Full text of "Message from the President of the United States, transmitting a report of the secretary of agriculture in relation to the forests, rivers and mountains of the southern Appalachian region"

See other formats

pre,
Ve

Pie
oh OO
i

Ne tipab

L525

SNe

5 77H CONGRESS; SENATE. ; DocumMEntT
Ist Session. No. 84.

MESSAGE

FROM THE

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,

TRANSMITTING

A REPCRT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN
RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND
MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN
APPALACHIAN REGION.

DEcEMBER 19, 1901.—Read, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations
and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
es 1902.

Thies ATE oe

57TH CONGRESS, SENATE. | DocuMENT
Ist Session. No. 84.

IMO S) Span Ga,

FROM THE

PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES,

TRANSMITTING

A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN
RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND
MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN
APPALACHIAN REGION,

DecremBeR 19, 1901.—Read, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations
and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
rie a 1902.

IAS IR OW A IR_AIN) SCIAP ah aw,

To the Senate and House of Representatives:

I transmit herewith a report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pre-
pared in collaboration with the Department of the Interior, upon the
forests, rivers, and mountains of the Southern Appalachian region, and
upon its agricultural situation as affected by them. The report of the
Secretary presents the final results of an investigation authorized by
the last Congress. Its conclusions point unmistakably, in the judg-
ment of the Secretary and in my own, to the creation of a national
forest reserve in certain parts of the Southern States. The facts ascer-
tained and here presented deserve the careful consideration of the
Congress; they have already received the full attention of the scientist
and the lumberman. They set forth an economic need of prime impor-
tance to the welfare of the South, and hence to that of the nation as a
whole, and they point to the necessity of protecting through wise use
a@ mountain region whose influence flows far beyond its borders with
the waters of the rivers to which it gives rise.

Among the elevations of the eastern half of the United States the
Southern Appalachians are of paramount interest for geographic,
hydrographic, and forest reasons, and, as a consequence, for economic
reasons as well. These great mountains are old in the history of the
continent which has grown up about them. The hard-wood forests
were born on their slopes and have spread thence over the eastern half
of the continent. More than once in the remote geologic past they
have disappeared before the sea on the east, south, and west, and before
the ice on the north; but here in this Southern Appalachian region
they have lived on to the present day.

Under the varying conditions of soil, elevation, and climate many of
the Appalachian tree species have developed. Hence it is that in this
region occur that marvelous variety and richness of plant growth which
have led our ablest business men and scientists to ask for its preserva-
tion by the Government for the advancement of science and for the
instruction and pleasure of the people of our own and of future genera-
tions. And it is the concentration here of so many valuable species
with such favorable conditions of growth which has led'forest experts

and lumbermen alike to assert that of all the continent this region is
3

4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

best suited to the purposes and plans of a national forest reserve in the
hard-wood region.

The conclusions of the Secretary of Agriculture are summarized as
eons in his report: °

““{. The Southern Appalachian region embraces the highest peaks
and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. It is the great
physiographic feature of the eastern half of the continent. and no
such lofty mountains are covered with hard-wood forests in all North
America.

‘*2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall of the
United States, except that of the North Pacific coast. It is often of
extreme violence, as much as 8 inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31
inches in one month, and 105 inches in a year.

**3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by torrential
rains, rapidly loses first its humus, then its rich upper strata, and finally
is washed in enormous volume into the streams, to bury such of the
fertile lowlands as are not eroded by the floods, to obstruct the rivers,
and to fill up the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now washed
from these cleared mountain-side fields during a single heavy rain than
during centuries under forest cover.

‘*4. The rivers which originate in the Southern Appalachians flow
into or along the edges of every State from Ohio to the Gulf and from
the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Along their courses are agricultural,
water-power, and navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely
essential to the well-being of the nation.

“*5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be accomplished
only by the conservation of the forests.

These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard-wood forests of
the continent. In them species from east and west, from north and
south, mingle in a growth of unparalleled richness and variety. They
contain many species of the first commercial value, and furnish impor-
tant supplies which can not be obtained from any other region.

‘*7. For economic reasons the preservation of these forests is impera-
tive. Their existence in good condition is essential to the prosperity
of the lowlands through which their waters run. Maintained in pro-
ductive condition they will supply indispensable materials, which must
fail without them. Their management under practical and conservya-
tive forestry will sustain and increase the resources of this region and
of the nation at large, will serve as an invaluable object lesson in the
advantages and practicability of forest preservation by use, and will
soon be self-supporting from the sale of timber.

“8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appalachian region
must be protected and preserved. To that end the preservation of
the forests is an indispensable condition, which will lead not to the
reduction but to the increase of the yield of agricultural products.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 5

‘©9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this forest destruc
tion continues, will increase in frequency and violence and in the
extent of their damages, both within this region and across the bor-
dering States. The extent of these damages, like those from the wash-
ing of the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with perfect
accuracy, but during the present year alone the total has approximated
$10,000,000, a sum sufficient to purchase the entire area recom-
mended for the proposed reserve. But this loss can not be estimated
in money value alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of
conditions most valuable to the nation, and which neither skill nor
wealth can restore.

“10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and of the
agricultural interests here described can be successfully accomplished
only by the purchase and creation of a national forest reserve. The
States of the Southern Appalachian region own little or no land, and
their revenues are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action
is obviously necessary, is fully justified by reasons of public necessity,
and may be expected to have most fortunate results.”

With these conclusions I fully agree; and I heartily commend this
measure to the favorable consideration of the Congress.

THEODORE ROOSEVELT.

Wuirrt House,

December 19, 1901.

a ae

}

ay
:

CONE INTS.

Report of the Secretary, of Agricultures sesame eee eee see eee eee ee

Naturejandiextentiof thisimvestigation=sss=ss=eseeee sees ceeeecee sree
herp palachianyresgl ome seers eee ee ere aloes oe mctoels
ihe} Southern—appalachiankresio ny = saa see eee ee eee eee ees
ihetSouthernvAppalachiang Tountains ss =eeeeeee eee ee eee eeeseetensee
MES fOnests = see esses eieito.s Scere este Cee ee cect ee See wie cise crenata
Forest clearing and agriculture in the Southern Appalachians. ---....----
Horesticlearings athe miversandstloOdsasseeeee eee eeeeeeeeeee ee eeeeenee
The climate of the Southern Appalachians ---..--..-.-.-----.-----------
IslONY CAM WHEE) HOMES) |S ORESSIAICEL. « -S ae seeccssacensoucscecesuscdooese
Conditions of purchase and management. --...--..-...----.1-----------
Conclusions! pases eeean comes Heeb esis ios epoca stents suetioe Seekers

AppEeNnpIx A.—Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern

PAv Daa CIn an Stee pers een minis ae ee hated aera EA eas Ber

Description of the forests and forest conditions by mountain groups. .-----
HorestsrofatherB luewnid &e same seetem aaa we ciseeeee erect seen s ee
Forests of the White Top Mountain region.........---.--.--....-..
Forests of Roan, Grandfather, and the Black mountains --_......--.
Forests of the central interior mountain ridges. ........-..----------
Forests of the Great Smoky Mountains. ----....-.-.--..------------
Forests of the southern end of the Appalachians.--.-.....-.--------
Changes in forest conditions of the Southerr Appalachians .........-----
Forests cleared for farming purposes ...-.--.-----------------------
Horestspnjuredibyanreses-eeee seems cee ee aa ceeeeee beasweeouee
Lumbering in the Southern Appalachians now and under Government
@yna@slani Ayal PPA AMINOM .oncos cooasncooncondeccoccn cubscoccooeoe
Application of conservative forest methods to this region by the Govern-
Mentgprach cableandypnronitay)] Ceemeseeeeee eee ese se eee eee eae
Some evils of the present system of lumbering ----..----..-------------
Recent lumbering methods more profitable, but also destructive. -.-..----
Objects and policy of forest management under Government ownership- -
Improvement in general forest policy necessary...---.------------------
Considerations that should govern in the management of the proposed
fOTeStixeSselnVye reer oan cise See eel ae Sebago Saate eles wanceaseeccaate
Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins ---..----
INC WAR ere Basins -ciaace meee sce ee easioe eae eae enue tae Soe ee ee
SouthyBonkwoteElolstoneRiveribasimeeeseeee= eee sees eee eee
WratauraiRivertBasing jones ane ccc .cee ac toacicietee cctele batearsterticieates
INGlichucky, River! Basiny sess ner ea = ree essen se eee ee ee eee eee er
Hrenchybroadeniv ery basineeret er seee eee eer eer eee cere aes eae
IBioshicconwRiver basilinssase ements seme mar aia: cavers siaieteisiel te erase
Northwestern slope of Smoky Mountains...-.---...--.--------+----
ittle Mennesseey River Basin sass sere ences cine os ose elo niseecis ae

8 CONTENTS.

Apprnpix A.—Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern
Appalachians—Continued.

Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins— Continued.
HMiwassee-River! Basin 225.5252 52 as saseeae eee eis sees aisiieee
Mallulah-Chattoogaykiverntbasinisse=—eee eset eeeeeeeeeee = esse eeeeere
Toxaway River Basins. {epics scat eeeel eee an meee ee See aeees
Saluda River Basin}. 22222 J:0Se.cec ses eee e eee Gere eee ose
Hirstiand!Second Broad:River Basinger e see eee eee eee
Catawibaykiive rib asinie ane = sree aee eee eee eee eae eee eee
Yadkin (River!Basin:2). 5222 ose oes see eee eee eee een aees

Trees\ofithe|SouthernvAppalachians\=-seeeeeeeee eee seen eee eee eee ee

List of shrubs growing in the Southern Appalachians ...-.-...----------

Apprnpix B.—Topography and geology of the Southern Appalachians - ------

Thesmountain' systems: 22s-s5222oo se eee cee oa eee eeeeee eee

Dherrivenisystems pees ses ceeee cece eee eee eee ee Cee eee

Chimaticieaturesiinithenountaingiseee tees eee eee reese eee eeeeeeeees

Dheyeeolocicitormationsisese = eeee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee

Relationtofsrocksitorsuntaceeeeseeeeree seer eee aera eee eee eee eae

Protection ‘of thessoils;. oss seo se eae sees eee sae eee eee

AppENDIx C.—Report on the hydrography of the Southern Appalachians. - ---
physiographic featuresiofithesrerloneeee see eer ee esas eee eae eee

Mhemaintal and un-offinethishresioneses sees ae eee eee ease aan eee

Stream flow in the region and its measurement...........-.------------

~ Value of these mountain streams for water-power purposes. ----.--------
AppEenpIx D.—Report on the climate of the Southern Appalachians -.-------
Apprenpix E.—Report on the present status of the movement for the proposed
AppalachianvhionestyReseny ee eerste eee eee ee tee rece eee eee ee ene
Memorials and resolutions favoring the proposed Appalachian Forest

IR Esenyeuere seuecits seas wee ee ee esee eA ee Sars hela rays obeys
Memorial of the Appalachian Mountain Club ..--..-.--------------
Memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association -.....------
Resolution of the American Association for the Advancement of

SGI ICC Seah ES ACUr ne Sane Han Gane ar OSE HESHaH SoD aSounaSeaaaacs
Resolution of the American Forestry Association .......------------
Resolution of National Board of Trade ....--.----------------------
Resolutions passed by other boards of trade........---.------------
Preliminary report of the Secretary of Agriculture on the forests of the
Southern Appalachian region, January 3, 1901 ...-.-....-------------
Report on the creation of the Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve by
the Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of
Game eHebruanyl2 e190 lee ee eet eee see eee eee ere asec
Resolutions and acts by the legislatures of States whose territory otisndl
into the region of the proposed forest reserve. .....-------------------
Wirginial ees eee see ey oe at ee es ee see eee renee

North Carolina.....-.-.-- Fad oe noe ei aie Sine SS OE ee eee te ets

MNS ROE ooo dooce saed acodanaubuoneobaoooosaaeoosoudsenudaccoucs

South Carolina ee = eee en eeeseec ee eee eee esate a aace

(6210) 9 Eppa apace Cop RaC a SaSiROE ana sose cuba ghooddcoseoosobocadoEsas

The press and the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve -..-..--.-----------

Page.

PLATE Tl,

X.
Yl
XII.
XIII.
XIV.

4 OY
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.

Y XIX.
XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

' XXIV.

LIL STOR A TONS.

(a) Land erosion on the cleared slopes of the Southern Appa-
lachian Mountains. (b) Flood destruction of an Appalachian
moun taimnvall eye eee ase ase ee Nae e ese era ce Sees eee ceiacacc

. Relief map of the United States, showing location of the national

TOLESHTESCECS Se se eae ee a sete epee ener oet cee reece
(a) Valley of Virginia. (b) Piedmont Plateau in Virginia. -----
Relief map of the Southern Appalachian region, showing the dis-

LRN UNAM Oe WAS HAO WIOUCNDA 3 do55 doccudssouneesodousesdascos

a DoewRiverxGorgerhennessee Sc sme) sie eee ee eee ecieene

Panorama from Grandfather Mountain, typical of Appalachian
IVOUMTAIN SE eee sete sea cls en nine een te a ays emaiocte

. Grandfather Mountain, showing sharp, rugged peak surrounded

byghard-woodstorestsiaee ere Eee ee eeeee reese erent aee earn eee
(a) Bald of Big Yellow Mountain. (b) Welchs Bald in the
Greats molkys\lountains=eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeeeerereeee

, (a) The southern end of the Appalachian Mountains near Car-
“" tersville, Ga. (b) A mountain valley, northern Georgia-__..-

Cesarspicads souuhi Carolinas sss nearer eee ener ree eee aaee
Whiteside Mountain, southeast profile...............-----.----
Map of the Southern Appalachian region, showing forest area
under consideration and hydrographic gaging stations -.-.----
An original Appalachian Mountain forest........--------------
Mixedthard-woodiandspineiorests-— sae ee asses eee eee eee
Sprucemorests;atihi chvelevatlons=ssee=esseeeaen eee sees eee=
The tops of the Black Mountains (colored) ..-..-.....---------
Panorama showing the unbroken forest of the Great Smoky
Mountains ee aesee sas See eine sien eee Se ciesistcecee se beens
Forest clearings for farming on the Southern Appalachian Moun-
CATT SPs ey araye era foyar ares Slee cys nie SSRIS Eelam eine ae as emia Seca aeeane
Soma Wouiayenin, mee AW, Cho ccoscoscossoccugsuseeessoees
(a) Newly cleared mountain field planted in corn. (b) Recently
cleared field impoverished and abandoned ---....------------
(a) Badly washed mountain field. (b) Mountain field com-
pletelyeruimed oe ese eee one dace eine at eossaccmpenae
(a) Washing of grass-covered soil, top of Roan Mountain.
(b) Washing of abandoned pasture field -.-.......-----.-----
(a) Unwashed valley lands surrounded by forest-covered moun-
tains. (b) Badly washed mountain valley lands..--.--------
(a) Valley lands badly washed by recent floods and abandoned.
(b) Valley lands completely ruined by floods -.-.-...-..---.--

Page.

PLATE XXV.

XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXII.
XXXIV.
XOX -

XXXVI.

/ XXXVIL.
Y XXXVI.
Y XOXOXTEX:

V XL.
XLI.

XLII.
y XLII.

XLIV.
XLV.

DONA
XLVII.

XLVITI.
XLIX.

L.
LI.

LIL.
LILI.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Water-power development and cotton mills at Columbus, Ga-.
(a) Water power at Pelzer, S.C. (b) Water power at Colum-
| OTE rat Bis © ee a rs EE eh ie
Cascades near head of Catawba River.....----.-----.--------
Mallulahwhalls\Georgiadieeseee ses sees ese eee eee eee eee eee
Forest-covered slopes of Linville Gorge
Forest regulating the flow of streams -.......-.-...----------
(a) A spring on southern slope of Mount Mitchell. (b) A
mountain roo kee So ee ee ee say eevee eee arey ees
(a) Landslide stopped by the forest, north slope of Roan
Mountain. (b) Small landslide at a spot where no large
treesswere crowinen snes. eae eee eee ee eee ee rere eee
Large tree growing in mountain ravine ...--..--..-----------
Flood damages on Catawba River: (a) Soil removed and white
sand spread over the surface. (b) Layer of sand spread over
the soillipya,floodie= ss see os seen eee eles
(a) Flood damages in West Virginia. (b) Débris from floods
on Nolichucky River, Hast Tennessee..-...----------------
(a) Flood damages to railway on Doe River, Tennessee. (b)
Flood damages to railway on Nolichucky River, East Ten-

Geuirg pee re eal cranny stench nena aye cre enuyey al ce
(a) Slightly culled mixed forest. (b) White pine forest ex-
cessively culled 3S. 5/2264 aceon ee eciec ose emi teeeeceseaciae
(a) Wagon loaded with logs en route for the sawmill. (b)
Wagon loaded with lumber en route for the railway station -
Spruce forest near summit of White Top, Virginia.......-----
Forests on the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge, about Mount
RO RAW AY isos a Soaee sos Os ere Orc secre Meme eens estan
Forests on the walls of Nantahala Gorge ........-------------
Forests about the southeastern slopes of the Great Smoky
Mountains, between cross ridges .._-.---------------------
Big chestnut trees, from the base of the Great Smoky Moun-
PAIS) 5). <coe hs hcysave terms ete ae esioe cies eee Soe ee eee eens
Forests on the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains,
RablepRockwsouthyCarolinagseer ere cere see sere eee eee.
Damages from forest fires in killing trees and undergrowth- ---
Damages from forest fires: (a) Injured base of pine tree.
(b) Sprouts from base of a fire-killed oak -..-....------.----
(a) Granite knob from which the forest, and later the soil, has
been removed. (b) Humus and undergrowth destroyed by
fire; soil washed from rock by. rain.......-.---.-----------
(a) Destruction of forest on mountain ridges for pasturing pur-
poses. (b) Corn planted between girdled trees on the
mountaimenidgestsae - sls, vats jesse eee eres eee teers
(a) Mill in the mountains; waste in sawing. (b) Tops left
among theitreessin) logging ms ss seeesee ee eens eee
(a) Sawing large timber at a small mill in the woods. (b)
Binding poplar lumber for export ...--...-------------.---
Timber which should have been culled long ago.-..--.--.--.--
Forest destruction along the snaking trail.....-....-.--------

Page.

48
48

52
52

54
56

56
62
62

64
64

Y Prats LIV.
NYE

LVI.

LVII.

¥ LVIII.
LIX.
LX.
LXI.

v LXIl.
. LXIII.
LXIV.
LXY.
ILO
LX VII.

Y LX VIII.
LXIX.
LXX.

¥ LXXtI.
LXXII.

v DXSXTT.
( LXXIV.

LEXY.

Vv LXXVI.

~ LXXVITI.
LXXVIII.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Reproduction of hard-wood forest -....---.--------------------
Reproduction of white-pine forest -....-...-..-----------------
Panorama of the Blue Ridge and southern end of the Black Moun-

taiMsisa=ss52--5,-5 BS one Babee nSR At ESA Ete See tate
Grandfather Mountain, with types of summits -..... ...-------
The Blue Ridge Plateau and Grandfather Mountain -.......----
Krontof the Blue Ridge in’ Vargimial 22 55.-----+---)-----------
The narrows of the Little Tennessee River .........-----.------
Ball samayan ciebiso-alne ml OUT tals Sete ses sere ae
(a) French Broad River. (b) Ocoee River ..-.....-..---------
DEVS aL Se es a er HE re ape eae aero iererags Ree yn nies Meta so
Forest-covered slope of Hawksbill........-. -.-----.----------
West foothills of the Unakas and valley of East Tennessee - -----
Rock weathering and decay in the Southern Appalachians. ---.-
Land erosion in the Southern Appalachians -----..--.-----------
Yonahlossee road on Grandfather Mountain -..-....-----------
(a) Rhododendron undergrowth holding the soil and the water.

(b) Seams in the rock, facilitating the storage of water-.-.-----
WVioraweare EWG oo eccs soseaSussacsascoosaumectsaasnonacceces
Gowers @ulllasay aeh)all See see ee ease eer
Titans GOwxd can ccbatdescescasssenssenkeodosessascoseuabne
Swannanoahivierssee rer sece sea eeee cise ea see eee eae
(a) Sawmill wrecked by flood. (b) Logs lost by breaking of

(a) Highway bridge washed away by floods. (b) Public road
TOMA! lO? IOI, coooccoocaoouSS coosoSmaccansoSasscuSsapessas
(a) Flood damages to settlements. (b) Flood damages to railroad
andemininoydettlementsmeereerijeese elaine eee ea ela l=
MoccoasHall ss Georsiaseeseeeeeeseeeeeeeeae eae eee eens eee
Improved water power, Augusta, Ga.......--------------------

ihe

pai

ris,
1

De Ja) Je ©) Ie IE

ON THE

FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS OF TITE SOUTHERN.
APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION.

To the PRESIDENT:

An interest in practical forestry, notable and commend-
able, has grown up among the American people during the
past few years. There is an evident determination that
our country shall profit from its own and the experience
of other countries by beginning the preservation of our
forest remnants before it is altogether too late.

The most important practical outcome of this awakening
has been the setting aside by the Government, out of the
public domain, in the several Western States and Terri-
tories, of some 70,000 square miles of forest-covered lands
about the mountains in these regions, to protect the streams
and perpetuate the timber supplies. A more recent result
is the movement, which has met with the general approval
of business and scientific organizations and the unanimous
support of the press, toward the preservation by the Gov-
ernment of the hard-wood forests on the slopes of the
Southern Appalachian Mountains.

The proposal that the Government shall protect these
Appalachian forests by purchasing the lands and making
of them a great national forest reserve was first brought
directly to the attention of Congress in January, 1900,
when a memorial to that effect was presented by the Appa-
lachian Mountain Club of New England and the Appala-
chian National Park Association of the South Atlantic
States. In response to this memorial and in recognition
of the importance of the movement, the act making the
appropriation for the Department of Agriculture for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, provided that a ‘‘sum
not to exceed $5,000 may, in the discretion of the Secre-
tary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the forest con-
ditions in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region of
western North Carolina and adjacent States.”

Departments of
Agriculture and
of the Interior
cooperate in the

Nature of the

Forest and
agricultural con-

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

NATURE AND EXTENT OF THIS INVESTIGATION.

Acting under this authority I conducted such an investi-
gation during the field season of 1900, and continued it
again during the present year. The conclusions to which
the results of this investigation have led me will be found
at the end of this report (p. 38).

By the liberal cooperation of the Department of the
Interior, through the United States Geological Survey, I
was enabled to make these investigations much broader and
more thorough than would otherwise have been possible.
The Geological Survey, in timely recognition of the impor-
tance of this movement, has, during the past two years, -
studied the topographic features and the water supplies of
the region in relation to its forest development, and has also:
cooperated in the examination of the forests themselves.
The investigations along the several lines have been par-
ticipated in by the best men available in the Government
service. I have myself twice visited this region, and have
seen at first hand the destruction of the forests and the
consequent enormous damage by floods; have examined
some of its largest mountain masses, and have climbed its
highest peak. The conclusions reached from this personal
experience, as well as from the extensive expert investi-
gations just mentioned, will be found briefly summarized
at another place in this report (p. 38).

The experts in charge of this work examined not only
the forests and the general forest conditions as they exist
to-day, but also the causes which have led up to these con-
ditions and the possibility of improving them either with
or without Government ownership and supervision. They
studied the influences of the forests on the preservation of
the streams and soils of these mountains and on the
preservation of the water powers and the farm lands along
these streams, both within the mountain areas and across
the bordering lowlands. In particular the region was
studied as to its relative adaptability to future develop-
ment along the lines of practical forestry and practical
agriculture.

The forests were carefully mapped as to their distri-
bution and density and the relative proportion of the
forest-covered and cleared lands. The investigation also
included a study of the general character and distribution
of all the available species of trees and shrubs of the

Senate Doc. No. 84.

PLATE |.

(A) LAND EROSION ON THE CLEARED SLOPES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. (See pp. 26-28.)

These steep lands have been cleared, cultivated, abandoned, and ruined, all in a few years. Their reforestation will
soon be impossible.

(B) FLOOD DESTRUCTION OF AN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN VALLEY. (See pp. 32, 130.)

The floods have washed away the farm and the home, leaying only the hillside barn. The aggregate damages
from floods along these Southern Appalachian streams from April, 1901, to April, 1902, reached the large sum of
$18,000,000.

Mee fo

Poor a

LY),
faye
al oy

ae 4

ie tera

PREPS Nh UD Taal! hen PD

RELIEF MAP OF THE UNITED STATES, SHOWING BY INCLOSING WHITE LINES THE LOCATION OF THE NATIONAL FOREST
THE NATIONAL APPALACHIAN FOREST RESERVE, INCLUDING PORTIONS OF THE TWO VIRGINIAS, THE

The black curying lines indicate the number of inches of rainfall in the regions they traverse,

(Photographed from a model by Howell.)

RESERVES IN THE WEST AND THE REGION WITHIN WHICH IT IS PROPOSED TO LOCATE
TWO CAROLINAS, GEORGIA, ALABAMA, AND TENNESSEE. (See p. 16.)

The dark shading also indicates a heayy rainfall, and the

h light shading indicates a light rainfall,

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 15

region, the stand of timber, the extent to which the timber
has been and is now being cut or damaged by fire, the
nature of the present holdings, and the prices at which
these lands can be purchased. The agricultural investiga-
tion included the study of the cleared lands, methods of
their clearing, the crops which they yield, and the extent
to which these lands deteriorate by erosion and by the leach-
ing out of their fertility both on the mountain slopes and
in the valleys.

The officers of the Geological Survey meanwhile made
a careful study of the quantity of water flowing out through
the various streams having their sources in this region,
and of the effect of forest clearings on the regularity of
their flow at differentseasons. Fifty-four regular stations
were maintained, covering every large stream which rises
in these mountains. These streams flow through West tyestigation
Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, *™°°7"™*
Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, and rank among the
important rivers of the country. At each station daily
records of stream heights were kept, and measurements
of the volume of flow were made from time to time. In
addition to this, more than 1,000 miscellaneous gagings
were made on the tributaries of the James, Roanoke,
Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Savannah, Chattahoochee, Coosa,
Hiwassee, Tennessee, French Broad, Nolichucky, Watauga,
Holston, and New (Kanawha) rivers. (See Pl. XII).

A brief preliminary report embodying the more salient
results of this investigation during the year 1900 was sent
to Congress by the President in January, 1901. It was
accompanied by a letter from President McKinley com-
mendatory of the plan for an Appalachian forest reserve
here suggested anew. The present report will be found to SA ae
contain the results of the investigations carried on during
the past two years, together with some conclusions based
upon them. The general statement is followed by a series
of supplemental papers, each containing a more detailed
account of the results of the examinations and anquinies
along some one single line.

The region ied during this investigation embraces The region ex-
that part of the Appalachian omatotn system which begins aye
in southern Virginia and includes portions of that State, of
southeastern West Virginia, western North Carolina, east- °
ern Tennessee, northwestern South Carolina, and northern
Georgia, and especially that portion of this region usually

16 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

designated as the Southern Appalachian Mountains. Its
general character and relations can be more easily de-
scribed and better understood after a brief discussion of
the Appalachian region as a whole.

THE APPALACHIAN REGION.

The map accompanying this report (Pl. I]) shows the
Appalachian Mountain system extending along the eastern
portion of the continent from New York to Alabama, for
a distance of 1,000 miles, and having a maximum width
approaching 150 miles. These Appalachians constitute, not
a single ridge or chain, but a zone or belt of mountains,
the maximum development of which is reached south-

wappalachian southwest of Washington. Along the southeastern front,
the Blue Ridge Mountains in New Jersey and Pennsylvania
are rather poorly defined, and reach an elevation in the lat-
ter State, at South Mountain, of about 2,000 feet. South-
southwestward they become a more prominent and regular
feature in the landscape, the highest peaks reaching an
elevation of a little more than 4,000 feet in Virginia (see
Pl. XII), and about 6,000 feet in North Carolina. Along
the northwestern front of this belt the Allesheny Moun-
tains, starting with the Catskills in New York, cross Penn-
sylvania and Maryland is a series of well-defined parallel
ridges, with a general elevation of 2,000 feet. The maxi-
mum development of the Alleghenies, howeyer, is reached
along the Jine between Virginia, West Virginia, and Ken-
tucky, where the elevations range from 3,000 feet to nearly
4,500 feet above the sea. Southward from this point they
become less and less prominent, rising but little above the
adjacent plateau surface.

Between the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Alleghenies
lies a great mountain valley, or succession of valleys, sep-
arated laterally by more or less subordinate ridges, parallel
to the general mountain courses, and with their ends sep-
arated by low divides. This is called by the geographers

yabeelechian the Great Appalachian Valley. The more or less separate
valleys have local names, such as the Lehigh, Lebanon, and
Cumberland valleys, in Pennsylvania; the Shenandoah, or
Valley of Virginia (see Pl. IIa), and the Valley of Mast
Tennessee. (See Pl. LXV.) The floor of this great val-
ley region has an elevation above the sea of from less than
500 to 800 feet in Pennsylvania, and thence, like the moun-
tains, rises southward to its maximum elevation of about
1,700 feet in southwest Virginia. (Pl. II.)

Senate Doc, No. 84. Plate III.

(4) VALLEY OF VIRGINIA. (See p. 16.)

This is a part of the great Appalachian Valley lying west of the Southern Appalachian Mountains.

(B) PIEDMONT PLATEAU IN VIRGINIA. (See p. 17.)

This plateau region lies east and south of the Appalachian mountains from Virginia into Alabama.

PLATE_IV.
SENATE DOC. No.84. FIFTY-S SS eee a - ———————— = ——— = ee

‘ames

=a!

RELIEF MAP Paints

OF THE

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION

Showing the distribution of the mountains

1
Seale “8743560

MOUNTAIN PEAKS AND THEIR ALTITUDES IN FEET
m WFTeEHRC® ALT,

| " cormmanio | tum” cAtadnantao arm GROMMETS

ld aemumous > se. m cober we samo |

s}— Sweet: an) BORuNMoe | aso) wronwat ton |
Koonin | am) WO Pau Mepwreroe | lew

magus | am | A ikraaneun Sutnccume | sm
cmeminoowe | ep
‘ bo
oe
can
oe

Unetliage

Rockingham

rf
le

2 otay
as

Nic aes
edie xf

2
ang

Wis
att

ada

Daplingonyy, | 1]

“ |

{

7aRedbank
mS ba

aaiegion| 2 is Bae a
| Washington _ Ce = \ .
IS “1 co ) 3

S i = x
| Fi PN x aug
~~ —

Treen sboro D>

a3"

Payot) eagtgs

ri :
A Bere ur ia i
eT ERL EP waif é

he ie

f
{5

ey :
Pay }
+
et
phe oats

ica valerie aha
ee ae

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

This general Appalachian system is usually separated
into its northern and southern divisions in southern Vir-
ginia by a line drawn nearly eastward from the most east-
erly point of Kentucky, and where the New or Kanawha
River breaks across the Appalachian Valley and the Alle-
ghenies. New River rises on the Blue Ridge in North
Carolina, flows northward and then westward through the
Ohio into the Mississippi drainage. It thus violates the
rule established by the James, the Potomac, the Susque-
hanna, and the Delaware rivers, to the north, of rising
about the Alleghenies and breaking eastward across the
Blue Ridge into the Atlantic drainage; and it here estab-
lishes a new rule that controls the drainage of the larger
mountain streams to the south, which, following its exam-
ple, rise on the western slopes of the Blue Ridge and flow
across the mountain region to the northwestward and into
the Mississippi drainage through the Tennessee. To the
southwest of this line which separates the two systems of
drainage lie the Southern Appalachians.

Referring again to the maps (Pls. IV and XII), it will
be seen that bordering these mountains on the east and
south in Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama,
is a region which is termed by the geographers the Pied-
mont Plateau. From the base of the mountains, where it
has an elevation of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet, the hilly,
undulating surface of the plateau (see Pl. III) slopes
gently seaward for a distance of from 100 to 150 miles, te
where these hills give place to the sandy plains of the
coast region. This Piedmont Plateau represents the finest
agricultural and manufacturing portions of these States.
Across its surface wind the rivers, fed by mountain streams,
whose waters furnish power for large and rapidly grow-
ing manufacturing interests, and whose bordering lands
are among the most productive in the region. The future
of these water powers and of these bordering lands depends
upon the regularity of the mountain streams, and these
in turn depend upon the preservation of the mountain
forests.

To the west of these mountains lies the Valley of East
Tennessee, which constitutes the southern portion of the
great Appalachian Valley. It has an elevation of 1,700
feet in southwestern Virginia and 1,000 feet at Knox-

S. Doe. 8+ 7)

Division be-
tween the north-
ern and southern
Appalachians.

The Piedmont

Plateau.

Valley of East
Tennessee.

18 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

ville, from which point it extends southwestward across
portions of Georgia and Alabama. Into and through this
valley drains the larger portion of the water which leaves
the mountain region. Along the upper reaches of these
streams are numerous valuable water powers, and along
their lower courses through the valley are some of the
finest farming lands in Tennessee. To the west of this
valley lie the southern remnants of the Allegheny Moun-
tains and the better defined Cumberland Plateau.

Between this great valley on the west and the Piedmont
Plateau on the east and south are the Southern Appala-
chian Mountains, with which this report has especially to
deal.

THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS.

The accompanying maps (Pls. 1V and X11), show that the
Blue Ridge, as it crosses Virginia southward, increases and
holds its prominence and its individuality. As it passes
into North Carolina it enlarges both vertically and later-
ally, widening out into a complex zone or belt of moun-
tains, with a maximum width of about 70 miles in western
North Carolina and east Tennessee, and contracting again
toward its southern end. These mountains show none of
the regularity exhibited by the Northern Appalachians,
but, on the other hand, are composed of massive ranges
and cross ridges and more or less isolated mountains, often
with rounded, dome-like tops (see Pl. VIII), in striking
contrast with the sharp, regular, parallel, rocky ridges of
the more northern Alleghenies.

Pee ae Along the southeastern margin of this southern moun
Unaka Moun- tain belt is the Blue Ridge proper, which, as it crosses
North Carolina, is a fairly well-defined mountain range,
standing more than 3,000 feet above the sea and rising in
four peaks to more than 5,000 feet, and in one—the Grand-
father—to practically 6,000 feet. Bordering this region
on the northwest is a mountain range—the Unakas—
somewhat higher, and in its southern portion more mas-
sive, but less continuous, than the Blue Ridge; less con-
tinuous for the reason that its course is cut across by half
a dozen rivers, which rise on the Blue Ridge on the east,
flow across this intervening mountain region, and cut
through the Unakas in wild, deep gorges. (See Pl. V.)
Between these river-gorges the segments of the Unakas
are known by such local names as the Tron Mountains,
Bald Mountains, and Great Smoky mountains. In southern

Senate Doc. No, 84. PLATE V.

DOE RIVER GORGE, TENNESSEE. (See p. 18.)

The forests on the steep slopes of this beautiful gorge are being destroyed by the fire and the axe.

PLATE VI, PART 1.
Little Yellow Mountain.

Roan Mountain.

Senate Doc

No. BA

Black Mountains (lost in reproduction)

—————

) SOUTHWEST FROM GR

FATHER

Blue Ridge

MOUNTAIN

TYPICAL

OUTHERN APPALACH|

AN MOUNTAINS

Spear Tops Mountains

See pp. 18-20.)

Little Yellow Mountain

PLaTe VI, Part 1.

Roan Mountain:

PLATE VI, PART 2.

DFATHER MOUNTAIN: TYPICAL So}

|
}
|
|

Serate Doc. No. 84,

oan Mou ry }
Roen)sountala. = Hump Mountain Sugar Mountain Beceh Mountain Hanging Rock Mountain Rich Mountain and Elk Knob, PEATE UieAa TE

We
na

PANORAMA, NORTH! AND WEST FROM GRANDFATHER’ MOUNTAIN: TYPICAL SOUTHERN’ APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN 1
L SoU APPALACHIA OUNTAINS. (See pp. 15-20.)

SRE pS Pi a St arte

"Yj

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Virginia the Unakas approach the Blue Ridge and prac-
tically merge with the latter into one irregular mountain
range; southward, the two diverge. The Unaka range
has 18 peaks rising above 5,000 feet, and 8 of these above
6,000 feet. The Roan, toward its northern end, Mount
Guyot and Clingman’s Dome, farther south in the Great
Smoky Mountains, reach altitudes, respectively, of 6,313,
6,636, and 6,619 feet.

Southwest of the North Carolina line these bordering
mountain chains lose both in elevation and regularity. In
northern Georgia they break up into several minor ridges,
diminishing in size as they extend southwestward, sepa-
rated by widening, irregular valleys. Near Cartersville,
Ga., between the two principal tributaries of the Coosa
River, the Southern Appalachians merge into the Pied-
mont Plateau, with its low, isolated hills and ridges, rem-
nants of former mountains. (See Pls. IX @ and XLV.)
They rise again, however, in eastern central Alabama into
the short, irregular ridge of the Talladega Mountains,
which reach an elevation of 2,500 feet. The slopes of
these ridges in north Georgia are still largely forest coy-
ered, and along them are the countless springs which,
with notable constancy, feed the great rivers of that State
and Alabama. The scenery of much of this region is
exceedingly picturesque, and its attractiveness is increased
by the many cascades and waterfalls along the courses of
these mountain streams, such as Tallulah Falls (see PI.
XXVIII), with a descent of 335 feet, and the Dukes Creek,
Minnehaha, and Ruby falls, with each a descent of nearly
300 feet in short distances.

Extending out from the two great irregular mountain
borders, the Blue Ridge and the Unakas, into the elevated
region between them, and connecting them in places, are
a series of more or less interrupted cross ridges, which
have altitudes comparable to, and in one case (the Black
Mountains) greater than, those of either the Blue Ridge
or the Unekas. And these interior ridges are separated
by high, but deep and generally narrow, irregular valleys.

Standing on any of these elevated mountains, one may
see stretching out in either of several directions an endless
succession of mountain ridges and mountain peaks. A
remarkable succession of these ridges and peaks is seen
from the Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina, looking
southwest, as shown in the accompanying panoramic view
(Pl. VI). Hundreds of such vistas, from as many peaks,

Southern ends
of the Appala-
chians.

The crossridges
of mountains.

Variety of
peaks and ridges.

Magnitude of
these mountains.

Salient fea-
tures.

Mountain val-
eys.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

open out before the traveler through this region. In
every direction the splendid hard-wood forests cover and
protect the mountain slopes and the countless springs of
water which flow from them as the sources of great rivers.
There is but one discordant fact—the calamitous destruction
of the forests on these mountain slopes.

Some of these ridges, like the Black Mountains, are short,
but high and massive and terminate abruptly. Others are
longer and lower and slope gradually down to the adjacent
valley or rise froma lower gap to another still higher ridge.
All are more or less irregular both in their courses and
their elevation. Most of them have peaks rising from
their tops; but not a few have fairly uniform crests. (See
Pl. XVII.) Some of these peaks, like the Grandfather
(Pl. VII), are sharp, rugged, and rocky; others, like the
Roan or the ‘‘Balds” (Pl. VIII a), are rounded domes
whose tops are covered only with grass and rhododendron,
while still others, equally tall and massive, like the Blacks
and the Great Smokies, are heavily forest covered to the
summit. (See Pl. VIII2.)

The haziness of the atmosphere, which has found expres-
sion in the names ‘‘ Blue Ridge” and ‘‘ Smoky Mountain,”
often limits the distance of distinct vision, but it combines
with the forest cover to soften the details and to render
this Southern Appalachian landscape attractive beyond
comparison. This succession of ridges and peaks, seen
through it from an eminence, rising one above and beyond
another for 50 or 100 miles or more, impresses upon the
observer in a manner not to be forgotten the vastness of
this region of mountains. It has 46 peaks, a mile or more
apart, and 41 miles of dividing ridges, which rise above
6,000 feet; 288 additional peaks and 300 miles of divide
rise more than 5,000 feet above the sea. These are not
only the greatest masses of mountains east of the Rockies;
they are the highest mountains covered with hard-wood
forests in America.

This region, thus unique in its position, in its mountain
features, in its forests, and in its climate, stands grandly
out as the greatest physiographic feature in the eastern
half of the continent. (See Pls. II and VI.)

Between these groups of mountains and far below them,
though still at an elevation of 2,000 feet or more above
the sea, are the numerous narrow valleys of this region.
They border the numberless streams and are generally
more extensive nearer the sources of these streams, and

PLaTE VII.

Senate Doc, No. 84.

eed

GRANDFATHER MOUNTAIN, THE HIGHEST POINT ON THE BLUE RIDGE, SHOWING SHARP, RUGGED PEAK, SURROUNDED BY HARD-WOOD FORESTS. (See pp. 20, 1/4.)

The forest in the foreground, which is being destroyed, has the hemlock spruce interspersed with oak hna other hard woods. About the higher peak (5,500 to 5,964 feet) the trees are
mainly black spruce and balsam.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLaTe VIII

(A) “BALD” OF BIG YELLOW MOUNTAIN, MITCHELL COUNTY, N. Cc. (See pp. 18, 20.)

These bald mountain tops are coyered with grass, the tree line often being fairly sharp. ‘See also Pl. XXIIa.)

(B) & COMMON TYPE OF SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN PEAK IN THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See p. 20.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

hence nearer to the Blue Ridge than to the Unakas. (PI.
TX.) Asa rule, they vary in width from a few hundred
feet toas many yards. Some of the most notable of these
valleys, reaching a width of 2 to 5 miles in places, are
those on New River in Virginia, on the French Broad
above Asheville, on the Tennessee River in southwestern
North Carolina, and about the headwaters of the Coosa
and other rivers in Georgia. As these streams approach
and cut through the mountain borders of this region they
rva in deep gorges, the full width of which is often occu-
pied by the streams. (See Pl. X XIX.)

The slopes of these mountains vary considerably in their
steepness. The northwestern slopes of the Blue Ridge
are usually gentle and in many places cleared. The south-
eastern slopes are generally much steeper and usually
forest covered. Ina few places these southeastern slopes
are rocky and precipitous. Especially is this the case
along the South Carolina border, as seen in Ceesars Head,
Whiteside, and Table Rock mountains (see Pls. X, XI,
and XLV), where the bare rock walls rise 600 to 1,000
feet in height. The slopes of the Unakas, like those of
many of the interior ridges, are fairly steep on both sides,
ranging generally from 20 to 50 degrees. About the inte-
rior ridges there is still greater variation. Some of the
rocky faces are precipitous, while elsewhere the slopes
are gentle, ranging from 5 to 20 degrees. But taking the
mountains and the valleys together, the land surface with
a slope of less than 10 degrees is not more than 10 per
cent of the whole.

THE FORESTS.

It is the forest covering of these great mountain slopes—
a covering that should never be removed—about which
interest centers in the present investigation. The re-
sults of this examination during the past two years are
given at length in a paper published as Appendix A (p. 41).
They are stated separately for each of the larger river
basins, following a somewhat general discussion of the
forest conditions in the region as they exist to-day and
ot how the forests may be economically protected and im-
proved under Government control.

These forests have been carefully studied and classified,
and over much the larger portion of the area their density
and distribution have been indicated on the excellent topo-
graphic maps furnished for this purpose by the Depart-

Steopness of
the mountain
slopes.

Method and re-
sults of the ex-
amination.

Forest maps.

bo
bo

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

ment of the Interior. The length of time required for
engraving these detailed forest maps makes it impossible
to issue them as a part of the present report, but copies
of them in manuscript form are meanwhile available for
examination at the Department of Agriculture and the
Geological Survey. The distribution of these forests and
the approximate relative proportion of the forest-covered
and the cleared lands are indicated by the generalized map
(Pl. XII). The scattered cleared fields on the mountain
slopes are so small that it is impossible to indicate them
on a map of this scale, and hence only the larger clearings,
mainly those along the valleys, are shown.

Considering the forests of the region as a whole, there
isa striking uniformity about their general features, espe-
cially in the valleys and along the lower slopes, and yet
everywhere there is variety. This fact is well illustrated
by the list (on p. 93) of 137 species of trees and a still longer
list of shrubs growing in this mountain region.

The forests on the southeasterly slopes are usually less
striking, both in size of trees and density of growth, than
those on the northwest, and they are usually more damaged
by forest fires, because the slopes are steeper and are kept

foNBtiations in drier by their more direct exposure to the sun. The
sualamcbaoniaam neighboring forests on the northern and western slopes
and in the westerly facing coves exhibit a greater variety
of vegetation, a denser growth, and finer specimens of
individual trees, because they have not only greater mois-
ture, but greater depth and fertility of soil. Both are pro-
tected by the humus which covers the surface and which
contributes directly to the luxuriance of this growth. It
is in such situations that we find the best examples of the
superb hard-wood forests which abound in this region—the
finest on the continent. (See Pl. XIII.)
fonatiations in But the greatest variations in these mountain forests
leventon. are observed in connection with the differences in eleva-
tion. Thus along the southern foothills of the Appala-
chians in Georgia one finds occasionally scattered colonies
‘ of the loblolly and long-leaf pines, trees which are charac-
teristic of the South Atlantic and Gulf coast region, inter-
mingling with the typical hard-wood forests of the Pied-
mont Plateau and of the lower mountain slopes. (See Pl.
XIV.) At the eastern foot of the Blue Ridge, in North
Carolina, the typical flora of the Piedmont Plateau abounds,
and follows up the river gorges into the mountain val-
leys, where it associates with more characteristically Ap-

PLATE IXA,

Senate Doc. No. 84,

THE SOUTHERN: END OF THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, NEAR CARTERSVILLE, GA., LOOKING NORTHEAST.

(See p.

PLATE IXB.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

A MOUNTAIN VALLEY, LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER, RABUN COUNTY, GA. (See p. 20.)

The mountains surrounding this fertile valley are forest covered, and the yalley itself is not being washed away

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE X

(Photographed by Lindsa

y-)

CAESARS HEAD, SOUTH CAROLINA. (See p. 21.)

The fires and the axe are destroying the forest growth on these steep, rocky mountain sides.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XI.

(Photographed by Seadin.)

WHITESIDE MOUNTAIN, SOUTHEAST PROFILE, NORTH CAROLINA. (See p. 21.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

palachian species. Thence up to the tops of the higher
peaks there is a constant succession of changes—an inter-
mingling and overlapping of the lower species with those
which belong to greater elevations or more northern
latitudes.

Thus in ascending any of the higher mountains, as
Mount Mitchell, which, with its elevation of 6,711 feet, is
the Joftiest of them all, one may penetrate, in the rich and
fertile coves about its base, a forest of oaks, hickories,
maples, chestnuts, and tulip poplars, some of them large
enough to be suggestive of the giant trees on the Pacific
coast. (See Pl. XLIV.) Higher up one rides through
forests of great hemlocks, chestnut oaks, beeches, and
birches, and higher yet through groves of spruce and
balsam. Covering the soil between these trees is a spongy
mass of humus sometimes a foot and more in thickness,
and over this in turn a luxuriant growth of shrubs and
flowers and ferns. At last, as the top is reached, even
the balsams become dwarfed, and there give place largely
to clusters of rhododendron and patches of grass fringed
with flowers, many of them such as are commonly seen
about the hills and valleys of New England and southern
Canada.

In such an ascent one passes through, as it were, the

“changing of the seasons. Halfway up the slopes one may
see, with fruit just ripening, the shrubs and plants the
matured fruit of which was seen two or three weeks before
on the Piedmont Plateau, 3,000 feet below; while 3,000
feet higher up the same species have now just opened wide
their flowers. Fully amonth divides the seasons above and
below, separated by this nearly 6,000 feet of altitude.

Remote from the railroads the forest on these moun-
tains is generally unbroken from the tops of ridge and
peak down to the brook in the valley below, and to-day it is
in much the same condition as for centuries past. (See Pl.
XVII.) In the more settled portions of the region, how-
ever, a different picture presents itself. Along the nar-
row mountain valleys are the cultivated fields about the
settlements, where they ought to be. When the valleys
were practically all cleared the increasing demands for
lands to cultivate led to clearings successively higher and
higher up the mountain slopes, with a pitch of 20 and 30
and even 40 degrees. From some of the peaks one may
count these cleared mountain-side patches by the score.
They have multiplied the more rapidly because their fer-

Forests on
Mount Mitchell.

Seasons vary
with elevation.

General forest
conditions.

Unwise forest
clearings for ag-
riculture.

24 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

tility is short lived, limited to two, three, or five crops at
most. They are cleared, cultivated, and abandoned in
rapid succession. Out of twenty such cleared fields, per-
haps two or three are in corn, planted between the recently
girdled trees; one or two may be in grain; two or four in
grass, and the remainder—more than half of them—in
various stages of abandonment and ruin, perhaps even
before the deadened trees have fallen to the ground. (See
Pl. XVIII.)
ereumberingop’ ~The Jumberman attacked this forest several decades ago
when he began to penetrate it in search of the rarer and
more valuable trees, such as the walnut and cherry. Later,
as the railroads entered the region to some extent, he added
to his list of trees for cutting the mountain birch, locust,
and tulip poplar, and successively other valuable species.
During the past few years he has cut everything merchant-
able. He is now beginning to extend his operations to
considerable distances beyond the main lines of transpor-
tation by the construction of tramways and even cheap,
short railways. Meanwhile his search for the more valu-
able trees has extended in advance to most of the more
remote mountain coves.
inabanges Som In these operations there has naturally been no thought
ations. for the future. Trees have been cut so as to fall along
the line of least resistance regardless of what they crush.
Their tops and branches, instead of being piled in such
way and burned at such time as would do the Jeast harm,
are left scattered among the adjacent growth to burn when
driest, and thus destroy or injure everything within reach.
The home and permanent interests of the Jumberman are
generally in another State or region, and his interest in
these mountains begins and ends with the hope of profit.
There is, however, no evidence that the native lumberman
has in the past exhibited any different spirit.
whgstructve Forest fires have been one of the great curses of this
ee country. From the days of Indian occupation down to
the present time these Appalachian Mountain forests have
been swept through by fires. Some of these have preceded
the lumberman, others have accompanied him, and still
others have followed in his wake, and the last have been
far more destructive because of the tops and other rubbish
which he has left behind him scattered among the remain-
ing growth. (See Pl. Ld). The aggregate damage from
these fires is great. Over some limited areas they have
entirely destroyed the forests. Everywhere on the south

_—

SENATE DOC No 84 PIETY=SEVERTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION PLATE Xil

MAP OF THE
SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION

Showing forest area under consideration and gaging stations

of the division of hydrography U.S. Geological Survey

Pm» Z | :
tydend, > Bas, Pn
Gaging stations inred aw. lant % i
( areas in green 3 } ris

' 7 v- : - 4 4 z a m™ ‘
4 *)) pee ‘ f J $ iy Y , option
: - wy : : : . 373

| Dy 5 ATA se Sy rn EAR Y,
| BN es © ee
r ae uN

Tihs ape
et

ter]

a Pe
) i a yore ~

+ |} Alapaha y *« y SPL
| os, ST Sa ENT Asrs —

f = al

=A tg

envi neg
‘mt

ye ar
arte Ui? >

io jane Oe >
fob stir

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XIII.

