAVS IN AMERICA
THE Slavic races have sent large numbers of their people
to the United States and Canada, and this immigration
is coming every year in increasing numbers. The
earliest immigration began before the war of the States, but
within the past thirty years it has become so great as quite to
overshadow the Irish and German immigration of the earlier
decades. For two-thirds of that period no accurate figures of
tongues and nationalities were kept, the immigrants being
merely credited to the political governments or countries from
which they came, but within the past twelve years more accu-
rate data have been preserved. During these years ( 1899-
1910) the total immigration into the United States has been
about 10,000,000 in round numbers, and of these the Slavs
have formed about 22 per cent (actually 2,117,240), to say
nothing of the increase of native-born Slavs in this country
during that period, as well as the numbers of the earlier ar-
rivals. Reliable estimates compiled from the various racial
sources show that there are from five and a half to six mil-
lions of Slavs in the United States, including the native-bom
of Slavic parents. We are generally unaware of these facts,
because the Slavs are less conspicuous among us than the Ital-
ians, Germans, or Jews ; their languages and their history are
unfamiliar and remote, besides they are not so massed in the
great cities of this country.
I. — Bohemians
These people ought really to be called Chekh {Czech), but
are named Bohemians after the aboriginal tribe of the Boii,
who dwelt in Bohemia in Roman times. By a curious perver-
sion of language, on account of various gypsies who about
two centuries ago travelled westward across Bohemia and
thereby came to be known in France as "Bohemians," the
162
SLAVS IN AMERICA 163
word Bohemian came into use to designate one who lived an
easy, careless life, unhampered by serious responsibilities.
Such a meaning is, however, the very antithesis of the serious
conservative Chekh character. The names of a few Bohemians
are found in the early history of the United States. Augus-
tyn Herman (1692), of Bohemia Manor, Maryland, and Bed-
rich Filip (Frederick Philipse, 1702), of Philipse Manor, Yon-
kers. New York, are the earliest. In 1848 the revolutionary
uprisings in Austria sent many Bohemians to this country. In
the eighteenth century the Moravian Brethren (Bohemian
Brethren) had come in large numbers. The finding of gold in
CaHfornia in 1849-50 attracted many more, especially as serf-
dom and labor dues were abolished in Bohemia at the end of
1848, which left the peasant and workman free to travel. In
1869 and the succeeding years immigration was stimulated by
the labor strikes in Bohemia, and on one occasion all the
women workers of several cigar factories came over and set-
tled in New York. About 60 per cent of the Bohemians and
Moravians who have settled here are Catholics, and their
churches have been fairly maintained. Their immigration dur-
ing the past ten years has been 98,100, and in 1910 the number
of Bohemians in the United States, immigrants and native
bom, was reckoned at 550,000. They have some 140 Bohe-
main Catholic churches and about 250 Bohemian priests ; their
societies, schools, and general institutions are active and flour-
ishing.
11. — Bulgarians
This part of the Slavic race inhabits the present Kingdom of
Bulgaria, and the Turkish provinces of Eastern Rumelia, rep-
resenting ancient Macedonia. Thus it happens that the Bul-
garians are almost equally divided between Turkey and Bul-
garia. Their ancestors were the Bolgars or Bulgars, a Finnish
tribe, which conquered, intermarried, and coalesced with the
Slav inhabitants, and eventually gave their name to them. The
Bulgarian tongue is in many respects the nearest to the Church
Slavonic, and it was the ancient Bulgarian which Sts. Cyril
and Methodius are said to have learned in order to evangelize
the pagan Slavs. The modern Bulgarian language, written
with Russian characters and a few additions, differs from the
i64 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
other Slavic languages in that it, like English, has lost nearly
every inflection, and, like Rumanian, has the peculiarity of
attaching the article to the end of the word, while the other
Slavic tongues have no article at all. The Bulgarians who
have gained their freedom from Turkish supremacy in the
present Kingdom of Bulgaria are fairly contented ; but those in
Macedonia chafe bitterly against Turkish rule and form a
large portion of those who emigrate to America. The Bul-
garians are nearly all of the Greek Orthodox Church; there
are some twenty thousand Greek Catholics, mostly in Mace-
donia, and about 50,000 Roman Catholics. The Greek Patri-
arch of Constantinople has always claimed jurisdiction over
the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, and he enforced his jurisdic-
tion until 1872, when the Bulgarian exarch was appointed to
exercise supreme jurisdiction. Since that time the Bulgarians
have been in a state of schism to the patriarch. They are ruled
in Bulgaria by a Holy Synod of their own, whilst the Bulgarian
exarch, resident in Constantinople, is the head of the entire
Bulgarian Church. He is recognized by the Russian Church,
but is considered excommunicate by the Greek Patriarch, who,
however, retained his authority over the Greek-speaking
churches of Macedonia and Bulgaria.
Bulgarians came to the United States as early as 1890; but
there were then only a few of them as students, mostly from
Macedonia, brought hither by mission bodies to study for the
Protestant ministry. The real immigration began in 1905,
when it seems that the Bulgarians discovered America as a
land of opportunity, stimulated probably by the Turkish and
Greek persecutions then raging in Macedonia against them.
The railroads and steel works in the West needed men, and
several enterprising steamship agents brought over Macedo-
nians and Bulgarians in large numbers. Before 1906 there
were scarcely 500 to 600 Bulgarians in the country, and these
chiefly in St. Louis, Missouri. Since then they have been com-
ing at the rate of from 8,000 to 10,000 a year, until now ( 191 1)
there are from 80,000 to 90,000 Bulgarians scattered through-
out the United States and Canada. The majority of them are
employed in factories, railroads, mines, and sugar works.
Granite City, Madison and Chicago, Illinois ; St. Louis, Mis-
souri ; Indianapolis, Indiana ; Steelton, Pennsylvania ; Port-
land, Oregon, and New York City all have a considerable Bui-
SLAVS IN AMERICA 165
garian population. They also take to farming and are scat-
tered throughout the north-west. They now (1911) have three
Greek Orthodox churches in the United States, at Granite
City and Madison, Illinois, and at Steelton, Pennsylvania, as
well as several mission stations. Their clergy consist of one
monk and two secular priests ; and they also have a church
at Toronto, Canada. There are no Bulgarian Catholics, either
of the Greek or Roman Rite, sufficient to form a church here.
The Bulgarians, unlike the other Slavs, have no church or
benefit societies or brotherhoods in America. They publish
five Bulgarian papers, of which the "Naroden Glas," of Gran-
ite City, is the most important.
III. — Croatians
These are the inhabitants of the autonomous or home-rule
province of Croatia-Slavonia, in the south-western part of the
Kingdom of Hungary, where it reaches down to the Adriatic
Sea. It includes not only them, but also the Slavic inhabitants
of Istria and Dalmatia, in Austria, and those of Bosnia and
Herzegovina who are Catholic and use the Roman alphabet. In
blood and speech the Croatians and Servians are practically
one ; but religion and politics divide them. The former are
Roman Catholics and use the Roman letters ; the latter are
Greek Orthodox and use modified Russian letters. In many
of the places on the border-line school children have to learn
both alphabets. The English word "cravat" is derived from
their name, it being the Croatian neckpiece which the south
Austrian troops wore. Croatia-Slavonia itself has a popula-
tion of nearly 2,500,000 and is about one-third the size of the
State of New York. Croatia in the west is mountainous and
somewhat poor, while Slavonia in the east is level, fertile and
productive. Many Dalmatian Croats from seaport towns came
here from 1850 to 1870. The original emigration from Croa-
tia-Slavonia began in 1873, upon the completion of the new
railway connections to the seaport of Fiume, when some of
the more adventurous Croatians came to the United States.
From the early eighties the Lipa-Krbava district furnished
much of the emigration. The first Croatian settlements were
made in Calumet, Michigan, while many of them became lum-
i66 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
bermen in Michigan and stave-cutters along the Mississippi.
Around Agram (Zagrab, the Croatian capital) the grape dis-
ease caused large destruction of vineyards and the consequent
emigration of thousands. Later on emigration began from
Varasdin and from Slavonia also, and now immigrants arrive
from every county in Croatia-Slavonia. In 1899 the figures
for Croatia-Slavonia were 2,923, and by 1907 the annual im-
migration had risen to 22,828, the largest number coming from
Agram and Varasdin counties. Since then it has fallen ofif,
and at the present time (1911) it is not quite 20,000. Un-
fortunately the governmental statistics do not separate the
Slovenians from the Croatians in giving the arrivals of Austro-
Hungarian immigrants, but the Hungarian figures of depart-
ures serve as checks.
The number of Croatians in the United States at present,
including the native-born, is about 280,000, divided according
to their origin as follows: from Croatia-Slavonia, 160,000;
Dalmatia, 80,000; Bosnia, 20,000; Herzegovina, 15,000; and
the remainder from various parts of Hungary and Servia.
The largest group of them is in Pennsylvania, chiefly in the
neighborhood of Pittsburgh, and they number probably from
80,000 to 100,000. Illinois has about 45,000, chiefly in Chicago.
Ohio has about 35,000, principally in Cleveland and the vicin-
ity. Other considerable colonies are in New York, San Fran-
cisco, St. Louis, Kansas City and New Orleans. They are also
in Montana, Colorado and Michigan. The Dalmatians are
chiefly engaged in business and grape culture ; the other Croa-
tians are mostly laborers employed in mining, railroad work,
steel mills, stockyards and stone quarries. Nearly all of these
are Catholics, and they now have one Greek Catholic and six-
teen Roman Catholic churches in the United States. The Greek
Catholics are almost wholly from the Diocese of Krizevac
(Crisium), and are chiefly settled at Chicago and Cleveland.
They have some 250 societies devoted to church and patriotic
purposes, and in some cases to Socialism, but as yet they have
no very large central organization, the National Croatian Union
with 29,247 members being the largest. They publish ten
newspapers, among them two dailies, of which "Zajednicar,"
the organ of Narodne Hrvatske Zajednice (National Croatian
Union), is the best known.
SLAVS IN AMERICA 167
IV.— Poles
The Poles came to the United States quite early in its his-
tory. Aside from some few early settlers, the American Revo-
lution attracted such noted men as Kosciusko and Pulaski, to-
gether with many of their fellow-countrymen. The Polish
Revolution of 1830 brought numbers of Poles to the United
States. In 185 1 a Polish colony settled in Texas, and called
their settlement Panna Marya (Our Lady Mary). In i860
they settled at Parisville, Michigan, and Polonia, Wisconsin.
Many distinguished Poles served in the Civil War (1861-65)
upon both sides. After 1873 the Polish immigration began to
grow apace, chiefly from Prussian Poland. Then the tide
turned and came from Austria, and later from Russian Poland.
In 1890 they began to come in the greatest numbers from
Austrian and Russian Poland, until the flow from German
Poland has largely diminished. The immigration within the
past ten years has been as follows : from Russia, 53 per cent ;
from Austria about 43 per cent; and only a fraction over 4
per cent from the Prussian or German portion. It is esti-
mated that there are at present about 3,000,000 Poles in the
United States, counting the native-born. It may be said that
they are almost solidly Catholic; the dissident and disturbing
elements among them being but comparatively small, while
there is no purely Protestant element at all. They have one
Polish bishop, about 750 priests, and some 520 churches and
chapels, besides 335 schools. There are large numbers, both
men and women, who are members of the various religious
communities. The Poles publish some 70 newspapers,
amongst them nine dailies, 20 of which are purely Catholic
publications. Their religious and national societies are large
and flourishing; and altogether the Polish element is active
and progressive.
V, — Russians
The Russian Empire is the largest nation in Europe, and
its Slavic inhabitants (exclusive of Poles) are composed of
Great Russians or Northern Russians, White Russians or
Western Russians, and the Little Russians (Ruthenians) or
i68 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Southern Russians. The Great Russians dwell in the central
and northern parts of the empire around Moscow and St.
Petersburg, and are so called in allusion to their stature and
great predominance in number, government, and language.
The White Russians are so called from the prevailing color
of the clothing of the peasantry, and inhabit the provinces
lying on the borders of Poland— Vitebsk, Mohileff, Minsk,
Vilna, and Grodno. Their language differs but slightly from
Great Russian, inclining towards Polish and Old Slavonic.
The Little Russians (so called from their low stature) differ
considerably from the Great Russians in language and cus-
toms, and they inhabit the Provinces of Kieff, Kharkoff,
Tchernigoff, Poltava, Podolia, and Volhynia, and they are
also found outside the Empire of Russia in Galicia, Bukovina,
and Hungary. The Great Russians may be regarded as
the norm of the Russian people. Their language became
the language of the court and of literature, just as High Ger-
man and Tuscan Italian did, and they form the overwhelming
majority of the inhabitants of the Russian Empire. They
are practically all Greek Orthodox, the Catholics in Russia
being Poles or Germans where they are of the Roman Rite,
and Little Russians (Ruthenians) where they are of the Greek
Rite.
The Russians have long been settled in America, for Alaska
was Russian territory before it was purchased by the United
States in 1867. The Russian Greek Orthodox Church has
been on American soil for over a century. The immigration
from Russia is however composed of very few Russians. It
is principally made up of Jews (Russian and Polish), Poles,
and Lithuanians. Out of an average emigration of from 250,-
000 to 260,000 annually from the Russian Empire to the
United States, 65 per cent have been Jews and only from three
to five per cent actual Russians. Nevertheless the Russian
peasant and working class are active emigrants, and the
exodus from European Russia is relatively large. But it is
directed eastward instead of to the west, for Russia is intent
upon settling up her vast prairie lands in Siberia. Hindrances
are placed in the way of those Russians (except the Jews)
who would leave for America or the west of Europe, while
inducements and advantages are offered for settlers in Si-
beria. For the past five years about 500,000 Russians have
SLAVS IN AMERICA 169
annually migrated to Siberia, a number equal to one-half the
immigrants yearly received by the United States from all
sources. They go in great colonies and are aided by the Rus-
sian Government by grants of land, loans of money, and low
transportation. New towns and cities have sprung up all
over Siberia, which are not even on our maps, thus rivalling
the American settlement of the Dakotas and the North-West.
Many Russian religious colonists, other than the Jews, have
come to America ; but often they are not wholly of Slavic
blood or are Little Russians (Ruthenians). It therefore hap-
pens that there are very few Russians in the United States
as compared with other nationalities. There are, according
to the latest estimates, about 75,000, chiefly in Pennsylvania
and the Middle West. There has been a Russian colony in
San Francisco for sixty years, and they are numerous in and
around New York City.
The Russian Orthodox Church is well established here.
About a third of the Russians in the United States are op-
posed to it, being of the anti-government, semi-revolutionary
type of immigrant. But the others are enthusiastic in support
of their Church and their national customs, yet their Church
includes not only them but the Little Russians of Bukovina
and a very large number of Greek Catholics of Galicia and
Hungary whom they have induced to leave the Catholic and
enter the Orthodox Church. The Russian Church in the
United States is endowed by the Tsar and the Holy Governing
Synod, besides having the support of Russian missionary
societies at home, and is upon a flourishing financial basis in
the United States. It now (1911) has 83 churches and chapels
in the United States, 15 in Alaska, and 18 in Canada, making
a total of 126 places of worship, besides a theological semi-
nary at Minneapolis and a monastery at South Canaan, Penn-
sylvania. Their present clergy is composed of one archbishop,
one bishop, 6 proto-priests, 89 secular priests, 2 archimand-
rites, 2 hegumens, and 18 monastic priests, making a total
of 119, while they also exercise jurisdiction over the Servian
and Syrian Orthodox clergy besides. Lately they took over
a Greek Catholic sisterhood, and now have four Basilian nuns.
The United States is now divided up into the following six
districts of the Russian Church, intended to be the territory
for future dioceses : New York and the New England States ;
170 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Pennsylvania and the Atlantic States ; Pittsburgh and the Mid-
dle West ; Western Pacific States ; Canada, and Alaska. Their
statistics of church population have not been published lately
in their year-books, and much of their growth has been of
late years by additions gained from the Greek Catholic
Ruthenians of Galicia and Hungary, and is due largely to the
active and energetic work and financial support of the Russian
church authorities at St. Petersburg and Moscow.
They have the "Russkoye Pravoslavnoye Obshchestvo
Vzaimopomoshchi" (Russian Orthodox Mutual Aid Society)
for men, founded in 1895, ^ow (1911) having 199 councils
and 7,072 members, and the women's division of the same,
founded in 1907, with 32 councils and 690 members. They
publish two church papers, "American Orthodox Messenger,"
and "Svit" ; although there are some nine other Russian papers
published by Jews and Socialists.
VI. — Ruthenians
These are the southern branch of the Russian family, ex-
tending from the middle of Austria-Hungary across the south-
ern part of Russia. The use of the adjective russky by both
the Ruthenians and the Russians permits it to be translated
into English by the word "Ruthenian" or "Russian." They
are also called Little Russians (Malorossiani) in the Empire
of Russia, and sometimes Russniaki in Hungary. The ap-
pellations "Little Russians" and "Ruthenians" have come to
have almost a technical meaning, the former indicating sub-
jects of the Russian Empire who are of the Greek Orthodox
Church, and the latter those who are in Austria-Hungary and
are Catholics of the Greek Rite. Those who are active in the
Panslavic movement and are Russophiles are very anxious
to have them called "Russians," no matter whence they come,
The Ruthenians are of the original Russo-Slavic race, and
gave their name to the peoples making up the present Russian
Empire. They are spread all over the southern part of Rus-
sia, in the provinces of Kieflf, KharkoflF, Tchernigoff, Poltava,
Podolia, and Volhynia, but by force of governmental pres-
sure and restrictive laws are being slowly made into Great
Russians. Only within the past five years has the use of their
SLAVS IN AMERICA 171
own form of language and their own newspapers and press
been allowed by law in Russia. Nearly every Ruthenian
author in the empire has written his chief works in Great
Russian, because denied the use of his own language. They
are also spread throughout the Provinces of Lublin, in Poland;
Galicia and Bukovina, in Austria ; and the Counties of Szepes,
Saros, Abauj, Zemplin, Ung, Marmos, and Bereg, in Hun-
gary. They have had an opportunity to develop in Austria
and also in Hungary. In the latter country they are closely
allied with the Slovaks, and many of them speak the Slovak
language. They are all of the Greek Rite, and with the except-
tion of those in Russia and Bukovina are Catholics. They
use the Russian alphabet for their language, and in Bukovina
and a portion of Galicia have a phonetic spelHng, thus differ-
ing largely from Great Russian, even in words that are com-
mon to both.
Their immigration to America commenced in 1880 as la-
borers in the coal mines of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and has
steadily increased ever since. Although they were the poorest
class of peasants and laborers, illiterate for the most part
and unable to grasp the English language or American cus-
toms when they arrived, they have rapidly risen in the scale of
prosperity and are now rivalling the other nationalities in
progress. Greek Ruthenian churches and institutions are
being established upon a substantial basis, and their clergy and
schools are steadily advancing. They are scattered all over
the United States, and there are now (1911) between 480,000
and 500,000 of them, counting immigrants and native born.
Their immigration for the past five years has been as fol-
lows : 1907, 24,081; 1908, 12,361; 1909, 15,808; 1910, 27,907;
191 1, 17,724; being an average of 20,000 a year. They have
chiefly settled in the State of Pennsylvania, over half of them
being there ; but Ohio, New York, New Jersey, and Illinois
have large numbers of them. The Greek Rite in the Slavonic
language is firmly established through them in the United
States, but they suffer greatly from Russian Orthodox en-
deavors to lead them from the Catholic Church, as well as
from frequent internal dissensions (chiefly of an old-world
political nature) among themselves. They have 152 Greek
Catholic churches, with a Greek clergy consisting of a Greek
Catholic bishop who has his seat at Philadelphia, but with-
172 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
out diocesan powers as yet, and 127 priests, of whom 9 are
Basilian monks. During 191 1 Ruthenian Greek Catholic nuns
of the Order of St. Basil were introduced. The Ruthenians
have flourishing religious mutual benefit societies, which also
assist in the building of Greek churches. The "Soyedineniya
Greko-Katolicheskikh Bratstv" (Greek Catholic Union) in
its senior division has 509 brotherhoods or councils and 30,255
members, while the junior division has 226 brotherhoods and
15,200 members; the "Russky Narodny Soyus" (Ruthenian
National Union) has 301 brotherhoods and 15,200 members;
while the "Obshchestvo Russkikh Bratstv" (Society of Rus-
sian Brotherhood) has 129 brotherhoods and 7,350 members.
There are also many Ruthenians who belong to Slovak or-
ganizations. The Ruthenians publish some ten papers, of
which the "Amerikansky Russky Viestnil," "Svoboda," and
*'Dushpastyr" are the principal ones.
VII. — Servians
This designation applies not only to the inhabitants of the
Kingdom of Servia, but includes the people of the following
countries forming a geographical although not a political
whole : southern Hungary, the Kingdoms of Servia and Mon-
tenegro, the Turkish Provinces of Kossovo, Western Mace-
donia and Novi-Bazar. and the annexed Austrian provinces
of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The last two provinces may be
said to furnish the shadowy boundary line between the Croa-
tians and the Servians. The two peoples are ethnologically
the same, and the Servian and Croatian languages are merely
two dialects of the same Slavic tongue. Servians are some-
times called the Shtokavski, because the Servian word for
"what" is shto, while the Croats use the word cha for "what,"
and Croatians are called Chakavski. The Croatians are
Roman Catholics and use the Roman alphabet (latinica),
whilst the Servians are Greek Orthodox and use the Cyrillo-
Russian alphabet (cirilica), with additional signs to express
special sounds not found in the Russian. Servians who hap-
pen to be Roman Catholics are called Bunjevaci (disturbers,
dissenters).
Servian immigration to the United States did not commence
SLAVS IN AMERICA 173
until about 1892, when several hundred Montenegrins and
Servians came with the Dalmatians and settled in California.
It began to increase largely in 1903 and was at its highest in
1907. They are largely settled in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
Illinois. There are no governmental statistics showing how
many Servians come from Servia and how many from the
surrounding provinces. The Servian Government has estab-
lished a special consular office in New York City to look after
Servian immigration. There are now (1911) about 150,000
Servians in the United States. They are located as follows :
New England States, 25,000; Middle Atlantic States, 50,000;
Middle Western States, 25,000; Western and Pacific States,
25,000; and the remainder throughout the Southern States
and Alaska. They have brought with them their Orthodox
clergy, and are at present affiliated with the Russian Orthodox
Church here, although they expect shortly to have their own
national bishop. They now (1911) have in the United States
20 churches (of which five are in Pennsylvania) and 14
clergy, of whom 8 are monks and 6 seculars. They publish
eight newspapers in Servian, of which "Amerikanski Srbo-
bran," of Pittsburgh, "Srbobran," of New York, and "Srpski
Glasnik," of San Francisco, are the most important. They
have a large number of church and patriotic societies, of which
the Serb Federation "Sloga" (Concord) with 131 drustva or
councils and over 10,000 members and "Prosvjeta" (Prog-
ress), composed of Servians from Bosnia and Herzegovina,
are the most prominent.
VIII. — Slovaks
These occupy the north-western portion of the Kingdom
of Hungary upon the southern slopes of the Carpathian moun-
tains, ranging over a territory comprising the Counties of
Poszony, Nyitra, Bars, Hont, Zolyom, Trencsen, Turocz,
Arva, Lipto, Szepes, Saros, Zemplin, Ung, Albauj, Gomor,
and Nograd. A well-defined ethnical line is all that di-
vides the Slovaks from the Ruthenians and the Magyars.
Their language is almost the same as the Bohemian, for
they received their literature and their mode of writing
it from the Bohemians, and even now nearly all the
Protestant Slovak literature is from Bohemian sources. It
174 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
must be remembered, however, that the Bohemians and Mora-
vians dwell on the northern side of the Carpathian moun-
tains in Austria, whilst the Slovaks are on the south of the
Carpathians and are wholly in Hungary. Between the Mora-
vians and the Slovaks, dwelling so near to one another, the
relationship was especially close. The Slovak and the
Moravian people were among those who first heard the story
of Christ from the Slavonic apostles Sts. Cyril and Methodius,
and at one time their tribes must have extended down to the
Danube and the southern Slavs. The Magyars (Hungarians)
came in from Asia and the East, and like a wedge divided
this group of northern Slavs from those on the south.
The Slovaks have had no independent history and have en-
dured successively Polish rule, Magyar conquest, Tatar in-
vasions, German invading colonization, Hussite raids from
Bohemia, and the dynastic wars of Hungary. In 1848-49,
when revolution and rebellion were in the air, the Hungarians
began their war against Austria ; the Slovaks in turn rose
against the Hungarians for their language and national cus-
toms, but on the conclusion of peace they were again incor-
porated as part of Hungary without any of their rights recog-
nized. Later they were ruthlessly put down when they
refused to carry out the Hungarian decrees, particularly as
they had rallied to the support of the Austrian throne. In
1861 the Slovaks presented their famous Memorandum to the
Imperial Throne of Austria, praying for a bill of rights and
for their autonomous nationality. Stephen Moyses, the dis-
tinguished Slovak Catholic bishop, besought the emperor to
grant national and language rights to them. The whole move-
ment awoke popular enthusiasm. Catholics and Protestants
working together for the common good. In 1862 high schools
were opened for Slovaks ; the famous "Slovenska Matica,"
to publish Slovak books and works of art and to foster the
study of the Slovak history and language, was founded ; and
in 1870 the Catholics also founded the "Society of St. Voy-
tech," which became a powerful helper. Slovak newspapers
sprang into existence and 150 reading clubs and libraries were
established. After the defeat of the Austrian arms at Sadowa
in 1866, pressure was resumed to split the empire into two
parts, Austrian and Hungarian, each of which was prac-
tically independent. The Slovaks thenceforth came wholly
SLAVS IN AMERICA 175
under Hungarian rule. Then the Law of Nationalities was
passed which recognized the predominant position of the
Magyars, but gave some small recognition to the other minor
nationalities, such as the Slovaks, by allowing them to have
churches and schools conducted in their own language.
In 1878 the active Magyarization of Hungary was under-
taken. The doctrine was mooted that a native of the King-
dom of Hungary could not be a patriot unless he spoke,
thought, and felt as a Magyar. A Slovak of education who
remained true to his ancestry (and it must be remembered
that the Slovaks were there long before the Hungarians came)
was considered deficient in patriotism. The most advanced
political view was that a compromise with the Slovaks was
impossible; that there was but one expedient, to wipe them
out as far as possible by assimilation with the Magyars.
Slovak schools and institutions were ordered to be closed, the
charter of the "Matica" was annulled, and its library and rich
historical and artistic collections, as well as its funds, were
confiscated. Inequalities of every kind before the law were
devised for the undoing of the Slovaks and turning them into
Hungarians; so much so that one of their authors likened
them to the Irish in their troubles. The Hungarian authori-
ties in their endeavor to suppress the Slovak nationality went
even to the extent of taking away Slovak children to be
brought up as Magyars, and forbade them to use their lan-
guage in school and church. The 2,000,000 Catholic Slovaks
clung to their language and Slavic customs, but the clergy
were educated in their seminaries through the medium of the
Magyar tongue and required in their parishes to conform to
the state idea. Among the 750,000 Protestant Slovaks the
Government went even further by taking control of their
synods and bishops. Even Slovak family names were changed
to Hungarian ones, and preferment was only through Hun-
garian channels. Naturally, religion decayed under the stress
and strain of repressed nationality. Slovak priests did not
perform their duties with ardor or diligence, but confined
themselves to the mere routine of canonical obligation. There
are no monks or religious orders among the Slovaks and no
provision is made for any kind of community life. Catechetical
instruction is at a minimum and is required to be given when-
ever possible through the medium of the Hungarian language.
176 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
There is no lack of priests in the Slovak country, yet the
practice of solemnizing the reception of the first communion
by the children is unknown and many other forms of Catholic
devotion are omitted. Even the Holy Rosary Society was dis-
solved, because its devotions and proceedings were conducted
in Slovak. The result of governmental restriction of any
national expression has been a complete lack of initiative on
the part of the Slovak priesthood, and it is needless to speak
of the result upon their flocks. In the eastern part of the
Slovak territory where there were Slovak-speaking Greek
Catholics, they fared slightly better in regard to the attempts
to make them Hungarians. There the liturgy was Slavonic
and the clergy who used the Magyar tongue still were in
close touch with their people through the offices of the Church.
All this pressure on the part of the authorities tended to pro-
duce an active Slovak emigration to America, while bad har-
vests and taxation also contributed.
A few immigrants came to America in 1864 and their suc-
cess brought others. In the late seventies the Slovak exodus
was well marked, and by 1882 it was sufficiently important to
be investigated by the Hungarian Minister of the Interior
and directions given to repress it. The American immigra-
tion figures indicate the first important Slovak influx in 1873
when 1300 immigrants came from Hungary, which rose to
4000 in 1880 and to nearly 15,000 in 1884, most of them set-
tling in the mining and industrial regions of Pennsylvania.
At first they came from the Counties of Zemplin, Saros,
Szepes, and Ung, where there were also many Ruthenians.
They were called "Huns" or "Hunkies," and were used at
first to fill the places left vacant by strikers. They were very
poor and willing to work for little when they arrived, and
were accordingly hated by the members of the various unions.
The Slovak girls, like the Irish, mostly went into service, and
because they had almost no expense for living managed to
earn more than the men. To-day the Slovaks of x\merica are
beginning to possess a national culture and organization, which
presents a striking contrast to the cramped development of
their kinsmen in Hungary. Their immigration of late years
has ranged annually from 52,368 in 1905 to 33,416 in 1910.
Altogether it is estimated that there are now some 560,000
Slovaks in the United States, including the native born. They
SLAVS IN AMERICA 177
are spread throug-hout the country, chiefly in the following
States: Pennsylvania, 270,000; Ohio, 75,000; lUinois, 50,000;
New Jersey, 50,000; New York, 35,000; Connecticut, 20,000;
Indiana, 15,000; Missouri, 10,000; whilst they range from
5,000 to a few hundreds in the other States. About 450,000
of them are Roman Catholics, 10,000 Greek Catholics and
95,000 Protestants.
The first Slovak Catholic church in the United States was
founded by Rev. Joseph Kossalko at Streator, Illinois, and
was dedicated 8 Dec, 1883. Following this he also built St.
Joseph's Church at Hazleton, Pennsylvania, in 1884. In 1889
Rev. Stephen Furdek founded the Church of St. Ladislas at
Cleveland, Ohio, together with a fine parochial school, both
of which were dedicated by Bishop Gilmour. The American
bishops were anxious to get Slovak priests for the increasing
immigration, and Bishop Gilmour sent Father Furdek to
Hungary for that purpose. The Hungarian bishops were un-
willing to send Slovak priests at first, but as immigration in-
creased they acceded to the request. At present (1911) the
Catholic Slovaks have a clergy consisting of one bishop (Rt.
Rev. J. M. Koudelka) and 104 priests, and have 134 churches
situated as follows: in Pennsylvania, 81 (Dioceses of Altoona,
10; Erie, 4; Harrisburg, 3; Philadelphia, 15; Pittsburgh, 35;
and Scranton, 14) ; in Ohio, 14 (in the Diocese of Cleveland,
12, and Columbus, 2) ; in Illinois, 10 (in the Archdiocese of
Chicago, 7; and Peoria, 3) ; in New Jersey, 11 (in the Dio-
cese of Newark, 7; and Trenton, 4); in New York, 6; and
in the States of Connecticut, 3 ; Indiana, 2 ; Wisconsin, 2 ; and
Minnesota, Michigan, Missouri, Alabama, and West Virginia,
one each. Some of the Slovak church buildings are very fine
specimens of church architecture. There are also 36 Slovak
parochial schools, that of Our Lady Mary in Cleveland having
750 pupils. They have also introduced an American order of
Slovak nuns, the Sisters of Saints Cyril and Methodius, who
are established under the direction of Bishop Hoban in the
Diocese of Scranton, where they have four schools.
The Protestant Slovaks followed the example of the Catho-
lics and established their first church at Streator, Illinois, in
1885, and later founded a church at Minneapolis, in 1888, and
from 1890 to 1894 three churches in Pennsylvania. They now
have in the United States 60 Slovak churches and congrega-
178 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
tions (of which 28 are in Pennsylvania), with 34 ministers (not
including some 5 Presbyterian clergymen), who are organized
under the name of "The Slovak Evangelical Lutheran Synod
of America." The Slovaks have a large number of organiza-
tions. The principal Catholic ones are : Prva Katolicka Slo-
venska Jednota (First Slovak Catholic Union), for men, 33,-
000 members ; Pennsylvanska Slovenska Rimsko a Grecko
Katolicka Jednota (Pennsylvania Slovak Roman and Greek
Catholic Union), 7,500 members; Prva Katolicka Slovenska
Zenska Jednota (First Catholic Slovak Women's Union), 12,-
000 members ; Pennsylvanska Slovenska 2enska Jednota
(Pennsylvania Slovak Women's Union), 3,500 members ; 2i-
vena (Women's League), 6,000 members. There are also:
Narodny Slovensky Spolok (National Slovak Society), which
takes in all Slovaks except Jews, 28,000 members ; Evanjelicka
Slovenska Jednota (Evangelical Lutheran Slovak Union),
8,000 members; Kalvinska Slovenska Jednota (Presbyterian
Slovak Union), 1,000 members ; Neodvisly Narodny Slovensky
Spolok (Independent National Slovak Society), 2,000 mem-
bers. They also have a large and enterprising Press, publish-
ing some fourteen papers. The chief ones are: "Slovensky
Dennik" (Slovak Journal), a daily, of Pittsburgh; "Slovak v
Amerike" (Slovak in America), of New York; "Narodne No-
viny" (National News), a weekly, of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
with 38,000 circulation ; "Jednota" (The Union), also a weekly,
of Middletown, Pennsylvania, with 35,000 circulation ; and
"Bratstvo" (Brotherhood), of Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania.
There are also Protestant and Socialistic Slovak journals,
whose circulation is small. Among the distinguished Slovaks
in the United States may be mentioned Rev. Joseph Murgas, of
Wilkesbarre, who, in addition to his work among his people,
has perfected several inventions in wireless telegraphy and is
favorably known in other scientific matters.
IX. — Slovenes
These come chiefly from south-western Austria, from the
Provinces of Carniola (Kranjsko; Ger., Krain), Carinthia
(Koroska; Ger., Kdrnten), and Styria (Stajersko; Ger.,
Steiennark) ; as well as from Resia (Resja) and Udine
SLAVS IN AMERICA i79
(Videm) in north-eastern Italy, and the Coast Lands (Primor-
sko) of Austria-Hungary. Their neighbors on the south-west
are ItaHans ; on the west and north, Germans; on the east,
Germans and Magyars; and towards the south, Italians and
their Slavic neighbors, the Croatians. Most of them are bilin-
gual, speaking not only the Slovenian but also the German
language. For this reason they are not so readily distinguish-
able in America as the other Slavs, and have less trouble in
assimilating themselves. At home the main centres of their
language and literature have been Laibach (Ljubljana), Kla-
genfurt (Celovec), Graz (Gradec), and Gorz (Gorica), the
latter city being also largely Italian. In America they are
sometimes known as Austrians, but are more often known as
"Krainer," that being the German adjective of Krain (Car-
niola), from whence the larger number of them come to the
United States; sometimes the word has even been mispro-
nounced and set down as "Griner." The Slovenes became
known somewhat early in the history of the United States.
Father Frederic Baraga was among the first of them to come
here in 1830, and began his missionary work as a priest among
the Indians of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and finally
became the first bishop of Marquette, Michigan. He studied
the Indian languages and wrote their grammars and history
in his various English, German and Slovenian works. He also
published several catechisms and religious works in Slovenian,
and brought over several other Slovenian priests.
In Calumet, Michigan, the Slovenes settled as early as 1856;
they first appeared in Chicago and in Iowa about 1863, and in
1866 they founded their chief farming colony in Brockway,
Minnesota. Here they still preserve their own language and
all their minute local peculiarities. They came to Omaha in
1868, and in 1873 their present large colony in Joliet, Illinois,
was founded. Their earliest settlement in New York was
towards the end of 1878, and gradually their numbers have
increased until they have churches in Haverstraw and Rock-
land Lake, where their language is used. They have also es-
tablished farm settlements in Iowa, South Dakota, Idaho,
Washington, and in additional places in Minnesota. Their
very active immigration began in 1892, and has been (1900-
1910) at the rate of from 6,000 to 9,000 annually, but has lately
fallen off. The official government statistics class them along
i8o ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
with the Croatians. There are now (1911) in the United
States a Httle over 120,000 Slovenes; practically all of them
are Catholics, and with no great differences or factions among
them. There is a leaning towards Socialism in the large min-
ing and manufacturing centres. In Pennsylvania there are
about 30,000; in Ohio, 15,000; in Illinois, 12,000; in Michigan,
8,000; in Minnesota, 12,000; in Colorado, 10,000; in Wash-
ington, 10,000; in Montana, 5,000; in California, 5,000; and in
fact there are Slovenes reported in almost every state and
territory except Georgia. Their immigration was caused by
the poverty of the people at home, especially as Carniola is a
rocky and mountainous district without much fertility, and
neglected even from the times of the Turkish wars. Latterly
the institution of Raffeisen banks, debt-paying and mutual aid
associations, introduced among the people by the Catholic
party (Slovenska Ljudska Stranka), has diminished immi-
gration and enabled them to live more comfortably at home.
The Slovenes are noted for their adaptability, and have given
many prominent missionary leaders to the Church in the United
States. Among them are Bishops Baraga, Mrak and Vertin
(of Marquette), Stariha (of Lead), and Trobec (of St.
Cloud); Monsignori Stibil, Buh and Plut; Abbot Bernard
Locnika, O.S.B. ; and many others. There are some ninety-
two Slovenian priests in the United States, and twenty-five
Slovenian churches. Many of their churches are quite fine,
especially St. Joseph's, Joliet, Illinois; St. Joseph's, Calumet,
Michigan ; and Sts. Cyril and Methodius, Sheboygan, Wiscon-
sin. There are also mixed parishes where the Slovenes are
united with other nationalities, usually with Bohemians, Slo-
vaks, or Germans. There are no exclusively Slovenian reli-
gious communities. At St. John's, Minnesota, there are six
Slovenian Benedictines, and at Rockland Lake, New York,
three Slovenian Franciscans, who are undertaking to establish
a Slovenian and Croatian community. From them much of the
information herein has been obtained. The Franciscan nuns
at Joliet, Illinois, have many Slovenian sisters ; at Kansas City,
Kansas, there are several Slovenian sisters engaged in school
work ; and there are some Slovenians among the Notre Dame
Sisters of Cleveland, Ohio. Archbishop Ireland, of St. Paul,
Minnesota, sent to Austria for Slovenian seminarians to finish
their education here, and also appointed three Slovenian priests
SLAVS IN AMERICA i8i
as professors in his diocesan seminary, thus providing a Slo-
venian-American clergy for their parishes in his province.
There are several church and benevolent organizations
among the Slovenians in America. The principal ones are:
Kranjsko Slovenska Katoliska Jednota (Krainer Slovenian
Catholic Union), organized in April, 1894, now having 100
councils and a membership of 12,000; Jugoslovenska Katoliska
Jednota (South Slovenian Catholic Union), organized in Jan-
uary, 1901, having 90 councils and 8,000 members; besides
these there are also Slovenska Zapadna Zveza (Slovenian
Western Union), with 30 councils and about 3,000 members,
Drustva Sv. Barbara (St. Barbara Society), with 80 councils,
chiefly among miners, and the semi-socialistic Delvaska Pod-
porna Zveza (Workingmen's Benevolent Union), with 25
councils and a considerable membership. There are also Sv.
Rafaelova Druzba (St. Raphael's Society), to assist Slovenian
immigrants, founded by Father Kasimir, O.F.M., and the So-
ciety of Sts. Cyril and Methodius, to assist Slovenian schools,
as well as numerous singing and gymnastic organizations. The
Slovenians publish ten newspapers in the United States. The
oldest is the Catholic weekly, "Amerikanski Slovenec" (Ameri-
can Slovene), established in 1891 at Joliet, and it is the organ
of the Krainer Slovenian Catholic Union. "Glas Naroda"
(Voice of the People), estabHshed in 1892 in New York City,
is a daily paper somewhat liberal in its views, but it is the offi-
cial organ of the South Slavonic Catholic Union and the St.
Barbara Society. "Ave Maria" is a religious monthly, pub-
lished by the Franciscans of Rockland Lake, New York. "Glas-
nik" (The Herald) is a weekly of Calumet, Michigan; as are
also "Edinost" (Unity), of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; "Cleve-
landska Amerika," of Cleveland, Ohio; "Narodni Vestnik''
(People's Messenger), of Duluth, Minnesota; and "Slovenski
Narod" (Slovenian People), of Pueblo, Colorado. There are
also two purely Socialistic weeklies in Chicago : "Proletarec"
(Proletarian) and "Glas Svobode" (Voice of Freedom). A
very fine work, "Amerika in Amerikanci" (America and the
Americans), descriptive of all the United States and Slovenian
life and development here, has been published by Father J. M.
Trunk at Klagenfurt, Austria.
SLAVONIC LANGUAGE AND LITURGY
ALTHOUGH the Latin holds the chief place among the
liturgical languages in which the Mass is celebrated
and the praise of God recited in the Divine Offices,
yet the Slavonic language conies next to it among the
languages widely used throughout the world in the liturgy of
the Church. Unlike the Greek or the Latin languages, each of
which may be said to be representative of a single rite, it is
dedicated to both the Greek and the Roman Rites. Its use,
however, is far better known throughout Europe as an expres-
sion of the Greek Rite ; for it is used amongst the various
Slavic nationalities of the Byzantine Rite, whether Catholic
or Orthodox, and in that form is spread among 115,000,000
people ; but it is also used in the Roman Rite along the eastern
shores of the Adriatic Sea in Dalmatia and in the lower part
of Croatia among about 100,000 Catholics there. Whilst the
Greek language is the norm and the original of the Byzantine
or Greek Rite, its actual use as a church language is limited
to a comparatively small number, reckoning by population.
The liturgy and offices of the Byzantine Church were trans-
lated from the Greek into what is now Old Slavonic (or
Church Slavonic) by Sts. Cyril and Methodius about the year
866 and the period immediately following. St, Cyril is cred-
ited with having invented or adapted a special alphabet which
now bears his name (Cyrillic) in order to express the sounds
of the Slavonic language, as spoken by the Bulgars and Mo-
ravians of his day.
Later on St. Methodius translated the entire Bible into Sla-
vonic and his disciples afterwards added other works of the
Greek saints and the canon law. These two brother saints
always celebrated Mass and administered the sacraments in the
Slavonic language. News of their successful missionary work
among the pagan Slavs was carried to Rome along with com-
plaints against them for celebrating the rites of the Church in
182
SLAVONIC LANGUAGE AND LITURGY 183
the heathen vernacular. In 868 Saints Cyril and Methodius
were summoned to Rome by Nicholas I, but arriving there
after his death they were heartily received by his successor,
Adrian II, who approved of their Slavonic version of the
liturgy. St. Cyril died in Rome in 869 and is buried in the
Church of San Clemente. St. Methodius was afterwards con-
secrated Archbishop of Moravia and Pannonia and returned
thither to his missionary work. Later on he was again ac-
cused of using the heathen Slavonic language in the celebration
of the Mass and in the sacraments. It was a popular idea
then, that as there had been three languages, Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin, inscribed over Our Lord on the cross, it would be
sacrilegious to use any other language in the service of the
Church. St. Methodius appealed to the Pope and in 879 he
was again summoned to Rome, before John VIII, who after
hearing the matter sanctioned the use of the Slavonic language
in the Mass and the offices of the Church, saying among other
things : "We rightly praise the Slavonic letters invented by
Cyril, in which praises to God are set forth, and we order that
the glories and deeds of Christ Our Lord be told in that same
language. Nor is it in any wise opposed to wholesome doc-
trine and faith to say Mass in that same Slavonic language
(Nee sanse fidei vel doctrinse aliquid obstat missam in eadem
slavonica Hngua canere), or to chant the holy gospels or divine
lessons from the Old and New Testaments duly translated
and interpreted therein, or the other parts of the divine office :
for He who created the three principal languages, Hebrew,
Greek and Latin, also made the others for His praise and
glory" (Boczek, Codex, tom. I, pp. 43-44)- From that time
onward the Slavonic tongue was firmly fixed as a liturgical
language of the Church, and was used wherever the Slavic
tribes were converted to Christianity under the influence of
monks and missionaries of the Greek Rite. The Cyrillic letters
used in writing it are adaptations of uncial Greek alphabet, with
the addition of a number of new letters to express sounds not
found in the Greek language. All Church books in Russia,
Servia, Bulgaria, or Austria-Hungary (whether used in the
Greek Catholic or the Greek Orthodox Churches) are printed
in the old Cyrillic alphabet and in the ancient Slavonic tongue.