(Photographed by Seadin.)

AN ORIGINAL SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FOREST, TRANSYLVANIA COUNTY, N. Cc. (See pp. 21-28, 45.)

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XIV.

01} 04] INO Suruury} puv snumty
auld ay] SoSpld puv sadojs ureyUNoU JaMOl OY} UO

‘SpOOM PIB OY} YILM poXTUt Udo 9.

*O "N ‘ALNNOO NIVMS ‘YSAIN ALINIVNODO NO LSSYOS ANIid GNV GOOM-GYVH GaXxIW

OVdBd SIT SULUOSSO[ PUR ‘[IOS OY} JO WOISOID OY} SUMNBITIOV] “|sar0J ay} JO ON[BA [BIOIAULUAOD oY Surysturmrp snyy ‘sa
(-2@ “d v9g)

puB YMOIsIApUN ay} SULAOASop o1¥ soy JUONbeaIy oY] ‘Soor} AU) JO oINyBU OY} JeADIRM ING

*10]BM Surs04s roy 4

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XV.

SPRUCE FORESTS AT HIGH ELEVATIONS; ON WHITETOP MOUNTAIN, VIRGINdA. (See pp. 23, 47.)

Seedlings of this black spruce abound in the moss under the trees. These and the humus and the
roots hold the soils and help store the rains.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

ward slopes the damages have exceeded those on slopes
toward the north or west. Trees have been burned near
the roots, making their bases defective (see Pl. XLVI);
the young growth has been burned down (see Pl. XLVI);
the grasses and other wild forage plants have been tem-
porarily exterminated, so that instead of pasturage being
improved, as some have believed it would be, in the end
it has been seriously damaged. This destruction of the
humus has always resulted seriously both to the forests
and to thesoils. In some cases, where the forests covering
the steep, rocky slopes were thin, the loss of the humus
has resulted in the washing and leaching away of the soils
to such an extent as to destroy the forests entirely; and
in all cases where the humus is thus removed the work of
land erosion among the trees goes on as surely as though
the forest itself were gone, though of course the process is
far less rapid. Furthermore, the storage of water (in soils
from which this humus has been removed) is far less perfect
than in the original perfect forest.

The rapid rate at which these lumbering operations have
extended during the past few years and the still more
rapid rate at which they are being extended at the present
time, considered in connection with the destructive work
of the fires and the clearing for agriculture, indicates that
within less than a decade every mountain cove will have
been invaded and robbed of its finest timber, and the last
of the remnants of these grand primeval Appalachian
forests will have been destroyed. Hence the very possi-
bility of securing a forest reserve such as now contem-
plated is a possibility of the present, not of the future.
This great activity indicates, furthermore, in the most
striking way possible, the growing anxiety as to the future
supply of hard-wood timber. And indeed the time is now
at hand when the great interests involved make it impera-
tive that the Government take hold of this problem and
inaugurate here in these great broad-leaved forests of the
East a new conservative forest policy, as it is already
doing for the pine forests of the West.

FOREST CLEARING AND AGRICULTURE IN THE
SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

Ordinary farming on these mountain slopes can not
exist permanently and should never exist at all. As stated
above, not more than 10 per cent of the land of this
region has a surface slope of less than 10 degrees (approxi-

Injuries result-
ing from the
burning of the
humus.

Imperative
need of new for-
est policy.

bo
or)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

mately 2 feet in 10), while 24 per cent (see Pl. XII)
of it has been cleared. In this region land with slopes
exceeding this can not be successfully cultivated for any
considerable time, because its surface is rapidly washed
into the rivers below by the heavy rains, and the same
agency rapidly leaches out and carries to the sea its more
soluble and fertile ingredients. The valley lands have
already been largely cleared, and the farmers are now
following up the mountain slopes. In many cases their
cleared patches have well nigh reached the mountain sum-
mits. This process is going on with greater rapidity,
because each short-lived hillside field must soon be aban-
doned. The underbrush is destroyed, the trees are girdled,
and for one, two, or three years such a field is planted in
corn, then a year in grain, then one or two years in grass;
then the grass gives place to weeds, and the weeds to gul-
lies. (See Pls. XX and XXI1.)
Agricultureon Sych a field has usually passed through its cyele in five

mountain slopes

short lived in its a 7 ma ¢ 9 > Q slear ake its ¢
short ved Ju, to ten years and another must be cleared to take its place.

DONE TA jared A LOueSE which is the growth of several centuries perishes
in less than a decade; a soil which is the accumulation of
a thousand years has been cleared, cultivated, abandoned,
and is on the downward road to the sea within less than a
decade. Such is the brief life history of many thousands
of small mountain fields in this Southern Appalachian
region. But even the native farmer is beginning to real-
ize that the clearing of these mountain slopes is producing
floods that wash away the valley farms, and that the time
must come when he will have successively cleared and
destroyed all his available mountain land. (See Pl.
XXXIV).

psombmiserious Fortunately the intelligence of the country is awaken-

forest clearing. ing to other and larger results that are following this pol-
icy. The soil thus removed may stop long enough on its
way to the sea to silt up the streams as they cross the low-
lands or may fill up the harbors as the streams reach the
coast. Every acre of mountain slope thus cleared is a step
in the more rapid destruction of the forests, of the soils, of
the rivers, and of the ‘‘ eternal mountains” themselyes—
the destruction of conditions which the combined wealth,
intelligence, and time of man can not restore in a region
which now possesses infinite possibilities for the benefit
of the whole nation.

=
<§
bs
<
fal,
a

N COUNTY, N. C.

Senate Doc. No, 84

PLATE XVII,

-
Re
Xe
‘ >, “a
~ > Fa Fe hace
Oe me
5 ee -
~ -

PANORAMA

OF THE GREAT

MOKY

MOUNTAINS: FROM ANDREWS acne,

COUNTY, N, ¢

‘

Senate Doc. No. 84.

PLATE XVIII.

FOREST CLEARINGS FOR FARMING ON THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 26,57.)

Already one-fourth of the total area of these mountain lands has been cleared; and additional areas are being cleared, cultivated, and abandoned in rapid succession, higher and
higher up the mountain slopes.

Wate es

PLATE XIX.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

STONE MOUNTAIN, NEAR ATLANTA, GA. (See p. 26.)

The ax and fire have removed the forest; and the heavy rains have removed the soil which once covered the larger part of this rocky knob.

Senate Dec. No. 84. PLATE XX.

(A) NEWLY CLEARED MOUNTAIN FIELD PLANTED IN CORN, RAPIDLY WASHING AWay. (See pp. 26-28.)

These steep fields will be ruined and abandoned in less than a decade.

(B) RECENTLY CLEARED FIELD IMPOVERISHED AND ABANDONED. (See pp. 26-28.)

Such fields should be forever covered with forest.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

In the cool climate of New England the native grasses
form a dense sod which holds the hillside surfaces in place
so that even where the forests have been removed there is
little erosion. In the Southern Appalachians, however,
neither the grass, the legumes, nor the other forage plants
have been able to prevent this land erosion, and their only
safeguard for the future is the protection of the forests.
Hundreds of these steep mountain fields where selected
grasses were sown have been observed during the past
few years, and the results, as indicating a means of per-
manently holding these soils, have been generally unsatis-
factory. (See Pl. XXII.)

This washing away of the cleared mountain fields does
not always manifest itself in the formation of deep gullies.
The majority of these fields have slopes so steep that the
water in its downward course can not always move later-
ally to a sufficient degree for its concentration and the
washing out of such gullies. Each drop of rain does its
own work in battering and loosening the surface; and as
it carries downward the particles of soil it has captured it
is joined by only its closer neighbors. Hence frequently
after a heavy rain the surface of such a field looks as
though it might have been harrowed or even raked down-
ward rather than plowed in larger furrows. From one of
these cleared fields more soil is sometimes removed by a
single heavy rain than during the preceding centuries
while it was densely forest covered.

But while the rains are removing the soils of the cleared
mountain slopes the floods are removing the soils of the
valley farms. This is notably the case in the valleys, where
the bordering forests have been cleared to the largest ex-
tent. Year by year the channels of the streams are widen-
ing and encroaching upon the adjacent farms, and as the
magnitude of the floods increases, these mountain streams,
transformed into swollen torrents, leave their course and
plow new channels across the fields. During the floods of
the present year thousands of acres of the most productive
valley lands in this mountain region have been damaged
or destroyed by one or both of these processes. (See
Pls. XXIII and XXIV.)

It is, then, exactly true that the making of farms on
mountain slopes is destroying the farms in the valleys,
and that unless stopped by some external influence this
process will proceed more rapidly as the population of the

Grass does not
hold the soil on
the mountain

> slopes.

Washing of
mountain lands.

Washing away
of valley lands.

28 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

entwuiey, PS region increases. It is therefore only a question of time,
to be measured not in centuries but in years, when, unless
this policy is changed, there will be no forests in this region
except on the small remnants—say 10 per cent of the
whole—where the mountain slopes are too precipitous and
rocky to make the cuitivation of the lands possible, even
by an Appalachian mountaineer and his hoe.

Fee eee If, on the other hand, the policy now advocated is

ae man-adopted, and all these steeper mountain slopes are incor-
porated into a forest reserve, owned and controlled by the
Government, the valley lands will be protected from floods,
and to the cultivation of these areas can be added that of
the gentler slopes, the whole to be terraced and kept in a
high state of cultivation by the native farmer, who will
retain ownership thenasnow. (See Pls. 1X /and XXIIIz.)

ciplein Goren, Lhe guiding principle of the Government in the creation

ment manage-of this forest reserve should be to protect the farmer in
his occupation and to insure the use of agricultural lands
for agricultural purposes; but also,and primarily, to main-
tain forever the forest cover of these great and beautiful
mountains, which can be perpetuated in no other way.
Under such a system the agriculture of this region will
be maintained on a permanently satisfactory basis. Under
the present policy it is advancing to certain ruin.

FOREST CLEARINGS, THE RIVERS, AND FLOODS.

ibis region 18 Probably no region in the United States is better watered
many rivers. oy better drained than this; nor is there any other region
which can boast of being the source of so many streams.
(See Pl. XII.) From about its northern end the New
River (Kanawha) flows northward and westward and
becomes a prominent tributary of the Ohio; along its
southeastern front the James, the Roanoke, the Yadkin,
the Catawba, the Broad, and the Savannah reach the
Atlantic; near its southern end the Chattahoochee and the
Alabama flow directly into the Gulf of Mexico; along its
western the Hiwassee, the Tuckaseegee, the French Broad,
the Nolichucky, the Watauga, and the Holston drain
westward through the Tennessee into the Mississippi.
Each of these greater rivers as it crosses the Coastal
Plain region toward the sea is navigable for light-draft
vessels. Each throughout its lower course is bordered
by fertile agricultural lands, which in the past contributed
largely to the nation’s supply of corn, but during recent

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXI.

(A) BADLY WASHED MOUNTAIN FIELD IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. (See pp. 26-28. )

(B) APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FIELD COMPLETELY RUINED BY EROSION. (See pp. 26-28.)

- t
een

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXII.

(A) WASHING OF GRASS-COVERED SOIL, TOP OF ROAN MOUNTAIN. (See p- 27.)

About the tops of these higher Southern mountains the grasses grow more vigorously than at lower levels; but
even there the sod is not strong enough to prevent the washing away of the soil.

(B) WASHING OF AN ABANDONED PASTURE FIELD. (Sce p. 27.)

This is a good illustration of the process by which these mountain slopes are going to ruin.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXIII.

(4) UNWASHED VALLEY LANDS SURROUNDED BY FOREST-COVERED MOUNTAINS. (See p. 27.)
(See, also, Pl. IX), p. 21.)

(B) BADLY WASHED MOUNTAIN VALLEY LANDS, BAKERSVILLE, N. C. (See p. 27.)

The lower slopes of the mountains bordering this valley are largely cleared,

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXIV,

ical

|
|
|
|

(A) VALLEY LANDS BADLY WASHED BY FLOODS. (See p. 27.)

These fertile valley lands in the Southern Appalachians will all be washed away ina few decades unless the
forests on the mountain slopes are protected.

(B) VALLEY LANDS RUINED BY RECENT FLOODS AND ABANDONED. (See p.

As long as the forests remain on the mountain the valleys can be cultivated.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

decades have begun to suffer seriously from river floods.
Each one of these streams along its course through the
mountains and across the hill country beyond by its water
power is already a contributor to the manufacturing in-
terests of the country (Pl. X XV), and with improvement
in the electrical transmission of power the possibilities of
manufacturing developments in this direction are increas-
ing rapidly every year. The measurements and estimates
recently made by the Government hydrographer show the
aggregate available undeveloped water power on the
streams rising in this region to be more than a million
horsepower. Onthese streams water-power developments
are constantly in progress, but their value in the future
will diminish as the forests disappear.

In the mountains themselves these streams haye their
sources at elevations from 3,000 to 6,000 feet, and before
reaching a level of 2,000 feet many of them have reached
considerable proportions. They subsequently flow across
the mountain region for distances of from 20 to 50 miles
before breaking through the border ranges onto the sur-
rounding lowlands at elevations ranging from 1,000 to
1,200 feet. Along their courses stretches of smooth water
are never long, and the descent is often accomplished by
numerous rapids, cascades, and falls. (See Pl. X XVII;
also Pls. LX X and LX XI.) Such cascades, with descent
in short distances of from 10 to 50 feet, are abundant,
while in some of the smaller tributaries beautiful falls of
from 100 to 300 feet are to be found.

I can not adequately describe the beauty and infinite
variety of these mountain brooks and larger streams.
Always clear, except immediately after the harder rains—
for the forests hold back the soil—fed regularly from per-
petual springs, they are among the important assets of
the South.

No gorges in eastern America can equal in depth and
wildness those carved across the Blue Ridge and the
Unakas by these streams in making their way through
the marginal ranges of the Southern Appalachians. About
the headwaters of the Catawba, the Linville River, after
flowing for some miles parallel with the Blue Ridge, at
an elevation of 3,800 feet, rushes down its eastern slope
with a fall of 1,000 feet in less than 3 miles, through a
gorge 1,500 to 2,000 feet in depth, a dozen miles in length,
and with wall so steep and bottom so narrow and rugged
that few persons have succeeded in following its course.

bo
We)

Value of these
mountain rivers
crossing the low-
lands for water
power.

Beauty of the
mountain
streams.

Therivergorges
of the region.

Irregularity of
streams in re-
gions largely
cleared.

Forests regu-
late the flow of
streams.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

(See Pl. LX XII.) Almost the same language might be used
in describing the gorge cut by the Pigeon River across
the Unaka Mountains southwest of Asheville; and there
are a number of others cutting the Blue Ridge and Unakas
at different points that are worthy of comparison with
these. The same may be said of the gorges of the Tallulah
and other streams in northern Georgia.

But notwithstanding the steepness of the slopes of these
gorges, even where the descent is almost precipitous, they
are forest-covered except where the trees and shrubs have
been destroyed by fire and the soil has been removed by
the storms. (See Pls. XXIX and XLIL.)

The perpetuation of the streams and the maintenance of
their regular flow, so as to prevent floods and maintain
their water powers, are among the prime objects of forest
preservation in the Southern Appalachians. Nothing illus-
trates the need of this more fully than the fact that on the
neighboring streams, lying wholly within the Piedmont
plateau, where the forests have been cleared from areas
ageregating from 60 to 80 per cent of the whole, floods
are frequent and excessive. During the seasons of pro-
tracted drought some of the smaller streams almost disap-
pear, and the use of water power along their course is
either abandoned or largely supplemented by steam power.

To-day the larger valuable water powers in the South
Atlantic region are mainly limited to the streams which have
their sources among the Southern Appalachian Mountains;
and the waters of these streams show a striking uniformity
of flow as compared with the streams lying wholly within
the adjacent lowland country, where forest clearing has been
excessive. While the rainfall is somewhat greater in the
mountain region, it is a question of the regularity rather
than the volume of flow, and this depends upon the water
storage. The soil in the one region is as deep as in the
other, and the slopes being gentler in the low country,
other things being equal, the water would soak into it the
more easily. In the mountain region itself the flow of the
streams along which proportionately large clearings have
been made has become decidedly more irregular, and the
flood damages have greatly exceeded those along other
streams where the forests have not been disturbed. The
problem resolves itself into one of a forest cover for the
soil.

This is just what one would expect who has been, during
a rainy season, in the heart of a mountain region where

PLATE XXV.

Senate Doc. No, 84.

WATER-POWER DEVELOPMENT AND COTTON MILLS AT COLUMBUS, GA., ON THE CHATTAHOOCHEE RIVER.
The sources of this and numerous other importé river:
be |

re within tl

ain forests.

est reserve; and their va

(See pp. :

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXVI.

(4) WATER POWER ON SALUDA RIVER, AT PELZER, S. C. (See pp. 29, 141.

(B) WATER POWER ON BROAD RIVER, AT COLUMBIA, S. C. (See pp. 29,141.)

These streams have their sources within the limits of the proposed Appalachian forest reserve; and
the perpetuation of these yaluable water powers depends on the preservation of these mountai
forests.

Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXVII.

CASCADES NEAR HEAD OF CATAWBA RIVER. (See pp- 29, 116.)

are hundreds of cascades as beautiful as this in the Southern Appalachians. As long as these mountain
sts are preserved these streams have a regular flow; united they furnish the water powers which operate the
factories valued at increasing millions.

Senate Doc. No. 84, PLaTe XXVIII.

(Photographed by Hillers.)

TALLULAH FALLS, GEORGIA. (See pp. 19, 28, 139.)

There is here a succession of beautiful cascades which have within a short distance an aggregate descent of
335 feet. ake?

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

the lands have not been cleared nor have forest fires de-
stroyed the humus cover from their surface. The rain-
drops are battered to pieces and their force broken by the
leaves and twigs of the trees, and when their spray reaches
the ferns, the grass, and the flowers below, instead of
running away down the surface slope it passes into the
spongy humus, and thence into the soil and the crevices
among the rocks below. As much of this supply as is not
subsequently used by the growing plants emerges from
this storehouse weeks or months later in numberless
springs. (See Pl. XX XI.) The rain must be extremely
abundant or long protracted to produce any excessive
increase in the flow of the adjacent brooks.

The rainfall in this Southern Appalachian region, as
shownin Appendix D (p. 148), ranges from 60 inches for the
year in Georgia to 71 inches in North Carolina. Heavy
rainfalls during short periods are common. Even in an
arid or semiarid region, where the rainfall for the year
may be 10 inches or less, the absence of the forest cover
results in a slow but sure removal of the soil from the
mountain slopes. Much more ina region of heavy rain-
fall, like that of these southern mountains, when the forest
cover has been destroyed, will the soil removal be certainly
and rapidly accomplished.

In studying the streams of the more northern States it
is seen that the numerous lakes and the deposits of sand
and gravel spread over the hills and valleys of that region
by the glaciers serve to store the water and to preserve
the uniformity in the flow of the streams, and would ac-
complish much in this direction even were the forests in
that region entirely removed. In this southern region the
preservation of the soil and the streams is a task which the
forests alone must accomplish, and to that end they must
be effectively protected.

The proportion of cleared and forest-covered land in
each of the great river drainage basins of the region is
given on page 69, and as will be seen there, this proportion,
though generally small, varies considerably in the different
basins. Taking the region as a whole, at the present time
about 24 per cent of the area has been cleared. (See PI.
XII.) This proportion isan ever-increasing one—increas-
ing the more swiftly for the reason that new fields are
constantly being cleared and the abandoned fields are being
eroded so rapidly that they are seldom reforested. (See
Pl. XXL.)

Heavy rainfall
renders forest
cover necessary.

Soil protection
and water stor-
age here are both
forest problems.

Proportion of
cleared land in
Appalachian re-
gion increasing.

32 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Landslides in- > , S . ] ia
aiandslides J, Here and there among the Southern Appalachians a land

rains in pastan’ slide extending over an acre, or several acres, has started,
CLC bearing on its surface a section of the forest, but the larger
trees. below have blocked its course within a few feet or a
few yards of its original position. (See Pl. XXXII.) The
trees on its surface were tilted, but the subsequent upward
bending of their tops shows that the slip took place ten,
fifty, or more than one hundred years ago. The abundance
of such evidence shows that these rain storms among the
primeval forests have been both frequent and heavy, but
during the centuries these densely forest-covered slopes
have not lost their soils nor the soils their fertility, nor
fonzosion of the has a furrow been washed. ‘Trees of four centuries stand
medneitslow, to-day in the very bottom of shallow ravines and minor
depressions (see Pl. XX XIII), eroded before these forests
covered the mountains. Had these forests been removed
a few of these great rains that started these landslides
would have cleaned the mountain slope of its recently
formed soil, and would haye swept the valley below.
Thefuturewill These mountains will continue to be the home of storms.

have its storms.

Rorestsalonecan Their heavy rains will continue to drench the slopes, if

CON. cleared of their forests, with increasing violence. Whether
in the future these rains shall be caught by fern and grass
and humus, and received by a deep, porous soil, to be given
out as needed to the vegetation above and the perpetual
springs below, or whether it shall rush down bare, rocky
slopes to fill the gorges and carry destruction through the
valleys beyond, depends upon whether or not these forests
are preserved.

pobamages from The terribly destructive work of the heavy rains in wash-

this region. ing away the farm lands on the mountain slopes and in the
valleys of this region, especially where the clearings have
been greatest, has already been described. It should be
understood clearly, however, that the dangers from these
floods are not limited to the region about the mountains.
The floods from the May storm of the present year on
the Blue Ridge, about the sources of the Catawba, swept
the best of the farm lands along the course of that
stream for upward of 200 miles, and cost the farmers
more than a million and a half of dollars. An August
storm in the same region added a loss of half a milion
more by further destruction on the Catawba lowlands.
(See Pl. XXXIV.) Similarly, the same May floods swept
the valleys of the Yadkin in North Carolina, the New (Kana-
wha) in Virginia and West Virginia, and the upper tribu-

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXIX.

FOREST-COVERED SLOPES OF LINVILLE GORGE SEEN FROM BYNUMS BLUFF.

If the forests on these steep slopes are once destroyed they can not be restored, as the soils will be
quickly remoyed by the heayy rains.

Senate Doc, No, 84. PLATE XXX

FORESTS REGULATING THE FLOW OF STREAMS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS.

(See pp. 29-31; 137-142.)

The leaves and branches above break the force of the raindrops; the shrubs, ferns, and humus below catch
the water and pass it slowly downward into the soil and rock crevices; and from this great natural
reseryoir, weeks or even months later, this water emerges in the numberless springs about the lower

mountain slopes, and feeds the great rivers that cross the hill country below.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXI.

(4) A SPRING ON SOUTHERN SLOPE OF MOUNT MITCHELL.

These perennial springs are fed by water stored in the forest-covered slopes of these mountains. They
maintain the regular flow of the many mountain streams of this region.

(B) A MOUNTAIN BROOK IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

In the beautiful Sapphire country of North Carolina,

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXII.

(4) LANDSLIDE STOPPED BY THE FOREST, NORTH SLOPE OF ROAN MOUNTAIN. (See p. 32.)

(B) SMALL LANDSLIDE AT A SPOT WHERE NO LARGE TREES WERE GROWING.

li it were not for this forest growth the soils on many steep mountain slopes, when saturated from heavy
rains, would either slide down like avalanches. or be washed down by the rushing water.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

taries of the Tennessee with resulting devastation, which,
when added to that on the Catawba, sums up to more than
$7,000,000 damage. Add to this the damages from floods on
other streams rising in different parts of this region dur-
ing the spring and summer, and the total this year approxi-
mates $10,000,000. (See Pls. XX XV and XXXVI.)

Such has been the story, on a smaller scale, of other
similar but less violent floods about the sources of these
mountain-born rivers during the past few years. If we
are to continue the destruction of these mountain forests,
this story will have to be repeated in successively larger
editions in the future.

THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

As shown in the accompanying paper by Professor
Henry, of the Weather Bureau (p. 143), the climate of the
Southern Appalachian region possesses distinctive fea-
tures of its own, although it partakes somewhat of the
main features of the climatic zones both to the west and
to the east. Its distinctive features, due to higher alti-
tudes, are a lower temperature, both summer and win-
ter, a drier atmosphere, and at the same time a greater
rainfall and snowfall, and higher wind velocity. There
are of course local variations in the climatic conditions
of the region, owing to its extremely varied topography,
but the limited number of stations where observations
have been made in this region makes it impossible to dis-
cuss these local variations at the present time.

It is in temperature that we might expect the greatest
variations, but, unfortunately, with the exception of a few
months’ observation on Mount Mitchell (elevation 6,711
feet), no observations are available at elevations greater
than 4,000 feet. The highest temperature observed on
Mount Mitchell during May, June, July, and August in
1873 was 72° in July; the lowest, 41° in June. At High-
lands, N. C. (elevation 3,817 feet), the mean temperature
of the summer is given by the Weather Bureau records
as 65.7°, and the mean winter temperature as 35.4°. The
extremes during a period of eight years (1893 to 1900)
were 19° below zero in February and 86° above zero in
June.

The rainfall along the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge
is the heaviest in the United States, with the exception of
that on the northern Pacific coast, ranging from 60 inches

*S. Doc. 84-—3

Temperatures
in the region not
extreme,

Rainfall heay-
iest in the East-
ern States.

Special climat-
ic features.

Government
control the only
practical solu-
tion.

Protection of
these forests be-
yond the agency
of private indi-
viduals.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

in northern Georgia to 71 inches in western North Caro-
lina. The precipitation for the year 1898 in western
North Carolina at Highlands was 105.24 inches; at Horse
Cove, 99.97 inches; Flat Rock, 78.39 inches, and Linville,
71.05 inches. The rainfall in the warm seasons is often
torrential, while in the spring and autumn the rains often
continue oyer several days in succession. During May 21,
1901, the rainfall in twenty-four hours was, at Highlands,
N. C., 4.03 inches; at Hendersonville, N. C., 4.91 inches;
at Flat Rock, N. C., 6.12 inches; at Marion, N. C., 7.25
inches; and at Patterson, N. C., 8.3 inches. Near Roan
Mountain, North Carolina, a rainfall of 8 inches in eleven
hours has been recorded. In August of 1901 the total rain-
fall for the month at Highlands, N. C., was 30.74 inches.

The tables which accompany Professor Henry’s paper
show the temperatures, rainfall, and other weather condi-
tions at practically all of the stations established within
this region. They emphasize two facts of special impor-
tance in connection with the present discussion, namely,
that the climate is such as to permit travel and lumbering
operations in all portions of this region throughout the
entire year, while the rainfall, being heavy in the agere-
gate and often excessive within short periods, renders it
necessary to protect the forests in order to limit floods and
prevent the washing away of the land.

HOW CAN THESE FORESTS BE PRESERVED?

Having given what I believe to be a fair statement of
the conditions existing in the Southern Appalachian region,
and considered the danger growing out of the policy and
practice now in force, I pass on to inquire through what
agency these forests can be preserved. After careful
consideration I am able to suggest but one way to solve
the problem, and that is for the Federal Government to
purchase these forest-covered mountain slopes and make
them into a national forest reserve. :

Certainly, the lumbermen and the native farmers, who
are now pushing the destruction of these forests, can not
be expected of themselves to bring about their preserve
tion. Nor can the perpetuation of forest conditions, upon
which depend so many national interests, be left to the
caprice of private capital, which has no interest beyond
the profits in the Jumber industry. The restoration of
forests already injured, and the reforesting of the steep

PLATE XXXIII.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

LARGE POPLAR TREE GROWING IN MOUNTAIN RAVINE, ON THE WEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT

(See p. 32.)

SMOKIES.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXIV.

(4) SOIL REMOVED AND WHITE SAND SPREAD OVER THE SURFACE OF THE CATAWBA RIVER LOWLANDS.
(See pp. 32, 130.)

The damages along this river from the floods of May and August, 1901, aggregated about $1,500,000.

(B) LAYER OF SAND SPREAD OVER THE FERTILE LOWLANDS BORDERING THE CATAWBA RIVER BY A
FLOOD IN MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32. 130.)

Senate Doc, No. 84. PLATE XXXV.

(4) FLOOD DAMAGES ON ELKHORN CREEK, IN WEST VIRGINIA, JUNE, 1901.

The damages from floods along streams rising in this Southern Appalachian region, from April 30, to
December 1, 1901, reached $10,000,000. Between December], 1901,and April 1, 1902, they reached $8,000,000
additional.

(B) DEBRIS FROM FLOODS ON NOLICHUCKY RIVER, EAST TENNESSEE, MAY 21, 1901.

This débris consisting of the wreck of farmhous

furniture, lumber yards, bridges, cattle, and probably
several human bodies, covered 6a

res of fertile farm land near Erwin, Tenn.

PLATE XXXVI.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

(A) FLOOD DAMAGES TO RAILWAY ON DOE RIVER, TENNESSEE. (See pp. 32, 130.) (B)

FLOOD DAMAGES TO RAILWAY ON NOLICHUCKY RIVER, EAST TENNESSEE.

The flood damages here illustrated eccurred in May, 1901. These and similar floods occurring during August and December, 1901, and January, February, and March, 1902,
wrought damages to railroad property in and about this Southern Appalachian mountain region aggregating several million dollars.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

mountain slopes already cleared, are here properly national
functions, for their results will be national in importance
and extent. Furthermore, it is perfectly safe to assert
that any satisfactory protection and development of these
forests for the objects here contemplated is wholly beyond
the agency of private individuals; and such persons
would have no direct interest whatever in the protection
and perpetuation of water-power, agriculture, and navi-
gation along the lower courses of the streams whose head-
waters they control.

Nor can the States within whose territory these lands
now lie be expected to convert them into a forest reserve.
The land is not owned by the States, but by private indi-
viduals. It is true that some of the wealthier States, like
New York and Pennsylvania, are showing an intelligent
and commendable interest in purchasing forest lands and
establishing forest reserves for the protection of the
sources of streams lying within their own boundaries and
for the conservation of the forests. But the case is wholly
different in the Southern Appalachian region. North
Carolina can not, for example, fairly be expected to
establish a forest reserve at great expense for the protec-
tion of streams which though rising within her borders lie
mainly in other States. Nor could Alabama be expected
to purchase lands in the State of Georgia for the protection
of her great river which reaches the Gulf in Mobile Bay.
Nor could West Virginia be expected to purchase lands in
North Carolina for the protection of the sources of the
Kanawha River, the largest lateral tributary of the Ohio.

Furthermore, eyen were these States willing to enter
upon such a plan, their financial condition is not such as
to make the undertaking possible. The combined income
for a year of all the States within whose borders these
lands lie would hardly be suflicient for their purchase.
As shown, however, in the Appendix (p. 172), each of
the States within whose borders these mountain lands are
located has by legislative act expressed its hearty approval
of this measure and its willingness to cede the control of
these lands to the Federal Government.

This is a national problem. The people of a number of
States are directly interested. The dangers growing out
of the policy now in force are national in their character,
as are also the benefits to be obtained by the policy now
advised. This propesal for a national forest reserve has
already been discussed and commended by our ablest men

Ownership and
control by
State not practi-
cable.

Purchase

the

these forests too

ystly for

States, but
States willing for
Federal control.

these

ne
le

the
the

Protection of

ational

om.

forests a

prob-

National forest
reseryes in the
West.

Policy recom-
mended not a
new one for the
Government.

Forest reserve
more important
than a park, but
the two not an-
tagonistic.

Cost of the
mountain forest
lands.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

of science, by practical lumbermen, by the forestry asso-
ciations, by many of the business organizations of the
country, and by both the technica! and the general press.
IT earnestly hope that it will meet with favorable action at
the hands of Congress during its present session.

Congress has wisely provided for the setting aside out
of the public domain, and thus withdrawing from sale,
many thousands of square miles of valuable forest lands,
with a view to protecting the streams and perpetuating
the timber supply about the mountains in our western
States and Territories. (See Pl. II.) And while the meas-
ure now proposed involves a purchase instead of a with-
drawal from sale of forest lands formerly purchased, the
principle and purpose are the same. In both cases, even
if judged simply as a question of finance, the Goyernment’s
investment will ultimately prove a good one.

As further illustrating the fact that the proposed pur-
chase will not be a new policy or precedent on the part of
the Government, attention may be called to the numerous
purchases of lands for military parks, and to the purchase
from the Blackfoot Indians in 1896 of more than half a
million acres of forest lands at a cost of $1,500,000, which
area was subsequently added to the Flathead Forest Reserve
in Montana.

As I stated in my preliminary report of January last,
the early movement for the purchase and control of a large
area of forest land in the East by the Government chiefly
contemplated a national park, but the idea of a national
park is conservation, not use; that of a forest reserve is
conservation by use, and I therefore recommend the estab-
lishment of a forest reserve instead of a park. If, how-
ever, the present proposal for the establishment of a
national forest reserve is favorably acted upon by Con-
gress, and at some future time it should prove desirable
that some considerable portion of this region be set aside
and opened up more especially for use as a national park,
T can see in advance no objection whatever to the carrying
out of such a plan.

CONDITIONS OF PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT.

I stated in the preliminary report just referred to that
lands in this region suitable for a forest reserve are now
generally held in large bodies of from 50,000 to 100,000
acres, and that they can be purchased at prices ranging

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 37

from $2 to $5 per acre. Further investigations during
the present year confirm the correctness of this statement.
There are also many additional tracts of forest lands rang-
ing from 1,000 to 50,000 acres each that are for sale at
reasonable prices. Within the present year a few tracts
of from 10,000 to 30,000 acres sold at less than $2 per
acre. Within the past decade the larger portion of this
area could have been purchased in large tracts at prices
ranging from $1 to $2 an acre; but in view of the grow-
ing demand for forest lands, prices have already advanced,
and they may be expected to advance still more within the
next few years.

Within the past two decades the titles to many of the, Titles to the
large tracts of land in this region have been much in ‘"-
dispute, and the efforts to adjust them involved tedious
processes in court; but I am informed by competent
judges that in practically all of these cases adjustments
have finally been reached. Any appropriation for the
purchase of these lands should provide ample time for
the searching of titles, although no serious difficulty is
anticipated from this source.

Referring again to my preliminary report, I may quote , joan name
a statement which has been further confirmed by the re- 224, "i ult.
sults of the present year that ‘“‘it is fully shown by the Prt —
investigation that such a reserve would be self-supporting
from the sale of timber under a wisely directed, conserva-
tive policy.” Inthe case of many of the European forests
under government supervision a net annual income is
derived from the sale of timber and other forest products
of from $1 to more than $5 per acre. I do net, of course,
suppose that under the different conditions existing in this
country a national forest reserve such as proposed would
yield such a result, yet I confidently expect that the reserve
now proposed in the Southern Appalachians will in the
course of a few years be self-supporting, and that subse-
quently, as the hard-wood timber supplies in other por-
tions of the country become more scarce, the lumbering
operations will yield a considerable net return to the
Government.

Meanwhile, the establishment of such a reserve will ae
remedy many of the evils now threatened in this region,
and under the efficient management of the practical for-
esters now being trained in this Department its working Bnet ee
will serve as a test and demonstration of the wisdom and torest reserve as

> . 5 C an object lesson
suecess of practical forest operations ona large scale; and will be great,

38 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

this will encourage both individnals and States to adopt
such methods of forest management on their own lands as
will not only protect the forests in existence, but also re-
store them on lands which should never have been cleared.

opment nora, 1 am informed by the geologists who are familiar with

terfered with. this Southern Appalachian region that the development
of its mineral deposits would neither interfere with nor
be interfered with by the creation and proper handling of
such a forest reserve.

menxistingsettle’ The settlements now existing within the limits of the

Heveel nla. proposed reserve would not be interfered with, nor would
their existence there, nor their legitimate enlargement,
interfere with the purposes to be accomplished in the
establishment of the reserve.

pamdage ners! It would not be wise at the present time to make public

giver the exact location of lands which may be thought best
adapted for incorporation in such a forest reserve, but the
general boundaries of the region within which it is pro-
posed to purchase these lands are indicated on the accom-
panying maps (see Pls. Il, IV, and XII). I am of the
opinion that the reserve should ultimately include not less
than 4,000,000 acres.

CONCLUSIONS.

The results of these investigations of the forests and
forest conditions of the Southern Appalachian region lead
unmistakably to the following conclusions:

4. The Southern Appalachian region embraces the high-
est peaks and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies.
It is the great physiographic feature of the eastern half
of the continent, and no such lofty mountains are covered
with hard-wood forests in all North America.

2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall
of the United States, except that of the North Pacific
coast. It is often of extreme violence, as much as 8
inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31 inches in one
month, and 105 inches in a year.

3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by
torrential rains, rapidly loses first its humus, then its rich
upper strata, and finally is washed in enormous volume
into the streams, to bury such of the fertile lowlands as
are not eroded by the floods, to obstruct the rivers, and to
fill wp the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now
washed from these cleared mountain-side fields during a
single heavy rain than during centuries under forest cover.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

4. The rivers which originate in the Southern Appala-
chians flow into or along the edges of every State from
Ohio to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi.
Along their courses are agricultural, water-power, and
navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely essen -
tial to the well-being of the nation.

5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be
accomplished only by the conservation of the forests.

6. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard-wood
forests of the continent. In them species from east and
west, from north and south, mingle in a growth of unpar-
alleled richness and variety. They contain many species
of the first commercial value and furnish important sup-
plies which can not be obtained from any other region.

7. For economic reasons the preservation of these for-
ests is imperative. Their existence in good condition is
essential to the prosperity of the lowlands through which
their waters run. Maintained in productive condition
they will supply indispensable materials which must fail
without them. Their management under practical and
conservative forestry will sustain and increase the resources
of this region and of the nation at large, will serve as an
invaluable object lesson in the advantages and practica-
bility of forest preservation by use, and will soon be self-
supporting from the sale of timber.

8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appala-
chian region must be protected and preserved. To that
end the preservation of the forests is an indispensable con-
dition which will lead not to the reduction but to the
increase of the yield of agricultural products.

9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this
forest destruction continues, will increase in frequency
and viaglence and in the extent of their damages, both
within this region and across the bordering States. The
extent of these damages, like those from the washing of
the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with
perfect accuracy, but during the present year alone the
total has approximated $10,000,000, a sum sufficient to
purchase the entire area recommended for the proposed
reserve. But this loss can not be estimated in money value
alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of con-
ditions most valuable to the nation and which neither
skill nor wealth can restore.

10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and
of the agricultural interests here described can be success-

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

fully accomplished only by the purchase and creation of a
national forest reserve. The States of the Southern Ap-
palachian region own little or no land, and their revenues
are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action is
obviously necessary, is fully justified by reasons of public
necessity, and may be expected to have most fortunate

results.
James WILson,

Secretary of Agriculture.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Washington, D. C., December 16, 1901.

JIE DING DIO A

FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN
APPALACHIANS.

By H. B. Ayres and W. W. AsaHeE.

LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.
By O.. W. Price.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS,
BY RIVER BASINS.
By H. B. Ayres and W. W. AsuHeE.

TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.
By W. W. AsHe and H. B. Ayres.

LIST OF SHRUBS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.
By W. W. AsHE.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Unirep Srares DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BureEat oF Forestry,
Washington, D. C., December 18, 1901.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the forests
and forest conditions of the Southern Appalachians, including a descrip-
tion of them by mountain groups, an account of lumbering in the South-
ern Appalachians, and a description of their forests by river basins,
together with an annotated account of the trees of the region and a
list of the shrubs.
Very respectfully, GrrrorD PiyxcnHor,
Forester.
The Secrerary or AGRICULTURE.

FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN
APPALACHIANS.

By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ase.

The Southern Appalachian Mountains extend from Vir-
ginia southwestward into Alabama, and lie between the
Piedmont Plateau on the southeast and the lowlands of
East Tennessee on the northwest. That this is preemi-
nently a region of mountains is well illustrated by the fact
that the mountain slopes occupy 90 per cent of the total
area; and probably the combined area of the valleys and
gentler slopes (of less than 10 degrees—about 2 feet in 10)
will notaggregate more than 15 per cent of the whole.
Before the advent of man the entire region, save the tops ,,Entite moun-

in region origi-

of a few high mountains—the grassy ‘‘ balds”—was coy- Rally forest coy-
ered with forest, mainly hard wood. (See Pl. XX XVII.)
Then, as now, the forest varied as to density and vigor
of growth, but a far larger portion of that existing then
is resembled by the best of to-day on such tracts as are
found in the most favored situations and have been pro-
tected from fire and severe culling.

A total area of 5,400,000 acres has been examined in
connection with this investigation, and of this 4,050,000
acres, or 75 per cent of the whole, are still in forest. Of
this total area in forest about 7.4 per cent, or 303,000
acres, is still in primeval condition, i. e., has never been
culled at all. The remainder of this wooded area has been
culled toa varying extent. (See Pl. XX XVIII.) A limited , Nature andex-
portion of that near the railway lines has been robbed of ings.
nearly everything of commercial value, while the remote
areas have had only the walnut, cherry, and figured woods
cut. From the intervening areas, far the larger part of
the whole, a varying proportion of the most valuable
trees have been removed, but large amounts of commer-
cial timber still remain. The-clearing and culling of a
century have made considerable inroads into these forests.
The woodland connected with the farms has been largely

46 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

culled and is in part covered with trees of second growth.
In many places, where transportation facilities are avail-
able, the mills have gone into the heart of the mountain
region and much of the choicest timber has been sawed there
and hauled on wagons to the railroad. (See Pl. XX XIX.)

agenerai, char’ As to composition, generally speaking, it may be said

ests. that the forest below the 2,000-foot elevation consists of
oaks, hickories, and pines; above that elevation are many
hard woods, or hard woods associated with hemlock and
white pine. Some spruce and balsam occur on the cold
north slopes and around the tops of the larger and higher
mountains.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST AND FOREST CONDI-
TIONS, BY MOUNTAIN GROUPS.

subdivision of For the sake of convenience in description the forest
forest area. Og 2
area may be subdivided as follows:
(1) The forests of the Blue Ridge.
(2) The forests of the White Top Mountain group.
(8) The forests of Roan, Grandfather, and Black moun-
tains.
(4) The forests of the central interior mountain idee
(5) The-forests of the Great Smoky Mountains.
(6) The forests of the southern end of the Appalachians.

FORESTS OF THE BLUE RIDGE

The Blue Ridge from Virginia to Georgia is, on the
dryer slopes and crests, lightly timbered with small oaks,
chestnut, and pines, while in the hollows mixed hard
woods—oaks, chestnut, hickories, ete.—form heayy tim-
ber. The forests are on the ridges and steeper slopes.
The narrow alluvial bottoms and often portions of the
adjoining slopes have been cleared and are under cultiva-
tion or have been abandoned. But excepting these cleared
valleys and hillsides, the forests are almost continuous from
Virginia to Georgia.

While the hharediroe forests have been culled alone.
nearly the entire east slope, only the choicest trees of the
lighter woods, among which are white pine, have been cut.
(See Pl. XXXVIII a.) Before any of it was cut the
white pine on the Linville River was probably the finest in
the Southern mountains. A great part of this has been
removed. It is being transported on a narrow-gauge rail-
way via Cranberry to Johnson City. Millsat Hickory and

PLATE XXXVII.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

ORIGINAL FOREST, NORTHWEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 23, 45, 53.)

There are no lakes or glacial gravels in this Southern Appalachian region. such as abound in the Northern
States. Here the forest and the alone must catch the heavy rains and regulate the flow of the streams.
If the forests are destroyed the soils will be rapidly washed down into the river channels; and the terrible
floods will destroy everything along the great river valleys. (See also pp. 56, 133.)

i=]

abe

; a a

2
a

re ae

PLATE XXXVIII.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

(A)

SLIGHTLY CULLED MIXED FOREST, NEAR LINVILLE, N. C.

(See p.

(B) WHITE-PINE FOREST EXCESSIVELY CULLED, SHADY VALLEY, TENNESSEE,

(See p.

0.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Lenoir are cutting the pine in the Johns River Valley.
The other smaller bodies of white pine have been culled of
their finest trees.

FOREST OF THE WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN REGION.

This region embraces the northwestern corner of North
Carolina, the northeastern corner of Tennessee, and the
adjacent portion of southwestern Virginia. In this portion
of the Appalachians, the Unaka (here represented by Iron
Mountain) and the Blue Ridge ranges approach nearer
each other, and the intermediate land retains more of its
original character as a plateau lying between the great
Appalachian Valley, drained by the Tennessee. River, on
the northwest, and the Piedmont Plateau on the southeast.
The White Top group comprises the mountains along the
northern rim of the elevated mountain region.

To the irregular mountain ridge aaron in this more Topographic

northern region forms the boundary line between North
Carolina and Tennessee, the name of Stone Mountain is
applied. Here and there this ridge rises into peaks of
prominence. On one of these, Pond Mountain, which has
an elevation of 5,100 feet, the boundary lines between
North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia corner. Another
of these, White Top Mountain, some 5 miles to the north-
east, and a far more mmacsive and imposing mountain, rises
to an elevation of 5,678 feet. Stillanother, Mount Rogers,
on the Balsam Ridge, about 5 miles a little north of east
from the White Top, rises to an elevation of 5,719 feet.
The general course of this Stone Mountain ridge is to
the northeast as far as Mount Rogers and then continues
eastward as Iron Mountain to New River Gap. North-
west of it, in Tennessee, is another less regular and less
prominent ridge known as the Iron Mountains, reaching
an elevation at intervals of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet;
and 6 to 8 miles to the west of this latter, in Tennessee,
is the Holston Mountain ridge, reaching a still higher
elevation. These ridges are all approximately parallel,
having in East Tennessee a general northeasterly course.
To the northwest of these mountains lies the broad,
fertile valley of the South Holston; to the southeast is the
more elevated valley of New River, broken into an endless
series of steep, round-crested hills, mostly cleared, and
producing well in both grass and grain. Broad agricul-
tural valleys lie between the Iron and Stone mountains

feat

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

and between the Iron and the Holston mountains. There
are many farms on the southeastern slope of the Stone
Mountain, and its northwestern slope is dotted with clear-
ings. Extensive clearings cover the southern foot hills of
both White Top and the Balsam mountains. There is, how-
ever, in this group an almost unbroken forest, at least 6
miles in width, extending along the mountains from Eliza-

‘ bethton east to Mount Ewine, a distance of more than 60

Extensive
mountain for-
ests.

So ¢
miles.

The portion of this forest to the southwest of Damascus
coyers the slopes of the Iron and Holston mountains and
much of Shady Valley, between them. It is largely com-
posed of hard wood, with which white pine and hemlock
are associated. For 8 miles east of Damascus the forest
covers both slopes of Iron Mountain. It has been slightly
culled, but much burned. It is lightly timbered with oak,
chestnut, hemlock, and some white pine. A large area
lying east of White Top Mountain, on the upper slope of
the Balsam Mountains, is heavily timbered with spruce (see
Pl. XL) on and near the summits, while hard woods, with
some hemlock intermixed, occupy the lower elevations.
From the eastern end of the Balsam Mountains the Tron
Mountain extends almost eastward to Mount Ewing, a
distance of 40 miles. Its summit is dotted with a few
farms and pastures, but the forest on the slopes is almost
unbroken. It is lightly timbered with small oaks, chestnut,
hickories, and black pine. The forest has been severely
burned over large areas. A railroad has been built from
Damascus southwestward through Shady Valley, and some
of the finest white-pine timber in the United States is now
being cut there. (See Pl. XX XVIII2.)

South of this large belt of forest are a few isolated
mountains in the midst of the agricultural valley of New
River which have their slopes well timbered. The largest
of these are Phoenix, Three Top, and Elk mountains,
which lie between the north and south forks of New
River. Nearly 40,000 acres of this forest is unculled.
There are six holdings of 10,000 to 50,000 acres each; the
remainder is held in small areas of a few hundred acres.
The farming region of both the New and Holston river
valleys is dotted with wood lots sufficient to supply the
needs of the resident population.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XXXIX.

(4) HAULING LOGS TO THE MOUNTAIN SAWMILL. (See p. 46.)

(B) HAULING MOUNTAIN LUMBER TO THE RAILWAY STATION.

AR
RNs Wes.

PLATE XL.

Senate Doc. No. 84,

MPH a as oT pee

(See pp. 28, 48.)

SPRUCE FOREST NEAR SUMMIT OF WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN, VIRGINIA.

covered by a dense growth of moss, flowers, and shrubs, the

forest growth and <

Protected by a dense

g dry seasons.

eatch and store the heavy rains for use durin

on the steep mountain slopes

soils

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 49

FORESTS OF ROAN, GRANDFATHER, AND THE BLACK
MOUNTAINS.

Roan Mountain stands as a prominent figure in this, Topographic
group of four similar large, isolated mountain masses— ‘7°:
Beech, Grandfather, Roan, and Black mountains—in a
region which is largely devoted to agriculture. These
mountains are alike in the general character of the forests
on their slopes, and the agricultural lands about their
foothills and intervening valleys. They are all heavily
timbered, and, though much of their forest has been par-
tially lumbered, only occasional choice trees have been
cut, causing no break in the forest and little change in its
condition. Mixed hardwoods form the dominant element,
and associated with them are small areas of hemlock.
Limited areas of spruce are found on or near their tops.
Beech Mountain is the lowest of these four. It has
few coniferous trees about it except hemlock and white
pine on its northern slope, while large areas on the sum-
mits of Grandfather, Roan, Black, and Cragey mountains
are occupied by spruce and balsam forests. These forests
are virtually primeval, and trees of all sizes and ages are
found intermingled, showing abundant reproduction and
an undisturbed forest equilibrium. Along the drier por-
tions of the summits and the ridges leading up to them,
especially on the south slopes, fires have in some places
done considerable damage. But areas entirely fire killed
are small.

(1) The Beech Mountain group, including Sugar Moun- , Forests and

topographic
tain and other smaller peaks near it, lies between Watauga featnres: about
River and Banners Elk Creek and is the most northerly
group. It has an area of about 70,000 acres (110 square
miles), 20,000 acres (82 square miles) or about 30 per cent
of which are cleared. It isthe lowest of the four groups,
having an altitude of only 5,522 feet. It is separated from
Grandfather Mountain, which is about 15 miles southeast
of its summit, by the valley of the Watauga River and
from Roan Mountain, which is about the same distance to
the southwest, by the valley of Elk Creek, which is partly
cleared. Although the south slope of the mountain is
steep, the soil is deep and mellow and grass farms extend
nearly to the summit. There are also a few farms on the
northern slopes.
The original forests of Beech Mountain are now largely
confined to the deep hollows on the northern slopes. The

*S. Doc. 84——4

50 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

greater part of them have been culled in degrees varying

with their ease of access.
Forests and 9) a P > iV 97 “7 aS Bays (alan Le
decane se: (2) ne Grandfather Mountain group, including Grand
tures about the father and Grandmother mountains, lieson the Blue Ridge,

Grandfather

ivorniniepi¥aL and is the highest point in that range, having an altitude
of 5,964 feet. While it is situated on the Blue Ridge, its
affinities, so far as its forests are concerned, are with
the interior mountain areas and not with the eastern slope
of the Blue Ridge.

The agricultural lands of this region lie to the north of
the Grandfather along New and Watauga rivers, to the
west in the valley of North ‘Toe River, and on the low
mountains and round hills, dotted with clearings, lying be-
tween the Grandfather and Roan groups. This mountain
group contains an area of more than 100,000 acres, only
a small portion of which is cleared. The cleared land
is located chiefly among the headwaters of Linville and
Watauga rivers.

The topography of the entire group is rough, with steep
and often rocky slopes. Many of the farms are on land
which is too steep for profitable agricuitural use. The
eastern and southern slopes of the mountains are lightly
timbered. The western and northern slopes haye been
somewhat culled, but are still heavily wooded. A dense
mixed forest covers the northern slope and extends across
the valley of Boone Fork of Watauga River, which is yet
uncleared for a distance of more than 5 miles from its head.

(8) The Roan Mountain group, including Roan Moun-
tain, Yellow Mountain, and Spear Top, lies on the bound-
dary line between North Carolina and Tennessee, between
Doe and Toe rivers. It rises from a base of 2,000 feet to
a height of 6,313 feet. The area of this group is about
120,000 acres, over one-fourth of which, or 35,000 acres,
is cleared. The slopes are slightly more gentle than on
any other of the large mountains, and are well wooded,
though dotted with clearings. The entire wooded portion
of this area is well timbered. The north slope, being
nearest to the railroad, has been more culled, but some
timber has also been cut on the south slopes at the heads
of Big and Little Rock creeks.

Forestsand to- (4) [he Black Mountains, which lie just west of the Blue

pography about | ei 5 iS :
the Black Moun- Ridge, a few miles north of where the latter range is
tains and the > = a 9 " 2
Craggies. crossed by the Southern Railway, are a series of short
ridges. The most massive of these is that of Black Moun-

tain proper, which diverges from the Blue Ridge and extends

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

northward 10 miles toa rather abrupt ending. The larger
part of this ridge rises above 6,000 feet, and Mount
Mitchell, the highest of half a dozen grand peaks, reaches
an elevation of 6,711 feet. From near the southern end
of the Blacks the Craggy Mountain ridge extends south-
westward for a distance of nearly 10 miles, and from this
same point the Yates Knob ridge extends northwestward
in a less regular form toward the Unaka range. These
mountains lie between Toe River on the north and the
Swannanoa on the south. At the southern end of the
Blacks they touch the Blue Ridge. They are from 15 to
30 miles south of Roan Mountain and 30 miles southwest of
the Grandfather. The group has an area of more than
170,000 acres, about 20,000 acres of which are cleared.
Forests cover nearly the entire area of the Craggy Moun-
tains, though they are not so dense, nor so nearly in their
original condition as are those on the Black Mountains, as
more or less lumbering has been done along both the eastern
and the western slopes. Some of these slopes, too, have
suffered much from fire and are almost destitute of young
trees and undergrowth. The densest and most primitive
forests of the region lie on the west slope of the Black
Mountains about the headwaters of Caney River. (See
Pl. XIII.) Those on the east slope of the Blacks are much
lighter and have suffered more from fires.

FORESTS OF THE CENTRAL INTERIOR MOUNTAIN RIDGES.

The Balsam Mountains make up the longest of the cross
ridges in the Southern Appalachians, extending from
Mount Guyot, the highest of the Unakas, on the Ten-
nessee line, in a general southeasterly course to Mount
Toxaway (Hogback) on the Blue Ridge, near the South
Carolina line, a distance of 40 miles. They reach their
highest point in Richland Balsam — 6,540 feet

Northeast of and less prominent than the Balsams are
the Newfound Mountains, which form another and shorter
cross ridge, extending from Mount Pisgah northward to
the Unakas. South of the Balsams, the Cowee and Nan-
tahala mountains each form short cross ridges, rising to
less than 5,500 feet, which extend from the Blue Ridge
on the Georgia State line northwesterly to the Great
Smokies of the Unaka Range.

These cross ridges are in their general features all much
alike, with frequent steep rocky slopes and sharp crests.
There is very little land on them suited to agriculture,

Topography.

Agriculture.

General forest
conditions.

Forests about
the Newfound
Mountains.

Forests about
the Balsam
Mountains.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

except in the narrow valleys and coves. (See Pl. XLIII.)
The soils are generally thin and light, in some places
sandy, rarely clayey. These mountains, however, are
surrounded by agricultural valleys, except near the north-
west ends of the Balsam and Newfound mountains, where
these join the Unakas. The forests on the northwestern
portion of the Balsam Mountains are really a continuation
of those of the Great Smokies, and resemble them in the
species represented and in the general forest conditions.
The forests on the east side of the Balsams and on the
Newfound, Cowee, and Nantahala mountains are much
alike, but the Balsam Mountains are much more heavily
wooded than the others, especially on their northern
slopes, and have more of the softer woods, like linn,
buckeye, and ash. The southern slopes of all are lightiy
wooded and have been injured by fire to some extent, so
that in places the forest is open and young timber trees
are scant. Much of the best timber has been culled from
the Newfound and Nantahala mountains. The larger part
of the forest land on the eastern spur of the Balsams
(about Mount Pisgah) is under forest protection.

The forests of the Newfound Mountains are formed of
hard woods, largely oak and chestnut, associated with white
pine. As they lie nearer the main line of the Southern
Railway, and on account of the topography were easily
lumbered, they have been more culled than those of the
other cross chains. Some general lumbering has been
done on Wolf and Shut-in creeks, and an attempt has been
made to remove all the merchantable timber from some
large tracts. At most, however, it amounts to only severe
culling. The forests of the Cowee and Nantahala moun-
tains are very much alike. They consist of hard woods,
in which oak, chestnut, hickory, and maple form the
largest element. There is almost an entire absence of
coniferous growth, the hemlock, which is associated with
the hard woods elsewhere, being almost wanting here.
Much culling has been done in the forests at the north ends
of these mountains, where they are nearer the Murphy
branch of the Southern Railway.

The Balsam Mountains are more heavily timbered than
the other cross ridges. On both northern and southern
slopes there are deep, cool hollows, or coves, with fertile
soil, producing vigorous growth, and as there has been
very little culling these forests are very nearly primeval.
They consist of typical Southern Appalachian harp

Senate Doc. No. 84.

PLATE XLI.

FORESTS ON THE SOUTHERN SLOPES OF

THE BLUE RIDGE, ABOUT MOUNT TOXAWAY,

IN THE SAPPHIRE COUNTRY, WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA.

(Photographed by Seadin.)

(See pp. 51, 52.)

ato: diy Sie

PLATE XLII.

Senate Doc, No. 84,

FORESTS ON THE SLOPES OF NANTAHALA GORGE, WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA. (See p.

The soil on these slopes is thin and would be quickly remoyed by the rains if the forests were destroyed,

PLATE XLIII.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

FORESTS AND CLEARINGS ABOUT THE SOUTHEASTERN SLOPES OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS, BETWEEN CROSS RIDGES.

The clearings are small Indian farms on the Oconalufty River.

(See p. 53.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

woods, associated with hemlock and spruce. On the north-
ern slopes the softer of the hard woods form the dom-
inant element, as linn, ash, buckeye, and yellow poplar,
while the proportion of oak and chestnut is smaller. The
hemlock is associated with these in the deep hollows, while
spruce crowns the summits of the northern slopes. On the
southern slope oak and chestnut form the larger proportion
of the timber, and there are less of the lighter woods and
of hemlock and almost no spruce. The eastern, or French
Broad River slope about Mount Pisgah, is lightly timbered
with oak and chestnut and has been much damaged by
fire. At present, however, it is under forest protection,
and a vigorous young growth is springing up. Railroads
are now being built into the forests on both the north and
south slopes in order to exploit the timber.

The almost precipitous walls of the beautiful Nantahala
Gorge, nearly 2,000 feet deep, are forest covered through-
out their entire extent. (See Pl. XLII.)

FORESTS OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS.

This segment of the Unakas is the largest mountain
t=} a

Topography
nd forest con:

mass in the Southern Appalachians, and it contains the ditions.

largest area of continuous forest (see Pl. XVII), with
the smallest number of clearings. It includes the Smoky
Mountains from the Big Pigeon River on the northeast to
McDaniel Bald on the southwest, and that part of the
Balsam Mountains which lies west of Soco Gap, with their
numerous spurs and subsidiary ridges. The region is
rough and rugged on both north and south slopes, and
rises from a low valley level of about 1,500 feet at the
larger streams to more than 6,000 feet along the crests of
the highest mountains. The wooded area begins on the
western foothills of the Smoky Mountains in Tennessee,
covers the northwestern and southeastern slopes of the
Great Smokies (see Pl. XLIII) and the slopes of the
Cataloochee Mountain.

The broad agricultural valleys of East Tennessee lie
against these mountains on the northwest, but elsewhere
they are surrounded by a rough country of lower moun-
tains, with narrow, intervening agricultural valleys. Less
than 10 per cent of this area is cleared. The clearings are
few and small, and lie chiefly some miles distant from the
crest of the ridge.

The forests are chiefly of hard woods, with a large amount ene
of coniferous growth around the higher summits and in ®t.

ture and ex-
of the for-

Topography.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

the deep, cool hollows. On the drier slopes, and especially
on the south sides, oak and chestnut form the greater part
of the timber, with some black and yellow pine on the
ridges. The timber in the hollows is more varied and the
stand is heavier, poplar, birch, linn, and buckeye being
associated with the oak and chestnut. The finest and
largést bodies of spruce in the Southern Appalachians
occur here, along the crest of the ridge and the north
slope of both the Cataloochee and Smoky mountains.
There are about 20,000 acres of spruce and nearly as much
hemlock. There is no spruce on the Smoky Mountains
southwest of Silers Meadow.

The forests of the north slope of the Smoky Mountains
have been much culled and injured by burning and _ pas-
turage. There is yeta great deal of fine timber, however.
Fires have also done much injury on the south slope,
especially to hard woods, and the growth is often very open
on account of the suppression of young trees by burning
for a great number of years. The valleys of Cataloochee
and Big Creeks are heavily timbered, though they have
been culled to some extent, and the ridges have often been
burned. A railroad is now being built up Big Pigeon
River in order to exploit the timber on these streams. A
railroad is also under construction up Oconalufty River to
remove a part of the timber from the east prong of that
stream.

FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN END OF THE APPALACHIANS.

South of the Nantahala cross ridge the Appalachian
Mountains no longer consist of two well-defined parallel
ranges with prominent cross ridges, but break up into a
number of small, low mountains, or small ridges, with
broad, alluvial valleys or low hills between them, or in
some places there are a series of low ridges which are
separated by deep, narrow, gorge-like valleys. In north-
western Georgia their identity is entirely lost, and they
pass into the hills of the Piedmont Plateau. While only
a few of these mountains have an altitude of more
than 4,500 feet, the topography is rough, as the stream
level is much lower than it is further northeastward,
not being more than 1,000 feet. The resisting char-
acter of the rock—quartzite, sandstones, and slates—
which forms these mountains, which have eroded into
sharp-pointed ridges with deep, narrow intervening val-

Senate Doc, No. 84. PLATE XLIV.

In Haywood County, N. C.

In East Tennessee. ~

BIG CHESTNUT TREES, FROM THE BASE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 238, 54.)

PLATE XLV.

No, 84.

Senate Doc,

FORESTS ON THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS; TABLE ROCK, SOUTH CAROLINA.

4
u
-
“

ore

apn eeen

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

leys, has added to the ruggedness of the region and its

Ss al 7 » aa
picturesqueness. Some of the largest of these mountains
are the Blue, Flat Top, Shooting Creek, and Valley River
mountains.

The northern slopes and hollows are often well wooded ,

with hard woods, chiefly with oaks, chestnut, maples, and
hickories. The southern slopes are lightly wooded with
oaks, hickories, and black and yellow pines, which also
form the forests on the spurs and foothills. In very many
places the forest is open and thin, and many trees are
defective. The undergrowth is often dense, consisting of
numerous sprouts from young trees which have been
killed by fires, and many shrubs which grow in the partial
shade of the thin forest cover. In other places there is
almost no underwood and no young growth. Repeated
fires have injured much of the timber on the southern
slopes and greatly impaired the general forest condition.
These fires are far more frequent and severe than in the
hard-wood forests northward, on account of the dryer
climate and soil and the large amount of inflammable pine,
and the resultant injury to the timber is more evident.
On account of the thin, dry soil the trees are smaller and
less vigorous than farther north, and the constant destruc-
tion of the humus by the fires still further lessens their
growth and keeps them small. The soils of the mountains
are generally thin and sandy and not at all productive
agriculturally. In many places they are very rocky, so
that tillage would be impossible. The altitude is too low
for grass. About three-fourths of the area is at present
in forest. Some of it is second growth, but only a small
part of it is such. There are occasional clearings, how-
ever, around the base of the mountains and in the hollows.
Lumbering has been in progress in many places and some
of the choicest timber has been removed, especially along
and near the Marietta and North Georgia Railroad.

CHANGES IN FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTHERN
APPALACHIANS.

The three agencies that have wrought changes in the
forests of the:Southern Appalachians are the fires, the
lumbermen, and the clearer of lands for farming purposes.

Fire has come as an oft-repeated scourge since the days
of early Indian occupation.

Forest con-
itions.

Injury by for-

est fires.

More than 78,000 acres of the region examined have , Estentandna-

of their

recently been so severely burned as to kill the greater por- d2mages.

56 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

tion of the timber, but the greater aggregate damage has
been done by lighter fires creeping through the woods year
after year, scorching the butts and roots of timber trees,
destroying seedlings and forage plants, consuming forest
litter and humus, and reducing that thatch of leaves which
breaks the fall of raindrops. Evidence of such fires is
found over approximately 4,500,000 acres, or 80 per cent
of the entire area. (See Pl. XLVI.)
The effect of forest fires is seldom appreciated, espe-

cially in this region, where so few timber trees are killed.
The killing of mature timber trees is, in fact, from the
nation’s point of view, the least damage of all; for were
only the mature trees killed a dozen saplings would stand
ready to fill the place of each, but the fires affect the sap-
lings much more than the large, thick-barked trees, and,
too, where spring tires are habitual seedlings can not grow,

preproduction as they are killed when very small. A forest under such
conditions can not reproduce itself. The timber trees die
out and are replaced by brush that sprouts from the roots.
One who studies these effects can see everywhere the dam-
age by fire in dead trees, scorched butts, hollow trees, dead
saplings and seedlings, in clumps of sprouts from roots of
fire-killed trees, in the openings, the half-forested land, and
in the annual weeds that occupy the burned areas, nature
using their humble efforts to cover the nakedness of the
misused land.

, Fires increase The damage by fire causing a loss of the earth cover

Heels, does not end with erosion, for it also prevents water from
penetrating and being stored in the earth. The roots of
trees penetrate deeply into the subsoil, and as they decay
leave a network of underground water pipes. The mulch
of forest leaves encourages numerous ground-boring worms
and beetles that keep the soil of an unburned forest por-
ous, not only favoring the absorption of water, but also
retarding the capillary rise of moisture to the surface and
its loss by evaporation. The mosses and humus of a well-
conditioned forest form wet blankets, often a foot thick,
the function of which is so evident that it need not be

sohites mpover- explained here. The dissipation of the chemical elements
of plant food into the atmosphere by fire and the rapid
leaching away of the slight residue contained in the ashes
is another injurious effect of the forest fires.

_Hites in, this The experience of the older countries should serve us

vented by Goy-sufficiently. to prevent our making a similar mistake of

ernment super- 3 5 °
vision, policy concerning our mountain lands. That the same

Senate Doc. No. 84, PLaTe XLVI.

DAMAGES FROM FOREST FIRES IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. (See pp. 24, 55.)

The fires do incalculable damage to the forests on the slopes of these mountains, injuring and often
killing both the trees and the undergrowth.

PLATE XLVI.

Senate Doc, No. 84

(See pp. 24, 55.)

(4) BASE OF PINE TREE BURNED BY FOREST FIRES.

(B) SPROUTS FROM BASE OF AN OAK KILLED BY FOREST FIRES.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XLVIII.

(A) GRANITE KNOB FROM WHICH THE FOREST, AND LATER THE SOIL, HAS BEEN LARGELY REMOVED.
(See pp. 25, 26, 56, 183, and Pl. XIX.)

(B) HUMUS AND UNDERGROWTH DESTROYED BY FIRE; SOIL BEING WASHED FROM ROCK BY RAIN.

When the fires destroy the undergrowth and the humus the soil loses its spongy covering, and the water
from the heavy rains rushes down to the streams and causes floods, instead of being stored in the soil
for dry-season supply. (See pp. 25, 56, 133.)

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE XLIX.

(4) DESTRUCTION OF FOREST ON MOUNTAIN RIDGES FOR PASTURING PURPOSES. (See pp. 26, 57-59.)

(B) CORN PLANTED BETWEEN GIRDLED TREES ON APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN RIDGES. (See pp. 26, 57-59.)

Many of these steep mountain fields are “cleared,” cultivated, badly washed, and abandoned, all within
less than a decade, and before the girdled trees have fallen to the ground,

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

effects follow the careless policy of burning mountain land
in this country as in Europe is proved by the already des-
olate condition of large areas in the Rocky Mountains and
the plainly legible signs of the coming consequences in
the Appalachian region.

The lumberman has been increasing his activities at a The effect of

somewhat rapid rate, and he is yearly going farther into
the forests. The damages he causes come not so much
from the trees he cuts in culling the forest as from the
additional trees and seedlings of valuable species which
he destroys in his lumbering operations, and the greater
destruction from forest fires which follow him, fed by the
tops and other brush he leaves scattered through the
forest. By his irregular cutting, reducing forest condi-
tions, he renders impracticable the inauguration of eco-
nomic, conservative forest management.

Following in the wake of the fire and the lumbering,

lumbering.

The effect of

clearing steep

and surpassing them both in the completeness and perma- ™ountain sides.

nency of the damage done, is the man who clears for ordi-
nary agricultural purposes mountain lands which should
forever remain in forest. The clearing of lands in this
region for agricultural purposes has progressed slowly
but steadily during the past century as the population

increased, until at the present time there are 1,200,000 Percentage of

examined. (See Pl. XII.) When it is considered that
the settlement of this region has been in progress for
more than a century the extent of the area devoted to
agriculture is small. The reason for this is found in the
unprofitableness of cultivating lands with such steep
slopes. The cleared lands are mostly limited to the allu-
vial bottoms along the streams, the rounded valley hills,
the lower mountain spurs, and the lower slopes of the
larger mountains themselves below 4,000 feet elevation.
In some localities, especially in the region around Roan
Mountain and on the Blue Ridge north of Gillespie Gap,
there are large areas of cleared land at an elevation of
from 3,500 to 5,000 feet; but these are mostly grass farms,
are not subject to continuous tillage, as are the corn lands
below, and hence do not deteriorate so rapidly. Some of
the slopes that are cultivated are very steep—from 30 to
40 degrees—some of them too steep even for the mountain

steer and bull-tongue plow, and must be cultivated entirely
by hand.

. ee pA and
acres (24 per cent) cleared out of a total of 5,400,000 acres cleared.

already

Method of
clearing.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

The staple grain produced throughout this region is
corn, which yields more heavily than small grain and is
more easily managed on the steep slopes. On clearing
the land for cultivation the standing trees are girdled to
kill them, so that neither their shade nor their growing
roots will injure the crops. Some of the trees thus killed
are used for fencing and fuel, but the greater number of
them fall in a few years and are then rolled into heaps
and burned. Corn or buckwheat is usually grown on
these newly cleared fields, between the girdled trees during
the first season (see Pl. XLIX.) Following this corn may
be planted one or two years more; then small grain, either
wheat, rye, or oats, for one or two years; then grass for
a few years; then follow worthless weeds, and then the gul-
lies. When first cleared most of this mountain-side land is
covered with a layer of humus several inches thick, and the
soil below is black and porous, owing to the large percent-

The process ofage of vegetable matter it contains; but on cultivation and

erosion.

Early aban-
donment and
ruin of these
cleared moun-
tain slopes.

exposure to the sun and washing rains this organic matter
is rapidly dissipated. In this process most of the soil is
washed away; the remainder shrinks and consolidates,
thus losmg much of its power to absorb water rapidly, and
loses its fertility by the continued eroding and dissolving
action of the rains.

Hence these cleared mountain lands haye a short-lived
usefulness, and new clearings are made to replace the fields
which from year to year are abandoned because they cease
to be productive. A few years of cultivation for fields on
these steeper mountain slopes usually brings them to the
end of their usefulness for agricultural purposes. This
may be followed by a few years of pasturage, and then
come abandonment and ruin. (See Pls. 1, XX,and X XI.)
Over the eroded foothills, along the eastern base of the
Blue Ridge and western base of the Unakas, young pines
may slowly cover again the eroded surface of the moun-
tain slope, but over the more elevated portion of the
Appalachian Mountain region the erosion, whether it be
in gullies, visible for miles, or in the more common form
in which the whole surface moves downward, is so rapid
that the hard-wood forests, slower to reproduce, do not
readily regain their footing, and hence the work of land
destruction continues.

The limited alluvial or bottom lands in this region being
the most productive and easiest cultivated, were naturally
the first to be cleared, and these are now nearly all in cul-

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

tivation; but with an increasing population the demand for
additional fields to cultivate has led to the clearing of these
mountain-side patches successively higher up the slopes,
until now the area of these clearings considerably exceeds
the area of the bottom lands. This process has gone on the
more rapidly because of the rapidity with which these
steep lands have been worn out andabandoned. ‘There are
yet many places where the gentler slopes might perhaps
be cleared to meet the agricultural demands of the region,
but unquestionably the steeper areas already cleared should
be at once reforested in order to prevent their early ruin.
All lands in this region remaining cleared for farming
purposes should be kept in the highest state of cultivation,
and those of even the gentler slopes should be carefully
terraced, and as far-as possible kept in grass or orchards.

The effect of exposing mountain lands to the full power

Fields now
abandoned
should be refor-
ested.

of rain, running water, and frost is not generally appreci-.

ated. The greater part of our population lives on level
land and does not see how the hills erode, and even in the
hills nearly all the people go indoors when it rains and
therefore do not half understand what is going on. In
the dashing, cutting rains of these mountains the earth of
freshly burned or freshly plowed land melts away like
sugar. The streams from such lands are often more than
half earth and the amount of best soil thus eroded every
year is enormous.

The individual owners are to a great extent helpless in
preventing these unwise cuttings, clearings, and forest
fires. Some of them can care for their own lands, but they
can not, owing to their small holdings and small incomes,
regulate the policy which controls adjacent areas. Only
cooperation on a great scale, such as Government owner-
ship could provide, can stop these forest fires, check this
reckless clearing, and preserve these resources to the best
advantage.

The two great needs of this mountain region are:

1. The use of the land for the purpose to which it is best
adapted, which would require the keeping of 80 to 90 per
cent of it in forest, while the cleared land should be kept
in the highest state of cultivation for farm products.

2. Efficient and cheap transportation for the forest
products.

A remedy sug-
gested

LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS NOW AND
UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP AND SUPERVISION,

By Overton W. Price.

The protection of the headwaters of important streams in
order to prevent floods and perpetuate water powers, the
preservation of a great natural health resort and of impor-
tant agricultural resources, are perhaps the most valuable
results tha* would follow the creation and management of
the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve. The applica-
tion of practical forestry in this region by the Federal
Government would bear fruit also in the maintenance of
a sustained supply of hard-wood timber, in the production
of a steady and increasing income therefrom, and in pro-
viding a forcible object lesson to show the advantages of
careful and conservative forest management.

Lumbering is one of the principal industries of the ,,fresynt meth:
Southern Appalachians. The agricultural] resources of the 224thetr results.
region must remain limited because of its ruggedness and
the low percentage of arable land. Its development as a
grazing country is hampered by the lack of winter forage
and the temporary life of the grass covering in the lower
slopes. Its main resource of the future will be its hard-
wood forests, upon whose maintenance depends very
largely the best and most permanent development of west-
ern North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. The existing
supply of merchantable timber bas already been seriously
reduced, while repeated fires and unregulated grazing have
in many localities greatly impaired the quality and health
of the forest, as well as the chanee of its successful repro-
duction. Although there is still enough wood left to fill
the local demand, the cost of logging it is constantly
growing with the increasing distance between the market
and the source of supply. Around each settlement there
is a rapidly widening area which has been stripped*of all
merchantable timber under methods which too often render

Government
Management
would yield a

profit.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

it practically valueless for the production of a second
crop. In many localities serious harm has already been
done, which only time and care can remove. A continu-
ance of such methods will within the near future destroy
this great natural resource of the Southern Appalachians—
the lumbering of its valuable hard woods to supply a steady
and growing demand.

APPLICATION OF CONSERVATIVE FOREST METHODS
TO THIS REGION BY THE GOVERNMENT PRACTICA-
BLE AND PROFITABLE.

The application of practical forestry to the proposed
reserve would not only preserve the productive capacity
of the forest within its boundaries, but it would also pro-
vide a proof of the results of conservative forest manage-
ment which would be of value in inducing private owners
of forest land in this region to adopt the same measures.
There is no surer or quicker way of convincing the lum-
berman of the Southern Appalachians that conservative
lumbering pays better than ordinary lumbering than by
an experiment on the ground, based upon a thorough
study and effectively carried out.

The question of direct returns from the proposed
reserve is, from the point of view of the Federal Govern-
ment, a secondary one. Its highest benefit will lie in
those indirect returns which are of so vital an importance
to the best development of this region and its resources.
Howeyer, that the forests of the Southern Appalachians
can under systematic and conservative measures be made
to yield a profit from their management is certain.
Although local stumpage values are not sufficiently good
to warrant the application of an elaborate system of forest
management, they are high enough to make conservative
lumbering a sound business measure. The pecuniary
advantage of practical forestry depends naturally upon
whether it offers better returns than those to be had from
ordinary lumbering. Since it reduces present profits
slightly in order to insure a second crop of timber upon
the lumbered area, its superiority from a business point
of view rests upon the safety and value of the second crop.
Serious danger from fires, a poor market, excessive diffi-
culties to overcome in logging, or any other adverse con-
dition which seriously impairs stumpage values, may
render*the probable future returns from a forest insufli-
cient to justify conservative measures in lumbering it.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE L.

(A) WASTE IN SAWING AT A SMALL MILL IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (See p. 63.)

(B) TOPS LEFT AMONG THE TREES IN LOGGING. (See pp. 24, 57.)

These feed the forest fires so effectively that they sometimes destroy everything in their path.

Senate Doc. Ne. 84 PLATE LI.

(4) SAWING LARGE TIMBER AT A SMALL MILL IN THE MOUNTAIN FOREST. (See pp. 62-64.)

(6) BINDING POPLAR LUMBER FOR EXPORT, FROM THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Not only is there no unfavorable condition in the South-
ern Appalachians which is sufficient to render practical
forestry inadvisable as a business measure, but the oppor-
tunity offered for good returns from careful and consery-
ative forest management is a peculiarly favorable one.
The forest contains valuable timber trees, which not only
command a high price at present, but are rapidly increas-
ing in value for the lack of satisfactory substitutes, notably
in the case of Black Walnut, Cherry, Hickory, Yellow Pop-
lar,and WhiteOak. ‘The transport of timber presents some
difficulties, as in all mountain countries. These are, how-
ever, seldom sufficient to impair seriously the profits from
lumbering. Effective protection from fire is practicable
without prohibitive expense, while in its rate of growth,
readiness of reproduction, and responsiveness to good
treatment the forest offers silvicultural opportunities which
are seldom excelled in this country.

SOME EVILS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF LUMBERING.

Practical forestry in the Southern Appalachians must
comprise those modifications of the present methods of
lumbering which will not only insure a fair profit upon
present operations, but will preserve the productive
capacity of the forest and provide for the desired repro-
duction of the timber trees. Unnecessary damage to the
forest and total lack of provision for a future crop is
characteristic of the lumbering now carried on in this
region. Logging operations have generally shown an
inexcusable slovenliness, as foreign to good lumbering as
to practical forestry.

A clean lumber job is seldom seen. There is great waste
of good timber through poor judgment in gauging the log
lengths and in cutting stumps much higher than is neces-
sary. Butting off unsound portions of trees is not always
done; trees not wholly perfect are sometimes left to rot
where they fall. Care is seldom taken to throw trees
where they will do the least harm to themselves and to
others, and in consequence lodged and smashed trees are
very common. Overlooked sound trees are also numerous.

However, criticism of lumbering in the Southern Appa-
lachians must take into consideration the circumstances
which led toit. Almostall of the work has been done by
the farmers of the region in order to supply their fuel
and other household material and to add to the poor living

Conditions in
this region favor-
able for consery-
ative forestry.

Wasteful meth
ods followed.

Nature of the
damages.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

afforded them by their farms. These men are often ham-
pered by lack of capital, are generally wanting in the
knowledge requisite to good lumbering, and have had
always to contend with the difficulty of obtaining expert
loggers to carry out the work. Nevertheless, the near-
ness of large bodies of merchantable timber, among which
are valuable kinds, such as Cherry, Black Walnut, Hickory,
and Yellow Poplar, has usually made a fair profit possi-
ble under even the most thriftless logging methods. This
desultory cutting has heen going on for years, and although
the individual efforts have been small, they have removed
the merchantable timber from the larger portion of the
accessible forests.

RECENT LUMBERING METHODS MORE PROFITABLE,
BUT ALSO DESTRUCTIVE.

When the waning supplies of timber in the North and
East some fifteen years ago forced the loggers of those
regions to the South, the application of skillful and
systematic methods of lumbering began in the Southern
Appalachians. The newcomers, through the investment
of commensurate capital in logging outfits, the thorough
repair and extension of logging roads, and the generally
businesslike mode of attack characteristic of the trained
lumberman, have reaped a profit from their operations
entirely impossible under the slipshod, desultory lumbering
methods of the settler.

The harm done to the forest in both cases is very great
in proportion to the quantity of lumber cut. This is due
largely to the size of the trees and the fact that little care
is taken in the fellings. The damage to young growth is
increased by the absence of snow and by the fact that trees
are often cut when they are in full leaf.

The breaking downand wounding of seedlings and young
trees by the snaking of logs to the roadside or the river is
in some degree unavoidable; but the damage is often much
in excess of what is necessary. (See Pl. LIII.) There are
often, however, many more snakeways, or skidways, than
are necessary, and the application of a little system in laying
them out would save time and young growth on a lumber
job. On the higher and steeper slopes it is often the habit—
and one which ean not be criticized too strongly, except
in those rare cases where it is absolutely necessary on
account of the gradient—to roll the logs from top to

Senate Doc. No. 84, PLATE LIl.

TIMBER NEAR MOUNT ROGERS, VIRGINIA, WHICH SHOULD HAVE BEEN CULLED LONG AGO.

(See pp. 64-67.)

Under every system of forest management the mature timber should be cut and used. Otherwise it
interferes with the proper development of the younger growth; and when it decays and falls it
may feed fires so as to destroy the forest.

a
eon TD,
i

PLaTe LIll.

Senate Doc. No, 84

64.)

(See p.

UNNECESSARY FOREST DESTRUCTION ALONG THE SNAKING TRAIL.

PLATE LIV.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

, 68.)

(See pp. 6

REPRODUCTION OF HARD-WOOD. FOREST IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

s have grown.

The large trees have supplied the seeds from which the smaller one:

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 65

bottom, merely starting them with the canthook. A 16-
foot log, 3 feet or more in diameter, can gain momentum
enough in this way to smash even fair-sized trees in its
path, and when it passes through dense young growth it
leaves a track like that of a miniature tornado. The prac-
tice is in line with others to be observed in the Southern
Appalachians, such as the common habit, for example, of
leaving to rot the ‘‘deadened” trees which stand over
clearings. There are cases in which these clearings have
been inclosed with fences built of rails split from prime
black walnut, with no other excuse than that the walnut
happened to be within easier reach than either oak or
pine.

Under such methods, in which there is not only an abso-
lute lack of provision for a future crop but often a marked
absence of that forethought, skill, and aversion to waste
which go to make clean lumbering, most of the logged-
over areas in the southern Appalachians are only saved
from entire destruction of the standing trees by the gen-
erally scattered distribution of the merchantable timber.

OBJECTS AND POLICY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT
UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP.

In the application of conservative forest management
to that portion of the forests of the Southern A ppalachi-
ans included within the proposed reserve, the first aim
should be to protect them from fire. The safety of the
forest from fire must form the foundation of any system
of practical forestry which is to be permanently success-
ful. Fire has done and continues to do enormous damage
in this region. The chief cause lies not in malice or in
carelessness of campers or of lumbermen, but in the
ancient local practice of burning over the forest in the
autumn, under the belief that better pasturage is thus
obtained the following year.

The fires are started by the settlers upon the area which aero tog biom
is to serve as a sheep or cattle range the following season, tires.
and are permitted to burn unchecked. The result is that,
except where confined by roads, streams, or clearings,
they often spread from the wood lots of the foothills, in
which they are set, to the forests of the higher mountains,
there to burn unmolested until rain, snow, or lack of
inflammable material puts them out.

*S. Doc. 84——5

Tnprovement
of

in method
lumbering.

SOUTHERN- APPALACHIAN REGION.

The hard-wood forests of the Southern Appalachians
are by no means so inflammable as the coniferous forests
of the North and West. Forest fires in this region are
seldom more than ground fires, and only under the influ-
ence of exceedingly high winds in a dry season become
uncontrollable. With an active and adequate force of ran-
gers and a thorough system of trails, the protection of the
proposed reserve would be practicable. The good results
of its preservation from fire would be twofold. In addition
to the evident benefits of efficient fire protection upon the
forest would be the forcible example provided to prove
that the forest untouched by fire yields in the long run
better and more plentiful pasturage than if it be annually
burned over. The modification of present methods of
grazing in the Southern Appalachians, like the modifica-
tion of present lumbering methods, will follow proof of
its advantages much more rapidly than it would follow
propaganda. The one is no less important to the best
development of this region than the other. The advan-
tages of both could in no way be better established than
by their practical illustration in the proposed reserve.

The mountain forests of the Southern Appalachians are
silviculturally the most complex in the United States.
They contain many kinds of trees, varying widely in habit
and also in merchantable value, and the forest type is
constantly changing with the differences in elevation,
gradient, and soil. Their best management is difficult,
because the lack of uniformity in the forest renders it
necessary constantly to vary the severity of the cutting
and to discriminate in the kinds of trees which are cut,
instead of following only those general rules which suffice
where there are fewer species represented and the forest
conforms more closely to a single type.

IMPROVEMENT IN GENERAL FOREST POLICY
NECESSARY.

In order to reproduce these forests successfully and to
minimize the damage done by lumbering, first of all it
will be necessary to have a radical improvement in the
fellings. Such an improvement is entirely practicable
without additional cost per 1,000 feet B. M. of timber
felled. It often requires no more labor to fell a tree upa
slope than down it, or upon an open space rather than
into a clump of young growth; and it is in just such cases
as these that unreasoning disregard for the future of the

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 67

forest is commonly manifested in the Southern Appa-
lachians.

In the selection of trees to be felled the small farmers, ,ou/ ng, he
who for a long time were the only lumbermen in the **'*™
Southern Appalachians, have been governed by the same
considerations that govern lumbermen elsewhere. They
have taken the best trees and left uncut those of doubtful -
value rather than run the risk of loss in felling them.
Furthermore, the fact that they have lumbered generally
on a very small scale and have often had great difficulties
with which to contend in the transport of logs has led
them to extremes in this respect. The result is that they
have reduced the general quality of the forests in a meas-
ure entirely disproportionate to the amount of timber
cut. Asa rule, only prime trees have been taken, and
those showing even slight unsoundness have been left
uncut, except where the stand of first-class timber was
insufficient. Diseased and deteriorating trees remain to
offset the growth of the forest by their decay and to reduce
its productive capacity still further by suppressing the
younger trees beneath them, while in the blanks made by
the lumbering worthless species often contend with the
young growth of the valuable kinds. In other words,
the lumbering has closely followed the selection system,
but the principles governing the selection have usually
been at variance with the needs of the forest.

CONSIDERATIONS THAT SHOULD GOVERN IN THE
MANAGEMENT OF THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE.

In order to bring about successful reproduction of the
desirable species and to maintain the quality and density
of the stand, lumbering in the mountain forests of the
Southern Appalachians must be governed by the following
main considerations:

(1) Remove all diseased, overripe, or otherwise faulty pu enerel &
trees of a merchantable size where there is already suffi- =
cient young growth upon the ground to protect the soil and
serve as a basis for a second crop of timber. (See Pl. LIV.)

In extreme cases, where the condition of the forest is
seriously impaired by the presence of a large number of
such trees or where they overshadow and seriously retard
promising young growth, their removal may be financially
advisable when the sale of product no more than pays the
cost of the logging.
(2) So direct the cuttings that the reproduction of the , Cut se astoen-

P ge _ courage growth
timber trees may be encouraged in opposition to those of of yaluable spe-

Careful _ selec-
tion of seed trees.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

less valuable kinds. This can not be successfully accom-
plished in the Southern Appalachians by cutting a diameter
limit merely. A limit will by all means be advisable for
each species, based upon a study of its rate of growth and
the proportion which different diameters bear to its con-
tents in board feet. It will be frequently necessary, how-
ever, to leave trees of a merchantable diameter where
their removal would seriously impair the density or where
seed trees are necessary.

In the leaving of seed trees many considerations are
involved, only a few of which can be mentioned here.
The Oaks, Hickories, Walnuts, and Chestnut should be
favored, since their seed is too heavy to be carried by.the
wind, and much of it is eaten by animals. The marked
tendency of the pines (see Pl. LV), Hemlock, and Yellow
Poplar to reproduce by groups must be encouraged. On
south slopes and in dry localities generally, where Dog-
wood, Sourwood, and Scrub Oak contend with the timber
trees, great care must be taken not to disturb the balance
between them. The rich, moist soil of the Poplar coves is
particularly likely to produce a luxuriant growth of weeds
and brambles instead of tree seedlings if too much light is
admitted to the soil, while the Ash, Cherry, and Basswood,
which are only sparsely represented in the mature stand
and are further handicapped among the young growth by
their strong demands upon the light, will require an
exceedingly conservative method of management.

Pate LV.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

(See pp. 67, 68.)

REPRODUCTION OF WHITE-PINE FOREST.

White-pine saplings on cut-over land, Graham County, N. C.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS BY
RIVER BASINS.

By H. B. Ayres and W. W. AsuHe.

In order to present in more convenient form detailed
information about the forest conditions in the Southern
Appalachians, the following descriptions have been
arranged by drainage basins, beginning at the northeast
and moving around the mountains to the place of begin-
ning, in the order given below. This arrangement will
serve an important purpose in the consideration of water
flow and also the question of transportation.

The region has for this purpose been divided into the
following fourteen drainage areas: New River, South
Fork of Holston River, Watauga River, Nolichucky River,
French Broad River, Big Pigeon River, Northwestern
Slope. of Smoky Mountains, Little Tennessee River,
Hiwassee River, Tallulah and Chattooga rivers; Toxaway
River, Saluda River and First and Second Broad rivers,
Catawba River, Yadkin River.

NEW RIVER BASIN.
[712,000 acres; 50 per cent wooded.]

New River, a feeder of the Ohio through the Kanawha, Topography.
drains the eastern portion of the Appalachian Plateau
lying between the Blue Ridge on the southeast and Iron
Mountain on the northwest. The sources of the tributa-
ries are high, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, but the river valley
below the junction of the North and South forks has been
eroded down to an altitude of 2,500 to 2,000 feet. The
resulting topography is a system of deep, narrow valleys
and ravines, among which area few isolated peaks (having
an altitude of 5,000 feet and upward) and occasional flats,
which are of two. classes—(1) in high altitudes remnants
of the old plateau, and (2) along the larger streams, nar-
row, sedimentary fiats.

Agriculture.

Erosion.

The forest.

Topography.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

The greater portion of this area has been cleared,
although mostly too steep to be arable. The hills are
cleared for grazing, to which industry this land is better
adapted than to agriculture, in view of the great erosion
and the difficulty of maintaining roads in this remote and
hilly region. Excellent crops of hay and grass are the
rule on new land, and the custom is to crop and graze a
clearing until it wears out, then clear a new field.

Many of the old hill fields are now worn out by close
pasturing and by the erosion of unprotected humus, and
are being gullied to the underlying rock by every shower.

The forests of large area are limited to the higher alti-
tudes on the isolated peaks between the North and South
forks, and on Balsam and Iron mountains which form the
northwestern rim of the plateau. On the southeastern
slope of Balsam Mountain is an almost unbroken forest,
approximately 5 miles square; but the long, narrow strip
of woodland on Iron Mountain is considerably broken by
clearings and burns, while the portions of Pond Mountain
and White Top draining into New River have on them
only remnants of the old forest.

Scattered among the clearings of the valley are wood
lots, left usually on ridges and north slopes.

Composition.—The trees of these forests are principally
oaks and chestnut, with a mixture of white pine, hemlock,
black spruce, black gum, cherry, poplar, ash, cucumber,
buckeye, linn, maple, birch, and many unimportant species.
Altogether there are about 80 species of trees.

Condition.—All the forest is inferior in condition, being
either culled, fire scarred, or full of old and defective trees,
while a dense undergrowth usually covers the steep slopes.

The condition of these neglected forests would improve
readily under forestry, as valuable species are abundant
and reproduce easily and grow rapidly wherever they have
an opportunity. The outlying isolated wood lots, sur-
rounded by cleared land and held by thoughtful farmers,
are noticeably in better condition than the larger wild
areas in the remote mountains.

SOUTH FORK OF HOLSTON RIVER (SOUTHERN TRIBU-
TARY BASINS ONLY).

[238,000 acres; 80 per cent wooded.]
This area comprises the northern slope of the mountains
between Watauga and New rivers, and is principally a
long, narrow strip of steep mountain side, having a north-

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

ward exposure and an altitude of 2,500 to nearly 6,000
feet. In addition to this uniform tract, this drainage sys-
tem comprises the semicircular interrupted basin drained
by Beaver, Tennessee Laurel, Green Cove, and White
Top Laurel creeks, which join and cut through the moun-
tains near Damascus.

In this area are two distinct classes of land—mountain
slopes and alluvial or sedimentary basins. The mountain
slopes, steep and principally underlaid by quartzite, have
light soil, with thorough drainage both on surface and
underground, while the sedimentary valleys—as Holston
River bottoms, Shady Valley, Laurel Bloomery, and
others—have deep, loamy soils, remarkably fertile.

On the Tennessee Laurel substantially all the arable
land is under cultivation, but along Shady Valley and
White Top Laurel onty a small portion of the arable land
is cleared. The Holston River bottom is cleared to the
foothills of the mountain. This ‘and is well adapted to
diversified farming, but is now devoted principally to corn
and grazing.

Erosion is less marked in this area than in most others,
a fact which is probably due to the larger proportion of
wooded area.

The Tennessee Laurel is, however, subject to sudden
rises, endangering the narrow bottom lands and even the
lives of travelers who must cross the numerous fords in
the gorge. There is also much erosion of soil locally on
the older neglected fields of the tributaries of the Tennes-
see Laurel and on the poor portions of the foothills of
Holston Mountain.

Excepting a few mountain pastures, all the mountain
ridges are wooded, and both east and west of Damascus
are large areas of unbroken forest, covering both mountain
and valley. The north slope of Holston Mountain also
remains entirely wooded.

The forest of this drainage varies, naturally, with the
soil, altitude, and exposure, and has also been seriously
modified by fires. The northward slopes of Holston and
Iron mountains are lightly timbered with oaks, black pine,
chestnut, gum, etc., with some hemlock and white pine in
ravines, nearly all culled. The southward slopes of the
same mountains, and especially the lower portions of these
slopes, are better wooded, except as cleared or deadened
for grazing, and have some heavy stands of hemlock and
white pine, among which hard woods are freely distributed.

Cal

Soil.

Agriculture

Erosion.

The forest.

Topography.

Soil.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

The steep slopes west of Damascus and east of Como
Gap are in a very inferior forest condition, owing largely
to the long-continued prevalence of fires, which have not
only prevented a vigorous growth, but have even driven
out the most valuable species.

The trees of the ridges and north slopes are short and
crooked, and as a rule the land is very imperfectly stocked
and also very brushy. The forests of some of the tribn-
tary basins are in excellent condition, having more mois-
ture and better soil and having been less injured by fire.

Except on the driest portions, lands cut or burned over
are quickly restocked with valuable species, while the dry
ridges and summits are soon occupied by chestnut and oak
sprouts or by black pine, gum, sourwood, or trees of
similar value.

Prevention of fire and judicious thinning would soon
develop a valuable forest on these northern slopes, where
now there is very little material that is marketable.

WATAUGA RIVER BASIN.
[441,000 acres; 66 per cent wooded.]

This basin, tributary to the Holston, lies almost entirely
within the Appalachian mountain region. The main
source of the river is on Grandfather Mountain, a promi-
nent peak of the Blue Ridge, while the last mountain gorge
is passed near Elizabethton, Tenn., where the river leaves
the mountains. The highest points of this basin are Hol-
ston Mountain, 4,300 feet; Snake Mountain, 5,594 feet;
Rich Mountain, 5,369 feet; Grandfather Mountain, 5,964
feet; Beech Mountain, 5,222 feet; Yellow Mountain, 5,600
feet; Roan Mountain, 6,313 feet, and Ripshin Mountain,
4,800 feet. These are on the borders. The interior por-
tion is broken into many subordinate ridges, reaching an
altitude of 3,000 to 4,000 feet, with deep, narrow valleys
eroded down to an altitude of 3,000 to 2,000 feet.

Derived directly from granite, gneiss, and schist, by
decomposition, the soil of the mountains and ridges has
been fertile, much of it very fertile loam of excellent
physical as well as chemical composition. Washing, how-
ever, has carried much of the desirable material down to
the valleys and left the soil of the ridges inferior, espe-
cially on southward slopes. The valley soil is of two
general classes, (1) the red clayey loam of the lower foot-
hills and (2) alluvial bottom land, some of which is too

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

porous or too stony, but mostly excellent farm land. Alto-
gether, the newly cleared soil is very good, but many
burned ridges and old washed fields are in a very poor
condition, notably in the valley of Little Doe.

Along Stony, Cove, and Roane creeks, Doe River, the
main Watauga, and many minor valleys are excellent
large farms, growing corn, wheat, rye, oats, grass, and
vegetables. On almost every creek and in many of the
mountain coves are families depending upon the farm for
the greater portion or all of their living. While much
has been cleared that would be better adapted to timber
growing if a timber market were within reach, there is
altogether a large area that is best adapted to farming.
It is safe to say that a broad economic policy would have
little or no more forest land cleared than is now under
cultivation, and that attention should be given to keeping
what land is cleared in good condition rather than to clear-
ing more to be exhausted and washed until worthless.

In this basin it is estimated that the average damage by
erosion during the season of 1901 to farm land has been
not less than $1 per acre. This amounts to over $200,000
for the whole basin.

Damages to railroads amounted to $250,000, 19 bridges
and about 25 miles of track being washed out.

The damage to wagon roads can hardly be estimated.
In many places entirely new roads were necessary. The
damage was probably $500,000 altogether.

Buildings and personal property destroyed swell the
total loss to something like $2,000,000.

Distribution.—The remaining forests are on the ridges
and mountain ranges and spurs. These are somewhat
dotted with clearings, especially in the granitic region
south of the Iron Mountain Gorge and along the north
slope of Beech Mountain and the Elk Creek Basin. The
lowlands have been almost entirely cleared.