But even before St. Cyril invented his alphabet for the Sla-
vonic language there existed certain runes or native characters
i84 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
in which the southern dialect of the language was committed
to writing. There is a tradition, alluded to by Innocent XI,
that they were invented by St. Jerome as early as the fourth
century ; Jagic, however, thinks that they were really the origi-
nal letters invented by St. Cyril and afterwards abandoned in
favor of an imitation of Greek characters by his disciples and
successors. This older alphabet, which still survives, is called
the Glagolitic (from glagolati, to speak, because the rude
tribesmen imagined that the letters spoke to the reader and
told him what to say), and was used by the southern Slavic
tribes and now exists along the Adriatic highlands. The Sla-
vonic which is written in the Glagolitic characters is also the
ancient language, but it differs considerably from the Slavonic
written in the Cyrillic letters. In fact it may be roughly com-
pared to the difference between the Gaelic of Ireland and the
Gaelic of Scotland. The Roman Mass was translated into
this Slavonic shortly after the Greek liturgy had been trans-
lated by Sts. Cyril and Methodius, so that in the course of time
among the Slavic peoples the southern Slavonic written in
Glagolitic letters became the language of the Roman Rite,
while the northern Slavonic written in Cyrillic letters was the
language of the Greek Rite. The prevailing use of the Latin
language and the adoption of the Roman alphabet by many
Slavic nationalities caused the use of the Glagolitic to diminish
and Latin to gradually take its place. The northern Slavic
peoples, like the Bohemians, Poles and Slovaks, who were con-
verted by Latin missionaries, used the Latin in their rite from
the very first. At present the Glagolitic is only used in Dal-
matia and Croatia. Urban VIII in 163 1 definitively settled
the use of the Glagolitic-Slavonic missal and office-books in the
Roman Rite, and laid down rules where the clergy of each
language came in contact with each other in regard to church
services. Leo XIII published two editions of the Glagolitic
Missal.
The liturgy used in the Slavonic language, whether of Greek
or Roman Rite, offers no peculiarities differing from the origi-
nal Greek or Latin sources. The Ruthenians have introduced
an occasional minor modification, but the Orthodox Russians,
Bulgarians and Servians substantially follow the Byzantine
liturgy and offices in the Slavonic version. The Glagolitic
Missal, Breviary, and ritual follow closely the Roman liturgi-
SLAVONIC LANGUAGE AND LITURGY 185
cal books, and the latest editions contain the new offices autho-
rized by the Roman congregations. The casual observer could
not distinguish the Slavonic priest from the Latin priest when
celebrating Mass or other services, except by hearing the lan-
guage as pronounced aloud.
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA
THE Uniat churches of the Byzantine or Greek Rite
were almost unknown to the United States some twen-
ty-five years ago. Occasionally a priest of that rite
from Syria came to America to ask assistance for his people
who were struggling amid the Moslems, but while his visit
was a matter of curiosity, his rite and the peoples who fol-
lowed it were wholly unknown to American Catholics. To-
day, however, emigration has increased to such an extent and
is drawn from so many lands and peoples that there are repre-
sentatives of most of the Eastern rites in America, and par-
ticularly those of the Greek Rite. These have lately arrived in
large numbers and have erected their churches all over the
country. The chief races which have brought the Greek Rite
with them to the United States are the various Slavs of Aus-
tria-Hungary, and they are now approaching such a position of
material well-being and intellectual development as to be reck-
oned with as one of the factors of Catholic life in the United
States. Other races have also brought the Greek Rite with
them and established it where they have settled. The advent
of the Slavs into the United States really commenced about
1879-1880. Those of the Greek Rite came from the north-
eastern portion of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, where they
inhabited chiefly the northern and southern slopes of the Car-
pathian Mountains, which form the boundary line between Ga-
licia and Hungary. The first of the newcomers were miners
in the coal districts. During the troublous times in Pennsyl-
vania, from 1871 to 1879, when the "Molly Maguires" ter-
rorized the mining districts and practically defied the au-
thority of the State, the various coal companies determined to
look abroad for foreign labor to replace their lawless workmen,
and so they introduced the Austrian Slav to the mining re-
gions of Pennsylvania. His success in wage-earning induced
his countrymen to follow, and the coal companies and iron-
186
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 187
masters of Pennsylvania were quick to avail themselves of the
new and less costly labor. This was before any of the present
contract labor laws were enacted. The Slav was willing to
work for longer hours than the English-speaking laborer, to
perform heavier work, and to stolidly put up with incon-
veniences which his predecessor would not brook. He came
from a land in which he had originally been a serf (serfdom
was abolished in Austria-Hungary in 1848, and in Russia in
1861), then a degraded poverty-stricken peasant with hardly
anything to call his own, and it was no wonder that America
seemed to offer him boundless opportunity to earn a living and
improve his condition. At first he was a cheap man ; but in
the course of a very short time the Slav became not a mere
pair of strong hands, but a skilled worker, and as such he
drove out his competitors, and his success drew still more of
his countrymen across the sea. In the anthracite coal region
of Pennsylvania there were in 1880 but some 1,900 Slavs; in
1890, over 40,000; and in 1900, upwards of 81,000. The same
proportion holds good of the bituminous coal-mining districts
and of the iron regions in that and other States. Taking sim-
ply the past four years (1905-1908), the immigration of the
Slovaks and Ruthenians, both of the Greek Catholic Rite, has
amounted to 215,972. This leaves out of consideration the
immigration (147,675) of the Croatians and Slavonians for
the same period, though a considerable portion of them are also
of the Greek Rite. These Slavs brought with them their Greek
Catholic rites and practices, but they were illiterate, ignorant,
the poorest of the poor, and knew nothing of the EngHsh lan-
guage. Herding together in camps and settlements, and work-
ing like serfs at the most exhausting labor, they had but little
opportunity to improve themselves or to learn the language,
customs and ways of the Americans around them, while both
American and foreign-born Catholics failed to recognize in
them fellow-Catholics, and so passed them scornfully by, and
the American of the older stock and anti-Catholic prejudices
too often held them in supreme contempt. Yet as soon as they
gathered some little substance and formed a settled community
they sent for their clergy. When these arrived, they, too, were
often imbued with national and racial prejudices, and knew
too little of the English language and American ideas and cus-
toms to initiate immediately the progress of their people, yet
i88 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
they created for them churches, schools, and a branch of their
native literature upon American soil, and gradually brought
them into touch with the people around them. In this they
were seconded by many educated laymen who also followed
their countrymen, and the result has been that the Greek
Rite has now been established in the United States much more
solidly and with greater virility than it is in many of the dio-
ceses in south-eastern Europe, Other races and nationalities
have also established themselves besides the Slavs ; and there
are in America also the Rumanians, the Syrians and the Ital-
ians who follow the Greek Rite. But the people who have
been foremost and most enthusiastic in the support of and de-
votion to their Oriental Rite are the so-called Ruthenians, a
name used to designate the Ruthenians proper and also those
Slovaks who are their immediate neighbors. In order to un-
derstand fully their position and relations in America, some of
their history and peculiarities should be given.
I. — RuTHENiAN Greek Catholics
The word Ruthenian is derived from the later Latin Ru-
thenia, the former name for Russia, and of course the Ruthe-
nians might well be called Russians. Indeed, the present Ru-
thenians declare that they are the original Russians, and that
the present Russia and Russians owe their name and nation to
the accident of successful conquest and assimilation. Their
own name for themselves is Rusini, and it is probable that Ru-
thenian was merely an attempt to put this word into Latin.
The word Rutheni is first found in the writings of the Polish
annalist, Martinus Gallus (1190), and the Danish historian,
Saxo Grammaticus (1203). The original word Rusini is de-
rived from Rus, the abstract word for Russian fatherland or
dwelling-place of the Slavic people ; and the English word
"Russian" may therefore be a derivative from the word
Rus, as denominating the race, or it may mean a subject of
the Russian Empire. The former is russky, the latter rossiisky,
in the Russian and Ruthenian languages, and hence, while the
first word is translated either as Russian or Ruthenian, it car-
ries no special reference to the Russian Empire. These people
are also called "Little Russians" (an expression chiefly used
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 189
for them in the Russian Empire), originally an allusion to
their stature as contrasted with the Muscovites. Their lan-
guage is known as Ruthenian or Little Russian, and is spoken in
Northern Hungary, Galicia, Bukowina, and in the Provinces
of Volhynia, Podolia, Chelm and Kiev, in Russia. It is quite
similar to the Russian language of the Russian Empire (some-
times called Great Russian), bearing about the same relation
to it as Lowland Scotch does to English, or Plattdeutsch to
German, and rather closer than Portuguese does to Spanish.
The Ruthenians (in Austria) and Little Russians (in Russia)
use the Russian alphabet and write their language in almost
the same orthography as the Great Russians of St. Petersburg
and Moscow, but they pronounce it in many cases very differ-
ently, quite as the French and English might pronounce differ-
ently a word written the same in each language. This fact
has led in late years to a recension of the Russian alphabet in
Galicia and Bukowina by the governmental authorities, and by
dropping some letters and adding one or two more and then
spelling all the words just as they are pronounced, they have
produced a new language at least to the eye. This is the "pho-
netic" alphabet and orthography, and as thus introduced it dif-
ferentiates the Ruthenian language of these provinces more
than ever from the Russian. The phonetic system of orthog-
raphy is still fiercely opposed at home and in America, and as
an Austrian governmental measure it is regarded by many as
an effort to detach the Ruthenians from the rest of the Rus-
sian race and in a measure to Polonize them. This battle of
the reformed phonetic spelling rages as fiercely in the United
States as in Austria. Indeed the Greek Catholic bishop here
has found it necessary to issue his official documents in both
the phonetic and the etymologic spelling (as the older form is
called), so as to meet the views of both parties. The phonetic
spelling has never been introduced among the Ruthenians in
Hungary, and their section of the language is still written in
the customary form, there and in the United States. Besides
the Ruthenians there are also the Slovaks who live in Northern
and North-western Hungary, close neighbors to the Ruthenians,
who are Greek Catholics, and who speak a language almost
like the Bohemian, yet similar to the Ruthenian. It is written,
however, with Roman letters, and the pronunciation follows
the Bohemian more than the Ruthenian. These people seem
IQO ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
to have been originally Ruthenian, but became gradually-
changed and moulded by the Bohemians and their language
and for a long time wrote their language in the same manner
as the Bohemian. The Bohemians, however, are in the Aus-
trian part of the empire, while the Slovaks are in Hungary.
They have emigrated to the United States in large numbers,
and are about equally divided between the Greek and Roman
Rites. This again necessitates the pubHcation of church mat-
ters, prayer-books, journals, etc., in the Slovak language. It
illustrates the difficulties of the Greek Catholic priests in the
United States, since they are likely to have in their parishes
Ruthenians (of the old and new orthographies), Slovaks, and
even those who speak only Hungarian, having lost their Slavic
tongue. It is no uncommon thing to find a Greece Catholic
priest capable of speaking five languages : Ruthenian, Slo-
vak, Hungarian, German and English. It is these people as a
whole who are comprehended under the term Ruthenian, al-
though that term applies strictly to those speaking Russian and
using the Russian alphabet. After the eleventh century the
larger portion of Russians fell away from the unity of
the Church in the schism of Constantinople, while a minority
continued faithful to the Catholic Church, and later many more
returned to unity. The Holy See, therefore, made use of the
ancient word Ruthenian to designate those Russians who fol-
lowed the Greek Rite in unity with the Holy See, in order to
distinguish them from the Northern Russians who adhered to
the schism. Later on, those Russians who joined the union
under the Polish kings received the same name, and the word
Ruthenian is to-day used exclusively to designate the Russians
of Austria-Hungary, who are Greek Catholics, in contradistinc-
tion to the Russians of the Russian Empire, who are of the
Greek Orthodox faith.
The language of the Mass and the other liturgical services
according to the Byzantine Rite is the ancient Slavonic (staros-
lavianski), and the Greek Liturgy was originally translated by
Sts. Cyril and Methodius about the year 868, and it has re-
mained substantially the same ever since. It is curious to no-
tice that the Ruthenian language is much closer, both in spelling
and pronunciation, to the church Slavonic than the present Rus-
sian language of St. Petersburg and Moscow. The letters in
which the church books are printed are the Cyrillic, or Kiril-
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 191
litsa, said to have been invented, or, rather, adapted by St.
Cyril from the Greek alphabet, together with some additional
letter of his own invention. It consists of forty-three letters
of archaic form as used in the church books, but has been al-
tered and reduced in modern Russian and Ruthenian to thirty-
five letters. In the year 879 Pope John VIII formally autho-
rized the use of the Slavonic language forever in the Mass and
in the whole liturgy and offices of the Church, according to the
Greek Rite, and its use has been continued ever since by the
Catholic and the Orthodox (schismatic) Greeks of the Slavic
races. This is the language used in the Slushebnik (Missal),
Trebnik (Ritual), Chasoslov (Book of Hours), and other
church books of the Ruthenian Greek Catholics in America.
After the schism of Constantinople ( 1054) most of the Rus-
sians became estranged from the unity of the Church. In 1595
the Russian bishops of Lithuania and Little Russia determined
to return to unity with the Holy See, and held a council at
Brest-Litovsk, at which a decree of union was adopted, and
where they chose two of their number, Ignatius Potzey and
Cyril Terletzki, to go to Rome and take the oath of submission
to the Pope. They declared that they desired to return to
the full unity of the Church as it existed before the schism of
Photius and Caerularius, so as to have in Russia one united
Catholic Church again. No change in their rites or their cal-
endar was required by Rome, but the whole of the ancient
Greek Liturgy, service and discipline (excepting a few schis-
matic saints' days and practices) was to go on as before. In
December, 1595, Clement VIII solemnly ratified the union of
the two Churches in the Bull "Magnus Dominus." On October
6, 1596, the union between the Eastern and Western Churches
was proclaimed and ratified in the Russian part of the King-
dom of Poland. A large number of the Russian bishops im-
mediately went over to the union. In Chelm the Russian
Bishop Zbiruiski led the way with his whole diocese, and his
successor, Methodius Terletzki, was a valiant champion of the
Uniat Church. This Greek Uniat Church even produced a
martyr for the Faith, St. Josaphat, Archbishop of Polotzk,
who was slain by the Orthodox partisans in 1633. In Galicia,
however, the union was slower. While priests and congrega-
tions became Uniat, the Bishops of Przemysl and Lemberg stood
out for nearly a century. But on June 23, 1691, Innocent Vin-
192 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
nitzki, Bishop of Przemysl, joined the union, and in 1700 Jo-
seph Shumlanski, Bishop of Lemberg (it was afterwards re-
stored to metropolitan dignity by the Pope in 1807), also took
the oath of union with the Holy See. From that time till now
the Russians on the northern slopes of the Carpathian Moun-
tains and on both sides of the River Dniester have been united
with Rome. On the southern side of the Carpathians the Rus-
sians also accepted the union. In the year 1636 Vassili Taraso-
vitch, Bishop of Munkacs, acknowledged the Pope as the head
of the Church and for it he was persecuted, imprisoned, and
forced to resign his see. But union with the Holy See could
not be stayed by such means, and on April 24, 1646, it was
accomplished in the city of Ungvar by Peter Rostoshinski, the
then Bishop of Munkacs, and George Yakusitch, Bishop of
Agri (Erlau). These two bishops in solemn council, with
sixty-three priests, abjured the schism and confessed them-
selves Greek clergy holding the Faith of Sts. Cyril and Me-
thodius in communion with Rome. Since that time the Ru-
thenian people (including the Greek Slovaks) in the Kingdom
of Hungary have acknowledged the Pope as the visible head
of the undivided Catholic Church.
These Ruthenians have continued to practice their ancient
Greek-Slavonic rites and usages, and their forms of worship
introduced into the United States seem strange to the Catholic
accustomed only to the Roman Rite, and have made them ob-
jects of distrust and even active dislike, so that a few of the
most salient differences may be pointed out, although a full
statement will be found in the various articles on the Eastern
rites, ceremonies and vestments. The Mass itself is said in
ancient Slavonic, the altar is separated from the body of the
church by a high partition called the iconostasis, upon which
the pictures of Christ and His Mother, as well as various
saints, are placed, and the vestments of the Mass are quite dif-
ferent. The stole is a broad band looped around the neck and
hanging straight down in front, the chasuble is cut away at
the front and closely resembles the Roman cope, and instead
of the maniple two broad cuffs are worn, while a broad belt
takes the place of the girdle or cincture. Married men may
be ordained to the diaconate and priesthood ; but bishops must
be celibate, nor can a deacon or priest marry after ordination.
Priests impart the Sacrament of Confirmation to children im-
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 193
mediately after baptism, and Communion is given to the laity
under both forms, the consecrated species being mingled to-
gether in the chalice and administered to the communicant with
a spoon. Organs are not used in their churches, and their
church year follows the Julian Calendar, which is now thir-
teen days behind the Gregorian Calendar in use in the United
States and Western Europe. Besides this, the Ruthenians
(and the Russian Orthodox likewise) display the so-called
"three-armed" (or Russian) cross upon their churches and use
it upon their missals, prayer-books, paintings and banners, as
well as other objects. They make the sign of the cross in the
reverse direction of the Roman method, and in their religious
services the men and women are segregated from each other
upon different sides of their churches.
It is from these people, inhabiting Galicia, Bukowina and
Hungary, that the Ruthenian Greek Catholic population has
come. Their earliest immigration to the United States began
in 1879, from the western portion of Galicia near the Car-
pathian Mountains, the so-called Lemkovschini, and then
spread throughout the Galician and Hungarian sides of the
mountains. At first it was hardly noticed, but it grew year by
year, the earliest immigrants coming from Grybow, Gorlice,
Jaslo, Neu Sandec, Krosno, and Sanok in Galicia, and from
Szepes, Saros, Abauj and Ung, in Hungary, until finally the
governmental authorities began to notice it. At the post-ofiices
in many of the mountain places in the Ruthenian portion of
Galicia it was observed that the peasants were receiving large
sums of money from their fathers, sons or brothers in America.
The news spread rapidly, the newspapers and officials taking
it up, and so emigration was at once stimulated to the highest
degree. Every year it has increased, and Ruthenian societies
are formed here to assist their newly-arrived brethren to find
employment and to give information to those at home about
America. It is impossible to tell exactly how many Ruthenian
and Slovak Greek Catholics have come to the United States,
because no statistics have been kept by the United States Gov-
ernment in regard to religious faith of immigrants, and not
always accurate ones in regard to race or nationality. Still
the immigration reports show that immigration from Austria-
Hungary from 1 861 to 1868 was annually in the hundreds;
and from 1869 to 1879 it ranged from 1,500 to 8,000 annually;
194 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and in 1880 it suddenly rose to 17,000. From 1880 to 1908
the total immigration from Austria-Hungary to the United
States amounted to 2,780,000, and about twenty per cent of
these were Ruthenians and Slovaks. Within the last four
years (1905-1908) the immigration of the Slovaks and Ru-
thenians has amounted to 215,972. To this must be added the
Croatians and Slavonians (117,695), a large proportion of
whom are of the Greek Rite. It is estimated that there are at
present in the United States between 350,000 and 400,000
Greek Catholic Ruthenians, including as such the Greek Catho-
lic Slovaks and Croato-Slovenians. The largest number (over
one-half) are in Pennsylvania, while New York, New Jersey
and Ohio have each a very large number of them, and the re-
mainder are scattered all through the New England and West-
ern States. From the best information obtainable in advance
of the coming census of 1910 their distribution is as follows:
Pennsylvania 190,000
New York 50,500
New Jersey 40,000
Ohio . 35.500
Connecticut • • 10,000
Illinois 8,000
Massachusetts 7.500
Rhode Island 1,500
Missouri 6,500
Indiana • • 6,000
Minnesota 3.000
Colorado, Dakota, Nebraska and Montana, about 8,000
West Virginia, Virginia and the Southern States, about 5,000
After the Ruthenian immigration had begun in considerable
numbers, it was but natural that they should desire to establish
a Church of their own rite. At Shenandoah, Pennsylvania,
the Ruthenian settlement had so increased that towards the
end of 1884 they sent a petition to Archbishop (afterwards
Cardinal) Sylvester Sembratovitch, Metropolitan of Lemberg,
praying that a Greek Catholic priest might be sent to them to
found a parish of the Greek Rite at that place. The petitioners
promised to build a church for him if he were sent. In the
following year (1885) Rev. Ivan Volanski, of the Diocese of
Lemberg, arrived in the United States, the first Greek Catholic
priest to take up work among his people here. On his arrival
he presented himself in Philadelphia with his letters, but, be-
ing a married priest, he encountered great difficulty in being
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 195
recognized as a Catholic priest in good standing. However, he
proceeded to Shenandoah, where under great difficulties and
discouragements he organized his congregation and for about
a year celebrated Mass and other services in a hired hall, for
he was unable to obtain the use of the local Latin churches for
Greek services. The matter of his regularity and his accept-
ance as a priest in Pennsylvania for the Ruthenians was finally
arranged through Cardinal Sembratovitch. Early in 1886 he
completed at Shenandoah a little frame church dedicated to
St. Michael the Archangel, the first Greek Catholic church in
America. He then organized there the first Greek Catholic
Society, that of St. Nicholas, built and organized a small pa-
rochial school, and then proceeded to form congregations and
to found churches in other places where the Ruthenians were
thickly settled. During his stay he organized congregations
and started churches at Hazleton (1887), Kingston (1888),
and Olyphant (1888) in Pennsylvania, at Jersey City, New
Jersey (1889), and at Minneapohs, Minnesota (1889). Find-
ing his Ruthenian people without any reading-matter in their
own language, he sent to Galicia for Russian type, and in the
latter part of 1886 he obtained a few fonts from the Shev-
chenko printing office at Lemberg. He then commenced the
publication in "phonetic" Ruthenian of a small paper issued
every two weeks at Shenandoah under the name of "America."
This paper lived until about 1890, but got involved in the labor
troubles in the mining districts, which destroyed much of its
usefulness. In the spring of 1887 the Metropolitan of Lem-
berg sent him another priest. Rev. Zeno Lakovitch (unmar-
ried), and a lay teacher, Volodimir Semenovitch, from the Uni-
versity of Lemberg. Father Lakovitch labored at Kingston
and at Wilkesbarre, where he died a year later. In 1888 Rev.
Constantine Andrukovitch was sent from Lemberg, and, in
addition to his parochial work, he, with Father Volanski, un-
dertook to establish a series of stores in several towns in Penn-
sylvania to sell goods to the Ruthenians and thus avoid the
enormous prices which the mining companies charged them.
The business venture was unsuccessful, and, with other mat-
ters, it caused the recall of Father Volanski to Galicia. He
remained there some time, then was sent as a missionary to
Brazil, where his wife died, when he returned to Galicia, where
he was a parish priest until his death in 1905. This business
ig6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
venture also caused the suspension of Father Andrukovitch,
who returned to Galicia in 1892. The next three Greek clergy-
men were Rev. Theophan Obushkevitch (of Galicia), Rev.
Cornelius Laurisin and Rev. Augustin Laurisin (of Hungary),
who took up their missionary work energetically. The first
two are still Greek -Catholic parish priests in this country. Since
their coming there has been a constant accession of Ruthenian
Greek priests from Galicia and Hungary, and the building of
churches and schools has gone on with increasing success.
Even quite costly churches have been built. In Jersey City
the old church has given way to a fine stone and brick church,
which is an excellent specimen of Russian architecture, while
at Homestead and Shamokin, Pennsylvania, there are quite
costly churches erected. Many of the Greek churches are pur-
chases from Protestant denominations, altered and rearranged
for the necessities of their rite, while one or two are churches
brought over from the schismatics. The first Greek Catholic
Mass in New York City was celebrated in the basement of St.
Brigid's church on Avenue A (which was put at the disposal
of the Greeks by the late Archbishop Corrigan), on April 19,
1890, by the Rev. Alexander Dzubay, who is still in active
parish work in America. This Greek congregation afterwards
bought a church in Brooklyn (St. Elias, 1892), and there was
no Ruthenian church in Manhattan until the Greek Catholic
church of St. George was opened in 1905. In February, 1909,
the Greek Bishop Soter bought a Protestant Episcopal church
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, refitted it, and consecrated it
as the Greek Cathedral of St. Mary of the Immaculate Con-
ception, and in the adjoining parish house and rectory will also
open a seminary for the education of American priests of the
Greek Rite. Of course many Ruthenian settlements in various
localities are too poor to build and maintain a church, nor are
there just at present sufficient priests in America to attend to
their spiritual needs. Still there are at present (1909) about
140 Ruthenian Greek Catholic churches in the United States,
and there are also ten more new ones projected for waiting
congregations. Their churches are distributed as follows :
Pennsylvania 80
New York • 14
Ohio 12
New Jersey 10
Connecticut 4
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 197
Illinois ■ 4
Massachusetts 4
Indiana 3
Missouri 3
West Virginia 2
Minnesota 2
Rhode Island i
Virginia i
The Ruthenian Greek Catholic clergy in the United States
consists (1909) of one bishop and 118 priests, originating from
the following dioceses :
Diocese Monks Secular Qergy
Celibates Married Widowers
Lemberg 4 8 5 5
Przemysl 6 12 2
Stanislau 2 2 i
Eperies i 13 10
Munkacs 2 i 30 5
Kreutz i
Scranton i 2
Philadelphia 4
Pittsburgh i
6 25 64 23
Several of these priests are converts from the Orthodox
Greek Church in the United States. As has been said, men
who are already married are ordained to the diaconate and
priesthood in the Greek Church, and so it naturally followed
that married priests were sent to America. While a married
priesthood seems repugnant to a Catholic of the Latin Rite,
yet it is strongly adhered to by the Greek Catholics as vaguely
a part of their nationality and Eastern Rite. All American
Greek Catholic priests will hereafter be ordained from celibate
candidates only, according to the provisions of the Apostolic
Letter "Ea semper," which will be referred to later. The
growing importance of the Greek Rite in America, the dissen-
sions arising out of old-country political factions among the
Ruthenians, which will be mentioned later on, and which occa-
sioned serious interference with the normal growth of the
Greek Church, and the increasing intensity of the efforts of
the Russian Orthodox to detach the Ruthenians in America
from their faith and unity caused the Holy Father in 1907 to
provide a Greek Catholic bishop for America. Previous to
this (1902) the Holy See had sent the Right Rev. Andrew
Hodobay, titular abbot and canon of the Greek Diocese of
198 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Eperies, as Apostolic visitor to the Ruthenians in America,
who examined the conditions of the CathoHcs of the Greek
Rite in all parts of the United States and returned to Europe
in 1906 with his report. The choice of a bishop for the
Ruthenian Greek Catholics fell upon Right Rev. Stephen
Soter Ortynski, a Basilian monk, hegumenos of the monastery
of St. Paul, Michaelovka, Galicia. On May 12, 1907, he was
consecrated titular Bishop of Daulia by the Most Rev. Andrew
Roman Ivanovitch Scheptitzky, Greek ]vIetropolitan of Lem-
berg, and the other Greek bishops of Galicia, and he arrived in
America on August 2y, 1907. Shortly after his arrival (Sep-
tember, 1907) the Apostolic Letter "Ea semper," concerning
the new bishop for the Ruthenian Greek Catholics in the
United States, his powers and duties, and the general consti-
tution of the Greek Rite in America was published. It created
considerable dissatisfaction among the Greek clergy and laity
inasmuch as it did not provide for any diocesan power or
authority for the new bishop, but placed him as an auxiliary
to the Latin bishops, and as it modified several of their im-
memorial privileges in various ways. The Sacrament of Con-
firmation was thereafter to be withheld from infants at bap-
tism, and was not to be conferred by priests, but was reserved
for the bishop only (as in the Latin Rite and among the Greeks
in Italy), and married priests were not thereafter to be or-
dained in America or to be sent thither from abroad, while
the regulations as to the marriage of persons of the two rites
were also modified. The Greek Ruthenian laity saw in it an
attack upon their Slavic nationality and Eastern Rite, an idea
which the Russian Orthodox Church eagerly fostered and
magnified. They were told by the Orthodox that the whole
letter was a latinization of their Greek Rite in regard to Con-
firmation and Holy Orders, and was a nullification in America
of the Decrees of the Popes that their rite should be kept in-
tact. This resulted in some losses (about 10,000) from the
Ruthenians to the Russian Church, but already many of them
are coming back. Matters, however, adjusted themselves, and
the work of the new bishop is having good results. The whole
matter of a Greek bishop in America is so far in an experi-
mental stage, and it rests upon the extent of the current and
future immigration, the stability and solidarity of the Ru-
thenians in their adherence to their faith and rite, as to what
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 199
powers and authority their bishop shall ultimately have. Where
there is an evident and actual need for it the Holy See has
always granted the erection of Oriental dioceses, but where a
minority of a population seems bound to become assimilated
with, and eventually absorbed into, the surrounding population,
the case may be entirely otherwise. The newly-appointed
bishop has had success in establishing churches and parochial
schools and in inducing his Ruthenian flock to become Ameri-
can citizens and identify themselves with American Hfe while
not abandoning their faith and their Eastern Rite. He aims
to establish English-Ruthenian schools in each Greek parish
and to open a Ruthenian-American seminary at Philadelphia
for the education of American-born Ruthenians as priests of
the Greek Rite. There is already one American-Ruthenian
priest, lately ordained. In purely theological matters they will
be educated as in Latin seminaries, if not actually sent there
for lectures, but in the Oriental church rites, discipline, liturgi-
cal language, music and customs the proposed seminary will
fill a place for the Ruthenians which our present diocesan semi-
naries do not fill. The number of church or parochial schools
of the Ruthenians is about fifty, where instruction in English,
Ruthenian, church catechism and the elements of a general
education is given. No organized Sunday-school system has
as yet been established amongst them, nor are there any nuns
or religious engaged in teaching in the United States.
In order to understand somewhat clearly the situation of the
Ruthenians in America, account must be taken of their national
home politics, which they bring with them and fight out often
quite bitterly in this country. As already said, they are from
the northern and southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains.
The northern Ruthenians derisively call their southern breth-
ren "Hungarians" (Madyari), while the latter return the com-
pliment by calling the former "Poles" (Poliaki). The point
of this lies in the fact that each of the nationalities named is
cordially detested by the Ruthenians on either side. But these
are merely surface divisions between the two bodies of the
same race. Their actual factional differences are much deeper.
There may be said to be, broadly speaking, three Ruthenian
parties or factions in the United States : ( i ) The Mosco-
philes, or Moskalophiles (Moskal is the Little Russian word
for a Great Russian), who aim at an imitation, if not an actual
200 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
adoption, of all things Russian as found in the present Empire
of Russia, looking towards Moscow as the seed and kernel of
Russian or Slavic development, and who are strong supporters
of Panslavism; (2) the Ukraintzi, or Ukrainians (the Ukraine
is the adjoining borderland provinces of Russia and Galicia),
who stand for the interests of the Ruthenian people in Austria
and of the Little Russians in Russia, as distinct and apart
from the Great Russians, and who desire to develop the Ru-
thenian (Little Russian) language, literature and race along
their own lines, entirely distinct and apart from that of the
present-day Russian Empire; and (3) the Ugro-russki, or
Hungarian Ruthenians, who keep all the old Russian racial
traditions, reverencing their Russian language, literature and
ancestry as models to follow in their development, but at the
same time refusing to follow the ideas of Moscow and St.
Petersburg in such development, either in Hungary or in the
United States. The first two parties are Galicians, the last
one Slovaks and Hungarian Ruthenians. These parties are
sometimes divided into smaller factions, perplexing for an out-
sider to understand, such as those who desire to introduce the
Hungarian language and customs, even using Hungarian in
the liturgy of the Church. It is needless to say that none of
these larger parties ever agree upon any one subject other than
their Slavic nationality and Greek Rite. The Moscophiles of-
ten unite with the Greek Orthodox and Russian societies upon
the slightest pretext when Russo-Slavic ideals are to be pro-
claimed, and are fiercely against everything that does not look
Russiaward, for Russia is their big brother. On the other
hand the Ukraintzi will have nothing to do with modern
Russia ; it is behind the age and lags in the march of civiliza-
tion ; and they have besides offended both the other parties by
adopting the "phonetic" style of spelling. This oifence seems
to be intensified because the new (3reek bishop is somewhat of
their way of thinking. The Ugro-russki are violently op-
posed to whatever does not accord with the racial views and
traditions of the Ruthenian and Slovak people within the bor-
ders of Hungary, and do not agree with the views and actions
of either of the other two parties. Consequently, the Greek
Catholic bishop has to publish his official communications in
Ruthenian, both phonetic and old-style, and in Slovak, in order
to reach all his people.
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 201
Of course these Greek Catholics of such varied views have
organized into societies. Each church has its own local reli-
gious and singing societies, but there are other and larger bod-
ies known as "brotherhoods" or lodges (bratstva), which have
been of great assistance in building up the Ruthenian churches.
They are usually of the nature of mutual benefit societies,
assist in finding work, helping in religious matters and the like,
having always the Greek Rite and the Ruthenian race as their
main inspiration. Some of them provide that their members
must show that they have made their Easter communion or
forfeit membership, and provide for the dropping of a mem-
ber when he ceases to be a Catholic. These brotherhoods or
lodges are combined into a general federation or union which
takes in the whole United States. It has its annual convention
composed of delegates from the various brotherhoods, and
always has some well-known Greek Catholic priest as its spir-
itual director. The largest and oldest of these federated soci-
eties is the "Soyedineniya Greko-Kaftolicheskikh Russkikh
Bratstv" (Russian-Greek Catholic Union), which was founded
in Pennsylvania in February, 1892. It is almost wholly com-
posed of Slovaks and South Carpathian Ruthenians. It now
(1909) has 542 brotherhoods and 22,490 members, and has
besides a junior organization for young people in which there
are 163 brotherhoods and 5,400 members, and is in a flourish-
ing condition in every way. It also publishes a weekly Greek
Catholic newspaper at Homestead, Pennsylvania — the "Ameri-
kansky Russky Viestnik" (American Russian Messenger),
printed both in the Russian and the Slovak languages. In
Ruthenian politics it is the representative of the Ugro-russki
party. The second of these federations is the "Russky Na-
rodny Soyus" (Russian National Union), which was founded
in 1894 and is a Galician offshoot from the preceding society.
It is chiefly composed of Galicians who are Ukrainians, and
who express themselves strongly against the Russian Empire
and the Orthodox Church. It now has 249 brotherhoods and
12,760 members, and it likewise publishes a weekly newspaper,
the "Svoboda" (Liberty), which is printed in New York City,
in "phonetic" Little Russian. The third of these federations is
the "Obshchestvo Russkikh Bratstv" (Society of Russian
Brotherhoods), which was founded July i, 1900. It is com-
posed almost wholly of Galicians of the Moscophile party, and
202 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
a small minority of its membership is also made up of Galicians
who are either Greek Orthodox or of Orthodox proclivities,
for it is quite pro-Russian and opposed to the Ukrainians. It
has now 120 brotherhoods and 6,530 members, and publishes its
weekly newspaper, "Pravda" (Truth), at Olyphant, Pennsyl-
vania, in the Ruthenian old-style spelling. There is also the
"Rimsko a Greko Katolicka Jednota" (Roman and Greek Cath-
olic Union), of Pennsylvania, a Slavic organization which has
some 175 brotherhoods and about 9,000 members, and it is
estimated that about one-third of these are Greek Catholic.
This federation also publishes a weekly paper, "Bratstvo"
(Brotherhood) in the Slovenian language. Besides these pub-
lications there is also the "Dushpastyr" (The Pastor), published
in New York, which is exclusively a religious periodical and
devoted solely to the affairs of the Greek Catholic Church in
America. In it the official utterances of the Greek bishop are
usually published. There are also many other American Ru-
thenian papers and periodicals which have nothing whatever
to do with church matters, but are devoted to labor questions,
national issues and to Socialism. Unfortunately, many of
these publications, even the Catholic ones, exhibit too much of
a tendency to attack their opponents in strong language and
to belittle the efforts of those not of their party, and their
usefulness for good is thereby lessened. From time to time
various religious works and a number of booklets on church
and national topics have been published in Slovak and Ru-
thenian, and every year there are issued a number of year-
books or calendars containing a variety of information and
illustrations concerning the Ruthenian Greek Catholics in
America and abroad.
The immigration of the Ruthenian Greek Catholics into the
United States and the organization of their churches and rite
has been too recent to properly speak by name of any distin-
guished representatives of their clergy or laity. Nearly every
one who took a prominent part in their settlement and develop-
ment is still alive and engaged in active work, while a vigorous
younger generation born on American soil is now growing up.
Among the Greek priests here in America are several who are
authors of learned works upon the church language and ritual,
others who have filled posts of considerable distinction in the
dioceses in Hungary and Galicia whence they came, and many
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 203
who have constantly employed their tongue and pen in the edu-
cation and improvement of their fellow-countrymen in this
country. There is, however, no religious order of women of
the Greek Rite, nor any association whatever of women de-
voted to church service in the United States, nor has any at-
tempt been made so far, either on the part of the clergy or
laity, to establish here anything of the kind.
In addition to the Ruthenian Greek Catholics in the United
States, there are a large number of them in Canada. They
are principally settled in the provinces of Manitoba, Alberta
and Saskatchewan, where they have devoted themselves to
agricultural pursuits. It is said that a Ruthenian often works
hard in the United States, saves up his money, and emigrates
to Canada, where he can obtain cheap land under the home-
stead acts. There is besides a considerable direct immigration
from Galicia and Hungary, but the majority of the Canadian
Ruthenians are Galicians. Their first church (St. Nicholas) in
Canada was built about 1900 ai Winnipeg by the Basilian
monks who are in charge of the Greek missions of the north-
west. The Very Rev. Platonides Filas, O.S.B.M., who is now
( 1909) the superior of the order in Galicia, was the first mis-
sionary sent there. Afterwards, in 1905, another church (St.
Josaphat) was built at Edmonton. Later on a monastery was
established in Winnipeg, with a branch at Monaster, Alberta.
From these central points, there are now (1909) over sixty
missionary stations established with small Greek chapels at
Oaknook, Swan River, Barrows, Ethelbert, Garland, Grand
View, Minatonas, Yorkton, Beaverdale, Rabbit Hill, Star, La-
ment, Nundare and Skaro. In this section the Ruthenians
have to contend with the Russian Orthodox missions, which
are well provided for, and with certain schismatics from the
Russian Orthodox known as the "Seraphimites," or inde-
pendent Grseco-Russian Church. There are three missionary
communities of the Basilian monks : at Winnipeg, Edmonton
and Monaster. The Greek clergy in Canada consist of eight
monks and four secular priests. The number of Ruthenian
Greek Catholics is between 45,000 and 50,000, widely scattered
through these north-west territories. In Canada there is a reli-
gious order of women of the Greek Rite, the Servants of Mary
(14 in number), whose mother-house is in Lemberg, Galicia.
They have schools at Winnipeg, Edmonton, Monaster, and in
204 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
some outlying districts. The Canadian Ruthenians publish a
small paper ("Canadian Farmer") and have several societies
on the pattern of those in the United States.
II. — Rumanian Greek Catholics
These people come from the eastern provinces of Hungary
known as Transylvania. They are of a nationality which
claims to come down from the Roman colonists who were set-
tled there by the Emperor Trajan, and hence they still call
themselves Romani. These Transylvanians are really of an
older political order and settlement than the independent coun-
try known as Rumania, which bounds Transylvania on the
east. The inhabitants of both lands are of the same stock, but
those in Hungary were organized and in possession of a fair
amount of education and political rights under Hungarian rule
whilst the present Kingdom of Rumania was still oppressed
under Turkish rule. The latter only obtained its independence
after the Russo-Turkish war of 1878, and in turn began the
education and enlightenment of its people.
The Rumanian language is a Latin tongue, somewhat simi-
lar to Italian, but with a considerable mixture of Slavic, Greek,
and Turkish words in it. It is also the language of the Mass
and liturgical offices according to the Greek Rite among the
Rumanians, and is an instance where the Church has made
a modern tongue the liturgical language. Owing to Slavonic
influences, the Rumanian language was formerly written in
Slavonic or Russian characters, and this continued until about
1825, when the Roman alphabet was adopted, first by the Cath-
olic Rumanians and then by the Orthodox, and it has been
used for the Rumanian language ever since. Even for church
books the Slavonic letters (the Cyrillic alphabet) had to give
way to the Latin letters, just as the Slavonic Liturgy in the
church services had given away to the Rumanian, and now
both the Catholic and the Orthodox Mass-books and Office-
books are printed beautifully in Latin letters and modern Ru-
manian, whether for use in the churches of Transylvania or
Rumania. The Rumanian Church, although Greek in rite,
was originally under the jurisdiction of Rome up to the ninth
century, when Constantinople assumed jurisdiction over it.
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 205
and later on, when Constantinople fell into schism, the Ru-
manian Church went with it. Frequently, however, during
the centuries that followed, partially successful attempts were
made towards reunion. At the time of the so-called Refor-
mation in Western Europe the Calvinists endeavored to per-
suade a portion of the Rumanian clergy and their flocks to
embrace the new doctrines. This naturally led to an examina-
tion of matters wherein the Roman Church differed from
the Calvinists, and also to the points wherein it was in har-
mony with the Greek Church, and later to a desire for union
with it. The union of the Rumanian Greek Church in Hun-
gary (for the other Rumanians were subjects of Turkey)
with the Holy See dates from 1700. The preliminaries for
union had been in progress for several years before, and
once or twice had been on the eve of success. In the year
just mentioned the Metropolitan Athanasius held a general
synod of the clergy of Transylvania at Alba Julia (Gyulya-
fehervar), which declared, on 5 September, 1700, that "freely
and spontaneously moved thereto by the impulse of Divine
Grace, we have entered upon a union with the Roman Catholic
Church." This decree was signed by the metropolitan, 54
arch-priests, and 1563 priests. The act of union was con-
firmed at Rome in the following year, and the Greek Catho-
lic hierarchy was for a long time the only Greek hierarchy
in Transylvania. Towards the middle of the last century the
Greek Orthodox Rumanian hierarchy was also established.
The Rumanian Greek Catholics are very proud of their union
with Rome, and church documents are often dated not only
by the year of Our Lord (pre anul Domnului), but also by
the year of the union (pre anul de la santa unire).
The Rumanian immigrant does not seem to have begun to
come to the LTnited States until about the beginning of the
present century. In the year 1900 Rumanian immigration
from Transylvania and Northern Hungary began to flow
towards the United States, and lately has been followed by
immigration from Rumania itself. It has steadily increased
until now ( 1909) there are between 60,000 and 70,000 Ru-
manians in the United States. Nearly all of these have come
from Hungary ; only a small minority are from the Kingdom
of Rumania. Those from Hungary are from the southern
and western counties of Transylvania, chiefly the counties of
2o6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Szatmar, Szilagy, Fogaras, Bihar, and Temes. The Greek
Catholics among them number about 45,000, and they are
scattered through the United States from the Atlantic to the
Pacific. The chief places where the Rumanian Greek Catho-
lics are settled are Cleveland, Youngstown, Columbus, New-
ark, and Cincinnati, Ohio ; Sharon, Erie, Pittsburgh, Windber,
and Scalp Level, Pennsylvania ; Aurora, Indianapolis, Indi-
ana Harbor, and Terre Haute, Indiana ; Trenton, New Jer-
sey ; St. Louis, Missouri ; and New York City. They are all
quite poor and are generally found, like all recent immigrants,
in the humblest and poorest walks of life. They lack suffi-
cient missionary priests of their own rite, and at present many
additional priests would be welcome. The Rev. Dr. Epami-
nondas Lucaciu was the first Greek Catholic Rumanian priest
to come to this country. He was sent here in 1904 by the
Greek Catholic Bishop of Lugos, at the request of the late
Bishop Horstmann of Cleveland, who was asked for a priest
of their own rite by the Rumanians settled in Cleveland.
When he came, he set about forming a congregation and
building a church for his people of the Greek Rite. His en-
ergy and ability among his countrymen led to the erection
and dedication, on 21 October, 1906, of the church of St.
Helena in Cleveland — the first Rumanian Greek Catholic
church in America. His zeal also led to the formation of
congregations in other localities, which he visited regularly.
In 1908 the second Rumanian church was built and dedicated
at Scalp Level, Pennsylvania, which serves as the central
point for missionary work among the Rumanians of Penn-
sylvania. In 1909 the third Rumanian church was completed
and dedicated at Aurora, Illinois, and it serves in its turn
as the centre of Greek Catholic work among the Rumanians
of the Western States. A fourth has just been constructed
at Youngstown, Ohio. There are now ( 1909) four Rumanian
Greek Catholic priests in the United States, and more are
shortly expected to arrive. Greek Catholic congregations have
been formed in many localities, and they are regularly visited
by the Greek Catholic priests who are here, and regular
parishes will be formed and churches erected as soon as pos-
sible. A Rumanian Greek chapel is now in course of forma-
tion in New York City and awaits a priest from Transyl-
vania. While they have a small Catholic church paper, "Cato-
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 207
licul American," they also publish a fine eight-page weekly,
"Romanul," at Cleveland and New York, which gives a great
deal of church news, and they also publish a little monthly
magazine and an illustrated year-book in which many details
of their churches, societies, and progress are given. The
weekly paper was originally founded by Father Lucaciu to
provide reading-matter and general news for his people, but
it has since passed into other hands. Their societies are not
strictly speaking church organizations, but are rather mutual
benefit societies for Rumanians, and some even have a limited
membership of the Orthodox, for the Rumanians of Hungary,
whether Greek Catholic or Greek Orthodox, are very closely
united upon racial and national feelings, and do not exhibit
the hostility sometimes shown between the two Churches else-
where. The principal societies are "Racia Romana," "Ardea-
lana," "Unirea Romana," and "Societatea Traian," numbering
altogether about 3000 members, and generally identified with
the church congregations.
III. — Syrian (Melchite) Greek Catholics
About 1886 the first immigration from the Mediterranean'
coasts of Asia began to reach the shores of the United States,
when the Armenians, Greeks, and Syrians began to swell the
numbers of our immigrants. Among them came the Syrian
Greeks, or those Syrians who were of the Byzantine Rite,
whether Catholic or Orthodox. The name Melchite is occa-
sionally used to designate a Syrian of the Greek Orthodox
Faith, but now it rarely has that meaning, since the schismat-
ics prefer to be known as Syro-Arabians, at least in the
United States, where they are largely under Russian influ-
ence, for it is nearly always applied to the Catholics. After
the Council of Chalcedon the Melchites followed the for-
tunes of the Greek Church of Constantinople. When it sep-
arated from Rome they also gradually became separated,
merely through inertia. Occasionally a bishop became Catho-
lic, and there were sporadic attempts to reunite them with
the Holy See. Cyril V, who was elected Patriarch of Antioch
about the year 1700, decided to come back to unity and made
his submission and profession of the Catholic Faith to Pope
2o8 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Clement XI, and his example was followed by the Archbishop
of Tyre and Sidon, the Bishop of Beirut, and other prelates.
From that time on the Syrian Greek Catholics have had a
restored Catholic line of Patriarchs of Antioch. Strangely
enough, the word Melchite, which had been used to designate
those who adhered to the doctrines of the Church of Con-
stantinople when it was Catholic and in unity, and who even
followed it when it left the unity of the Church, came eventu-
ally to mean, after the union of Cyril V and his fellow-bishops,
almost exclusively those Syrians of the Greek Rite who were
Catholics and united with the Holy See. Their rite, of course,
is the same as that of the other Greek Catholics, but the lan-
guage used in the Mass and the administration of the sacra-
ments and in the church offices is the Arabic, with the excep-
tion of certain prayer-endings and versicles of the Mass,
which are still intoned in the original Greek. Still a Melchite
priest may celebrate entirely in Greek if he so desires, and
the Catholic Missal is printed in parallel columns in each
language as to the parts which are to be intoned or said aloud.
At first these Syrians were in small numbers and were not
distinguishable from the Arabic-speaking Maronites or from
the Syro-Arabian Orthodox Greeks, all of whom began to
come to this country about the same date. This Syrian im-
migration, as compared with that from other lands, has never
been very large. The Greek Catholics came at first from the
same localities as the Maronites — Beirut and Mount Lebanon ;
but now they come from Damascus and other parts of Syria as
well. In 1 891 Rev. Abraham Bechewate, a Basilian monk of
the Congregation of the Holy Saviour, from Saida in the Dio-
cese of Zahleh and Farzul, Mount Lebanon, was sent to this
country by the Patriarch of Antioch to take up missionary
work among his countrymen. So far he has been instrumental
in establishing missions and congregations in various cities and
in having other priests sent to assist him. His first efforts were
confined to New York City, and at present the Melchites in
New York City use the basement of St. Peter's Church on
Barclay Street, but they have bought ground in Brooklyn with
a view to erecting a Syrian Greek Catholic church there. After
Father Bechewate other priests were sent to take up the work
at various places throughout the United States. At the pres-
ent time (1909) there are altogether fourteen Melchite
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 209
churches or congregations in the United States and just across
the border in Canada. Besides these there are many mission
stations which the Melchite Greek priests visit periodically.
These churches are situated at the following places : New
York City ; Boston and Lawrence, Massachusetts ; Omaha, Ne-
braska ; Cleveland, Ohio; Dubois and Scranton, Pennsylvania;
Chicago and Joliet, Illinois ; Rockley, South Dakota ; La
Crosse, Wisconsin ; Pawtucket, Rhode Island ; and Montreal
and Toronto, Canada. So far they have erected four fair-
sized churches in Lawrence, Cleveland, Dubois and La Crosse.
The cost of land in the large cities has prevented them from
building, so that their congregations in the other places are
assembled either in the Latin churches or in rented premises.
The number of the Syrian Greek Catholics in the United States
(1909) is between 8,000 and 10,000, and they are to be found
chiefly in the New England States, Pennsylvania, Ohio and
Illinois. For their spiritual needs there are thirteen Syrian
Greek Catholic priests, seven of them Basilian monks of the
Congregation of the Holy Saviour from the Diocese of Zahleh
and Farzul, four of them Basilian monks of the Congregation
of St. John (Soarite) from the Dioceses of Aleppo and Zah-
leh, and two secular priests from the Diocese of Beirut. Ow-
ing to the poverty of most Syrian congregations, they have not
maintained any schools and have no Sunday-school instruction,
and the majority of the Syrian children attend the nearest
Latin parochial school, if there be one. They have a small
Arabic paper, "Al-Kown" (The Universe), published in New
York City, and have the church society of "St. George."
IV. — Italian Greek Catholics
In the extreme southern part of Italy and in the Island of
Sicily the Greek Rite has always flourished, even from Apos-
tolic times. Three of the Popes (Sts. Eusebius, Agatho and
Zacharias) were Greeks from that region. Many of the Greek
saints venerated by the Church were Southern Italians or Si-
cilians, and the great Greek monastery of Grottaferrata near
Rome was founded by St. Nilus, a native of Rossano in Ca-
labria. The Greek Rite in Southern Italy never fell into schism
or separated from unity with Rome at the time of the great
2IO ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Schism of Constantinople. Although they held to their faith
and rite, yet the fact that they were not thereafter closely allied
with their fellow-Greeks of Constantinople caused the follow-
ers of their rite to diminish. After the schism an idea grew
up among the Italians of the Roman Rite that the Greek
language and ritual were in some indefinable way identified
with the schism. This was intensified upon the failure of the
Greeks after the Council of Florence (1428) to adhere to the
union. Therefore, as the Greek language died out among the
southern Italians, they gradually gave up their Greek Rite and
adopted the Roman Rite instead. While the Greek Rite thus
became gradually confined to monasteries, religious houses
and country towns, and would perhaps never have died out on
Italian soil, yet it was reinforced in a singular manner by im-
migration from the Balkan peninsula in the period between
1450 and 1500. The Albanians, who were converted to Chris-
tianity and followed the Greek Rite, using the Greek language
in their liturgy, were persecuted by the Turks, and, by reason
of the many Turkish victories over the Albanians under their
chieftain, George Castriota, also known by his Turkish name
of Scanderbeg (Alexander Bey), were forced to leave their
native land in large numbers. Scanderbeg applied to Pope
Eugene IV for permission for his people to settle in Italy, so
as to escape the Moslem persecutions. From time to time
they settled in Calabria and Sicily, and received among other
privileges that of retaining their Greek Rite wherever their
colonies were established. Since that time they, like the Greek
inhabitants of Southern Italy, have become entirely Italianized,
but, together with them, have retained their Greek Rite quite
distinct from their Latin neighbors down to the present day.
All the Italians who follow the Greek Rite in Southern Italy
are known as Albanese (Albanians), although only the older
generations of that race retain their knowledge of the Albanian
tongue. The Mass and all the offices of the Church are of
course said in Greek according to the Rite of Constantinople,
although a few Latinizing practices have crept in. The smaller
churches do not have the iconostasis, priests do not confer con-
firmation, but it is given by the bishop, and they follow the
Gregorian calendar instead of the Julian calendar followed by
all the other Greeks.
When the immigration to America from the south of Italy
GREEK CATHOLICS IN AMERICA 211
and from Sicily began in large proportions, the Italo-Greeks
came also. They are from Calabria, Apulia and Basilicata in
Italy, and from the Dioceses of Palermo, Monreale and Mes-
sina, in Sicily. They are settled in the United States chiefly
in New York, Philadelphia and Chicago, and throughout the
States of Pennsylvania and Illinois. It is claimed that the
Greek CathoHc population of Italy has sent a third of its num-
ber to America, and some well-informed Albanese have even
declared that there are perhaps more. They estimate that
there are 20,000 of them in the United States, the greater part
of whom are in the vicinity of New York and Philadelphia.
As a rule they have not shown themselves in any wise as
devoted church-attendants, but that may be because they have
been in a measure neglected, for every one assumes that an
Italian must be of the Roman Rite and ought to go to a Latin
church. They have neither the means to construct churches
of their own rite nor do they care to frequent churches of the
Latin Rite, although their societies usually attend the Italian
CathoHc churches and celebrate their festivals according to
the Latin Rite. In many places they attend the churches of
the Ruthenian Greek Catholics, and in some few instances
some have gone to the Hellenic churches of the Greek Ortho-
dox, where the language of the ritual is Greek. During the
year 1904 the first (and so far the only) Itahan Greek Catholic
priest. Papas (Rev.) Giro Pinnola, was sent from Sicily by
Cardinal Celesia of Palermo to the United States, to look after
the scattered flock of Greek Catholics here, and he is now a
priest of the Archdiocese of New York. He found that these
Italians, being accustomed to the language and rites of the
Greek Church, as well as infected by the inertia of so many
of the newcomers to these shores, had not attended the Latin
Catholic churches, and that they had become the prey of all
sorts of missionary experiments to draw them away from their
allegiance to the Faith. Besides, they were among the poorest
of the Italian immigrants and had been unable to establish or
maintain a chapel or church of their rite. He took energetic
steps to look after them and on Easter Day, 1906, had the
pleasure of opening the first Italian Greek Catholic chapel on
Broome Street in the City of New York. This has progressed
so far that he has now a larger missionary chapel (Our Lady
of Grace) on Stanton Street, with a congregation of about
212 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
400, where the Greek Rite in the Greek language is celebrated.
He has also various missionary stations in Brooklyn and on
Long Island, which he visits at regular intervals, but he has
been unable to do anything for the Italian Greek Catholics in
Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Other priests of their rite are
needed. There is a small school attached to the Greek Catho-
lic chapel in New York, where the Church Catechism and
Greek singing is taught, as well as several Italian and English
branches, and children are instructed in their church duties.
There is quite a large society of men, the "Fratellanza del San-
tissimo Crocefisso," a society for mutual benefit, religious in-
struction, and the building of an Italian Greek church. There
are some ten or twelve Italo-Albanese societies, having branches
in various parts of the United States, but devoted mostly to
secular objects. There is also a small weekly Italian paper,
''L'Operaio," for the Italo-Albanese and their Greek Rite, but
it is also devoted to Socialism and the wildest labor theories,
so that its usefulness is doubtful.
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES
SINCE immigration from the eastern portion of Europe
and from Asia and Africa set in with such volume, the
peoples who (both in union with and outside the unity
of the Church) follow the various ILastern rites arrived in the
United States in large numbers, bringing with them their
priests and their forms of worship. As they grew in number
and financial strength, they erected churches in the various
cities and towns throughout the country. Rome used to be
considered the city where the various rites of the Church
throughout the world could be seen grouped together, but in
the United States they may be observed to a greater advantage
than even in Rome. In Rome the various rites are kept alive
for the purpose of educating the various national clergy who
study there, and for demonstrating the unity of the Church,
but there is no body of laymen who follow those rites ; in the
United States, on the contrary, it is the number and pressure
of the laity which have caused the establishment and support
of the churches of the various rites. There is consequently
no better field for studying the various rites of the Church than
in the chief cities of the United States, and such study has the
advantage to the exact observer of affording an opportunity
of comparing the dissident churches of those rites with those
which belong to Catholic unity. The chief rites which have
established themselves in America are these: (i) Armenian,
(2) Greek or Byzantine, and (3) Syro-Maronite. There are
also a handful of adherents of the Coptic, Syrian and Chal-
dean Rites, which will also be noticed, and there are occa-
sionally priests of the various Latin Rites.
I. — The Armenian Rite
This rite alone, of all the rites in the Church, is confined to
one people, one language, and one alphabet. It is, if anything,
213
214 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
more exclusive than Judaism of old. Other rites are more
widely extended in every way : the Roman Rite is spread
throughout Latin, Teutonic and Slavic peoples, and it even has
two languages, the Latin and the Ancient Slavonic, and two
alphabets, the Roman and the Glagolitic, in which its ritual is
written ; the Greek or Byzantine Rite extends among Greek,
Slavic, Latin and Syrian peoples, and its services are cele-
brated in Greek, Slavonic, Rumanian and Arabic with service-
books in the Greek, Cyrillic. Latin and Arabic alphabets. But
the Armenian Rite, whether Catholic or Gregorian, is confined
exclusively to persons of the Armenian race, and employs the
ancient Armenian language and alphabet. The majority of
the Armenians were converted to Christianity by St. Gregory
the Illuminator, a man of noble family, who was made Bishop
of Armenia in 302. So thoroughly was his work effected that
Armenia alone of the ancient nations converted to Christianity
has preserved no pagan literature antedating the Christian lit-
erature of the people ; pagan works, if they ever existed, seem
to have perished in the ardor of the Armenians for Christian
thought and expression. The memory of St. Gregory is so
revered that the Armenians who are opposed to union with the
Holy See take pride in calling themselves "Gregorians," imply-
ing that they keep the faith taught by St. Gregory. Hence it
is usual to call the dissidents "Gregorians," in order to distin-
guish them from the Uniat Catholics. At first the language of
the Christian liturgy in Armenia was Syriac, but later they
discarded it for their own tongue, and translated all the serv-
ices into Armenian, which was at first written in Syriac or
Persian letters. About 400 St. Mesrob invented the present
Armenian alphabet (except two final letters which were added
in the year 1200), and their language, both ancient and modern,
has been written in that alphabet ever since. Mesrob also
translated the New Testament into Armenian and revised the
entire liturgy. The Armenians in their church life have led
almost as checkered an existence as they have in their national
life. At first they were in full communion with the Universal
Church. They were bitterly opposed to Nestorianism, and,
when in 451 the Council of Chalcedon condemned the doctrine
of Eutyches, they seceded, holding the opinion that such a defi-
nition was sanctioning Nestorianism. and have since remained
separated from and hostile to the Greek Church of Constanti-
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 215
nople. In 1054 the Greeks seceded in turn from unity with
the Roman Church, and nearly three centuries later the Ar-
menians became reconciled with Rome, but the union lasted
only a brief period. Breaking away from unity again, the ma-
jority formed a national church, which agrees neither with
the Greek nor the Roman Church; a minority, recruited by
converts to union with the Holy See in the seventeenth century,
remained united Armenian Catholics.
The Mass and the whole liturgy of the Armenian Church is
said in Ancient Armenian, which differs considerably from the
modern tongue. The language is an offshoot of the Iranian
branch of the Indo-Germanic family of languages, and proba-
bly found its earliest written expression in the cuneiform in-
scriptions ; it is unlike the Semitic languages immediately sur-
rounding it. Among its peculiarities are twelve regular de-
clensions and eight irregular declensions of nouns and five
conjugations of the verbs, while there are many difficulties in
the way of postpositions and the like. It abounds in conso-
nants and guttural sounds ; the words of the Lord's Prayer in
Armenian will suffice as an example : "Hair mier. vor herghins
ies, surp iegitzi anun ko, ieghastze arkautiun ko, iegitzin garnk
ko, vorbes hierghins iev hergri, zhatz mier hanabazort dur miez
aissor, iev tog miez ezbardis mier, vorbes iev mek togumk
merotz bardabanatz, iev mi danir. zmez i porsutiun, ail perghea
i chare." The language is written from left to right, like
Greek, Latin, or English, but in an alphabet of thirty-eight
peculiar letters, which are dissimilar in form to anything in
the Greek or Latin alphabet, and are arranged in the most per-
plexing order. For instance, the Armenian alphabet starts o^
with a, p, k, t, z, etc., and ends up with the letter /. It may
also be noted that the Armenian has changed the consonantal
values of most of the ordinary sounds in Christian names ;
thus George becomes Kevork ; Sergius, Sarkis ; Jacob, Hagop ;
Joseph, Hovsep; Gregory, Krikori; Peter, Bedros, and so on.
The usual clan addition of the word "son" {ian) to most Ar-
menian family names, something like the use of mac in the
Gaelic languages, renders usual Armenian names easy of iden-
tification (e. g., Azarian, Hagopian, Rubian, Zohrabian, etc.).
The book containing the regulations for the administration
of the sacraments, analogous to the Greek Euchologion or the
Roman Ritual, is called the "Mashdotz," after the name of its
2i6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
compiler, St. Mesrob, who was surnamed Mashdotz. He ar-
ranged and compiled the five great liturgical books used in the
Armenian Church: (i) the Breviary (Zhamakirk) or Book
of Hours; (2) The Directory (Tzutzak) or Calendar, contain-
ing the fixed festivals of the year; (3) The Liturgy (Pataraga-
kirk) or Missal, arranged and enriched also by John Manta-
guni; (4) The Book of Hymns (Dagaran), arranged for the
principal great feasts of the year; (5) The Ritual or "Mash-
dotz," mentioned above. A peculiarity about the Armenian
Church is that the majority of great feasts falling upon week-
days are celebrated on the Sunday immediately following. The
great festivals of the Christian year are divided by the Arme-
nians into five classes: (i) Easter; (2) feasts which fall on
Sunday, such as Palm Sunday, Pentecost, etc.; (3) feasts
which are observed on the days on which they occur: the Na-
tivity, Epiphany, Circumcision, Presentation and Annuncia-
tion; (4) feasts which are transferred to the following Sun-
day: Transfiguration, Immaculate Conception, Nativity B. V.
M., Assumption, Holy Cross, feasts of the Apostles, etc.; (5)
other feasts, which are not observed at all unless they can be
transferred to Sunday. The Gregorian Armenians observe
the Nativity, Epiphany and Baptism of Our Lord on the same
day (January 6), but the Catholic Armenians observe Christ-
mas on December 25 and the Epiphany on January 6, and they
observe many of the other feasts of Our Lord on the days on
which they actually fall. The principal fasts are : ( i ) Lent ;
(2) the Fast of Nineveh for two weeks, one month before the
commencement of Lent — in reality a remnant of the ancient
Lenten fast, now commemorated only in name by our Sep-
tuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays; (3) the
week following Pentecost. The days of abstinence are the
Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year with certain ex-
ceptions (e. g., during the week after the Nativity, Easter and
the Assumption). In the Armenian Church Saturday is ob-
served as the Sabbath, commemorating the Old Law and the
creation of man, and Sunday as the Lord's Day of Resurrec-
tion and rejoicing, commemorating the New Law and the re-
demption of man. Most of the saints' days are dedicated to
Armenian saints not commemorated in other lands, but the
Armenian Catholics in Galicia and Transylvania use the Gre-
gorian (not the Julian) Calendar, and have many Roman
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 217
saints' days and feasts added to their ancient ecclesiastical
year.
In the actual arrangement of the church building for wor-
ship the Armenian Rite differs both from the Greek and the
Latin. While the Armenian Church was in communion with
Rome, it seems to have united many Roman practices in its
ritual with those that were in accord with the Greek or Byzan-
tine forms. The church building may be divided into the sanc-
tuary and church proper (choir and nave). The sanctuary
is a platform raised above the general level of the church and
reached by four or more steps. The altar is always erected
in the middle of it, and it is again a few steps higher than the
level of the sanctuary. It is perhaps possible that the Arme-
nians originally used an altar-screen or iconostasis, like that
of the Greek churches, but it has long since disappeared. Still
they do not use the open altar like the Latin Church. Two
curtains are hung before the sanctuary : a large double curtain
hangs before its entrance, extending completely across the
space like the Roman chancel rail, and is so drawn as to con-
ceal the altar, the priest, and the deacons at certain parts of
the Mass ; the second and smaller curtain is used merely to
separate the priest from the deacons and to cover the altar
after service. Each curtain opens on both sides, and ordinarily
is drawn back from the middle. The second curtain is not
much used. The use of these curtains is ascribed to the year
340, when they were required by a canon formulated by Bishop
Macarius of Jerusalem. Upon the altar are usually the Missal,
the Book of Gospels, a cross upon which the image of Our
Lord is painted or engraved in low relief, and two or more
candles, which are lighted as in the Roman use. The Blessed
Sacrament is usually reserved in a tabernacle on the altar, and
a small lamp kept burning there at all times. In the choir,
usually enclosed within a low iron railing, the singers and
priests stand in lines while singing or reciting the Office. In
the East, the worshipper, upon entering the nave of the church,
usually takes off his shoes, just as the Mohammedans do, for
the Armenian founds this practice upon Ex., iii, 5 ; this custom
is not followed in the United States, nor do the Armenians
there sit cross-legged upon the floor in their churches, as they
do in Asia.
The administration of the sacraments is marked by some
2i8 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ceremonies unlike those of the Roman or Greek Churches,
and by some which are a composite of the two. In the Sacra-
ment of Baptism the priest meets the child carried in the arms
of the nurse at the church door, and, while reciting Psalms li
and cxxx, takes two threads (one white and the other red)
and twists them into a cord, which he afterwards blesses.
Usually the godfather goes to confession before the baptism,
in order that he may fulfil his duties in the state of grace. The
exorcisms and renunciations then take place, and the recital of
the Nicene Creed and the answers to the responses follow.
The baptismal water is blessed, the anointing with oil per-
formed, the prayers for the catechumen to be baptized are said,
and then the child is stripped. The priest takes the child and
holds it in the font so that the body is in the water, but the
head is out, and the baptism takes place in this manner: "N.,
the servant of God coming into the state of a catechumen and
thence to that of baptism, is now baptized by me, in the name
of the Father [here he pours a handful of water on the head
of the child], and of the Son [here he pours water as before],
and of the Holy Ghost [here he pours a third handful]." Af-
ter this the priest dips the child thrice under the water, saying
on each occasion : ''Thou art redeemed by the blood of Christ
from the bondage of sin, by receiving the liberty of sonship of
the Heavenly Father, and becoming a co-heir with Christ and a
temple of the Holy Ghost. Amen." Then the child is washed
and clothed again, generally with a new and beautiful robe,
and the priest when washing the child says : "Ye that were
baptized in Christ, have put on Christ, Alleluia. And ye that
have been illumined by God the Father, may the Holy Ghost
rejoice in you. Alleluia." Then the passage of the Gospel
of St. Matthew relating the baptism of Christ in the Jordan is
read, and the rite thus completed.
The Sacrament of Confirmation is conferred by the priest
immediately after baptism, although the Catholic Armenians
sometimes reserve it for the bishop. The holy chrism is ap-
plied by the priest to the forehead, eyes, ears, nose, mouth,
palms, heart, spine and feet, each time with a reference to the
seal of the Spirit. Finally, the priest lays his hand upon and
makes the sign of the cross on the child's forehead, saying:
"Peace to thee, saved through God." When the confirmation
is thus finished, the priest binds the child's forehead with the
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 219
red and white string which he twisted at the beginning of the
baptism, and fastens it at the end with a small cross. Then
he gives two candles, one red and one green, to the godfather
and has the child brought up to the altar where Communion is
given to it by a small drop of the Sacred Blood, or, if it be
not at the time of Mass, by taking the Blessed Sacrament from
the Tabernacle and signing the mouth of the child with it in
the form of the cross, saying in either case : "The plenitude
of the Holy Ghost" ; if the candidate be an adult, full Com-
munion is administered, and there the confirmation is ended.
The formula of absolution in the Sacrament of Penance is :
"May the merciful God have mercy upon you and grant you
the pardon of all your sins, both confessed and forgotten ; and
I by virtue of my order of priesthood and in force of the power
granted by the Divine Command : Whosesoever sins you remit
on earth they are remitted unto them in heaven ; through that
same word I absolve you from all participation in sin, by
thought, word and deed, in the name of the Father, and of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost. And I again restore you to the
sacraments of the Holy Church; whatsoever good you shall
do, shall be counted to you for merit and for glory in the life
to come. May the shedding of the blood of the Son of God,
which He shed upon the cross and which delivered human na-
ture from hell, deliver you from your sins. Amen." As a
rule Armenians are exhorted to make their confession and
communion on at least five days in the year : the so-called
Daghavork or feasts of Tabernacles, i. e., the Epiphany, Eas-
ter, Transfiguration, Assumption and Exaltation of the Holy
Cross. The first two festivals are obligatory, and, if an Ar-
menian neglects his duty, he incurs excommunication. The
Sacrament of Extreme Unction (or "Unction with Oil," as it
is called) is supposed to be administered by seven priests in the
ancient form, but practically it is performed by a single priest
on most occasions. The eyes, ears, nose, lips, hands, feet and
heart of the sick man are anointed, with this form : "I anoint
thine eyes with holy oil, so that whatever sin thou mayst have
committed through thy sight, thou mayst be saved therefrom
by the anointing of this oil, through the grace of our Lord
Jesus Christ," and with a similar reference to the other mem-
bers anointed.
The Divine Liturgy or Mass is of course the chief rite
220 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
among the Armenians, whether Catholic or Gregorian, and it
is celebrated with a form and ceremonial which partakes in a
measure both of the Roman and Byzantine rites. As we have
said, the curtains are used instead of the altar-rail or iconos-
tasis of those rites, and the vestments are also peculiar. The
Armenians, like the Latins, use unleavened bread, in the form
of a wafer or small thin round cake, for consecration ; but like
the Greeks they prepare many wafers, and those not used for
consecration in the Mass are given afterwards to the people as
the antidoron. The wine used must be solely the fermented
juice of the best grapes obtainable. In the Gregorian churches
Communion is given to the people under both species, the Host
being dipped in the chalice before delivering it to the com-
municant, but in the Catholic churches Communion is now
given only in one species, that of the Body, although there is
no express prohibition against the older form. On Christmas
Eve and Easter Eve the Armenians celebrate Mass in the
evening; the Mass then begins with the curtains drawn whilst
the introductory psalms and prophecies are sung, but, at the
moment the great feast is announced in the Introit, the cur-
tains are withdrawn and the altar appears with full illumina-
tion. During Lent the altar remains entirely hidden by the
great curtains, and during all the Sundays in Lent, except
Palm Sunday, Mass is celebrated behind the drawn curtains.
A relic of this practice still remains in the Roman Rite, as
shown by the veiling of the images and pictures from Pas-
sion Sunday till Easter Eve. The Armenian vestments for
Mass are peculiar and splendid. The priest wears a crown,
exactly in the form of a Greek bishop's mitre, which is called
the Saghavard or helmet. This is also worn by the deacons
attending on a bishop at pontifical Mass. The Armenian bish-
ops wear a mitre almost identical in shape with the Latin
mitre, and said to have been introduced at the time of their
union with Rome in the twelfth century, when they relinquished
the Greek form of mitre for the priests to wear in the Mass.
The celebrant is first vested with the shapik or alb, which is
usually narrower than the Latin form, and usually of linen
(sometimes of silk). He then puts on each of his arms the
baspans or cuffs, which replace the Latin maniple; then the
ourar or stole, which is in one piece; then the goti or girdle,
then the varkas or amice, which is a large embroidered stiff
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 221
collar with a shoulder covering to it ; and finally, the shoochar,
or chasuble, which is almost exactly like a Roman cope. If the
celebrant be a bishop, he also wears the gonker or Greek epigo-
nation. The bishops carry a staff shaped like the Latin, while
the vartaheds ( deans, or doctors of divinity ; analogous to the
Roman mitred abbots) carry a staff in the Greek form (a staff
with two intertwined serpents). No organs are used in the
Armenian church, but the elaborate vocal music of the Eastern
style, sung by choir and people, is accompanied by two metal-
lic instruments, the keshotz and sinzgha (the first a fan with
small bells; the second similar to cymbals), both of which are
used during various parts of the Mass. The deacon wears
merely an alb and a stole in the same manner as in the Roman
Rite. The subdeacons and lower clergy wear simply the alb.
The Armenian Mass may be divided into three parts : Prep-
aration, Anaphora or Canon and Conclusion. The first and
preparatory portion extends as far as the Preface, when the
catechumens are directed by the deacon to leave. The Canon
commences with the conclusion of the Preface and ends with
the Communion. As soon as the priest is robed in his vest-
ments he goes to the altar, washes his hands reciting Psalm
xxvi, and then going to the foot of the altar begins the Mass.
After saying the Intercessory Prayer, the Confiteor and the
Absolution, which is given with a crucifix in hand, he recites
Psalm xlii (Introibo ad altare), and at every two verses
ascends a step of the altar. After he has intoned the prayer
"In the tabernacle of holiness," the curtains are drawn, and
the choir sings the appropriate hymn of the day. Meanwhile
the celebrant behind the curtain prepares the bread on the
paten and fills the chalice, ready for the oblation. When this
is done the curtains are withdrawn and the altar incensed.
Then the Introit of the day is sung, then the prayers corre-
sponding to those of the first, second and third antiphons of
the Byzantine Rite, while the proper psalms are sung by the
choir. Then the deacon intones "Proschume" (let us attend),
and elevates the book of the gospels, which is incensed as he
brings it to the altar, making the Little Entrance. The choir
then sings the Trisagion (Holy God, Holy and Mighty, Holy
and Immortal, have mercy on us) thrice. The Gregorians in-
terpolate after "Holy and Immortal" some words descriptive
of the feast day, such as "who was made manifest for us," or
222 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
"who didst rise from the dead," but this addition has been
condemned at Rome as being a rehc of the Patripassian heresy.
During the Trisagion the Kesliotc is jingled in accompaniment.
Then the Greek Ektene or Litany is sung, and at its conclu-
sion the reader reads the Prophecy; then the Antiphon
before the Epistle is sung, and the epistle of the day read.
At the end of each the choir responds Alleluia. Then the dea-
con announces "Orthi" (stand up) and, taking the Gospels,
reads or intones the gospel of the day. Immediately after-
wards, the Armenian form of the Nicene Creed is said or sung.
It differs from the creed as said in the Roman and Greek
Churches in that it has, "consubstantial with the Father by
whom all things were made in Heaven and in Earth, visible
and invisible; who for us men and our salvation came down
from Heaven, was incarnate and was made man and perfectly
begotten through the Holy Ghost of the most Holy Virgin
Mary; he assumed from her body, soul, and mind, and all that
in man is, truly and not figuratively" ; and "we believe also in
the Holy Ghost, not created, all perfect, who proceedeth from
the Father (and the Son), ztrho spake in the Law, in the
Prophets and the Holy Gospel, who descended into the Jordan,
who preached Him who was sent, and who divelt in the Saints,"
and after concluding in the ordinary form adds the sentence pro-
nounced by the First Council of Nicaea : "Those who say there
was a time when the Son was not, or when the Holy Ghost was
not ; or that they were created out of nothing ; or that the Son of
God and the Holy Ghost are of another substance or that they
are mutable; the Catholic and Apostolic church condemns."
Then the Confession of St. Gregory is intoned aloud, and the
Little Ektene sung. The kiss of peace is here given to the
clergy. The deacon at its close dismisses the catechumens, and
the choir sings the Hymn of the Great Entrance, when the
bread and wine are solemnly brought to the altar. "The Body
of our Lord and the Blood of our Redeemer are to be before
us. The Heavenly Powers, invisible, sing and proclaim with
uninterrupted voice, Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of Hosts."
Here the curtains are drawn, and the priest takes off his
crown (or the bishop his mitre). The priest incenses the holy
gifts and again washes his hands, repeating Psalm xxvi as
before. After the salutation is sung, the catechumens are dis-
missed, and the Anaphora or Canon begins. The Preface is
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 223
said secretly, only the concluding part being intoned, to which
the choir responds with the Sanctus. The prayer before con-
secration follows, with a comparison of the Old and the New
Law, not found in either Greek or Roman Rite : "Holy, Holy,
Holy ; Thou art in truth most Holy ; who is there who can
dare to describe by words thy bounties which flow down upon
us without measure? For Thou didst protect and console our
forefathers, when they had fallen in sin, by means of the
prophets, the Law, the priesthood, and the offering of bullocks,
showing forth that which was to come. And when at length
He came, Thou didst tear in pieces the register of our sins,
and didst bestow on us Thine Only Begotten Son, the debtor
and the debt, the victim and the anointed, the Lamb and Bread
of Heaven, the Priest and the Oblation, for He is the distribu-
tor and is always distributed amongst us, without being ex-
hausted. Being made man truly and not apparently, and by
union without confusion, He was incarnate in the womb of the
Virgin Mary, Mother of God, and journeyed through all the
passions of human life, sin only excepted, and of His own free
will walked to the cross, whereby He gave life to the world
and wrought salvation for us." Then follow the actual words
of consecration, which are intoned aloud. Then follow the
Offering and the Epiklesis, which differs slightly in the Gre-
gorian and Catholic form ; the Gregorian is : "whereby Thou
wilt make the bread when blessed truly the body of our Lord
and Saviour Jesus Christ"; and the Catholic form: "whereby
Thou hast made the bread when blessed truly the Body of our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ." As there is actually no
blessing or consecration after the Epiklesis, the Catholic form
represents the correct belief. Then come the prayers for the
living and the dead, and an intoning by the deacons of the
Commemoration of the Saints, in which nearly all of the
Armenian saints are mentioned. Then the deacon intones
aloud the Ascription of Praise of Bishop Chosroes the Great
in thanksgiving for the Sacrament of the Altar. After this
comes a long Ektene or Litany, and then the Our Father is sung
by the choir. The celebrant then elevates the consecrated
Host, saying "Holy things for Holy Persons," and when the
choir responds, he continues : "Let us taste in holiness the
holy and honorable Body and Blood of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ who came down from heaven and is now distrib-
224 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
uted among us." Then the choir sings antiphons in honor of
the sacrifice of the Body and Blood, and the small curtain is
drawn. The priest kisses the sacred Victim, saying "I con-
fess and I believe that Thou art Christ, the Son of God, who
has borne the sins of the world." The Host is divided into
three parts, one of which is placed in the chalice. The choir
sing the communion hymns as appointed ; the priest and the
clergy receive the Communion first, and then the choir and
people. The little curtain is withdrawn when the Communion
is given, and the great curtains are drawn back when the peo-
ple come up for Communion.
After Communion, the priest puts on his crown (or the
bishop his mitre), and the great curtains are again drawn.
Thanksgiving prayers are said behind them, after which the
great curtains are withdrawn once more, and the priest hold-
ing the book of gospels says the great prayer of peace, and
blesses the people. Then the deacon proclaims "Orthi" (stand
up) and the celebrant reads the Last Gospel, which is nearly
always invariable, being the Gospel of St. John, i, i sqq. : "In
the beginning was the Word, etc." ; the only exception is from
Easter to the eve of Pentecost, when they use the Gospel of
St. John, xxi, 15-20: "So when they had dined, etc." Then
the prayer for peace and the "Kyrie Eleison" (thrice) are said,
the final benediction is given, and the priest retires from the
altar. Whilst Psalm xxxiv is recited or sung by the people,
the blessed bread is distributed. The Catholic Armenians con-
fine this latter rite to high festivals only. The chief editions
of the Gregorian Armenian Missals are those printed at Con-
stantinople (1823, 1844), Jerusalem (1841, 1873 and 1884),
and Etschmiadzin (1873); the chief Catholic Armenian edi-
tions are those of Venice (1808, 1874, 1895), Trieste (1808),
and Vienna (1858, 1884).
Armenian Catholics. — Armenians had come to the United
States in small numbers prior to 1895. In that and the fol-
lowing year the Turkish massacres took place throughout Ar-
menia and Asia Minor, and large numbers of Armenians emi-
grated to America. Among them were many Armenian Catho-
lics, although these were not sufficiently numerous to organize
any religious communities like their Gregorian brethren. In
1898 Mgr. Stephan Azarian (Stephen X), then Catholic Pa-
triarch of Cilicia of the Armenians, who resided in Constanti-
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 225
nople, entered into negotiations with Cardinal Ledochowski,
Prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda, and through
him obtained the consent of Archbishop Corrigan of New
York and Archbishop Williams of Boston for priests of the
Armenian Rite to labor in their respective provinces for the
Armenian Catholics who had come to this country. He sent as
the first Armenian missionary the Very Reverend Archpriest
Mardiros Mighirian, who had been educated at the Propa-
ganda and the Armenian College, and arrived in the United
States on Ascension Day, May 11, 1899. He at first went to
Boston, where he assembled a small congregation of Armenian
Catholics, and later proceeded to New York to look after the
spiritual welfare of the Catholic Armenians in Manhattan and
Brooklyn. He also established a mission station in Worcester,
Massachusetts. In New York and Brooklyn the Catholics of
the Armenian Rite are divided into those who speak Armenian
and those who, coming from places outside of the historic Ar-
menia, speak the Arabic language. At present this missionary
is stationed at St. Stephen's Church in East Twenty-eighth
Street, since large numbers of Armenians live in that vicinity,
but has another congregation under his charge in Brooklyn.
All these Catholic Armenians are too poor to build any church
or chapel of their own, and use the basement portion of the
Latin churches. Towards the end of 1906 another Armenian
priest, Rev. Manuel Basieganian, commenced mission work in
Paterson, New Jersey, and now attends mission stations
throughout New England, New Jersey and Eastern Pennsyl-
vania. In 1908 Rev. Hovsep (Joseph) Keossajian settled in
Lawrence, Massachusetts, and established a chapel in St.
Mary's Church. He also ministers to the spiritual wants of the
Armenian Catholics at Boston, Cambridge, East Watertown,
Newton, Lynn, Chelsea and Lowell. In 1909 Rev. Moses Ma-
zarian took charge of the Armenian mission at Cleveland,
Ohio, and in the cities throughout the west. None of these
have been able to build independent Armenian churches, but
usually hold their services in the Roman Catholic churches.
Besides the places already mentioned there are slender Arme-
nian Catholic congregations at Haverhill, Worcester, Fitch-
burg, Milford, Fall River, Holyoke and Whiting, in Massa-
chusetts ; Nashua and Manchester, in New Hampshire ; Provi-
dence, Pawtucket and Central Falls, in Rhode Island; New
22(i ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Britain and Bridgeport, in Connecticut ; Jersey City, West Ho-
boken and Newark, in New Jersey ; and Philadelphia and Chi-
cago. The number of Catholic Armenians in the United States
is very small, being estimated at about 2,000 to 2,500 all told.
So many of them reside among the other Armenians and fre-
quent their churches, that there may be more who do not pro-
fess themselves Catholics, and purely Armenian chapels would
doubtless bring to light many whom the mission priests on their
rounds do not reach.
Gregorian Armenians. — Inasmuch as Armenia was con-
verted to the faith of St. Gregory the Illuminator, the Arme-
nians who are not in union with the Holy See pride themselves
upon the fact that they more truly hold the faith preached by
St. Gregory and they are accordingly called Gregorians, since
the word "Orthodox" would be likely to confuse them with the
Greeks. By reason of the many schools founded in Armenia
and in Constantinople by American Protestant missionaries,
their attention was turned to America, and, when the massa-
cres of 1895-96 took place, large numbers came to the United
States. Many of them belonged to the Protestant Armenian
Church, and identified themselves with the Congregationalists
or Presbyterians ; but the greater number of them belonged to
the national Gregorian Church. In 1889 Rev. Hovsep Sara-
jian, a priest from Constantinople, was sent to the Armenians
in Massachusetts, and a church which was built in Worcester
in 1891 is still the headquarters of the Armenian Church in
the United States. The emigration increasing greatly after
the massacres, Father Sarajian was reinforced by several other
Armenian priests; in 1898 he was made bishop, and in 1903
was invested with archiepiscopal authority, having Canada and
the United States under his jurisdiction. Seven great pasto-
rates were organized to serve as the nuclei of future dioceses :
at Worcester, Boston and Lawrence (Massachusetts), New
York, Providence (Rhode Island), Fresno (CaHfornia) and
Chicago (Illinois). To these was added West Hoboken in
1906. There are numerous congregations and mission stations
in various cities. Churches have been built in Worcester,
Fresno and West Hoboken ; in Boston and Providence halls
are rented, and in other places arrangements are often made
with Episcopal churches where their services are held. The
Gregorian Armenian clergy comprises the archbishop, seven
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 227
resident and three missionary priests, while the number of
Gregorian Armenians is given at 20,000 in the United States.
There are several Armenian societies and two Armenian news-
papers and also Armenian reading-rooms in several places.
II. — Byzantine or Greek Rite
This rite, reckoning both the Catholic and Schismatic
Churches, comes next in expansion through the Christian
world to the Roman Rite. It also ranks next to the Roman
Rite in America, there being now (1911) about 156 Greek
Catholic churches, and about 149 Greek Orthodox churches in
the United States.^ The Eastern Orthodox Churches of Rus-
sia, Turkey, Rumania, Servia and Bulgaria and other places
where they are found, make up a total of about 120,000,000,
while the Uniat Churches of the same rite, the Greek Catholics
in Austria, Hungary, Italy, Bulgaria, Asia and elsewhere,
amount to upwards of 7,500,000. Unlike the Armenian Rite,
it has not been confined to any particular people or language,
but has spread over the entire Christian Orient among the
Slavic, Rumanian and Greek populations. As regards juris-
diction and authority, it has not been united and homogeneous
like the Roman Rite, nor has it, like the Latin Church, been
uniform in language, calendar, or particular customs, although
the same general teaching, ritual and observances have been
followed. The principal languages in which the liturgy of
the Greek Rite is celebrated are (i) Greek, (2) Slavonic,
(3) Arabic, and (4) Rumanian. It is also celebrated in
Gregorian by a small and diminishing number of worshippers,
and sometimes experimentally in a number of modern tongues
for missionary purposes ; but, as this latter use has never been
approved, the four languages named above may be considered
the official ones of the Byzantine Rite. A portion of the popu-
lation of all the nations which use this rite, follow it in union
with the Holy See, and these have by their union placed the
Byzantine Rite in the position which it occupied before the
schism of 1054. Thus, the Russians, Bulgarians and Servians,
who are schismatic, use the Old Slavonic in their church books
and services ; so likewise do the Catholic Ruthenians, Bul-
garians and Servians. Likewise the Rumanians of Rumania
228 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and Transylvania, who are schismatic, use the Rumanian lan-
guage in the Greek Rite ; but the Rumanians of Transylvania,
who are Catholic, do the same. The Orthodox Greeks of
Greece and Turkey use the original Greek of their rite ; but
the Italo-Greeks of Italy and Sicily and the Greeks of Con-
stantinople, who are Catholic, use it also. The Syro-Arabians
of Syria and Egypt, who are schismatic, use the Arabic in the
Greek Rite ; but the Catholic Melchites likewise use it.