Composition.—Vhe hard woods, in which the oaks and
chestnut predominate, form a mixed forest on most of
the area; some ravines carry hemlock almost exclusively,
and on some of the ridges white pine is one of the prin-
cipal timber trees. Spruce is found almost exclusively in
some high mountain groups, while beech rules in zones on
high mountains and on the crests of some ridges.

Condition.—Nearly all of the forest has been or is being
culled of its most valuable timber, and is rapidly becom-
ing inferior by the predominance of old and defective

Agriculture.

Erosion.

The forest.

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

Erosion.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

trees and undesirable species. Fires are preventing a
good growth on large portions, although they are seldom
so severe as to kill much timber. The few areas that are’
in good forest condition are merely enough to illustrate
what forestry might do.

Reproduction.—Vigorous sprouts, seedlings, and sap-
lings abound on old cuttings and burns, and prevention
of fire and some judicious thinning would soon develop
a forest that would justify transportation companies in
building railroads to haul its products to market.

NOLICHUCKY RIVER BASIN.

[269,920 acres; 76 per cent wooded.)
h

A large portion of this basin lies within the mountain
region. Its three principal tributaries, North Toe, South
Toe, and Caney rivers, as well as several creeks of large
size, are entirely between the rims. Mount Mitchell, the
highest peak east of the Rocky Mountains, and Roan
Mountain, well known by ‘‘ Cloudland,” the highest hotel
ot the East, are both on the borders of this basin. In the
central part is a large portion of hilly agricultural land,
and along creeks are many narrow strips of flat, alluvial
bottom. In cutting through the northwestern rim of the
plateau, however, the streams have worn long, deep gorges
through the Unicoi and parallel mountain ranges, and the
narrow tributary valleys of this portion of the basin have
rapid torrential streams, very little bottom land, or none,
and very steep and rocky mountain slopes.

The soil is in general very good, especially that of the
lower portion of the interior basin, which was evidently
deposited as a sediment before the gorge was cut to its
present depth. The mountain coves also contain deep,
dark loam, which is very fertile. Some of the ridges,
however, have a light, shallow soil, owing to erosion of
humus and loose earth. .

Twenty-four per cent of this basin is cleared land, most
of which is grazed, although much of it is well adapted to
diversified farming, which is unprofitabie now because of
distance from market.

A great drawback to agriculture is found in the cutting
away of uncovered hill fields by the dashing rains and the
deposition of the eroded material on other fields in the
bottoms. The floods of the Nolichucky are well known.
They may be partly due to the topographic configuration

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

of the area, by reason of which a rise of the three main
tributaries at one time may cause a flood in the river.
There is no room for doubt, however, that.the large
amount of cleared land in this basin greatly increases the
floods. Every resident who has known the river ten years
or more states very positively that the volume of water is
now much less constant than in former years. In Yancey
County many of the steep slopes in the basins of Caney
River, Bald Creek, and in the vicinity of Burnsville, which
have for many successive years been planted in corn or
small grain, are deeply eroded, and some such fields have
been abandoned. The same statement will apply to much
steep land in Mitchell County, on the waters of Cane and
Big Rock creeks, and in the vicinity of Red Hill. The
lands at higher elevations, which have been retained in
grass, are less damaged.

The alluvial lands of the Nolichucky were severely
washed by several freshets during the spring and summer
of 1901, the most severe being that of May 20 to May
23, which caused damage to land and other property in
Mitchell County to the amount of $500,000 or more. All
of the soil on the flood plain of Cane Creek, 9 miles in
length, was removed, leaving only the large stones and
rocks, and many fine farms on North Toe River were
destroyed. More than twenty dwellings, several mills
and dams, and many million feet of saw logs are known to
have been washed away. In addition, the damage to the
public highways was $50 or more per mile, aggregating
$50,000, while the railroad sustained an equal loss in the
injury to roadbed, bridges, and culverts. (See Pl.
XXXV (b) showing wreckage from Mitchell County,
lodged near Erwin, Tenn.)

Although greatly broken by clearings, large areas of
woodland remain on the Unicoi and parallel ranges on the
northwestern border, on Roan Mountain, the Blue Ridge,
the Black Mountain group, and the western tributaries of
Caney River. In composition there is great variety.
Spruce and balsam prevail on the highest portions of the
Black, Roan, and Sampson mountain groups. Hemlock,
birch, maple, cucumber, ash, buckeye, linn, and other
moisture-loving trees line the ravines, while oak, chestnut,
gum, and other hard woods cover the ridges of the higher
altitudes. Oak and pine form a less dense cover, usually
very brushy, on the ridges of lower altitude.

The forest.

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

In forest conditions there is also great variety, dependent
largely upon the prevalence of fire. Fires are freely set
during autumn, winter, and spring, and great injury to
timber, forest seedlings, and soil results. A large propor-
tion of the timber trees are defective, and much of the
woodland area is imperfectly stocked.

The reproduction of trees is remarkably vigorous on —
cuttings, burns, and old fields, and growth is rapid. The
prevention of fire and the application of improvement
cuttings would wonderfully increase the value of the for-
est, which is the great natural resource of the mountainous
portion of this basin.

FRENCH BROAD RIVER BASIN (NORTH OF SKYLAND).

[555,840 acres; 51 per cent in forest, besides wood lots.®]

This tong and wide crescent-shaped valley heads on the

tue Ridge, which it drains from Swannanoa Gap to
Panther Tail Mountain (62 miles) and reaches entirely
across the highlands, which it leaves near the Tennessee
line, about 80 miles from its source. Around the borders
of this basin are the Craggy Mountains, Swannanoa
Mountains, and Estatoe, Panther Tail, Pizgah, and Max
Patch peaks, all high, forest-covered mountains. In
Madison County, where the river has cut through the
northwestern rim of the region, is a large area of broken,
mountainous ridges, with very steep and rocky slopes. A
great portion of the interior basin, however, is smooth
enough and fertile enough for grazing or farming.

The soil is extremely variable, though in general very
good. Thatof the lower hillsisa red clay, a fine sedimentary
deposit. It is fertile and recuperates readily, but erodes
rapidly when uncovered. The ridge land, as usual, is well
adapted to grass, but if closely pastured erodes rapidly
and soon becomes worthless. The best soil is found in the
coves and on the broad alluvial bottoms which border. the
river and its larger tributaries from the Blue Ridge in the
southeast to the head of the gorge near Marshall.

Substantially all the lowland is occupied by farmers, and
many of the plantations are very productive and well
adapted to mixed farming. ‘This is, in ract, one of the
best agricultural valleys to be found in the East. The
principal difficulties to be met are erosion of surface soil

“These wood lots are small and seattered so as to make it difficult to
estimate their aggregate area.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

on the hills and destructive floods on the bottoms. Much
of the mountain region is also under cultivation. The cove
lands are mostly cleared, and cleared mountain-side pas-
tures dot the landscape, as viewed from every high point.

This basin is no exception to the rule for the region.
Tobacco-growing on the lighter soils of the hills exhausted
field after field, and finally the whole industry was aban-
doned, leaving large areas of desolate land exposed to the
cutting action of raindrops and to gullying by running
water. The same process has been in operation on old
farm land and pastures. until on many small tracts, as on
the southward slopes of Poverty Hollow, near Barnards-
ville, there is but little soil left. There is hardly a farm
in the entire basin that is not more or less gullied, although
much care is taken by a few of the more thoughtful farmers
to keep the earth covered by a vigorous crop. The inun-
dations of the bottom lands are also seriously damaging,
and the general testimony is that they increase as more
land is cleared.

There is evident need of every protection against ero-
sion in this valley, where so many people and so much
valuable property are concerned, and where sudden heavy
downpours of rain are common.

Distribution.—Vhe higher mountains are still forested,
and the ridges and slopes above 3,000 feet are mostly
covered, although some of the ridges, as Elk, Spring Creek,
and New Found ridges have on them large proportions of
cleared land, and the mountain sides are often dotted with
clearings.

Composition.—In this region we have a mixed forest, in
which the oaks and chestnuts predominate, with a sprink-
ling of white pine, hemlock, linn, gum, beech, birch,
maple, ash, hickory, Shortleaf pine, poplar, cherry, wal
nut, and many other species of less importance.

Condition.— Besides the usual inferior condition of the
natural forest, fires, grazing, and culling have greatly
reduced its original quality. Bordering the farms are
many fine stands of sapling second growth, but the
remote mountains are full of defective trees and brush.

Reproduction.—Sprouts and seedlings spring up readily.
White pine, shortleaf pine, poplar, ash, walnut, and cherry
all abound in the forests in the form of promising young
trees. Sumac and locust here reproduce rapidly and
are well adapted to cover and prevent erosion on the old
fields.

Erosion.

The forest.

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

Erosion.

The forest.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

The farmers need to be taught that to recuperate their
lands, instead of letting them stand bare and idle ‘‘to rest,”
they should grow clover and cowpeas on them, and always
keep them covered as much as possible.

BIG PIGEON RIVER BASIN.

[845,440 acres; 79 per cent wooded.]

Big Pigeon River rises among the Balsam and Pizgah
mountains, cuts its way through the Unaka Mountains,
and joins the French Broad on the Tennessee Plain. It
drains an interior agricultura] basin which is oval in out-
line, the longer axis northwest, parallel to the general
course of the stream, and almost entirely within the Appa-
lachian Mountain region. It is circumscribed by lofty
mountains, with many peaks more than 6,000 feet in alti-
tude. Many minor ranges, springing from the surround-
ing mountains, converge toward the middle of the basin,
dividing it into deep, narrow valleys, except near its upper
end between the towns of Canton and Waynesville, where
there is a broad, open valley of alluvial plains and rolling
hills, dotted with low mountains.

The soils are loams and sandy loams, mostly fine grained
in texture, derived from gneiss and schists, though in the
mountains they are more siliceous and coarser—there the
product of decomposed sandstones, quartzite, and con-
glomerates.

This basin is eminently adapted to grass, except where
very sandy, and grass is the chief product of the region.
Corn ranks next in importance; while the cultivation of
wheat is largely confined to the broad valley of the Pigeon,
between Canton and Ferguson, and to the Richland and
Fines Creek valleys. Apples are extensively raised and
have a wide reputation for their quality, and truck farm-
ing is yearly assuming greater importance.

The alluvial valley lands have been little injured by
freshets, and the soils of the uplands, with few exceptions,
have not suffered severely from erosion, though a few
badly gullied slopes, due to the continuous cultivation of
corn, are to be seen in the older settlements.

The scarlet, black, and white oaks, associated with black
pine, formed at one time an extensive forest on the hills
between Canton and Waynesville, but this land, where not
under cultivation, is now in second-growth forest. The
forests of the mountains are of typical mixed Appalachian

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

hard woods, with, in the Balsam and Pizgah ridges, a small
amount of black spruce at high elevations, and some white
pine in the lower part of the basin. These forests have
been culled only of the most valuable timbers.

All species reproduce excellently under the proper
light conditions; and with exclusion of fire and a judi-
cious system of lumbering there would be no difficulty in
perpetuating this forest and increasing the proportion of
valuable species in its composition.

NORTHWESTERN SLOPE OF SMOKY MOUNTAINS.

[254,720 acres; 91 per cent wooded. |

This tract is a mountain side between altitudes of 1,500
and 6,700 feet, and is drained by Little Pigeon and Little
rivers into Holston River, and by Abrams Creek into
Little Tennessee River. The surface is eroded into fan-
shaped basins, very steep, and often precipitous near the
summit, with high, narrow ridges dividing the main
drainage basins. There is no alluvial land of consequence
except at Briar Cove, Gatlinburg, Tuckaleechee Cove and
Cades Cove.

In general the soil is light-colored and shallow, espe-
cially on the ridges and steep slopes. In the coves, how-
ever, and along the foot of the ridges where the slope is
more gentle, humus has accumulated and the soil is fer-
tile. In general physical quality the soil is loam or clay
loam.

Corn is the principal farm crop, and 50 bushels per acre
are sometimes grown on the best lowlands. This land can
not compete with the alluvial river bottoms, however.
Most of it is farmed only because it is cheap land and
affords a chance for a poor man to make a living (by hard
work.) The higher altitudes are favorable to fruit, grass,
and vegetables, and also to stock raising in a limited de-
gree, as cattle may roam in the woods and subsist on seed-
lings, shrubs, and weeds, and hogs in occasional years find
abundant mast.

In general, the earth is fairly well covered, and thus pro-
tected from erosion, but the few old pastures are worn and
gullied here, as elsewhere on hilly land.

In this region streams heading in unbroken forest are
notably clear and their banks show little fluctuation in
volume of water, while those from cleared lands are muddy
and inconstant.

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

Erosion.

The forest.

Topography.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

While present erosion is limited, there is evidence that
it would be very great if large areas of the earth were
uncovered.

Distribution.—With the exception of a few ‘‘ balds,” or
grassy areas on the higher summits, and the alluvial lands
of the lower coves and creek valleys, the forest of this
great mountain side is practically unbroken.

Composition. —The species of trees growing here num-
ber over 100, an unusually large number for one locality.
Northern and southern trees are close neighbors, and all
may be studied in traversing the different zones of altitude
from 1,500 to 6,700 feet, instead of the necessary 1,000
miles of latitude at an altitude of 1,000 feet. Almost
every tree enumerated in the accompanying list (p. 93)
grows here.

Condition.—While some remarkably fine timber trees
are here, the general average is far inferior to what might
be grown with so favorable a soil and climate. Fire, graz-
ing, and culling have reduced this forest considerably
below its natural condition. Imperfect trees and inferior
species are abundant, while some of the burns and cattle
ranges are very deficient in stand.

Reproduction.—Hardly any other forest in the country
would respond so readily to the forester’s care and demon-
strate so plainly that nearly all of this tract is best adapted
to timber growing.

LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER BASIN.

{1,018,054 acres; 91 per cent wooded.]

Little Tennessee River with its tributaries drains a
large area, extending from the Blue Ridge on the south to
the Great Smoky Mountains on the north, including all of
the territory between the basins of Big Pigeon and Hiwas-
see rivers. Its larger tributaries are the Tuckasegee from
the east, the Oconalufty from the northeast, the Cheoah
from the southwest, and the Nantahala from the south,
while the upper portion of the Tennessee drains the
extreme southern portion, heading on top of the Blue
Ridge. These waters pass through the Tennessee into the
Ohio River.

The upper or southern part of the basin lying on the
northwest slope of the Blue Ridge is an elevated plateau
region, having an altitude of more than 3,000 feet, with
low, rounded granite knobs and few high summits, and
broad alluvial flats, the deposit of the slow streams. The
Balsam, Great Smoky, and Unaka mountains, with many

PLaTte LVI.

Senate Doc. No, 84,

o Knob.

feet).

PANORAMA OF THE BLUE RIDGE, MOUNT MITCHELL, AND

it Mitchell (6,711

SOUTHERN

END OF THE BLACK MOUNTAINS.

(See pp. 50, 114.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

crests more than 6,000 feet high, form the watershed on
the north and west, and from these descend into the northern
portion of the basin many swift streams, which have carved
deep narrow valleys, leaving high intervening ridges with
steep and rugged slopes. ‘The watersheds between several
of these streams are high and rough mountains, especially
in the Cheoah, Nantahala, and Cowee ranges. The lower
part of the basin includes some of the most rugged land in
the southern Appalachians, with only a very small part
suited for tillage, and few alluvial bottoms; but in the
upper part much of the mountain land is not steep, and
there are several large and fertile valleys.

The soils in the upper part of the basin are sandy,
derived from granite, or in the Little Tennessee River,
around and above Franklin, where most of the good farms
are located, from schists, and are deep and fertile red
loams. In the narrow valleys around the high mountains,
where sandstones, quartzite, and conglomerates prevail,
the soils are generally thin and sandy, and poor agricul-
turally, but on north slopes and in hollows are well suited
to forests. The alluvial bottom lands along many of the
streams are also light and sandy, though those of the
Little Tennessee are silts of the finest texture.

All of the land available for tillage has been cleared.
Corn is the staple crop on both alluvium and upland, the
yield of small grain, grass, and apples being much smaller
than in other mountain counties farther north. At high
altitudes and on some of the stiffer soils grass thrives, but
on the whole the soils are too light and too subject to
drought for either grazing or forage grasses. Orchards
have been planted, but are much neglected, and only a
few apples are produced for market.

Much of the best valley land has been badly washed,
especially on Tuckasegee River and Scott Creek. There
are also many badly worn steep slopes on these streams
and elsewhere.

In general, the mountain ranges and spurs, and also the
ridge lands of the valleys, are still principally wooded,
although many clearings are found in mountain coves and
on mountain slopes. :

The principal clearings, however, are on and about the
alluyial lands, which appear on the map like broken chains
along the larger tributaries.

The largest unbroken forest areas lie on Oconalutty,

*S. Doc. 84

Soil.

Agriculture.

Erosion,

The forest.

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Cheoah, and Tuckasegee rivers, in the northern, north-
western, and northeastern parts of the basin, though there
are some areas of fine forest at the head of Nantahala and
Little Tennessee rivers, in the southern part of the basin.

At lower elevations the forests are of oaks and hickories,
associated with black pine. On the thin soil of the slopes
along the Blue Ridge small scarlet and white oaks, with
occasional bodies of hemlock, form the forest, while else-
where in the mountains typical Appalachian hardwoods
prevail, with some few thousand acres of black spruce
capping the highest summits of the Smoky and Balsam
mountains. The best timber has been much culled for
20 miles from the Southern Railway, which crosses the
middle of the basin. Repeated forest fires, started with a
view to improve the pasturage, have destroyed much tim-
ber on dry south slopes, and by continued suppression of
the young growth have greatly reduced the density.
Reproduction, however, is good, and if the open woods
were protected there would soon be a fine young growth
beneath the old trees. Proper distribution of species
could easily be secured by judicious cutting while logging.

HIWASSEE RIVER BASIN.

[223,456 acres; 71 per cent wooded.]

This drainage is tributary to the Tennessee River, which
the Hiwassee joins above Chattanooga, and comprises the
eastern tributaries of Hiwassee River above Murphy,
equivalent to the western slope of the mountainous divide
between Little Tennessee and Hiwassee rivers, which
divide is across range between the Blue Ridge and the
Smoky Mountains. The altitude of this tract ranges be-
tween 1,500 and 5,000 feet. Spurs from 5 to 20 miles
long reach from the divide toward the river, while deep
valleys extend from the river far into the mountains.

The mountain sides are steep and often rocky, while the
creek valleys, of which there are six prominent ones, have
considerable areas of alluvial flats and rolling foothills.

Even the alluvial flats along the rivers and creeks have
a large proportion of clay, and the foothills are almost
entirely clay. The mountain sides are loamy, the coves
very fertile, and the soils of the ridges light, often stony.

Corn is the principal grain crop. Grass does well on
low alluvial lands and in mountain coves, but burns out

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

on the foothills. There are some fine farms on Valley
River, Peach Tree, Tusquitee, Shooting, Tiger, and High-
tower creeks, but large areas of hill land are worn out and
abandoned to broom grass.

This basin, or part of it, seems unusually liable to floods,
as is shown by the cutting of banks and the washing of
fields. About the head of Peach Tree Creek, in 1900,
several *‘waterspouts” are said to have occurred at one
time, and the water from these joining formed a torrent
that swept across fields and roads, doing great damage.
Evidences of similar floods and of great erosion on old
fields are to be found in almost every mile of travel.

The uselessness of clearing the ridge lands has been dis-
covered by the farmers, and no advances of cleared land
have recently been made toward the mountains, but many
old fields lie wasted and wearing away, scantily patched
with broom grass, persimmon, and sassafras.

Distribution.—The mountains and spurs are principally
forest-covered, although here and there clearings have
been made in coves and along the tributary creeks. The
larger creek valleys and the river valley are principally
cleared.

Composition.—In this region is found a suggestion of
the difference between the forest of the cool highlands
and that of the southern slope of the Blue Ridge. In
passing from the highlands we are leaving the region
of most vigorous tree growth and approaching the piny
regions. Oaks and hickories are more numerous, but
shorter and smaller; hemlock and white pine are less
abundant; the birches and hard maples become rare, and
the southern red maple, pitch pine, and shortleaf pine
more abundant.

Condition.—In condition, too, there is a noticeable con-
trast. Fires have been more prevalent and have kept
decaying vegetation pretty thoroughly consumed. Fires
have killed less timber, but have done no less damage by
preventing that new growth which perpetuates the natural
forest.

On isolated wood lots and near clearings are many tracts
of thrifty saplings, but the general forest condition, owing
to fire and grazing, is inferior to that of the plateau.

Reproduction.—The first and essential step toward the
improvement of this forest would be the prevention of fire.
Much of the stand is now so thin that thinnings need not
be made at once.

Erosion.

The forest,

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

Erosion.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION,

Sprouts and seedlings will start freely, and the forest
would grow well as soon as the forest soil reached natural
condition again.

But few cattle are ranged in the mountains now, as the
grazing has been too much reduced by repeated fires.

TALLULAH-CHATTOOGA RIVER BASIN.

[848,588 acres; 89 per cent wooded.]

This tract covers the entire basin of these rivers above
their junction and drains into the Atlantic through Savan-
nah River. Lying on the southeastern slope of the Blue
Ridge, the altitude varies from 5,500 feet on Standing
Indian, 5,100 feet on Ridgepole, 4,769 on Scaly Mountain,
and 4,931 feet on White Sides to 1,000 feet at the junc-
tion of the Tallulah and Chattooga rivers. Many of the
peaks and spurs are extremely bold, and there are numer-
ous deep gorges and canyons. Along the creeks, espe-.
cially along the Upper Tallulah and its tributaries, are
alluvial bottoms of considerable area. Nearly all of the
cleared land (11 per cent of entire tract) of this system
is on creek bottoms.

Derived from gneiss and granite, the soil is generally
of good physical composition, except in the foothills,
where a stiff red clay predominates, which erodes readily
and is hard to cultivate.

The bottom lands are loamy and fairly fertile, but the
ridges have been so much burned and washed that on them
the soil is light colored, thin, and poor.

Corn is the principle crop. Grass, except in the higher
altitudes, does not hold. Sweet potatoes, cane, and cotton
are grown along the southern limit of this tract. Peaches
do well in the lower altitudes, and apples are grown on the
mountains.

The impervious clays of the foothills are frequently
found barren and gullied, because left uncovered. The
mountain ridges, having many stones and pebbles in their
soil, resist erosion much better than the clays, but this
advantage is counteracted hy the steepness of their slopes,
and the bed of every rivulet is eroded to the underlying
rock. The creek bottoms are hardly less liable to damage.
Sudden downpours of rain (11 inches have been known to
fall in forty-eight hours) often cause such rises in the
creeks as to cover the fields with gravel or cut them away.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Distribution.—All this tract is forest land except the
creek bottoms and a few mountain coves, which have been
cleared and together amount to 11 per cent of the area.
The denser portions are in the coves at the higher altitudes.

Composition.—There is a noticeable contrast between
the forests of the interior mountain region and of those
of this region about the headwaters of the Tallulah and
Chattooga rivers. Here the oaks are in greater predomi-
nance, and the hickories and Southern pines are more
abundant, while beech, birch, maple, buckeye, and other
lovers of cool air and abundant moisture are notably less.
White pine and hemlock hold to the higher altitude, but
are noticeably rare along the foothills.

Condition.—In condition, also, the forest is inferior to
that of the highlands. The injuries by fire are greater.
The rate of growth is further retarded by drought, and
probably by occasional spring frosts killing buds and
young leaves. The greater portion is in the condition of
natural forest, with many old, crooked, fire-scarred, and
otherwise defective trees and inferior species, and with
subordinate saplings, crooked and retarded. Because of
prevalent fires the stand is imperfect, many spaces being
covered with mere brush where a stand of good timber is
possible. Along the line of the old railroad grade from
Walhalla to Rabun Gap much burning was done at the
time of grading, and now the portion then severely burned
is covered with a dense stand of saplings, principally oaks
and hickory.

Reproduction.—Vhe absence of protection from fire on
its dry slopes would be the main difficulty in bringing this
forest into good condition, as sprouts and seedlings spring
up quickly where fire can be prevented. :

The effect of the no-fence law is plainly noticeable south
of the Chattooga River, where the forest is more severely
injured by fires, which are there fiercer because of more
combustible material.

TOXAWAY RIVER BASIN.
[52,243 acres; 95 per cent wooded ]

This basin drains into the Atlantic through Savannah
River. The headwaters rise far back in and in fact have, by
erosion, almost worked their way through the Blue Ridge.

The principal peaks about the headwaters are: Sheep
Cliff, 4,653 feet; Double Knob, 4,417 feet; Great Hogback,
4,700 feet, and Cold Mountain, 4,500 feet. The descent

The forest.

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

Erosion.

The forest.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

from these peaks is rapid and amounts to 3,500 feet in 6
miles on the Toxaway. There are few prominent points
within the basin, but the canyons are deeply eroded, and
cascades are almost continuous along the Whitewater,
Horsepasture, and other tributaries.

Derived from gneiss, and in general well forested, the
soil is fertile. It is usually a loam of good physical qual-
ity. The ridge land is, of course, less fertile, yet is capable
of growing valuable timber.

The few clearings that have been made yield good crops
of grass and corn, but the roughness and steepness of the
surface will prevent any extensive farming in this portion
of this drainage.

So little of the land has been cleared that eroded fields
are not a prominent feature of the landscape, as in many
other localities, but enough has been cleared to show what
the effect would be.

The soil, having numerous pebbles in it, does not erode
by rainfall as readily as clay or sand, but, on the other
hand, the slopes are so steep and the torrents so fierce
that it would be unwise to uncover any but the gentlest
slopes and the most fertile soil.

The forest of this tract is but slightly broken, only 5 per
cent being cleared. The northern portion, lying well up on
the Blue Ridge, has substantially the same species as the
forest of the highlands. The oaks, hemlock, and white
pine predomirate. Chestnut, ash, hickory and gum are
also abundant. Lower on the slopes the oaks, hickories,
and black and yellow pines become more prominent.

The forests of this region are variable. They have been
seriously injured by fires, and as a result have some large
openings on the ridges. Rhododendron and kalmia con-
stitute a dense undergrowth in the hollows. Defective
trees are abundant throughout, but the stand of valuable
species is poor.

Improvement in forest condition may be rather more
difficult here than elsewhere,, owing to abundance of brush
and the liability to fire. White and shortleaf pine are the
most promising species for a future forest.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

SALUDA RIVER BASIN.
[80,796 acres; 94 per cent wooded.]

AND

FIRST AND SECOND BROAD RIVER BASIN.

[44,400 acres; 80 per cent wooded. ]}

The small portions of these two drainage systems exam-
ined are so similar they may be described together. Both
lie on the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge, and both
drain into the Atlantic through Santee River.

The Blue Ridge at the heads of these basins is low—
about 3,000 feet—and the lowest land covered by these
descriptions is about 1,200 feet. The slopes drained by
the Saluda are steep and often precipitous, and include
Table Rock and Cesars Head, both bold rocky points,
affording two of the grandest views inthe whole region.
The cascades and falls through the glens of South Saluda
and other creeks are very pretty. There is very little
alluvial land on the creeks until they reach the plain at the
foot of the Blue Ridge. The slopes drained by the Broad
rivers are more moderate. The spurs here reach out long
distances toward the plains, while between these spurs are
rapid but seldom cascading creeks, with somewhat inter-
rupted alluvial bottom lands.

In both regions the soils are derived from granite,
gneiss, and schists, which, when they remain in place,
make excellent land, but when washed and the finer sedi-
ments left in one place, the coarser in another, become
less desirable, as the clays thus formed are too stiff, too
imperyious to water, and too hard to work, while the
gravels are too porous and too light.

Corn and cane are the principal crops of this region.
Some grass is grown on the small clearings in the higher
altitudes, and some inferior orchards are seen. Sweet
potatoes are grown on every plantation, and a few small
cotton fields were found on the edge of the plain.

The lack of grass on most of this area leaves the sur-
face exposed to the cutting action of falling rain, and the
eroding effect is so severe and so evident that, in the foot-
hills, no one attempts agriculture upon the ridges. Even
the gentler slopes on the border of the alluvial bottoms
are often gullied until they have become not only worth-
less themselves, but are a source of damage to the bottom

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture

Erosion.

[o.6)

The forest.

Topography.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

lands below, which receive the material washed from
them. (See Pl. LX VIL.)

The slight protection furnished by the frequently burned
forests does not prevent the washing away of the humus
from the woods, and being so light, it is carried far down
the stream to still waters before it finds a lodging place.

Substantially all the ridges and steeper slopes are for-
ested more or less densely, while the creek bottoms are
cleared. The cleared area on the Saluda comprises 6 per
cent of that basin, while 20 per cent of the area of the
Broad basins is cleared.

In composition these forests are principally oaks and
hickory, with a sprinkling of nearly all other species men-
tioned in the accompanying list (p. 93).

In condition these forests are very inferior. There is
very little log timber. Many of the trees are fire-scarred;
many, though old, are small because fire and erosion of
humus have retarded growth. Much of the area has a
deficient stand, because fires have killed seedlings.

To improve this forest it would be necessary to prevent
fire and possibly to thin out defective trees and undesir-
able species. The species to be favored here are poplar,
ash, walnut, shortieaf pine, post oak, and white oak, and,
in the higher altitudes, white pine.

CATAWBA RIVER BASIN.
[821,440 aeres; 82 per cent wooded.]

This area, as here limited, includes the eastern or south-
ern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its numerous spurs,
from Blowing Rock southward to Edmondson Mountain,
and is drained by the headwaters of the Catawba River,
including Johnsand Linville rivers, and the north and south
forks of the Catawha, directly through the Catawba River
into the Atlantic. The elevated crest of the Blue Ridge,
with few points on it at a lower elevation than 4,000 feet,
and rising at Grandfather Mountain and Pinnacle to an
elevation of more than 5,000 feet, forms the western and
northern limits of the area; and from it extend steep,
rugged spurs with a general north and south trend, grad-
ually diminishing in altitude as they recede from the pa-
rent range, dividing the region into numerous parallel,
narrow, often gorge-like, valleys. This type of valley
reaches its culmination in the gorge of the Linville River,
the wildest and most picturesque stream of the southern

PLATE LVII.

Senate Doc. No, 84.

GRANDFATHER MOUNTAIN, FROM NEAR LINVILLE, N. C., SHOWING TWO TYPES OF SUMMIT, RUGGED AND

ROUNDED.

(Se

. 114-115.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Appalachians, in its descent of 2,400 feet in 20 miles, from
the Linville Falls to the foothills. The alluvial lands in
the valleys, except those along the Catawba for a few
miles above Marion, are limited to narrow strips bordering
the streams, or, as on the lower Linville and many tribu-
taries of the Johns River, are altogether lacking.

The soils of the uplands, derived from the decay in place
of quartzite, slates, sandstone, and gneiss, are sandy, or
sandy loams, and are thin and poor, with few exceptions.
Along the larger streams the alluvia are silty and fertile;
along the smaller they are sandy and often less productive.

In the lower valleys corn and small grain are the com-
mon crops on the alluvia; corn the exclusive crop of the
steeper slopes. Corn, oats, grass, and apples form the
staple crops in the elevated valleys and on slopes at high
altitudes.

The alluvial lands of the Johns River and the Catawbas
have been severely damaged by recent freshets, which
have in many places washed away the soil to a depth of
several feet, leaving only the rock and gravel, while in
other places the agricultural value has been destroyed by
the deposition of beds of pure sand or coarse gravel above
the alluvium. Soils on steep slopes which have been under
tillage, especially those in corn, have also been badly dam-
aged.

The forests, except those of a few limited valleys at high
elevation, are confined to the slopes, nearly all of the allu-
vial bottoms having been cleared.

Composition.—Vhey are formed of hard woods, chiefly
oaks, associated with pines, white or black; or of mixed
hard woods—oaks, chestnut, maple, birch, linn, ash, and
poplar—associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and
on some northern slopes.

Condition.—Nearly all south and east slopes, especially
at a low elevation, have been damaged by fires to some ex-
tent. The best hard woods have been culled from much of
the area, and the best white pine from the lower part of
the valley of the Johns River and from a portion of the
Upper Linville. There is yet much hard wood, largely
oak, on the headwaters of the Catawbas, Johns, and Upper
Linville rivers. °

Reproduction.—Reproduction of hard woods is free by
stool shoots and seed, and of pine by seed. Protection
from fire is greatly needed. This, with improvement cut-
tings, would soon develop a valuable forest.

)

Je)

Soil.

Agriculture,

Erosion.

The forest.

Topography.

Soil.

Agriculture.

Erosion.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

YADKIN RIVER BASIN.
[253,120 acres; 54 per cent wooded.]

The portion of the basin of this river examined includes
the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its outlyers
from Bullhead Mountain southward to Blowing Rock,
and is drained by the head streams of the Yadkin and all
of its northern tributaries eastward to and including
Roaring River. The crest of the Blue Ridge, with an
average elevation of more than 3,500 feet, limits the area
on the north; and from this numerous sharp and steep
spurs penetrate the area, dividing it into a series of nar-
row parallel northwest-and-southeast trending basins,
from the southern ends of which the streams emerge and
unite to form the Yadkin, at an elevation of about 1,000
feet.

The topography is rough, the slopes of the ridges steep,
and the intervening valleys narrow, showing unchecked
natural erosion from a high plateau region to a lower base
level, in a country with rock of varying hardness and an
abundant rainfall.

The alluvial lands in the valleys are narrow strips or
small bodies, seldom more than a few acres in extent, of
dark, sandy-loam soils, rich in humus, and fertile, or occa-
sionally of coarse sand and poor. The soils of the uplands,
produced by the decomposition of slates, sandstones, and
gneiss, are highly silicious and often coarse and poor. On
north slopes and in the hollows accumulated mold adds to
the fertility and checks the removal of the finer clayey
particles, while the poverty of the naturally infertile south
slopes is augmented by repeated fires which destroy the
litter and facilitate the removal of the finer particles of
the soil by the heavy rains.

Corn is the staple crop, both on the alluvial lands and
on the slopes at lower elevations; while corn, grass, and
some apples are cultivated on the shady north slopes at
high elevations and in the deep, cool hollows that indent
the face of the mountain.

Some of the alluvial bottoms haye been damaged by
being washed and gullied by freshets, or by the deposit of
coarse sand and gravel brought down from the mountains.
Many of the steep slopes, exposed to erosion by the naked
cultivation required for corn, have been gullied to the bed
rock, and their agricultural value is temporarily destroyed.
Many such abandoned fields are being colonized by wind-

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

sown pine seedlings, which check further erosion and
rebuild the soil.

The forests, which are confined to the slopes, are formed
of hard woods, chiefly oaks, associated with pine (black,
rarely with white) on the drier south and east slopes; and
of mixed hard woods—oaks, chestnut, maple, poplar, linn,
and ash—associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and
on north slopes. The better forests lie to the south of
Mulberry Gap. East of this gap the oaks and pines are
smaller and of poorer quality, and have suffered more
from fires; but fires have also done much damage to the
pines and oaks growing on the southward slopes. Culling
has been carried on for many years, and much of the
choicest timber has been removed from the bordering lands,
even to the very sources of the streams; but much oak and
some pine yet remain.

The hardwoods reproduce freely from both stool shoots
and seed, and the pines from seed. To prevent further
deterioration of the forest and improve its condition, pro-
tection from fire is necessary, while improvement cuttings
are required in many places to remove worthless stock and
to free young timber.

The forest.

TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

By W. W. AsHe and H. B. Ayres.

The following is a list of the trees growing in the Southern Appala-
chians, with notes concerning their distribution, size, uses, and repro-
duction. Accompanying this is a list of shrubs indigenous to that
region.

White Pine (Pinus strobus) reaches a height of 160 feet and a diameter
of 40 inches and forms nearly pure groyes, or is associated with
smaller hard woods. It prefers sandy or gravelly soils on northwest
slopes lying between 1,700 and 4,000 feet elevation. It is the most
important timber tree in the Eastern States, for its wood is light,
strong, and durable, and is applied to nearly all uses. It makes rapid
growth and reproduces freely. It is most abundant, attains its maxi-
mum size, and makes most rapid accretion on the western slopes of
the Smoky and Iron mountains, especially in Shady Valley.

Loblolly Pine (Pinus taeda) in the Appalachians reaches a height of
80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, and is found only in the southern-
most part of the area, below an elevation of 1,200 feet. It occurs
chiefly as a second growth in old fields, and is of great value in restock-
ing them and preventing erosion. Nearer the coast it is a timber tree
of the first importance.

Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata), reaching a height of 100 feet and
a diameter of 36 inches, is frequent on well-drained soil below 2,000
feet elevation, becoming more common as the altitude decreases. The
wocd is yellow, strong, and very durable, and takes a fine finish. It
seeds freely and reproduces abundantly under full light, often restock-
ing old fields and waste places. It is one of the most valuable of the
yellow pines, and forms the chief building material over much of
this region.

Black Pine (Pinus rigida) veaches a height of 90 feet and a diam-
eter of 28 inches. It is associated with the shortleaf pine, but it is
the more abundant at higher elevations. Like that tree, it seeds freely
and often, and restocks waste lands. It is not so large nor so valuable
a tree, however, and the wood is coarser, more resinous, and not so
free from knots. It is much used as a building material.

94 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Table-Mountain Pine (Pinus pungens) is 1 medium-sized tree, which
reaches a height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It occurs on
dry, rocky ridges between 1,500 and 3,000 feet elevation, and is most
common along the Blue Ridge and on the Chilhowee and Holston
mountains. It reaches its greatest size in the mountains of western
North Carolina. It is not so large nor so valuable a tree as the short-
leaf and black pines. Its wood is coarse and sappy. It will grow,
however, on dry, rocky soil where the black pine does not. It seeds
freely and makes rapid growtn, at least when young.

Scrub Pine (Pinus virginiana) is a slender tree, seldom more than
80 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, which is common on dry,
sandy, or gravelly land below 2,000 feet elevation. It propagates
freely and makes rapid growth. It is not large enough to be of
importance as a timber tree, though it is occasionally sawn:

Black Spruce (Picea mariana) is a slender tree reaching a height of
150 feet and a diameter of 30 inches. It is seldom found below 4,000
feet elevation, and only around a few of the highest mountains, where
it forms dense forests of pure growth, or is associated with hemlock
on cold northern slopes or along cold streams. It seeds at interyals_
of several years and reproduces freely if afforded the proper light and
soil conditions, which are generally not produced in lumbering. The
wood is light, but strong, and is largely used for lumber. It is the
chief source of wood pulp for paper. It is one of the most valuable
trees, and reaches its greatest individual development on the slopes of
the Smoky Mountains.

Red Spruce (Picea rubra) is here a small tree, seldom 30 feet in
height, and unimportant. It occurs only in a few mountain swamps.

Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is one of the largest of east American
trees, attaining a height of more than 140 feet and a diameter of 5
feet, which is reached in the Southern Appalachians. It is common
along streams and on cold, wet northern slopes above 1,500 feet eleva-
tion. The bark is extensively used in tanning, and the trunk supplies
much rough lumber. Seeds are borne frequently, but reproduction
is poor, as good reproduction requires a delicate adjustment of light
and moisture conditions, which are seldom furnished in lumbering.

Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) is a smaller tree than the pre-
ceding, and its distribution is limited to a few localities in the Southern
Appalachians. The greatest size is attained in the mountains of North
Carolina. It is one of the most stately of American conifers.

Balsam (Abies fraser’) attains a height of 60 feet and a diameter of
2 feet. It is exclusively a Southern Appalachian tree, being confined
to the summits of the highest mountains from Clingmans Dome north-
eastward. The maximum development is attained on the high peaks
of the Black Mountains. The wood is soft and brittle and of little

value. A medicinal resin balsam is obtained from its bark.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 95

Arbor vite (Thuja occidentalis) is a small tree which occurs in the
Southern Appalachians at only a few places, as on Cripple Creek and
Linville River, on moist soil.

Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is a small tree, seldom more than
50 feet in height, which is frequent below 1,500 feet elevation in old
fields and along roadsides, especially on limestone soil at the foot of
the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is soft, but
durable and valuable. It reproduces freely, but the rate of growth is
slow.

Butternut (Juglans cinerea) is a short-stemmed tree reaching a
height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It is frequent on rocky
soil along streams between 1,500 and 4,000 feet elevation. It yields a
valuable light-brown cabinet wood. Seed is*borne at frequent and
regular intervals, and reproduction is good.

Black Walnut (Juglans nigra) reaches a height of 110 feet anda
diameter of +0 inches, attaining its greatest size in the deep hollows of
the mountains of North Carolina, where it occurs mixed with oaks
and chestnut. The larger and most valuable trees have generally
been removed. It seeds regularly and reproduces freely. The black,
fine-grained wood takes 2 good polish, and is largely used in Europe
for furniture.

Bitternut (Hicoria minima) is one of the largest and most valuable
of the hickories, often attaining a height of 110 feet and a diameter
of 30 inches. It is frequent on lower moist slopes and along streams.
Seed is borne in abundance at frequent intervals, and reproduction is
good. The rate of growth is rapid. The wood is hard, heavy, and
tough, and is much used for the handles of tools and in wagon manu-
facture.

Shagbark (ficoria ovata) is frequent along streams and on moist,
rich slopes, where it attains a large size. It reproduces freely by
seed, and small trees sprout from the stump. The tough, elastic wood
is regarded as being second in quality among all the hickories. The
large, edible nuts are extensively gathered and sold.

Carolina Shagbark (Hicoria caroline-septentrionalis) is a smaller
tree than the preceding, but its wood is of the same quality, and is
used for the same purposes. It occurs on sandy soil at the south-
western end of the Appalachians, below 1,200 feet elevation.

Shellbark ITickory (Hicoria laciniosa) is a large and valuable tree
which is found at only a very few places. It grows on alluvial lands
at a low elevation.

White Hickory (Hicoria alba) is the most common hickory. It is
frequent on rich, warm soil at a low elevation, where it becomes a
large tree, sometimes 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. The
hard, tough wood is preferred to that of the other species for mechanical
uses. It seeds and reproduces freely, and young trees are common in

96 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

culled woods at low altitudes. This and the other species are largely
used for fuel.

Red-heart Hickory (Hicoria odorata) becomes 120 feet in height and
30 inches in diameter, and is one of the most common species. In the
Southern Appalachians it is second in value and importance only to the
White Hickory. It prefers rich, warm soil at low elevations. Seed
are borne often and in abundance, and reproduction is good.

Pignut (Hicoria glabra) is a slender tree, exceptionally 100 feet in
height, generally growing on dry soil, but is not common. The timber
is inferior to that of the red-heart hickory.

Hairy Pignut Hicoria glabra hirsuta) is like the preceding in size
and in the character of its timber, but is not so common.

Sand Hickory (Hicoria villosa) is a small, uncommon tree, yielding a
wood similar to that of the pignut. It grows on sandy soil along
streams and on dry ridges at low elevations.

Black Willow (Salix nigra) is a small tree reaching a height of 50
feet, and is common along streams below 3,000 feet elevation. The
wood is not used, but the tree is important, as its tough roots serve to
protect from erosion the banks of the streams along which the trees
grow.

Silky Willow (Salix sericea) is a small tree 20 to 30 feet in height,
with straight stems, which is common along streams and in wet mead-
ows below 4,000 feet in altitude. It is too small to furnish useful
wood, but as a protection against the erosion of the banks of small
streams it is of more importance than the preceding. It seeds abun-
dantly and reproduces freely.

Largetooth Aspen (Populus grandidentata) is a slender tree reaching
a height of 50 feet. It is not common and the wood is not used.

Balin of Gilead (Populus balsamifera candicans) bas been exten-
sively planted along streams, where it makes an excellent soil binder
and protects the banks against washing. It is also useful in building
up low areas along streams which are subject to flooding, as the
deposit of earth around its stems during freshets does not injure the
health of the tree. The collection and sale of the large resinous buds,
which are used medicinally, is an industry of some importance. It is
a tree of rapid growth, and soon reaches a height of 50 feet. . The
wood is light, soft, and not durable.

River Birch (Betula nigra) reaches a height of 70 feet and a diame-
ter of 30 inches, and occurs only along the banks of the larger streams.
Seeds are borne abundantly and reproduction is good. The wood is
coarse and hard. It is chiefly valuable in protecting the banks of
streams.

Sweet Birch (Betula lenta) is found along cold mountain streams on
northern slopes. where it reaches a height of 90 feet and a diameter of
3 feet. The timber is used to some extent in the manufacture of fur-

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 97

niture. Birch oil is obtained by distillation from the bark. It seeds
often and reproduces freely.

Yellow Birch (Betula lutea) reaches a height of 80 feet and a diame-
ter of 36 inches, and is common in cold ravines and on northern
slopes, especially at high-elevations. Many of the trees are curly and
yield a valuable cabinet wood. It seeds freely and reproduces well on
moist land among laurel brush.

Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) reaches a height of 40 feet and a
diameter of 12 inches, and is common along streams. The wood is very
hard and firm.

Tronwood ( Carpinus caroliniana) is a small tree, seldom more than
30 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter. It occurs sparingly on
moist-soiled, shady slopes. The wood is very-hard and tough.

Beech (Fagus americana) reaches a height of 100 feet and a diam-
eter of 30 inches. It is common on moist lands along streams and in
hollows, where it attains its greatest size, and on cold slopes at high
elevations, where it forms dense groves of small trees. It seeds fre-
quently and reproduces freely. The wood is hard, tough, and fine
grained.

Chestnut (Castanea dentata) is a large tree, which attains a height of
120 feet and a diameter 7 feet. It is common on nearly all soils above
2,000 feet elevation, but decreases in abundance below that, reaching
its greatest development in deep hollows at about 3,000 feet eleva-
tion. The wood is rather soft, but valuable and durable, is exten-
sively used locally for building and fencing, and is largely sawn for
shipment. The collection of the nuts forms an important industry.
It regenerates well from stool shoots and from seeds, which are borne
regularly and in abundance. The rate of growth is very rapid, being
greater than that of any other hard wood of the region.

Chinquapin ( Castanea pumila) is a small tree, seldom more than 40
feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is frequent on dry soil
below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is similar to that of the chestnut.

White Oak (Quercus alba), reaching a height of 120 feet and a diam-
eter of 5 feet, iscommon below 4,500 feet elevation, especially on rocky
soil. The timber is regarded as superior to that of the other oaks and
is largely used in the manufacture of farm implements and wagons,
for furniture, and for interior finish. The barkis rich in tannin. Seed
is borne abundantly and often, and reproduction is good. The rate
of growth is rapid, though not so rapid as that of the red oaks.

Post Oak (Quercus minor) is a small tree, seldom more than 60 feet
in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is especially valued for wagon
hubs. It occurs only on dry soils, generally associated with the yellow
pine and black oak, and is uncommon except at low elevations, especially
toward the southwestern end of the mountains. It seeds freely and
reproduces well. The rate of growth is fair.

*S. Doc. 84-7

98 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Swamp White Oak (Quercus platanoides) becomes a large tree, 100
feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. It is found along streams, but is
infrequent. The wood has the same qualities and uses as that of the
white oak, though it is coarser and more brittle.

Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus), reaching a height of 90 feet and a
diameter of 40 inches, is common on dry and especially sandy slopes.
The wood is harder and more durable than that of the other oaks of
this region and is largely used for posts, railway ties, and insulator
pins. The bark, which is rich in tannin, is extensively used in the
manufacture of white leathers, thousands of trees being yearly stripped
to supply the demand. It seeds frequently and in abundance, and
reproduces freely. The rate of growth is slow, the large trees often
being 250 years old.

Yellow Oak (Quercus acuminata), reaching a height of 90 feet and a
diameter of 24 inches, occurs rarely along the larger streams. The
wood has much the same quality and uses as that of the white oak.

Red Oak (Quercus rubra) is the largest oak in the Southern Appa-
lachians, frequently reaching a height of 130 feet and a diameter of
more than 5 feet. It is common above 1,500 feet, but attains its
greatest size in deep, cool hollows, on fertile soil, where it grows with
chestnut, linn, birch, and yellow poplar. It is extensively sawn, and
the wood is largely used in the manufacture of furniture, for interior
finish, staves, and in construction. It is a tree of rapid growth, seeds
frequently and freely, and reproduces well.

Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) is a small tree, seldom more than 50
feet in height and 20 inches in diameter. It is found only at a low
elevation, along streams flowing from the western slope of the Smoky
Mountains. The wood is coarse and porous, and even were the tree
more common world be little used.

Spotted Oak (Quercus texana) is a tall, slender tree, often 110 feet
high and 30 inches in diameter, growing in the larger valleys below
1,200 feet elevation. It is not common, but reproduces well and
makes rapid growth.

Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea), reaching a height of 100 feet and a
diameter of 30 inches, but generally much smaller, is very common on
dry soil, especially if stiff, below 4,000 feet elevation. The timber is
not so valuable as that of the red oak, but is much used. It repro-
duces freely and makes good growth.

Black Oak (Quercus velutina), reaching a height of 100 feet and a
diameter of 30 inches, is frequent on good soil on well-drained slopes
below 2,500 feet elevation. The timber has about the same uses as
that of the red oak. It is a tree of rapid growth and reproduces
well, he bark is rich in tannin.

Southern Red Oak (Quercus digitata), reaching in the mountains a
height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, is common only below

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 99

2,000 feet elevation, where it occurs on dry soils generally with the
shortleaf pine. It is a tree of rapid growth and seeds abundantly
every few years. The bark is rich in tannin.

Bear Oak (Quercus pumila) is generally a large shrub, sometimes
becoming a small tree. Jt is unimportant as a timber tree, and not at
all common except northeastward.

Black Jack (Quercus marilandica) is a small tree, seldom more than
30 feet in height. It is found only on poor, dry soil below 2,000 feet
elevation, and is infrequent except on the southern slope of the Blue
Ridge. The wood makes an excellent fuel, but is valueless as timber.