The numerous emigrants from these countries to America
have brought with them their Byzantine Rite with all its local
peculiarities and its language. In some respects the environ-
ment of a people professing the Greek Rite in union with the
Holy See but in close touch with their countrymen of the
Roman Rite has tended to change in unimportant particulars
several of the ceremonies and sometimes particular phrases of
the rite, but not to a greater extent than the various Schismatic
Churches have changed the language and ceremonies in their
several national Churches. Where this has occurred in the
Greek Churches united with the Holy See, it has been fiercely
denounced as latinizing, but, where it has occurred in Russia,
Bulgaria or Syria, it is simply regarded by the same de-
nouncers as a mere expression of nationalism. There is in
the aggregate a larger number of Catholics of the Byzantine
Rite in America than of the Orthodox. The chief nationali-
ties there which are Catholic are the Ruthenians, Rumanians,
Alelchites and Italo-Greeks ; the principal Orthodox ones are
the Russians, Greeks, Syro-Arabians, Servians, Rumanians,
Bulgarians and Albanians. As emigration from those lands
increases daily, and the representatives of those rites are in-
creasing in numbers and prosperity, a still wider expansion
of the Greek Rite in the United States may be expected. Al-
ready the Russian Orthodox Church has a strong hierarchy,
an ecclesiastical seminary and monasteries, supported chiefly
by the Holy Synod and the Orthodox Missionary Society of
Russia, and much proselytizing is carried on among the Greek
Catholics. The latter are not in such a favorable position ; they
have no home governmental support, but have had to build
and equip their own institutions out of their own slender
means. The Holy See has provided a bishop for them, but
the Russians have stirred up dissensions and made his position
as difficult as possible among his own people. The Hellenic
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 229
Greek Orthodox Church expects soon to have its own Greek
bishop, and the Servians and Rumanians also expect a bishop
to be appointed by their home authorities.
III. — Maronite Rite
The Maronite is one of the Syrian rites and has been closely
assimilated in the Church to the Roman Rite. Unlike the
Syro-Chaldean or the Syro-Catholic rites, for they all use the
Syriac language in the Mass and liturgy, it has not kept the
old forms intact, but has modelled itself more and more upon
the Roman Rite. Among all the Eastern rites which are now
in communion with the Holy See, it alone has no Schismatic
rite of corresponding form and language, but is wholly united
and Catholic, thereby differing also from the other Syrian
rites. The liturgical language is the ancient Syriac or Ara-
maic, and the Maronites, as well as all other rites who use
Syriac, take especial pride in the fact that they celebrate the
Mass in the very language which Christ spoke while He was
on earth, as evidenced by some fragments of His very words
still preserved in the Greek text of the Gospels (e.g., in Matt,
xxvii, 46, and Mark v, 41). The Syriac is a Semitic language
closely related to the Hebrew, and is sometimes called Ara-
maic from the Hebrew word Aram (Northern Syria). As the
use of Ancient Hebrew died out after the Babylonian captivity,
the Syriac or Aramaic took its place, very much as Italian has
supplanted Latin throughout the Italian peninsula. This was
substantially the situation at the time of Christ's teaching and
the foundation of the early Church. Syriac is now a dead
language, and in the Maronite service and liturgy bears the
same relation to the vernacular Arabic as the Latin in the
Roman Rite does to the modern languages of the people. It
is written with a peculiar alphabet, reads from right to left
like the Hebrew or Arabic languages, but its letters are unlike
the current alphabets of either of these languages. To sim-
plify the Maronite Missals. Breviary and other service books,
the vernacular Arabic is often employed for the rubrics and
for many of the best-known prayers ; it is written, not in
Arabic characters, but in Syriac, and this mingled language
and alphabet is called Karshuni. The Epistle, Gospel, Creed
230 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and Pater Noster are nearly always given in Karslumi, in-
stead of the original Arabic.
The form of the Liturgy or Mass is that of St. James, so
called because of the tradition that it originated with St. James
the Less, Apostle and Bishop of Jerusalem. It is the type
form of the Syriac Rite, but the Maronite Use has accommo-
dated it more and more to the Roman. This form of the
Liturgy of St. James constitutes the Ordinary of the Mass,
which is always said in the same manner, merely changing the
epistles and gospels according to the Christian year. But the
Syrians, whether of the Maronite, Syrian, Catholic or Syro-
Chaldaic rite, have the peculiarity (not found in other litur-
gies) of inserting different anaphoras or canons of the Mass,
composed at various times by different Syrian saints; these
change according to the feast celebrated, somewhat analo-
gously to the Preface in the Roman Rite. The principal an-
aphoras or canons of the Mass used by the Maronites are: (i)
the Anaphora according to the Order of the Holy Catholic and
Roman Church, the Mother of all the Churches; (2) the
Anaphora of St. Peter, the Head of the Apostles; (3) the
Anaphora of the Twelve Apostles ; (4) the Anaphora of St.
James the Apostle, brother of the Lord; (5) the Anaphora of
St. John the Apostle and Evangelist; (6) the Anaphora of
St. Mark the EvangeHst ; (7) the Anaphora of St. Xystus, the
Pope of Rome; (8) the Anaphora of St. John surnamed Maro,
from whom they derive their name; (9) the Anaphora of St.
John Chrysostom; (10) the Anaphora of St. Basil; (11) the
Anaphora of St. Cyril; (12) the Anaphora of St. Dionysius;
(13) the Anaphora of John of Harran, and (14) the Anaphora
of Marutha of Tagrith. Besides these they have also a form
of liturgy of the Presanctified for Good Friday, after the
Roman custom. Frequent use of incense is a noticeable fea-
ture of the Maronite Mass. and not even in low Mass is the
incense omitted. In their form of church building the Maro-
nites have nothing special like the Greeks with their iconostasis
and square altar, or the Armenians with their curtains, but
build their churches very much as Latins do. While the sacred
vestments are hardly distinguishable from those of the Roman
Church, in some respects they approach the Greek form. The
alb, the girdle and the maniple or cuffs on each hand, a peculiar
form of amice, the stole (sometimes in Greek and sometimes
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 231
in Roman form), and the ordinary Roman chasuble make up
the vestments worn by the priest at Mass. Bishops use a
cross, mitre and staff of the Roman form. The sacred vessels
used on the altar are the chalice, paten or disk, and a small
star or asterisk to cover the consecrated Host. They, like us,
use a small cross or crucifix, with a long silken banner attached,
for giving the blessings. The Maronites use unleavened bread
and have a round Host, as in the Roman Rite.
The Maronite Mass commences with the ablution and vest-
ing at the foot of the altar. Then, standing at the middle of
the sanctuary, the priest recites Psalm xlii, "Introibo ad al-
tare," moving his head in' the form of a cross. He then
ascends the altar, takes the censer and incenses both the uri-
covered chalice and paten, then takes up the Host and has it
incensed, puts it on the paten and has the corporals and veils
incensed. He next pours wine in the chalice, adding a little
water, and then incenses it and covers both Host and chalice
with the proper veils. Then, going again to the foot of the
altar, he says aloud the first prayer in Arabic, which is followed
by an antiphon. The strange Eastern music, with its harsh
sounds and quick changes, is a marked feature of the Maronite
Rite. The altar, the elements, the clergy, servers and people are
incensed, and the Kyrie Eleison (Kurrilison) and the "Holy
God, Holy strong one, etc.," are sung by choir and people.
Then comes the Pater Noster in Arabic, with the response:
"For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, world
without end. Amen." The celebrant and deacon intone the
Synapte for peace, which is followed by a short form of the
Gloria in excelsis: "Glory be to God on high, and on earth
peace and good hope to the sons of men," etc. The Phrumiur
is then said ; this is an introductory prayer, and always comes
before the Sedro, which is a prayer of praise said aloud by the
priest standing before the altar while the censer is swung. It
is constructed by the insertion of verses into a more or less
constant framework, commemorative of the feast or season, and
seems to be a survival of the old psalm verses with the Gloria.
For instance, a Sedro of Our Lady will commemorate her in
many ways, something like our litany, but more poetically and
at length ; one of Our Lord will celebrate Him in His nativity,
baptism, etc. Then come the commemorations of the Proph-
ets, the Apostles, the martyrs, of all the saints, and lastly the
232 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
commemoration of the departed : "Be ye not sad, all ye who
sleep in the dust, and in the decay of your bodies. The living
Body which you have eaten and the saving Blood which you
have drunk, can again vivify all of you, and clothe your bodies
with glory. O Christ, Who hast come and given peace by Thy
Blood to the heights and the depths, give rest to the souls of
Thy servants in the promised life everlasting!" The priest
then prays for the living, and makes special intercession by
name of those living or dead for whom the Mass is offered.
He blesses and offers the sacred elements, in a form somewhat
analogous . to the Offertory in the Roman Rite. Another
Phrumiur and the great Sedro of St. Ephraem or St. James is
said, in which the whole sacrifice of the Mass is foreshadowed.
The psalm preparatory to the Epistle in Arabic is recited, and
the epistle of the day then read. The Alleluia and gradual
psalm is recited, the Book of Gospels incensed, and the Gospel,
also in Arabic, intoned or read. The versicles of thanksgiving
for the Gospel are intoned, at several parts of which the priest
and deacon and precentor chant in unison. The Nicene Creed,
said in unison by priest and deacon, follows, and immediately
after the celebrant washes his hands saying Psalm xxvi. This
ends the Ordinary of the Mass.
The Anaphora, or Canon of the Mass, is then begun, and
varies according to season, place and celebrant. In the An-
aphora of the Holy Catholic and Roman Church, which is a
typical one, the Mass proceeds with the prayers for peace very
much as they stand at the end of the Roman Mass ; then follow
prayers of confession, adoration and glory, which conclude by
giving the kiss of peace to the deacon and the other clergy.
The Preface follows: "Let us Hft up our thoughts, our con-
science and our hearts! I^. They are lifted up to Thee, O
Lord ! P. Let us give thanks to the Lord in fear, and adore
Him with trembling. ^. It is meet and just. P. To Thee,
O God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, O glorious and holy
King of Israel, for ever! 1^. Glory be to the Father and the
Son and the Holy Ghost, now and forever, world without end.
I^. Before the glorious and divine mysteries of our Redeemer,
with the pleasant things which are imposed, let us implore the
mercy of the Lord ! ^. It is meet and just" (and the Preface
continues secretly). Then the Sanctus is sung, and the Conse-
cration immediately follows. The words of Consecration are
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 233
intoned aloud, the choir answering "Amen." After the suc-
ceeding prayer of commemoration of the Resurrection and
hope of the Second Coming and a prayer for mercy, the Epi-
klesis is said : "How tremendous is this hour and how awful
this moment, my beloved, in which the Holy and Life-giving
Spirit comes down from on high and descends upon this Eu-
charist which is placed in this sanctuary for our reconciliation.
With silence and fear stand and pray! Salvation to us and
the peace of God the Father of all of us. Let us cry out and
say thrice: Have mercy on us, O Lord, and send down the
Holy and Life-giving Spirit upon us! Hear me, O Lord! and
let Thy living and Holy Spirit descend upon me and upon this
sacrifice ! and so complete this mystery, that it be the Body of
Christ our God for our redemption!" The prayers for the
Pope of Rome, the Patriarch of Antioch, and all the metro-
politans and bishops and orthodox professors and believers of
the Catholic Faith immediately follow. This in turn is fol-
lowed by a long prayer by the deacon for tranquillity, peace
and the commemoration of all the saints and doctors of the
early Church and of Syria, including St. John Maro, with the
petition for the dead at the end. Then comes the solemn offer-
ing of the Body and the Blood for the sins of priest and people,
concluding with the words : "Thy Body and Thy Holy Blood
are the way which leads to the Kingdom !" The adoration and
the fraction follow ; then the celebrant elevates the chalice to-
gether with the Host, and says : "O desirable sacrifice which
is offered for us ! O victim of reconciliation, which the Father
obtained in Thy own person ! O Lamb, Who wast the same
person as the High Priest who sacrificed!" Then he genu-
flects and makes the sign of the cross over the chalice: "Be-
hold the Blood which was shed upon Golgotha for my redemp-
tion; because of it receive my supplication." The "Sanctus
fortis" is again sung, and the celebrant lifts the Sacred Body
on high and says : "Holy things for holy persons, in purity
and holiness !" The fraction of the Host follows after several
prayers, and the priest mingles a particle with the Blood, re-
ceives the Body and the Blood himself, and gives communion
to the clergy and then to the people. When it is finished he
makes the sign of the cross with the paten and blesses the
people.
Then follow a synapte (litany) of thanksgiving, and a sec-
234 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ond signing of the people with both paten and chalice, after
which the priest consumes all the remaining species, saying
afterwards the prayers at the purification and ablution. The
prayer of blessing and protection is said, and the people and
choir sing : "Alleluia ! Alleluia ! I have fed upon Thy Body
and by Thy living Blood I am reconciled, and I have sought
refuge in Thy Cross ! Through these may I please Thee, O
Good Lord, and grant Thou mercy to the sinners who call
upon Thee !" Then they sing the final hymn of praise, which
in this anaphora contains the words : "By the prayers of
Simon Peter, Rome was made the royal city, and she shall not
be shaken!" Then the people all say or sing the Lord's
Prayer; when it is finished, the final benediction is given, and
the priest, coming again to the foot of the altar, takes oflE his
sacred vestments and proceeds to make his thanksgiving.
Maronites in America. — The Maronites are chiefly from the
various districts of Mount Lebanon and from the city of Bei-
rut, and were at first hardly distinguishable from the other
Syrians and Arabic-speaking persons who came to America.
At first they were merely peddlers and small traders, chiefly in
religious and devotional articles, but they soon got into other
lines of business and at present possess many well-established
business enterprises. Not only are they established in the
United States, but they have also spread to Mexico and Can-
ada, and have several fairly large colonies in Brazil, Argen-
tine and Uruguay. Their numbers in the United States are
variously estimated from 100,000 to 120,000, including the
native-born. Many of them have become prosperous mer-
chants and are now American citizens. Several Maronite
families of title (Emir) have emigrated and made their homes
in the United States ; among them are the Emirs Al-Kazen,
Al-Khouri, Abi-Saab and others. There is also the well-known
Arabic novelist of the present day, Madame Karam Hanna
(Afifa Karam) of Shreveport, Louisiana, formerly of Amshid,
Mount Lebanon, who not only writes entertaining fiction, but
touches on educational topics and even women's rights. Na-
hum Mokarzel, a graduate of the Jesuit College of Beirut, is
a clever writer both in Arabic and English. The Maronites
are established in New York, the New England States, Penn-
sylvania, Minnesota and Alabama. The first Maronite priest
to visit the United States was Rev. Joseph Mokarzel, who
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 235
arrived in 1879, but did not remain. Very Rev. Louis Kazen,
of Port Said, Egypt, came later, but, as there were very few
of his countrymen, he likewise returned. On 6 August, 1890,
the Rev. Butrosv Korkemas came to establish a permanent mis-
sion, and after considerable difficulty rented a tiny chapel in a
store on Washington Street, New York City. He was accom-
panied by his nephew. Rev. Joseph Yasbek, then in deacon's or-
ders, who was later ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop
Corrigan, and founded the Maronite mission in Boston; he is
now Chor-Bishop of the Maronites and practically the head
of that rite in America.
A church was later established in Philadelphia, then one in
Troy and one in Brooklyn, after which the Maronites branched
out to other cities. At present (1911) there are fifteen Maro-
nite churches in the United States: in New York, Brooklyn,
Troy, Buffalo, Boston, Lawrence, Springfield, Philadelphia,
Scranton, St. Paul, St. Louis, Birmingham, Chicago, Wheel-
ing and Cleveland. Meanwhile new congregations are being
formed in smaller cities, and are regularly visited by mission-
ary priests. The Maronite clergy is composed of two chor-
bishops (deans vested with certain episcopal powers) and
twenty-three other priests, of whom five are Antonine monks.
In Mexico there are three Maronite chapels and four priests.
In Canada there is a Maronite chapel at New Glasgow and
one resident priest. There are only two Arabic-English
schools, in New York and St. Louis, since many of the Maro-
nite children go to the ordinary Catholic or to the public
schools. There are no general societies or clubs with religious
objects, although there is a Syrian branch of the St. Vincent
de Paul Society. About fifteen years ago Nahum A. Mokarzel
founded and now publishes in New York City the daily news-
paper, "Al Hoda" (The Guidance), which is now the best-
known Arabic newspaper in the world and the only illustrated
one. His brother also publishes an Arabic monthly magazine,
"Al Alam ul Jadia" (The New World), which contains modern
Arabic literature and translations of American and English
writers. There are also two Maronite papers published in
Mexico. The Maronites also have in New York a publishing
house on a small scale, in which novels, pamphlets and scien-
tific and religious works are printed in Arabic, and the usual
Arabic literature sold.
236 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
IV. — Other Oriental Rites
The rites already described are the principal rites to be met
with in the United States ; but there are besides them a few
representatives of the remaining Eastern rites, although these
are perhaps not sufficiently numerous to maintain their own
churches or to constitute separate ecclesiastical entities.
Among these smaller bodies are : ( i ) the Chaldean Catholics
and the schismatic Christians of the same rite, known as Nes-
torians; (2) the Syrian Catholics or Syro-Catholics and their
correlative dissenters, the Jacobites, and (3) finally the Copts,
CathoHc or Orthodox. All of these have a handful of repre-
sentatives in America, and, as immigration increases, it is a
question how great their numbers will become.
( I ) Chaldean or Syro-Chaldean Catholic Rite. — Those who
profess this rite are Eastern Syrians, coming from what was
anciently Mesopotamia, but is now the borderland of Persia.
They ascribe the origin of the rite to two of the early disciples^
Addeus and Maris, who first preached the Gospel in their
lands. It is really a remnant of the early Persian Church,
and it has always used the Syriac language in its liturgy. The
peculiar Syriac which it uses is known as the eastern dialect,
as distinguished from that used in the Maronite and Syro-
Catholic rites, which is the western dialect. The method of
writing this church Syriac among the Chaldeans is somewhat
different from that used in writing it among the western
Syrians. The Chaldeans and Nestorians use in their church
books the antique letters of the older versions of the Syriac
Scriptures which are called "astrangelo," and their pronuncia-
tion is somewhat different. The Chaldean Church in ancient
times was most flourishing, and its history under Persian rule
was a bright one. Unfortunately in the sixth century it em-
braced the Nestorian heresy, for Nestorius on being removed
from the See of Constantinople went to Persia and taught his
views. The Chaldean Church took up his heresy and became
Nestorian. This Nestorian Church not only extended through-
out Mesopotamia and Persia, but penetrated also into India
(Malabar) and even into China. The inroads of Moham-
medanism and its isolation from the centre of unity and from
intercommunication with other Catholic bodies caused it to
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 237
diminish through the centuries. In the sixteenth century the
Church in Malabar, India, came into union with the Holy See,
and this induced the Nestorians to do likewise. The conversion
of part of the Nestorians and the reunion of their ancient
Church with the Holy See began in the seventeenth century,
and has continued to the present day. The Chaldean Patri-
arch of Babylon (who really has his see at Mossul) is the
chief prelate of the Chaldean Catholics, and has under him two
archbishops (of Diarbekir and Kerkuk) and nine bishops (of
Amadia, Gezireh, Mardin, Mossul, Sakou, Salmas, Seert, Sena
and Urmiah). The Malabar Christians have no regular Chal-
dean hierarchy, but are governed by vicars Apostolic. The
number of Chaldean Catholics is estimated at about 70,000,
while the corresponding schismatic Nestorian Church has about
140,000.
There are about 100 to 150 Chaldean Catholics in the United
States ; about fifty live in Yonkers, New York, while the re-
mainder are scattered in New York City and vicinity. The
community in Yonkers is cared for by Rev. Abdul Masih (a
married priest from the Diocese of Diarbekir), who came to
this country from Damascus some six years ago. He says
Mass in a chapel attached to St. Mary's Catholic Church, and
some Nestorians also attend. At present (1911) there are two
other Chaldean priests in this country : Rev. Joseph Ghariba,
from the Diocese of Aleppo, who is a travelling missionary for
his people, and Rev. Gabriel Oussani, who is professor of
church history, patrology and Oriental languages in St. Jo-
seph's Seminary, at Dunwoodie, near Yonkers, and from whom
some of these particulars have been obtained. There are also
said to be about 150 Nestorians in the United States; the ma-
jority of these live and work in Yonkers, New York. They
have no priest of their own, and, where they do not attend
the Catholic Rite, are drifting into modern Protestantism.
Several of them have become members of the Episcopal
Church, and they are looked after by Dr. Abraham Yohannan,
an Armenian from Persia, now a minister in the Episcopal
Church and lecturer on modern Persian at Columbia Univer-
sity. They have no church or chapel of their own.
(2) Syro-Catholic Rite. — This rite is professed by those
Syriac Christians who were subjects of the ancient Patriar-
chate of Antioch; these are spread throughout the plains of
238 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Syria and Western Mesopotamia, whereas the Maronites live
principally on Mount Lebanon and the sea coast of Syria.
The Syriac Mass and liturgy is, like the Maronite (which is
but a variation of it), the Liturgy of St. James, Apostle and
Bishop of Jerusalem. For this reason, but principally for the
reason that Jacob Baradaeus and the greater part of the Syriac
Church embraced the Monophysite heresy of Eutyches, the
schismatic branch of this rite are called Jacobites, although
they call themselves Suriani or Syrians. Thus we have in the
three Syrian rites the historic remembrance of the three great-
est heresies of the early Church after it had become well-de-
veloped. Nestorians and Chaldeans represent Nestorianism
and the return to Catholicism ; Jacobites and Syro-Catholics
represent Monophysitism and the return to Catholicism; the
Maronites represent a vanished Monothelitism now wholly
Catholic. The Syro-Catholics like the Maronites vary the
Ordinary of their Mass by a large number of anaphoras or
canons of the Mass, containing changeable forms of the con-
secration service. The Syro-Catholics confine themselves to
the anaphoras of St. John the Evangelist, St. James, St. Peter,
St. John Chrysostom, St. Xystus the Pope of Rome, St. Mat-
thew and St. Basil; but the schismatic Jacobites not only use
these, but have a large number of others, some of them not
yet in print, amounting perhaps to thirty or more. The epis-
tles, gospels and many well-known prayers of the Mass are
said in Arabic instead of the ancient Syriac. The form of
their church vestments is derived substantially from the Greek
or Byzantine Rite. Their church hierarchy in union with the
Holy See consists of the Syrian Patriarch of Antioch with
three archbishops (of Bagdad, Damascus and Homs) and five
bishops (of Aleppo, Beirut, Gezireh, Mardin-Diarbekir and
Mossul). The number of Syro-Catholics is about 25,000 fami-
lies, and of the Jacobites about 80,000 to 85,000 persons.
There are about sixty persons of the Syro-Catholic Rite in
the eastern part of the United States, of whom forty live in
Brooklyn, New York. They are mostly from the Diocese of
Aleppo, and their emigration thither began only about five
years ago. They have organized a church, although there is
but one priest of their rite in the United States, Rev. Paul
Kassar, from Aleppo, an alumnus of the Propaganda at Rome.
He is a mission priest engaged in looking after his countrymen
RITES IN THE UNITED STATES 239
and resides in Brooklyn, but he is only here upon an extended
leave of absence from the diocese. There are also some thirty
or forty Syro-Jacobites in the United States ; they are mostly
from Mardin, Aleppo and Northern Syria, and have no priest
or chapel of their own.
(3) Coptic Rite. — There is only a handful of Copts in this
country — in New York City perhaps a dozen individuals.
Oriental theatrical pieces, in which an Eastern setting is re-
quired, has attracted some of them thither, principally from
Egypt. They have no priest, either Catholic or Orthodox, and
no place of worship.
RASKOLNIKS
RASKOLNIKS is a generic term for dissidents from
the Established Church in Russia. Under the name
Raskolniki, the various offshoots and schismatic bod-
ies originating- from the Greek Orthodox Church of the Rus-
sian Empire have been grouped by Russian historians and
ecclesiastical writers. Strictly speaking, the name Raskolniki
refers merely to those who have kept the outward forms of
the Byzantine Rite ; the others who have deserted its ritual as
well as its teachings are grouped under the general Russian
name of Sektanstvo (sectarianism). In the present article
they are both treated together, since either form of dissent is
but slightly known outside of Russia. The Raskolniks repre-
sent in the Russian Church somewhat the antithesis of Protes-
tantism towards the Catholic Church. Protestants left the
Church because they claimed a desire to reform it by dropping
dogmas, beliefs and rites ; the Raskolniks left the Russian
Church because they desired to keep alive the minutest rites
and practices to which they were accustomed, and objected to
the Russian Church reforming them in any respect. In doing
so they fell into the greatest of inconsistencies, and a section
of them, while keeping up the minutiae of ritual, rejected nearly
every doctrine the Church taught throughout the world.
I. — True Raskolniks
Even from the time that the Russians were converted to
Christianity there were various dissident sects among them,
reproducing in some respects the almost forgotten heresies of
the early ages of the Church. These are mere names to-day,
but the main separation from the Russian Established Church
came in 1654 when Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow, convened a
synod at Moscow for the reform of the ritual and correction
of the church books. At the time the air in Southern Russia
240
RASKOLNIKS 241
was filled with the idea of union with Rome, in Central and
Northern Russia there was the fear of the Polish invasion
and the turning to Latin customs. When Nikon corrected
the Church service books, into which many errors had crept
by careless copying, and conformed them with the original
Greek text, great complaint was expressed that he was de-
parting from old Slavonic hallowed words, and was making
cause with the stranger outside of Russia. When he under-
took to change the style of popular forms and ceremonies, such
as the sign of the cross, the spelling and pronunciation of
"Jesus," shaving the beard, or to differ in the number of Alle-
luias before the Gospel, he aroused popular resentment, which
rose until there came an open break in which every point he
proposed was rejected. Afterwards when Peter the Great
came to the throne (1689-1725) and introduced western cus-
toms, abolished the Patriarchate of Moscow, substituted the
Holy Synod and made himself the head of Church authority,
changed the forms of the ancient Russo-Slavonic letters, and
set on foot a host of new things in Church and State, the fol-
lowers of the old order of things publicly condemned him as
the Antichrist and renounced the State Church forever, while
clinging to the older forms of their fathers. But both Nikon
and Peter had the whole Russian Episcopate with them, as well
as the great majority of the Russian clergy and people. The
dissenters who thus separated from the established Greco-
Russian Orthodox Church became also known as Stario-
briadtsi (old Ritualists) and Staroviertsi (old Believers), in
allusion to their adherence to the forms and teaching prevail-
ing before Nikon's reforms.
As none of the Russian bishops seceded from the Established
Church the Raskolniks therefore had but an incomplete form
of Church. Of course a number of priests and deacons ad-
hered to them, but as they had no bishops they could not pro-
vide new members of the clergy. Soon death began to thin
the ranks of their clergy and it became apparent that within a
brief period they would be left without any priesthood what-
ever. Then some of their leaders began to deny that a priest-
hood was necessary at all. This led to the splitting of the Ras-
kolniks into two distinct branches : the Popovtsi (Priestly, i. e.,
"Pope"-ly), who insisted on the hierarchy and priesthood,
and the Bezpopovtsi (Priestless, i. e., without "Popes"), who
242 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
denied the necessity of any clergy whatever. The latter,
however, accepted their ministrations. The fortunes of these
two denominations or sects were quite different. The former
grew to great importance in Russia, and are now said to
have between thirteen and fifteen millions of adherents. The
latter subdivided again and again into smaller sects, and
are said to number between three and four millions, all in-
cluded. They will be taken up separately.
Popovtsi or Hierarchical Raskolniks. — At first these re-
newed their clergy by taking over dissatisfied or dismissed
priests from the established Orthodox Church, after having
them take an oath against all the reforms instituted by Nikon
and Peter; but this method was hardly satisfactory, for in
most cases the material thus obtained was of a low moral
grade. They believed that the whole Russian episcopate had
gone over to Antichrist, but still were valid bishops, and
hence endeavored to have priests ordained by them, but in
vain. They searched the Eastern world for a bishop who
held their peculiar ideas, and it seemed almost as though
they must eventually change for lack of clergy, when chance
aided them. A community of Popovtsi monks had settled at
Bielokrinitsa (White Fountain) in Bukowina. Ambrose
(1791-1863), a Greek monk, was appointed Bishop of Sara-
jevo in Bosnia, and was consecrated by the Patriarch of Con-
stantinople. Subsequently a later patriarch deposed him, and
when his resentful feelings against the Constantinople au-
thorities were at their height, the Raskolniks approached him
with the request to become their bishop. On 16 April, 1846,
Ambrose agreed to go over to their faith and adopt all the
ancient practices, consecrate other bishops for them, and
become their metropolitan or archbishop. On 27 October,
1846, he was solemnly received in the monastery of Bielo-
krinitsa, took the necessary oaths, celebrated pontifical Mass
and assumed episcopal jurisdiction. Bielo-krinitsa is only a
few miles from the Russian border, and a hierarchy was soon
brought into being for Russia. After bishops were conse-
crated for Austria and Turkey, bishops were consecrated
and installed in Russia. The Russian Government could not
crush the head of the Raskol Church, for it was in Austria.
The Popovtsi grew by leaps and bounds, commenced to pro-
vide for a regular educated clergy and vied with the Estab-
RASKOLNIKS 243
lished Church. At present they have, since the decree of
toleration in 1905, a well-established hierarchy in Russia,
with a metropolitan at Moscow, and bishops at Saratoff, Perm,
Kazan, Caucasus, Samara, Kolomea, Nijni-Novgorod, Smo-
lensk, Vyatka, and Kaluga.
Their chief stronghold is the Rogozhsky quarter in Moscow,
where they have their great cemetery, monastery, cathedral,
church, and chapels. In 1863, at the time of the Polish insur-
rection the Raskolnik archbishop and his lay advisers sent
out an encyclical letter to the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church
of the Old Believers," supporting the tsar and declaring that
on all main points they were in agreement with the Established
Church. This again split their Church into two factions which
last to this day : the Okruzhniki or Encyclicalists and the
Razdorniki or Controversialists, who denied the points of
agreement with the national Church. In addition to this the
Established Church has now set up a section of these Ras-
kolniks in union with it, but has permitted them to keep all
their peculiar practices, and these are called the Y edinovertsi
or "Uniats." A great many of the controversial section of
the Raskolniks are coming into the Catholic Church, and al-
ready some eight or ten priests have been received.
Bezpopovtsi, or the Priestless, seemed to represent the de-
spairing side of the schism. They have their great stronghold
in the Preobrazhenky quarter in Moscow, and are strong also
in the Government of Archangel. They took the view that
Satan had so far conquered and throttled the Church that
the clergy had gone wrong and had become his servants, that
the sacraments, except baptism, were withdrawn from the
laity, and that they were left leaderless. They claim the
right of free interpretation of the Scriptures, modelling their
lives accordingly. They recognize no ministers save their
"readers," who are elected. Lest this be said to duplicate
Protestantism, one must remember that they have kept up
all the Orthodox forms of service as far as possible, cross-
ings, bowings, icons, candles, fastings, and the like, and have
regularly maintained monasteries with their monks and nuns.
But they had no element of stability ; and their sects have be-
come innumerable, ever shifting and varying, with incessant
divisions and subdivisions. The chief of the subdivisions are :
(i) Pomortsi, or dwellers near the sea, a rural division which
244 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
is very devout; (2) Feodocei (Theodosians), who founded
hospitals and laid emphasis on good works; (3) Besbrachniki
(free lovers), who repudiated marriage, somewhat like the
Oneida community in New York; (4) Stranniki (wander-
ers), a peripatetic sect, who went over the country, declaring
their doctrines; (5) Molchalniki (mutes), who seldom spoke,
believing evil came through the tongue and idle conversation ;
and (6) Niemoliaki (non-praying), who taught that as God
knows all things it is useless to pray to Him, as He knows
what one needs. These various divisions of the Priestless
are again divided into smaller ones, like many of the strange
sects in England and America, so that it is almost impossible
to follow them. Often they indulge in the wildest immorality,
justifying it under the cover of some distorted text of Scrip-
ture or some phrase of the ancient Church service.
II. — Sectarians
The various bodies which make up the Sektanstvo have
seceded from the national Russian Church quite independently
of the schism at the time of Nikon and the reform in the
Church books. They correspond more closely with the vari-
ous sects arising from Protestantism, and are founded upon
some distorted idea of the Church, or a rule of life or doc-
trines of the Faith. Some of them are older than the schism,
but most of them are later in point of time. The principal
ones comprise between one and two millions and may be sub-
divided or classified as follows: (i) Khlysti (Flagellants),
who believe in severe penances, reject the Church, its sacra-
ments and usages. They are also called the Ludi Boshi, or
"God's People," and also the "Farmazoni" (Freemasons), on
account of the secret initiations they have. They hold secret
meetings in which they sing wild, stirring hymns, dress in
white, and jump, dance, or whirl, much like the negro revivals
in the Southern States.
(2) Skoptsi (Eunuchs), who not only teach absolute celi-
bacy, but mutilate themselves so as to be sexless. They boast
that they are pure like the saints and walk untainted through
this world of sin, and take the literal view of Matt., xix, 12.
Women are also mutilated, particularly after they have borne
RASKOLNIKS 245
children to recruit the sect, but these children are not born
in wedlock. The Skoptsi are said to be usurers and money
changers.
(3) Molokani (Milk-drinkers), said to be so named because
they make it a point to drink milk and use other prohibited
foods during Lent and fast days, to show their objection to
the Orthodox Church. They abhor all external ceremonies of
religion, but lay stress upon the Bible. They say there is
no teacher of the Faith but Christ himself, and that we are
all priests ; and they carry their logic so far as to have neither
church nor chapel, simply meeting in one another's houses.
(4) Dukhobors (Spirit wrestlers) are those who deny the
Holy Ghost and who place but a minor importance upon the
Scriptures. They are better known to America, for some thou-
sands of them emigrated to Canada, where they are now
good colonists. They give a wide place to tradition, and desig-
nate man as "the living book," in opposition to dead books
of paper and ink. In some respects they are pantheists, say-
ing that God lies within us, that we must struggle with the
spirit of God to attain the fulness of life. They do not give
an historical reality to the Gospel narratives, but take them
figuratively. Their idea of the Church is in conformity with
their belief; they consider it an assembly of the righteous on
earth, whether Christians, Jews, or Moslems. Yet they have
all the peculiarities and fanaticism of the Slav.
(5) Stundists, or a kind of Russian Baptists. These seem
to be an offshoot from the Lutherans or Mennonites who set-
tled in Russia. The name is derived from the German Stunde,
or hour, because they assembled at stated hours to read the
Bible or worship. They rejected the sacraments, even baptism
at first, but yet retain it. They gave up all Church holidays,
and agreed with the Melokani in repudiating the idea of a
clergy. They are nearly all Little Russians, in the South of
Russia.
(6) Subhotniki (Sabbatarians), who have substituted Satur-
day, the Jewish Sabbath, for Sunday. They have also taken
up a great many Jewish practices from the Old Testament
along with such elemental Christian forms which they retain.
They are practically Unitarians, and expect the Messias ; and
they are also said to be like the Mormons, living in polygamy
in many instances, although most of them are content with
246 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
one wife. Besides these principal sects there are numerous
smaller ones. One can run almost the same round of strange
and erratic religious beliefs in Russia as in the United States.
There are the Pliassuny (Dancers), Samobogi (Self-gods),
Chislenniki (Computers), who have changed Sunday so as
to fall on Wednesday, and Easter to the middle of the week,
Pashkovites, Radstockites (so named after their founders),
and numerous others, which exploit some peculiar tenet of
their various founders and believers. In addition to these are
the various missionary enterprises and local churches of West-
em Protestantism, of which the Lutherans and Baptists are
the leading ones.
CIVIC SUBJECTS
CIVIC INTEGRITY
Address Before the Xavier Alumni Sodality
THE forces of this age seem to be in a large measure
centrifugal. The reverence for former standards,
former virtues, the established standards of mankind
is being dissipated. This is not merely true of temporary
things, the mere expedients of daily government and disci-
pline, but of the very principles which lie back of social ties
and order.
In the history of religious movements the term "private
judgment" was once understood to mean the right to interpret
the meaning of Holy Scripture after the manner that seemed
most expedient to the reader, and if the passage or the doc-
trine embraced therein did not commend itself then to reject
it altogether. But we have gone far beyond that now. It
is the fashion of many political, social and personal cults to-
day, to say nothing of private individuals, to use their "private
judgment" in rejecting, modifying or amending the basic prin-
ciples of morality, discipline and government. In other words,
many a man is ready to repeal not only the Ten Command-
ments, but hundreds of human laws so far as they apply to
his own conduct. It is becoming the fashion to deny and
abrogate any inconvenient prohibition or commandment what-
soever. What is the fashion to-day may be the custom to-
morrow, and the standard set for a decade hence. Let us
examine how such a phase of life should affect us as Sodalists.
You who meet with us to-night to join in our celebration
of the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the Xavier
Alumni Sodality, may wonder why we link such a theme with
the praises of Our Blessed Lady. It is easily explainable.
On this evening of the Feast of her Immaculate Conception
we again glorify the Blessed Mother of God, whom the Om-
nipotent in His grace made a second Eve, fair and stainless
249
250 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
from the moment of her existence. To-night in our celebra-
tion we salute her in the language used by the Greek Church
in that wonderful Acathistos hymn: "Reverently we stand
in the house of our God and cry aloud : Hail, Queen of
the world ! Hail, Mary, Lady of us all ! Hail, thou, alone
immaculate and fair amongst women !" Yet in the midst of
our celebration and rejoicing there is no greater or more
appropriate theme than the consideration of man's duties to
God, to himself and to his neighbor, and its logical ex-
tension to his duty towards the State, and the laws which
govern him, all of which is exemplified in the most striking
manner in the life of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
We are accustomed to look upon the shrinking maiden
of the hills of Galilee as an example of heroic obedience,
from a worldly standpoint, but we do not ordinarily view her
as a public citizen doing her duty under the law. When we
think or speak of civil duties and obedience to the law, her
figure does not usually come up as an exemplar of citizen-
ship. It is true that she obeyed humbly and cheerfully the
salutation of the Most High that she should take upon her-
self a motherhood which seemed in her eyes to conflict with
her virginity, and gave obedience with a serene confidence
which has made her "blessed amongst women." Yet I think
she can stand also as an exponent of civic duty both under
the Roman and the Jewish law in such a manner that may
well make her a pattern and example for us of later days.
You remember that Judea had its own code of laws, which
every Jewish citizen obeyed. When the Romans made Pales-
tine a conquered Roman province, they imposed their laws
and decrees upon the people also. Here, then, were both the
laws of a God-fearing people and the laws of a pagan em-
pire, each to be obeyed in their respective spheres. But one
to whom the Angel had said : "Thou shalt bring forth a son ;
he shall be great and shall be the Son of the Most High,"
might well disregard the laws of pagan Rome and the re-
quirements of the Mosaic code. If private judgment of our
modern type had dominated her, she might well have said :
I am the mother of the maker and creator of all laws, and I
am not to be bound by any laws imposed by earthly authority.
I am the mother and director of Him who made all things,
even the law-givers, and I will not bow to the decrees of lesser
CIVIC INTEGRITY 251
men. My Son has been announced to the world by the angels
and has been adored by the kings of the earth as He lay in
my arms. Let the officials of this world accommodate their
laws and customs to me. Instead of this, she exhibited every
element of civic duty and citizenship, displaying obedience
to constituted authority as she herself found it, although in
the end her very obedience and compliance was the starting
point to initiate the stupendous changes which afterwards took
place in Judea and in Rome.
No matter with what words we might clothe the event, we
cannot tell the story of Mary's civic obedience and integrity
in the observance of law in more fitting words than those
of the Gospel. Saint Luke describes these episodes as follows :
"And it came to pass, that in those days there went out a
decree from Csesar Augustus, that the whole world should be
enrolled. This enrolling was first made by Cyrinus, the gov-
ernor of Syria. And all went to be enrolled, every one into
Ills own city.
"And Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of
Nazareth into Judea, to the city of David, which is called
Bethlehem ; because he was of the house and family of Da-
vid, to be enrolled with Mary, his espoused wife."
It was after this act of obedience to Roman Law that
Our Blessed Lord was born. The evangelist goes on to tell
of the Mosaic law :
"And after the days of her purification, according to the
law of Moses, were accomplished they carried him to Jerusa-
lem to present him to the Lord; And to offer a sacrifice ac-
cording as it is written in the law of the Lord, a pair of turtle
doves or two young pigeons.
"And after they had performed all things according to
the law of the Lord, they returned into Galilee, to their city,
Nazareth." ^
Here was obedience and the fulfilment of the obligations
of a citizen to the foreign and domestic laws in force in
Judea. Although Mary knew that in her own person she
was an exception to the ordinary laws of nature and exempt
from the penalties of fallen humanity, nevertheless she will-
ingly submitted to the regulations of pagan rule and of eccle-
siastical discipline. These acts make Mary, as described in
^ St. Luke, ii.
252 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the pages of the gospel, a pattern of civic integrity, which
every Socialist and every Catholic, — nay, every man and
woman who admires noble conduct — can take as their ideal in
their relations to the State and to their fellow-citizens. Her
example should be our standard and her civic virtue we can
imitate and develop amid the varying needs of our daily civic
life.
It is not, however, mere obedience to civic law which the
Sodalist in a perfunctory fashion should cultivate. If he
wishes to imitate in spirit and in truth the high virtue of Our
Lady, he should go further and have regard for the end for
which such observance was intended. Merely living within the
narrow limits of statute and decision, so as to comply with
the bare precepts of the law, is not enough for the true fulfil-
ment of citizenship of to-day. It is much like paying the mere
minimum wage to the laborer, irrespective of the condition
and the needs of the worker. The law should be observed so
as to accomplish its full purport, and if the law in practice
falls short of its proper aim, then effort should be made to
improve or amend it so as to better achieve its legitimate
results. A true-hearted citizen should make every effort
to serve the best interests of the State and to promote to
the largest extent the comfort and welfare of his fellow-man.
Only by doing willing, cheerful and generous service will
the Sodalist approach the ideal set by Our Lady.
Nor must he be content with merely performing such ob-
servance by himself. He should be an example and encourage-
ment to others, inducing them by example and by precept to
observe these things in as large a measure as possible. You
all know the cynical definition of altruism, that altruism con-
sisted in A and B getting together and deciding just what C
should do for D. That can never be the Sodalist's method ; he
must search his own heart and mind and set about doing
the work himself. If he can induce B to cooperate in the work,
so much the better. He can afford to wait until both himself
and B have done their full duty, before he may require what C
should do for D. Yet this cynical definition is not so far re-
moved from the actual state of affairs as we find them to-day.
There are many people who seriously believe in making the
world over by legislation. The cry on all sides is : Pass a law
to prevent this or that, whether it be a trivial or a serious
CIVIC INTEGRITY 253
thing. There are societies for the prevention of almost every-
thing under the sun. People are engaged busily in the
very purpose of seeing what C shall do to D. Few seem to
think of seriously enforcing the laws which we now have,
and, what is far worse, fewer seem to think of earnestly,
seriously and reverently obeying the laws themselves and of
inducing their neighbor to do likewise, by that most powerful
of all persuasives, a good example. Loopholes and techni-
calities in the laws are eagerly searched for, and if these
fail there is a general protest, both in word and deed, that
the law is no good and ought not be enforced anyhow.
Can any one doubt that two-thirds of our laws drawn so
stringently against commercial oppression, financial decep-
tion and greed, injustice between man and man in a thou-
sand ways, would be totally unnecessary if every citizen of
any importance at all would see that our plain old-fashion
common law — declarative of that still older-fashioned law, the
Ten Commandments — was strictly obeyed, and first set the
example of obeying it himself? One person in the resolute
imitation of the good example of Our Lady would go far
towards solving the problem.
One cannot turn the world into a vast penitentiary where
the citizens are working under surveillance and menaced
at all times by severe penalties for infractions of discipline.
Love and hope, willingness and cheerfulness, make for far
better voluntary work and obedience, and produce nobler and
more lasting results. Making the world over by legislation
will never succeed. The individual must be furnished with
and in turn must furnish the incentive to do right. The
field for the Sodalist lies here.
Then again there is the vast unoccupied field of civic bet-
terment. The relations of employer and employee, so dif-
ferent now from former times by the introduction of gigan-
tic capital and vast machinery, the management of large
municipal institutions from the City Hall down to the paving
of a street, the caring for the deficient in intellect or body,
the poor and the unfortunate, compensation for industrial
accidents resulting from the use of colossal modern ma-
chinery; the education of the young, especially in its religious
aspect, their moral, physical and mental well-being, and a
thousand similar problems demanded for their proper solu-
254 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
tion ; the active and earnest cooperation of all citizens, espe-
cially of Catholics, who should be foremost in such efforts for
the welfare of the community.
We Sodalists put much stress upon the efficacy of prayer
and of the Sacraments. They are indeed the prime aids, the
direct approach to God. But in the civic life and in the ex-
pression of our integrity and our duty towards our fellow-
man we can have no higher guide and ideal than that given
by Our Lord himself : "Thou shalt love the Lord God, with
thy whole heart and thy whole mind, and thy neighbor as
thyself." With this ideal in view, no matter how often we
may stumble daily, we shall do our real duty in civic life.