Water Oak (Quercus nigra) is a small tree, reaching a height of 50
feet and a diameter seldom greater than 20 inches. It is found occa-
sionally along the larger streams around the southern base of the
mountains. It is not sufficiently abundant to have any specific use in
this region. The wood is similar to that of the shingle oak. described
below.

Shingle Oak (Quercus imbricaria) is a small tree, seldom more than
50 feet in height, which occurs in the valleys below 2,500 feet elevation.
The wood is used for no specific purpose, but is coarse-grained and
porous like that of the black and scarlet oaks, and is adapted to similar
uses. It seeds freely, reproduces well, and makes rapid growth.

White Elm (Ulmus americana), reaching a height of 80 feet and a
diameter of 30 inches, occurs only along the larger streams. It is not
abundant enough to be generally used. The wood is hard and tough.

Winged Elm (Ulmus alata) occurs only along the larger streams,
especially toward the southern end of the Appalachians. It is seldom
more than 50 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, and is unimport-
ant as a timber tree. The wood is hard and tough.

Slippery Elm (Ulmus pubescens), reaching a height of more than
100 feet and a diameter of more than 30 inches, is occasionally found
in rich hollows. It is too infrequent to have any commercial uses.

Late Elm (Ulmus serotina) is a small tree occurring on the larger
streams at the southern end of the Appalachian Plateau. Its timber
is similar to that of the other species, but is not used.

Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) is a slender tree, sometimes 90 feet
feet high and 24 inches in diameter, which occurs along the larger
streams. The wood is tough and strong, but is not used. It seeds
freely and reproduces well.

Mississippi Hackberry (Celtis mississippiensis) is a tree similar in
size and in the character of its wood tothe preceding. It occurs along
the larger streams, but is not common.

Rough Hackberry ( Celtis crassifolia) is a smaller tree than the above,
seldom more than 30 feet in height and 12 inches in diameter. The
wood is tough and strong, but is not used.

100 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Mulberry (Morus rubra) is a small tree with a very short stem, sel-
dom more than 25 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. The wood
is tough and very durable, and is used for posts, etc. It is found in
rich hollows at low elevations, but is in general cultivation for the
fruit.. It seeds regularly and abundantly, and makes rapid growth.

Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata) is a large tree, becoming 120
feet high and 5 feet in diameter. It frequents the base of the moun-
tains, generally above 1,500 feet altitude. The wood is rather soft
andi yellow, and is largely used in the manufacture of furniture, being
marketed with that of the yellow poplar. Seed are not abundant and
reproduction is scanty. The rate of growth is slow.

Vellow-flowered Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata cordata) is a
smaller tree than the preceding and is confined to the lower elevations
at. the southern end of the Appalachians. As a timber tree it is
unimportant.

Largeleaf Umbrella-tree (Magnolia macrophylla) is a small tree,
seldom more than 25 feet in height, which occurs at only a few places
along streams or on shady slopes. It is often planted as an orna-
mental tree, but the wood has no uses. ;

Umbrella-tree (Magnolia tripetala) is a small tree very similar to the
preceding, but more common.

Mountain Magnolia (Magnolia frasert) is a tree 40 to 60 feet in
height, growing along cool streams. The wood is soft and white, and
is put to no uses. The bark is gathered and used medicinally.

Yellow Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is the largest tree of the
Appalachians, attaining a height of 140 feet and a diameter of 8 feet.
It is common below 3,500 feet elevation, but is most abundant and
reaches its largest size in cool, sheltered hollows on rich soil. The
wood is soft and yellow, and is extensively used in the manufacture of
furniture and for wood pulp. It seeds frequently and abundantly,
but young trees are not very common, as a delicate adjustment of
light and moisture condition is required for regeneration. It repro-
duces freely on the partly shaded portions of old pastures. It isa
tree of only medium rapidity of growth.

Papaw (Asimina triloba) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in
height, growing on rich, moist soil at low elevations. It is uncommon.

Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras), reaching a height of not more than
40 feet and a diameter of 24 inches, is common on dry, sandy soil.
The red wood is hard and fine grained, and takes a beautiful polish.
It is sometimes used in the manufacture of furniture. It reproduces
freely in old fields on stiff soil by seed and suckers.

Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) is a small tree, about 15 feet in
height, or generally a slender shrub, common on moist soils up to 4,000
feet elevation. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. Extract
of witch hazel is distilled from its bark.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 101

Sweet Gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is found in this area only along
the larger streams at a low elevation. It becomes a tree 110 feet in
height and 3 feet in diameter. The wood is red, hard, and fine grained,
and is used for crates, shipping boxes, tobacco boxes, etc., and for
flooring and furniture. Itseeds regularly, and seedlings are not uncom-
mon near old trees. |

Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) is a large tree, often 110 feet in
height and 3 feet in diameter, common along the larger streams. The
wood is hard and firm, with a beautiful grain, and is used for tobacco
boxes, and to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. It seeds
often and reproduces freely.

Crab Apple (Pyrus coronaria) is a small tree, 15 to 20 feet in height,
common in old fields and open woods. The wood is hard and tough,
and is used to some extent inturnery. It seeds abundantly and repro-
duces freely.

Narrowleaf Crab Apple (Pyrus angustifolia) oceurs with the preced-
ing and is very similar to it in its wood.

Mountain Ash (Sorbus americana) is a small tree, seldom more than
30 feet in height, which is found around the summits of the higher
mountains. The timber is not used.

Service-tree (Amelanchier canadensis) is a small tree, seldom more
than 45 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, which is common
above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard and fine grained, and is
sometimes used in turnery. It seeds abundantly, and young trees are
common.

Small-flowered Service (Amelanchier botryapium) is a tree with the
same distribution and uses as the preceding.

Cockspur Thorn (Crataegus crus-galli) is a small tree, seldom more
than 25 feet in height, frequent along roadsides and in fields. The
wood is not used.

Blue Ridge Thorn ( Crategus multispina), becoming 25 feet in height
and 10 inches in diameter, is frequent in fields and on roadsides along
the Blue Ridge. It is unimportant as a timber tree.

Black Thorn (Crategus tomentosa) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in
height, which occurs along streams. It is unimportant as a timer
tree.

Chapman Thorn ( Crategus chapman?) is very similar to the preced -
ing in size and distribution.

New River Thorn (Crategus neo-fluvialis) oceurs along streams in

_the northern part of the plateau. It is not common and is unimportant
as a forest tree.

Washington Thorn (Crategus cordata) is very frequent on dry soil
at low elevations. Unassuming in size, it is a most beautiful orna-
mental tree.

102 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Spatulate Thorn (Crataegus spathulata) is frequent at low elevations
around the base of the plateau on dry soil.

Parsley Thorn (Crategus apifolia) is an infrequent tree, about 20
feet in height, occurring on dry soil around the base of the plateau.

Tree Thorn ( Crategus viridis), becoming 35 feet in height and 15
inches in diameter, occurs along the larger streams below 1,500 feet
elevation.

Dotted Thorn ( Crategus punctata) is common along cold streams and
around the summits of the high mountains.

Golden Thorn (Crategus crocata) is very much like the preceding,
and has the same distribution.

Hill Thorn ( Crategus collina), becoming 25 feet high and 12 inches in
diameter, is frequent in fields and in open, dry woods to the south of
Asheville.

Buckley Thorn (Crategus buckley?) is a slender tree, sometimes 30
feet in height, which occurs along streams at low elevations, especially
in the valley of the French Broad River.

Catawba Thorn ( Crategus catawbiensis) is a small, bushy tree occur-
ring along streams on the east slope of the Blue Ridge.

Pruinose Thorn ( Crategus pruinosa) is x small tree, seldom 20 feet
in height, with a short trunk. It occurs on dry hills, especially along
the Blue Ridge.

Boynton Thorn (Crataegus boynton?) is seldom 20 feet in height. It
is common on dry hills, especially in the French Broad Valley.

Wild Plum (Prunus americana) is a small tree which is common in
open woods and fields below 4,000 feet elevation. Its edible fruit is
borne often and in abundance. The wood has no uses. It is the parent
stock of many of the cultivated plums.

Chickasaw Plum (Prunus angustifolia) is a small tree much like the
above, and also the parent of many cultivated varieties.

Fire Cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica) becomes 40 feet in height and
more than 12 inches in diameter. It occurs in cold, damp woods around
the high mountains, and often forms extensive groves of pure growth
on burned spruce lands, where it prepares the soil for another growth
of spruce. The wood is soft and brittle. Seeds are borne abundantly
and frequently. The growth is rapid.

Wild Cherry (Prunus serotina) along streams at a low elevation is a
small tree, but on moist land at high elevations becomes a tree 100
feet or more in height and 3 feet in diameter. The red wood is hard
and takes a fine polish and is extensively used for interior finish, and
was used for furniture until it became too rare. The rate of growth is
rather slow. It seeds often, but young growth at high elevations is
uncommon. The best trees have generally been removed.

Redbud (Cercis canadensis) isa small tree about 15 feet in height.
It occurs along the edges of woods or on rocky banks of streams,
seldom above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is not used.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 108

Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) is a tree reaching a height of
60 or 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It was introduced into this
region from middle Tennessee, but is thoroughly naturalized and
propagates freely in old fields and waste places. The wood is not used,
though it is tough, strong, and durable.

Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus diocus) isa small tree, seldom more than 40
feet in height. It occurs in fertile valleys at the foot of the western
slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is not much used. It repro-
duces well.

Yellow-wood ( Cladrastis lutea) is seldom more than 30 feet in height
and a foot in diameter. It occurs in rich hollows at a low elevation at
the southwestern end of the Appalachians. The hard, yellow wood
takes a fine polish.

Locust (Robinia pseudacacia) is a slender tree sometimes 100 feet
in height and 30 inches in diameter. It is frequent below 4,000 feet
elevation on rather dry, yet shaded and deep soil. It seeds abundantly
and reproduces freely by sprouts, suckers, and seeds. The hard, yel
low wood is very durable in contact with the soil or on exposure, and
is extensively used for fence posts, sills, bridge timber, and insulator
and ship pins. A most valuable tree, but it is often attacked by a
fungus which destroys the heartwood.

Clammy Locust (Robinia viscosa) is a small tree, 20 to 30 feet in
height, with a short stem, or generally a large shrub found wild in this
area only in its southeastern part. It is highly prized as an orna-
mental plant on account of the beauty of its flowers, and is extensively
cultivated. Its wood has no uses. It seeds frequently and reproduces
freely both by seed and suckers.

Prickly Ash (Xanthoxylum clava-herculis), becoming 25 feet in height
and 1 foot in diameter, is frequent along streams. The wood is not
used. An extract from the bark is used medicinally. It seeds abun-
dantly and reproduces freely.

Ailanthus (Ailanthus glandulosa) is an introduced Asiatic tree which
reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 10 feet. It is extensively
naturalized along some of the streams, where it propagates freely by
means of suckers, and forms dense thickets. The wood is hard, dura-
ble, and valuable, but is not used. The growth is rapid.

Staghorn Sumach (Rhus hirta) is a small tree, seldom 36 feet in
height, growing along streams or in waste places, especially at high
elevations. The bark yields a superior tannin for kids, but is not used
locally.

Holly (Ilex opaca) is a small evergreen tree, rarely more than 50
feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, which grows chiefly in sandy
flats along streams below 2.000 feet elevation. The wood is hard,
white, and fine grained, and is used to some extent in cabinetmaking.
It seeds often and abundantly, and reproduces well. It ismuch prized
as an ornamental tree.

104 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Deciduous Holly (Ilex decidua) is a small tree, seldom 25 feet in
height, with a short trunk and large, spreading crown, growing along
streams below 1,500 feet elevation. The wood is hard and tough, but
is not used.

Mountain Holly (Ilex monticola), becoming 25 feet in height and 10
inches in diameter, is common on cold slopes at high elevations. The
wood is not used.

Mountain Maple (Acer spicatum) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in
height, often with several stems from the same root, which grows in
cold, wet soil at high altitudes. It has no uses.

Striped Maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), becoming 50 feet in height
and 14 inches in diameter, is found frequently along cold streams
above 3,000 feet elevation. ‘Fhe wood is put to no use.

Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum), reaching a height of 120 feet and a
diameter of 40 inches, is common north of the Cowee Mountains,
above 2,000 feet elevation, on cold, moist soil. The hard, fine-grained
wood is sawn for flooring; the figured wood for furniture stock. A
small quantity of maple sugar is made from the sap. Seed is borne
frequently and abundantly, and young trees are common in damp
woods. The rate of growth is slow.

Black Maple (Acer nigrum) is a tree similar in size to the preced-
ing, but much less common, being largely confined to the western
slope of the Smoky Mountains.

Red Maple (Acer rubrum), becoming 110 feet in height and 36
inches in diameter, is common on moist soil, and the young growth
in culled woods. The wood is softer than that of the preceding, and
inferior to it. It seeds freely and reproduces well. ‘The rate of
growth is slow.

River Maple (Acer rubrum drummondii) is a smaller tree than the
preceding, seldom more than 80 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter,
which is common along the banks of the larger streams. The wood
is soft and white, and is not used. It seeds freely and young trees
are common.

Bou Elder (Acer negundo), becoming 40 feet in height and 1 foot in
diameter, is frequent along the large streams at a low elevation. The
wood is not used. :

Buckeye (désculus octandra) becomes a tree 120 feet in height and
4 feet in diameter. It is common in cold hollows, especially above
3,000 feet elevation. ‘The wood is light and soft, but is not generally
used. It reproduces freely. The rate of growth is good.

Purple Buckeye (d4sculus octandra hybrida) is a smaller and less
common tree than the preceding, and is confined to the western slope
of the Smoky Mountains. The wood issimilar to that of the preceding.

Buckthorn (Rhamus caroliniana) is a small tree, seldom more than
25 feet in height, found on open slopes near the larger streams. The
wood is not used.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 105

Linn (Tilia heterophylla), becoming a tree 120 feet in height and 4
feet in diameter, is common along streams and in cool hollows. The
wood is white, light, and soft, and is extensively sawn for lumber. It
seeds freely, but seedlings are not common. It sprouts freely from
the stump.

Blue Ridge Linn (Tilia eburnea) is a tree similar to the preceding in
size and quality of wood. It is confined to the Blue Ridge Mountains,
or the region near them.

Basswood (Tilia americana), reaching a height of more than 100
feet and a diameter of 3 feet, is confined to streams at the base of the
western slope of the Smoky Mountains, but is by no means common.
The wood is used with that of the linn without distinction.

Dogwood (Cornus florida) is a small tree, seldom 30 feet in height
and 1 foot in diameter, common beneath the shade of other trees on
fertile soil below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard, heavy, and
strong, and is used for shuttle blocks and a variety of mechanical
purposes. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. The rate of
growth is slow.

Blue Cornel (Cornus alternifolia), a slender tree 25 feet in height,
is common along cold mountain streams.

Swamp Cornel (Cornus sericea), a bushy tree 20 feet in height, is
common along the larger streams.

Biack Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) is a tree sometimes 110 feet in height
and 3 feet in diameter, but generally much smaller, which is common
along streams at low elevations and on dry slopes at high elevations.
The wood is hard and tough, but not durable, and is little used except
as rails for tramways in logging. It seeds abundantly and reproduces
freely. The rate of growth is good.

Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), a tree 80 feet in height and 18
inches in diameter, is common on dry soil below 4,000 feet elevation.
The red wood is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish. It is
used to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. The seed are
borne in abundance and reproduction is prolific. The rate of growth
is fair.

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), a tree 40 feet in height and 18
inches in diameter, is found in fields and waste places. The hard,
tough wood is used for shuttle blocks, shoe lasts, insulator pins, ete.
It seeds freely and reproduces well, especially on old fields.

Sweetleaf (Symplocos tinctoria) is a small tree, seldom more than 20
feet in height, which grows on dry soil. The bark yields a yellow dye.

Peawood or Bell-tree (Mohrodendron carolinum) is common along
streams, where it is a small'tree, seldom 70 feet in height, but becom-
ing in the rich, damp hollows of the Black and Smoky mountains a
tree 100 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. The reddish wood
is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish, and on the western

106 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

slopes of the Smoky Mountains is sawn and sold as cherry. It seeds
frequently and freely and reproduces well. The rate of growth is
fair.

Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra), a small tree not more than 30 feet in
height and 1 foot in diameter, grows in cold mountain swamps. It
is found only in a few places, and is unimportant as a timber tree.

White Ash (Fraxinus americana), becoming 130 feet in height and
40 inches in diameter, is one of the most common and important trees.
The light brown, elastic wood is largely used in furniture, for handles
of agricultural implements, etc. It seeds freely and reproduces well
if proper soil and light conditions are afforded. The growth is good.

Red Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) is a slender tree, seldom more
than 110 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, which is frequent along
the banks of the larger streams. The wood is similar to that of the
White Ash, and is put to the same uses.

Green Ash (Fraxinus lanceolata) is a tree with the same size and
distribution as the above, but more common.

Biltmore Ash (Fraxinus biltmoreana) is a tree 20 feet in height and
2 feet in diameter, growing on the larger streams of the plateau. It
is not common.

Catawba Ash (Fraxinus catawbiensis) is a slender tree, 110 feet in
height and 30 inches in diameter. It occurs only on the banks of the
larger streams at the foot of the Blue Ridge. Its growth is rapid and
it reproduces freely.

Fringetree (Chionanthus virginica), becoming 25 feet in height and
8 inches in diameter, is common along streams at lower elevations.

Catalpa (Catalpa catalpa) is an introduced tree which has become
naturalized along some of the larger streams. It becomes 40 feet in
height and 2 feet in diameter, and is a tree of rapid growth. The
wood is durable and makes excellent posts.

Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium) is a small tree, 15 feet in
height, frequent in fields and along small streams at low elevations.
An extract from the bark is used medicinally.

LIST OF SHRUBS AND SOME PLANTS WHICH ONLY UNDER
THE MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS ASSUME ARBORESCENT

FORM.

By W. W. AsHE.

Cane (Arundinaria tecta).

Wild Sarsaparilla (Smilax glauca).

Greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia).

Hispid Greenbrier (Smilax hispida).

Bristly Greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox).

Juniper (Juniperus communis).

Dwarf Willow (Salix humilis).

Gray Willow (Salix tristis).

Hazel (Corylus americana).

Beaked Hazel (Corylus rostrata).

Mountain Alder (Alnus alnobetula).

Common Alder (Alnus rugosa).

Dwarf Oak (Quercus prinoides).

Mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens) .

Sweet Fern (Comptonia peregrina).

Oil Nut (Pyrularia pubera).

Buckleya (Buckleya distichophylla).

Dutchman’s Pipe (Aristolochia macro-
phyla).

Barberry (Berberis canadensis).

Moonseed (Menispermum canadense).

Sweet Shrub (Butnera fertilis).

Spicewood (Benzoin benzoin).

Mountain Hydrangea (Hydrangea arbo-
rescens ).

Showy Hydrangea (Hydrangea radiata).

Syringa (Philadelphus inodorus).

Itea (Itea virginica).

Hop Trefoil (Ptelea trifoliata).

False Indigo (Amorpha virgata).

False Indigo (Amorpha fruticosa).

Rose Locust (Robinia hispida). -

Boynton Locust (Robinia boyntoni).

Wistaria ( Wistaria frutescens).

Red Root (Ceanothus americana).

Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca).

Summer Grape (Vitis zestivalis).

Le Conte Grape ( Vitis bicolor).

Riverside Grape (Vitis vulpina).

Frost Grape ( Vitis cordifolia).

Bailey Grape (Vitis baileyana).

Muscadine ( Vitis rotundifolia).

Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quin-
quefolia).

Sumach (Rhus copallina).

Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra).

Poison Sumach (Rhus vernix).

Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans).

Poison Oak (Rhus toxicodendron).

Beadle Winterberry (Ilex beadlei).

Winterberry (Ilex verticillata).

Southern Winterberry (Ilex longipes).

Strawberry Bush (Euonymus ameri-
canus).

Burning Bush (Euonymus atropurpu-
reus).

| Wax Work (Celastrus scandens).

| Bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia).
| Gooseberry (Ribes cynosbati) .

Mountain Gooseberry (Ribes rotundi-
folia).
Slender Gooseberry (Ribes gracile).

| Mountain Currant (Ribes prostratum).

Fothergilla (Fothergilla monticola).
Ninebarks (Opulaster opulifolius).
Meadow-sweet (Spirzea salicifolia).
Hardhack (Spirea tomentosa).
Mountain Spirzea (Spirzea corymbosa).
Virginia Spirzea (Spirzea virginiana).
Flowering Raspberry (Rubus odoratus).

| Red Raspberry (Rubus strigosus).

Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis).

Mountain Blackberry (Rubus alleghani-
ensis).

Northern Blackberry (Rubus nigrobac-
cus).

Low-bush Blackberry (Rubus cuneifo-
lius).

107

108

Thornless Blackberry (Rubus canaden-
sis).

Hispid Bramble (Rubus hispidus).

Boynton Bramble (Rubus boyntoni).

Great Bramble (Rubus clava-herculis).

Watauga Bramble (Rubus wataugee).

Appalachian Blackberry (Rubus argutoi-
des).

Common Blackberry (Rubus argutus).

Wild Rose (Rosa carolina).

Dwarf Rose (Rosa humilis).

Red Choke-berry (Aronia arbutifolia) .

Black Choke-berry (Aronia nigra).

Dreaded Thorn (Crateegus crux).

White-anthered Thorn (Crateegus ebur-
nea).

Edible Thorn (Cratzegus cibilis).

Thick Thorn (Crateegus densa).

Prolific Thorn (Crateegus farcta) .

Discoid Thorn (Cratzegus discoidea).

Light-green Thorn (Crateegus chlorina).

Pendent Thorn (Cratzegus pendulina).

Particolored Thorn (Cratzegus bicolor).

Fleshy Thorn (Cratzegus carnosa).

Three-angled Thorn (Cratzegus prismat-
ica).

Bloody Thorn (Crateegus cruenta).

Three-seeded Thorn (Crategus
perma).

Curtis Thorn (Crateegus curtisi).

Bractless Thorn (Cratzegus elracteata).

Brown Thorn (Crateegus addisoni) .

Roan Thorn (Cratzegus roanensis).

Thin-leaved Thorn (Crateegus tenuifolia).

Biltmore Thorn (Cratzegus biltmoreana).

Small-flowered Thorn (Crategus uni-
flora).

Vail Thorn (Cratzegus vailiae).

Lookout-mountain Thorn (Cratzegus ma-
crosperma).

Oconaluitee Thorn (Crateegus roribacca) .

Wrinkled Thorn (Crateegus rugosa).

Yellow-flesh Thorn (Cratzegus flayo-car-
nis).

Rosy Thorn (Cratzegus rubella).

Red-flesh Thorn (Crateegus heemacarpa).

Cullasagee Thorn (Crateegus callasa-
gensis).

Forest Thorn (Crateegus silvicala).

Thorn (Crateegus sororia).

Dwarf Cherry (Prunus cuneata).

Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana).

Mountain Stuartia (Stuartia pentagyna).

tris-

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

St. Andrew’s Cross (Ascyerum hyperi-
coides).

Shrubby St. John’s-wort (Hypericum
prolificum).

Bushy St. John’s-wort (Hypericum densi-
florum).

Doubtful St. John’s-wort (Hypericum
ambiguum) .

Riverside St. John’s-wort (Hypericum
nudiflorum).

Buckley St. John’s-wort (Hypericum
buckleyi).

Table-rock Hudsonia (Hudsonia mon-
tana).

Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) .

Spikenard (Aralia spinosa).

Pepperbush (Clethra acuminata).

Early Azalea (Azalea nudiflora).

Downy Azalea (Azalea canescens).

Yellow Azalea (Azalea lutea).

Fragrant Azalea (Azalea arborescens).

White Azalea (Azalea viscosa)

Vasey Azalea (Azalea vaseyi).

Winterberry (Gaultheria procumbens).

Mountain Laurel (Rhododendron maxi-
mum).

Purple Laurel (Rhododendron cataw-
biense).

Small Laurel (Rhododendron puncta-
tum).

Menziesia (Menziesia pilosa).

Leather-leaf (Chamzedaphne calyculata).

Mountain Myrtle (Dendrium prostratum).

Blue-ridge Myrtle (Dendrium hugeri).

Sheep Wicky (Kalmia angustifolia).

Kalmia (Kalmia latifolia).

Dog Hobble (Leucothoe catesbeei).

Common Leucothoe (Leucothoe race-
mosa).

Buckley Leucothoe (Leucothoe recurya).

Fetter-bush (Pieris floribunda).

Stagger-bush (Xolisma ligustrina).

Tangle-berry (Gaylussaccia frondosa).

Northern High-bush Huckleberry (Gay-
lussaccia resinosa).

Dwarf Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia du-
mosa).

Buckberry (Gaylussaccia ursina).

Box Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia brachy-
cera).

High-bush Huckleberry (Vaccinium vir-
gatum).

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Common Blueberry (Vaccinium corym-
bosum).

Mountain Huckleberry (Vaccinium pal-
lidum).

Dwarf Blueberry (Vaccinium vaccilans).

Black Huckleberry (Vaccinium atro-
coccum).

Pale Deerberry (Vaccinium glaucum).

Deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum).

Sparkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum).

Hairy Huckleberry (Vaccinium _hir-
sutum ).

Cranberry (Oxycoccus macrocarpus).

Bearberry (Oxycoccus erythrocarpus).

Styrax (Styrax americana),

109

Common Elder (Sambucus canadensis).
Red-berried Elder (Sambucus pubens).
Pubescent Arrow-wood (Vilurnum alni-
folium).
Arrow-wood (Viburnum acerifolium).
Swamp Arrow-wood (Viburnum molle).
Hobble-bush (Viburnum lentago).
Swamp Haw (Viburnum cassinoides).
Swamp Haw (Viburnum nudum).
Black Haw (Viburnum rufomentosum).
Coral-berry (Symphoricarpos symphori-
carpos) .
Yellow Honeysuckle (Lonicera flava) .
Mountain Honeysuckle (Lonicera glauca).
Woodbine (Lonicera sempervirens) .

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
Washington, December 13, 1901.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a letter from the Director
of the Geological Survey, submitting brief reports on the topogra-
phy and geology of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, by Arthur
eith, and on the hydrography of the same region, by H. A. Pressey
and E. W. Myers, of the Geological Survey, for use in connection
with your report on the forest conditions of the region.
Very respectfully,
E. A. Hirencocr,
Secretary.
The SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
UnitEep Sratres GEOLOGICAL SURVEY,
Washington, D. C., December 12, 1901.

Srr: I send herewith for submittal to the Secretary of Agriculture,
short reports on the topography and geology of the Southern Appala-
chian Mountains, by Arthur Keith, and on the hydrography of the
pale region, by H. A. Pressey and E. W. Myers, of the Geological

urvey.

These special reports, embodying the results of investigations in
this region, extending over several years, have been prepared at the
request of the Secretary of Agriculture, and will accompany his re-
port to Congress on the forest conditions in the Southern Appalachian
region.

The results of the investigations made in this region show that the
destruction of the mountain forests now in progress there is being
followed by a consequent erosion of the mountain slopes and valleys,
an increasing irregularity in the flow of streams, and a silting up of
the river channels across the lowlands of the bordering States, which
if continued will seriously and permanently injure the industrial con-
ditions over considerable portions of these States.

Yours, respectfully,
Cuas. D. Watcorr,
Director.
The SeEcRETARY OF THE INTERIOR.
110

X12 Sl DIN DID ~ 183.

MONPOEMRAIS EL JINID Cav OIOE SS Ola
SQOUMMSUII SIN AUeIevalbvelOlel bans),

ARTHUR KHITE,

United States Geological Survey.

THE

111

TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE
SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS,

By ArtHur Kerra.

That portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains in
which it is proposed to make a national park lies mainly
in North Carolina, but comprises also small portions of
South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Virginia. The
area, as a whole, covers about 12,000 square miles, large
portions of which are specially adapted to the purposes of
apark. This region can be reached within a day’s jour-
ney from the large cities east of the Mississippi, a measure
of accessibility possessed by no other similar district in
the United States. It is also nearer the center of popula-
tion than any other mountain district.

THE MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS.

Although this region contains many large rivers and im-
portant valleys, it is preeminently a region of mountains.
It includes the largest areas of land over 5,000 feet in
height east of the Mississippi. In all, 46 peaks a mile or
more apart and 41 miles of divide rise above 6,000 feet,
while 288 peaks and 300 miles of divide are 5,000 feet or
more in height. From the southeastern foot of this mass
the Piedmont Plateau stretches southeastward with small
interruptions, finally merging into the coastal plain which
borders the Atlantic. Past its northwestern foot sweep
the valleys of Tennessee and Virginia, with their included
ridges and smaller mountains. The great mountain mass
thus limited is composed of a number of large and many
lesser chains, forming a belt over 300 miles long. Between
the chains are extensive plateaus, which are themselves
mountains when compared with the lower valleys that dis-
sect them. The Blue Ridge forms the southeastern and
the Unaka Mountains the northwestern front of the moun-

*S. Doc. 84——8

Magnitude of
the mountains.

113

114 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

tains. Seventy miles apart in North Carolina, they inclose
many other extensive ranges between them. In Georgia
they approach within 30 miles of each other, and in lower
Virginia they coalesce. (Pl. LXV.)

The southeastern portion of the mountainous area is the
Blue Ridge, a sinuous divide which parts the waters of the
Atlantic and the Mississippi. The Blue Ridge stands
above 3,000 feet in height, except in a number of deep
gaps and a short stretch at the head of Broad River. The
northern part of the Blue Ridge consists of ancient pla-
teaus, whose summits are broad and gently rolling and rise
to similar heights for long distances. From place to place
these vary between 3,100 and 3,800 feet. Less regularity
prevails in the southern part of the chain, upon which are
situated a few individual peaks and ridges of commanding
height. Chief of these are Grandfather Mountain, 5,964
feet, Pinnacle, 5,693 feet, and Standing Indian, 5,562 feet.
Four other points exceed 5,000 feet in height. South of the
Little Tennessee Basin the Blue Ridge becomes exceedingly
irregular, both in height and direction, and finally merges
into the Piedmont Plateau. The one feature which distin-
guishes the Blue Ridge from other Appalachian Mountains is
its steep slope on the southeast. Thisis so extreme as to be, in
places, precipitous, and it fronts the adjoining foothills and
the Piedmont Plateau likea rampart. (Pls. LVIII, LEX.)
wee aine’** Roughly parallel to the Blue Ridge and bordering the

Great Valley of Tennessee and Virginia lie aseries of high
mountains which have many features in common and arise
from the same causes, although they have separate names.
These begin at the southwest with the Unaka Mountains
and are continued in the Great Smoky, the Bald, the
Unaka, and the Iron mountains. This northwestern front
of the mountain mass is termed, collectively, the ‘‘ Unaka
Mountains,” a name which is also applied to two of its
parts. In the Smoky Mountains several points are but a
few feet less in altitude than Mount Mitchell—for instance,
Mount Guyot, 6,636 feet, and Clingmans Dome, 6,619
feet. From this maximum in the Smokies the Unakas
have progressively lower summits in all directions. Cut
apart as the segments of the chain are by the rivers, no
average elevations can be stated. South of Big Pigeon
River most of the summits are above 5,000 feet. North
of that river few exceed 5,000 feet, but many are over
4,000. In all, 125 of its summits rise above 5,000 feet,
and 10 exceed 6,000 feet. The body of high land in the
Smoky Mountains is the greatest in the Appalachians.

Blue Ridge.

Senate Doc. No. 84. Ptate LVIII.

“0 "N ‘MOO DNIAAONE YVAN WOYS LSSM ONIMOOT ‘NIVLNNOW HYSHLVSGNVYD GNV NV3LW1d 39GIM 3nd SHL

CPrLL ‘d 009)

PLATE LIX.

No, 84.

Senate Doc.

EASTERLY FRONT OF THE BLUE RIDGE IN VIRGINiA, SOUTH OF ROANOKE.

The untry to the left is the Piedmont

(See p. 114.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

115

X O eile | me 7 ] Transverse
Connecting the Unaka Mountains with the Blue Ridge ,T7@™syerse

are a series of more or less interrupted chains, most of
which have a northwest direction. Chief of these are Tus-
quitee, Cheoah, Nantahala, Cowee, Balsam, Pisgah, New
Found, Black, Yellow, Roan, Beech, and Stone mountains.
Supporting and extending these are scores of smaller peaks
and ridges. Here and there on these separate chains are
many high points comparable with or exceeding those of
the Unaka Mountains—for instance, Roan Mountain, 6,313
feet; Richland Balsam, 6,540 feet, and Mount Mitchell,
6,712 feet, the highest point east of the Rockies. As a
whole they are much higher than the Blue Ridge, although
they exceed the Unakas but little. One hundred and fifty-
six summits are over 5,000 feet, and 36 rise over 6,000
feet. The Balsam and Pisgah mountains are the highest
of the transverse ranges and form a maximum correspond-
ing to the Smoky Mountains. (PI. UX1.)

Thus, although the Blue Ridge is the watershed of this
area, the highest points, excepting Mount Mitchell, are
situated in the Unaka Mountains, where are also located
the largest bodies of high ground. Accordingly the rivers
flow northwest from the Blue Ridge in deeper and deeper
channels, until their gorges are overshadowed by the peaks
of the Unakas, a mile in height above them.

Certain types of surface prevail throughout the moun-
tain district. The mountains rest upon a low base, which
varies from 1,500 to 2,500 feet in elevation. The rise of
2,000-5,000 feet up to the summits is made between nar-
row limits, so that the slopes are steep for the most part.
Narrow valleys follow the rivers, in places from 2 to 5
miles in width, and with moderate eminences. From their
borders rise the mountains, with slopes abruptly chang-
ing 20 degrees or more. These have a marked similarity
throughout the mountains, whether high or low. The
summits are usually rounded, and cliffs only here and there
mar the smoothness of the slopes. The general aspect of
these mountains is one of flowing curves, and their gran-
deur is impressed on the observer by their mass rather
than by outline.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS.

Probably no region in the United States is better watered
or better drained than this. Most of the water passes into
the Mississippi. through Tennessee River and its tributa-
ries. Chief of these are the Ocoee, Hiwassee, Little

ranges.

Surface forms

Direction
flow in rivers.

116

Radial drain-

age.

Grades
Tivers.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Tennessee, Tuckaseegee, Big Pigeon, French Broad, Noli-
chucky, Watauga, and Holston rivers. These all flow
from the Blue Ridge northwestward through the Unaka
Mountains and separate that chain into portions which
have received individual names. In the northeastern por-
tion of this region the New River, a branch of the Ohio,
rises and flows northeastward. Southeastward from the
Blue Ridge a large number of rivers flow into the Atlantic.
These are the Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Saluda, and Cha-
tooga rivers. In the northeastern corner of Georgia rises
the Chattahoochee, flowing southwestward into the Gulf
of Mexico. Thus this region distributes its waters in all
directions and is practically the apex of the drainage of
many thousand square miles. From the Blue Ridge near
Blowing Rock the waters may run through Watauga River
into the Tennessee, through New River into the Ohio, or
through the Catawba and the Yadkin into the Atlantic.
From the Blue Ridge near the head of Hiwassee River
they may flow through Chatooga River into the Atlantic,
through the Chattahoochee into the Gulf of Mexico, or
through the Hiwassee into the Mississippi. Into these
large rivers flow hundreds of lesser rivers and creeks,
which cover the country with a most intricate network.
They are fed by myriads of springs which run from year
to year with unceasing flow. (Pls. LX, LXII, LXII1.)

Starting southeastward from heights of 3,000 feet or
more, the streams tumble rapidly from the Blue Ridge
and reach the Piedmont Plateau at heights from 1,000 to
1,500 feet. Rivers running in the opposite direction
emerge upon the Appalachian Valley at heights from 1,000
to 2,000 feet, the highest points being at the northeast.
Few of these rivers flow as far as 100 miles in the moun-
tains, so that this fall of 1,000 or 2,000 feet makes a very
high average grade. The stretches of smooth water are
seldom long, and the descent is mainly accomplished by
countless rapids and minor falls. On the larger rivers
few falls exceed 10 feet. Falls of 25 and 30 feet can be
found here and there upon the smaller rivers, while in
places the creeks and branches have direct plunges as
great as 300 feet. That the scenery along the streams is
picturesque scarcely needs to be said. From rapid to fall,
and then a stretch of placid depth, the courses of the
streams are pictures of kaleidoscopic variety. Come to
them where you may, the charm is there, and fresh
beauties are viewed at every bend.

PLATE LX.

Senate Doc, No. 84.

THE NARROWS OF THE LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER EMERGING FROM THE SMOKY MOUNTAINS.

(See pp. 18, 116, and Pl. Y.)

ey
ee

PLate LXI.

Senate Doc. No. 84,

Mount Pisgah.

BALSAM AND PISGAH MOUNTAINS FROM JUNALUSKA, NEAR WAYNESVILLE, N. C.

(See pp.

51, 115.)

Oa tenerlnnsien Oe

Ser sy

Senate Doc. No, 84 PLATE LXIl.

(1) FRENCH BROAD RIVER, AT PAINT ROCK, N. C. (See p. 116.)

(B) OCOEE RIVER, IN UNAKA MOUNTAINS, TENNESSEE. (See p. 116.)

cS)

ae,
Se BAR A

PLate LXIll.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

From season to season the rivers vary in flow. Their
least volume is in the early fall, when they have been
reduced by the droughts and heat of summer. Only the
smallest branches are ever entirely dried, however, and
the severest droughts fail to stop any considerable stream.
The greatest volumes are attained in the spring, when the
snows melt rapidly and the winter’s accumulation of water
is leaving the soil. The freshets are not limited altogether
to the spring, however; a cloud-burst, for example, may
swell a lesser stream tenfold, or a hard rain of four or
five days may flood even the largest river. In the upper
courses of the streams, where the grades are highest,
floods produce exceedingly swift currents, which are able
to destroy obstructions and barriers which at ordinary
stages would seem insurmountable. The rapid delivery
of the waters from the stream heads make a sudden con-
centration where the branches have united and the grades
are less, causing deep water and overflow. Thus, four
days of hard rain recently raised Catawba River 30 feet
and overflowed miles of bottom lands. The power of the
upper and steeper streams at such times is almost incred-
ible; bowlders tons in weight become mere playthings.
On the lower reaches in deeper waters and slackened cur-
rents no fragments larger than cobblestones are moved,
but wholesale changes in the shapes of the .bottom lands
are often accomplished. The same steep grades which
cause the rapid floods are equally effective when the rains
have ceased, so that the waters subside about as quickly as
they rise. Aside from these temporary changes in vol-
ume the flow of the rivers is very steady, dependent as it
is upon the discharge of countless springs and the seepage
of waters from the soils.

CLIMATIC FEATURES IN THE MOUNTAINS.

The region covered by this mountain mass possesses a
climate which differs greatly from that of the surrounding
regions. This is manifest first in lower temperatures and
is due directly to the greater altitudes. The peaks, of
course, are colder than the intermountain valleys, and
both are colder than the adjoining Great Valley or the
Piedmont Plateau. The- differences in temperature are
greater in summer than in winter, so that the climate of
the higher portions is more equable than that- of the
valleys.

ile

Volume of flow
in rivers.

Speed of flow.

Temperature.

118

Rainfall.

Forest cover.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

In addition to the cold which it directly produces, the
altitude also affects the climate of this region very decid-
edly through the precipitation. The prevailing winds of
the region are southwesterly and are heavily laden with
moisture derived from the Gulf of Mexico. As these
winds rise over the mountain slopes they become colder
and less able to retain moisture, which comes within the
mountain’s grasp as rain or snow. The birth of shreds of
eloud in the uprising wind and their union into masses
that shroud the mountains can be seen on eyery hand.
Through them come glimpses of peak and forest, in a soft-
ness and beauty far beyond words. The direct effect of
altitude in chilling the winds is assisted by the cooling
effect of the almost universal forests. The forests in turn
are fostered by the rainfall and humidity, and the two
processes go hand in hand. In the winter much of the
precipitation is in the form of snow. This is protected
from melting by the forest cover and accumulates so as to
mantle the ground for weeks, or eyen months. In this
way a great store of moisture is retained and finds its way
into the soil, to be absorbed in part by the forests when
growth begins in the spring. Snow sometimes falls on
the higher mountains by the first of October, and the last
snow may remain until the middle of March.

Between the temperature of the highest tops and that of
the larger and lower valleys included in the mountain
region there is a great difference. This is expressed in
nature most prominently by the great variety of trees,
shrubs, and plants. There is probably no region in the
United States containing more species than this, whieh is
appropriately termed the ‘‘ botanist’s paradise.” During
May and June it becomes a vast flower garden of unrivaled
rarity and beauty. Rhododendron and azalea bloom mile
on mile, or a score of blossoms are trodden ata step. In
autumn the purple haze and the blaze of color in the foliage
form a panorama that can not be surpassed. The amount
of the forest is quite as striking as its variety, and is one of
the most impressive features of the mountains. Owing to
the warmth and humidity of the atmosphere the individ-
ual trees attain great size. White pines reach heights of
200 feet and poplars are 25 feetin girth. Thus, the exist-
ence of the forest cover as a whole and of the individual
species that are favored by colder climates is dependent
upon the altitude, which cools the air and brings moisture
to the surface of the earth. Its favorable situation with

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLaTe LXIV.

STEEP FOREST-COVERED SLOPE OF HAWKSBILL MOUNTAIN, SEEN ACROSS THE GORGE OF LINVILLE RIVER.
(See p. 118 and Pls. XXIX, LXXII.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

regard to the moist, warm winds trom the Gulf combines with
a general altitude unequaled east of the Mississippi to pro-
duce a unique and remarkable vegetation. (Pl. LXIV.)

THE GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS.

The geologic formations which underlie this mountain
district may be divided into four large groups. Each dif-
fers widely from the others in age, and has very distinct
features of its own. These broad differences have ex-
pressed themselves in such major topographic features as
the Appalachian Valley, the Appalachian Mountains, and
the Piedmont Plateau. These differences are also largely
responsible for the principal variations in the character of
the surface in the mountain district itself.

The Appalachian Valley is underlain by a series of lime-
stones, shales, and sandstones, mainly of late Cambrian
and Silurian age, forming the youngest of the four groups
in this region. Small outliers of these formations are in-
cluded within the area of the mountains near the border
of the Appalachian Valley.

The second group occupies the northwestern border of
the mountain district, chiefly northeast of the French
Broad River. It consists of a series of quartzites, sand-
stones, conglomerates, and shales of Lower Cambrian age.
A second large area of these rocks occupies the Blue
Ridge and adjacent territory, nearly in the center of this
district.

The third group is of Cambrian age. It occupies the
northwest border of the mountain mass, corresponding in
position to the previous group but best developed south-
west of the French Broad River in the Smoky and Unaka
mountains. The group consists of conglomerates, gray-
wackes, sandstones, schists, and slates, and is called the
Ocoee group. This and the preceding two groups were
composed of the waste from older rocks, which was de-
posited under water. The thickness of the strata is ap-
proximately the same in the Ocoee group and the formations
of the Appalachian Valley. The Lower Cambrian quartz-
ites and shales of the second group have only from one-
fourth to one-third of the thickness of either of the
preceding groups.

The fourth group is much the largest of all, both in actual
bulk and area. It consists in the main of formations of

119

Limestone
group.

Quartzite
group.

Conglomerate
group.

Gneiss group.

120 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

the Archean, or oldest known age. The different rocks
include several kinds of granite, diorite, mica-gneiss,
hornblende-gneiss, and various schists. A large number
of these are of igneous origin, but the original nature of
many of the gneisses and schists is unknown. Formations
also included in this group are the ancient volcanic rocks.
These are developed most prominently in connection with
the Cambrian quartzites in the northeastern part of the
mountain district.

RELATION OF ROCKS TO SURFACE.

rocks, °" “ Much of the surface of the Appalachian Mountains is

exceedingly ancient. During the later geologic periods
it has been subjected to the various natural agencies of
destruction and has been worn down according as the
rocks presented at the surface were susceptible to these
influences. The materials composing these formations
are attacked in varying degrees by solution and by chem-
ical processes connected with atmospheric and under-
ground water. Certain minerals—for instance, carbonate
of lime—are readily dissolved by natural waters, and the
rock in wasting away leaves behind only the less soluble
portions in forms of clay. To this capability is directly
due the reduction of the Great Valley below the mountain
mass. Other minerals—for instance, feldspar—are in part
dissolved and in part chemically altered and decomposed
by natural waters, so that the coherence of the rock which
contains them is largely destroyed. Two groups in this
region have a large proportion of feldspar in their makeup,
and their surfaces have been gradually lowered by its
breaking down. These are the Ocoee group and the
Archean group. <A third mineral—quartz—is compara-
tively little changed by solution or chemical action near
the surface. Formations made up in large part of this
mineral retain their altitudes most persistently and are
usually the last to be reduced. This composition is most
pronounced in the Lower Cambrian group, but is shared
also by the Ocoee group and the Archean group. Although
the thickness of the Lower Cambrian quartzites is so much
less than that of the other groups, their resistance to solu-
tion has caused them to remain upheld in very high ridges
and peaks. To this are due the cliffs of Chilhowee, Camp
Creek, and Iron mountains and the rugged crags of Grand-
father. In the case of the Ocoee and Archean groups
their immense thickness and the amount of quartz which

PLATe LXV.

Senate Doc. No. 84

WEST FOOTHILLS OF THE UNAKAS AND VALLEY OF EAST TENNESSEE, NEAR ERWIN, TENN., SHOWING LIMESTONE

VALLEY AND QUARTZITE RIDGES.

(See pp. 17, 119.)

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

they contain have maintained the greatest elevations pre-
sented in this region. Of this the mighty domes of the
Smokies, the Balsams, and the Roan, and the lofty peaks
ot the Blacks, are witnesses. (Pl. LX VI.)

121

Rock disinte-

The moist atmosphere is conducive to the rapid decay gration.

of the rocks, which break up chiefly under the attack of
rain, frost, the roots of the trees, the underground waters,
and organic acids. At first decay works in along the vari-
ous partings, resulting in the loosening of large masses,
which gradually become smaller, until finally nothing is
left of them except clay and the more obdurate bits of
rock. The rocks reach the surface only over very small
patches, while in places the disintegration attains a depth
as great as 60 feet. On sloping surfaces the loose material
is maintained in its place solely by friction. When this
is lessened or overcome from any cause, the residual mat-
ter, be it clay or rock fragments, slides down the slopes
until the friction is again sufficient to retain it in one posi-
tion. Thusare formed immense thicknesses of loose mate-
rial washed down from steep slopes and accumulated in
the hollows and flatter places. This material gradually
works its way downhill as it is pushed along by the freez-
ing of the water which it contains, or is rendered more
unstable as the water transforms it intomud. Eventually
it finds its way into the streams and is carried by slow
stages into the sea. (PI. LXVII.)

PROTECTION OF THE SOILS.

The chief agent which checks this process of removal is
the forest cover, even though the penetrating roots and
the acids due to vegetation induce rock decomposition.
These same roots, however, hold the loose material in place
and hinder its tendency to slide downhill. With this

Roots and

eaves protect

assistance loose soils are upheld on slopes at angles fully the soil.

double those which they could maintain unaided. Besides
this direct check to the waste of slopes by increased fric-
tion,-the action of the forests is as great in another way.
Loose materials are washed downhill during rainstorms
by even the tiniest rivulets. In open fields these gather
in a few minutes and form deeper and deeper channels with
each succeeding storm, finally removing the loose material
down to the bare rock. This process is almost wholly pre-
vented by the network of roots and the cover of leaves, both
living and dead, and the water concentrates into rivulets
hy seeping through the soils so slowly that it carries no

122

Soil stripped

from clearings.

Storage of wa-
ter reduced.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

sediment. The waters drain off in the hollows and small
streams whose channels have been fitted by long use to
withstand the attacks of rushing water.

Countless illustrations of this process can be seen dur-
ing any rainstorm. Streams which drain considerable
areas of cleared land rise fast and become turbid with mud.
Those which drain areas protected. by forests rise much
more slowly, and by comparison the water could be called
clear, except in the most violent storms. This result is of
course most striking at the very headwaters, the little
streams rising in the fields and in the woods. The effects
of this work are seen in the innumerable gullies which
gash fields left to the elements for any time. In fact, un-
less checked by the most constant attention, these gullies
soon strip off the soil and clay and ruin the fields. In
the forests, on the other hand, one rarely sees a slope of
soil not covered by vegetation, and it is only along the
immediate banks of the streams that raw slopes of loose
material are exposed. In short, in this region of deep
residual soils the influence of the forest is paramount. It
is a fact well known among the mountaineers that the soils
are far more fertile when first cleared of timber than
ever again. It is equally well known among the farmers
along the river bottoms that the same crops have been
planted with the same success for scores of years. These
latter soils, however, are refreshed from time to time by
the overflowing waters, which have swept off fertile mate-
rials from the steeper slopes above. The natural fertility
of these mountain soils is very great, as is abundantly
shown by the tremendous forest growth. The pristine
strength of the soil soon wanes in the clearings, and there
ensues a loss which is permanent for at least a generation.
To convince one’s self of the existence of this condition it
is only necessary to visit the region.

In addition to the loss inflicted by forest cutting upon
the steep slopes themselves great damage also results to
the lands lying farther down the streams. The deep clays
and underlying rocks forma kind of gigantic sponge, which
stores up water when itisabundant. When the forests are
stripped away the water collects and runs off with vastly
greater speed, and much evaporates, so that not only is
less stored up, but the discharge is more irregular and tem-
porary. Destructive floods result and droughts are wider
spread. Thus, viewed from the standpoint either of util-
ity or beauty, these unrivaled forests are the keystone of
the arch.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

PLATE LXVI.

ROCK WEATHERING AND DECAY IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS, NEAR DELRIO, TENN. (See p. 121.)

» their storage capacity for water, and thus help regulate the flow of the mountain streams.

Senate Doc. No. 84, PLate LXVII.

LAND EROSION, NEAR MARION, N. C., SHOWING RAPID REMOVAL OF THE SOILS BY HEAVY RAINS WHEN
THE FOREST COVER IS REDUCED OR DESTROYED. (See pp. 26-28, 122.)

PLATE LXVIII.

Senate Doc, No, 84,

YONAHLOSSEE ROAD ON THE SOUTHERN SLOPE OF GRANDFATHER MOUNTAIN.

JIE SN IOI (Os

IEDYIDIROCARAI sh Ole Wels; SOWMMaLMeiy
MEE ILAOISULEINS),

H. A. PRESSEY, Hydrographer, and E. W. MYERS, Resident Hydrographer,

United States Geological Survey.

THE HYDROGRAPHY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE REGION.

The Southern Appalachian Mountains, located in the
States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ten-
nessee, Georgia, and Alabama, stand out from and above
the surrounding country as an elevated physiographic
unit. They riseabove the Piedmont Plateau, which borders
them on the east and south, and above the valley of East
Tennessee, which lies on their western flanks, to a height
of from 2,000 to nearly 6,000 feet above sea level.

This is preeminently a region of mountains. (See PI. IV.)
The slopes are mostly covered with deep soil, which is kept
in an open, porous condition by the humus that enters
into its composition and is spread over the surface, and
which is held in place by the myriads of roots of trees and
shrubs and grasses growing upon it. (See Pl. LXIX a.)
In this region the raindrops are battered to pieces by
the twigs and leaves and the water is caught by the grasses,
shrubs, and ferns below and soaks through the covering
humus into the soil and rock fissures underneath. (See PI.
LXIX 4.) The portion that is neither used by the vegeta-
tion nor evaporated from the surface emerges about the
mountain slopes weeks or months after its fall in countless
springs that feed with striking regularity the many brooks,
creeks, and rivers which thus have their sources here.
These conditions combine to make this one of the best
watered regions on the continent.

This region embraces an irregular, mountainous table-
land, lying between the steep and well-defined escarpment
of the Blue Ridge on the southeast and the less rugged,
but higher and more massive Unaka chain on the north-
west. Numerous cross ridges separated by narrow valleys
and river gorges connect these two ranges or extend out
between them. The region, taken as a whole, has an average
elevation of more than 2,500 feet, but there are many
peaks that rise to about 5,000 feet, and a considerable

A well watered
region.

125

126

The Blue Ridge
the great divide.

The river

gorges.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

number to over 6,000 feet. The mountain slopes, though
usually steep, are forest-covered, and have a deep, fertile
soil of varying physical character, which is very readily
eroded and washed away when the forest covering is re-
moved. The Blue Ridge, though not so high as the moun-
tains to the west, is an older range and constitutes the
divide between the waters flowing to the east and those
flowing to the west, the streams flowing in either direction
hhemians their head springs in or near the gaps of this

divide. (Pls. LXIX, LXX.)

In considering the Blue Ridge as the great divide of
this region two ley ae of it are especially notable.
(See Pl. SuIgh Near Grandfather Mountain, the highest
point on the Blue Ridge, the New or Kanawha River rises
and flows northward through Virginia and thence north-
westward into thé’Ohio; the Yadkin rises a few y ards dis-
tant on the east and ‘flows northeast and then southeast
into the Atlantic; the Linville, a branch of the Catawba,
rises on the west side and flows south-southeast, cutting
across the Blue Ridge in a deep gorge, while a few miles
farther west the Watauga and Nolichucky flow northwest
and southwest, respectively, into the Tennessee and the
Gulf. One hundred and fifty miles farther southwest,
where the Blue Ridge is somewhat broken up near its
junction with the Balsam cross ridge, the French Broad
rises and flows eastward; the Saluda flows southeast; the
Savannah south, and the Tuckasegee west-southwest, into
the Tennessee. (Pl. LX X1.)

The most striking characteristic of the Blue Ridge is
the great apparent difference in height when viewed from
its two sides, the streams flowing toward the east plung-
ing down its sides in narrow V-shaped gorges for a thou-
sand feet or more ina distance of a few miles until they
reach the gentle slopes of the Piedmont Plain. (See PI.
XXVII). Those flowing westward have a much easier
descent.

This is well shown by the great falls on the Linville
River, which, rising on the western slopes of Grand-
father Mountain, in Mitchell County, flows in a general
southerly course to its junction with the Catawba River,
near the southern end of the Linville Mountains. The
falls proper, which are located about 3 miles below the
Mitchell-Burke County line, have a perpendicular plunge
of 40 feet, and the cascades above are about 50 feet in
height, this fall of 90 feet occurring in a linear distance

Senate Doc. No. 84, PLATE LXIX.

(1) RHODODENDRON UNDERGROWTH HOLDING THE SOIL AND THE WATER.

Undergrowth like this holds in place indefinitely the deep, fertile soil of the steep Appalachian mountain slopes.

(B) SEAMS IN THE ROCK FACILITATE THE STORAGE OF WATER FROM HEAVY RAIN.

These supplement the work of the soil on the mountain slopes in storing the excessive rains and giving out this
water during the drier seasons of the year. But when the forests are destroyed, both the soils and the half-
decayed rocks are rapidly carried away, and the mountain rains rush into the streams below, causing floods of
increasing violence.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE LXX.

(Photographed by Scadin.)

UPPER FALLS, WHITEWATER RIVER. (See pp. 29, 126.)

The Whitewater is one of the several streams rising on these mountain slopes which unite in the hill country
below to form the Savannah River, and to operate the large manufacturing establishments at Augusta, Ga.

Senate Doc, No. 84. PLATE LXXI.

(Photographed by Lindsay.)

LOWER CULLASAJA FALLS, MACON COUNTY, N. Gc. (See pp. 29, 126.)

On one of the sources of the Little Tennessee River.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

of about 100 feet. For a distance of about 10 miles be-
low the falls the river flows in a series of cascades through
a narrow gorge, whose sides are from 500 to nearly 2,000
feet high, the walls being cut down through the eroded Lin-
ville quartzites into the gra. e below. (See Pl. LX XII.)
In the first 6 miles below the falls the descent averages 208
feet to the mile, and the total descent from the head of the
falls to the lower end of the gorge, a distance of about 10
miles, is 1,800 feet, as determined by a line of levels.
Along the upper 6 or 7 miles of this distance the bottom of
the gorge is scarcely wider than the stream. The total fall
of the stream from its source in Linville Gap to its mouth
is about 3,030 feet in a distance of about 364 miles, the
average fall per mile being about 83 feet.

The Watauga River also rises near Linville Gap, and
flows first in a northeasterly and then in a northwesterly
direction, its length from its source to Butler, Tenn.,
where it leaves the mountainous region, being about 33
miles. The total fall in this distance is about 2,000 feet,
and the average slope, therefore, about 61 feet per mile.
Of this 2,000 feet, between 900 and 1,000 feet are found
in the first 6 miles, where the stream rushes down the
slopes of Grandfather Mountain.

As is the case with most of the other streams rising on
the western slope and flowing westward across the elevated
plateau, this stream has its channel for a part of its course
‘in a rather broad and smooth valley before entering the
steep and rocky gorge of its middle course. Here it cuts
its way through the Unaka mountains in a deep canyon,
about 8 miles in length, where the fall averages about
65 feet per mile, but is very much greater at numerous
places, the channel being extremely rough and broken.
The depth of the gorge through the Unakas is nearly
2,000 feet, but the walls slope down much more gently
than those of the Linville just described, though they
often show precipitous rock cliffs several hundred feet in
height.

The Unaka range on the western edge of this plateau,
unlike the Blue Ridge, has slopes equally steep on
both sides, descending often some 4,000 feet from the
crest of the mountains to the stream beds. In the upper
part of their courses all of the rivers of the Unakas par-
take of the nature of mountain torrents, with the greatest
fall near their sources, and in their lower courses they flow
in valleys where there has been much clearing, the amount

127

Streams about
the Unakas.

128

Climate de-
scribed in Wea-
ther Bureau pa-
per

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

of water increasing rapidly at the time of rain on the moun-
tain sides. In many parts the stream valleys are simply
mountain gorges, with steep, vertical sides, and with very
small flood plains. Water powers could be developed at
many places along these rivers, the fall in the upper
part reaching, in some cases, 100 feet in an almost vertical
drop, though the quantity of water at these points is com-
paratively small. When the rivers reach the plains lying
at the edge of the mountain system their fall is very
much less, yet at frequent intervais decided drops occur,
and the flow is so increased by the numerous tributaries
that water powers of considerable magnitude and value
can be developed.

THE RAINFALL AND RUN-OFF IN THIS REGION.

In this region the influence of elevation on climate is
supreme; the summers are colder, the winters more
severe, and the climate is drier and more salubrious than
at points not far distant, but outside of the high mountain
area. The trend of the mountains to the southwest influ-
ences the prevailing winds, while the great diversity in
topographic features give rise to many interesting climatic
peculiarities.

On the mountains near the southern end of the Appala-
chian system the rainfall is very heavy, but, on the other
hand, in many central valleys the rainfall is as light and_
the climate as mild as at many points east of the Blue
Ridge.

The area embraced in the proposed reserve belongs to that
portion of the eastern United States characterized by the
greatest annual rainfall, there being places along the south-
eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge which receive an annual
precipitation not exceeded elsewhere in the United States,
except along the northwest Pacific coast. The average
rainfall for a period of more than ten years at various
places in the southern Appalachian Mountains in northern
Georgia and western North Carolina and South Carolina
has been nearly 73 inches, while at times tue precipitation
for a single month has been between 20 and 30 inches, the
greatest amount falling in the three summer months and
the least in autumn, the amounts in winter and spring being
about the same. It is worthy of remark that the average
precipitation at Asheville is only about 42 inches—the
smallest rainfall record made at any station in the region.

Senate Doc. No. 84, PLATE LXXIl.

(Photographed by Lindsay.)

THE GORGE OF THE LINNVILLE RIVER ACROSS THE BLUE RIDGE. (See pp. 29, 126.)

On these steep, rocky walls are forests which should foreyer be preserved.

PLATE LXXIII.

Senate Doc. No, 84.

SWANNANOA RIVER, NEAR ASHEVILLE, N. C. (See pp. 29, 128.)

The birch and other water-loying trees which grow out oyer these mountain streams, to better catch the sunlight, add greatly
of deeper, placid water,

to the beauty

(Photographed by Ray.)

of their occasional stretches

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

These and other facts concerning the general climatic
conditions of this region are brought out in the accom-
panying paper by Professor Henry of the United States
Weather Bureau, showing the records of temperature,
rainfall, and humidity at the stations of the Weather
Bureau between Lynchburg, Va., on the north, and Mont-
gomery, Ala., on the south, and from Salisbury, on the
east, to Knoxville, on the west.

The entire region is characterized by extremely heavy ,, Heavy rain

rainfall in very short periods of time, and owing to the
steep slopes and the absence of lakes, ponds, or marshes,
which could act as reservoirs and hold back the storm
waters, protracted heavy precipitation is followed by a
rather rapid increase in the flow of the streams, the rise
lasting generally for only a few hours, and the stream
soon assuming its normal stage of flow. This is more
especially the case where there are forest clearings. Con-
sequently these violent rains, under certain conditions—
1.e., where rains are excessive and clearings extensive, or
where forest areas are burned over so as to destroy the
humus and undergrowth—give rise to floods which are
very destructive to property and which cause occasionally
the loss of human life. To a certain extent the forest acts
as a reservoir, for it keeps the soil porous, allows it to
absorb and hold the water for a time, and gradually gives
it forth in the form of springs and rivulets. Where the
areas have been deforested, however, the rain water forms
small but swift-flowing torrents down the sides of the
mountains, and quickly reaches the streams below. Deep
channels are cut in the mountain sides, and all of the top
fertile soil is carried off, leaving only the underlying clays,
which are of poor quality and do not yield to cultivation.

After a storm the streams rising in the deforested areas
are extremely turbid with mud from the mountain sides,
while those from the forest areas are comparatively clear.
This erosion can be noted by the most casual observer, and
it forms one of the greatest menaces to the region. The
soil is deep and fertile, as is shown by the splendid growth
of forest trees and by its yield under the first cultivation,
but it is only a question of time, if the forests are wantonly
cut, when all of the soil and vegetation will be washed from
the mountain sides and nothing will remain but the bare
rock.

These floods, due to protracted rains, are also destruc-
tive in strips of valley lands bordering the streams in the

*S. Doc. 84 9

130

Damages from
floods.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

mountain region and in the wider valleys along their
courses across the lowlands beyond. Bridges, mills, set-
tlements, public roads, dams for developing water power,
indeed, everything in the course of such a mountain
stream is liable to be swept away by its rapidly increasing
force.

During the spring of 1901 this region was visited by the
most severe rain storm of its recent history. Many of
the streams rose to unprecedented heights, and the flood
damages to the farms, bridges, and dwellings on or near
practically all of the streams flowing from these southern
Appalachian Mountains were enormous. During thesum-
mer season later floods added largely to this destruction.

Along the valley of the Catawba River in its course
across the two Carolinas these flood damages to farms,
bridges, highways, buildings, etc., during the high-water
season of 1901, aggregated nearly two million dollars.
The storm damages during the same season along the
tributaries of the James, the Roanoke, the Yadkin, and
the Broad, in Virginia and North Carolina, added a million
dollars; and those on the tributaries of other streams rising
about the Blue Ridge in South Carolina and Georgia add
still another million, making four million in all for the
streams flowing from the Blue Ridge across the Piedmont
Plateau. Add to this the damages along the streams flow-
ing out of the southern Appalachian Mountains to the

north, west, and southwest, and we have another and a
larger story of destruction:

On the New (Kanawha) and other smalle1 adjacent streams

in Virginia and West Virginia. -.......--.--.--.------ $1, 000, 000
On the Watauga, in North Carolina and Tennessee. -- ---- 2, 000, 000
On the Nolichucky, in North Carolina and Tennessee... 1, 500, 000
On the French Broad and Pigeon, in North Carolina and

Mennesseeves ners sees ease eee eee eee eae eee 500, 000
On the Tuckasegee, Little Tennessee, and Hiwassee, in

North Carolina and Tennessee... ---.--.--------------- 500, 000
On the tributaries of western Georgia and Alabama streams

THES HAY? iy TMI RATAN ce sage soca soassseeb be scaaqneses 500, 000

This aggregate of $10,000,000 tells a story of destruc-
tion never before equaled in this region. Bridges were
swept away by the score; houses by the hundred; thou-
sands of miles of public roads were washed away almost
beyond the possibility of repair. (See Pl. LXXVI.) The
soil in the narrow, irregular, fringing valley lands in the
mountain region was in many cases partially and in other
cases completely washed away. In the lowlands beyond,

Senate Doc. No. 84, PLATE LXXIV.

(4) SAWMILL WRECKED BY THE FLOODS ON THE NOLICHUCKY RIVER,
EAST TENNESSEE, MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32, 130.)

(B) DEBRIS FROM WRECK OF SAWMILL AND LOG BOOM ON LINNVILLE RIVER BY FLOODS, IN WESTERN”
NORTH CAROLINA, MAY, 1901, (See pp. 82, 130.)

Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXXV.

(4) HIGHWAY BRIDGE WASHED AWAY BY FLOODS. (See pp. 32, 130.)

Many bridges on these Southern mountain streams, even when built on successively higher piers, have been
washed away several times by floods during the past few years.

(B) PUBLIC ROAD RUINED BY FLOODS, MITCHELL COUNTY, N. C.

The clearing of the mountain slopes and the destruction of humus and undergrowth by forest fires cause the
water from heavy rains to rush down the mountain sides on the public roads, and to wash the latter away.
The damages to the public highways in the mountain counties of western North Carolina from this cause
during the past few years are estimated to have reached several million dollars.

Senate Doc. No. 84. PLATE LXXVI.

(A) FLOOD DAMAGES TO MINING SETTLEMENT, NORWOOD, W. VA., 1901.

(B) FLOOD DAMAGES TO RAILROAD AND MINING SETTLEMENT, KEYSTONE, W. VA., 1901.

The damages from floods in streams rising in these Southern Appalachian mountains during the spring and
summer of 1901 aggregated $10,000,000; and during the following December, January, February, and March
they reached $8,000,000 additional, making a total of $18,000,000.

Been) Saal

BE dG Ne oie Ad Bae

aw
(-

PLATE LXXVII.

Senate Doc, No. 84,

9, 138, 139.)

(See pp.

TOCCOA FALLS, HABERSHAM COUNTY, GA.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 131

the broader bordering valleys were damaged beyond recu-
peration. Some areas were denuded of soil, while others
were covered with desert-like, almost barren white sand
extending for miles along the course of a stream. (See
Pl. XXXIV.)

But while the damage from the storm of 1901 exceeds
that of any preceding year, it is common knowledge among
the mountaineers that annually the floods have risen irreg-
ularly but steadily higher, and that their destructive work
has been increasing in proportion as the forest clearings and
the forest burnings have proceeded. We may confidently
expect that floods of the future will exceed those of the
past.

Many of these streams have fine water powers along their eee ane
courses, the value of which is limited by their low-water flow. °°:
Deforestation means the destruction of the only source of
natural storage in the region, and that the rainfall will
reach the stream almost as soon as it falls, so that in the
dry season there will be no reserve supply to augment the
low-water flow, which is drawn principally from subsurface
sources. These water powers are a potential source of
prosperity to the region in which they are found, and since
their value depends entirely upon the water available, any-
thing tending to reduce its amount or to change its distri-
bution by increasing the violence of the floods and at the
same time diminishing the low-water flow, will work injury
in precise proportion to the change produced. This result
is inevitable upon the deforestation of the drainage basin,
and on many of the streams has already become evident.
It is the general testimony of the older inhabitants of the
region that the streams are now much more irregular than
they were before active and widespread clearing operations
had been begun. And while the evidence of the ‘‘oldest
inhabitant,” as an individual, may not be quite all that
can be desired, collectively it is entitled to large credence.
Already 24 per cent of the total area of this region has been
cleared of its forests.

Lumbering operations are at present rather widespread, ,,4.0se Nestpen
and the forests in many regions already begin to show ™:
evidence of theireffect. The large mills are usually steam
sawmills, to which the logs are either transported by a
system of tramroads radiating from the site of the mill,
or, where the mill is located near a stream of sufficient
size, the logs are brought down by splashing. A number
of small sawmills have been erected which make use of the —

132

Forest destruc-
tion for tan-
bark.

Destructive
work of forest
fires.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

abundant water power furnished by the various streams.
These are, as a rule, of small capacity, from 500 to 1,000
feet per day, and do mainly the custom sawing for the
region near by. In addition to these there are numerous
small sawmills, owned for the most part by some firm
holding extensive tracts of forest, and these are moved
from place to place as the near-by timber becomes nearly
exhausted.

In any case the effect of the sawmill on the forests is
the same. All the trees available for use in any manner
are cut into plank, and the careless methods destroy the
greater part of the young growth, which would otherwise
in course of time replenish the supply. The logs when
cut are ‘“‘ snaked” downhill by mule team, soon cutting a
deep channel in the earth, which the waters from the first
rain storm turn into a yawning gully that rapidly spreads
in extent. (See Pl. LILI.) The tops and those parts of the
trunk unsuitable for lumber are left on the ground to
furnish fuel for the first fire or a breeding place for insects
destructive to tree life.

In addition to the lumbering operations, the tan-bark
industry is making great inroads on forest growth.
Every year thousands of cords of bark are stripped in
these mountains, and each load means that some giant of
the forest has been felled and lies useless, for the trunks
are rarely used for timber, the expense of transporting
them to the mills from the high mountain slcpes being in
most cases prohibitive.

But great as is the work of the lumberman in this forest
destruction, his part has in the past been small when com-
pared with that of the forest fire and that of the farmer in
clearing land for agricultural purposes. Forest fires have
been one of the great curses in the southern Appalachians
as truly as elsewhere in the country. They were common in
the days of Indian occupation. Thus, they have preceded
the lumberman, but they have also accompanied him and
followed in his wake. Their work has been rendered
far more destructive because the lumberman has left his
brush scattered among the remaining growth in such way
that in the burning it has fed the fire.

In some regions these fires have destroyed the forests
entirely. Especially has this been the case where the soil
has been thin and composed largely of humus. The fire
has destroyed this humus and the remaining soil has soon
washed away, leaving the trees on the bare surface of rock,

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN: REGION. 133

to dry outand die. (See Pl. XLVI.) Even under more
favorable conditions these fires have destroyed the under-
growth, and the larger trees have been burned near their
roots in such a way as to cause their destruction. (See
Pl. XLVI.) The repeated fires have frequently exter-
minated the grasses and other forage plants, so that instead
of improving the pasturage, which has often been the
object in starting the forest fire, the result has been, in the
course of years, its almost total destruction.

This burning of the humus and the undergrowth in the ,, Foret dimes
forests always seriously affects the flow of the streams. "wim streams.
No one who has ever been in a forest during a heavy rain
storm can fail to realize this fact. In the virgin forests
the raindrops are caught by the underbrush and pass down-
ward through the humus into the less porous soil and the
rock fissures beneath, to reappear weeks and months later
in the form of numberless springs. But where this under-
brush and humus have been burned away, one can not fail
to see that during a heavy rain storm much less of the water
soaks directly into the soil, and the remainder flows down
the surface with a velocity varying with the slope, some-
times washing the soil into small furrows and gullies.

Hence, the burning of this humus decreases the storage of
water in the soil and causes the more rapid accumulation
of this water in the brooks, and results in floods in the
larger streams below.
Following in the wake of the forest fire in this connec- , Forestclearing

on mountain

tion is the farmer who is continually clearing the moun-$2RS.,"ao~ in
tain slopes for agricultural purposes. Instead of trying 87°
to improve his soil in the valley and on the adjacent slopes
he has for years followed the policy of clearing additional
patches on the mountain side as rapidly as others are
worn out and abandoned. Each one of these hillside fields
must be abandoned in from three to five years, as their
productiveness is short lived. After the trees have been
girdled and the underbrush has been destroyed, such a field
may be planted in corn for one or two years, then in grain
fora year, and one or two years in grass. Then it may be
pastured fora year or two until with increased barrenness
the grass gives place to weeds and the weeds to gullies.
(See Pl. XLIX.)

Within two or three years after these mountain-side , Fort ficde
fields have been cleared the soil loses its color, changing
from dark gray or black to red, as the organic matter dis-
appears. Meanwhile it is losing more and more its porous

134

The preserva-
tion of these
mountain
streams a forest
prob-em.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

nature, and hence its capacity for absorbing water; and
the rains being unable to soak into it wash it away.

Thus, the lumberman, the forest fire, and the farmer
cooperate in the work of forest destruction and the
consequent disturbance of the regularity of the flow of
the streams. This increases the floods which destroy the
valley lands below, and as the irregularity of their flow
increases the streams lose their value for water powers
during the dry season, and during the season of rain the
floods wash away the farming lands in the valleys and
carry destruction along their courses across the lowlands.
As the rains wash away the cleared fields on the moun-
tain slopes and the farming lands in the valleys, these soils
on their way toward the sea incidentally silt up the river
channels and the harbors. Hence, it is strictly true that
in destroying forests these agencies are removing the soils,
ruining the rivers, and destroying the mountains them-
selves; and along the lower courses of these streams they
are thus destroying agricultural and manufacturing inter-
ests, and incidentally seriously affecting important naviga-
tion facilities.

In New England and many of the Northern States the
numerous lakes and glacial deposits of sand and gravel,
spread out over the hills and valleys, serve as storehouses
for the water and help materially to preserve uniformity
in the flow of the streams. In this respect they cooperate
largely with the forest cover in that region; and indeed
they would accomplish much in that direction were the
forest cover entirely removed. But in the southern Appa-
lachian region there are no lakes and no glacial gravels
and sands; the forest and the soil are the factors upon
which the solution of the problem of water storage de-
pends. And that the problem resolves itself largely into
one of forest cover, with its undergrowth and humus, is
seen by the fact that in the streams of the Piedmont Plain
of the South Atlantic States the irregularity in flow, as
observed for a number of years, has been almost directly
proportional to the extent of forest clearings. Observa-
tions and measurements of the southern Appalachian
mountain streams made during the last few years show
that the same is true in that region. Hence, here the
water problem is a forest problem.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

STREAM FLOW IN THE REGION AND ITS MEASURE-
MENT.

The region is well watered, and from it several of the
largest rivers of the country receive their supply. (See
Pl. XII.) The chief rivers in the States of Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee,
and West Virginia rise in these mountains. One of the
principal tributaries of the Ohio and one of the largest
feeders of the Mississippi head here also. So that this
region may justly be considered one of the important
watersheds of the United States. The Yadkin, Catawba,
Broad, Saluda, and Chattooga flow into the Atlantic. The
Chattahoochee and the Coosa flow into the Gulf. New
River flows to the north and enters the Kanawha, whose
waters finally reach the Mississippi through the Ohio,
while the Tennessee, with its large tributaries, the Hol-
ston, the Nolichucky, and the French Broad, flow to the
west through the State of Tennessee, finally entering the
Mississippi. The Cheoah, the Nantahala, the Oconalufty,
and the Tuckasegee, all large streams from 50 to 100 yards
wide, join their waters to the Tennessee and flow in a
narrow and rocky gorge through the Great Smoky Moun-
tains, while the Hiwassee unites with that river in the
State of Tennessee beyond the mountains.

An examination of the watersheds and a general inves-
tigation of the streams in this mountain region were made
by the United States Geological Survey during the sum-
mer of 1900, the detailed results of which will be pub-
lished in a series of Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers
of the Survey. The following general facts are, however,
presented for publication in this paper.

During the hydrographic investigation of this region,
extending through 1900 and 1901, measurements of flow
were made on the larger streams and more than one thou-
sand of their upper tributaries, and 54 gauging stations
were established. At each station a gauge was perma-
nently placed, upon which the height of the water surface
was read and recorded daily by a local observer, and to
which were referred the current-meter measurements,
which were made about every sixty days, or oftener, as
circumstances demanded or permitted. From these data
a curve was platted, according to the method usually fol-
lowed by the Survey. From this curve, the mean of the
daily gauge readings being known, the approximate daily
discharge has been calculated. The great difficulty en-
countered at these stations was to obtain measurements

135

Southern Ap-
palachian region
a well-watered
one.

Stream meas-
urements.

136

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

at the time of high water, for after a rain the rivers rise
rapidly and fall as quickly. Hence, unless the observer
is on hand at the time, the high water passes before he
can reach the point of measurement. A list of the gauging
stations in this region from which data have been obtained
is given in the following tables (see Pl. XII):

Special gauging stations established by the United States Geological Survey

on streams of the southern Appalachian region.

_ Date estab-
Stream. Station. isheds
INC WARIV CL == serene arenas neeeeeae ae I Old tO Waray alereeer eee es Aug. 5,1960

| New River, N.C .
Weaversford, N.C
Siloam, N.C --

July 29,1900
Do.
Aug. 3,1900

South Fork of New River -
North Fork of New River -.
Yadkin River

CatawibasRivetiss-se-seeeeee sacar eas _ Morganton, N. June 19, 1900
MOMMA IV APE saemssadqadussannoeTadcsaasso epee: (COR abe cReER Ba MOnSEaace ss Do.

MinvillepRivert=s--s--s sens eee Bridgewater, N.@ _......-_. July 3,1900
BrondeRiviers=ceeee eae sere eee eee Dellangentst Cemssee sea -eeae Aug. 30.1900
South Fork of Holston River.....--.---- lpBlufiCiby enn eeeeeeeeaee July 17,1900
Wiataueaphiivie rasan see see see see eee Butler Mennyesseseee eee eee Aug. 11,1900
Roan Creek Sodeed| lode (610) s-c65c50 a Do.

Hillks (ree kyasice = to eee eset eciosaee | Lineback, Tenn ....--...--- Aug. 5,1900
Nolichucky Rivern=se--ee- eee seeeeaeeeeee Chucky Valley, Tenn.-...--. Sept. 20,1900
Pigeon River-...--- Ea saauccanaorniaccinn Newport, Tenn -..-.--..-..- Sept. 4, 1900
HrenchyBroadtRiverse.-sesessse sean | Oldtown, Tenn ............- Do.

Besides the foregoing stations, which were established
during the summer of 1900, the following gauging stations
have been maintained for several years upon streams flow-
ing from the southern Appalachian Mountains:

Regular gauging stations on streams flowing from the Southern Appalachian

Mountains.
] ]
River. | Station. River. Station.
|
N@Wiss So ne-e ee cee | Radford, Va. Oconee ...-. .-| Near Dublin, Ga.
Fayette, W. Va. Chattahoochee ...; Oakdale and West-
JaMesresasccee se! Glasgow, Buchanan, point, Ga.
Cartersville, and || Coosawattee....-- Carters, Ga.
Holcomb Rock, Va.|| Oostanaula ---- a Resaca, Ga.
Roanokel-------— = Roanoke, Va. CO0SREm eae ees cce | Rome, Ga.
Neal, N.C. | | Riverside, and Locks
1 WecoencaueasHers South Boston, Va. Nos. 4 and 5, Ala.
Stauntonieeseeeaee Randolph, Va. ANCA osccesccece Near Blueridge, Ga.
Yadkin ' Salisbury and Nor- |} Nottely-..-- .| Ranger, N.C.
wood, N.C. Hiwassee........- | Charleston and Reli-
Catawba......--.-- Catawha, N.C. ance, Tenn.
Rockhill, S.C. | Murphy, N.C.
Broad (of the Caro-| Alston, S.C. Tennessee ==. == | Chattanooga and
linas) . | Knoxyille, Tenn.
Salud aeeecee eee Waterloo, S.C. Little Tennessee-.| Judson, N.C.
Mallu Aheeseseeee Tallulah Falls, Ga. Tuckasegee..-..-- Bryson, N.C.
Mug alooreesee = | Near Madison,S.C. || French Broad ....| Asheville, N.C.
Savannah Calhoun Falls, S.C. |
Augusta, Ga. |

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

These stations cover every stream rising in the south-
ern Appalachian Mountain area.

Besides measurements at the foregoing regular stations
miscellaneous measurements were made in the watersheds
of all of the larger rivers, on both the main streams and
on their principal tributaries. The following large rivers
were measured: Yadkin, Catawba, Broad (of the two
Carolinas), Saluda, Tugaloo, Broad (of Georgia), Savan-
nah, Oconee, Oemulgee, Chattahoochee, Etowah, Coosawat-
tee, Conasauga, Coosa, Tallapoosa, New, French Broad,
Nolichucky, Holston, Watauga, Tennessee, Hiwassee,
and Toccoa (or Okoee). A complete list of the measure-
ments made, showing the discharge of the various rivers
and their tributaries, has been published in Water Sup-
ply and Irrigation Paper of the United States Geological
Survey No. 49.

In some respects the summer of 1900 was a peculiar one
in the Appalachian region. Rain was abundant during
June, and the streams were moderately high during the
early part of the summer, but later very little rain fell,
and most of the rivers and their tributaries were at an
extremely low stage, as low as they have been for a num-
ber of years. During the spring of 1901, however, the
rivers were at a higher stage, and a number of high-water
measurements were obtained, the results of which will be
published in a later number of the Water-Supply Papers
by the United States Geological Survey. With a view to
making more than one measurement at the same place on
each stream a bench mark was established at the time the
first measurement was made, and the relative height of
the water surface was noted at each succeeding gauging, so
that in this way the relation between the rise of the
stream and the discharge could be ascertained. Examina-
tions were also made for the watermarks at the time of
previous floods, and when the yearly fluctuations of the
streams could be obtained they also were noted. With the
numerous gauge heights, and measurements of flow that
have now been made, fairly complete data of the flow from
the various drainage basins are available.

VALUE OF THESE MOUNTAIN STREAMS FOR WATER-
POWER PURPOSES.

The greater part of this region is occupied by gneissic
rocks, having for the most part a characteristic northeast-
to-southwest strike, the irregular rock layers dipping

137

Stream condi-
tions in 1900 and

1901.

Conditions
favoring water-

power

ment.

develop-

138

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

beneath the surface at varying but generally steep angles.
The southern half of the region has along its western
border an irregular belt of bedded slates, limestones,
quartzites, and conglomerates. These rocks, which make
up the great bulk of the surface, have a general north-
easterly strike and a steep but varying dip; while near the
eastern border there is another, but narrow and more irreg-
ular, belt of rock of somewhat similar character, which
follows approximately the general position of the Blue
Ridge, and dips steeply scutheastward.

As stated above, the important streams rising in
Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia have their origin on
the slopes of the Blue Ridge. Those rising on the eastern
slope, such as the James, Roanoke, Yadkin, Catawba,
Broad, Savannah, and Chattahoochee, flow generally toward
the southeast, their head streams plunging down the moun-
tain slopes many hundreds of feet in short distances and
soon reaching the gentle slope of the Piedmont Plain. (See
Pls. XXVIII and LXX.) The streams rising on the west-
ern slopes of the Blue Ridge—the Watauga, Nolichucky,
French Broad, Pigeon, Little Tennessee, Tuckasegee, and
Hiwassee rivers—flow in the general characteristic north-
westerly direction across the upturned ridges of the gneiss
and more recent bedded rocks, with frequent falls, into the
great valley of East Tennessee. (See Pl. LXXI.) The
Holston River, which flows along this valley from its upper
end to its junction with the Tennessee system, forms an
exception to the genera] direction of flow in this region,
for its course lies toward the southwest; and the Coosu
River, of Alabama, which has its headwaters on the south-
eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, takes a similar direc-
tion. The New River, also, which rises in the cross ranges
connecting the Unakas and the Blue Ridge, flows toward
the northwest into the Ohio. The elevation of the coun-
try is so great and the descent of the stream is so rapid
that the general course of the principal rivers has been but
little modified by the geologic structure of the region,
though they lie directly across the strike of the rocks.
The resulting conditions produce occasional falls and cas-
cades in the streams (see Pl. LX XVII); but the larger
part of the courses of these streams consists of a succession
of rapids (see Pl. LX XIII), furnishing ample opportuni-
ties for water-power development by the building of dams
at intervals across the deep, narrow gorges. A number
of the smaller tributary streams in North Carolina and in

PLATE LXXVIII.

Senate Doc. No. 84.

IMPROVED WATER POWER, ON THE SAVANNAH RIVER,

The principal sources of this and other important rivers of the Southeastern State
water powers on these streams, valued at more than $20,000,000

AT AUGUSTA, GA., OPERATING COTTON MILLS. (See pp. 29, 139-141.)

S are within the region of the proposed Appalachian forest reserve; and the
per annum, depends largely upon the preservation of these mountain forests.

perpetuation of the

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 39)

Virginia flow in either a northeast or southwest direction
along the strike of the rocks, and at places give rise to con-
ditions favorable to water-power development. This is
the case for the most part where a change in the direction
of flow causes a change in the character of the rock in the
stream bed.
In northern Georgia different conditions seem prevalent; Waterfalls and

2 cascades in the
the general course of the stream is southeast or southwest, Georgia, portion

of the Southern

and many shoals and cascades are to be found. Some of the 4ppalachians.
cascades are of great height, and large water powers could

be easily and cheaply developed. Notable among these are

Tallulah Falls (see Pl. XXVIII), where the descent is 335

in about 4,000 feet: Duke’s Creek Falls, Minnehaha Falls,

and Annie Ruby Falls, where the descent in each case is

about 300 feet within a short distance. These are found

on rather small streams, but illustrate the difference in the

prevalent condition.

As before stated, this part of northern Georgia embraces ,,Pevelopment
the headwaters of three great drainage systems, the Coosa, i7€ &mterprises.
the Chattahoochee, and the Savannah. At various points
along their courses all of these streams possess magnificent
water powers which present conditions favorable to devel-
opment, and which at some future time will be made to
supply the varied and growing industries of the nearby
region with the power necessary for their continuance and
growth. Any impairment of these powers by diminution
of the low-water flow of these streams will most assuredly
work great injury in future years to the industrial welfare
of the region.

The States through which flow the streams rising in the
region of the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve have
for many years past been devoted mainly to agricultural
pursuits; but within recent years a great awakening has
come, and a tendency to manufacture the raw material at
home has become manifest. Already the results are to be
seen in the increased prosperity ot the region, resulting
from the development of diversified industries.

This tendency is growing with great rapidity, and while
its beneficial effects will be felt most in the section where
it has appeared, it can not fail to have a considerable influ-
ence on the prosperity of the entire country, for pros-
perity comes to thosé who produce sooner than to those
who consume—to the seller who can supply the commer-
cial needs of the world. rather than those who feel the want.

140

Importance of

water - power

preservation.

Aggregate
water power in
southern Appa-
lachian region.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Water power is universally recognized as the cheapest
power to be secured for any species of manufacture, for
when once the constructional development is at an end
the attendant expenses become very small, since, through
the operation of the laws of nature, the water flows with-
out cost by day and night, while every ton of coal that
passes in at the furnace door represents a certain expendi-
ture, and in plants requiring great power this fuel cost
may come to represent a large proportion of the cost of
manufacture.

In the past the chief advantage of steam power over
water power was the mobility of the former, for steam
could be generated wherever fuel could be obtained and
mills could be built and where the transportation facilities
were such as to insure the quick disposal of the finished
product. By reason of the great improvements in elec-
trical transmission of power, steam has lost its advantage,
for water power can now be brought to a mill for dis-
tances of many miles more cheaply than power can be
obtained from coal at most points. The water powers,
therefore, in the not far distant future, may become as
valuable as coal mines, and as the local coal supply becomes
more costly by reason of deeper mining, the water powers
will increase in value.

This wealth should not be wantonly wasted. Its present
value can be conserved and its future value increased by
the preservation of the forests about the headwaters of the
streams; and this preservation would seem desirable,
therefore, if for no other reason than this, entirely apart
from the wealth-producing capabilities of the forests
themselves.

It is impossible at this time to give an accurate statement
of the total power available on all the streams rising in
and flowing from this area, for the reason that the power
on any stream can not be determined accurately without
a survey of the entire course of the stream with this object
in view, and any discussion of this, based on the total
fall from source to mouth and the average quantity of
water carried by the stream, would be worse than mislead-
ing; for the mere fact that there is on any stream a
certain fall within a certain distance, over which flows a
certain amount of water, does not mean that this locality
constitutes an available water power. Theoretically the
power is there, but practically it is nonexistent unless it
can be developed and brought to use for a sum which is

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 141

not prohibitive. In other words, the availability of a
water power depends entirely on the economic situation
at the point considered, and every location must be viewed
by itself in such determination.

It is, however, certain’ that on all of these streams large
amounts of power can be easily and cheaply developed
when the demand for it is sufficient, for the average fall in
the streams is great, and is noticeably high at great num-
bers of points, while the low-water flow is fairly large on
account of the large annual rainfall and the storage effect
of the great forests. Furthermore, at many points, the
conditions favorable for easy and cheap development are
present; and on some of the streams surveys have been
made which render approximate estimates easy. The more
important of these are given below.

In regard to the power actually utilized conditions are Water power
more favorable, since such information can be readily ob- that already de-

5 5 3 ia veloped on these
tained by letter and inquiry from the owners and users streams.
thereof, and such has been obtained and is presented below.
The aggregate amount is very small, for the reasons that
the entire region is largely agricultural in its pursuits and
that manufacturing is only beginning.

On the New (Kanawha) River and its tributaries, where.
the available horsepower amounts to 60,000, the amount
actually reported as used is 8,700 horsepower, of which
amount 2,500 is used by a single plant recently built.

On the James River the amount of available power is
estimated as 45,000 horsepower, the amount actually used
being 14,000. On the Roanoke River the available horse-
power is estimated as about 50,000, of which not more than
17,000 is actually in use. On the Yadkin River the availa-
ble horsepower is estimated at 60,000, the amount actually
used being about 2,500. The available power on the Ca-
tawba River is estimated at 57,000 horsepower, the amount
in use being 4,000 horsepower. On Broad and Saluda
rivers the available power is estimated at 48,000 horse-
power, the amount actually used being about 25,000 horse-
power. The available power on the Savannah River is
estimated to be about 77,000 horsepower, the amount used
being about 1,000 horsepower. Near the fall line the city
of Augusta has developed about 11,000 horsepower.

On the Chattahoochee River the available power is esti-
mated by Mr. B. M. Hall to be 115,000 horsepower, the

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

amount utilized being only about 10,000, while the availa-
ble power on the Coosa River is about 140,000 horsepower,
the amount in use being approximately 13,000.

On the Tennessee River, in Alabama, there is available
100,000 horsepower, while on the tributaries of the Ten-
nessee, in North Carolina and Tennessee, large amounts of
power are available, as shown in the following paragraphs:

On the Hiwassee and its tributaries the available power
is estimated to be 75,000 horsepower, though the amount
used is very small, the only users of power in the basin
being some small plants.

On the Little Tennessee system, including the Little
Tennessee, Cheoah, Tuckasegee, Nantahala, Oconalufty,
Tellico, Ellijay, and Little Pigeon rivers, the available
power is 100,000, while the amount utilized is only 1,700.

On the French Broad River and tributaries, rising in
the southern Appalachian Mountains, the aggregate horse-
power available is 50,000, while that used is about 3,500,
though more than this will come into use in the near future
when some developments which are now under way are
completed. Others in this basin are projected.

In the Nolichucky Basin about 700 horsepower is in use,
and 35,000 is available.

On the Watauga the amount of power available is 20,000,
while only a few small powers have been developed, aggre-
gating 450 horsepower. In the Holston Basin 4,700 horse-
power has been utilized, and 40,000 remain undeveloped.

It would be entirely safe to estimate the available but
undeveloped water power on the streams rising among the
southern Appalachian Mountains as equivalent to not less
than 1,067,000 horsepower, and the developed power is
117,750. It would also be entirely correct to state that
the future value of these water powers, as indeed the
future value of almost everything of value about these
mountains, depends largely upon the future preservation
of the forests.

PAZ IZIDIN(IDIEX ID,

CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN
APPALACHIANS.

AX ALAM EL IN IO) Als JEL 1 IN] 1s NY,
Professor of Meteorology,
United States Weather Bureau.

143

ares
"
Fr gh

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. 8S. DeparTMENT oF AGRICULTURE,
WeraTHeR Burkau,
Washington, D. C., December 12, 1901.
Sir: I bee to transmit herewith, in response to your request of a
few days since, a short report on the climate of the southern Appa-
lachian region, by Prof. Alfred J. Henry of this Bureau.
Tables of monthly means and extremes of temperature, average rain-
fall. and relative humidity accompany the paper.
Very respectfully,
Wiis L. Moors,
/ Chief, United States Weather Bureau.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

*S. Doc. 84-—10 145

THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS,

By Aurrep J. HENRY,
Professor of Meteorology, United States Weather Bureau.

The climate of the southern Appalachian region pos-
sesses some distinctive features, yet, on the whole, it is
rather closely related to the great continental type of the
middle latitudes. The pure type of continental climate—
cold winters and hot summers—is found immediately to
the westward in the Mississippi Valley and the plains region
beyond, up to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The
Atlantic slope has a climate somewhat less severe than
that of the interior valleys, being oftener under the in-
fluence of warm southerly winds in winter and cooling
oceanic winds in summer.
Intermediate in geographic position between the two , Climatic con.
5 itions vary with
great areas just mentioned the southern Appalachian topographic tea-
region naturally possesses a climate that partakes some-
what of the main features of the climatic zones both to the
westward and the eastward. Its distinctive features are
lower temperature, both summer and winter, a drier
atmosphere, greater rainfal] and snowfall, higher wind
velocity, and a greater intensity of the direct solar rays.
These characteristics are due for the most part to the
greater altitude of the Appalachian region as compared
with surrounding levels. In a region of such extremely
varied topography there must naturally be limited areas
in which, owing to some natural advantage of position or
exposure, the climatic conditions are materially different
from those which obtain over the greater part of the
region. Thus, for example, a mountain slope or a valley
facing southward would naturally possess a higher tem-
perature and an immunity from frost not to be found in
similar orographic conditions with a northern exposure.
: 147

148

Temperature.

Winds and

weather types.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

The temperature of the region, as a whole can not well
be stated, since itis in general proportional to the altitude
and is always higher on southern than on northern slopes.
Few meteorological observations of any character whatso-
ever have been made except in the valleys and lower
levels; indeed, with the exception of a few months’ obser-
vations on the summit of Mount Mitchell, no meteorologi-
cal observations are available for the 4,000-foot level and
but two series of observations for the level between 3,000
and 4,000 feet.

The monthly means and extremes of temperature, to
which reference will again be made, are given for a num-
ber of stations in the tables which accompany this paper.

The wind system of the southern Appalachians in spring,
fall, and winter is largely conditioned by the moyement in
latitude of cyclonic and anticyclonic storms. In the sum-
mer season these disturbances move across the country so
far to the northward that their influence upon the weather
of the southern Appalachians is almost inappreciable. The
winds of summer will depend very largely upon the con-
tour of the country, being upward from the valleys along
the mountain side during the day and downward at night,
with a general westerly drift over the mountain summits.
In the more boisterous circulation of spring, late fall, and
winter the winds are almost wholly controlled by the
atmospheric disturbances passing eastward oyer the lake
region or northeastward from the Gulf of Mexico.

The movement of cyclonic storms eastward across the
lake region produces a type of weather in the southern
Appalachians which, for convenience, may be called the
southwest type. The chief characteristics of this type are
southwesterly winds with rising temperature and increas-
ing cloudiness. The velocity of the wind generally in-
creases for a day or so, and finally shifts to the west and
northwest, with lower temperature, but not much rain.
The southwest is the most common type experienced, and
is often associated with long periods of fair, dry weather.

Next in point of frequency to the southwest type is what
may be called the west gulf type, from the fact that the
weather with which it is associated is produced by storms
which approach from the west Gulf States. In this type
fresh to brisk southeast to east winds are experienced with
generally heavy rain throughout the entire region. As
soon as the storm passes the winds shift to a westerly

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 149

quarter, with markedly cooler weather and frequently
snow on the higher summits in winter.

A third type of weather may be mentioned, viz, a type
produced by storms which move from the Gulf of Mexico
or the West Indies northeastward along the Atlantic
coast. In this type strong northeast to north winds pre-
vail. The rainfall, especially in the warm season, is often
torrential, and in spring and autumn may continue for
several days in succession. In winter such storms are at-
tended by heavy snow and followed by very cold weather.

In 1873 a party of Signal Service observers spent the gost eh
months of May, June, July, and August on the summit of levels
Mount Mitchell, North Carolina, carefully observing the
temperature, rainfall, barometric pressure, and other fea-
tures of the weather.

The highest temperature observed on the summit of the
mountain during the four months was 72° in July; the
lowest, 41° in June. The monthly mean temperatures for
the four months were as follows: May, 49.3°; June, 54.1°;
July, 56.4°, and August, 55.3°. The rainfall was very
heavy, 36.8 inches being recorded while the observers were
on the summit. Rain fell on 21 days in May, 22 in June,
15 inJuly,and 21in August. There wasa great abundance
of foggy and cloudy weather, the fog and clouds being
frequently below the summit. The prevailing winds were
from a westerly quarter.

A summary of meteorological observations in the south-
ern Appalachian region appears in the tables which accom.
pany this paper. The highest point at which observations
have been made is at Highlands, N. C., elevation 3,817 feet.
The mean temperature of summer at that station is 65.79,
of winter, 35.4°. The extremes reached during a period of
eight years, 1893-1900, were 19° below zero in February,
1899, and 86° above zero in June, 1895. The temperature
has not reached 90° at that station or at Linville, N. C., the
next highest station, altitude 3,800 feet, during the period
of observations.

The precipitation on the southern slopes of the Blue B#nfall.
Ridge and connecting spurs is the heaviest in the United
States with the exception of the north Pacific coast. It
ranges from about 60 inches in northern Georgia to 70
inches in western: North Carolina, whence it diminishes
northward, falling as low as 40 inches in the southwestern
part of Virginia and to almost that figure locally in sey-
eral portions of the intermediate region. The rainfall of

150

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

the western slope of the Appalachians in considerably less
than on the summits and along the eastern and southern
flanks of the mountains, though it generally averages from
40 to 50 inches annually on the lower levels.

As previously stated, the rainfall in the southern Ap-
palachian region is occasionally torrential in character.
The mountain ranges of western North Carolina and
northern Georgia are so situated with respect to the rain-
bearing winds as to greatly facilitate the rapid condensa-
tion of moisture, whether borne by the winds from the
Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. The indraft of
warm, moist air from these great storehouses of moisture
and the subsequent cooling as it is forced up the mountain
sides give downpours of rain seldom experienced in the
adjacent lowlands. On September 22, 1898, 7.57 inches
of rain fell within 24 hours at Linville, 6 inches at Lenoir,
8.30 inches at Paterson, 6.75 inches at Marion, and 5.75
inches at Flat Rock. During August, 1901, the total
rainfall for the month at Flat Rock was 30 inches; at
Highlands, 30 inches; at Hendersonville, 26 inches; at
Horse Cove, 26 inches; at Paterson, 24 inches, and at
Marion, 21 inches. The precipitation for the year 1898
in western North Carolina at Highlands was 105.25 inches;
at Horse Cove, 99.97 inches; Flat Rock, 78.39 inches, and
Linville, 71.05 inches. These heavy downpours naturally
cause destructive floods in the streams whose headwaters
penetrate the mountain region. The severity of the floods
is in a large measure mitigated by the fact that a large
proportion of the rainfall is conserved by the forest cover-
ing, which abounds on the greater part of the area, and is
thus prevented from reaching the streams quickly and in
great volume, as would be the case were the mountain
sides and the summits bare. It is a mistake to suppose
the forests per se tend to increase precipitation. The
precipitation would be equally heavy, forest or no forest.
In the latter case it would run off more quickly and the
regimen of the streams would be much more irregular
than in the case of a forested area.