We can then feel that the laws which govern us, although
they may be often defective and insufficient, are, after all, ex-
pression of the eternal verities which govern human life. Our
civic duty will be predicated upon a whole-hearted feeling of
acquiescence in the spirit of law and order, and of using
our talents for the betterment of the world around us. Prog-
ress will not be accomplished by rebellion or revolution, but
by a gradual and orderly development of better things. In so
proving our civic integrity and love for good and enduring
citizenship, we shall become like unto the careful householder
who cherishes the old household furnishings until they are
replaced by new, and refuses to smash and destroy them
simply because they are deemed to be antique. Our aim
at all times must be constructive, not destructive, and to be
striven for in obedience, cheerfulness and willing service.
A VISION OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP
THE determined stand of a handful of patriot farmers
at Lexington on that memorable dawn of April 19,
1775? was the starting point of the history of a free
nation. It was the dawn preceding the rising sun of our
liberty which shines now so splendidly in the zenith, and
whose rays have illumined the uttermost parts of the earth.
The Knights of Columbus have rightly taken the perpetua-
tion of the name of the discoverer of the New World, and
have rightly chosen to commemorate not only the discoverer
of America, but the great patriots who unfolded to their fel-
low-countrymen the liberty of a people. The Order stands not
only for these things, but attests by its numbers what Catho-
lics have come to mean in the civic and political life of the
United States. It was long before prejudice and unreasoning
opposition to us died out, and in some communities it is still
felt, although in a diminishing degree. But, gradually, as
the heavy mists fade out before the glowing rays of the
rising sun, each age-long relic of prejudice and hatred dis-
solves into nothingness, and the American citizen who pro-
fesses the Catholic faith at last becomes the peer of his fellow-
man.
This was not all accomplished suddenly or without toil and
struggle. It was not due merely to native recognition of the
fellow-man of a different creed ; it was due to the persistent
influx of a Catholic people, who, 'mid stress and struggle, —
like Columbus in the stormy seas on his westward way to '
discover America — kept true to the direction pointed by the
compass, their Faith, and who by their earnestness and their
single-heartedness won for themselves a place among their
fellow-citizens. It marks a triumph in American citizenship ;
not only as to the amelioration of public manners upon th'
part of those who differ from us, but a winning of the esteem
and appreciation of our fellow-citizens upon our part — a dem-
255
256 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
onstration that we have become an integral and indispensable
part of this country. It is a witness to the liberality and fair-
mindedness of our fellows, but it is also a tribute to the
earnestness and devotion of all who have contributed to the
result.
We Catholics intend to be whole-souled and energetic citi-
zens of every great commonwealth of this still greater land ;
we intend to march in the van of all that is to the interest of
this republic and which may contribute to its solidity and its
well-being ; we declare boldly our Faith in this land of the free
and home of the brave, its institutions and its progress, its
virtue and morality, and its everlasting witness of the watch-
fulness of God Almighty over the destinies of man.
Our sun of earthly glory is rising to its zenith, and the bril-
liancy of our temporal prosperity has suffused the world. Our
fathers in the science of government and the constitution laid
broader and deeper foundations than they dreamed. The
fabric of our empire has risen to gigantic proportions; it has
reached a point where mere axioms of law and written statutes
can hardly suffice to hold it cemented together. When this
point is reached, reaction may set in. On the one hand, a
strongly centralized — nay, a well-nigh despotic government —
may seem to be the only recourse to hold the country to-
gether, while on the other, ruin may ensue by lawless license
instead of liberty. This is when prosperity may menace us
more than adversity ; and the menace be so disguised that we
fail to recognize it.
We have already arrived at the point where the parting of
the ways may be dimly discerned. On the one hand, the
growth of privilege and power resulting from the combina-
tions and monopolies of commerce and industrialism seem to
threaten the well-being of the nation and the prosperity of
its citizens. The only remedy so far devised is the stern curb-
ing of such organizations by a series of enactments which
lodge all power in the most inquisitorial fashion with the cen-
tral government, whether it be at Washington or at the capi-
tal of the state. It is needless to say that a reduplication of
such powers of government may in the end reduce the citizen
to a state of vassalage and nullify the guarantees of life,
liberty and happiness embodied in our constitutions.
The other alternative is scarcely better. There is a growth
A VISION OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP 257
of lawless feeling, a deliberate contempt for law enactment
and law enforcement, which is at present somewhat in the
formless shape of a philosophic theory, but which pervades
a large portion of our people. It is not confined to those who
call themselves Socialists, Liberals or even Anarchists; it
rather has its roots and being in those who have, as the phrase
is, "a stake in the country." It is a deliberate setting of the
individual opinion above the enacted law, and it is carrying out
a practical defiance to that law. In its lowest stage, it mani-
fests itself in petty evasions of the law, whether by subter-
fuge, trickery or graft; in its highest, it calmly sneers at the
statutes, and even buys representatives among officials, legis-
latures and perhaps in the courts. It is the very antithesis
of the orderly conduct of human affairs, and it is the breeder
of more social disorder than even the wildest agitator. It
is the survey of these things that makes the poor man rebel,
the one of small means cherish hatred and envy towards his
fellow-man, and produces the discontent which finally leads to
open outbreak.
The cause of these two phenomena may be ascribed largely
to the mere piling up of material things to the neglect of the
moral and intellectual side of man. Nor by intellectual side
must we mean merely the ability to use and profit by book
knowledge and mentality. That is merely surface intellect —
and every modern business venture requires a substantial por-
tion of that in order to become even approximately successful.
The neglect of the intellectual side refers rather to an atrophy,
a deadening and a blinding of the light-appreciating powers
in the mind of every man. To illustrate it, I can do no better
than to cite the instance mentioned in the book "Is Mankind
Advancing?" where the Western farmer, surveying his past
at the close of a successful life, discovered to his consterna-
tion that he had spent his entire existence in growing corn to
feed hogs in order to make money so as to buy more land on
which to grow corn to feed more hogs, in order to buy more
land on which to grow more corn to raise more hogs, and so
on. No doubt he employed a corner of his intellect for the
accomplishment of the result, but the entire performance,
like many more instances in our modern world, can hardly be
called intellectual.
And when I speak of the neglect of the moral side of man's
258 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
nature, I need hardly give examples. The newspapers are
full of the details of high financiering, many of the particu-
lars of which are hardly bounded by the limits of the penal
statutes. These fine examples are merely the ones which
are found out and exposed to the pubUc gaze; but every man
knows whispers of many others which do not come to the
surface. It is even exploited as a motive power for our
daily press; since descriptions of the violations of the Ten
Commandments make "snappy" articles.
Now, it is these very things which may wreck our nation
and ruin our body politic. It is a question whether we can
keep up our standard of citizenship and preserve the institu-
tions which we have inherited. I am one of those who firmly
believe that we can, and I believe that every effort should
be made to do so. And there is no organization of men in the
world, upon whom such a standard of citizenship should rest
more than upon Catholics in general and upon the Knights of
Columbus in particular. When we studied our elementary
catechism, we learned, as primary truths, "Thou shalt not steal"
and "Thou shalt not covet," and that among the sins which cry
to Heaven for vengeance are the oppression of the poor and
defrauding laborers of their wage. On these may be built
the entire economic and political history of the modern state.
All the material ills that cry for reform are but a variation o^
these two themes.
For the past five years our newspapers, our magazines and
numerous books have teemed with the story of unrighteous
gain, oppression of the weak, and the unholy greed manifested
by corporate expansion. In the Middle Ages, feudal rank
grew great by the assumption of privilege ; to-day the corpo-
ration and its coterie of majority holders do the same thing.
The gradual monopoly of the necessaries of life, of the means
of transportation, and of even the means of diffusion of knowl-
edge, threatens our national life and liberties, far more than
the encroachments of kings and nobles in the worst decline
of feudal times. Then, at least, they had as a working the-
ory, the idea that they were the guardians of the people,
exalted perhaps by caste, but nevertheless in theory bound to
look after the welfare of their subjects or vassals.
To-day, however, we are more individualistic ; the theory to-
day is a shorter one : "What is there in it for me ? Where do
A VISION OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP 259
I come in?" As our society to-day is larger and more com-
plex, our fall— if fall there be — must be greater and with
more destruction than even that of the older society. The
heir to a dukedom had before him in those days "noblesse
oblige," and he was bound to live up to the traditions of his
order — he was like a general in command of his army; he
might be superior in rank, but he must endure the same
hardships and live the same life as his soldiers did. To-day
the heir to a railroad, or a steel trust, may live in New York,
London or Paris, whilst his operatives may live almost in
hell, for aught that he may personally care.
It is just here that the duties of Catholics and of such in-
stitutions as the Knights of Columbus have the widest field for
their exercise. If the state is to be carried along on the high
plane of justice, it can only be by high moral aim and per-
sonal endeavor. Our Faith will supply the moral aim and
we can make the personal endeavor too. Every once in a
while we show what we can do in one way by the election
returns in particular localities.
But we must needs go further; Catholics, now that they
have obtained perhaps a little more than an amiable recog-
nition, must not confine themselves merely to endeavors within
the platforms of political parties. That would be indeed keep-
ing our "light under a bushel." We have among us men of
almost every form of activity, but familiarly a Catholic is
heard of most frequently as a religionist and a voter. The
popular idea — a portion of the old prejudice that has not yet
been put away with the lumber in the attic — is that citizenship
among Catholics has not risen higher than mere going to
church and going to the polls. May we never forget these
two essentials ; they are the leaven which leaveneth the whole
lump. But there are other walks of citizenship in which we
can take large part also. The mere alignment of political
parties or the procurement of prominent office is not the
whole of the duties of citizenship. We must enter into the
greater civic life around us, until in every phase of it we
have as many representatives as our Catholic population bears
to the general population of the state. No civic endeavor
should be set on foot without its proportion of Catholics.
There is work enough for all of us; the formation of a
healthy public opinion demands our best energies. There are
26o ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the endless forms of charitable and educational work through-
out the state — I do not mean the institutions which are purely
Catholic in origin and management — which require the intel-
ligent, energetic service of every man who can assist and
uplift his fellow-man. Yet how many Catholics are there upon
such boards and committees, working side by side with their
fellow-citizens? The questions of labor, wages, working
hours, factory laws, compensation for accidents, protection
from machinery, child labor, women's work, co-operative
banks and building associations, housing, tenement reform,
sweat-shop, home industries, and the myriad questions of
capital, labor and just treatment which concern these things,
require Catholics, as well as non-Catholics, to solve them and
set them aright.
There is immense room for constructive social work, such
as congestion in cities, reformation of young delinquents, the
incoming of immigration, placing the foreign population where
it will do the most good both to itself and to the state at
large, and there is even greater room for the discussion and
solution of the larger civic and moral questions, which I need
not touch upon in detail. In each of these. Catholics should
take large part. It ought to be worth while for our neighbors
to know that there is often a Catholic point of view upon all
such things, just as there is a Catholic view upon the questions
concerning the family and the home and all that tends to drag
them down, and it ought to be made worth their while to have
them know our opinion upon all those things, even if only
for the sake of broad enlightenment, and to ask our cordial
assistance in every movement which makes for the betterment
of man, and the production of a nobler citizen for the state.
We have the men capable of studying and of giving vast
assistance in the solution of all the complex problems of the
higher, greater and wider citizenship which looks after the
well-being and improvement of our fellow-men, and which
looks further than the mere carrying of the election at hand.
Our citizenship cannot be better employed than in entering
upon these larger fields of human endeavor. Just as we have
already made an impression upon the political life of this
and other states, just as we have convinced the powers who
write political platforms that we are persons to be in a meas-
ure reckoned with, either for votes or for office, so also should
A VISION OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP 261
it be our duty now to impress upon our fellow-citizens the
fact that there is no public question of the hour, whether so-
cial, political or economic, in which we are not interested and
in which we are not capable of aiding in the solution. Every
board, every committee,, every general body, organized in any
state for the study, elucidation or improvement of public
questions or conditions, should have upon it its quota of
Catholic members.
We must not lag behind our brethren. If we do, we fail
to convince them that we are ready and willing to be of
assistance and that we should be consulted by them in such
matters; and we fail to do our duty as citizens of this great
country of ours. The public morality and conscience of
every state, or of the United States, the social, charitable,
economic and mental development of the masses of the peo-
ple, should not be left in the exclusive control of our brethren
who are not of us. True, we may work in parallel lines in
our own institutions with our own people chiefly as the sub-
ject of our ministrations; but that is not our whole duty nor
indeed its final aim. That is apt to make us exclusive, on
the one hand, or indifferent, on the other. While we should
do our duty towards our own, we cannot afford to estrange
ourselves from our neighbors ; and our part in the civic, moral,
social and economic problems of the state as a whole will be
both beneficial to us and to our fellow-citizens. Our devo-
tion to those things will not diminish our devotion to our
own interests and to our own institutions.
The entry of large-minded, active, real Catholics, who
know their faith and their country and all the motives that
lead to zeal and patriotism, will be the largest and greatest
boon which the Knights of Columbus can bestow on the state
of which they are citizens. Terence said : "Homo sum ;
et nihil humanum mihi alienum est." (I am a man; and
nothing which concerns manhood is foreign to me.) So, too,
the Knights of Columbus may well say, "We are citizens of
this noble land, and nothing that concerns the life or the
welfare of the citizen shall be foreign to us."
I conclude with the sincere prayer that the Order may grow
from day to day more powerful and more influential, that
its love for the Church may be an incentive and a guiding
star for good works, that its American citizenship may so
262 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
grow and expand and so impress itself upon our fellow-citi-
zens that no question which concerns the citizen of to-day
or of to-morrow, or which concerns the policy, acts and needs
of our common country at any time, shall be considered, acted
upon or decided without Catholic representatives in every walk
in life to take counsel with their fellow-citizens. If the great
needs of life and civic conduct are to be met, we should stand
as a necessary and important part among those who are to
meet them. In this way may our country best count upon
our service, for we shall be
"Those that by their deeds will make it known
Whose dignity they do sustain;
And life, state, glory, all they gain,
Count the republic's, not their own."
STRETCHING THE CONSTITUTION
WHEN the Supreme Court of the United States de-
cided the now famous Standard Oil and Tobacco
Trust cases under the Sherman Act, much was said
about the Court having practically made new law by inserting,
so its critics claimed, the word "reasonable" in a statute
which did not contain that word. The more hostile critics
said that the Supreme Court, instead of interpreting law, was
in reality creating a new and a different one. But this was
said of the most august tribunal in the United States, if not
in the world, in regard to its decision concerning a statute
made by its co-ordinate branch of the government, and con-
cerning which it was vested with the power of review in cer-
tain respects. Yet the Supreme Court never went so far as
to interpolate or overrule the Constitution of the United
States, even though it be the highest tribunal in the land.
That exploit was left for a subordinate government official —
one who was charged with no duty whatever in regard to law
and procedure, — one Robert G. Valentine, Commissioner of
Indian Affairs. If criticism could attack the acts of the Su-
preme Court whilst doing its duty in the interpretation of a
statute, how much and how bitter ought to be the criticism
of Mr. Valentine and those like him, who go out of their
way to meddle in matters for which they have no warrant
at all?
On the 27th of January, 1912, Robert G. Valentine, the
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, propria motu, ex-officio, ex-
cathedra and ex-perversitate, without any inquiry, any notice
or any reason demanding it and even without any consulta-
tion with his departmental superiors, issued the following
order:
To Superintendents in charge of Indian schools:
In accordance with that essential principle in our National
life — the separation of Church and State — as applied by me to
263
264 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the Indian Service, which as to ceremonies and exercises is
now being enforced under the existing religious regulations, I
find it necessary to issue this order supplementary to those
regulations to cover the use at those exercises and at other
times of insignia and garb as used by various denominations.
At exercises of any particular denomination there is, of course,
no restriction in this respect, but at the general assembly
exercises and in the public school rooms, or on the grounds
when on duty, insignia or garb has no justification.
In Government schools all insignia of any denomination
must be removed from all public rooms, and members of any
denomination wearing distinctive garb should leave such garb
oflf while engaged at lay duties as Government employes. If
any case exists where such an employe cannot conscientiously
do this he will be given a reasonable time, not to extend,
however, beyond the opening of the next school year after
the date of this order, to make arrangements for employ-
ment elsewhere than in Federal Indian schools. Respectfully,
Robert G. Valentine,
Commissioner.
This order of the Indian Commissioner in wording reveals
something of the manner of a Tsar. He begins: "In ac-
cordance with that essential principle of our National life —
the separation of Church and State — as applied by me to the
Indian Service," &c. Most officials in the service of the
United States, where they are not clothed with judicial func-
tions, are content to rely upon the guidance of a court made
upon cases arising out of an actual grievance and complaint
carried to judgment, for the application of the principles of
fundamental American law. But that view hardly seems to
have suited Commissioner Valentine; he preferred to have
them "as applied by me."
Many persons misunderstand the language of the Consti-
tution in regard to the separate functions of Church and State,
and imagine all sorts of wild things. The language of the
first amendment to the Constitution is : "Congress shall make
no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting
the free exercise thereof." Prejudice, oppression, hostility or
suppression of the manners and customs of a religion is
as much forbidden thereby on the one hand, as is favoritism
or exaltation of a particular religion on the other. But this
amendment was never intended to be a shield for unfriendly
acts against any denomination. Besides this, the eleventh
amendment to the Constitution expressly provides that, "Pow-
ers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor
STRETCHING THE CONSTITUTION 265
prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states re-
spectively, or to the people." These are the fundamentals
upon which the action of Congress and of the United States
in regard to religion is founded. There are enough examples
in the books to show that the action of Commissioner Valen-
tine in making such an order was officious and arbitrary. It
was not even founded upon any necessity or any complaint,
but merely upon his idea "as applied by me" as to what the
relations between Church and State should be in his depart-
ment.
Although the Catholic Church is not mentioned by name in
the order, yet it is a fact that no other denomination has in
the Indian schools any of its members who are consecrated
to the religious life and who wear any clothing or insignia
which indicate that they are so consecrated to a holy life
of devotion. In other words, the Catholic teachers in the In-
dian schools are the only ones who wear a religious garb, and
hence the order is meant solely for Catholics, although tht
name Catholic is not therein mentioned. As well might an
official in the War Department make an order that Catholic
Sisters of Charity should not wear their habit when minister-
ing to the sick and wounded, as to say that a Catholic teacher
shall not wear her or his habit in teaching arithmetic or di-
recting play on the grounds. What the government needs and
requires are results ; and until a complaint is made that teach-
ers wearing a religious garb are lax in teaching or discipline,
there is no more justification for Commissioner Valentine's
order than there would be for one directing what color of a
coat and cravat he himself shall wear when on duty.
It is well that the Chief Executive of the United States is at
present a man of wide knowledge and experience, who has had
an extended career upon the bench as a Federal judge and
in actual government as a cabinet officer, and who is apt to
weigh carefully and advisedly matters purporting to be an
interpretation of the Constitution and existing laws. He is
not apt to take things "as applied by me," but following his
judicial training desires to hear all sides before deciding.
When, therefore, President Taft learned of this extraordinary
and uncalled-for order, he promptly revoked it in the following
letter :
2(£ ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
My Dear Mr. Secretary : — It has been brought to my
attention that an order has been issued by the Commissioner
of Indian Schools. This order relates to the general matter
which you and I have had under consideration and concern-
ing which, at your request, the Commissioner was collect-
ing detailed information for our advice. The Commis-
sioner's order has been made without consultation with either
you or me.
It prohibits not only the use of distinctive religious insignia
at school exercises, but also the wearing of distinctive religious
garb by school employes, and provides that if any school em-
ploye cannot conscientiously comply with the order such
employe will be given a reasonable time, not to extend, how-
ever, beyond the opening of the next school year, to make
arrangements for employment elsewhere than in Federal
Indian schools.
I fully believe in the principle of the separation of the
Church and State, on which our Government is based, but the
questions presented by this order are of great importance and
delicacy. They arise out of the fact that the Government has
for a considerable period taken for use of the Indians certain
schools theretofore belonging to and conducted by distinctive
religious societies or churches. As a part of the arrange-
ment then made the school employes then employed, who
were in many cases members of religious orders wearing
the distinctive garb of these orders, were continued as teachers
by the Government, and by ruling of the Civil Service Com-
mission or by Executive action they have been included in the
classified service under the protection of the Civil Service law.
The Commissioner's order almost necessarily amounts to a
discharge from the Federal service of those who have entered
it. This should not be done without a careful consideration
of all phases of the matter nor without giving the persons
directly affected an opportunity to be heard. As the order
would not in any event take effect until the beginning of the
next school year, / direct that it be revoked and the action by
the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in respect thereto be sus-
pended until such time as will permit a full hearing to be
given to all parties in interest and a conclusion to be reached
in respect to the matter after full deliberation.
Sincerely yours,
William H. Taft.
This was the letter of a just and courageous man, and it
expresses the spirit of fair play by which Catholics every-
where are content to abide. It was a well-merited rebuke to
the author of the inconsiderate order conceived in hostility
to Catholics alone; and all publicity should be given to the
scope and purpose of such a letter. It is not the first time
that such attempts have been made at Washington to attack
Catholic customs and usages, now that the old-time method
of openly vilifying them will no longer answer. Representa-
STRETCHING THE CONSTITUTION 26']
tive John Hall Stephens, of the Thirteenth Congressional
District of Texas, has for some time been a leader in such
matters. A few of his exploits in the way of stretching the
simple words of the Constitution so as to make them the cloak
for his hostility to things Catholic are shown in the various
bills and resolutions he has introduced in Congress.
Thus in the Fifty-eighth Congress, where a clause was at-
tached to the Indian Appropriation Bill restoring to Indian
Catholic pupils attending Catholic schools the rations which
had been denied them by the then Commissioner of Indian
Affairs, — and the bill had passed the Senate without opposi-
tion, — Mr. Stephens distinguished himself as being the only
man in the House of Representatives who was against it.
Later, in order to prevent and make illegal the use of Indian
tribal funds (the Indians' own money, mark you) for the
education of Catholic Indian children in Catholic Mission
schools, Mr. Stephens offered an amendment to the Indian
Appropriation Bill forbidding the use of such funds for
any such purpose. When an amendment to the Bill was made
in the Senate reinstating the Stephens amendment, which had
been ruled out in the House, and the matter came up in con-
ference between the two Houses, where it was eliminated,
Mr. Stephens refused to sign the Conference Report, and
when that report came before the House for adoption, he
protested vigorously against the omission of the Senate amend-
ment. Later on in the session he introduced a bill entitled,
"A Bill to prohibit the use of Indian Trust Funds for the pur-
pose of educating Indian children in sectarian schools," thus
intending to cut off Catholic schools from the funds of the
Indians whom they were engaged in educating. These funds
represented the value of Indian lands taken by the government,
and could be devoted by the Indians or by the United States
government, as their trustee, to their education by such per-
sons as they might desire. Finally, the very latest exploit of
Mr. Stephens, and one which may be regarded as the fore-
runner of the Valentine "applied by me" order, was a reso-
lution which he introduced into the House of Representatives
on June 21, 191 1, which requested information from the Sec-
retary of the Interior on "sectarian or other schools purchased,
'covered in,' or over which control has been assumed through
lease or gratuitous grant, for use of the Indian service within
268 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the past six years," and the Secretary "is further requested to
report whether rehgious symbols, emblems or garbs of any
particular religious denomination or society are permitted to
be worn or used or publicly exhibited and kept, by employees
in the Indian school service, or within or upon property under
government control in the Indian service."
Here was a dead set made at the Sisters and Catholic
mission schools which were taken over into the govern-
ment service, — all made with the intent of crippling and dimin-
ishing whatever religious power and good Catholic teachers
and missionaries might derive from the public announcement
and exhibition of the faith they believed in. It was an act of
hostility to the Church and her teachers, and it came in spirit
(and in fact, when coupled with the Valentine order) within
the Constitutional prohibition against Congress taking any
steps "prohibiting the free exercise" of any particular religion.
Neither Congress nor the government has any right to de-
prive Catholic Indian children of the privilege of learning
their Faith in the manner in which it could be freely taught
outside the government school. If it does, then it is a dis-
crimination against them, virtually a prohibition against "the
free exercise thereof."
This is more evident when we consider that the only schools
in which a religious garb is worn are Catholic schools. If
it were a case in which teachers, who were Sisters garbed in
the habit of their order, were employed to teach Protestant,
Catholic and pagan Indians in a mixed assemblage, the argu-
ment against a religious garb might have some force. But why
Catholic Sisters should be prohibited from wearing their dis-
tinctive habit while teaching Catholic children passes com-
prehension. Because they put in practice what they teach
in precept, therefore they are to be condemned. When these
schools were taken over by the government, and thenceforth
run as government schools, it certainly could not mean that
Catholic usages, customs and garb were to be remorselessly
suppressed. Yet that is exactly what Commissioner Valentine
seeks to do. Let us review the facts.
In 1874 the Grey Nuns from Montreal entered the United
States government service as teachers in the Indian School for
Sioux children which was established at Fort Totten, Devil's
Lake Agency, N. D. The Indians of this Agency are Catho-
STRETCHING THE CONSTITUTION 269
lies. At the present time the Sisters at this school possibly
number eight.
In 1877 the Benedictine Sisters were employed by the go\
ernment at the school at Fort Yates, Standing Rock Reserva-
tion, N. D. This school still remains a government school
and there are less than eight Sisters employed there.
About twenty years ago Mother M. Katherine Drexel built
a boarding school building at Elbowoods, Fort Berthold Reser-
vation, N. D., but the school was never opened. The Indians
continually clamored for a Sisters' school. The Indian Bu-
reau because of lack of money could not accede to their wishes.
In 1909 the Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs visited
Elbowoods and the Indians appealed to him. As the Bureau
could not support the school, the Assistant Commissioner be-
lieved the conditions justified the employment by the govern-
ment of Catholic religious as teachers, and in 1910 the Bene-
dictine Sisters started a boarding school at Elbowoods and
this on September i, 191 1, was covered into the government
service, and they are still serving as government employees.
They are seven in number.
St. Patrick's Mission School at Andarko, Oklahoma, was
burned in 1909. Father Isidore Ricklin, O. S. B., the Su-
perintendent, spent a year collecting funds to rebuild; among
the contributors was even Mr. Andrew Carnegie, whose atti-
tude to sectarian schools is well known, but who appreciated
the good work done by it. When the school was rebuilt, a
government school in the vicinity, known as the Riverside
School, was destroyed by fire. The government authorities
then thought it good policy, instead of rebuilding, to make
use of St. Patrick's School by making it a government insti-
tution. Accordingly on December i, 191 1, the property was
leased by the government and the personnel of the institution
taken over as government employees. They, according to
the Indian office, number nine.
The Catholic Mission Day Schools at Odanah, Red Cliff
and Lac Courtes Oreilles, in Wisconsin, taught by the Fran-
ciscan Sisters, were leased by the government, and the teachers
covered into the government service. They number six in
these three schools.
The Catholic Mission Day Schools at Jamez, New Mexico,
with two Franciscan Sisters, and at San Xavier, Arizona,
270 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
with three Sisters, were also taken over in 1910. The whole
number of employees in the Indian school service afifected
by the "religious garb order" is given by the Indian Bureau
as forty-six all told.
While the schools of the Grey Nuns at Fort Totten and
those of the Benedictine Sisters at Fort Yates have been con-
ducted in buildings that have always belonged to the United
States government, yet during the thirty-eight years of service
of the former and the thirty-five years of the latter, no com-
plaint has ever been made as to the religious insignia or the
"religious garb" by the Indians directly affected, by the gov-
ernment officials in charge, or by any responsible person from
any quarter. It remained for the complaint (if there were
any complaint other than an ex-parte order) to originate in
Washington, and to consist of objections upon theoretical
"constitutional" grounds of separation of Church and State,
made by Chairman Stephens of the House Indian Committee,
the President of the Home Missions Council, and Commis-
sioner Valentine on their own volition, and not in consequence
of any complaints from the parties concerned.
The Rev. Charles L. Thompson, a Presbyterian clergyman
of No. 150 Fifth Avenue, the President of the Home Mis-
sions Council, and also in charge of the Presbyterian Home
Missions, as soon as he saw Commissioner Valentine's order,
wrote to President Taft that "The action of the Hon. Com-
missioner of Indian Affairs issued January ^J relative to sec-
tarian insignia and garb in Federal Indian Schools is to our
minds so manifestly American in spirit, so judicial and right-
eous that we heartily approve and commend it. We did not
know such an order was in preparation, but we now express
our commendation and ask that nothing be permitted to
weaken its force." The President acknowledged the letter
through his secretary, but issued his order of revocation.
As showing the latitude of Mr. Thompson's ideas of what
is "judicial and righteous," attention should be called to the
fact that he is objecting to Catholic Sisters teaching Catholic
children in Catholic schools in Catholic garb, whilst he him-
self is engaged at the same time in proselytizing Catholic
Ruthenian immigrants and children in the Hope Chapel Pres-
byterian Mission on the East Side in New York City by means
of Presbyterian mission workers garbed in Catholic Mass vest-
STRETCHING THE CONSTITUTION 271
ments and going through an imitation of the Catholic Mass.
Evidently the garb question — when it comes to masquerading
in Catholic altar vestments for Presbyterian purposes, — is not
of so much moment, as when he seeks to deprive Catholic Sis-
ters of what they have been doing consistently and legitimately
for the past thirty years.
The writer is not of Mr. Taft's political party nor is he a
member of the Knights of Columbus, but he believes that the
facts of this latest attack upon Catholic Sisters and the con-
tract rights of Catholic schools should be known, as well as
the energetic stand so promptly taken to prevent their loss ;
and there is no body of men throughout the United States who
can better assert the rights to which Catholics in their relations
with their fellow-men and with the government are entitled
than the Knights of Columbus. The arbitrary act of Commis-
sioner Valentine constitutes one of those acts against which
protest was made in the Declaration of Independence : "de-
claring himself invested with power to legislate for us in all
cases whatsoever," and it should be characterized accordingly,
whilst the action of the President in stating that, "The Com-
missioner's order almost necessarily amounts to a discharge
from the Federal service of those who have entered it
* * * without giving the persons affected an opportunity to
be heard" is a call to exercise the square deal and fair play.
THE CATHOLIC PART IN CIVIC
PROGRESS
WHEN we consider that the discovery of America
by that great navigator whose name we have
chosen for our Order, was made not merely for
discovery, but for the spread of the Catholic faith, and that
during the succeeding century the greatest explorers, discov-
erers, colonizers and civilizers of this western world of ours
were men of Catholic Faith and ideals, we should be keenly
alive to the part which Catholic culture, training and ideals
should play in the present development of our country. If
men of our faith started with the country in the gift to it of
European development and expansion, men of our faith
should at all times be ready to do their part in the common
weal and advancement to the very latest moment of passing
time.
When men of Catholic Faith and lineage were first on the
field and made a goodly record for themselves in every walk
of life, it must not be imagined that they failed to keep pace
with the growth of our country in succeeding centuries. What
chiefly happened was that their deeds and influence were not
felt or recorded in any fitting degree after the settlement
of North America by those nations which had broken away
from allegiance to the old historic faith of Christendom.
Then, too, when persecution, contempt and slander, so rife in
those rancorous times, had done their work, little wonder was
it that it should be thought and generally reputed that Catho-
lics had but slight share in the civic progress and wonderful
blossoming of our great American Republic. The current of
the then public opinion set strongly against the Church and
its teachings, its philosophy and ideals, and those who repre-
sented Catholic belief and practice were mainly poor and de-
spised. It was the time when the supreme effort among Catho-
lics was to keep alive the Faith itself in the hearts and minds
272
THE CATHOLIC PART IN CIVIC PROGRESS 273
of the lowly people and lead them on to better things, and
hence there could be but little active participation in the line
of civic progress, except as exemplified in the orderly conduct,
devotion and patriotism of that very lowly class which com-
prised the bulk of the Catholics.
Yet even in the days of the early formation of our coun-
try — in its closer knitting of colonial confederation, in its
mutual safeguarding of human interests, in the struggle for
independence and the foundation of the infant republic —
Catholics took a large part in the civic progress and develop-
ment of the nation. We had a Dongan who gave in those
days to New York the freest charter which she ever had, a
Lord Baltimore who was the forerunner of religious liberty
and freedom of worship throughout our broad land, a Carroll
who was the staunchest defender of the rights of the colonies
to resist oppression and set up independent government, and
the leaders of armies and navies in our subsequent contests on
land and sea in defense of our struggling and growing nation.
The mass of Catholics in colonial times and for the first fifty
years of our national life were sore beset with the menacing
problems of mere livelihood, with the honest, eager endeavor
to get on in the material sense of the word and yet keep true
to the principles and teachings of their Faith and too busied
thereby to have much leisure and to have, still less, material
means to devote to the higher questions of civic progress and
development except as exemplified in the individual. But that
they thought of it, and that Catholic Faith and philosophy re-
quired it, the names we have mentioned of those more for-
tunately situated than their fellows fully attest.
But as time has gone on the fortunes of the Catholic por-
tion of the citizens of this great land of ours have improved.
A few have become wealthy ; most of them are more or less
well to do in the sense that the struggle for mere existence
has ceased to be a problem, whilst all of them are hopeful,
earnest and sanguine of the future of their common religion
and their varied races in our land. The expansion and de-
velopment of the faith is provided for in the ever-increasing
number of churches and religious institutions throughout the
country, works of charity and benevolence are ever widening
and reaching out towards all classes requiring their minis-
trations, schools, colleges and universities under Catholic aus-
274 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
pices are spreading education and culture among all our peo-
ple, and in many cases sharply competing with educational
institutions endowed with the wealth and lavish expenditure
of the state, whilst the Church has commenced upon a large
scale to earnestly set forth her achievements in the domain
of human thought and progress affecting the world at large,
whether Catholic or not. An active, awakening Catholic press
is providing books of literature, science, philosophy, history
and art, imbued with the basic principles of Catholic thought,
and non-Catholic publishers have become so fully aware of
the excellence of these works that they are ready to place
upon their lists and thoroughly advertise the merits of the
writings of representative Catholic authors. A notable step
forward has been the creation and publication of the
voluminous Catholic Encyclopedia, a monument of and an
inspiration for Catholic endeavor in almost every line of ac-
tivity which touches the world at large.
These things alone would be a fair measure of the impress
of Catholic thought and activity in the progress of our coun-
try. When we add to that the number of men of Catholic Faith
in the various branches of the different state and Federal gov-
ernmental bodies, and agencies for the uplifting and better-
ment of the people, men who have the opportunity of partici-
pating in and moulding the just and equitable powers of the
state in the treatment and conservation of the respective rights
of capital and labor, of the employer and employee, of the
great aggregations of capital and contractual interrelations
controlling the resources of this country, we may be glad that
we are enabled to take such part in the destinies of our
common land.
But ought we rest content with the part already played by
Catholics in our civic relations? Is not more demanded of
us by the very reason of our own individual progress and
growth ? Let us remember in going over the history of Euro-
pean peoples and their civilization that there is no other move-
ment or organized system of morals and philosophy of life —
to say nothing of revelation and religion at all — which has
produced so great an impress upon mankind as the Catholic
Church and all it stands for. It saw the Caesars and defied
them ; it is to-day face to face with the French and Portuguese
Republics and will not yield its principles. Such a force in
THE CATHOLIC PART IN CIVIC PROGRESS 275
history, in morals and in civilization — viewed merely as a
factor in the record of the world — cannot be ignored. If the
principles of revealed religion, morality and right living and
thinking which overcame the pagan world of Greece and
Rome, and which subdued the fierce barbarians of Northern
Europe and converted them into the pillars of the civiliza-
tion of to-day, and hurled back the Moslem from the devasta-
tion of Europe, and lit the flame of learning at hundreds of
university shrines throughout the ages, have not lost their
force — and we believe them as potent to-day as ever they were
— it is our bounden duty above all others not to ignore the
splendid tradition of Catholicity and its part in the better-
ment of the world. Others should know it, but we are bound
to do so.
We have had in the past and in the present down even to
to-day the splendid records of what whole-souled and high-
minded Catholics have done in the various fields of political
life, humanitarian service and common welfare. But mere
record is not enough. There are the great treasures of
thought, philosophy and experience for the past twenty cen-
turies which can be utilized by us in the solution of the prob-
lems of to-day. There should be a translation and adaptation
to our present-day needs, of the formulas which healed the
nations in the past. Occasionally some professor or some
earnest student of the past discovers, to our shame and con-
fusion at our own neglect, the method and the practice which
the Church inculcated in some temporarily forgotten age and
applies it to the solution of present-day difficulties. That
should be preeminently our task, and it is one of the many
things we can do for our part in the civic progress of to-day.
As a part of the great population of this still greater land
of ours we should lend a commensurate aid in solving the
problems which vex it and in smoothing the ways which real
progress takes. Not merely in political life or in municipal
stations should Catholics be found ; there should be no problem
to be solved, no question to be discussed, no remedy sought
for existing evils, no improvement or reform in governmental,
moral or educational lines without Catholics being represented
on the body or association engaged in such work. The repre-
sentation should be commensurate with our importance in the
population of our country. We shall not have grown to our
2y6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
full stature unless that be so. It is not that we should dream
of forcing our neighbors to call us into council, much as po-
litical leaders have to take note of the votes they can com-
mand, but it should be looked to that we shall individually
and collectively make ourselves of such importance in those
lines that our opinions and our help should be sought. In
this way we shall come into our true position and importance
in the vital questions of the day, and do our ever-increasing
part in civic progress.
There is much to do, and we should be unwilling to remain
inert and let others do it. Take for instance the huge aggre-
gations of industrial and transportation corporations of to-day.
On the one hand they have become so great that they are a
menace to our government and institutions. They must be
curbed, but without doing more harm in the curbing than in
allowing them to be without supervision. They have exer-
cised so much reckless power and oppression in their en-
deavor to grow greater that they have given birth to the
worst side of SociaHsm and to all sorts of sweeping doc-
trines which would immediately destroy the fabric of our
institutions. On the other hand, their very sweep and consoli-
dation have made them so supreme that they have exalted the
rights of property above the rights of man, and they tend to
make the workman a slave by depriving him of a just re-
ward for his labor and of the opportunity to labor in other
lines than the ones which they decree. The fruit of this has
been armed strikes, misery and a heritage of hate and dis-
content. Its side result has been the increased cost of living.
It is a subject which Catholics can study in the clear light of
the gospel with the intent to remedy the grosser wrongs and
the most crying abuses.
Again, take city government. Any analysis of the figures
of our chief cities shows that the cost of governmental admin-
istration is rising year by year. It will not do to say that we
have more improvements, luxuries and benefits than our fore-
fathers ever dreamed of ; for most of these have been bought
by long-term bonds, which our descendants must pay, or they
are farmed out to rapacious corporations to operate. Yet the
daily price of municipal government mounts higher and higher.
At the same time there are ugly rumors of graft and pecula-
tion, and sometimes even demonstrated proofs of it in speci-
THE CATHOLIC PART IN CIVIC PROGRESS 277
fied cases. Here is where the man with the CathoHc con-
science and Catholic teaching can find an ample field for his
study, devotion and abilities.
Our public schools have been accused of being inefficient.
It is true that Catholics have long since said that they were
deficient, in that they omitted to teach the science of sciences,
that of the heart and soul, but they have not accused them so
far of being ineffective in the subjects which they undertook
to teach. Now, however, their own advocates, their own par-
tisans, say that the results attained by the schools are not what
they rightly should be, and that they represent a great waste
of money and effort in their present ineffective condition, to
say nothing of hints that the moral and civic material they pro-
duce of any grade is something to be ashamed of. Here, then,
is a field which Catholics may inquire into and seek to remedy,
for they are taxpayers, employers and neighbors, and should
seek the best results for money and effort expended.
The catalogue might be made longer, but space forbids.
There is abundant work in every line surrounding our civic
life, and we should equip ourselves for it, and equip ourselves
so fully and so admirably that our abilities will be recognized.
When we consider what we have already done in the century
past, how it stands as a bulwark for hope and righteousness
to-day and as an incentive for further and better work in the
future, we should rejoice and be glad.
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
ROMAN CATHOLICISM
An Address Delivered Before the Mount Morris Baptist
Church Forum
IT is with much diffidence that I follow the gentlemen who
have spoken upon the various Sundays before me. My
talk is the harder when I undertake to condense into the
space of three-quarters of an hour the history and development
of the Catholic Church for nineteen centuries. It is really an
impossible task ; and if aught in my remarks appears as an
omission or curtailment, it is because I can give but an out-
line of my subject — simply touch upon the great peaks of in-
terest which dominate the doctrines and conception of Catholi-
cism.
I cannot tell you how much I appreciate your kind invita-
tion to address you, and the generous welcome which your offi-
cers have extended to me. If, therefore, I may be so fortu-
nate and sufficiently clear as to give you some idea of the sali-
ent points of the doctrines of the Catholic Church — for I can-
not hope to make more than an outline sketch — I shall be very
glad indeed. I know you take the deepest interest in the out-
look of your fellow-men towards God, and above all in that
of your fellow American citizens.
We are Catholics and have no objection to being called
Roman Catholics, unless it be invidiously applied, or used in
the sense in which the branch theorists of Anglicanism use it.
But we do resent the names sometimes used, such as Papist,
Romanist and Romish, for the very simple reason that they
are expressions of contempt and are intended to wound. Their
use is getting rarer and rarer, and all generous-minded Ameri-
cans are too noble to fight their battles with adjectives where
facts and arguments are needed instead. We are Catholics
because we are of the one, great universal church of Jesus
Christ, spread throughout all the ages since His death on Cal-
281
282 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
vary and spread throughout the world in every nation, land
and clime ; and we are Roman because we follow the Roman
Rite or form of worship and are always and everywhere united
with the See of Rome as the centre of union and of authority.
But, as the word Roman is not always coterminous with Cath-
olic, I, for my part, shall use the word Catholic throughout
my remarks.
All Catholics are not of the Roman Rite, although they are
a!l in communion with the Holy See at Rome. We have some
10,000,000 Oriental Catholics — Greek Catholics, Armenian
Catholics, Maronite Catholics and others — who do not follow
the Roman Rite at all, but follow their own peculiar forms of
worship, yet their Faith is the same. As an example at our
very doors, we have in the City of New York, not only Roman
Catholics, but also Greek Catholics, Armenian Catholics and
Syrian Catholics, all united in one faith but differing in their
rites and ceremonies of worship. The Greek Orthodox
Church broke away from the unity of the Church nearly nine
hundred years ago, but all the Greeks did not go with them.
Many remained Catholics and many more returned to the faith.
In America, we have a flourishing Greek Catholic Church,
spread throughout the United States and twice as large as the
Greek Orthodox Church. The Greek Orthodox Church is
opposed to the Greek Catholic Church, although they both use
the same language and forms of worship. But the Catholic
Church, whether Greek or Roman in form of worship, is one
in faith and organization, while the Greek Orthodox differs in
faith and is separate in its organization.
If we were asked suddenly to point to the one body which is
obviously the Church of Christ, a glance throughout the world
would show that it is the Catholic Church, for that looms
larger than any other Christian organization. If one were
asked what Church has given the greatest inspiration to art,
literature, poetry and romance, it would be none other than
the Catholic Church. High resolve, heroic deeds, knighthood,
chivalry, renunciation, prayer and sacrifice have their root in
its teachings, in which you will find the sole and constant fount
of inspiration for the pen, the brush or the chisel. Catholicism
is woven into the warp and the woof of all nations, all lan-
guages and all centuries since the advent of Christendom, and
has become part of the nearest and dearest to our hearts,
ROMAN CATHOLICISM
283
whether we believe its doctrines or no — just as the word
Christmas brings up the memories of Bethlehem and of the
Christ-Mass of the Catholic Church.
Witness her history in the great battle between things spir-
itual and things material. Against what church body do the
rulers and the nations of the whole earth, when they are an-
tagonistic to Christianity, first rage and seek to destroy?
What church has just suffered the entire loss of all its tem-
poral goods, as recently in France, rather than abate one jot
of its principles of unity and right to teach its faith unham-
pered? Turn where you will, whether in Europe, Asia, Af-
rica or America, and notice what one particular church body
is everywhere the universal target of objection or opposition
among those who minimize, deny or flout all revelation from
God, who advance theories subversive of moral or civil order,
who teach doctrines intended to extinguish the light which
the Christian religion has shed upon all nations, and you will
find by a comparison that that body alone is the Catholic
Church. As the Church which Jesus Christ founded could
not hope to escape opposition and persecution any more than
its Divine Founder, the testimony of past and present history
cannot but lead to the conclusion that the Catholic Church
alone bears the marks which most nearly attest her as the rep-
resentative Church of Christ on earth. This I know is a
negative view of the proposition, and I will not assume that
it proves anything; but it is a sufficiently striking view to
command the respectful consideration of thinking people to
the teaching, constitution and claims of the Catholic Church.
If I were asked what attitude the
Catholic Church most insistently
assumes in the United States, and
what lies closest to her heart of
hearts, I could not find a more fit-
ting or a more striking answer than
in the accompanying chart. It is
taken from Bulletin No. 103 of the
Census, and concerns the statistics
of religious bodies in the United
States, taken in the year 1906. You
will notice that it deals with all the Protestant churches col-
lectively, grouping them under one combined heading. They
284 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
have within all their respective folds less than one-quar-
ter (24.1 per cent) of the population of these continental
United States. The Catholic Church has less than fif-
teen per cent (14.3 per cent), while the Jews, Orthodox
Greek and others hold but 7 per mill of the entire popula-
tion. All of these together make up but 39.1 per cent of
the population, or say, about 32,940,000 souls. This leaves,
out of a population of 84,250,000, as shown by that census,
some 51,310,000 persons who are without any church connec-
tions whatever, and for aught that we know have little or no
knowledge of their Saviour and Redeemer, or of any God
or any religion. There is the field — the harvest is ripe — and
you and I can put forth our very best efforts in that wide
territory of homeless souls without unnecessary friction or
crossing each other's paths too often. It is that wide field,
filled with human, eager souls, varying all the way from mild
indifference and ignorance to virulent animosity to Christ
and His faith, which the Catholic Church is most eager to
reach. It is a matter of the deepest, heartfelt concern to us,
and it ought not to fail to be of importance to you.
In the ancient Creed, the test or description of the Church
founded by our Lord was, "I believe in one holy Catholic
and Apostolic church." That is but a duplication of St. Paul's
definition : "Careful to keep the unity of the Spirit in the
bond of peace, one body and one spirit, as you are called in
one hope of your calling; one Lord, one faith, one baptism"
(Eph. iv, 3-5), and this is but an amplification of Our Lord's
words : "And there shall be one fold and one shepherd"
(John X, 16). In the whole world to-day there is but one
Christian body which answers to the test of unity. Search
throughout the world, from the uttermost bounds of the East
to the furtherest confines of the West, and you will find but
one Christian Church which is everywhere and, being every-
where, is united. Wherever you find the Catholic Church in
America, it is united in one body ; it teaches one faith ; it
acknowledges one baptism. If you find it in England, Ireland,
France, Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, Germany, Russia,
Austria, Italy, Spain or Turkey, or in Asia, Africa or Oceania
it is the same. It everywhere teaches the same doctrine, is
everywhere in unity and in unison. Nowhere else in the wide
ROMAN CATHOLICISM 285
world can one discover a similar phenomenon. And as it is
to-day, so it was yesterday and throughout the centuries.
Those who have left the Church have always cast off some-
thing, either of doctrine or of government. They have failed,
either in unity or organization, or in unity of doctrine and
teaching. But all through the pages of history, back to fhe
beginnings of the Church, the note of unity sounds through
the ages as the leit motif of the Catholic Church, and of the
Catholic Church alone. In the Mass, the priest, since the
first ages of the Church, has always prayed : "Thy holy
Catholic Church, which do Thou vouchsafe to pacify, guard,
unite and govern throughout the whole world," and that
prayer goes up unceasingly every day from her altars in
every land. No other religion of ancient or modern times,
pagan, monotheistic (except, perhaps, the venerable Jewish
Church, when its priesthood and ahar existed), or Christian,
has or ever had that mark of unity. They have not tried to
live up to "One body, one spirit, one Lord, one faith, one
baptism." Even now, in our own day, when most of us are
tolerant of one another, denominations professing the same
identical faith fail to get together in corporate union, while
those that have but a hair's breadth between them stand rig-
idly aloof. In no other Christian assembly at any time in
the pages of history has there ever been such a wide diversity
of peoples, races, divergent political views and national jeal-
ousies and antipathies among the inhabitants of the earth so
welded together and so knit into one as the Catholic Church
exhibits. It alone, among all the Christian faiths, is truly
Catholic — truly universal — spread world-wide in every land
and among every people, no matter how antagonistic they
be one to another; and it alone is one in the faith which it
teaches and in the government which it obeys in spiritual
things.
Nor does its Catholicity and unity stop here. Its faith
teaches that the Church, the Spouse of Christ, is one now and
hereafter. It reaches from this world to the next; and the
Church Triumphant, in the splendid vision and glorious com-
munion with the Triune God, the Church Suffering at the door
of beatific rest and eternal light awaiting entrance into the
fullness of the vision and glory of God, and the Church visi-
ble and Militant battling here with sin on earth, is all one —
286 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the one and the same Church. We and they are knit to-
gether in a bond of union so strong and so close that our
prayers help those who have not yet attained to the vision
and rest of God, while that great "white-robed army of mar-
tyrs" and the other saints who have attained to everlasting
happiness help us poor mortals who are struggling here in
this valley of tears. We are all one, the blessed in Heaven,
the suffering at the door of Heaven, and we who follow their
footsteps ; and our brethren who have gone before us help us
with their prayers at the Throne of Grace, exactly as they
would have done were they now on earth beside us in our
hours of struggle. And we help our brethren who need our
prayers as we would were they kneeling here beside us, that
they may the sooner be with the blessed brotherhood, the
Church Triumphant, before the Throne. This unity and
Catholicity is not only the unity that reaches around the
world, the Catholicity that spreads through all ages, all races
and all climes, but it is a unity and Catholicity that reaches
across the valley of death and carries along the serried ranks
of the saints clear up to the everlasting Throne of God.
The Catholic Church teaches absolutely wholly and com-
pletely the doctrine of God the Trinity. Father, Son and Holy
Ghost, and that the second person of the Blessed Trinity, God
the Son, assumed our human nature and was made flesh —
being at the same time true man and true God — for our re-
demption and salvation, and consummated man's redemption
by His crucifixion and death upon Mount Calvary. It con-
fesses with Saint Peter with trumpet tones that "there is no
other name under heaven given to men, whereby we may be
saved" (Acts, iv, 12). The Incarnation of Our Lord Jesus
Christ is the central point of Catholic theology and doctrine.
It is not merely a feeble assent to the divinity of Our Lord;
it is the emphatic affirmation upon every occasion, at every
ceremony and form of worship, nay. throughout the hours of
every day, that God became man for our salvation and for
our lifting up to supernatural life. Not only do we say the
prayer which Our Lord Himself taught us, "Our Father, who
art in heaven," but we say in commemoration of the fact that
Our Lord God became man the words with which He sent that
message to the tender young maiden who was to bear Him
into this world and the very first salutation of that fact before
ROMAN CATHOLICISM 287
He was even born. Like the Archangel Gabriel and Saint
Elizabeth, we say : "Hail Mary, full of grace ; the Lord is
with thee; blessed art thou among women (Luke, i, 28) and
blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus" (Luke, i, 42), in
humble acknowledgment of the mystery of God made mani-
fest in the flesh. You have heard of the Angelus — Millet's
celebrated picture is enough to impress the idea upon every
one. The Angelus is the prayer ordained by the Church to
be said three times a day, morning, noon and night, to bring
home to every Christian the incarnation of our Blessed Re-
deemer. The Angelus, which is almost wholly extracted from
the Gospels, is said as follows :
"The Angel of the Lord declared unto Mary : and she con-
ceived by the Holy Ghost. Hail Mary, &c."
"Behold the handmaid of the Lord : be it done unto me
according to Thy word. Hail Mary, &c."
"And the Word was made flesh : and dwelt amongst us.
Hail Mary, &c."
And then this prayer follows :
"Pour forth, we beseech Thee, O Lord, Thy grace into our
hearts that we, to whom the incarnation of Christ Thy Son
was made known by the message of an angel, may by His
passion and cross be brought to the glory of His resurrec-
tion. Through the same Jesus Christ Our Lord. Amen."
These are the prayers which the peasants in Millet's pic-
ture are saying, as they stand with bared heads at even-tide.
Therefore, the teaching of the Church is not merely the
divinity of Girist, as that might mean merely a human mask
instead of a real humanity. It is more than that — it is God
Himself taking on our poor humanity, and thereby raising
our weak human nature and frailty up to the splendid heights
of God Himself. He became our brother and one of us,
human as we are, in all except sin, and His mother is our
mother, even as He commended her to be our mother to the
sole apostle at the foot of the cross when He was dying;
His brethren are our brethren ; His friends are our friends —
and we, without abating one jot or tittle of our worship, love
or adoration of God the Son, ask His mother and His saints
to intercede and pray for us, just as we would in the human
family of whom He is the elder brother and head, turn to
them to help us in our straits and needs. He is forever God
288 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
and man, for in His ascension and glorious reign in Heaven
He has forever raised manhood up until it touches the hem
of divinity. As the God-Man, as the Word made Flesh, He
may be approached, both as God and man, exactly as if He
walked the earth to-day. As the priest repeats at the altar,
as he lifts his hands daily in commencing the great sacrifice
of the Mass :
"O God, who hast wonderfully framed man's exalted na-
ture and still more wonderfully restored it, grant us to be^
come partakers of His Godhead who hath vouchsafed to be-
come partaker of our manhood : through Our Lord Jesus
Christ, Thy Son, who liveth and reigneth with Thee in unity
with the Holy Ghost, one God, world without end."
If, therefore, we pray to the Blessed Virgin Mary, or to the
saints, it is only because of and through the Incarnation of
Our Lord Jesus Christ. We worship Him, we acknowledge
Him, we confess Him to be God. our Saviour and Redeemer ;
but we love Him, approach Him and cling tenderly to Him
as man — as our brother — and we fervently ask all His near-
est and dearest as men to unite with our petitions, to assist
us with their prayers, to have the whole triumphant Church
in Heaven with the greatest of mankind at their head ring
with a triumphant human unison in accord with our petitions
here below. It is the humanity of Jesus Christ that we ac-
knowledge and glorify when we ask all created saved hu-
manity to join with us in our petitions to Him.
The Incarnation, then, is the centre and kernel of the Catho-
lic faith ; all else is a consequence and corollary of it. The
passion and death of Our Lord is His drinking the bitter wine
of humanity to the very dregs ; it is the continuation and con-
summation of His becoming man for our salvation. He took
upon Himself the sins of the world as the last experience in
taking upon Himself the flesh and soul of humanity, and He
so identified Himself with our human life from the cradle
to the grave, from the wedding feast of Cana to that ghastly
climb up Calvary's hill with death at its summit. He is ours
from a human standpoint, as well as from a divine one, inex-
tricably and inseparably mingled together forever as God and
man, to be loved and approached from either side.
The Church never forgets for a moment the sacrifice upon
Calvary. Not an instant of prayer is she without its remem-
ROMAN CATHOLICISM 289
brance — the Sign of the Cross is the beginning and ending
of all of them ; she puts the cross constantly before us upon
her churches, books and vestments, and unceasingly bids us
remember the crucified Saviour. In commemoration of the
day upon which He suffered without food or drink, she bids
us abstain from flesh meat on that day in each week as some
slight denial of pleasure to ourselves in reminder thereof.
By teaching and precept the Church keeps ever before us
the culminating act of the redemption of the world.
It is obvious to every one that the human work of making
known the Incarnation and teaching of Our Lord must be
entrusted to some human society or organization. This so-
ciety or organization, if it is really to carry this knowledge to
all men, in all ages and in all lands, must be protected against
€rror and must be one in its teaching. If it be not protected
against error, then those who live after Christ or away from
the Saviour's voice and personal presence are indeed in a per-
ilous condition, since they have no sure means of ascertaining
what His teaching was. If this organization is not one in its
teaching, then the faith and religion of Christ become little
more than a philosophical school of thought or a doctrine of
economics, varying with each person, each age and each lo-
cality.
We Catholics declare and affirm that just such a society
was established to effectively carry the news of the Incarna-
tion and teachings of Our Lord to the uttermost ends of the
earth and throughout all ages. Our Lord gave it an enduring
charter: "All power is given to me in heaven and in earth.
Go, therefore, teach ye all nations; baptizing them in the
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.
Teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have com-
manded you : and behold, I am with you all days, even to the
consummation of the world" (Matt., xxviii, 18-20). This is
what we mean by the Catholic Church. Like all human so-
cieties, it has a human president, or chief, and Our Lord pro-
vided that chief in the most emphatic manner. I do not wish
to take up time quoting texts, but the subUme declaration of
Christ ought to be held in mind :
"Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona : . . . And I say to
thee: That thou art Peter (a rock) ; and upon this rock I
will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail
290 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
against it. And I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom
of heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it
shall be bound also in heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt
loose on earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven" (Matt, xvi^
17-19).
It is a declaration of position and power never vouchsafed
to any other Apostle. Simon the fisherman was not the first
of the Apostles in time, for Andrew was first called ; nor the
first in love, for John was the well beloved ; nor the most
steadfast, for he denied his Master. Yet he was the only
Apostle whose name was changed by Our Lord, and a specific
reason given for doing so. Even with the same breath in
which He foretells Peter's denial. Our Lord prophesies that
his faith will fail not and gives him charge of his brethren.
His charge over his brethren and the Church is repeated even
after the resurrection. As Our Lord and the Holy Ghost were
to be with the Church until the end of the world, these pre-
rogatives descended to the successors in the teaching body of
the Church, and the special prerogatives of Peter descended to
his successors in office. Otherwise they were useless ; and
most of all to those who have lived since the days of the
Apostles.
Even as the primitive society or Church sent out to teach all
nations had Peter at its head, so it has continued ever since.
The teaching body of the Church has deacons, priests and
bishops, and, as the Chief Bishop of them all, the great Bishop
of the West, the Pope of Rome. He is the successor of Saint
Peter, as testified in every liturgy, menology and church his-
tory from the earliest times. He is the centre and focus of
Church authority. I have not the time to discuss the succes-
sive history and organization of the Church, although I would
gladly do so. But a word may be said of the great preroga-
tive — the flower and blossoms of the promise of Christ, that
"the gates of hell shall not prevail against it, and I will give
unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven" — the infalli-
bility of the Pope. Infallibility does not mean that the Pope
is sinless, or incapable of sin ; or even, to use an extreme illus-
tration, that he is able to write a book on theology wholly free
from error; or to decide without mistake upon matters of
science, history, art or politics — it is confined to his solemn
official judgments on matters of faith and morals when he gives
ROMAN CATHOLICISM 291
judgment sitting as the teacher of the one, universal Church.
The Pope cannot add to the deposit of faith or subtract from
it.. But when there arises among the teachers of the Church
a controversy which alleges on the one hand that a certain
doctrine is of the faith, and on the other hand that it is not
of the faith, the decision of the Pope, sitting in his capacity
as the Chief Bishop and Teacher of the whole Universal
Church, is unalterable and conclusive. The word "infalli-
bility" means that his decision will not fail to be a correct one,
as carrying out the promise of Our Lord : "Simon, Simon, I
have prayed for thee that thy faith fail not" (Luke, xxii, 31-
32), under the guidance of the Holy Ghost, "the Spirit of
truth, who will teach you all truth" (John, xvi, 13).
The Catholic Church comes immediately into contact with
the world through her preaching and her sacraments. In these
she knows neither race, color nor civil condition — all sorts and
conditions of men are alike at her shrines. She has been
called the Church of the poor and the ignorant; well, so she
is; they are the very kind of persons with whom Our Lord
associated. She has been reproached for cultivating the rich
and the powerful; but He also was the honored guest and
associate of rich men and rulers. She has as many learned
men as any other organization in the world, but their learning
is for the supreme end of saving souls and not for earning
distinction as erudite scholars. The prince, the savant and
the beggar meet together at her altar rail ; one can find it here
in this very city, or in any of the stateliest shrines of the old
world; and I myself have taken communion in a resplendent
church, kneeling at the altar rail between a negro and a long-
shoreman, and in a magnificent cathedral a Bedouin of the
desert has entered and worshipped beside me. Within those
hallowed walls we were all equal citizens of the Kingdom of
God.
Upon this great body of worshippers the Church brings to
bear her great sources of dynamic power — the Sunday Mass,
with its accompanying sermon or familiar instruction, the
confessional and Holy Communion. These are the main bat-
teries of the Church in her warfare against sin. They are
the means on which she relies to build up strong spiritual
lives in her children. The other sacraments are all needful,
but she puts these at the forefront.
292 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Every Catholic is obliged under pain of serious sin to be
present at Mass every Sunday unless prevented by a good
reason. So it is that, rain or shine, in heat or in cold, our
churches are crowded every Sunday. To Catholics, the Mass,
whether celebrated amid all the imposing solemnity of cathe-
dral appurtenances, or whether offered in an unadorned
chapel of a backwoods village, is the supremest act of wor-
ship. We believe that Christ Himself becomes present on the
altar and blesses us and all we hold dear. There before the
aUar we are the equals of the multitude that daily saw Jesus
when He walked and taught. He Himself said the sacrament
was His body and He was God, the Creator of all things. No
man, sincerely believing this doctrine, can go back to his home
and the duties of the week without comfort, courage and
high resolve.
Every Sunday there is at the low Masses — so called because
they are said in a low tone, without music, usually — a short
familiar instruction, and at the high Masses the set sermon.
I need not tell you that the Mass is the celebration of the
Lord's Supper, with all the ceremonies and usages that have
come down to us from the earliest times. In large parishes
there are from six to eight Masses on a Sunday, so that all
the members of the families may be accommodated. Many
times is the church filled, and at each Mass the Gospel is read
and expounded and applied to the daily life of the people.
Thus throughout the year the Church keeps up her mission
of preaching the Gospel, now calmly explaining homely duties,
now warning, now encouraging, now reproving, now pleading,
now thundering against abuses, now explaining her doctrine
— always conscious of her responsibility and yearning that
Christ may be in the hearts of her people.
Besides the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the ministry of
preaching, the Church has the powerful aids of confession
and Holy Communion. The Church teaches that the sins we
commit after baptism are forgiven through the Sacrament of
Penance ; and the necessary conditions on the part of the peni-
tent for receiving absolution are contrition and confession.
Now, before a man can confess his sins, he must examine his
conscience carefully. The soul is forced to look at itself in
the mirror of God's law. Words, deeds, conversations, omis-
sions and that interior life of thought and will which is hid-
ROMAN CATHOLICISM 293
den from the world but which is so large and vital a part
of the soul's history, all must stand the searchlight of God's
commands and prohibitions. This serious and frequent ex-
amination of one's life in its every detail and motive quickens
the action of conscience and strengthens its voice. The de-
liberate hauling of one's self before the bar of eternal law,
the steady looking at one's faults, failures and transgressions,
whether against God, one's neighbor or one's own interests,
is the first step in amendment.
The declaration of one's sins to a fellow-creature is not
agreeable — it is not intended that it should be ; it is a medicine
for our pride, and medicine as a rule is not particularly pala-
table. But this declaration of sins is incumbent upon every
one in the Church from the Pope himself down to the hum-
blest layman in any walk of life. Every Catholic knows, too,
that so absolute and sacred is the secrecy of the confessional,
that the confessor would be obliged to lay down his life
rather than reveal what is committed to his judgment in that
tribunal. And that tribunal is guarded from abuse by the
severest penalties the Church can decree.
Besides confession of sin, every Catholic knows that as a
condition for obtaining forgiveness of God, he must have true
sorrow — otherwise his confession were worse than a mockery.
It would be sacrilege, and he would have added to his burden
of sin, instead of lightening it. And that sorrow is to be of
no vague general kind, but very definite and practical. It in-
cludes not only regret and repentance for the past, but a re-
solve for the future. It means the definite and firm resolution
to correct the sins that are declared, and furthermore to keep
from whatever might prove a proximate occasion of sin. It
is this, coupled with the recitals of the sins to the priest, which
entitles the penitent to absolution. But it does not end here.
There is then the satisfaction, or so-called penance, to be per-
formed by the penitent. If he has stolen he must make resti-
tution ; if he has slandered he must repair his slanders, etc. ;
in every instance he must perform some exercise of piety in-
tended to call to his mind and impress on his conscience the
avoidance of temptation and sin.
Confession is for the Catholic the preparation for Holy
Communion. Hence his earnestness in striving to make as
sincere, humble and contrite confession as possible. For he
294 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
believes that in Holy Communion, by a miracle of God's love,
he comes into blessed contact with the very physical presence
of his Saviour. To receive Holy Communion with serious sin
in his soul would be, he knows, an unspeakable sacrilege. ►It
is these considerations, as a corrective of sin and an inspiration
for a holy life, which the Church offers her children every
day, and by means of which they are enabled to strive to over-
come all that drags them down from manhood, purity and
heaven.
In the Sacrament of Matrimony, the Catholic Church has
pronounced the holiest blessings upon the union of man and
wife. The union of man and woman may have been a con-
tract before — and it was a slippery, evasive, indefinable con-
tract, varying with caprice from divorce after divorce, on the
one hand, to unlimited polygamy on the other — but Our Lord
made it a sacrament and indissoluble. The Catholic Church
recognizes no divorce. She stands for the family, the home
and the sanctity of the marriage tie. And she has ever stood
for that, as some of the most notable events on the pages of
history have shown. And she will unceasingly cry out against
any legislation or any teaching which tends to disintegrate the
home and disrupt the family relation. We stand shoulder to
shoulder with any set or society of men — in or out of the
Church, if they mean it — who strive to promote purity, domes-
tic happiness and moral health, whether we agree with them
in belief or not, and the Catholic Church will always protect
the marriage relation and keep the family together against all
comers. It is the only human foundation upon which the
Church and State alike can build together, and it is one that
needs the grace of God to keep it pure and stable.
From the beginning of her history the Church has enjoined
upon all her children obedience and loyalty to the lawfully
constituted authorities in their respective countries. She
teaches that as the Church is God's representative in the su-
pernatural order to lead men to a supernatural end in union
with Him, so the State is God's representative in the natural
order to bring men to the end for which society was ordained
— the temporal happiness and progress of the race. Disobedi-
ence, then, to the State in any matter which is within the
State's competence is disobedience to God. Obedience to
ROMAN CATHOLICISM 295
the State and to all just laws is loyalty to God and is patriot-
ism blessed by religion.
In the natural order of things the Catholic Church is willing
to. walk in company with all who work seriously and earnestly
for the betterment, purity and right-mindedness of all people.
In charity, benevolence and good works of every kind, she
will meet all of you with a willing heart and ready hand. But
in the teaching of the faith handed down by Jesus Christ, she
affirms that she alone has kept the whole deposit of faith in-
tact and the continuity and unity of the Church along with it.
While she therefore recognizes that others have gone out from
her carrying with them the greater truths of revelation and have
faithfully persevered in clinging to them, she cannot regard
them as safe or trusted teachers, and cannot allow her chil-
dren to violate their unity of the faith by joining in worship
with those not of the fold. She bids them recognize every
noble, good and worthy thing which those who are out of the
fold possess — nay, in many instances where they do not con-
cern the faith, she bids us imitate and adopt them. And so
in the battle against wrong and sin and foulness, and in the
desire and yearning to make this the noblest country under
the sun, we may join hands with you in effecting results, al-
though we may not serve even temporarily under your banner
or attend your martial exercises. But we may do something
more; we may pray for you and pray with you, although
apart from you. In the last analysis the Catholic Church rec-
ognizes every baptized person as a member, and nothing but
his own act, in wilfully rejecting the light afforded him by
the teaching of the Church, and sinning deliberately against
the grace of God, can deprive him of the supernatural end
which the Incarnation of Our Lord Jesus Christ and His death
on the Cross prepared for them that believe in Him.
I cannot forbear concluding this brief outline of the work
and teaching of the Catholic Church with the well-known quo-
tation from Lord Macaulay : 'There was not and there is not
on this earth a work of human policy so well deserving of
examination as the Roman Catholic Church. The history of
that Church joins together the two great ages of human civili-
zation. No other institution is left standing which carries the
mind back to the times when the smoke of sacrifice rose from
the Pantheon and when the camelopards and tigers bounded
296 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
in the Flavian amphitheatre. The proudest royal houses are
but of yesterday as compared with the line of the Supreme
Pontiffs. * * * The Catholic Church is still sending forth to
the farthermost ends of the world missionaries as zealous as
those who landed in Kent with Augustine, and it is still con-
fronting hostile kings and governments with the same spirit
with which she confronted Attila. The number of her chil-
dren is greater than in any former age. Her acquisitions in
the new world have more than compensated for what she
may have lost in the old. * * * Nor do we see any sign which
indicates that the term of her long dominion is approaching.
She saw the commencement of all governments and of all the
ecclesiastical establishments which now exist in the world ;
and we feel no assurance that she is not destined to see the
end of them all. She was great and respected before the
Saxon had set foot in Britain, before the Frank had passed
the Rhine, when Grecian eloquence still flourished in Antioch,
when idols were still worshipped in the temple of Mecca. And
she will still exist in undiminished vigor when some traveller
from New Zealand shall, in the midst of a vast solitude, take
his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the
ruins of Saint Paul's."
THE CHURCH AND ART
FROM the time the .Church emerged from the cata-
combs, she has sought to beautify her temples and her
worship. Even there, the rude frescoes and orna-
ments found by archaeologists amply testify that the perse-
cuted Christians found occasion to decorate and symbolize
their daily worship. Not only do these paintings and quaint
designs tell us the history of the Church's teaching, but they
bear eloquent witness to the use of artistic means employed by
the Church from the very beginning to impress the believer
with the fullness and glory of the City of God.
After the age of persecution, when the Church became a
publicly recognized institution, then assisted and afterwards
often dominated by the State, she sought for the greater fruits
of artistic development. She took the Roman and Greek tem-
ples and law courts, adorned them in a manner befitting the
nobler Christian worship, and wrought for herself forms of
architecture and ornamentation peculiarly Christian. How
well she succeeded the vast multitude of examples of Christian
art throughout Europe amply testifies.
The central point of all Christian worship was and is the
bloodless Sacrifice of the Altar. All Christian art leads up
to the contemplation of that. Even in the beginning Heaven
itself was described by St. John in the semblance of an altar
with the lamb enthroned thereon, and the saints and angels
ministering thereat, with golden censers, the smoke of incense,
and the prayers of the saints. The great writer of the Apoca-
lypse conceived no greater symbolism of Heaven than that of
the highest act of Christian worship.
The development of Christian art may be said to have be-
gun with the adornment of the altar and sanctuary, and with
everything connected with the Holy Sacrifice. In the East
this development was different from that of the West. The
original altar was left untouched by the Oriental Church, but
the screen which separated the altar and sanctuary from the
297
298 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
people was adorned as sumptuously as the art of the times and
the wealth of the worshippers could afford. The Easterners
adorned and beautified what lay in front of the altar, while
the Western Church built the reredos behind it and filled it
with carving and statues. Only the choir screens and altar
screens in some of the Western churches remain now as traces
of the Eastern practices.
Afterwards came the great glory of paintings, mosaics and
statuary. In the East all extension of art was checked by
the outbreaks of the Iconoclasts — the Puritans of the Eastern
Roman Empire — who forbade paintings and sculpture in the
churches, making them bare and desolate. At last a compro-
mise was effected in Constantinople, and icons, or pictures,
consisting of paintings, were once more allowed, while sculp-
ture was forbidden, and so remains to the present day in the
Greek Church. The day when art was once more allowed in
the Christian churches of the East is still triumphantly cele-
brated on the first Sunday in Lent, known as the Sunday of
Orthodoxy.
The very restraint of sculpture in the Eastern Church and
the subsequent inroads of the Moslems, who allowed no art
which represented the human face or figure, arrested the de-
velopment of nearly all art in the Oriental countries in regard
to Christian ideals. True, there was architecture upon the
Byzantine plan, which received its highest development when
Justinian built the temple of Saint Sophia, at Constantinople,
and exclaimed : 'T have surpassed thee, O Solomon !" Even
that passed over to the Turk, who also used the Greek archi-
tect to build him mosques after the same wonderful pattern.
At its height that magnificent ecclesiastical architecture left
us models which all ages must hereafter study. In the bright
skies of Constantinople, Greece and Italy — for nearly until
the thirteenth century Italy was almost half Greek — the win-
dow space of the churches was a minimum and the art of the
painter and colorist filled up the blank walls.
Yet all wall painting was felt to be ephemeral, something
that must soon pass away. Then came the wonderful art of
mosaic, an art which had been used sparingly by the ancients,
but was used lavishly by the builders of the Christian
churches. The magnificent churches of Ravenna — the old
Exarchate of Ravenna, a province of Constantinople, situated
THE CHURCH AND ART 299
in the heart of Italy— St. Apollinare-in-Classe, San Vitale, and
St. Apollinare Nuova, are the glories of the sixth century,
while the older churches of Rome and Sicily and St. Mark's
of Venice show painting and mosaic in all its greatness.
The architecture of the Greek and Roman churches of that
and the subsequent periods is better to be appreciated from
the interior than from without. The glory of mosaic grows
upon one who studies St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice, the
churches of Santa Pudenziana, and Sta. Maria Maggiore in
Rome, and the Palatine Chapel in Palermo and the Cathedral
in Monreale in Sicily. There one can see what a magnificent
mantle of art it spreads over the whole church building. One
may trace it from the fifth century until the nineteenth; as
well as in the magnificent reproductions of modem paintings
in the mosaics of the Vatican and St. Peter's. For a jewel, a
flashing gem of almost modern mosaic art, I have never seen
anything to surpass the Palatine Chapel in Palermo, for the
entire chapel, from floor to ceiling, is one glowing mass of
beauty, telling the story of a saint and a gospel at every turn.
As the Western Church continued her conquest of heathen
and barbarian Europe, she evolved a new order of art, that
of architecture of the Romanesque and Gothic form. The
building forms of Italy and Greece (where the sun shone
gloriously and vividly) made too dark the buildings destined
for worship in the more northern climes. There more light
was needed in the interior. Then came airier structures, with
pinnacles and spires, great wide window spaces and huge por-
tals, soaring roofs and flying buttresses, a lace work of mar-
ble and light stone. One has to pause with amazement at the
industry and art which covered all the North of Europe, and
the Isles of England, Ireland and Scotland with these mag-
nificent specimens of art, which we can do little better than
copy. The cutting of huge windows in the Gothic cathedral
made wall painting and mosaic well-nigh impossible, but it in
turn gave birth to another form of art. These huge openings
were filled with glass, upon which designs in colors were in-
troduced, and thus stained glass as an ornament in churches
and a replacement of mosaic among the Northern nations came
into being. The Church claimed them all for her own and
made them tell to the worshippers the story of her mission
and message to the world.
300 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
What shall I say of painting, whether that upon the great
wall spaces, in fresco, or that upon canvas which is not so
enduring? Painting in modern design came later than these
other arts and has been developed perhaps more than any.
And the Church has, ever since the first master touched his
inspired brush, been a consistent patron of the best that man
can do to tell the story of the gospel, the saint and the martyr.
The story of Italian art would take long to recite here. In
those days there were giants, indeed, such as Michelangelo,
the beloved Michelangelo of the Florentines, a painter, a sculp-
tor, an architect, a military captain and a poet, all in one.
The Church claimed and fostered the best of everything that
these masters produced. And that youthful genius, Raphael
of Urbino, who conquered the world of architecture and paint-
ing, dying at the age of thirty-seven, left behind him in church
and palace more than many masters accomplish in a long life.
Nor has the Church ever ceased to evoke and inspire the
best efforts of hosts of painters to tell her wondrous story
and the conquest of the world for Christ. In many lands,
among people of every race and tongue, the sacred story, the
saint, the hero and the champion of God in every guise have
been pictured by the deftest and the most creative hands the
world has ever known. The art of painting, more than that
of other arts, speaks directly to the heart, is more easily un-
derstood, and preaches almost as eloquently in the churches
as the pulpit itself. The Church has used and will always use
it in greater profusion than any other one of the allied arts.
But the Church has not contented herself with these arts
alone. The art of sculpture, both creative and decorative, was
at all times lavishly employed. Those who have studied
Gothic cathedrals are amazed at the wealth of detail and
thought in every part. We have our machine-made buildings,
nowadays, but in the Middle Ages every figure, every face, was
unique and characteristic, with a personality of its own. Con-
sider the Cathedral of Milan, with its 2,800 statues, each one
representing a distinct personality ! The English cathedrals,
where they are intact, the French, German and Austrian
churches show a wealth of sculpture in every part. Even if
other adornment were omitted, the wealth of sculpture and
bas-relief is so lavish and great that we wonder at the genius
that produced it all.
THE CHURCH AND ART 301
Nor did this Christian art stop with carved stone and
moulded brass. Every bit of wood that entered into the sanc-
tuary was carved and shaped with an art and a loving skill
almost akin to worship. Witness the wonderful choir stalls,
rood screens, organ frontals, and episcopal thrones and bal-
dacchini, found in the cathedrals and parish churches. In
its palmiest days, the art patronage of the Church was so great
that even the village chapel always had its artificer to adorn it.
The blacksmith also came in for his share of artistic pro-
duction. In Spain and Portugal and in Northern Italy the
blacksmith was an artist. The magnificent hammered iron
altar and choir screens and hammered brass and bronze, in a
thousand entrancing shapes, testify to his artistic power. It
is only of very recent years that we have awakened to the
artistic force and power of the artificer in iron and brass, as
an adjunct to the architecture and sculpture of the Church.
Even in the far-off lands of Norway and Sweden, wherever
cathedrals were built, whether of brick, in default of stone, as
at Upsala, or in the beautiful slender columns of gray stone, as
at Trondhjem, the church devised for its humbler structures
another form of art, the log church. Any one who has seen in
Norway and Sweden the carved logs, forming parts of the
church, the sanctuary and sometimes the altar, and the quaint
beauty of the belfries and spires of logs for the old Swedish
churches, can realize how in a land where wood was plentiful
and stone was costly such artistic results were achieved from
materials which here in America in our day are made simply
repulsive. A stroll through Oscarshall, at Christiania, or the
Skandsen, at Stockholm, will make one realize it.
But the Church laid the pen and the needle under artistic
contribution also. It ran the gamut of art, and nothing was
too lowly or too insignificant to contribute to the beauty of the
House of God. Illumination of the beautiful manuscripts of
the Middle Ages is essentially a church art. Monks who wrote
and copied primarily to extend knowledge and the teachings
of the Church began to develop after their manner into con-
summate artists, who made the written page carry, embla-
zoned on it, as great works as ever the master-painters limned
on the walls of the church, or the glassworker wrought in the
windows of the cathedral. The priest at the altar read the
words of the Mass from a treasury of art almost as great as
302 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the worshipper in the nave saw around him. And, with our
art knowledge of to-day, with the experience and results of
centuries behind us, we cannot excel those wonderful minia-
tures and illuminations of the past, but are fain, as in so many
other regards, merely to copy them.
The needle, too, contributed its share. From the earliest
times the worship of the emancipated Christian Church was
performed in the noblest and best apparel the wealth and piety
of the worshippers could bestow. If earthly courtiers ought
to approach their sovereigns clad in their best, why, then,
should not the King of kings be approached and served with
magnificence? When the courtly apparel of Roman days be-
came ancient and unfamiliar, it was peculiarly consecrated to
the service of the Church and was adorned as fully and mag-
nificently as possible. Thus the Church consecrated em-
broidery and afterwards lacework to its service. Art work of
the noblest kind is found in the decoration and ornamenta-
tion of chasubles, stoles, capes, mitres and the coverings of the
sacred vessels and the altar. In figure and color, to say noth-
ing of the beauty of the design, these vestments vie with illu-
mination and painting, differing from it only in degree. The
brilliant, filmy surplices and albs and other ecclesiastical vest-
ments brought forth the finest examples of the lacemaker's
art in the service of the Church.
The jeweler's art was always sought after and fostered by
the Church. The sacred vessels in which the Blessed Sacra-
ment reposed, and those which were used on the altar, were
always highly adorned and made of the most precious metals.
The arts which wrought in gold and silver and precious stones
had their finest outlet here ; for no reverent idea of sacred
adornment which made for artistic worth and embellishment
was overlooked. And in a less degree the working out of
crosses, croziers, sanctuary lamps and all the precious orna-
ments connected with the altar and its ministry commanded
the highest artistic skill of the worker in gold, silver and
precious stones. The whole history of the Church glows with
the splendor and brilliancy of this form of art, so intimately
connected with its sacred mysteries.
Thus the Church has laid all forms of art under contribu-
tion. It has been as universal almost in its promotion of art,
as it has been in the spread and the teaching of the Gospel
THE CHURCH AND ART 303
throughout the world. It has sought to make the art impulse
and the love of the beautiful in man the stepping-stone to the
knowledge of the Kingdom of Heaven and the golden thread
which should bind his emotions to the service of God. We
are all in the greater sense "children of God," and the things
of this world which in beauty, form and color, appeal to us
children through our senses, rather than through our intel-
lects, have been utilized by the Church now and in all ages to
bring us more closely in touch with our Heavenly Father.
The Church has been a constant and unceasing patron of
art, perhaps in a sense the only real patron. Individuals have
been fickle and fanciful ; governments have been changeful
and utilitarian ; both have been at times almost inimical to
art, and repellent to the artist. But the Church throughout
its entire history has encouraged and fostered art in every
age, and has always used the creative arts to illustrate and
exemplify its mission and to leave enduring memorials of its
activity on earth. Its patronage of art, therefore, has never
been ephemeral, or bounded by current fashion or caprice,
but has demanded and always will demand the highest crea-
tive effort in whatsoever branch the artist may follow, or of
whatsoever achievement he may be capable. The demand for
the artist's service and devotion to the mission of the Church
is a continuing one, and will, as the Church itself has done,
outlive the transitory tastes of a current age.
The Church in America, in these United States, has just
entered triumphantly upon the second century of its work.
By earnest endeavor and ceaseless economy, it has reared
churches, schools and institutions on every hand, and now
stands clothed in the temporal garments of contemporary use-
fulness. Its members have become well supplied with the
goods of this world, even if not actually wealthy. The age
of struggle and missionary preparation is rapidly passing. It
therefore behooves the Church to clothe itself here in the new
world, anew, with its traditional splendor for the glory of God.
Its temples need no longer be bare and no longer may medi-
ocre utilitarianism reign supreme. An intelligent appreciation
of the force and power of art rightly directed for the harmony,
beauty and elevation of the worship of God will serve effec-
tually as an auxiliary to the Church in its relations to mankind
in this age, and as a stimulus and incitement to bring forth
304 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the very best eflforts to adorn and make worthy the temple
which is the abode of the King of kings. No longer should
we, while enjoying all around us the best that our culture can
afford, employ in our worship merely those things which our
emotions and our artistic sensibilities tell us are unworthy of
the great object of worship. It is much like keeping the best
for ourselves and giving the second best to the Church.
We therefore have reached a point in our history where we
can seriously consider art and the artist in the development of
our public worship. It is our duty to do so, unless we are
willing to fall far below the standard of our forefathers. If
they had beautiful churches, so should we have them. If
they had noble and imposing adornments of God's house, we
should have them also. As the Church has increased in the
past century, on its material and spiritual sides among the
people of this diocese and land, so may it also increase in the
coming century in its artistic growth and in its appeal to the
beautiful and glorious in the worship of Almighty God.
CARDINAL RAPHAEL MERRY DEL VAL
FOR the first time in the history of the CathoUc Church
the Holy See has a Secretary of State whose mother-
tongue is English, and who is acquainted with English
manners, literature and modes of thought. It is this fact
which annoys certain writers against the Holy See, for the
comparatively young adviser of the Pope is able to take them
at first-hand — not as his predecessors did, by means of trans-
lation — and to judge them from an intimate personal and prac-
tical knowledge of Anglo-Saxon affairs. He is a man to
whom the equipment of the modern world is familiar; the
telegraph, telephone, stenographer and typewriter are as freely
used by him as by the modern business man.
Raphael Merry del Val was born at No. 33 Gloucester Place,
Portman Square, London, on October 10, 1865, and was the
third son of Marquis Raphael Merry del Val, then Secretary
to the Spanish Embassy at the Court of St. James. His
father is descended from a branch of the Merry family of
Waterford, Ireland, which in time of persecution in the sev-
enteenth century had to seek a home in Spain. His mother,
the Condesa Zulueta, only daughter of Don Pedro Jose de
Zulueta, Count de Torre Diaz, was educated in England and
lived there until her marriage. Her mother (and his grand-
mother) was a Miss Sophie Willcocks, eldest daughter of
Brodie McGhie Willcocks, formerly member of Parliament
for Southampton. Thus the future cardinal came of a strong
mixture of Irish and English blood, in addition to having
been born in England. His brother. Count Merry del Val, is
even now in the Spanish diplomatic service, and has been of
great assistance in settling the intricate Morocco question.
It is needless to say that the young Merry del Val was al-
most wholly English in his mother-tongue and upbringing.
His first schooling was at Baylis House, near Slough, an excel-
lent school, kept by the well-known Butt family. He was a
jolly, good-natured lad, and earned the schoolboy nickname
305
3o6 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
of the "Merry Devil." When he was between ten and eleven
years old his father was promoted to Spanish Ambassador to
Belgium, and he was then transferred to schools in Namur
and Brussels, where he acquired a thorough command of the
French language. He finished his course at the College de St.
Michel in Brussels, and before he was eighteen returned to
England to enter the Catholic College of St. Cuthbert, at
Ushaw, near Durham, where he finished his studies in Philos-
ophy, in October, 1885. It is said that at the age of eighteen
he not only knew as much Greek and Latin as most professors
of those ancient languages, but he was amazingly well versed
in theology and Church history and the current affairs of
European countries, and could write and converse in English,
Spanish, French, Italian and German. At the age of twenty,
when he graduated from Ushaw, it is said that he spoke those
languages without an accent, and had a tolerable knowledge
of several others besides. In his amusements he developed into
a good bicycHst, a fine swimmer and a clever rifle shot; was
fond of riding and was a good dancer. When he determined
to become a priest at the age of twenty-one, his mother used
to laughingly warn him that his dancing days were over.
After his graduation his father secured for him the position
of private tutor to the present King Alfonso XIII of Spain.
It was probably his influence which inclined the future King's
ideas towards things English, and which inclination eventu-
ated in the royal marriage to the English princess who is now
Oueen Victoria of Spain. When his father was appointed
Spanish Ambassador to the Holy See, his son accompanied
him to Rome and entered the Gregorian University to pursue
his studies for the priesthood. It is said that at one time he
had a desire to enter the Society of Jesus and to serve at one
of their missions among the poor in the East End of London,
just as Prince MaximiHan of Saxony did after being ordained
priest, but his confessor dissuaded him, and Pope Leo XIII,
who was a great judge of men, further persuaded him to enter
the Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici, where in addition to
the other University studies, ecclesiastical diplomacy, political
economy and international law are taught. Here he acquitted
himself with even more credit, while he obtained high de-
grees in philosophy, theology and canon law.
At the age of twenty-four he was ordained a priest for the
CARDINAL RAPHAEL MERRY DEL VAL 307
Archdiocese of Westminster, London, thus identifying him-
self with the Metropolitan See of the English Church. But
even before his ordination he had been selected for important
duties. In 1887, he was appointed a Cameriere Segreto
(Privy Chamberlain), and as such he accompanied Mgr. Ruffo
Scilla in 1887, to represent the Holy See at the Jubilee of
Queen Victoria. A few months later, with Mgr. Galimberti,
he attended the funeral of Emperor William I of Germany,
as the representative of the Pope. In 1888 he also represented
the Holy See upon the occasion of the Jubilee of Emperor
Francis Joseph of Austria. All these honors came to him
before he was even ordained deacon or priest.
In 1892 he was made Cameriere Segreto Participante, that
is, a Privy Chamberlain in active service, which entailed his
taking up his residence within the Vatican itself, with an
apartment in close proximity to that of the Holy Father, a
member of whose official family he thus became. In 1896 he
was appointed to the onerous and responsible position of
Secretary to the Special Commission appointed by the Holy
Father to examine into and determine the facts as to the va-
lidity of the ordinations and orders in the Established Church
of England. This may be called his first large and responsi-
ble appointment, and was no doubt due in a great degree to
his familiarity with the English language and his knowledge
of affairs in England. The Commissioners were unanimous
in their appreciation of the able manner in which he dis-
charged his duties. His minutes, drawing together and digest-
ing, as they did, the daily discussions and memoranda of the
commission, were regarded as extraordinary in their faithful-
ness, accuracy and lucidity.