Not much can be said of the relative humidity of the
higher elevations, since no observations have been made.
Along the western edge of the Piedmont Plateau the air
is considerably drier than on the coastal plain. Tables of
monthly mean relative humidity for Atlanta, Ga., Char-
lotte and Asheville, N. C., and Chattanooga and Knoxville,

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Tenn., accompany this report, and there have been added,
for the sake of comparison, similar data for Savannah,
Wilmington, and Raleigh on the east, Montgomery on
the south, and Memphis, Nashville, and Cincinnati on the
west. The data for Asheville are not directly comparable
with those of the remaining stations, since the Asheville
observations were made three times daily, viz, at 7 a. m.,
2 and 9 p. m., whereas observations at the remaining
stations were made but twice daily, viz, at 8 a. m. and
8 p.m. The omission of an observation during the driest
part of the day tends to give mean values somewhat above
the true figures. Nevertheless, the observations at Ashe-
ville confirm the local belief that the relative humidity of
the mountain region is less than that of lower levels.

151

TaBiE 1.—Normal monthly mean temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit,) compiled in the
Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture, from observations extending

over a series of years.

2 i] (tes S :
S2 | = Bile ae ene ene
ee rele le lelelelele|8]4 elel al:
Seay SS SSS eh ee ys 1S je ie
S |e | a t/a las < | m | © | A | )
} ] i}
Georgia: Feet. | ° o | 0} 0 ° ° ° ° Qt 'e ane) °
CMW cacccacscocesce 2,100) 39.8} 39.1) 49.8] 56.5| 66.6] 73.1) 74.4] 74.8] 69.1] 57.2) 48.2) 41.2) 57.5
Diamonds s-e---- 2,020) 38.0 41.4 47.6) 57.5) 65.2) 72.8] 74.6 73.1 69.0) 56 7| 48.4) 41.9) 57.1
| | | |
8| 47.2) 53.7] 65.2) 73.2| 76.7, 75.9) 69.9] 60.9) 48.1) 39.5, 57.1
5 8| 45.7) 54.8) 62.6| 69.6) 72.0| 70.6) 64.9| 53.2 38. 9 54.6
Highlands esses 3,817] 33.5] 36.6) 41.6) 50.6 57.5] 64.7 67.1] 65.4) 60.2) 51.0) 36.0) 50.5
IAM soscocaseoaede 3,800) 31.0] 31.0) 40.5) 46.7] 57.6) 62.4) 66. 1 64,9] 59.7] 47.3) 41.4) 34.8) 48.6
Tennessee: | | | [ured |
Bristoleetenn ere 1, 757| 33.9] 33.5] 45.3] 54.1] 64.6] 71.7| 73.8) 72.2| 67.7) 55.4] 45.4| 36.0) 54.5
Chattanooga .......--. | 762) 41.0] 45.5) 50.5) 60.9] 67.7] 75.2] 77.8) 75.9] 70.7] 60.5) 49.9| 43.6) 59.9
Greeneyille........... 1,581) 36.6| 40.1) 46.3) 57.0| 64.5) 72.2] 74.7] 73.8] 69.1) 56.9) 46.5] 39.5] 56.4
RENORQ AUS cossccancces | 1,004) 37.7) 42.3] 47.6 58.2) 66.2] 73.6) 76.4) 74. | 69.3) 57.6) 46.6) 39.9) 57.2
Rogersville ........... | 1,212) 35.8) 89.3) 45.9) 56.5) 64.3] 71.9] 74.4) 78.5) 68.2) 55.9] 46.2) 38.2) 55.8
Virginia: | | | | | |
Bigstone Gap ........- | 1,966) 32.7] 33.8] 45.5) 58.5] 62.5] 70.1| 72.0| 71.2] 66. 2 58.8] 43.5) 34.5) 53.3
Lynchburg ......----- 681] 36.8) 40.0] 45.2 55.9 66.0] 74.2) 77.5) 75.3) 69.0| 57.1] 46.3) 30.3) 56.9
Wytheville ......-.... 2,870| 31.5) 33.2] 43.3 52.5) 63.2) 69.0| 72.0| 71.0) 65. | 58.8) 43. 7 35. ° 52.9

=Record for 4 years and 6 months only.

152 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Tas Le 2.—Highest temperatures observed during the eight years 1893 to 1900, at the points
named ;* compiled in the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture.

Stations. | Jan. | Feb. | Mar, | Apr. | May. \June.| July. Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Noy.| Dec.
| | era | |
Georgia: | fo} fo} ° o fe) ° | fo} | fo} | fe} | ° fo) | fo}
Clayton ee eee MO) | 77 py S35 OL | 945196) 595.96) | S5N| ee O38 eee 76 69
Diamond | 65] 68| 81] 91]| 94] 97] 98| 94] 94] 66] 76 67
North Carolina: | |
PADShe Ts Paeeee eee eee 73| 73) 85 || 89 | 93 | 98} 99] 100} 98] 92] 83 72
Ashevillee .........-.- 70| 72 | 86] 90} 91) 94] 94 | 95| 95| 87| 80| 68
Highlands . 63 || 66) 75) 81] 84] 86] 85) 85] 84] ‘7 | 69 | 60
TbRPUD-osescoccceacee | 61) 62 | 75] 79| 83) 88 | 84) 85 { 82) 74) — 66 | 59
Tennessee: i |
TMS. coacasoneece: 68) 72) Sl} 88) 89] 94) 96) 94) 92) 86) 77} 66
Chattanooga 75 | 78] 85] 90} .93] 98] 101] 100). 98} 91} 79 | 73
Greeneville. -:----..-- 71 74 82,| 88 | 91 95 96 | 97 96 89 77 68
Knoxville ......-..22- 74) 79] 83 | 90) 94] 99 | 100) 100} 99| 94) 81 75
Rogersville .........-. 69|| 74] 81] 90] 89} 96]/- 93] 96] 95 88 | 74] 67
Virginia: | | | |
BigstoneGap........-. 67 | 74] 82) 90} 92) 96) 97] 95] 96] 88) 7 68
Iynehburg: ¢.-.------ 7 || 7) 86) 95) 97) 98) 102)) 100 || 99) 92)) 81 | 73
Wytheville... G5 iia il 4 |e Sp |e OOD eT) | 97 | 99 | 86} 80 | 70

a From 1893 to 1900, inclusive, except Chattanooga from 1879 to 1900, Knoxville from 1871 to 1900, and
Lynchburg from 1873 to 1900, inclusive.

» Record from April, 1897, to September, 1901, inclusive.

¢ From May, 1898 to 1900, inclusive, record from Biltmore, N.C.

Record from 1894 to 1900, inclusive.

TABLE 3.—Lowest temperatures observed during the eight years 1893 to 1900, ut the points
named ;* compiled in the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture.

[Minus signs indicate temperatures below zero F.]

Stations. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. |June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec.
| | =| |
Georgia: es || 3 ° ° Co) Oe | © ° ° ° | ° °
Claiytonmeessee ere esner 1);—5 8 23 31 4 50 47 36 24 | 14 2
Diagmondeesyee eee ee = @ P10) = 3 25 32 47 | 46 50 39 27 | 11 8
North Carolina: | |
IN GANS oo hacodsecoscS 4 | —9 3} 20 34 46| 44 ol 30 25 16 1
Aishevillle'ciss se caee eee | = 9 | —10 4 22 30 45 | 45 48 34 22 13 —3
Eni ghlamds\eeeseee sees —14|}—-19}—7) 15 27 35 43, 45 20 20 6 —10
inwille ee sesaaee ee eee —15 | —16)—4! 15 29 37 40 38 | 28 18 9) —5
Tennessee: | \ ‘ | | |
Bristol eeeeee pe eee ees —15 | —20 DN ODI gO) es BO) aa) By || es) ea || a
Chattanooga .........- =7 || =10 5} 25| 40} 39] 56] 54] 38] 27] 16 3
Greeneville: ----..-... —20 | —14 3 21 31 35 51 49} 31 26 | 16 —4
Knoxville —10 5 24) 34 43 52 | 50 35 25 12 —5
Rogersville = ily/ 7 24. 34| 46 52 51 33. 27 13\) —1
Virginia: |
Bigstone Gap ........- —26|—18| 3] 21| 26] 33] 40|/ 43] 25) 419 3 =6
Tnynchburgyeeeseee ee = 8 || = 8 14 25 | 34 45 | 53 AT 35 28) 13) —5b
Wytheville .......-... —5|-—9 83) 11G) 32 41 | 46 46 33 21 | 13 —65

«From 1893 to 1900, inclusive, except Chattanooga from 1879 to 1900, Knoxville from 1871 to 1900, and
Lynchburg from 1873 to 1900, inclusive.

» Record from April, 1897, to September, 1901, inclusive.

¢ From May, 1898 to 1900, inclusive, record from Biltmore, N.C.

4Record from 1894 to 1900, inclusive.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

153

TaBLe 4.—Mean monthly and annual precipitation, in inches and hundredths; compiled in
the Weather Bureau, United States Departinent of Agriculture, from all available records

from the beginning of observations to December, 1900.

Stations. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. iene: July. | Aug. | Sept. Dec. Cae
Georgia: | |
Clayitonise-- see 7.05 | 5.93 | 6.79 | 5.26 | 3.37 | 3.40 | 8.79 | 7.10 4.58 | 66.02
Diamond ...:... 6.78 | 4.21 | 5.24 | 5.06 | 4.14 4,46 | 6.50 | 4.85 5.00 | 56.41
| }
6.34 | 4.99 | 4.76 6.45 | 5.92 | 7.07 | | 6. 3.41 | 61.32
3.86 | 3.20 | 3.70 3.99 | 5.05 | 4.56 | 2, 2.93 | 42.38
5.91 | 6.25 | 4.45 5.53 | 6.21 6.17 | 4, 6.32 | 71.30
| 4.45 | 5.26 | 4.49 | 4.86 | 8.29 | 3.76 | 6. 5.60 | 61.73
IMurnpbxyeeeecee | 6.19 | 6.44 | 6.46 | 5.00 | 3.51 | 5.51 | 6.53 | 5.40 | 3.18 | 2. 4.96 | 60.56
Tennessee: ie | | |
IBUO cs secoos | 2.96 | 3.62 | 5.80 | 2.19 3.14 | 3.36 | 5.76 | 4.47 | 2. 1.97 2.39 | 40.75
Chattanooga ...| 6:19 | 5.32 | 5.95 | 4.52 | 3.89 | 4.49 | 4.22 | 3.80 | 3. 2.771 4.32 | 52.90
Greeneville ....|/ 3.66 | 4.30 | 5.16 | 3.36 | 4.11 | 4.76 | 4.90 | 4.16 | 2. 2.59 2.66 | 44. 45
Knoxville -...-. 5.53 | 5.82 | 5.37 | 4.95 | 8.92 | 4.10 | 4.32 | 4.07 | 2. 2.79 4.11 | 50.99
Rogersville ..... 8.86 | 4.92 | 5.28 | 3.54 | 3.94 | 3.83 | 4.84 | 3.88 | 2. 2.72 8.68 | 45.72
Virginia: |
Bigstone Gap...| 3.93 | 5.06 | 7.06 | 3.17 | 5.37 | 3. 67 | 7.11 | 4.85 | 2. 3.24 | 51.10
Lynchburg ..... 8.95 | 3.53 | 3.67 | 3.36 | 3.91 | 3.46 | 3.90 | 4.01 | 3. 3.05 | 42.85
Wytheyille..... 2.16 | 3.54 | 2.85 | 2.42 | 3.70 | 4. 30 | 4.76 | 4.42 | 3. 2.42 | 38.88

2 Record for 4 years and 6 months only.

TaBLe 5.—Monthly mean relative humidity; compiled in the
States Department of Agriculture.

Bureau, United

5 no | =I ray C=
2/8 aleleleie] a )4
Stations. Ble Sig@ieie Sie/2] 8 g EI 58
BIS (SESS Sle eilsi sla) & ae
6 & = 4 = 5 5 <q n | (s) A A <4 | =)
| |
P. ct.) P. ct.| P. ct.|P. ct.| P. ct.|P. ct.| P. et.|P. ct.|P. ct.|P. ct Per cent.) Years.
Atlanta, Ga........- 76.4| 73.9] 68.6] 62.4) 65.8) 71.1] 76.3] 77.9] 75.2) 68.4 72.1 9
Charlotte, N. C_-.--. 72.3] 72.4) 68.1) 62.9) 67.1) 72.0] 75.8) 78.2) 77.7\ 69.8 71.7 9
Chattanooga, Tenn .} 78.2] 73.8] 69.0) 65.6) 72.8) 75.4) 76.6) 78.1 78. 8} 73.1 74, 2) 9)
Knoxville, Tenn-..-.| 76.0) 70.9) 68.0} 62 7) 71.4) 74.3] 77.3] 78.9] 76. 9) 72.6 735 1 9
Asheville, N. C....-- 63.7] 65.4) 63.6) 59.2) 65.6) 67.1) 72.9] 73.0) 73.5) 66.3 66.5 9
Savannah, Ga.....-- 77.2) 78.3} 74.1) 74.4) 74.3) 78.6) 81.3) 83.4] 84.1) 78.2) 78.7 9
Wilmington, N. C..-| 79.1] 80.1) 78.7) 76.7) 78,9} 81.8] 84.0] 84.6} 83.2) 79.3) . 7] 78.6) 80.5 9
Raleigh, N. C....... 74.4) 74.3] 70.1) 66.9) 71.9) 78.3] 77.6] 80.4] 79.0) 73.6) 76.1] 72.9 74, 2) 9
Montgomery, Ala...) 75.3] 74.7) 68.8] 64.8! 66.8) 70.1) 76.0] 78.1] 74.0) 69.0) 72.7] 75.6 72. 2) 9
Memphis, Tenn..... 75.9) 73.2) 70.7) 66.3) 69.8) 72.9] 75.3) 75.3) 75.0) 70.6) 74.0) 75.6 12.9) 9
Nashville, Tenn..... 76.6) 74.2) 68.4) 63.7) 67.6) 70.7} 71.9) 72.3) 74.0) 68.7| 72.8) 74.6 113 9
Cincinnati, Ohio....| 76.7] 74.0] 68.8] 61.0) 68.6) 64.6] 64.6] 65.3) 69.1] 68.8) 73.1] 74.7 68.7 9

AUS IND OXG ME,

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE MOVEMENT
FOR THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE
IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

MEMORIALS AND RESOLUTIONS FAVORING THE PROPOSED APPALA-
CHIAN FOREST RESERVE.

Memorial of the Appalachian Mountain Club.

Memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association.

Resolution of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science.

Resolution of the American Forestry Association.

Resolution of the National Board of Trade.

Resolutions passed by other boards of trade.

PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE ON
THE FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION, JAN-
UARY 1, 1901.

REPORT ON THE CREATION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FOR-
EST RESERVE BY THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON FOREST RESER-
VATIONS AND THE PROTECTION OF GAME, FEBRUARY 12, 1901.

RESOLUTIONS AND ACTS BY THE LEGISLATORS OF STATES WHOSE
TERRITORY EXTENDS INTO THE REGION OF THE PROPOSED
FOREST RESERVE.

Virginia.
North Carolina.
Tennessee.
South Carolina.
Georgia.

EXTRACTS FROM THE PRESS.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE MOVEMENT FOR THE PROPOSED
FOREST RESERVE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.

The necessity for the preservation of the forests in the Southern
Appalachian region in order to prevent the washing away of the moun-
tain lands and the destruction of the mountains themselves has for
many years been advocated by the geologists working in that region.
Their position in this has met with the hearty approval of the forestry
expertsand even the lumbermen who have gone into that region. The
growing prominenceand recognized suitability of much of this regionas
a health and pleasure resort has added this element also to the movement
forthe preservation of these forestsandrivers. The increasing violence
and destructiveness of the floods during the past few years, and the gen-
eral recognition of the fact that the continued clearing of these moun-
tain slopes would soon result in the absolute ruin of all the interests
of this region and of the adjacent lowlands in the several States—this
has combined and strengthened this movement in the country at large,
and has brought it to its present position before Congress.

On November 22, 1899, the Appalachian National Park Association
was organized at Asheville, N. C., with a large membership, including
citizens from Northern, Southern, and Western States. On January
2, 1900, memorials from this Appalachian National Park Association
and the Appalachian Mountain Club of New England were presented
to Congress, asking that measures be taken looking to the preservation
of the Southern Appalachian forests. In response to these memorials,
supported by the unanimously favorable press of the country, Congress
incorporated in the bill carrying the appropriation for the Depart-
ment of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, a pro-
vision that a ‘‘sum not to exceed $5,000 may, in the discretion of the
Secretary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the conditions of
the Southern Appalachian mountain region of Western North Carolina
and adjacent States.”

The United States Geological Survey of the Department of the
interior cooperated with the Department of Agriculture in this investi-
gation so as to have it include a study of the geology and topography
and rivers of the region.

In January, 1901, the Secretary of Agriculture submitted a short
preliminary report* setting forth the result of these investigations up

“See pp. 166-168.
157

158 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

to that time. This report was transmitted to Congress by President
McKinley in a brief commendatory message on January 16, 1901.

On January 10, 1901, a bill was introduced in the Senate by Mr.
Pritchard, of North Carolina, which provided an appropriation of
$5,000,000, to be expended under the Secretary of Agriculture in the
purchase of not less than 2,000,000 acres of mountain lands in the States
of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and
Alabama. This bill was favorably reported to the Senate by the Com-
mittee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, February
12, 1901.*

This movement has from its beginning received the active support
of both the general and the technical press of the country, and it may
be said that this agency has done more than all others to awaken the
American people to the importance of preserving the remnants of our
forests before it is too late, and of educating them to a knowledge of
the fact that these forests are for this generation to legitimately use,
but not to destroy.

The list of papers and periodical publications that have contained
articles favoring the proposed Appalachian forest reserve is too long
to be enumerated here, but it may not be improper to mention espe-
cially two such articles which have recently appeared, viz, one by
Prof. W J McGee, of Washington, D. C., in the World’s Work for
November, 1901, and another by Prof. N. S. Shaler, in the North
American Review for December, 1901. On page 180 will be found
brief extracts relative to the proposed forest reserve from a few papers
and magazines.

The following papers, arranged somewhat in the order of their
adoption, are here reproduced so as to make them more accessible to
those who may have occasion to refer to them:

MEMORIAL OF THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN CLUB.

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America:

The petition of the Appalachian Mountain Club respectfully shows.

That your petitioner is an organization of about 1,200 members, com-
posed principally of residents of Boston, Mass., and New England,
with scattering members throughout the Union, organized in January,
1876, and reorganized and chartered as a corporation by the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts in April, 1878.

That its object is to bring together for cooperation all those inter-
ested in the mountains of New England and adjacent regions. * * *
To combine the energies of all those who are interested in efforts not
only to preserve the present beauty and attractiveness of our mountain
resorts—and in particular their forests—but also to render them more

®See p. 168.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 159

attractive by building paths, camps, and other conveniences, construct-
ing and publishing accurate maps, and by collecting all available infor-
mation concerning the mountain regions.

* *~ * In short, the club may be considered the representative in
this part of the country of the interests of all lovers of the mountains,
in addition to which it has made such substantial contributions to
various departments of geography as to gain recognition as a repre-
sentative of general geographical science.

It having come to the knowledge of this club that there is now on
foot a movement for the establishment of a national forest and moun-
tain preserve in the southern Alleghenies, to be known as the National
Appalachian Park; and further, that there is now before the Congress
a petition from an organization known as the Appalachian National
Park Association, ‘‘ praying for such action as will result in causing to
be forthwith made such examination and surveys as may be necessary
to determine the best possible location and the proper area for a
national park in the southern Appalachian region, to the end that
upon the coming in of the report of the forester, or of such reports
as the Congress may desire, appropriate steps may be taken to acquire
the title to the land to be comprised within the limits of the park; or
that the Congress may take such other action as it may deem proper.”

Your petitioners therefore state that they believe the movement is
inaugurated at a most opportune time, being wellaware of the increased
difficulty that will attend the securing of suitable land for this pur-
pose at a later date, when land values increase and timber and land
interests combine against such a movement; that they are deeply inter-
ested in this movement, which they believe, if carried out, will result
in untold health and recreation for future generations, and heartily
concur in the above-mentioned petition; and they respectfully pray
that the said petition of the Appalachian National Park Association
may receive favorable consideration with the Congress.

Apion A. Perry, President.
RosEWELL B. Lawrence, Lecording Secretary.
Joun Rrirontr, Jr., Corresponding Secretary.

MEMORIAL FROM THE APPALACHIAN NATIONAL PARK
ASSOCIATION.

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America:
The petition of the Appalachian National Park Association respect-
fully shows:
That your petitioner is an organization composed of citizens from
many States in the Union, and was formed for the purpose of bringing

160 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

to the attention of the Congress of the United States the desirability
of establishing a national park at some place in the southern Appa-
lachian region.

That the facts which led to the organization of your petitioner, and
which are presented as reasons for the establishment of such a national
park, are as follows:

RARE NATURAL BEAUTY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

In western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee (or, more definitely,
in the heart of the Great Smoky Mountains, the Balsam Mountains,
and the Black and Craggy Mountains) is found not only the culmina-
tion of the Appalachian system, but the most beautiful as well as the
highest mountains east of the lofty western ranges. Forty-three
mountains of 6,000 feet and upward in altitude, as well as a great
number of inferior height, all clothed with virgin forests and inter-
sected by deep valleys abounding in brooks, rivers, and waterfalls,
combine to make this a region of unsurpassed attractiveness.

Standing upon the summit of one of these sublime heights the eye
often seeks in vain for the bare mountain side—the evidence of the
devastating ax—and before one stretches out a view magnificently
beautiful.

If the national parks already established have been chosen for their
unusual natural beauty, here is a national park conspicuously fine,
awaiting official recognition as an addition to the number.

SUPERB FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN SYSTEM.

No other portion of our country displays a richness of sylva equal
to that found in the high mountains of the Southern Appalachian region
in the variety of its hard woods and conifers. Professor Gray, the
eminent botanist, is authority for the statement that he encountered a
greater number of indigenous trees in a trip of 30 miles through
western North Carolina than can be observed in a trip from Turkey
to England, through Europe, or from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky
Mountain plateau. Here is the home of the rhododendron and the
kalmia; here is the meeting place of the mountain flora of the North
and of the South, and the only place where distinctive Southern moun-
tain trees may be found side by side with those of the North. Here,
too, are found trees of from 5 to 7 feet, and even more, in diameter,
which tower to a height of 140 feet, and, occasionally, much higher,
and these patriarchal trees, though innumerable, are but the greatest
in a dense forest composed of many other large, beautiful, and valuable
varieties. In fine, here is the largest area of virgin forest in the South
Atlantic region, and the finest example of mixed forest (by which is
meant a forest of deciduous and evergreen trees) in America.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 161

There is but one such forest in America, and neglect of the oppor-
tunity now presented of saving it may work irretrievable loss. The
forest once destroyed can not be restored. Reforestation is a slow
process; it is for subsequent generations. The experience of the old
countries in this matter.stands as a warning. The increasing scarcity
of timber is causing the large areas of forest in this part of our country
to be rapidly acquired by those whose one thought will be immediate
returns from a system of lumbering utterly reckless and ruinous from
any other point of view, and in a few years this forest will be a thing
ot the past.

The National Government, and it alone, can prevent this destruction,
and, by the application of the methods of scientific forestry, preserve
the forest as a heritage and blessing to unborn generations.

NECESSITY OF PRESERVING THE HEADWATERS OF MANY RIVERS RISING
k IN THESE MOUNTAINS. :

At this late date the calamities of flood and drought resulting from
the wanton destruction of forests are well known. The forest acts as
a storehouse of moisture for the dry season, and tends to prevent
tloods.

Many rivers rise in these mountains, and the same causes which will
destroy the forests will work irreparable injury to the sources of the
water supply.

It is the duty of the National Government, as the guardian of the
national interests, not the least among which are the rivers, to protect
their sources and the water supply of the country.

HEALTHFULNESS OF THE REGION.

It is a well-recognized fact that the plateau lying between the Great
Smoky Mountains and the Blue Ridge is one of the most deservedly
popular health resorts of the world. The geographical location and
the geological formation are peculiarly adapted to the production of
those conditions which make for health in generel.

Malaria is unknown. It rivals Arizona as a sanitarium for those
suffering from pulmonary troubles. No better place could be found
for the establishment of a sanitarium for the soldiers and sailors of
our country.

CLIMATE IS FINE THE WHOLE YEAR.

By reason of its considerable altitude its summer climate is more
agreeable than that of regions farther north. Those living in the
South, but in regions of less altitude, and in increasing numbers others
from the North and West, are learning to appreciate the advantages

*S. Doc. 84—I1

162 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

of itssummer climate. For many years to those wishing to escape the
rigors of a Northern winter this plateau has been a place of favorite
resort. It has one of the best all-year climates in the world.

The existing national parks can only be visited in summer; snow
and ice bar the way atall other times. If a national park were created
in this favored mountain region it could be visited and enjoyed at all
seasons of the year.

LOCATION IS CENTRAL.

This part of the Appalachian Range is but twenty-four hours from
New York, Chicago, St. Louis, Toledo, and the Gulf States. It is,
therefore, within easy reach of millions of people, and a park there
could be in fact, as in name, a national park.

EASTERN STATES ARE ENTITLED TO A NATIONAL PARK.

There is no national park of the character of the one suggested east
ot the Yellowstone, which is considerably more than 2,000 miles from
the Altantic coast, nor is there even a forest reserve east of western
Dakota, which is but a few hundred miles nearer.

The Chickamauga battlefield, though called, it is believed, a ‘‘ national
park,” possesses none of the characteristics of such a park as is now
under consideration, and was created because of the historical interest
investing its locality and is of very limited area.

PARK WOULD PAY AS A FOREST RESERVE.

It is confidently asserted that no forest reserve of the country, with
possibly one exception, would yield a larger return to the Government.
_ The forests are very dense; the timber of valuable species, such as
tulip (poplar), oak, chestnut, hemlock, and pine, and of great size. The
undergrowth is still to a large extent uninjured by fire, and the forest,
when made accessible by Government roads and managed in a scientific
manner, would yield an immediate, a constant, and a comparatively
large revenue.

The Government is now about to institute methods of scientific for-
estry. No better place in the United States can be found for the insti-
tution on a governmental scale of forestry operations, and because of
the fine climate, summer and winter alike, it would be the only forest
reserve of the country where such operations could be carried on unin-
terruptedly throughout the year.

The forests and the climate, both incomparable, ordain this as the
place for the commencement of forestry operations, and, perhaps, as
the location eventually of a national school of forestry.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 163

THE TITLE TO THE LAND CAN BE EASILY ACQUIRED.

A site for the park can easily be chosen where the land is held in
large areas and where the settlers are few. The land now sells for
about $2 an acre, so that a comparatively large park could be secured
at what would be greatly less than its value to the nation.

SUGGESTIONS REGARDING LOCATION OF PARK. :

That the foregoing are the considerations which your petitioner
deems of the most imperative nature and which it respectfully suggests
should have the early attention of the Congress.

That your petitioner does not consider that it would be proper for
it to suggest in anything more than a general way what should be the
area or the boundary lines of a park in the Southern “Appalachian
region. In the opinion of your petitioner, this is a matter which could
well be left to the decision of the forester of the Government.

Your petitioner is, however, of the opinion that it would be proper
to express its conviction that whatever may be the decision respecting
the area or exact location of such a national park, it should contain the
highest mountains and the finest scenery in the whole Appalachian
system, and this is found in the heart of the Great Smoky and Black
mountains; and that the park should also embrace the largest area of
virgin forest and the finest example of mixed forest in America, and
this is found in the heart of the Balsam Mountains, and all of these are
embraced within the limits of the tract hereinafter described.

The tract of land will be found to comprise two areas of land, each
lying partly in Tennessee and partly in North Carolina, connected by
a narrow strip extending along the line dividing those States and
embracing land in each of them. In the eastern end of this tract will
be found, with others, the following-named mountains:

Altitude in feet. | Altitude in feet.
Nolovwbate Whee 2 noe esce5ee @7Aln, |) Oists TAN heehee ae 6, 611

Ball samy Cone seen eee ean G@7Al |) Wagk We. 5 scoossocesossc. 6, 502
Deer VioumtaTn enna O23) || Mowat; GMOS cock cee oeeloe 6, 591
Roan) VWiountainteee ees: eee ane 6, 313 | Mount Hallback./-1222-_) 1. 6, 043
BigiCrage yen ee see eee Gels || Isley Wee, 6655 ko oss aa seoeaeb see 6, 691
Rotatowlape sea mr kes. sauna GBB |} LOS ICS 22 coon nacccanebsecee. 6, 259
BlACksE Toth erase a 6, 619

In the western part of said tract will be found Mount Guyot (alti-
tude 6,636 feet ), Clingman’s Dome (altitude 6,650 feet), Bald Mountain
(altitude 6,220 feet), and many other high mountains, as well as the
untouched tract of virgin forest hereinbefore referred to.

Your petitioner therefore states that, in its opinion, by far the best
land for the Appalachian national park lies between parallels 35 and
37 of north latitude, and between the lines 82 and 85 of west longitude,
and within the tract described as follows:

Beginning at Joanna Bald Mountain, in the State of North Carolina,
on the line dividing the county of Graham from Cherokee and Macon

164 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

counties, and running thence easterly along said line and the line
between eastern Graham County and Swain County to a point on the
Tuckasegee River near Bushnell; thence up the Tuckasegee River to
a point 2 miles west of Bryson City; thence due north 4 miles; thence
east about 12 miles to the line dividing Swain and Jackson counties;
thence south to the Tuckasegee River; thence east to the Plott Balsam
Ridge; then along said ridge, crossing the line between Haywood and
Jackson counties, to a point 2 miles west of Waynesville; thence north-
eastwardly to Pigeon River; thence down Pigeon River to Fines Creek;
thence in a northwestwardly direction to French Broad River, at the
mouth of Big Laurel Creek; thence due east to the line dividing Madi-
son and Yancey counties; thence due south toa point 2 miles north of
the Swannanoa River; thence easterly along a line parallel with and
2 miles north of the line of the Southern Railway Company to a point
due north of Old Fort; thence due north to North Toe River; thence
down North Toe River to the line dividing the State of Tennessee from
the State of North Carolina; thence westwardly in the State of Ten-
nessee to Big Butte, at the corner of Washington, Green, and Unicoi
counties, in Tennessee, and of Madison County, in North Carolina;
thence southwestwardly along the line dividing the State of Tennes-
see from the State of North Carolina to Rocky Ridge; thence south-
westwardly ina straight line to the French Broad River, at the mouth of
Paint Creek; thence down the French Broad river to the mouth of Rock
Creek; thence westwardly to the southeast corner of Jefferson County,
Tenn.; thence southwestwardly to Round Top, at a corner in the east-
erly line of Blount County, Tenn.; thence in a southwestwardly direc-
tion to the Tennessee line at the mouth of Abram or Panther Creek;
thence south to the line dividing Cherokee and Graham counties, in
North Carolina, and thence along said dividing line eastwardly to Joanna
Bald Mountain, the place of beginning.

Your petitioner therefore prays that the Congress will take under
consideration the matter herein set forth and cause the same to be
examined into, and will take such action as will result in causing to be
forthwith made such examination and surveys as may be necessary to
determine the best possible location and the proper area for a national
park in the Southern Appalachian region, to the end that upon the
coming in of the report of the forester, or of such other reports as
the Congress may desire, appropriate steps may be taken to acquire
the title to land to be comprised within the limits of such park; or
that the Congress will take such other action as it may deem proper.

And your petitioners will ever pray, ete.

Gero. 8. PowE xt,
President Appalachian National Park Association.
Dr. C. P. AMBLER,
Secretary.
ASHEVILLE, N. C., December 19, 1899.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 165

RESOLUTIONS.
{American Association for the Advancement of Science, June 23, 1900, New York City.]

Resolved, That the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, recognizing the importance of the preservation in its original
condition of some portion of the hard-wood forests of the Southern
Appalachian region, respectfully petitions Congress to provide for the
establishment in that region of a national forest reserve.

[American Forestry Association, December 13, 1900, Washington, D. C.]

Resolved, That the action of Congress in making an appropriation
to investigate the forest conditions of the Southern Appalachian
Mountains meets with our cordial approval, and that we recommend
that further steps be taken for the creation by purchase of a national
Appalachian park in the high mountain region of the States of North
and South Curolina, Georgia, and Tennessee.

{National Board of Trade, January 23, 1901, Washington, D. C.]

Resolved, That the National Board of Trade respectfully urges upon
Congress the establishment of the proposed Minnesota National Park
and of the proposed Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve as a just
and necessary measure of forest protection to those portions of our
country which at present contain no national forest reserves.

[Memphis (Tenn.) Board of Trade.]

Whereas there is a widespread movement in this country looking to
the establishment by the General Government in the high forest-
covered mountain portions of Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia,
and South Carolina of a national forest reserve, which will perpet-
uate the forest of this region, forever protect the headwaters of many
important streams in these States, and serve as a pleasure and health
resort at all seasons for a large portion of the people of this country;
and whereas the proposal that the Government establish such a forest
reserve has been approved by the leading scientific societies and for-
estry associations of this country, and by the general press:

Resolved, That the Board of Trade of Memphis, Tenn., also heartily
approves of the establishment of such a forest reserve, and respect-
fully asks the Senators and Representatives at Washington from this
State to urge upon Congress the favorable and prompt consideration
of this measure.

Similar resolutions favoring the establishment of the proposed for-
est reserve or park by the Government have been passed by the com-
mercial organizations in Richmond, Raleigh, Wilmington, Charleston,
Columbia, Savannah, Augusta, Atlanta, Mobile, Knoxville, Chatta-
nooga, Nashville, Memphis, and in many other of the larger cities of
the country.

166 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE
ON THE FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

To the Senate and House of Representatives:

I transmit herewith, for the information of the Congress, a letter
from the Secretary of Agriculture, in which he presents a preliminary
report of the investigations upon the forests of the Southern Appala-
chian Mountain region. Upon the basis of the facts established by
this investigation the Secretary of Agriculture recommends the pur-
chase of land for a national forest reserve in western North Carolina,
eastern Tennessee, and adjacent States. I commend to the favorable
consideration of the Congress the reasons upon which the recommend-
ation rests.

Wiiuiam McKrntry.

Executive Mansion, January 16, 1901.

Unirep States DeparTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY,
Washington, D. C., January 3, 1901.
The PREsIDEN1:

The bill making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture
for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, provides that a ‘*sum not to
exceed $5,000 may, in the discretion of the Secretary of Agriculture,
be used to investigate the forest conditions in the Southern Appala-
chian Mountain region of western North Carolina and adjacent States.”
Tn accordance with this provision I have made a thorough investiga-
tion of the forests in a portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains,
as directed above, including an estimate of the amount and condition
of the standing timber, an inquiry as to the suitability of this region
for a national park, as proposed by the Appalachian National Park
Association, and an examination of the validity of the reasons advanced
by its advocates for the creation of such a park. In this task I have
received generous and effective cooperation and assistance, through
the United States Geological Survey, from the Department of the Inte-
rior, which recognized in this way the deep and widely diffused public
interest in the plan.

The forest investigation was made to include a study of the charac-
ter and distribution of the species of timber trees, the density and
value of forest growth, the extent to which the timber has been cut
or damaged by fire, the size and nature of the present holdings, the
prices at which these forest lands can now be purchased, and the gene-
ral and special conditions that affect the prosecution of conservative
forestry on a large scale.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 167

The hydrographic survey of the region, conducted by the United
States Geological Survey, includes a general study of its topographic
features; of the relation of the soils, forest cover, and rainfall; of the
quantity of water flowing out of it through the various streams during
different seasons, and of ‘the influence exerted on the regularity of this
flow by forest clearings. More than 750 stream measurements have
already been made and much additional data of special value has been
secured.

In addition to these investigations I have given thorough attention
to the arguments advanced by the movers for the proposed park and
to those of their opponents, and as a result [am strongly of the opinion
that this matter is worthy of careful consideration.

I have the honor to transmit herewith a mounted original copy of a
large map, which shows in detail the mapping of forests accomplished
during the past summer over an area of nearly 8,000 square miles. A
full report of the work and its results is now in preparation and will
be submitted for your consideration at an early date. The following
preliminary statement is made to bring before you without delay a
summary of the facts sufficient to set forth clearly the principal features
of the region and the plan.

The movement for the purchase and control of a large area of forest
land in the East by the Government has chiefly contemplated a national
park. The idea of a national park is conservation, not use; that of a
forest reserve, conservation by use. I have, therefore, to recommend
a forest reserve instead of a park. It is fully shown by the investiga-
tion that such a reserve would be self-supporting from the sale of tim-
ber under wisely directed conservative forestry.

Extensive areas of hard-wood forests within the region colored on
the accompanying map are still in their primitive condition, and these
are among the very best and richest hard-wood forests of the United
States. The region in general is better adapted for forestry than for
agricultural purposes. It is located about the headwaters of numer-
ous streams, such as the Ohio, Tennessee, Savannah, Yadkin, and
Roanoke, which are important both for water power and for naviga-
tion. The general conditions within the region are exceptionally
favorable for the carrying on of large operations in practical forestry,
and the weather is suitable for lumbering operations at all seasons of
the year. It contains a greater variety of hard-wood trees than any
other region of the United States, since the Northern and Southern
species here meet. It is a region of exceptional beauty and pictur-
esqneness, and, although it would not be easily accessible to visitors
in all parts at all seasons of the year, by far the greater portion of its
area would be easily reached and elimatically pleasant throughout the
year.

168 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

It contains within the forest-covered areas no large settlements or
large mining operations which would interfere with the management
of such a forest reserve, and yet there is a sufficient population for the
working and protection of the forests. Large lumber companies are
rapidly invading the region, and the early destruction of the more
valuable timber is imminent. Lands in this region suitable for such
a forest reserve are now generally held in large bodies of from 50,000
to 100,000 acres, and they can be purchased at prices ranging from $2
to $5 peracre. It is probable that the average price would not exceed
$3 per acre. In explanation of the widespread and urgent demand for
the establishment in this southern Appalachian region of a national
park or forest reserve, it may be added that it contains the highest and
largest mountain masses, and perhaps the wildest and most picturesque
scenery, east of the Mississippi River; that it is a region of perfect
healthfulness, already largely used as a health resort both summer
and winter, and that it lies within a little more than a day’s travel of
the larger portion of the population of this country.

The rapid consumption of our timber supplies, the extensive destruc-
tion of our forests by fire, and the resulting increase in the irregularity
of the flow of water in important streams have served to develop
among the people of this country an interest in forest problems which
is one of the marked features of the close of the century. In response
to this growing interest the Government has set aside in the Western
forest reserves an area of more than 70,000 square miles. There is
not a single forest reserve in the East.

I have the honor to be, very respectfully,
James Wixson, Secretary.

REPORT OF THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON FOREST RESERVATIONS
AND THE PROTECTION OF GAME.

[Fifty-sixth Congress, second session. Senate Calendar No. 2227. Report No. 2221.)
FOREST RESERVE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION.

[February 12, 1901.—Report by Mr. Beveridge, from the Committee on Forest Reservations and the
Protection of Game, to accompany S. 5518.]

A majority of the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Pro-
tection of Game, having had under consideration the bill (S. 5518) to
provide for the establishment of a national forest reserve in the South-
ern Appalachian Mountain region, reports the bill with the reeommen-
dation that it do pass and submits the following report:

An investigation of the forests of this region, authorized by Con-
gress at its last session, has been conducted during the past year by
the Department of Agriculture, with the cooperation of the United

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 169

States Geological Survey. A preliminary report from the Secretary
of Agriculture, transmitted to Congress with a brief commendatory
message by the President, is herewith included. It is preceded by a
letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, which declares his full
approval of this bill. The plan to purchase a forest reserve or park
in the Southern Appalachian Mountains has been favorably considered
and is advocated by the National Board of Trade, by the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, by the American Forestry
Association, and by numerous similar organizations throughout the
United States. Resolutions from the bodies named are presented in
the appendix as showing that the movement for the establishment of
this forest reserve is based not upon local or selfish interests, but
upon the widespread, intelligent national appreciation of the impor-
tance of prompt and favorable action by Congress.

That such a forest reserve should be established in the hard-wood
regions of the East is the general conviction of men of science, experts
in forestry, intelligent lumbermen, and of men connected with the
great business interests of the country; and this view finds frequent
and emphatic expression in the technical and general press. Reckless
cutting and the forest fires which follow are now destroying these
hard-wood forests at a rate and to an extent which is already having
serious results over wide areas. In addition to its probable effect on
climate, it is causing irregularities in the flow of the streams, which
are destroying their value for water power and navigation during the
dry seasons, and during the rainy seasons are washing away the soils
on the steeper hillsides and mountain slopes, filling up the stream beds
with sediment, and destroying the agricultural value of the lowlands
along the streams. Both the diminishing flow of water during the dry
season and the deposit of sediment in the stream beds and harbors
during periods of flood are becoming yearly more dangerous to navi-
gation and are leading directly to increased annual appropriations for
rivers and harbors.

The establishment of the proposed national forest reserve will tend
to remedy these serious and growing evils, will protect the sources of
many important streams, and, under the management of trained forest
experts, will serve as a demonstration of the method of perpetuating
forests and yet making them pay. Such an example will lead both
States and individuals to encourage and practice forest management
and restoration on all lands which are better suited to forest growth
than for agricultural purposes.

The proposed national reserve for the protection and use of hard-
wood forests should be located in the Southern Appalachian Mountains
for several reasons.

That region contains the greatest variety of hard woods to be found
anywhere on this continent, because the northern and southern forest

170 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

flora intermingle there. A list of the trees native to the region of
the proposed reserve is given hereafter. We find there the largest
remaining bodies of these forests in their virgin condition, the largest
and highest mountains east of Colorado, and the largest mountain
masses covered with hard-wood forests in the United States.

The slopes of these mountains contain the sources of the Tennessee,
the Savannah, the Broad, the Catawba, and other rivers, and important
tributaries of the Ohio. This fact is doubly significant because this
region has none of the extensive glacial gravel deposits which serve in
the more northern States as storage reservoirs for water, and so aid
the forests to maintain uniformity of flow in the streams. Hence this
measure stands on a basis of its own, and need not be regarded as cre-
ating a precedent for similar action in other cases.

This should be a national forest reserve, for the reason that the
problems and dangers which it is intended to meet are national. It is
true that a few States are now establishing State forest reserves, and
it is believed that the measure now proposed will encourage such a
movement on the part of other States. In New York large expendi-
tures are being made to purchase reserve forest lands lying entirely
within that State, about the headwaters of important streams which
also lie within the limits of the State. But the great mountain masses
of this proposed national forest reserve lie in several States, and the
streams which rise among them flow through and are of importance to
more than as many others. The combined annual income of the sev-
eral States grouped about this region is but little greater than the
appropriation carried by this bill.

It may be urged against this measure that it is a new departure for
the Government. But the Western forest reserves have been set aside
out of the public domain which was purchased by the Government at a
time when the nation was composed largely of the Eastern States. Out
of the lands so purchased nearly 50,000,000 of acres of forest-covered
lands have been set aside as national forest reserves and parks for the
purpose of perpetuating a timber supply in the Western States and
Territories and for preserving forever the sources of their more impor-

ant streams. Furthermore, the Government has recently been pur-
chasing lands in the East for military parks and reservations and for
other purposes. Hence it may be asserted in all fairness that what is
now proposed is new neither in principle nor practice. In view of the
importance of the measure now proposed in behalf of the hard-wood
forests of the country, and considering the fact that there are no pub-
lic lands covered with hard-wood forests, and that neither individuals
nor the States adjacent to this region can reasonably pe expected to
establish such forest reserves as are absolutely essential, it is evidently
the duty of the General Government to take the present step.

It will be asked how far the management and care of such a forest
reserve will prove an annual expense to the Government. Attention

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Weal

is called, in reply, to the accompanying letter from the Secretary of
Agriculture, in which he says: ‘‘I am entirely confident that very
soon after its creation the proposed reserve would, under conservative
forestry, be self-supporting from the sale of timber.” Further, it
may be said that many European forests, under government supervi-
sion, yield a net annual income from the sale of timber and other
products of from $1 to $2 per acre or more. While no such income is
expected to result from the proposed reserve_in the immediate future,
yet it is confidently expected that in the course of a few years this
reserve will be self-supporting; and that subsequently, as the hard-
wood forests of other regions are cut away and the country more
thickly settled, the sale of timber and other products from this reserve
will yield a considerable net profit.

Other important questions connected with this measure which have
been considered by the committee are fully answered in the statement
which follows from the Secretary of Agriculture. The memorial of
the Appalachian National Park Association and other documents are
added.

The legislatures of the several States within which the proposed
forest reserve may be located, with a single exception, have already
conferred upon Congress the necessary authority to acquire lands
within their boundaries. In the case of the exception a resolution
which indorses the plan has passed both houses of the legislature, and
further action may confidently be expected in due time.

This is a measure which has every consideration in its favor; and,
in view of its importance and the beneficent results which will cer-
tainly flow from its adoption, it should commend itself to the wisdom
of Congress, as it must appeal to the patriotism of every citizen.

APPENDIX.
Ferpruary 9, 1901.

My Dear Senaror: I am in receipt of your letter of this date, in which you ask
for an expression of my opinion regarding Senate bill 5518, which provides for the
purchase of a forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. After a thor-
ough investigation of the forest conditions of this region, I am heartily in favor of the
creation of the proposed reserve and of Mr. Pritchard’s bill. The region in which it
is proposed to locate this reserve contains the finest hard-wood forests yet remaining
in the United States; it is admirably adapted to the purposes of a public resort for
health and recreation; the land may be purchased at a reasonable price; the preser-
vation of the forest is essential not only to the well-being of the region itself, but to
that of great rivers which flow from it and to the interests they subserve; and I am
entirely confident that very soon after its creation the proposed reserve would, under
conservative forestry, be self-supporting from the sale of timber.

Very respecttully,
James Witson, Secretary.

Hon. Assert J. BrvertpGs,

United States Senate.

You will find a more detailed statement of my position in my letter to the President,

transmitted by him to the Congress January 16. (See p. 166.)

172 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

LEGISLATIVE RESOLUTIONS AND ACTS IN THE SEVERAL STATES
WHOSE TERRITORY EXTENDS INTO THE REGION OF THE PRO-
POSED FOREST RESERVE.

VIRGINIA.

AN ACT to give consent by the State of Virginia to acquisition by the United
States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest
reserve in the said State.

[Approved February 15, 1901.]

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in
the high mountain regions of Virginia and adjacent States a national
forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests forever and pre-
serve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will
prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and

Whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress pro
viding for the purchase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore,

Be it enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, That the consent
of the State of Virginia be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition by
the United States, by purchase or gift, or by condemnation according
to law, of such lands in Virginia as in the opinion of the Federal Gov-
ernment may be needed for the establishment of such a national forest
reserve in that region: Provided, That the State shall retain a concur-
rent jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far
that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue
under the authority of the State against any person charged with the
commission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction, may be
executed thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed.
And provided, That in all condemnation proceedings the rights of the
Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth
by the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves.

2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws
as it may deem necessary to the acquisition, as hereinbefore provided,
for incorporation in said national forest reserve such forest-covered
lands lying in Virginia as in the opinion of the Federal Government
may be needed for this purpose.

3. Power is hereby conterred upon Congress to pass such laws and
to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations of
both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment for violation
thereof, as in its judgment may be necessary for the management,
control, and protection of such lands as may be from time to time
acquired by the United States under the provisions of this act.

4. This act shall be in-force from its passage.

|For resolution of March 21, 1902, see p. 190. |

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. ete

NORTH CAROLINA.

A RESOLUTION favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the
Southern Appalachian Mountain region.

Resolved by the house of representatives, the senate concurring :

The general assembly of North Carolina hereby expresses its approval
of the movement looking to the establishment by the Federal Govern-
ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appa-
lachian Mountain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as
many other nations have already adopted, and which this country
should adopt before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its
forests and the protection of the sources of important streams; and

Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved
and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry associations
of this country, and by the general press; and

Whereas this general assembly has passed an act granting its consent
to the acquisition of lands in western North Carolina by the Federal
Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, believing the
reserve to be one of great importance to the people of this State; and

Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for
the purchase of lands for this purpose:

Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from
this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance
of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure.

In the general assembly, read three times, and ratified this the 18th
day of January, A. D. 1901.

W. D. Turner,
President of Senate.
Wa.rer EK. Moors,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

AN ACT to give consent by the State of North Carolina to the acquisition by the
United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national
forest reserve in said State.

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government purchase lands
in the high mountain regions of western North Carolina and adjacent
States for the purpose of establishing there a national forest reserve
which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the head-
waters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of great
and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and whereas a bill
has been introduced in the Federal Congress providing for the pur-
chase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore, the general assembly
of North Carolina do enact:

Src. 1. That the consent of the general assembly of North Carolina
be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by pur-

174 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

chase or by condemnation, with adequate compensation except as he~e-
inafter provided, of such lands in western North Carolina as in the
opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establish-
ment of such a national forest reserve in that region: Provided, That
the State of North Carolina shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with
the United States in and over such lands so far that civil process in all
cases and such criminal process as may issue under the authority of
the State of North Carolina against any person charged with the com-
mission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction may be exe-
cuted thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed.

Src. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such
laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinafter pro-
vided for incorporation in said national forest reserve such forest-
covered lands lying in western North Carolina as in the opinion of the
Federal Government may be needed for this purpose: Provided,
That as much as 200 acres of any tract of land occupied as a home by
bona fide residents in this State at the date of the ratification of this
act shall be exempt from the provisions of this section.

Src. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws
and to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations
of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment therefor, as
in its judgment may be deemed necessary for the management, con-
trol, and protection of such lands as may be from time to time acquired
by the United States under the provisions of this act.