In 1897, when Canada was much disturbed over the burning
question of the schools in Manitoba, where both the question
of religious teaching and the use of the French language were
involved, Merry del Val was selected by Pope Leo XIII as
Apostolic Delegate, to visit and study the questions on the
spot, and to report to the Holy See upon the matter. It was
a question which threatened to interfere with the usefulness
of the Church in Western Canada and required the most deli-
cate handling. But his visit to Canada was a noteworthy suc-
cess and marked an epoch in the religious history of the Do-
minion. It was only to be expected that he would be well re-
o
08 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ceived in the Catholic province of Quebec, but the singular
personal enthusiasm which he kindled everywhere turned his
visit into a triumph. To the English-speaking population he
appeared the cultured Englishman, while the French found
that he spoke their language quite as well as themselves. At
the Laval University and the great seminaries he sometimes
astonished his audiences when orations had been addressed to
him in Latin, by at once replying extemporaneously in the
same tongue with the utmost fluency. His reception in the
Protestant provinces was scarcely less cordial, for his charm
of manner and fine presence won all hearts. At Ottawa both
parties vied with each other in showing him respect and con-
sideration, and at Toronto the cabinet gave him a public recep-
tion which was attended by persons of all faiths and creeds.
In connection with his visit to Toronto an amusing incident
occurred. In the Catholic province of Quebec he was, in
accordance with custom, at liberty to wear the elaborate eccle-
siastical dress of a monsignore, even on the streets. But in
Ontario, a Protestant province, the custom is quite different,
and a Catholic clergyman, just as in the United States, wears
broadcloth and the plain Roman collar as his street costume.
Through some accident his baggage containing the plain gar-
ments failed to arrive upon the train, and Mgr. Merry del Val
realized that he must involuntarily break the law, and sug-
gested that he turn back and wait until his suitable clothing be
found. But the people would not hear of such a thing, and so
during his entire sojourn in Toronto he appeared in his eccle-
siastical robes without exciting any adverse criticism.
The task assigned to him in Canada was no small one, but
he successfully adjusted the claims of the Canadian Hierarchy
as to separate Catholic schools in Manitoba with the general
policy of the Provincial and Dominion governments as ad-
vanced by distinguished Catholic laymen like Sir Wilfred
Laurier and Sir Charles Fitzpatrick, a task demanding a
breadth and independence of view in which the future Cardi-
nal did not fail. Many had predicted the failure of his mis-
sion ; but it was an absolute success. A modus vivendi was
found between Church and State, as well as upon the question
of the French and English languages there, and the internal
peace of the Church in Canada was secured by the appoint-
ment of a permanent Apostolic Delegate for the Dominion.
CARDINAL RAPHAEL MERRY DEL VAL 309
Shortly after his return to Rome he was made President of
the Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici and served until 1901,
as the head of the institution in which he himself had been
educated. On April 19, 1900, he was consecrated titular Arch-
bishop of Nice, and two years later was translated to be titular
Archbishop of Nicosia. In this latter year he also published
his first book, "The Truth of the Papal Claims," and in 1902
revisited London as the Papal Envoy at the coronation of King
Edward VII, where he was well received.
Owing to the death of Mgr. Volpini a few days before
Leo XIII died in 1903, a new Secretary, for the Consistory
assembled to elect a new Pope, was required, and the choice
by the vote of the College of Cardinals fell upon Mgr. Merry
del Val. He was thus brought into daily personal contact with
the new Pope, Pius X, to whom after his election as Pope
he acted as Secretary of State pending a permanent appoint-
ment. One day in the early part of October, 1903, as Mgr.
Merry del Val was leaving the Pope's room with a basketful
of correspondence and papers which had just been dealt with,
Pius X called him back for a moment and handed him another
letter, remarking casually, "Monsignor, this is also for you."
Mgr. Merry del Val jammed it down on top of the pile in the
basket and passed on into his own apartment, where he emp-
tied the basket on his table and began to go through the vari-
ous papers and letters. When he came to the last letter given
him, he found to his surprise that it was a letter written by the
Pope's own hand, appointing him permanent Secretary of
State, and stating that His Holiness was convinced from the
way in which the business of the office was handled that he
would look no further for a competent Secretary of State.
The surprise and shock were so sudden that the newly ap-
pointed Secretary of State almost fell from his chair, and a
friend who was in the room ran to assist him, picked up the
letter, and thus its contents became known.
On the 1 2th of November, 1903, at the first public consis-
tory held after his election, Pope Pius X created the young
Secretary of State a cardinal priest in the Sistine chapel
with the title of the Church of Saint Praxedes. The cardinals
represent the original archdiocese and province of Rome, with
the six cardinal bishops, suflfragan to the Pope as archbishop;
the fifty-four cardinal priests representing the ancient par-
310 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
ishes of the province of Rome, and the fourteen cardinal
deacons, those who served as deacons in the early churches
of Rome w^hen the Church became recognized as a lawful re-
ligion after the persecutions. They are the Senate of the
universal Church, and are the body from which the Pope is
selected and, with the exception of the cardinal bishops, are
the honorary rectors or pastors of the churches to which they
are assigned.
As Secretary of State, Cardinal Merry del Val has his official
residence in the Vatican palace itself. He also has a summer
villa at No. ii Via della Valtellina, a short distance outside
the Portese gate, to which he goes in a motor car from the
Vatican very much like the business man of to-day who lives on
the outskirts of the city. Here, too, he keeps up his athletic ex-
ercises and keeps himself in good bodily trim. Occasionally
he automobiles to Castel Gandolfo or to Lake Bracciona,
where he can indulge in swimming. But there is also another
side of the Cardinal which is scarcely so well known, and one
for which the exacting duties of his high office leave but little
time nowadays. While he was Cameriere Segreto Partici-
pante he used to go in the evenings to the Trastevere, where
the work which he organized among the poorest of the poor
of Rome has its headquarters in the poor boys' school and
club. This club, a forerunner of our Ozanam associations,
was developed by him for years with unfailing energy, and
now contains hundreds of boy members, many of them saved
from ruin by its influence. This is the kind of work into
which he has put his whole soul, and which he still looks after
through others, although he is Secretary of State. Not only
did he devote himself to the people of the Trastevere quarter,
but he was regularly in his confessional first at San Silvestro
and later at San Giorgio, and late at night numerous peni-
tents, many of them the poorest of the poor, might be seen
waiting their turn seeking for his consolation and direction.
And he is still a confessor — preferably for the poor — at such
times as he can be spared from his duties. It was charac-
teristic of him that when he was created a Cardinal he sub-
stituted for the usual feast which new Cardinals offer to their
friends and relations a banquet for his poor penitents and boys
in the Trastevere.
The first duty of the Papal Secretary of State is to take
CARDINAL RAPHAEL MERRY DEL VAL 311
charge of the relations between the Holy See and foreign
countries, but he also takes part in all the important acts of
the Papal Court. His office makes him the wielder of the
Pope's diplomacy ; his post makes him the alter ego of the
Pope, and he is constantly associated with him in all kinds
of affairs which are not strictly diplomatic. There are, as is
generally known, a good many envoys at Rome accredited
to the Holy See by foreign countries, in addition to those who
represent their countries at the Court of Italy.
Twice a week, on Tuesdays and Fridays, the Secretary of
State receives the ambassadors to the Holy See, one after
another; and the ambassadors of the great countries having
almost always some business to transact, are constant attend-
ants at these functions. These receptions rank first among
the duties of the Secretary of State. Next to them comes his
correspondence with the nuncios. A nuncio is the Papal
equivalent of an ambassador sent to a country having diplo-
matic relations with the Pope. The Secretary of State re-
ceives their reports and communicates his instructions to them.
In addition to this is the endless correspondence from papal
delegates in countries where there is no nuncio, as in the
United States and in Canada, the numerous telegrams and
cablegrams which come from all over the world, and the nu-
merous details of Italian and Roman Church government
where it impinges upon that of the State.
Every morning the Pope receives the Cardinal Secretary,
and they discuss the condition of the Church. When they
have finished their consultation, the Secretary attends to the
correspondence. He may write the replies himself, or he
may pass on the point involved and leave the details to the
prelates attached to his office, •or may instruct them to look
into delicate questions upon which the decision has been post-
poned. He has, of course, to carry out the instructions he
receives at the audience, and to prepare the business he is
going to submit to the Pope at the next audience. It might
be thought that this was too much to be crowded into the life
of any man. But in addition to this, it is the custom of Car-
dinal Merry del Val to receive non-official visitors every eve-
ning for an hour after the Angelus. He is consulted upon
all sorts of questions at these receptions ; he is the Pope's
Prime Minister ; and he has to be familiar with every question
312 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
which touches the Church. Every piece of information, and
every application intended for the Pope, has to be transmitted
through him.
Thus the Cardinal Secretary of State needs encyclopaedic
knowledge and almost superhuman intuition and tact ; and
they are gifts with which Cardinal Merry del Val is richly
blessed. He has to pass quickly from subject to subject with-
out losing the threads ; he has to know what people are talking
about and to divine their real aims ; and to send them away
satisfied that justice will be done. One visitor may have im-
portant information or suggestions to make about the troubles
with France, Spain or Portugal ; the next may be urging or
opposing in all sorts of ways the candidature of an arch-
bishop, perhaps here in the United States, who he thinks
ought to be made a cardinal ; and the next may be some eccle-
siastical nobleman or official who desires to get the Pope to
take his side in a petty squabble : while another may bring
forth matters of real interest towards the growth of the
Church or the management of perplexing questions.
No Prime Minister in Europe is so accessible, and, since
everything that concerns religion is considered to come under
the Pope's authority, the Secretary of State is deprived of that
circumlocution and that favorite refuge of statesmen : "Take
the matter next door," which is nowhere displayed with such
exasperating regularity as in the various departments of the
present Italian State government. The Cardinal Secretary,
however, is allowed the widest discretion, because one of his
most important functions is to save the Pope from unneces-
sary business.
There are few people who know so much of the religious
affairs of all countries as Cardinal Merry del Val ; he is sim-
ply obliged to keep himself in touch with them, and being half
an Englishman, with English as his native tongue, he has a
grasp of the affairs of the various Protestant denominations
and of English and American opinion which no previous
Papal Secretary of State ever had. More than that, his knowl-
edge of English and American character, which is wonderful,
rests on the firm basis of having himself sterling Anglo-Saxon
qualities.
His time for book reading is necessarily limited, but the
way he keeps up with the newspapers of all countries is ex-
CARDINAL RAPHAEL MERRY DEL VAL 313
traordinary, for several news-clipping bureaus are busy at
his behest, and there is a great deal besides in the Vatican tra-
dition that much is to be learned by patiently listening to the
visitors who come to receptions. He has in addition a corps
of correspondents and responsible confidential advisers in va-
rious coimtries. He is necessarily obliged to make personal
enemies by his decisions, since he cannot decide in favor of
both opponents ; and in addition, all the enemies of the Church
are his enemies. The most trifling demand upon him may
mask important moves ; the acts of the Holy See nowadays in
the fierce searchlight levelled by the Press of the world are
commented on with peculiar assiduity; and a secret signifi-
cance, a malevolent import, is often imputed to the simplest of
them. Before he allows himself to issue one word in the
name of the Pope, Cardinal Merry del Val has to divine what
deductions will be made from it by commentators in good or
bad faith ; and in order to write with safety what he wishes to
say, he has to think not only what his words do mean, but
what by any unfortunate twist they can be made to mean.
In order to get at the root of matters, he must take ex-
traordinary precautions and unusual advice. In the matter of
the separation of Church and State in France some of the most
astute French lawyers were employed to take up the entire
legal situation created by the new French legislation creating
the so-called conseils, or boards of trustees, for the churches
and church property. When it was clearly demonstrated that
the only effect the law would have was to throw the ultimate
control of church property, church worship and the entire
teaching and sacramental system of the Church under lay
governmental officialdom, he would have none of it. This
legal advice and the opinion then formed by him have been
amply sustained by the trend of events in France since that
time. When we consider that a French Protestant Church of
New York City has just had to take upon itself the financial
support and direction of two Protestant Churches in France,
bereft of their sustenance by the law of separation, we can
well appreciate the clear-headed judgment Cardinal Merry del
Val possessed at the time, to save the Catholic Church from
becoming little more than an obsequious lackey to government
bureaus.
The same is true of the matters in Spain. The Cardinal
314 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Secretary of State is a Spaniard by ancestry and knows his
country and his countrymen through and through. He is also
advised by the best international jurists, experienced in canon
and international law, and has fully considered the rights of
the Church in the larger sense, in his controversy with the
present Spanish government over the Concordat. Force may,
with anarchistic elements, prevail over logic and law and
order, but if it does so prevail it will be destructive in its char-
acter for Spain. On the other hand, he would welcome a sys-
tem whereby the Church might work out its mission of saving
souls unhampered by State interference, as it does in Canada
or the United States. The idea of separation of Church and
State, as advocated by the ultra socialistic republican leaders
of France, Portugal and Spain, seems to be that the Church
shall give up all its vested rights and all the property pos-
sessed by it, whilst the State shall still control the Church and
people, and the church authorities at every turn, even as to
the manner and method of teaching its own religious doctrines
and enforcing its precepts. It is needless to say that such a
thing would not be tolerated in the United States.
Cardinal Merry del Val is still a young man as such things
go in the great ecclesiastical world. He has already made a
great name for himself, and his urbanity, courtesy and frank
good-will have made him appreciated by all who have trans-
acted business with him or with the Holy See. He has made
many more rooms of the Vatican accessible to the general
public, has lighted the crypts of the Basilica of St. Peter's
with electric light and made the entrance to them compara-
tively easy for the visitor, and in general has shown a
leaning towards a democratic regime in regard to the
treasures, artistic and architectural, in the Vatican and St.
Peter's. He has almost entirely changed the rulings of the
guardians of the basilica and the palace of the Vatican in that
regard. In addition to that, he has shown himself very gra-
cious towards Americans, of all denominations, who visit the
Holy See. Where, however, it has been sought to use the
visit to the Pope as the pretext for assisting the political propa-
ganda of local Roman parties opposed to the Holy See, he
has sternly set his face against it. It was a consideration of
this point of view which led to the Fairbanks and the Roose-
velt incidents, and it is to be regretted that neither of those
CARDINAL RAPHAEL MERRY DEL VAL 315
distinguished visitors to Rome took into consideration the
petty poHtical intrigue and opposition to the Holy Father
which they were unconsciously assisting and fomenting when
those incidents occurred. Later events and cooler judgment
have shown the complete wisdom of the position then as-
sumed by Cardinal Merry del Val.
The Cardinal Secretary of State is a man who has the
qualities which one admires in a great statesman and an active,
thorough-going administrator of the affairs of a great Church.
As time goes on we believe that his fame and abilities will
increase, and his personal devotion, uprightness and faith will
make him stand high among those on whom the Church has
relied to uphold the hands and the courage of the Sovereign
Pontiff in his government of the Church throughout the world.
ADDRESSES ON VARIOUS OCCASIONS
EDUCATION AND RELIGION
Delivered at Canisius College, Buffalo, 1913
THERE is no part of our modern life in this State
which has progressed so rapidly as education. In the
earlier days of the Republic there was not the abun-
dance of educational apparatus which is enjoyed by us. Then
the State had not conceived the idea that teaching was one
of its functions.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century colleges and
academies — for there was then scarcely such a thing as a
university — were founded and maintained almost wholly by
individuals. Once in a great while they obtained subsidy and
assistance from the State — but that was a rarity — and the
State left them to their own devices. The primary schools,
as we should call them nowadays, were maintained by private
means. But at the end of the third decade of the century
there came a change. Municipalities, and afterwards the
State itself, took up and monopolized the system of public or
gratuitous primary instruction. Gradually this was extended
to secondary education, and it has grown, until to-day the
State exercises supervision, if not actual rule, over every
form of teaching within its borders.
When I speak of the State, it may be considered as apply-
ing to the State of New York, but in reality it is applicable
to any of the various commonwealths which make up our
United States. But, to have a comprehensive idea of what I
mean by the State, I may briefly define it as meaning "all of
us." It is not a vague entity, overwhelming the individual or
antagonistic to church or creed ; it is, in my meaning, the re-
sultant expression, in concrete form, of the united, dissent-
ing or modifying views of the entire mass of the citizens. It
is in this sense that I use the word.
Since, therefore, the State has taken upon itself the super-
vision, where it does not actually take the direction, of all
319
320 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
education within its geographical borders, it behooves us to
study what education may really mean. If we take the sched-
ules of instruction provided by the authorities as the minimum
required for graduation from a given school or classroom,
the necessary requisite for promotion to the next grade, or the
exaction for entrance to high school or college, or even for the
reception of a degree in arts, literature, science, medicine or
law, and study them through and through, we fail to get an
absolutely complete idea of what education really is. To in-
struct the learner mentally, to practise him in the intellectual
gymnastics of knowledge, as a circus performer or acrobat is
taught to perform wonderful feats, is not enough. That may
enable him to pass clever examinations and sustain difficult
theses, or even to make new and brilliant discoveries, but after
all it is not the sum and substance of education. But that is
as far as the State — considered in its present position — can
go, for it deals with material, not spiritual things, and can
only see that the physical and material equipment is good.
The development of what lies entirely within the conscience,
the awakening of the heart-strings moved by the moral law,
it must leave to other hands, since so far no provision has been
made for this in its schedules.
Yet, as I have said, the State is but the concrete form of "all
of us," expressing the hope and aim of our united will and
wisdom. As such it must look to a perpetuation of itself
upon an even higher plane. We do not wish our successors
to be of less worth than we are; they ought to be of better
fibre. The whole matter, therefore, becomes one of immedi-
ate interest to each of us ; because in a sort of a political pan-
theistic phrase we are each a part of the State. The education
provided by our institutions, no matter where or what they are,
ought to produce material for good citizens, ought to make
each component of the State turned out by them higher ex-
ponents of everything that is good and noble in man. Water
cannot rise higher than its source, and so the State cannot be
better than the collective goodness and wisdom of its citizens.
It is a theme for you and for me to ponder.
Now, without in anywise touching on or discussing the
question of creed, it must be apparent that the religious and
moral sense of an individual is a very large part of his make-
up. It is figuratively the compass by which he steers his life.
EDUCATION AND RELIGION 321
and the solace by which he is enabled to bear its burdens and
defeats. Hence anything which encourages this sense, which
arouses the moral nature and conduces to heroic effort in the
student, ought to be encouraged and fostered.
It is precisely in this most important point that the sched-
ules provided by the State are deficient. But where the State
does not so provide, you and I, in view of the fact that we are
a part of the State, may do so. And the State ought to wel-
come us in the effort to produce men not only learned accord-
ing to the schedules it provides, but proficient also in the
power and graces of soul and conscience. It all makes for
better, nobler and more conscientious citizenship. It thus
constitutes a thorough, all-around education, and preserves
the integrity of human nature.
It is axiomatic that bodies move along the plane of least
resistance. The same is true of men and women. An artist
will gladly study art ; a musician, music, and thus through
the gamut of human interests — we ought to encourage them
to do so.
This, then, is the basis for the school which teaches reli-
gion as a part of its course, and not merely incidentally as a
side elective for Sundays, perhaps. It wishes to produce good
citizens and it wishes to develop their whole nature. It will
not do merely to listen to music to become a musician, not-
withstanding the inclination ; one must practice it. The
painter is not made so by visiting many art galleries, although
he be enraptured thereby; he must work on many canvases
to produce results. And so it is in the practice of religious,
civic and moral virtues ; steady practice, like the rewriting
of Latin themes and restating mathematical problems, can
alone achieve success.
When, therefore, an institution like this one, in addition to
its prescribed secular teaching, uses the strongest incentive
ever brought to bear upon the human heart and mind and
conscience — the exercise of religion — to make the student
keep his mind and heart pure and steadfast, the State ought
to bid it godspeed.
Now, in what does even secular education consist? It
ought to mean the full development of the student and his
appreciation of things as they exist around him. He ought
to be made aware of his duties as well as his rights. The
122. ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
feudal system passed away in the eighteenth century. It was
a nobly conceived system of government, which lasted for
nearly five hundred years, founded upon duties as well as
rights. When the governing class forgot their duties and
insisted only upon their rights, the feudal system fell; for it
was like a scale which was overbalanced. To it has suc-
ceeded the industrial and democratic regime. The latter will
do well if it lasts one-half as long as the feudal system did.
It may seem like contradicting every modern view of history
and progress to cast doubts upon a purely democratic popular
regime, but I have in mind an example which seems to do so,
and which nearly every one is quoting as a most brilliant ex-
ample in government. The Panama Canal Zone is lauded
from one end of the country to the other as an example of
almost perfect government. Things go like clock-work; dis-
ease and destitution are banished ; there is justice and plenty
for all. But it is a one-man government — merely a benevo-
lent despotism after all. The people there have no say in it ;
democracy is invisible at Panama.
In fact, it rests upon the same fundamental principle as
the feudal system. The rights of the governing power are
correlative with its duties towards the welfare of the gov-
erned. So long as they are made to balance the government
is a success. And the same rule holds good in democracies.
When industrialism succeeded to the feudal system, and
even when taken over by democracy in government, it, too,
forgot that duties followed rights. That is one of the causes
of the industrial unrest to-day, which breaks out in varied
forms, all the way from socialism to anarchy. The financial
magnate, railroad king, or captain of a thousand industries
too often regards his enterprises as his personal individual
property and acts accordingly, like the feudal monarch of two
centuries ago. He forgets his duties, but clings tenaciously to
his rights. Where he rules an industrial empire with almost
as many subjects as the feudal chieftain, the people of that
empire with keen memory of duties forgotten are going to
act exactly as they did a century ago to get constitutional gov-
ernment. They are bound to have a voice in the industries
which they sustain by their labor. It is your duty, gentlemen
of the graduating class, and your future task to see that they
divide the power and responsibilities with the heads of such
EDUCATION AND RELIGION 323
industries in a wise and progressive manner. Abolutisni in
industry, like absolutism in government, in the present temper
of things is bound to fail; and it can only lay its downfall to
its utter disregard of its bounden duties to those below.
While this is going on in the industrial and political world,
there are all sorts of panaceas brought forward. As soon as
a portion of mankind is suffering from an ailment any number
of quack doctors arise with new cure-alls. The most promi-
nent one nowadays in socialism. As a philosophic theory, as a
means of affording an ideal of the wth degree, by which to pat-
tern improvements in legislation it may do very well. I pur-
posely do not touch upon its vagaries in relation to the things
hitherto held sacred by the general assent of mankind in rela-
tion to the family, the State and personal morality. It is
merely the working of the actual government social machine
to which I shall allude. The question is: Who shall watch
the watchers? Socialistic government must have its heads
and officers. If our governments so far — and we have enough
of the most ideal laws on the statute books — cannot prevent
bribery among legislators, violation of oaths by officials, pecu-
lation of high and low degree in state and municipal govern-
ment, to say nothing of grosser forms of governmental wick-
edness, how can we hope for anything more definite to be
accomplished under the form of socialism? We have the
same weak humanity to deal with, and if one wants reform
in government or industry, humanity must be essentially re-
formed ; no mere method will effect it.
Take one familiar example : You have all heard about the
horrors of the Spanish Inquisition, how many thousands were
put to death by it in Spain. Well, the highest that any im-
aginative historian ever put the figures for the fiercest year
was about 900, and we know something about mob law and
lynch law ourselves ; yet here in New York State we annually
kill from 2,500 to 4,000 persons. The two countries compare
about the same in population. The Spanish put their people
to death in accordance with the laws of the day for what they
believed as a principle, probably devotion to the State and
Church ; we slaughter ours by railways, defective machinery,
automobiles, elevators, fire-traps, and a dozen preventable
methods — all for the purpose of greed, economy and money-
making — and mostly in direct violation of the laws on the
324 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
statute book. When this particular age is viewed in the per-
spective of a century or so, will it be said that human nature
has greatly changed in its treatment of man by his fellow-
man?
If socialism succeeds as a working political machine, re-
modelling our laws and methods of distribution of wealth,
how m.uch will we have gained? A man to-day is said to
worship his property and to build all his institutions and laws
upon it. Well, if property be abolished, minimized or rele-
gated to the scrap-heap of politico-economic delusions, what
shall we say of the method or form which will take its place?
The fact is, that slavery will take its place. A man's sole
value will be determined by his economic position as a mere
cog in the vast economic machine. We will have then the
fedualism of rank and station, power and command, without
the checks and counter-balances of the duties inculcated by
feudalism. Let those who have closely observed the one-man
power or the committee power in the organization and man-
agement of recent strikes, and point the difference between
the social economic boss and the harshest political boss. For
firmness of command and ruthlessness of decree the latter
can take lessons from the former. How, then, can we be
assured that our later position, where a man's standing among
his fellow-men rests upon his position or "job," will be bet-
ter than the earlier one of property? If men will do so much
for property now, what will they not do for position and
power then, unless human nature be radically changed ?
We may illustrate this by a witty statement of what pana-
ceas have been offered us in other lines. Take, for instance,
that of health :
"The world was to be made over by means of the bicycle.
The straphanger was to abandon his strap and ride joyfully
down the cable-slot, imbibing ozone on his way to business.
The factory hand was to abandon his city tenement and live
in the open country, going to and from his work upon the
wheel. The old were to grow young again, and the young
were to dream close to the heart of nature. The doctors were
to perish of starvation. But where is the bicycle to-day?
"The world was to be made over by jiu-jitsu. Elderly
gentlemen were to regain the waist-line of youth by ten min-
utes' practice every morning. Slim young women, when at-
EDUCATION AND RELIGION 325
tacked by heavy ruffians, were to seize their assailants by the
wrist and hurl them over their right shoulder. The police
were to suppress rioters by mere muscular contraction. The
doctors, as before, were to grow extinct by starvation. But
where is jiu-jitsu to-day?
"The world was to be regenerated by denatured alcohol.
Denatured alcohol — with the tax ofif — was to drive all our
machines, propel our automobiles, run our factories, and re-
duce the cost of Hving to a ridiculous minimum. But where
is denatured alcohol to-day?
"The world was to be regenerated by sour milk ; by the
simple life ; by sleeping in the open air. But where now are
Professor Metchnikoff and Pastor Wagner? And the doc-
tors are still with us, even more numerous than before.
"Does this show we must give up all hope of seeing a new
world about us? By no means. We still have eugenics, and
it is good for two or three years more. Then we shall ask
the same question about it."
Suffice it to say that the latter method of saving the world,
by eugenics, is purely material, without reference to the
beauty of the soul within, or its expression in practical virtue.
The Catholic Church, wiser than local faddists, has used
the nineteen centuries of her experience to unfold a method
of right living, which deals not with certificates or the physi-
cal health of a few, but the carefully inculcated purity of
soul and body of every one who craves her ministrations. She
knows no "single standard." The law of virtue is judged
alike for all. She does not merely ask that the outward
health of the adult be certified ; but she makes sure of the stu-
dent and the learner from the entrance into manhood and
womanhood. She teaches purity of mind and soul, not merely
cleanliness of body.
It is the same in the field of education. The standard for
the greatest results must be an education where the soul is
taught as well as the body; where the heart and the higher
nature of man are as carefully directed as the cravings for
material ends are developed. Nor need a single point in the
secular side of education be neglected for a moment. These
are the standards which are set by an education which will
not and cannot leave religious and moral teaching out of its
curriculum for an instant. Its standards are not to give the
326 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
student less, but to afford him more of all that becomes a man.
And at the same time it should afford him the means to think,
to weigh and appreciate the panaceas, the loudly shouted nos-
trums of the soap-box and hired-hall oratory, which are her-
alded as being able to overturn the old established order of
things.
Now, gentlemen of the graduating class, it is your task to
take an active part in these matters for the future. This is
your Commencement Day ; the time when you are to com-
mence to examine the state of affairs around you and to take
a more or less prominent part in the direction of things.
Above all things examine carefully the basis and foundation
of things you are asked to consider or to promote. It be-
hooves you as sample products of your Alma Mater to take
stock of theories and statements, either before you espouse
them or condemn them.
You may otherwise fall into the same position as the little
girl, who listened attentively but did not understand, and told
her mother that she had learned at Sunday-school that King
Herod of Judea was in the habit of running down his people
in automobiles. The mother was astonished and sought out
the teacher and found that what the teacher had given the
class was that "Herod overran the people with taxes."
Therefore examine all things ; find out their true bearings and
application, and be sure that you understand the meaning.
In this way you will best apply your learning; in this way
you will honor your Alma Mater ; and in this way you will
be true citizens of this great commonwealth. And when to
this you add character, uprightness and fair dealing, with the
sense of reverence and devotion which only a religious train-
ing inculcated day by day can give, you will have demonstrated
the value of a solid secular education reinforced and but-
tressed by religious principles. It will keep you straight upon
the road of life, although it may not lead you to riches.
I wish the Class of 1913, the first to issue from these walls,
happiness, health and a long and honorable life of success in
the true sense of the word.
MANNERS MAKETH MAN
Delivered at Brooklyn College, 1914
THE day of final conquest has now arrived for each of
you and each must now put his studies to active use
in the world and pursue still further the roads upon
which he entered the kingdom of knowledge. Your gradua-
tion must be turned to account. It must be added to and
made useful, both to the possessor and those around him.
The college man must progress more than those who have not
had his advantages, if his study and his development are to
be of any avail.
One of the colleges at Oxford which fascinated me the
most was New College. It was a college with a park; and
colleges which have a park attached to them have a peculiar
attraction for me. The college from which I graduated had
a dense, shady park ; and around its walks I think — or at
least I used to think — I got the makings of all that is best
within me. New College at Oxford is one of the oldest col-
leges there; it was founded back in 1375. New College is not
its real name, either; for it is the College of St. Mary of
Winchester. But it was founded at a time when there was
only one college building there; so some five hundred and
fifty years ago it was really a "new" college, and the name
has remained by it ever since.
That College of St. Mary at Oxford, "New College," was
founded by one of the remarkable men of his day, William
of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester. The statutes and rules
with which he founded and endowed it remain intact until to-
day. Its motto, and what the learned bishop insisted upon,
was "Manners maketh man." It is something which I can
commend to you to-day. Manners in the old thirteenth cen-
tury sense of the term did not mean mere outward polite-
ness, as we understand the word to-day. It was the sturdy
Anglo-Saxon for "Education makes a man," and William
327
328 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
of Wykeham thoroughly believed in that and sought to en-
force it in the minds and hearts of the thousands of students
who have passed through the portals of his college since
then.
Education, or "manners," as he called it, meant the trainint^
of every side of a man's nature. As the hand — manus in
Latin — vi^as educated to all the varied fineness of skill and
hence gave rise to the word "manners" ; so the intellect and
soul could and should be educated in all the varied forms of
knowledge and virtue which "maketh man." So the sturdy
old bishop set up a monument of learning which has not yet
fallen into decay ; but exists as an example of what one man's
clear sense of true education can afford us even now.
But manners are not to be acquired without a struggle. We
must ever fight down and pluck out the weeds that grow in
the garden of the soul and the intellect. William of Wyke-
ham's pleasant park in New College means incessant work and
labor bestowed upon it to render it to-day so grateful and
pleasant. Work, work, and then work, must be the text and
action of him who strives after the "Manners which maketh
man." One of our great natural philosophers and inventors
of to-day, Thomas Edison, is credited with a definition of
genius, which says : "Genius consists of five per cent inspira-
tion, and ninety-five per cent of perspiration." Sometimes I
think that, for the average man, the inspiration is nil, and the
perspiration must be profuse, if he ever hopes to accomplish
anything.
You gentlemen have been trained in a school where before
aught else you have been taught that "Manners maketh man."
You have acquired a manner of appreciating and reverencing
the spiritual and eternal things which lie close to man's heart.
The manner of dealing with the sacred and serious things of
life has been enjoined upon you. Along with your mental pow-
ers you have not been permitted for a moment to lose sight of
the spiritual and higher nature that lies within you.
It is well, therefore, to consider where the present physical
and industrial development leaves us. In inventive genius and
in mechanical and scientific discovery it seems to have sur-
passed all previous epochs. Indeed sometimes we seem to have
made so much progress along purely material lines that we
have lost sight of the higher and nobler side of things. Often
MANNERS MAKETH MAN 329
our very inventions and improvements have defeated their own
ends. An author, commenting on to-day, says :
"Think of the time saved by the telephone, the telegraph, the
typewriter, the cotton and woollen and silk mills, the iron foun-
dries, the sewing machines, the mowing machines, the reapers
and harvesters, the swift trains, the electric trolleys, the sub-
ways and automobiles, the escalators and elevators ! What a
vast volume of time has been saved ! Time that used to be
wasted, now saved for man, and put away where moth doth
not corrupt, nor thieves break in and steal ! There is time
enough saved to give every human being an abundance of leis-
ure ! An industrial revolution, the miracles of modern ma-
chinery, millions of brains are directed upon the problem — all
having their sole object, to save time !
"And what is the result? The result is that men have less
time nowadays than they ever have had since the world began.
What becomes of all the time thus saved — where does it go?
Except in the country districts (where there is no machinery
for saving time) there is none to be found, for every one is
pressed for time."
And often the time which we thus imagine to be saved is not
put to any good use. It is merely expended to hurry on again.
"A Western farmer, who enjoyed a calm moment at the close
of a busy life, one day reflected on his past and discovered to
his consternation that he had spent his existence in growing
corn to feed hogs, and sold hogs to buy more land to grow more
corn to raise more hogs, and so on, in an endless chain. Thus
we invent machinery for the purpose of saving time, in order
to produce more things and to get there more quickly, in order
to save more time, so as to get more things and to get there
more quickly, and over again ad infinitum."
Is this real progress? Is it real education? Do these man-
ners make men ? True, it is a piling up of more material things ;
making huge mathematical results. But in the end does the
individual man get any more real value out of life than his
fathers did? Otherwise these manners do not make man.
Only so much of our material results as contribute to the build-
ing up of a finer man, a better country and a more enlightened
civilization can be said to be any real education, after all.
You young gentlemen who are about to go forth into the
world, equipped with a degree and a diploma, must not imagine
330 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
that you are very far along the road to learning and knowledge
as yet. So far you have learned from books ; you have yet
to take deeper lessons in human nature and human character.
And it will require incessant work to do it.
You have much work to do — you know that as well as I can
tell you. First of all, you have to earn your own livelihood.
Thank God, that our country is one of almost equal opportuni-
ties, where good and earnest work is appreciated. It will be no
easy task for you to do this, for you must remember that for a
long time to come you are only going to a larger school and
are continuing your lessons on a grander scale than ever before.
Then, if you succeed in making for yourself a niche in
the busy, eager, rushing world, you will have for the first time
some leisure to consider what you can do in the larger lines of
human endeavor.
To-day all around us we have examples of what undue
power and enormous aggregations of wealth may do and
what may be feared from the threatened overturn of so-
ciety and the confiscation of the sources of wealth. A rising
tide of discontent against capital and wealth finds its most
outspoken advocates in socialism and that form of anarchism
which would utterly destroy before it attempts to rebuild. In
their cry for economic and social reform, these advocates go
so far as to destroy the old landmarks of civilization, religion
and clean living. We cannot aflford to yield either to the pres-
sure of the one or to the demands of the other. If progress
is to be made, it must be made along the lines of reconcilia-
tion. Here, gentlemen, is abundant work for you — a work
which may well tax all your resources.
Then, again, you have a third and even nobler work.
It is that of clean and helpful living. It is the work
of the heart and the soul. If you would accomplish great
things, think great thoughts and inspire great deeds, you
must begin with yourself. That is a work that you may do
simultaneously with the others ; and it will tell more in the
end than any other. There are no men in these United States
upon whom the task of making straight the paths of human
progress and human culture should rest more particularly than
upon the college graduates. It is the noblest aim they can have
in life. The entry of large-minded college men, who know
their faith and love their country, into the task of solving these
MANNERS MAKETH MAN 331
difficulties will be one of the greatest elements for good which
this age can give.
Gentlemen of the class of 1914, I welcome you as graduates
of this institution, for I believe you have here imbibed the
^'Manners which maketh man," and that you will prove your-
selves good men and true in whatsoever you may undertake.
WOMEN IN SCIENCE
Delivered at Mt. St. Vincent on the Hudson
IT has been said that the twentieth century has become,
in an especial way, the woman's century. All forms of
feminine activity have started up throughout the length
and breadth of our land. But those who speak thus calmly
ignore and seldom investigate what women have done in the
past. To you of the graduating class, this cannot fail to be
of the greatest interest. You are now prepared to exercise
your intellectual activities and to take part in the social and
mental life around you. Feminine activities have assumed
myriad forms — from seeking the suffrage and contending with
men in national and municipal problems to exploring the waste
places of science and all other forms of human endeavor to
benefit humanity.
Not the least of these many activities for the modern woman
is the steady growth of Catholic colleges for women through-
out the land. It has sometimes been made a reproach to the
Church that she failed to provide an adequate outlet for the
intellectual activities of her young womanhood. The reproach
may have been true a half-century ago ; but you and I have
cause to know that the reasons for such lack were chiefly
financial and not intellectual.
A picture of what the Church has accompHshed in the nine-
teenth century should be an augury and an inspiration for the
graduates of this college to-day. One hundred years ago
there were but a handful of Catholics along the fringe of sea-
coast which formed the American States of that day, barely
enough to warrant the appointment of three bishops, with a
few straggling churches. But to-day we have temples which
equal any in the Christian world, and, what is more, they are
constantly filled; we have institutions of charity, education
and mercy throughout the land. These are constantly grow-
ing and widening their activities and influence. We are grow-
ing apace, so that we are reckoned with as one of the greatest
332
WOMEN IN SCIENCE 333
— if not the greatest — social factors in good government and
conservative progress in this fair land of ours.
The graduates of Catholic schools and colleges, viewing the
moral, material and spiritual progress made by their Church
in these United States, can take heart for this century of
hastening progress, and claim their own, as part of the edu-
cated and intellectual world. In doing so, it will be no new
thing ; they will be merely coming into their own again.
I wonder if the graduates here recognize the magnificent
record of educated and intellectual women in the history of
the Church and its activities. Of course, we all know the
sainted women commemorated on the altar and enshrined in
legend, but it is not often that we recall the others who were
renowned for their intellectual abilities, as well as the fact
that it was only in Catholic countries and under Catholic rule
that women kept up their intellectual development to the ut-
most. Our expansion and revival of women's colleges in the
latter part of the nineteenth century is not so new as we think.
In the early Christian Rome, of the time of St. Jerome,
there was the famous Ecclesia Domestica, upon the Aventine
Hill. It was one of the earliest conventual homes, in which
were gathered some of the most noble and learned women of
the day. There were the learned Marcella, and her compan-
ions, Paula and her daughter, Eustochium. These women
were not only acquainted with the Latin and Greek literature
and philosophy, but became proficient in Hebrew and deeply
versed in the Scriptures. They assisted St. Jerome in his
translation of the Bible, which we call the Vulgate. In one
of his letters he submitted his version of the Books of Kings to
them for criticism, and accepted some modifications which they
suggested.
Not only did the Vulgate version of the Bible have the as-
sistance and criticism of these women in its making, but the
Book of Psalms, recited in the daily offices of the Church, is
for the most part the work of Paula and her daughter, Eusto-
chium. St. Jerome dedicated some of his works to them, say-
ing: "There are people, O Paula and Eustochium, who take
oflFense at seeing your names at the beginning of my works."
So you see, he appreciated the aid of women, even in those
early days, and the sisters around you, whenever they repeat
the office, renew their monumental work.
334 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
It was the noble women of the conventual institutions who
kept alive the flame of learning throughout the ages of the
Church. Women throughout all the ages, from the fall of
the Roman Empire to the time of the so-called Reformation,
were taught exactly as men were, the same books, the same
branches of learning and the same intellectual acquirements.
They did good solid work in the convents, exactly as their
brothers did in cloister or college.
Practically the only schools for girls during the Middle
Ages were the convents. Here were educated rich and poor,
gentle and simple. Here they were free from the annoyances
and dangers which menaced them often in their own homes
and prevented their study.
Among the great educators of the early Saxon times was
the Abbess St. Hilda, of the Convent of Whitby. Her con-
vent was known as a centre of learning and culture. She was
the one who discovered the poetical gifts of the poet Csedmon.
Although he was a serf and a keeper of the cows in the fields,
she had him taught to read and developed his wonderful gifts.
It was this Northumbrian cow-herd, transformed into a monk,
who sang the revolt of Satan and Paradise Lost a thousand
years earlier than Milton.
There was also the famous nun of Gandersheim, in middle
Germany, the Abbess Hroswitha, who lived in 930. She was
novelist, dramatist and critic. Her dramatic compositions
are best known, and how good they were is shown by the fact
that Ellen Terry two years ago scored a success in one of them
in London. I can bear personal witness to the brilliant Latin
dialogue of a few of them. She put the most modest apology
to her works for a nun turned author: "Let those who are
not pleased with this work remember that it pleased her who
wrote it."
And there was Hildegard, the Abbess of St. Rupert, at
Bingen-on-the-Rhine, who lived during the early Crusades.
Her works on theology. Scripture and science make up six
large octavo volumes. Herrad, the Superior of Hohenburg,
in Alsace, had the widest knowledge, and wrote her famous
book, "Hortus Deliciarum," or "Garden of Delights," one of
the first encyclopedias of the Middle Ages, which was illus-
trated by innumerable illuminated miniatures. It is a picture
WOMEN IN SCIENCE 335
of the knowledge and arts of her time that cannot be sur-
passed.
A non-Catholic writer, Mrs. Putnam, says of this period of
woman's culture :
"No institution of Europe has ever won for woman the free-
dom and development that she enjoyed in the convent in early
days. The modern college for women only feebly reproduces
it, since the college for women has arisen at a time when col-
leges in general are under a cloud. The lady-abbess, on the
other hand, was part of the two great social forces, feudalism
and the Church. She was treated as an equal by men of her
class, as witnessed by the letters we have from Popes and em-
perors. She had the stimulus of competition with men in
executive capacity, in scholarship, and in artistic production,
since her work was freely set before the general public."
And this continued down to the time of the religious up-
heaval which we know as the Reformation. Then convents
were closed and often destroyed, their revenue suppressed and
the nuns driven from the land. And so the education of
women came to an end. A writer, describing the effects of
the dissolution of the monasteries and convents, says : "The
destruction by Henry VIII of the conventual schools, where
the female population, the rich, as well as the poor, found
their only teachers, was the absolute extinction of any syste-
matic education of women for a long period."
The strangest and saddest result of the suppression of the
convents was that men profited by the loss which women sus-
tained. Thus the nunnery of St. Radegunde, with its revenues
and possessions, went to found another college at Oxford,
while the convents of Bromhall and Lillechurch went to found
another at Cambridge. In a few short years the great work
of centuries for women was undone, and women were left
little better educational facilities than when the Anglo-Saxon
nuns first began their work. During the reign of Queen
Elizabeth not a school was founded for the education of
women. And the same spirit was shown throughout English
history. The public schools of Boston, founded by the Puri-
tans in 1642, were not open to girls until a century and a half
later, and then for merely the elementary branches and for but
a half year. Girls did not have the benefit of a high school
33^ ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
education in New England generally until as late as 1852 ; and
altogether the attitude was against their education.
On the other hand, in Catholic countries there were no re-
strictions upon the higher education of women. Bettina Goz-
zadini occupied a professorship of law at the University of
Bologna, in 1236, and Novilla d'Andrea often acted as a sub-
stitute for her father, a professor of canon law at the same
university. Shakespeare makes Portia a lawyer in Venice.
Dorotea Bucca lectured on medicine at Bologna ; Laura Cer-
retti gave lectures on philosophy. Fulvia Olympia Morati was
professor of Greek and Latin literature, and called from Italy
to the chair of Greek literature at Heidelberg University.
In Spain, Beatriz Galindo was a professor of rhetoric at
the University of Salamanca in the time of Ferdinand and
Isabella ; Francisca de Lebrixa, professor of history and
rhetoric in the University of Alcala, and Isabella Losa, of
Cordova, taught Greek and Hebrew.
One of the great mathematicians of Italy was Maria Gaetana
Agnesi, who was born in Milan, in 1718, and died there at eigh-
ty-one years of age. Her monumental work was "Le institu-
zioni Analitiche" — a treatise in two large volumes on differ-
ential and integral calculus. Pope Benedict XIV paid her sig-
nal honor. He caused her, of his own accord, to be appointed
professor of higher mathematics in the University of Bologna,
but she refused to leave Milan, and became towards the end
of her life a sister of charity devoted to hospital work.
The first woman to occupy a chair of physics in a university
was Laura Maria Bassi. She was born in Bologna, in 171 1,
and besides her native Italian was proficient in Latin and
French. Her knowledge of physics was shown in a public
disputation and demonstration at which Pope Benedict XIV
was present. The University of Bologna not only made her
professor, but coined and presented her with a medal contain-
ing her effigy. She corresponded with nearly all the great
scholars of Europe, and was earnestly besought by Voltaire to
advocate his election to the Academy of Sciences. She was
deeply religious and was as pious as she was intelligent, at-
tending Mass and her church duties with regularity. She was
the mother of twelve children, and never permitted her scien-
tific and literary work to interfere with her domestic duties.
At all times she had firm friends in the Pope and in the Arch-
WOMEN IN SCIENCE 337
bishop of Bologna, both of whom advocated her advancement.
In Salerno, Giovanna Trotula was professor of medicine at
the University in the Middle Ages, and wrote a work upon the
diseases of women, even yet referred to ; while Francesca Ro-
mana, of the same place, became one of the greatest physicians
and surgeons of the fourteenth century. There was no prohi-
bition against women attaining eminence in the medical or
surgical world in Catholic Italy, as is curiously shown by a
decree of Pope Sixtus IV, saying that : "No man or woman,
whether Christian or Jew, shall presume to treat the human
body, unless a master or licentiate in medicine." {Nemo, mas-
culiis aut foemina, &c.)
Maria dalle Donne, of peasant birth, gained the degree of
Doctor of Medicine, summa cum laude, in the University of
Bologna, and became a professor in the University, holding
her chair there until she died, in 1842. Yet Miss Elizabeth
Blackwell, here in America, some seven years after the death
of Maria dalle Donne, desired to study medicine and applied
in vain to nearly one dozen American medical institutions,
which refused to take her as a student. Finally she was re-
ceived, nearly eight years afterwards, by a small college in
Geneva, N. Y. In Great Britain, every medical institution re-
fused to receive Miss Sophia Blake as a student, and when
she finally obtained admission to the University of Edinburgh,
the students mobbed her. A half-dozen young Irishmen
among the students came to her rescue, and afterwards be-
came her bodyguard, escorting her to and from lectures. This
is how women students, seekers after higher education, have
been treated in their search for knowledge, in lands not under
the genial and progressive traditions of the Catholic Church.
With these examples before you, and I could give you many
more, you will see that you are only coming, as Catholic
women, once more into your own heritage. The expansion of
education for women is after all only a return to the condition
of things as it existed before the breaking away of the nations
from the Faith.
It therefore behooves you, as the graduates of this College,
to see that you avail yourself of your return to the proper
realm of educated womanhood. You will have to work hard
to do so. You remember the definition of genius which is
attributed to Edison. He is credited with saying that "genius
338 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
is five per cent inspiration and ninety-five per cent perspira-
tion." In other words, no matter what God-given gifts you
may possess, you must work terribly hard to get the most out
of them. Work and incessant work at an idea or a theory,
is the only way to develop it or to develop yourself. Careful
and exact work is the greatest thing needed in the world to-
day, and you ought to take your share in it.
There is much for the educated woman to do in the field of
sociology, philanthropy and good government. Most of the
writers and experimenters of to-day leave out of their calcu-
lations in these spheres the influence and power of religion.
Their ideas for the betterment of the world make a creedless,
prayerless and almost beliefless reconstruction of the relation
of man to his fellow-man. They aim to have statistics, eco-
nomics and the card-index take the place of faith, hope and
charity. It may be within your province to illumine all these
questions by showing the true position and the teaching of the
Church regarding them. At any rate, you have a noble equip-
ment with which to go forth into the world, and to take your
place among the workers and scholars in the myriad ways
which the field of knowledge opens up to you.
You have the opportunity in this twentieth century to renew
again the magnificent showing which Catholic women schol-
ars, teachers and professors made in the past. You can rise
to as great eminence as they ; in doing so you will be only liv-
ing up to the great traditions of your history ; and there is now
no barrier here to forbid you doing so, for in this latest of
centuries woman has had again thrown open to her the oppor-
tunity of learning and achievement which she always enjoyed
under Catholic auspices. That the class of 1914 may do so,
and that its success may inspire coming classes to emulate
and surpass it, is my fervent wish for you as graduates of this
College.
May every one of you attain a success of which Catholic
womanhood may well be proud.
ADDRESS TO THE GRADUATES OF
THE COLLEGE OF NEW
ROCHELLE, 1911
IT is with much diffidence that I presume to address so
many young ladies invested with the degree which marks
their separation from college life. My own graduation
still stands out so clearly before me that I hardly believe that
I am in that fit perspective from which I could safely address
words of salutary instruction to others who have assumed the
hood and received the diploma. When a scholar steps forth
from the college halls to take up her position either in the
world of learning or in that busier world of every-day life, it
is with a triumphant feeling somewhat akin to conquest. One
exults almost as in the winning of a hard-fought game of ath-
letic skill, in the feeling of mastery achieved over difficult and
abstruse subjects. With the feeling that the goal has been
reached, it seems almost as though it were a misnomer — even
a mockery — to call it a "Commencement," when in reality you
have finished your course and reached the goal of study aimed
at for four long years. And when the parting comes during
this week it seems an ending after all. What does it matter
that learned philologists tell us that it is really a "Commence-
ment" — that you commence to be persons of degree and begin
to take upon yourselves the honors of the learned world — yet
down in your hearts you look upon it as the end and the cul-
mination of your college life. But while it rings down the
curtain upon the old familiar scenes, it is really the awaken-
ing to a newer and a broader life in the realm of letters and
learning.
And so the day of such conquest has come to each of you
in turn, and as the young women of the Class of 191 1, who
have done your duty faithfully, you must now put your studies
to active use and pursue still further the roads upon which
you have entered in the kingdom of knowledge. If you did
not do this, you would be untrue to the traditions of your col-
339
340 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
lege and the earnest teaching of your professors. There is an
obvious mission for the CathoHc college woman in the world,
even aside from her womanly duties and such vocation as she
may embrace. Her womanhood should be exulted in, and its
cultivation be the crowning thought and glory of her life. But
as she has received the light, so also should she dispense the
light around her path throughout the world. You are, even
more than the Vestal Virgins of ancient Rome, the keepers of
the sacred fire, and you should ever guard that fire of learning
and faith and see to it that its flames mount ever higher and
higher. As you have received from your Alma Mater, so
should you in turn give to others.
This very fact forbids you as graduates to stand still.
Simply that you have arrived at this day of triumph does not
mean that you should put any brake upon your forward move-
ment. I do not believe that one of you would for a moment
rest content to be merely satisfied in an easy, caressing manner
with the Baccalaureate degree, as though it were a particular
gem or curio, and therefore a sufficient possession for all time.
It must be turned to advantage, it must be added to, and it
must be made useful to the possessor and to those around her.
As I have said, I believe there is an obvious mission for the
Catholic college woman, and I believe that just now the field
for the exercise of that mission looms larger than ever before.
It is particularly so, because just now there are, comparatively
speaking, so few Catholic college women, and so many places
where their learning and their womanhood combined can be
displayed to such advantage.
Just now we are in the expansive age of the Church in the
United States, and it is precisely in this age that there is so
much. constructive work for them to do. It is in this niche of
the great fabric of the Church where they can nowadays fit-
tingly place themselves with the happiest results.
Consider for a moment just what the history of the Church
in these United States has been within the more than a cen-
tury and a quarter of its active and actual existence. Begin-
ning at the close of the eighteenth century with a handful of
clergy and a few thousand of the laity — misunderstood, pos-
sessing but the most meager of civic rights, without learning,
position or wealth among their members, save a great name
here and there — they struggled on through difficulty and op-
NEW ROCHELLE ADDRESS 341
position. Then, note the rise through the nineteenth century
to the present time. In the earUer part of the last century the
almost starving Irish, untrained and unlettered, came as ex-
ponents of an already depreciated, if not despised, form of
faith ; and cultured opponents of Catholicity pointed to them
with their peasant habits and general ignorance, as samples of
what the Catholic Church brought forth in lands where her
doctrines reigned supreme. Then there were no splendid temples
here in which Our Lord was worshipped on resplendent altars
and where music, painting and sculpture might show forth to
the most listless observer the culture with which the Catholic
Church had always surrounded Him. Nay, even the worship-
pers themselves were far from edifying in those earlier days.
Congregations and churches defied both priest and bishop, and
scandals broke out sometimes upon the smallest provocation.
It seemed to justify everything that our opponents could in-
vent to fling at us, and it was succeeded by the first attempts
of an active, bitter persecution. Conceive if you can now-
adays, an unlettered, poverty-stricken, hard-working minority,
persecuted throughout these Atlantic States by those who
thought they were doing their country service in suppressing
— if not oppressing — the adherents of the oldest faith in the
Christian world. Perhaps it only needed a touch of persecu-
tion to weld the Catholic body closer together and to bring
them in better alignment with their spiritual superiors. At any
rate, they made marvelous progress. The century just passed
is a hundred years of glory. Churches, the peers of any in
Christendom, have sprung up all over the land; schools and
colleges (such as this one wherein I speak) have banished
the unlettered ignorance of the people and have intensified
their faith; institutions of mercy and charity on every hand
have shown the Catholic heart to be the peer, if not the su-
perior, of any others in this broad land. To-day at least we
are coming into our own, and the magnificent Universal
Church of God has put on here in this land of freedom the
robes of brightness and glory that belong to her as the Bride
of Christ and the heir of the ages, so as to be known and
acknowledged of all men.
Along with it has come the falling away of the many shackles
which stood between Catholics and their civic rights. State
after State amended their constitutions until now there is no
342 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
longer upon any statute book anything to prevent a growth to
our full stature as free men of this great country. As the
heavy mists fade out before the glowing rays of the rising
sun, each age-long relic of prejudice and hatred dissolves into
nothingness, and the American who professes the Catholic
Faith has at last become in every sense the peer of his fellow-
man.
This was not all accomplished suddenly or without toil and
struggle. It was not due particularly to the native recognition
of the fellow-man or woman of a different creed. Otherwise
the path onward and forward would not have been so thorny.
It was due to the persistent influx of a Catholic people, who,
amid all the stress and struggle, kept true to the direction
pointed by their Faith, and who by their earnestness and single-
heartedness won recognition for themselves among their fel-
low-citizens. We have impressed upon our fellow-men of
other faiths, or of no faith at all, that we Catholics intend to
be whole-souled and energetic members of this Commonwealth
and still greater land, that we intend to march in the van of
all that is to the interest of State and people, and that we
declare boldly our faith in this land and its people, in its insti-
tutions and its progress, and in it as the everlasting witness
of the watchfulness of God Almighty over the destinies of
man.
The blossoming out of our Church and people in this great
Republic of the West has been a miracle of grace and an "ex-
altation of them of low degree." When we contrast the posi-
tion now with the position one hundred years ago, or even
later than that, our hearts must go up to God with feel-
ings of gratitude. But our task is not finished, such a glorious
reminiscence is but the "commencement," just as yours is to-
day. Here is where our work must begin ; here is where we
must make strong the glorious beginnings I have but recited.
If the past century was one of growth, one of foundation and
of establishment, so must the coming century be one of ex-
pansion and of achievement. If our fathers could do so much
with such slender materials, what ought we not do with the
wealth of mental, educational and material development which
we have at hand?
It is precisely at this point that the mission of the Catho-
lic college woman comes into play. Remember that all this
NEW ROCHELLE ADDRESS 343
growth of the past century was made without the material,
intellectual and moral assistance which a keen, alert and splen-
didly educated womanhood could have given. I do not intend
to underrate the magnificent qualities and services rendered
by the members of the devoted sisterhoods whose efforts in the
past made possible the founding of colleges like this. At any
rate, they were in the minority among a vast lay womanhood
whose strong weapons were their prayers and their unswerv-
ing Faith. But now that we have the college woman, her
field of duty — aside from her direct duty to herself and her
family — lies straight before her. She can make the future
even more glorious than the past. Her mental equipment, her
training and her environment render her capable of doing so.
When a young woman goes forth from a Catholic college,
where the Faith has been taught as well as the binomial theo-
rem or conic sections, where physics and Christian ethics have
not been kept apart, where the Latin of Cicero has been min-
gled with the Latin of liturgy, where prayer and devotion have
been as usual as study and recitation, she is apt to find a some-
what cynical learned world around her. It will not be an anti-
Catholic atmosphere — nothing hardly so impolite as that — for
one must, you know, in these days of culture and appreciation,
readily acknowledge the vast treasures of art, music and beauty
which the Church created and fostered, but it will be an un-
Catholic atmosphere varying all the way from doubt to amused
pity. It will be somewhat akin to an expression which might
be used if one were suddenly to find an enthusiast who believed
in the ancient heathen gods of Greece and Rome. The ex-
pression will be almost as if one might well admire the classic
statues of antiquity and glory in them, but pity the unfortu-
nate who in these days should render worship to Jupiter, Mars
or Juno, or any of the other gods of Olympus. It is this un-
conscious, half-veiled attitude of mind which will meet the
Catholic girl graduate when she leaves college and mingles
among her equals in academic honors. Sometimes it goes as
far as direct hostility to and malevolent misunderstanding of
our teachings.
You have all heard the story of the Parisian quack doctor,
who, mounted upon a pedestal in the midst of the listening
crowd, was extolling the extraordinary virtues of the remedy
which he offered for sale. After many descriptions of the
344 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
changes wrought by modern medical science, and the cures
effected by discarding the old methods, he concluded one of
his rhapsodies about the ailments of the heart by vehemently
clasping his right side. A bystander cried out: "That's
wrong; the heart is not over there!" But the quack, not a
whit abashed, quickly rejoined: "Vous avez tort; nous avons
change tout cela !" and never admitted his mistake.
It is this attitude of having changed everything in philos-
ophy and science, in ethics and history, in the whole outlook
upon the world, which will meet the Catholic woman graduate
at the very outset. It is this attitude which her learning and
her genius must learn to combat. It is she who must put the
heart back into its right place. She can best employ her tal-
ents in setting things in their true perspective.
And she will find this no easy thing to do. An attitude of
this kind is not frankly hostile to the Church and Church
teachings, and it has no lines drawn up in battle array. There-
fore, it will be all the harder to combat, especially hard from
an intellectual standpoint, because no specific attack is made.
To-day we have arotmd us a neo-paganism, which grows subtly
in the general culture of to-day. It is wholly indifferent to
anything pertaining to the authority of divine revelation. In
its mildest, most innocuous form it takes the shape of the study
of comparative religion, in its most energetic, that of positivism
and monism. It does not waste itself upon the differences of
creeds or dogmatic teachings. They are rather the clothes, so
to speak, worn by the different individuals. But why be the
devotees of fashion at all? Why not be the primitive man and
woman, and let all the elemental passions and forces of human
nature have their play! It is this tendency, touched up and
gilded by a thousand arts of learning which the Catholic col-
lege graduate will find around her in the social and literary
world. They will understand your deep feeling for the "Im-
maculate Conception" of Murillo, or the "Madonna del Sedia"
of Raphael, but they cannot understand your recital of the
rosary or the stations of the cross.
Everywhere the chief teaching of the day will be found to con-
sist of some form of materialism or utilitarianism. Once upon
a time we called a lack of the divine revelation of God to
man and of the sublime knowledge of God, by its Latin name,
"ignorance," and we spoke of a man being saved despite the
NEW ROCHELLE ADDRESS 345
fact he knew not the light, by reason of his invincible ignor-
ance. Nowadays, however, the world has grown lightly proud
of its ignorance of God, and has translated it into the Greek,
and called it "agnosticism." Frequently the term "agnostic"
is heard almost as though it were a term denoting princely
rank.
Being agnostic, the modern disciple of the learned arts cul-
tivates necessarily what is material, and devotes herself to
what is utilitarian. And the same spirit filtering down through
the masses and into the business world puts these two things
frankly to the fore. Once they were seemingly prepared to
accept the views of the Church in regard to sin and the moral-
ity of human acts. Nowadays they are reckoned at their ma-
terial value and dealt with in so far as they can fill a scheme
of general utility. For instance, we were taught that the evil
of crime lay in its sinfulness, but now a leading magazine has
alarming headlines and a telling article upon "The Cost of
Crime." When the merchant or the city budget finds crime
as a liability or a debt in the balance sheet, then crime is very
wrong, indeed. That it imperils immortal souls is a light
thing ; that it puts material pocket-books in danger is a serious
matter. Temperance and right living were taught as virtues
in the old-fashioned manner of the saints; to-day essays are
written upon the "Cost of Disease," and the whole matter is
viewed from the utilitarian standpoint of the book-keeper. In
the end, morality seems to come down to a sort of trial bal-
ance to ascertain just how much wrong-doing will come to in
hard cash.
The same tone of life is shown in that most insistent form
of appeal to us in every place where we may be — the omni-
present advertisement. Take the advertising pages of any
magazine (there are a few exceptions), the posters on wall
and car space, and see how insistently they preach the gospel
of utilitarianism and materialism expressed in money. Even
the institutions of learning, the correspondence schools, the
business colleges, and all those who profess in advertisement
to put cheap and speedy knowledge into action, preach the
single doctrine of gaining more money. Doubtless gainful
occupation is something we should strive for. But it is, after
all, merely a means — and not an end, like these vociferous ad-
vertisements proclaim on every side. In a little while the iron
346 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
will enter the soul, and the ill-trained mind will think in dol-
lars and cents, will become so utilitarian that the only test of
all things will be : "What is there in it for me ; what can I
get out of it for myself?" It is this attitude of mind, perhaps
not so frankly exhibited, which the CathoUc college woman
will meet on leaving the halls where she received her learning.
There is consequently always a need for a lay apostolate of
learning which the college graduate can fill. Young women
who know the position and attitude of the Catholic Church
upon the countless questions of the day, or who have the
means of ascertaining with ease and exactness such attitude,
have a duty cast upon them of championing the truth of what
they have learned. It is incredible that, even from a historical
standpoint, an organization which has lasted for two thou-
sand years, like the Catholic Church, and which has pro-
foundly stamped her impress upon the history, literature, laws
and customs of every civilized people, should be ignored and
misunderstood by those who are not of her. If we were con-
sidering merely the history and art of ancient Egypt, as re-
vealed in the papyrus, the hieroglyphic and the temple, a
scholar would blush not to set aright erroneous impressions
and mistaken ideas if he had the knowledge and the means of
doing so. And a scholar who loved the subject he studied
would be proud to add whatever he could to set human knowl-
edge aright in that regard. If such an attitude can be main-
tained toward a civilization which was dead ages ago, what
shall we say should be the attitude of a Catholic graduate
toward the living, pulsing personality of the Catholic Church
which has dominated the civilization of twenty centuries?
This century is the century of expansion, and you must be
factors in the growth and expansion. Our material growth
as Catholics is approaching a climax, very much as a tree or a
flower assumes its maximum growth. But now has come the
time when the growth of the Church, like that of the tree or
flower, must result in blossom and fruit. Aside from the
spiritual and moral fruits of perfection in God's law, there is
no greater fruit than that of intellectual development. It is to
this task that you, as graduates of this College of New Ro-
chelle, should address yourselves. You are a part of this era
of expansion ; you must have some glorious part in the devel-
opment of this great "City of God" during the present century,
NEW ROCHELLE ADDRESS 347
and must be of those who shall make plain the way to those
who stand intellectually outside the Light which enlighteneth
the world. We say again and again in the Creed: "I believe
in one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church," and we should
prove our Faith by showing to the world, both learned and un-
learned, the beauty, the truth and the Catholicity of that Faith,
and show its adaptation to the twentieth century as fully as
to any century that ever preceded it.
The championship of what you feel and what you have
learned within these walls is not and need not be incompatible
with the other duties in life. The Class of 191 1, and the classes
which will succeed it, have both the knowledge and the tact
to be effective upon the appropriate occasion, and they can go
forth into the world crowned with their scholastic honors,
proud to be of service to their Alma Mater, to their profes-
sors who taught them right thinking and effective expression,
and to the Church whose history they can proudly celebrate,
and whose expansion and acceptance throughout the present
century in this land they can earnestly further and assist.
Thus you will really "commence" to be true citizens in the
realm of letters, for thus you will render the noblest service
to yourselves and to your country.
I wish the Class of 191 1 all success, honor and happiness
in everything they undertake.
ADDRESS TO THE GRADUATES OF
GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, 1911
IN coming before you, after so much has been said, I feel
that in some way I am merely delaying you in the final
event of your scholastic life. You are now eager to be
up and doing, and no one can really say lasting things upon
this day of joyous farewells. When a scholar steps forth from
the college halls to take up his position, either in the world of
learning or in that busier world of everyday life, it is with a
triumphant feeling somewhat akin to conquest. One exults
almost as in the winning of a hard-fought game of athletic
skill with the glorious feeling of mastery achieved over diffi-
cult and abstruse subjects.
With the feeling that the goal has been reached, it seems
almost as though it were a misnomer — perhaps even a mock-
ery — to call it a "Commencement," when in reality you have
finished your course and have reached the goal of study aimed
at for so many years. When the parting from old classmates,
from the familiar scenes around you, comes during this week,
it seems that it is an ending after all. What does it matter
that learned philologists tell us that it is really a *'commence-
ment," that you now commence to be persons of degree and
begin to take on yourselves the honors of the learned world —
for down in your hearts you look upon it as the culmination of
your college life. You say farewell to the old classrooms, the
"Walks," the athletic field, your comrades and professors, and
there is after all a sense of coming to an end instead of be-
ginning. Yet while the day rings down the curtain upon old
scenes, it is really the awakening to a newer and a broader
life in the realm of letters and usefulness.
The day of final conquest has now come to each of you, and
you must now put your studies into active use and pursue
still further the roads upon which you have entered in the
kingdom of knowledge. If you did not do this earnestly and
348
GEORGETOWN ADDRESS 349
faithfully you would be untrue to the traditions of your col-
lege and the teaching of your professors. Your graduation
must be turned to account ; it must be added to and made
useful, both to the possessor and to those around him. The
college man must progress, if anything, somewhat more than
those who have not had his advantages, if his study and his
development are to be of any avail.
A man must, if he is to accomplish anything in this world —
anything beyond the mere necessities of food, raiment and
shelter, and sometimes they mean a multitude of things —
keep true to his ideals, to the high standard which he sets him-
self. Of course, in the hurly-burly, the stress and strain of
life, one is somewhat like a ship in the sea ; a point or so is
lost from the true course of life, but an earnest active mind,
like a careful helmsman, will bring himself back to his true
course again. The motto of Georgetown University,
which is emblazoned on its shield, "utraque unum" — two
blended in one — is like that of this country, a great one.
Perhaps many of us are not aware that the words of this
motto are found in the great Antiphon sung by the Church in
Advent, on December 22, when the cry of eager expectation
is : "O King of the nations, yea, and the desire thereof ; O
Corner Stone, who blendest two in one (qui facis utraque
unum) ; come to save man whom Thou hast made of the dust
of the earth !" It sounds the keynote of all true progress here
on earth ; the blending of the divine with the human ; the
mingling of the spiritual with the material in every effort of
man to go forward. It has not only been the motto of this
University ; it has been the very warp and woof of its teach-
ing. You and I who have just received its degrees can testify
that while it has evoked the mental and intellectual powers of
the mind and has taught us to use all our natural gifts, it has
at the same time never lost sight for a moment of the spiritual
and higher nature that lies within us. It is the educational
blending of the two in one which makes firm the faith of
Georgetown in the sons which she sends forth into the world.
And those sons, as events since the last Commencement have
shown, have been found worthy of the highest places in the
land.
In this twentieth century we have but to look upon the
noble record of the century just closed in order to take heart
350 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
for the century which lies before us. In physical and indus-
trial development, in inventive genius and in mechanical and
scientific discovery, it has surpassed all previous epochs. !•
deed, sometimes we have made so much progress along purely
material lines that we have lost sight of the higher and nobler
side of things. Life cannot be wholly mechanical or material.
Often our inventions and improvements have defeated their
very ends. In the book entitled "Is Mankind Advancing," the
author says :
"Think of the time saved by the telephone, the telegraph,
the typewriter, the cotton and woollen and silk mills, the iron
foundries, the sewing machines, the mowing machines, the
reapers and harvesters, the swift trains, the electric trolleys,
the subways and automobiles, the escalators and elevators!
What a vast volume of time has been saved ! Time that used
to be wasted, now saved for man and put away where moth
doth not corrupt nor thieves break in and steal! There are
seons of it ; time enough to double men's lives. Time enough
to give every human being an abundance of leisure. An indus-
trial revolution, the miracles of modern machinery, millions of
brains are directed upon the problem ; all having for their one
sole object — to save time!
"And what is the result? The result is that men have less
time nowadays than they ever have had since the world be-
gan. What becomes of all the time thus saved? Where does
it go? Except in the rural districts (where there is no ma-
chinery for saving time, but where alone there is any to be
found) every one is pressed for time.
"The leisure which we gain by time-saving machinery seems
almost to be tainted. Like the gambler's winnings, it is seldom
put to any good use, but is soon expended in a hundred hurried
follies.
"A Western farmer, who enjoyed a calm moment at the
close of a busy life, one day reflected upon his past and dis-
covered to his consternation that he had spent his existence in
growing corn to feed hogs, in order to buy more land on which
to grow more corn to raise more hogs on, and so on. Thus we
invent machinery for the purpose of saving time in order to
produce more things and to get there more quickly, in order
to save more time to get more things and to get there more
quickly, and over again, ad infinitum."
GEORGETOWN ADDRESS 35 1
Is this real progress? True, it is piling up more material
things, making huge mathematical results ; but in the end does
the individual man get any more real value out of life than
his fathers did ? Does he, after all his hurry and hustle, awake
any more of the finer and nobler side of life — to say nothing
of the spiritual and moral side — than his predecessor did?
Only so much of our material results as contribute to the
building up of a finer man, a better country, and a more en-
lightened civilization, can be said to be any real progress after
all.
Yet in many respects our progress has been along the best
and noblest lines of human endeavor. We have set among the
nations of the earth a new conception of the functions of gov-
ernment. Before its time, legislatures and courts had been at
best but docile servants of the ruler. Occasionally legislative
bodies had defied the king who could do no wrong, but they
both aHke had overawed and tyrannized the judges who were
to interpret the laws. We embarked upon a new experiment in
government. Thenceforth the legislature was to be independ-
ent of the executive, whilst the courts were to be independent
of both. Laws might be made, but the maker might not exe-
cute them; still less was he to have the power of judging the
citizen under them. Each sphere of government was re-
strained within its own boundary, in order that the citizen
might grow to his full stature as a man. Added to that, we
provided that the State should not enter upon the domain of
religion, but should remain nevertheless its protector and well-
wisher. The success of our experiment in new and untried
government, as exemplified in our history, has been a magnifi-
cent tribute to its excellence and stability. The panorama of
American history, since the United States came into being, is
one of which we can be proud, and one which we must pledge
ourselves to continue in all its excellencies, whilst pruning
away any noxious growths that might seem to threaten it.
Nor is this the only example of progress which appeals to us.
Consider for a moment just what the history of the Catholic
Church in the United States has been within the more than a
century and a quarter of its active existence.
Beginning at the close of the eighteenth century with a
handful of clergy and a few thousand of laity, misunderstood,
possessing but the most meager of civic rights, with no men of
352 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
learning, wealth or position among their members — save a great
name here and there — they struggled on through difficulty and
opposition. Then note the rise through the nineteenth century
to the present time. In the earlier part of the last century, the
almost starving Irish, untrained and unlettered, came as ex-
ponents of an already depreciated, if not despised, form of
faith ; and cuhured opponents pointed to them with their peas-
ant habits and general ignorance as the fruits which the Catho-
lic Church brought forth in the lands where her doctrines
reigned supreme. Then there were no splendid temples here,
in which (3ur Lord was worshipped on resplendent altars, and
where music, painting and sculpture might show forth to the
most listless observer the culture which the Church encouraged.
Even the worshippers themselves were far from edifying in
those earlier days, and dissensions broke out upon small provo-
cation. It seemed to justify whatever our opponents could
invent to fling at us ; and it was succeeded by a short-lived but
active persecution.
Conceive, if you can nowadays, an unlettered, poverty-
stricken, hard-working minority persecuted throughout these
Atlantic States by those who thought they were doing their
country service in suppressing — if not actually oppressing —
and adherents of the oldest Faith in the Christian world. Per-
haps it only needed a touch of persecution to bring the Catho-
lic body closer together, and make them more determined
to succeed. At any rate, they made marvelous progress.
Churches, the peers of any in Christendom, have sprung up all
over the land ; schools, colleges and universities have banished
the unlettered ignorance of the people while intensifying their
faith; institutions of mercy and charity on every hand have
shown their hearts to be as great as any in this broad land.
They have made material and earthly progress equal to any in
the world, but have not forgotten the saving precepts which
sanctified everything which they undertook. The magnificent
statistics gathered by the Government but a short time ago are
an eloquent testimony of that progress. To-day at least, this
great Universal Church of God has put on in this land of free-
dom the robes of brightness and glory which belong to her as
the Bride of Christ and the heir of the ages, so as to be known
and acknowledged of all men.
Such a glorious reminiscence is but a "commencement," ex-
GEORGETOWN ADDRESS 353
actly as yours is to-day. Here is where our work must begin ;
here is where we must make strong the glorious beginnings I
have but recited. If the past century in State, Church and civi-
lization was one of growth, one of foundation and one of estab-
lishment, so must the coming century be one of expansion and
of achievement. If our fathers could do so much with such
slender materials, what ought we not do with the wealth of
mental, educational and material development which we have
at hand?
To-day all around us we have examples of the undue power
and enormous aggregations of wealth, on the one hand, and
the threatened overturn of society and confiscation of the
sources of that wealth, on the other. The gradual mo-
nopoly of the necessaries of life, of the means of transporta-
tion, of even the means of the diffusion of knowledge, threatens
our national life and liberties. On the other hand, a rising tide
of discontent against capital and wealth finds its most outspoken
advocates in socialism and threatens not only our government,
as presently constituted, but the very principles of order upon
which it is founded. In their cry for economic and social re-
form, these advocates would go so far as to destroy the old
landmarks of civilization — religion, the family, and clean liv-
ing. We cannot afford to yield either to the pressure of the
one or to the demands of the other. If progress is to be made,
it must be made along the lines of reconciliation.
When we studied in boyhood our elementary catechism, we
learned as primary truths the commands, "Thou shalt not steal"
and "Thou shalt not covet," and that among the sins which cry
to heaven for vengeance are oppression of the poor and de-
frauding laborers of their wage. On these may be built the
entire economic and political theory of the modern State. All
the material ills which cry for reform are but a variation of
these themes, or of the machinery by which they are exploited.
Those commands point the direction in which the cure must be
sought.
There are no men in these United States upon whom the
task of making straight the tangled paths of human progress
should rest more than upon the college graduates. It is the
noblest aim they can have in life. The entry of large-minded
college men, who know their Faith and love their country, into
354 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
the task of solving these difficulties will be one of the greatest
elements of progress this age can give.
But it can only be done by studying the examples of real
progress made in the past and by intently observing what our
Faith has made essential. It demands clear thinking and clean
living. Things must be put in their true perspective. If the
great needs of life and civic conduct are to be met, as they will
be met, we, as graduates of Georgetown, should stand as a
necessary and important part among those who are to meet
them. In that way we shall be able to contribute our portion
to the progress of the coming century.
THE PROPOSED CATHOLIC
ASSOCIATION
THIS is primarily an association of Catholic gentlemen to
render aid to the Church in a field which has hitherto
been neglected in our American life. We have magnifi-
cent churches, schools and missions, a capable and energetic
priesthood to promote Catholic Faith, devotion and practice
among Catholics themselves, as well as to teach it to others
outside the fold. We have charitable and educational insti-
tutions and societies of every kind, with devoted and untiring
workers, men and women, lay and cleric. We have clubs, so-
cieties and fraternities devoted to Catholic interests, enthusi-
asms and culture, and these are steadily growing everywhere.
But all of these are for Catholics primarily, and, with the ex-
ception of the preaching of the faith and the practice of char-
ity, are not for the world at large. And the world at large so
regards them; the very matters they touch on, the very aims
and objects they profess, are regarded as peculiarly fitted for
the children of the Church and as such fail to arrest the atten-
tion and challenge the interest of others. And, in so much as
we fail in this regard, we fail to take our proper place in public
opinion. It is to correct this, to awaken a regard for the Catho-
lic viewpoint and to arouse a healthy, vigorous and inquiring
public opinion upon things Catholic in the everyday world that
this association has been formed.
We do not intend to trench upon any of the existing Catholic
societies. We rather desire to fill a place which they have not
been able to find time and opportunity to occupy. We will
leave to the clergy and their coadjutors the teaching of faith
and doctrine; we will leave to the charitable societies the task
of caring for the needy ; we will leave to the club and the kin-
dred organizations the development of social and intellectual
interests ; our purpose is to assist them along other and paral-
lel lines.
355
356 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
So much for the proposed association from a negative stand-
point. Now for an outline of the positive work proposed. This
statement is not intended to be a declaration of principles or
a measurement of the boundary lines of our activities or in any
wise limiting what we hope to accomplish. Some of the things
set forth here may be abandoned later, on finding that they are
accomplished better through other channels and other activities.
Other things not even hinted at or even contemplated now may
i'ereafter be taken up by us, if deemed expedient or necessary.
Still larger activities may be presented to us in the future which
cannot now be even foreseen or imagined. Therefore what is
stated here may be regarded as only in a measure the duties
and activities of the proposed Catholic Association.
A word or so of the origin or immediate starting point of
this proposed association may not be out of place. Last year
the so-called Law of Separation of Church and State was put
in operation in France. Its terms were so completely subver-
sive of the constitution of the Church, so bent on making the
Church in France little less than a civil corporation under the
administration of the State, that the bishops, clergy and Catho-
lic people of France could not and would not submit to its
drastic provisions, and preferred to lose their property rather
than surrender their liberty of worship. The American press,
and, in fact, the majority of American publicists, apparently
conceiving that separation in France meant what separation in
America means, took up the side of the French government,
and in the press and on the rostrum poured forth statements
and arguments to the effect that the Church, its priests and
people were in the wrong, and should be considered as engaged
in a movement little less than treasonable to the French Repub-
lic. This was reiterated from day to day and largely influenced
public opinion in America. These statements, however, were
not permitted to go unchallenged. A committee was organized,
on the initiative of the Archbishop, by which preparation was
made for a great popular meeting, in which a fair-minded re-
view of the events in France was presented and a statement
of the attitude and aims of the churchmen of France was set
forth, while the animus and acts of the French government
were contrasted with the real freedom guaranteed by our con-
stitution in this free land. The success of that great meeting
was almost instantaneous in changing American public opinion.
THE PROPOSED CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION 357
The American public saw that there was another side to the
story ; that the facts and figures they had received needed essen-
tial additions, corrections and alterations, and that some were
misstated altogether; many of the best-equipped American
writers warmly espoused the Catholic view, and even those who
were strongly biased moderated in a marked degree their ad-
verse opinions.
It was in preparing for this meeting, in searching out and
obtaining the data and necessary information for the subjects
dwelt upon, in disseminating the news of the meeting and the
results accomplished by it, that the need of such an organiza-
tion as the present proposed association was most strongly felt.
In other words, we realized the need of some sort of a well-
equipped and permanent society, which might present to our
fellow-Americans the true facts and history of any movement,
past or present, with which the Church is or has been identified.
The Church and her doctrines have their defenders, able and
conscientious men, everywhere, but the great American public
outside of the Church is either biased or indififerent to what
manner of constitution or teaching she may have, and seldom
awakens to it except when some sudden occasion arises. If
then a statement in favor of the Church or her activities comes
from a professedly Catholic source it is taken as special plead-
ing, and therefore loses much of its force. Oftentimes a posi-
tive misstatement of the truth and the facts involved is the
only notice the average American receives of Catholic events,
and the matter has passed from his mind before the truth has
been ascertained and the proper statement presented. Yet the
American public, used as it is to political and business discus-
sions, will recognize the value and correctness of a statement,
if it is placed purely and simply upon a basis of justice and
fair play. While it might be indififerent to a special plea, pro-
fessedly Catholic, and therefore fail unintentionally to do jus-
tice, it will respond to an appeal or a statement made upon the
sole ground that it contains the actual facts involved, irrespec-
tive of whether the statement itself is in favor of the Catholic
view or not. In other words, it is the primary standpoint of
the article or statement which arrests the attention of the pub-
lic. If it professes to be something Catholic and to be written
because it is Catholic, the probability is that it will be ignored ;
but if it profess to contain the facts of the case and to give the
358 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
original sources or the exact points involved merely for the
sake of enhghtenment or for the correction of misinformation,
it will produce an impression far greater and lasting and will
be welcomed by all who desire to hear all sides of a question.
It is therefore to meet this want, and other kindred wants, that
we believe a society such as we contemplate to be necessary.
A healthy, appreciative public opinion cannot be formed in a
moment. Assuming, for instance, that we succeeded in remov-
ing many false impressions about the struggle in France and
corrected much erroneous information, it does not mean that
we shall not have to do the work over again to-morrow or the
next day, when a new batch of news comes over the cables, or a
fresh crisis arrives. In the English tradition and literature,
which we in America inherit, bias and prejudice against Catho-
lic principles and Catholic history have been so interwoven that
a distrust or tendency to hasty and adverse judgment on things
Catholic exists in nearly every man who has not either taken
the pains or had the leisure to inform himself about them.
Sometimes malevolence makes such adverse judgment worse.
It becomes, therefore, our duty when the occasion arises, to
lay before our fellow-citizens in America such an array of facts,
information and correct deductions concerning the current civil
and temporal relations of the Church with the nations and peo-
ples of the earth, and particularly in our own country, in a
temperate and dispassionate manner, so that our fellow-Ameri-
cans, even if they do not wholly agree with us, may nevertheless
obtain and disseminate correct news of any event or question
involving the Church. The American public should be as well
informed upon questions touching the Catholic Church and her
duly constituted authorities, as upon the tariff, the railroad, the
currency, or the foreign policy of the United States, or upon
the science, literature and art of the day. And it should be our
duty to supply such information in an appropriate manner,
giving a dignified statement of the facts and principles involved
in the particular case under consideration.
How this may best be accomplished and what particular form
it shall take, is one of the problems confronting us. What we
consider here are the most obvious wants at this particular time
and the means we shall have to use in order to supply them. It
goes without saying that a fair amount of money will be re-
quired to put the association upon its feet and to make it really
THE PROPOSED CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION 359
practical. The ground to be covered is so vast and the need of
exact information so far reaching in many fields, that the ex-
pense will be not inconsiderable. But, assuming that the in-
terest taken in the movement is sufficient to assure the income
needed, the present field of the association can be briefly
sketched.
In order to collect accurate information regarding the pres-
ent status of the Church in European countries, correspondents
must be stationed at, say, London, Paris, Madrid, Vienna, Ber-
lin, and above all, at Rome. Foreign newspapers must be taken
from nearly every large European city, at all events from every
capital and centre of Catholic interest. Facts and exact state-
ments concerning the relations of Catholic societies, clergy,
schools, teaching, etc., must be ascertained and preserved.
Every effort must be made to keep up with the political and
social movements throughout the world, and a sufficient library
bearing on these subjects must be established. A clipping bu-
reau and telegraphic service will be required to facilitate mat-
ters. The net results of such researches and investigations
must be conveyed to the American press by news items, con-
tributed articles, direct corrections of erroneous statements,
and by public addresses, or, where necessary, by authoritative
statements, so that the general public may be kept correctly in-
formed of the progress, attitude and doings of the Catholic
Church abroad and at home, and not have to rely on ill-digested
and sometimes malevolent scraps of news such as now appear
in the papers. Matters of interest to the Church should be fol-
lowed up to their conclusion, so that the public may be made
aware of the outcome. For instance, we were informed re-
cently about Queen Margherita of Italy obtaining land in Rome
for the monks by taking it away from the soldiers, but we are
not told where the land was, under what circumstances it was
taken, whether it originally belonged to the monks, or any of
the essential events connected therewith, except just sufficient
to put the Church in the role of a usurper. Another instance
were the editorials in the "Evening Post" recently, as to the al-
leged hostility between the regular and secular clergy in France.
With an equipped organization we could correct or explain
those matters in time for the next issue of the paper. As it is,
we shall have to await the tardy arrival of letters or news-
papers from abroad.
36o ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
Canards of all kinds in regard to the Church and her clergy
and members in all parts of the world are freely reported in
the press. These could be instantly corrected through such an
organization. Grave calumnies affecting important persons can
be refuted by it. Statements of fact inaccessible to ordinary
readers because of their un familiarity with foreign tongues
and their remoteness from the scene can be readily obtained
through this association. Inquiries for specified purposes and
for special information on particular subjects can likewise be
pursued through its officials and members. Any one here in
New York with limited means of information can thus set in
motion the machinery to obtain exact knowledge upon any one
of the subjects of the day touching the relations of the Church
and churchmen to civil affairs.
The same method can be employed relative to matters ex-
clusively confined to this country. The association could main-
tain correspondents at every important centre in the United
States, and obtain and preserve current reports upon all mat-
ters affecting the interests of the Church. Such matters as
legislation and the trend of public thought affecting the rights
of the Church in the family, the child, the school, secular prop-
erty, the Indians, the poor and afflicted, charitable institutions,
the welfare of Catholics in the army, the navy and the general
government service, can be fully investigated and the results
tabulated and preserved. The relations of the government
with, as well as the internal relations of, our annexed depend-
encies, like Porto Rico, the Philippines, Panama; the rights,
freedom and exercise of the teachings and worship of the
Catholic Church, and its growth and progress in these coun-
tries, can be fully obtained and recorded, as well as all ques-
tions affecting Catholic interests in the United States. Data
and facts thus obtained may be published from time to time in
the public prints, or made the subjects of the lecture platform,
the pulpit and the public meeting, as the case may require, or
brought to the attention of the public in other convenient ways.
The American press is eager to get news. Why not utilize
this great instrument of publicity to disseminate Catholic news,
based upon ascertained and authentic facts, and demonstrate
to the world that Catholics are bending their energies for the
welfare of their country and seeking to establish the Kingdom
of God on earth ? We need not insist that this is the work of
THE PROPOSED CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION 361
the Church, as such, but is the record of the activities of indi-
vidual citizens, or of a body of citizens, vying with their fel-
low-men to better the world and lead it into paths of truth,
honesty and uprightness.
When the need for public action arises, this association may
then take even more energetic measures. When the need
arises, it can awaken public sentiment, arrange for public meet-
ings and gatherings, and present the proper views to the public
in general, or to officials, courts or legislatures, as the case may
require. In truth, there is no limit to its activities and it may
enlist the cooperation of the brightest and most active minds in
its work of enlightening public opinion as to the merits of
Catholic views and Catholic rights in a given case. The suc-
cessful activities of such an association in informing a fair-
minded pubHc of the acts, teachings, principles and aims of the
Catholic Church in civil and temporal affairs, may prepare the
way for that long-wished-for Catholic daily newspaper. This
latter, however, is surely an inspiration for the future, and not
an immediately practical aim of the association, as we are out-
lining its possible activities.
We are not aware probably of the wealth of material at our
command to illustrate the progress, dignity and defense of the
Church. An organization such as we contemplate would bring
it out. The Catholic Encyclopedia surprised and delighted
everybody by its showing of American scholars, both clerics
and laymen, who were versed in the history, doctrine and de-
velopment of the Church. The same thing would without
doubt be experienced here. We do not realize the powers for
good which we can command, or how wide would be the in-
fluence of such a movement. The Church has no longer any
need to apologize for its existence and policy in the United
States : it can now insist that it become as well known in all its
civil relations as the Panama Canal or the Railroad Question,
quite irrespective of its dogmatic teachings or its ecclesiastical
organization, and a succession of daily, weekly and monthly
itemized truths, as well as lengthier statements concerning its
temporal relations, will contribute to place it before the Ameri-
can public without prejudice or bias.
The average American will entertain a finer and heartier
respect for the Church and her institutions the more he knows
of. them, and the less likely will he be to assail or injure them.
362 ANDREW J. SHIPMAN MEMORIAL
It may not, and probably will not, make him a Catholic or
give him a desire to enter the Church. But whatever abates
prejudice, whatever increases appreciation, and whatever
makes the CathoHc, his creed and his manner of life and thought
better known and more highly valued by his fellow-Americans,
should be welcomed and encouraged. For this we commend the
proposed organization, the CathoHc Association, and bespeak
for it the approval and support of all who have the interests of
the Church at heart.
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