Src. 4. This act shall be in force from and after its ratification.

In the general assembly, read three times, and ratified this the 18th
day of January, A. D. 1901.

W. D. Turner,
President of the Senate.
: Water E. Moors,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

TENNESSEE.

A RESOLUTION favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the
Southern Appalachian Mountain region.

Resolved by the house of representatives, the senate concurring:
The general assembly of Tennessee hereby expresses its approval of
the movement looking to the establishment by the Federal Govern-
ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appa-
lachian Mountain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as many
other nations have already adopted, and which this country has already
adopted in the West and should adopt in the East before it is too
late, looking to the conservation of its forests and the protection of
the sources of important streams; and

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 175)

Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been
approved and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry
associations of this country and by the general press; and

Whereas this general assembly has before it a bill granting the
State’s consent to the acquisition of lands in eastern Tennessee by the
Federal Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, believ-
ing the reserve to be one of great importance to the people of this
State; and

Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for the
purchase of lands for this purpose:

fesolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from
this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance
of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure.

Adopted February 1, 1901.

E. B. Witson,
Speaker of House of Representatives.
Newton H. Wuire,
Speaker of Senate.

AN ACT to give consent by the State of Tennessee to the acquisition by the United
States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest
reserve in the said State.

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the
high mountain regions of eastern Tennessee and adjacent States a
national forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and forever
preserve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will
thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State.

And whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress
providing for the purchase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore,

Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee,

Srcrron 1. That the consent of the State of Tennessee be, and is
hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase, gift,
or condemnation according to law, of such land in this State as in the
opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establish-
ment of such a national forest reserve in that region:

Provided, That the State shall retain the concurrent jurisdiction
with the United States in and over such lands so far that civil process
in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue under the authority
of the State against any person charged with the commission of any
crime without or within said jurisdiction, may be executed thereon in
like manner as if this act had not been passed:

Provided further, Vhat this act shall apply to lands in Tennessee
lying within 20 miles of the North Carolina State line; that all con-
demnation proceedings herein provided shall be limited to lands now

176 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

forest covered, and that in all such condemnation proceedings the
right of the Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects
set forth in this act and in the laws of the United States in regard to
forest reserves.

Src. 2. Be it further enacted, That power is hereby conferred upon
Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition,
as hereinbefore provided, for incorporation in said national forest
reserve such forest-covered lands lying in the State as in the opinion
of the Federal Government may be needed for this purpose.

Src. 3. Be tt further enacted, That power is hereby conferred upon
Congress to pass such laws and to make or provide for the making of
such rules and regulations of both civil and criminal nature, and pro-
vide punishment for violation thereof, as in its judgment may be
necessary for the management, control, and protection of such lands
as may be from time to time acquired by the United States under the
provisions of this act.

Src. 4. Be it further enacted, That this act take effect from and
after its passage, the public welfare requiring it.

Passed April 16, 1901.

KE. B. Wrson,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.
Newton H. Wuire,
Speaker of the Senate.

Approved April 23, 1901.

Benton McMinnan, Governor.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

A RESOLUTION favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the
Southern Appalachian Mountain region.

Resolved by the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring:
The general assembly of South Carolina hereby expresses its approval
of the movement looking to the establishment by the Federal Govern-
ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appala-
chian Mountain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as many
other nations have already adopted, and which this country should
adopt before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its forests
and the protection of the sources of important streams; and whereas
the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved and
urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry associations of
this country, and by the general press; and whereas this general
assembly has passed an act granting its consent to the acquisition of
lands in northern South Carolina by the Federal Government for

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. liad

incorporation in such a forest reserve, believing the measure to be one
of great importance to the people of this State; and whereas a bill is
now before the Federal Congress providing for the purchase of lands
for this purpose:

Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from
this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance
of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure.

Ratified.

AN ACT to give consent by the State of South Carolina to the acquisition by the
United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national
forest reserve in said State.

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the
high, mountain region of South Carolina and adjacent States a national
forest reserve which will perpetuate these forests and forever pre-
serve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will thus
prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State;
and whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress pro-
viding for the purchase of said lands for such purpose: Therefore,

Be it enacted by the general assembly of the Stateof South Carolina:

Section 1. That the consent of the State of South Carolina be, and
is hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase,
gift, or condemnation according to law, of such lands in this State as
in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the
establishment of such national forest reserve in that region: Provided,
That the State shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with the United
States in and over such lands so far that civil process in all cases, and
such criminal process as may issue under the authority of the State
against any person charged with the commission of any crime without
or within said jurisdiction, may be executed thereon in like manner
as if this act had not been passed.

Src. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such
laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinbefore pro-
vided, for incorporation in said national forest reserve, of such
forest-covered land lying in the State as in the opinion of the Federal
Government may be needed for this purpose.

Sec. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such
laws and to make, and provide for the making, of such rules and regu-
lations, of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment for
yiolation thereof, as in its judgment may be necessary for the man-
agement, control, and protection of such lands as may be from time
to time acquired by the United States under the provisions of this act.

Sec. +. That this act shall be in force from and after its ratification.

*S. Doc. 84 12

178 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

GEORGIA.

A RESOLUTION concerning the ceding of the jurisdiction over certain lands in the
State of Georgia to the United States of America for the purpose of establishing a
national forest reserve or park.

Whereas there is a widespread movement in this country asking that
the Federal Government purchase from the present owners certain
forest-covered lands lying within the high mountain regions of the
States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee,
about the headwaters of the larger streams flowing through these and
adjacent States, for the purpose of establishing in this region a national
forest reserve, which will forever protect the sources of the rivers that
furnish our water powers and navigation facilities, which will demon-
strate to the people of the country how such forest-covered areas can
be managed and perpetuated to the best advantage, and which will
become a great national resort within easy reach, at all seasons, of
much of the larger portion of the population of this country; and
whereas this general assembly desires to place on record its interest
in, and encouragement of, a movement which promises such great and
lasting benefits to the people of Georgia and the neighboring States:

Be it resolved by the general assembly of the State of Georgia, That
this general assembly hereby expresses its willingness to cede to the
United States of America the jurisdiction of the State of Georgia in
and over such of the forest-covered mountain lands in this State as
may be needed for the purpose of establishing such national forest
reserve or national park, when the land areas of such tract or tracts
have been designated, and a plat or plats of the same deposited with
the secretary of state in Atlanta: Provided, That the State shall
retain concurrent jurisdiction with the United States in and over said
tract or tracts so far that all civil and criminal processes issued under
the authority of the State may be executed thereon in like manner as
if this act were not in force: And provided further, That said cession
of jurisdiction shall not take effect until the United States shall have
acquired title to said tract or tracts.

The general assembly respectfully asks the favorable consideration
of this measure by Congress.

CiarKk Howe tt,
President of the Senate.
Cuas. S. NoRTHEN,
Secretary of the Senate.
Joun D. Lirrie,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.
Jno. T. BorrkvurLuerT,
Clerk of the House of Representatives.

Approved December 18, 1900.

A. D. CanpLEer, Governor.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 179

AN ACT to give consent by the State of Georgia to the acquisition by the United
States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national fores
reserve in said State.

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the
high mountain regions of Georgia and adjacent States a national forest
reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the
headwaters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of
great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and whereas
a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress providing for the
purchase of such lands for said purpose, the general assembly of
Georgia do enact:

Section 1. That the consent of the State of Georgia be, and is
hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase or
gift, or by condemnation according to the law, of such lands in the
mountain region of Georgia as in the opinion of the Federal Govern
ment may be needed for the establishment of such a national forest
reserve in that region: Provided, That the State shall retain a con-
current jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so
far that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may
issue under the authority of the State against any person charged with
the commission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction, may
be executed in like manner as if this act had not been passed: And
provided, That in all condemnation proceedings the rights of the
Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth
by the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves.

Src. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such
laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinbefore pro-
vided, for incorporation in said national forest reserve, of such moun-
tain lands lying in Georgia as in the opinion of the Federal Govern-
ment may be needed for this purpose.

Src. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws
and to make, or provide for the making, of such rules and regulations,
of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment therefor,
as in its judgment may be necessary for the management, control, and
protection of such land as may be from time to time acquired by the
United States under the provisions of this act.

This act shall be in force from its passage.

Passed December 13, 1901.

180 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

EXTRACTS FROM THE PRESS.

The few extracts from the press given below will serve as an illus-
tration of the extent to which the proposal that the Government estab-
lish a forest reserve or park in the southern Appalachian region has
met with public approval:

[New York (N. Y.) Tribune.]

If no steps by the Government of the United States are taken, the
entire tree system of these States will be obliterated, leaving the peaks
and valleys of six great States of the Union divested of timber and
foliage.

(Hartford (Conn.) Courant.]

The Appalachian Park ought in a dozen years from now to be one
of the chief attractions of the United States. The decisions in its favor
would be unanimous if the matter was left to those who knew the coun-
try and its possibilities.

[Boston (Mass.) Transcript.]

We hope the plan will fructify, for it would give us benefit and
bring us creditas a people. * * * Itis most sincerely to be hoped
that this admirable scheme will be quickly and cordially taken up by
Congress and carried to success. It is a case of now or never.

[Buffalo (N. Y.) Commercial.]

The United States Government has gone into the forestry business on
an extensive scale, and it is believed that the future returns will more
than justify the liberal policy adopted in this respect.

[New York (N. Y.) Times.]

The receipts from the French national forests altogether were about
twice their expenses in the last year for which the returns are accessible.

The urgency in this case is greater than it was in the case of the
Yellowstone Park, when it was laid out. Certainly no American
citizen now grudges the expense of that public possession.

[Baltimore (Md.) Sun.)
Among the many measures that have come before Congress none

merits more thoughtful consideration or commends itself more impress-
ively to the consideration and approval of the two Houses.
[Providence (R. I.) Journal.]
Asa mere measure of protection to the material interests which
may be affected by the cutting of the timber and the drying up of

streams, Congress ought to do something about this as a Federal
question.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 181
{Logansport (Ind.) Reporter.]

The General Government ought to step in before it is too late.
* * * If the timber is all stripped from these hills the streams will
dry up and the ultimate loss will be serious and widespread.

(Springfield (Ill.) Journal.]

It is certainly true that there have been few park projects that have
had more to recommend them.

[Cleveland (Ohio) Leader.]

It is claimed with reason that such a park would not only be more
accessible to the great majority of the American people than the
Yellowstone Park ever can be, but it would also be available as a
place of resort all through the year. * * * It is true, further,
that the proposed Appalachian Park would contain far better speci-
mens of typical American forest life than any which can be found in
the Yellowstone Park. That is an important item to be taken into
account.

[Providence (R. I.) Journal.]

There is but one such forest in America, and neglect of the opportu-
nity now presented of saving it may work irretrievable loss. The
forests once destroyed can not be replaced.

{New York Lumber Trade Journal.]

The Journal is heartily in favor of such a park and hopes that Con-
eress will give it favorable attention.

{Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal.]

I can not believe that the next Congress will fail to allow an appro-
priation to carry forward this great work. The Government, has
already set aside in Western reserves an area of more than 70,000
square miles, while there is not a single Government forest reserve in
the East.

[Forest and Stream.]

The Appalachian Forest Reserve measure must go over to another
Congress. We believe, however, that this is simply a postponement,
not a defeat, of the scheme. The reserve, there is abundant confi-
dence for believing, will ultimately be established.

[Forester, Washington, D.C.]

It is safe to say that only the great pressure of other business pre-
vented the House from voting in its favor this year. Some ground
will have to be gone over again, but it needs no prophet to see that,
though its friends failed of success this year, this reserve will in time
be established.

182 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.
[Farmer Advocate, Topeka, Kans.]

Everyone interested in having this beautiful region preserved from
wanton destruction by fire and timber thieves should write at once to
their Congressmen to vote for the passage ot the bill establishing the
park.

[The Medical Dial, Minneapolis, Minn.]

The therapeutical uses of sucha national park are exceedingly great.
The salubrity of the climate in this section of the country, amid the
everlasting hills and the giant trees, has no parallel in the world.

[St. Louis (Mo.) Star.]

It is to be hoped Congress will act favorably upon the petition.
Such a park would be a proper twin for the Yellowstone.

(Davenport (Iowa) Democrat.]

There are very many reasons for it—none worth counting on the
other side.

[American Field, New York City.]

The American Field urges every public-spirited citizen of this coun-
try to ‘‘ put his shoulder to the wheel” and to work upon his repre-
sentatives in both halls of Congress to obtain during the next session
of Congress decisive action toward the creation of the Appalachian and
Minnesota national parks.

{Harrisburg (Pa.) Telegraph.]

This country is gradually waking up to the destruction of its timber,
and the Secretary of Agriculture does wisely when he advocates forest
preservation and forest reservation.

[Pittsburg (Pa.) Commercial-Gazette.]

Such a forest reservation ought to prove a good investment of
national money.
[Brooklyn (N. Y.) Citizen.]

Measures to stop the destruction of mountain forests which protect
the water sources in the Appalachians and elsewhere will need to be
taken some day, and they ought to begin now when the Government
isin pecuniary condition to make the cost of condemnation and care a
trifling matter.

[New York Herald, January 12, 1900.]

The efforts of the Appalachian Park Association are to be com-
mended. Its promoters are moved only for the public good, and
should this movement finally succeed, the thanks of the entire com-
munity will be due to them for their earnest efforts.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 183
[Albany (N. Y.) Argus, January 7, 1900.]

It is sincerely hoped Congress will immediately take up the matter
and establish the park.

[The Tradesmen, Chattanooga, Tenn.]

The movement to establish a national park in the Southern Appa-
lachian Mountains deserves a general and hearty support.

{Knoxville (Tenn.) Times.]

If the Government wants to make an appropriation to encourage
both the aesthetic and the useful, it could not easily do a better thing
than to establish this Appalachian National Park.

[New Orleans (La.) Picayune.]

The Appalachian region is accessible to a greater number of the
citizens of the United States than any other section where there is any
likelihood of a national park reserve being established.

{Parkersburg (W. Va.) Sentinel.]

‘That such a forest reserve should be established in the hardwood
regions of the East is the opinion of men of science, experts in forestry,
intelligent lumbermen and men connected with the business interests
of the country.

{Lynchburg (Va.) Advance.]

The merits of this scheme should commend it to the judgment of
Congress and insure the speedy passage of the bill.

{Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser. ]

The Appalachian Park will offer many substantial advantages which
the Yellowstone lacks, and we hope the matter will not be allowed to
rest until all steps are taken and all the laws passed necessary to carry
the project to a successful termination.

{Hartford (Conn.) Courant.]

No part of the United States offers more attractions to the sight-seer.
It is ideally fitted fora park and the Government will miss a great
opportunity if it fails to avail itself of the present conditions and to
secure the lands which can stil] be had for reasonable prices.

[Toledo (Ohio) Journal.]

This part of the Blue Ridge is recognized as the most salubrious,
combining a dry and equal climate, attracting thousands of people
from the North during the winter months, and drawing large numbers
from the South during the warm season. It enjoys the best properties
of a winter park and a summer resort. The climate is healthy, equa-
ble, balmy, yet exhilarating.

184 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.
{Indianapolis (Ind.) News.]

The preservation of forests is a subject to which too little attention
has been paid in the past and to which should be given much thought.
Already the country is experiencing the bad effects of indifference.

[Tallahassee (Fla.) Tallahassian.]

The wildest and most naturally beautiful part of this country east
of the Rocky Mountains is that region where North Carolina, Tennes-
see, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia approach each other.

[Chicago Times-Herald, December 24, 1899.]

The Blue Ridge has a climate that is delightful at any season of the
year, and as it is only twenty-four hours travel from Chicago, New York,
or New Orleans, the mass of the population in the east, even those in
moderate circumstances, could readily avail themselves of the advan-
tages it offers as a health and pleasure resort.

{Cincinnati Volks Freund, February 1, 1900.]
We wish the undertaking complete success.
{Newport (R. I.) News.]

The central location of the proposed park is undoubtedly a strong
point in its favor. It is within easy reach of most of the great cities
of the middle Western States and the Eastern and Southern States.
Apart from these natural reasons, the Eastern States are entitled to a

-national park.

[St. Louis (Mo.) Globe-Democrat.]

There is every reason why the movement for the establishment of
the Appalachian Park in North Carolina should succeed.

(The Hartford Courant.]

The wildest and most naturally beautiful part of this country east
of the Rocky Mountains is that region where North Carolina, Tennes-
see, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia approach each other. It
is a mountain country with an average elevation of 4,000 feet and
peaks running up to thousands of feet higher. The tallest mountain
east of the Rockies is in North Carolina.

This wild region abounds in timber, and is still a natural and
unbroken wilderness except as the lumbermen invade its quiet. They
have come. Already trafic in forest land is on and the railroads of
the vicinity are loaded with lumber for the market. Let the American
people sit by with their accustomed optimistic apathy and before long
the forests will be gone, the water courses left to dry up, the bears,
deer, and other wild animals killed off, and nothing but a fading
memory remain of what now is a great natural park.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 185

The General Government ought to step in, before it is too late, and
take possession of the whole region. The Yellowstone Park, far away
and to all but a few inaccessible, should be supplemented by this nat-
ural reservation, which is easily reached by the great majority of the
people of the United States. Take your map and you will find that
from Boston on the east around by Buffalo, Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago, and St. Louis to New Orleans, Jacksonville, and so on up to
Washington every city on the imaginary circuit has railroad facilities
bringing it within not more at most than one night’s ride of Asheville,
the central point in the Blue Ridge and Great Smoky country. Estab-
lish a park there and people from every large city this side of the
Mississippi would be visiting it in large numbers at all seasons of the
year.

As an opportunity for conferring on the citizens of the country a
means of great enjoyment, this chance for Congressional action is
unique. But that really would be only an incident of the work. In
this elevated land are multitudes of clear, sweet streams delivering
water to the Atlantic coast and to the Mississippi River. The divide
is in the possible park. If the timber is all stripped from these hills,
the streams will dry up and the ultimate loss will be serious and wide-
spread. Leading citizens of North Carolina and other States adjoining
have recently held a meeting and formed themselves into the Appala-
chian National Park Association to push the project. It ought to go
without much pushing. All that is needed is to set people thinking
about it.

Look at what the Government might do, and at what, on the con-
trary, will be done if the National Government. does not come in and
protect nature there. Once done the mischief could never be undone.
The loss would not be local, but national. Everybody who fails to see
the North Carolina mountains suffers a direct loss, whether he knows
it or not, Open the region to the whole country and let these sights
be assured and available at all times, and the park would be one of
the most popular resorts in the United States.

Congress ought to jump at the chance to get possession of the great
tract, at least 500,000 acres, said to be purchaseable now at hardly
more than nominal figures. The cost of a single battle ship would
give us this park available for future generations as well as for our-
selves. It is to be hoped the committee will set the work going early
and carry it to the success that the American people will wish for it
and for themselves. ;

[The Scientific American.]

Within about a day’s travel of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
Washington, and most of the Atlantic seaboard, and quite as accessible
to Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Louisville, Indianapolis, and St. Louis there
are vast stretches of virgin forests—along the line of the Great Smoky

186 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

Mountains, on the border between Tennessee and North Carolina—
that are thoroughly suited to the purposes of a great game and forest
preserve. Going up from the lowlands of Walhalla, S. C., to the high
plateau surrounding Highlands, N. C., a stage trip of about 30 miles,
the late Professor Gray, the eminent botanist of Harvard, tells us that
he encountered a greater number of species of indigenous trees than
could be observed in a trip from Turkey to England through Europe,
or from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountain plateau. ‘The
region surrounding that described by Professor Gray, especially to
the west, with the headwaters of the Tennessee, the French Broad,
and the Savannah rivers, all within a few miles of each other, with
fertile valleys and mountain elevations of 5,000 feet or more, and a
density of verdure unapproached elsewhere, is an ideal spot for a pre-
serve, where every sort of North American animal or fish would
thrive, and where almost every tree or plant found within our borders,
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, would grow uncared for.

[The New York Sun.]

A national forest reserve in the Appalachian belt can be established
only by the purchase of land, for there is no public domain in that
region. The bill now before Congress directs the Secretary of Agri-
culture to purchase not more than 2,000,000 acres of forest in the
Southern Appalachians and appropriates $5,000,000 for that purpose.
The lands must be situated within the States of Virginia, North and
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. The purpose of
establishing the proposed reserve is to introduce scientific forestry
methods, conserve the forests, and at the same time permit lumbering
in this large area of hard woods.

No one now doubts that it was wise policy to set apart the forest
reserves which have been established since 1896 in eleven of our West-
ern States and Territories. The idea was at first strongly opposed on
the ground that the withdrawal of so much public land from purchase
would retard the development of the States concerned and delay the
discovery of new sources of mineral wealth. These misgivings, how-
ever, were not justified by our policy with regard to the reserves.
The Geological Survey has been engaged since the summer of 1897
in studying the timber, mineral, and agricultural resources of these
regions. All of them may be developed as fast as capital and labor
seek employment there. In some of the reserves, as in the Black
Hills, for example, large industries have long been established. But
these large areas can no longer be stripped of all their timber without
a thought of tree replanting. The propagation of timber must here-
after go hand in hand with its utilization; and destruction by forest
fires that have swept large areas will at least be diminished by proper
regulations.

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 187

But in our forest reserves the hard woods that have so prominent a
place in our lumber industry and agricultural implement, furniture, and
cabinet manufactures are scarcely represented. The cedar, tamarack,
vanon live oak, and tan-bark oak are the only hard woods of commer-
cial importance found on the reserves. Our walnut, maple, ash,
locust, hickory, cherry, and beech timber are as yet derived almost
wholly from the Central States, mainly east of the Mississippi. Tim-
ber planting has not kept pace with timber cutting, and the supply is
diminishing. Furniture makers already complain of the scarcity of
black walnut.

The only other source of these hard woods is the Appalachian belt
from the southern part of New York to Alabama. They grow in larg-
est numbers on the slopes of the southern half of these mountain
ranges. On the neighboring lowlands spread away the forests of long-
leaf, short-leaf, and loblolly pines, which make-the great lumber
industry of our South Atlantic States. The hard woods above them
have as yet scarcely been touched, but with the diminishing supply of
hard woods on the central plain from the Mississippi eastward, lum-
bermen are beginning to look to the mountains.

The question is whether this large source of supply shall also be
depleted or whether, by the methods of scientific forestry, the timber
shall be renewed, so that later generations, as well as ourselves, may
have the benefit of it. These forests can be protected only by Govern-
ment regulation, and if the States do not take steps to conserve these
large sources of wealth the question whether the National Government
should not acquire the right to do so at a time when it is asserted it may
be cheaply acquired is certainly worthy of serious consideration.

[The New York Times. ]

One of the most interesting matters now before Congress, and one
which should attract general attention, is the proposition for the estab-
lishment of the Appalachian forest reserve, for which a bill was intro-
duced in Congress a few daysago. This proposed measure directs the
Secretary of Agriculture to purchase not to exceed 2,000,000 acres.

[The Wilmington (Del.) Star.]

The efforts of the Appalachian National Park Association are suc-
ceeding far beyond the anticipation of the most urgent supporters of
this great movement. * * * Prominent and influential men in
every part of the country have given their aid, numerous newspapers
have advocated the project, and as yet no adverse or unfavorable crit-
icism has been heard or written, and it seems practically certain that
with a united movement the park can be secured. * * *

188 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.
[Washington Post, January 3, 1900.]

The location in western North Carolina of a great national park
would be a cause of more pleasure and benefit to more people than any
other public institution we can think of at this moment.

[Brooklyn Eagle, January 14, 1900.]

It ought to go without much pushing. All that is needed is to set
the people thinking about it.

{Prof. N. S. Shaler, in The North American Review, December, 1901.]

It may be charged that the legislation which established these reser-
vations is, in its tendencies, socialistic, but the most inveterate enemy
of that political theory, if he he open to reason, will not be disposed
to contend against such action. He will have to acknowledge that
these gifts to the community are very helpful to its best interests, and
that they could not have been secured by private or corporate endeavor
or even by the action of individual States. They can be obtained by
national action alone. By pele

Although a national reservation in the southern upland will, per-
haps, most commend itself to the people from their interests in the
noble forests which it will permanently preserve, there are economic
considerations that would of themselves warrant the undertaking.
The effect of such a forested area on the streams which have their
headwaters in this mountain district would be considerable and most
advantageous. Properly located, this park would include the tribu-
taries of rivers which flow to the Ohio, as well as streams that course
to the Atlantic. It is evident that, in the future, these water courses,
like all others in settled countries, are to be extensively utilized as
sources of electric power. Owing to the form of the country, it will
not be possible, as it is in New England, to hold back the stream water
in reservoirs for use in the dry season of the year; the only econom-
ical method will be to have the water stored in the spongy mat which
naturally forms in an unbroken forest, and which toa great extent pre-
vents the water courses from becoming beds of torrents in rainy sea-
sons and in other times dry channels. In proportion to its area and
rainfall, in relation to the whole of the drainage of the rivers flowing
from it, such a forest reservation would serve to diminish the floods
which, year by year, become more destructive to the tilled grounds and
towns along the lower reaches of our great waterways, and more inju-
rious to their value for navigation. This evil, already great, is con-
stantly becoming a more serious menace, as the steep sides of the
mountains are further stripped of their woods. * * *

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 189

It is, or should be, an accepted principle that the Government is to
provide for public needs when private enterprise, for any reason, can
not be induced to make adequate provisions. * * *

Such truly imperial gifts have greatly enriched a part of this country;
it will be well, before the remnants of primeval nature have vanished,
that the other parts of our realm should have like share in them.

é
[Prof. W J McGee in the Worlds Work, November, 1901. ]

The geographer in studying the Appalachian region perceives that
in the wooded wilderness nature provides a vast reservoir system for
the storage of storm waters—a system at once so perfect and so eco-
nomical that all the year’s rainfall (and light snow fall as well) is first
appropriated to the uses of plant life, ‘Ten conserved for a time in the
subsoil against drought, and finally carried by subterranean seepage
to the lower levels, where only the excess above local plant needs and
animal demands is allowed to flow through epminee and stream and river
down the long way to the distant ocean. * *

Now he may turn another leaf to the closing lines of his lesson and
read of that delicate interrelation of natural conditions which has
resulted throughout the Appalachian region in the development of a
floral mantle to stay the storms, and thus at once to sustain the flora
itself and to estop destructive erosion. These final lines run deep into
earth science and into plant science and need not be followed save by
the specialist. Yet the ultimate axiom is simple, so simple that he
who runs might read, so simple as to make it a marvel that observant
men did not grasp it at the beginning of knowledge rather than wait
until the end—it is the simple axiom that life prevails over, death,
that plant power is stronger than rock power. Nor can the geographer
in the Appalachian region fail to apply the axiom. He may call the
application theory, argument, policy, cause; he may whisper it in
private council, may announce it in scientific conclave, may proclaim
it in legislative halls, may send it ringing through the world and up
the corridors of future time to benefit all mankind; he may smother
it cravenly in coward breast, or he may sacrifice it to paltry greed,
yet if he is honest with his facts and with himself he can not fail to
realize that the forests must be preserved, else the mountains will be
destroyed.

Only a generation ago science plodded wearily along one side of the
pathway of human progress, while statecraft flitted airily along the
other side of the straight and narrow path, both led in part by hered-
itary theories. But within the work time of men now living science
and statecraft have drawn well into the main pathway of practical
humanity, and in this country at least, they have joined hands firmly;
to-day science stands in the Federal Cabinet in all the dignity of an

190 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

executive department, while the leading statesmen are grasping that
modern -geography which seeks to assimilate science. So it is but
natural that the mountaineers of the Appalachian region, a virile and
farseeing race, and various representatives of public interests have
come to read alike the public lesson of conservation, the conservation
of forests, in order that the very mountains may be conserved.
Naturally, too, the applications of the lesson first came home to the
hearts of the mountaineers amid their beloved ranges and rivers.
They first noted the gullying of hillsides, with the accompanying
loss of soil and clogging of valleys and polluting of streams, when
clearings were pushed too far up the valley sides. They first observed
that the carelessly set forest fire produced, although more slowly,
effects as disastrous as those of injudicious clearing. They first noticed
that reckless lumbering robbed the land not merely of trees but of
soil, of welling springs, and of the trout-filled brook, which were
converted into muddy, freshet-ridden streams,running dry in mid-
summer. They first realized that the stripping of the chestnut oaks
for tan bark was but the first step in a cumulative desolation. They
were the first to realize the gradual change of brook and river from
crystal streams flowing steadily all the season round to dirty danger
lines mapped out by disastrous wrecks with every storm, only to lose
themselves in mud between storms. Naturally, then, the agitation of
a policy began among the mountaineers, and their voices were heard
first in local conventions, then in the legislative halls of several States,
and finally before Federal Congress and Cabinet. Such, in brief, is
the history of the movement toward an Appalachian forest reserve, a
movement which may lag or lunge according to the firmness of the
alliance between science and statecraft, but which is manifestly des-
tined for ultimate success, to the immeasurable benefit of mankind.

RESOLUTION OF THE LEGISLATURE OF VIRGINIA.

Resolved by the senate of Virginia, the house of delegates concurring,
That the general assembly of Virginia, hereby expresses its approval
of the movement looking to the establishment by the Federal Govern-
ment of an extensive national forest in the Southern Appalachian Moun-
tain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as many other nations
have already adopted, and which this country has already adopted
in the West and should adopt in the East before it is too late, looking
to the conservation of its forests and the protection of the sources
of important streams; and

Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been
approved and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry
associations of this country and by both the general and technical
press; and

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 191

Whereas the general assembly of Virginia has already passed an
act granting the State’s consent to the acquisition of lands in Virginia
by the Federal Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve,
believing the reserve to be one of great importance to the people of
this State; and

Whereas a bill is now before the Federai Congress providing for the
purchase of lands for this purpose:

Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from
this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance
of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure; and that
copies of this resolution be sent to the Senators and Representatives
from Virginia.

Passed unanimously by the legislature of Virginia, March 21, 1902.

192

SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION.

PARTIAL LIST OF PAPERS THAT HAVE MADE FAVORABLE COMMENT
ON PROPOSED APPALACHIAN FOREST RESERVE.

Boston Herald.

Boston Transcript.

Hartford Courant.

New York Times.

New York Sun.

New York Herald.

New York Lumber Trade Journal.
New York Mail and Express.

Great Round World, New York City.
New York Tribune.

New York Evening Post.
Engineering Journal, New York City.
Ithaca Journal.

Albany Times.

Albany Argus.

Buffalo Commercial.

Turf, Field, and Farm, New York City.

* Jamestown (N. Y.) Journal.
Brooklyn Eagle.

Brooklyn Citizen.

Times Union, Albany, N. Y.
Outing, New York.
Recreation, New York.
Brooklyn (N. Y.) Standard-Union.
Washington Star.
Washington Post.
Washington Times.

Forest and Stream.
American Gardening.
Southern Field.

Detroit Free Press.
Baltimore Sun.

Baltimore Herald.
Baltimore American.
Philadelphla Call.
Harrisburg Telegraph.
Philadelphia American.
Philadelphia Inquirer.
Pittsburg. Dispatch.
Pittsburg Post.

Pittsburg Press.

American Field.

The Forester.

Country Gentleman.

Field and Stream.

| Chattanooga Times.

Memphis Herald.

Savannah (Ga.) Press.
Parkersburg (W. Va.) Sentinel.
Roanoke ( Va.) World.

| New Orleans Picayune.
| Louisville Dispatch.

Louisville Courier-Journal.
Citizen, Berea, Ky.
Birmingham (Ala.) Age-Herald.
Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser.
Newport (R. I.) News.
Providence (R. I.) Journal.
Indianapolis News.
Indianapolis Sentinel.
Logansport (Ind.) Reporter.
Terre Haute Gazette.

St. Louis Globe-Democrat.

| The Taxpayer (St. Louis, Mo.).

Lynchburg ( Va.) Advance.

Inland Printer.

Engineering News (New York).
Nashville American.

Asheyille Gazette.

Atlanta Constitution.

Atlanta Journal.

Richmond Dispatch.

Knoxville Sentinel.

Knoxville Times.

The Observer (Charlotte, N. C.).
Raleigh (N. C.) Observer.

News and Courier (Charleston, S. C.).
Journal (Daytona, Fla.).
Tallahassee (Fla. ) Tallahassian.
Standard (Bridgeport, Conn.).
Cincinnati Enquirer.

Cleveland Leader.

Toledo Journal.

Chicago Times-Herald.

Springfield (Ill.) Journal.

Joliet (IlL.) News.

Chronicle (Chicago, Ill. ).
Tradesman (Chattanooga, Tenn.).
American Israelite (Cincinnati, Ohio).
Forest Leaves (Philadelphia), Pa..

IE INP 1D) Jah =e,

A.
Page.
Acts of State Legislatures concerning proposed forest reserve .....----------- 172
Agricultural Department. (See Department. )
settlements not disturbed by proposed reserve-.-.-.------------ 38
Agriculture in Southern Appalachians in general ....-.-..--------- 14, 23, 24, 25, 26
how affected by forests, water flow, etc...:.-......-...-.------ 39, 134
in detail, by river basins... 70, 71, 73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90
Short-livedse emacer cnn see a cos ee ees sates Gea eaceeinee -emieeeloe 26
AMMEnNH NTE, SVS, CIS HAO MHOM, QViOs sccosssoccsscosossdsoscosccocoeuesaconueeas 103
Allegheny: Mountains te seenssee ree ieccce see cece eee eee clase eraeenieceeere 16
Alltitud evofspeaksrand|imountainsmeeeeeeeeeee eee e eee eee eee 19, 20, 29, 114, 115
effector onyclimaterss nee aseeac ios sake eee eee as eee 23, 118, 128
MOT RES SSS er et i EES CRI ata ie mee 22,118
Appalachian Mountains, region and valley ........-.-..-.---=-------------- 16
AtppendixsAc hel southerneappalachianseeesereseseeseree asso e eee eeeeas 41-110
Forests and forest conditions of .....-.------------------- 45
Horestsiolsbyerivern basinss=s=eeeeeeeeeesece ceases eeees 69
Tiumberin erin! See ueeee nsec saea scene Su lesesacega ee aces 61
Shipulbs istic fee eee aerate eho ee ate 107
ANISH CON a es ars a mI ey EN dese ae 93
iB oposraphyean dkG.eol Osyaene ses e eee eee sera ee eee eee 111-123
Ca Ely drosraphyMeecme-sseeecese meee ee eae e eee ceeee ccs 123-143
HD) lim ate sees ee re eee eae een ieee claw ws 143-155
E—Present Status of movement for forest reserve...-...-------- 155-192
Appropriation by Congress for investigation. .....-.-.------..------------- 13, 157
AN KOP WED, HVS, Chigtinl ObIMOIN, GUOs6 osc sncosecosscesoc sco sobuesecsbesas 95
SA CEC ATO O CK Sra Nee ere ys ate are cea eye ats pte ae ere RE CRS Lo 120
Aireaoinc] eare did aim cles sen ae ate ee ere eet esd rue re eer pa Nee Le ND 45, 69
TOTES tac Member ete per ienaee tin Seen esses ee ae eS ata 45, 69
PRO posedbresenviem tere asta sae eee eee eee ae eae eee see ace eine 38, 118
megionmexanmin Clie ase letne see aoeete ee als rane wae alee ees winclionicis 45
AG, EAE. Chel malo wus, | Ge Gosonaoqos sobbons donaaSH boon UG SbS Soe See ee neeenbe 101
SPeclesio hese esse eee meres seme ene ae eem ea te ee eed a eye 103, 106
Ashe, W. W.:
Horesiandaklorest) Conditions === eer ee eeeee seer ree eee eee ee eee ee neeeee 45
Rorestsibyabivers basins ss ssecctaesmacs sate eeie see erate eae ence an 69
SHobailoeh Mi Ot sao cet sacs] LoaoEs ae otoo SS SceTESceeSose cose n Bese Eee orae 107
Mrees descrip biveplistiolee: semee seas etise ees ee an ee eee ete eee cisls 93
Az aleaisizemcistrlpu tion we tCsereee eerste vse aie ae ete eae eto seieiele crane 118
B.
BalduMountainsssss5..0 Ss aepst was nee eee sae sei eeeeciisiocte Sassen ee 18, 114
BalmyoinGulead sizes cistrilo uti ome cic meer aera ae ae 9

*S. Doc. 84-13 193

194 INDEX.

Page
iBallsamsiZe' ci Suri Ubl Oe UC ree 94
onvRoanvandtothersamountalnsseee eee eeeeee eee eee erases ahaa eee =)
Myo matte Siz pyre poet seers vere se age 51, 115, 121
topography, agriculture, forests, ete..--------- BAe Se eR eas 52
NEU ttc eae eeu net eau See Tey reef teed Sn re ate aioe hae hoa AT
IBASSWOOCMSIZe NCS CEI UCL O Tim © LC sesame 105
Beech(sizeecdistrilb ution ye bess sets a ha eee eer eel 97
Moun tala s 6 8e Saty eera— E eo OS eTaapeyee ee 49,115
LOpoeralplnyzstones tote DUET Sees ee ee 49
Bell-tree. (See Peawood. )
Beveridge, Senator A. J., report of committee by.----....:-.--------.------- 168
Tehies JEMeXetora IRINVSIC, CSO NOM ON ee < sso e6oe soocossnecaooe onecdessccascs 58, 114, 116
Basin, topography, agriculture, ete....:---.-.------------ 78
FGTESES! OTe sey peso donner esas ag Ape Nee pets fae a 79
TawiRelM, VAS, Chis OURO, GCs o5oGe scons eae ooeoodaoadocaueescooascoseuscecs 96, 97
Bitternut. (See Hickory. )
Black Jack. (See Oak.)
Blacks Mio miata scl ES Ciao, b1 ores ee eee 19, 49, 50, 115
WOKEN OY, NORSNS, [OWENS ~ cons esonccassecesnoscoseneous 50
iBlackaWalmuteisize di strillo whl Orme LC mrs sae arene 95
BilweMloumbains Gl esenii ol ory e ee sear 55
IRI Peet Sori GIO mea eyecare a ta eee caret ee a ne oa 16, 18
elevationkamcdiitop oom aio lity ase a eee eee 114
HOMRIAUS! GUOGL (KOO OARWON MY Ol casosacsdssocdeseacseocosuacskeooces 46
watersheds. Sa fase shee Ee yes era ste etae 4 arto eee ee eteeret 126
Is{oMUACEVAKES Ort joIROVOOSEICl WSAIAVE§. <6 oc acc oosaac seus petasesanasasasosccesucece 38
SUSSestiOns;CONCERNIN oe eee see ee eee eee 163
Box< Jikolee, Gize, chistiloniitiom, WO! boocdooscstos vesbcccsocesecoose sessocuecs 104
iBroadeRiverslocalonangidescriptlOnes=seee sree ee eee eee see eee eee eee 114, 116
TaOOO WS HNaHT ODS Pa ere oe Dee Bese oe maaeu ase Co anaes caEadbouEes 130
SAIN CIS TAT ONSE OM aes seers re feels cy pope) ee ear apy al ne ent aren ee at 156
Water POW Ela sem ner ce oe sone els scene ctisee Sees seme Meee 141
Basin. (See Saluda River Basin.)
IBUCKEY.CeSIZE CUS biel UG OTe LC yes ee tere aera eer tr 104
Belinea, Sie, Chis MINI, CWOoccsccasaccosooosuccoscoscsadbensusacouser 104
Burns. (See Sires. ) 5
LEMONARAOOE, HVA, ChistuchloNIMOIN, Gis scoccascacosasouce sosucacesseesocesteuseae 95
C.
Cambriangatceymocksiotethe=eeseerer arse eer eeeeee nee ee eens 119
Caney River: forests! ofthese oss san e sonee ae esis see oe oe ene eee 51
Carolina Hemlock. (See Hemlock. )
Shagbark. (See Hickory.)
Cascades. (See Waterfalls. )
CataloocheemTountain ss cimibenio lees sess ner ee see eae eee eee 53, 54
Chinillan, sivas, Ghisimlopinkons CWO. soccnesooscossopeccoseabacodcudosdeoseeoees 106
@atanwibanRivien irae say e reece ene a teenie tet ars Sete apN NAIL aL Katee en a a 116
floodsiimy W901 a eee ce eros erase ee Rte See eee 126, 130, 135
CApine stations oni oe ses eee = eee eee See eee eae ee eee 136
DOW.SE VOM Ss ecsewia ee ees Dyspnea sree y ate ete oral tay stents eer 141
Basin « forests:oithe sen a-5- ee ste eee emer cect en eee eee Orr eee 89
topographiy, ete anc 2 ae ae ene eae cela ce See See 88
Cedar (Red) sizexais tino uti Ome LC eee sees eee a ee a 95

INDEX. 195

Page

(ClaminAll TmigiMnOR, NORESS! OF WOO... 5 eee saceseoccenscoossooedenscasebonsssea 51
TARAS, ExeraoMMineRa Ol NG. saaccansansasessoencaocosoccaooussecesse 51, 52
Chattahoochee River, flow, water power, ete..-..-..------------- 116, 135, 139, 141
Chattooga River flo wilo lace cane secre eee Seas aes Nae eee 116, 135
Cheoah Mountains --.------- eRe See Se eine es eat AUS Ree eae edie See 115
RAVEN) Ow OLA sas aes Me mee eee aie eee ie icte oe eae eer Sees 5 Iles)
WIEHICIP [OOM OW ss sssecsosesecsanes Se tadaaocaset aaGaseT seer 142
Olovrady, shas, Chinn oninoi, NO 355455 s0scunsecocsecosbosas suasSeboSsueS Ep Hose 102
SPECLES {0 free sere ene eee relay ees ae rey aae eelneda sere ous eu 102
Chestnut, on Blue Ridge and other mountains --..-.--.----------- 46, 48, 52, 54, 55
Size} distribution, etereen me emesen ares etee sere. sceies ace ee seoelse 97

Chestnut Oak. (See Oak.)
Chime weyoin, Se, ClisiMlwNOIN, GO. sscscasscoscecsscodadscceoscunadasuccas 97
Clearings, effect of, on floods, water powers, etc ---.------------- 26, 28, 30, 131, 133
elevation: jslopeyieter aaa seen ae eee teas Soe se eee ieeeieece 23,57
erosion and impoverishmentiols=22s-2252s4555--255--45------ 57, 58, 122
Manacement Oleoya COVeTOMeN t= == ese neesees eee ae eee ee 59
MLetMocdcoMmalkan aya clACrO) pln Ses ee ea ae 58
number, extent, percentage of .._-..--- 23, 25, 26, 31, 45, 47, 48, 57, 69, 131
meforeshallOM*nG le epee eect Ae ee eee ee ee ae cere Siege Se 58, 59
Shortelnyedeusetulln ssto lesese eee eee eee ere ee eee eee 24, 26,58
Olbhis, yaricny, locnilom, ClesoalpmOm Of ..2sscocdaccesce secs cssosessesSeace 120
(Chimmarte vo tarani cl clll eg] ariel es ese ps ee eaeeen e ee )e 147
Sovwuil iernial, Ajo MECN. «ssc cossoosececcosenceecocssoeses Bby MIG IAS
/enjo} oXevOXO Uae D) ek a Se yrs A ee ea ege 143
GQMAGE Ot HliMOOW OM = ccsasasansocasaunse 128
OCIA Oo cscacasasssccssssasssecs 161
meteorological tables --.....--.-..-- 151, 152, 153
malta fall everyone ep eterna 33, 128, 129, 149
UCN MEMOS 2 Gots cccsosscdescenedas Bb M4)
UN DSS Oto atses e455 ces Seu eRee eS as aes 147, 148
WAIN pe eee eet ae eee emer en een 148
@limaticeatures\ispeciall cease saaaae cnc ee ae aac as eee San ena aoe 34, 117, 147
@)imem angswl ome porter eee tele iavere alee aig a ees ete ee Ld 19, 114
(CHO VEGI VMS s eS Se AGED aig SESE oie TST ey oats po aes Rs a ee ga 117
(@oastalllhiol aim meeps ae a ey Ne as Cee AIRTEL owl Do Ue 113
Coie entree ee nee crs eee ests ee ete are ere ies Hee meeps a0 103
Commentstompressyoniproposediinesenvers ss-5- 525 1ase eee eee eee eee 180
Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, report of the. 168
@onasa cap River mmeasiire m1 emiiyo tise p sep eee eee ne ee enn IE as 137
Conclusionsionsecne tanyxoleA oni cul tue See ae arn eee ee 38, 39
Conglomerate group of rocks, description, distribution, ete......_..._.._-- 119, 158
Congress, message to, from President McKinley........................---- 166
Rresidentmhooseyelteriaseeee eee eer eee else 3
esbiSVesdio, jovlll thn SEMEN Ol 6 eno scaccoseoudcouscossecoseeeueaseee 158
appropriation by, for investigations ...-.....£.........--...--..- 13, 157
Coniterstons Gmeaita si Kayes Tabet Seen en ne 53

(See also Spruce, Pine, etc.)

Comes Or aS WTO, WOOF 5 = osscdscossnoasdebausuecosouseauesuesaess 7
Contributors to this report—President McKinley ._..............-.--------- 166
PRESSE IROOSONEG coSaccancascosoreon seooseee 3
SECT Ot AEMOUINRS --.2.2scasccossuecHooese 13
Necretanyzouela tenon ee eee eee eee 110

196 INDEX.

Page.
Contributors to this report—Gifford Pinchot ...........-.-.---.------------ 43
CharlessD? Wolcott? 2-as-- teense osceeeomeee ce 110
Od Wi Prices ace ante fai Sol ea ae eet es cae a 61
HE SBevAWTeSt cee eats = arta eee tee eek -... 40, 69,93
WiKi Wie Ashes aeste cen eesee eee 45, 69, 93, 107
Arthur enthie ass se cere saree ee eee ee ees 111
HAV Presse yen. see ass makes hee cere tere 123
Ie Wis Miy erste Serre ear a eee tee ata Ale 123
Alfred); Henrys 332) eect ssc eee eee 143
Was Hs MO OTe es a8 arte a eee ere ee 145
Control of Southern Appalachians by Government. (See Government manage-
ment. )
CoosasRiverycoursevand ilo warese nee eee ee tee Ree eee seer eee 19, 135, 137, 139
Water POW eEL ONS fac n ae No soca ee ee see eee eee cer eee eee 142
(CoocayatecPRive smi ea sumer eT GO lee eae a 137
(CoxnelMspeciesiamckclescnio ti ores eee see se 105
Costrotenro unitainstones ty amc ses ee see ay ea 36, 37
@owee Mountains forestsiots= ass eee aren eee ee eee eee eee 51, 52,115
CrabyAppleyspeciesyandidescrip tonsa nes == =e eee sees eee eee eee eee eee 101
Craggy Mountains (see also Black Mountains) ........--.-------------------- 49, 51
Crops. (See under Agriculture; also names of particular localities. )
Cucumberiireeysizey description cic sesasee ease sseeeaee eee ee ee Eee eeeee 100
(See also Yellow-flowered Cucumber; Largeleaf Umbrella-tree; Umbrella-tree;
Mountain Magnolia. )
Cullineyoritorestshmith ey pas tee eee nee ee eee ee eee eee eer 67
(See also under Forests. )

Cumberland#Plateautandi Valle vaeees eee ee eee ee eee ee eee eee eee eee eee 16, 18
Currents, river, swiftness and measurements of....-...------------------- 117, 135
D.

Damacesiromifires eens seer a Seat e se ee eee eee ee a= er Seer 24

HOGA Si ees vee eee Rites SRI DE ere raya Meee 32, 117, 130

lumiberingeeease crease cee eee on eee ee eee ace 24, 63, 64

Damascus s1orestsiandirallroadiateeseeseee eeee eee sees ee eee eee eee eee 48
DanvRiveriscagin oi stationesese sass eset eee eee e ease eee eee eee 136
Deforestation (seejalsojunder Clearings) pases ee ee ee eae eee 129
Department of Agriculture, Secretary’s reports........-.------------------ 13, 166
appropriation for investigation by-----.--------- 13

Imteniomisecketanyashl Cite lessen eee eens aoe eee eee 110

cooperation in investigation. ..._...-.-------------- 14

Descent of rivers (see also Currents; Waterfalls) .......---.------------------ 126
Description of the Southern Appalachian forests.......----.--------------- 21
by mountain groups. -.---- = 46

ibyeniveribasinss-seeseeesee= 69

Diameterslimitanicuttinstimbereseeeeeee eee ee ee eee eee eee eee 68
Director of Geological Survey, letter accompanying report ..---..----------- » 110
Diseasedttreessremovaloteee secrete eer e eee eee Cee reer researc 67
IDNsbayreer MOT OH TOO! o- So so ccos casas ascsedse nose sso osasogssssesossaos¢ 121
DoewRiver, sass a scicisiiae Seen eae ee eC eee eee Ce eee re eee 50
Doowoodssizexdistribution eteeeeeeeeseeeeeeeee eee enon eee eee eee eee 105
Drainage of Southern Appalachian region .......----------------------- 15, 17, 116
basins, waterflow from (see also River basins) ..-------------------- 137

systems of Coosa, Chattahoochee, and Savannah rivers. ------------ 139

Dukes: Creek Balls: jsccc cans sce st epics eae loner eee ee acne see 19, 139

INDEX. 197

KE.
Page.
East Tennessee Valley, farms and water power------ Baie eye yest SS 16, 17,18
Elevation of Southern Appalachian Mountains. -..-...------------- 19; 20, 1113; 125
eltectronyclimatesseria Herre ee nee terme ec Ceee ee ce eetoe eter fee 23, 128
NOIREAESOCOWWN So cosasusouaccoas eee de ooonbessosooouasEed 22,118
TBI Chess, pamiing: SeniOMs: 5 .cscecoscassoseses252 cesses sosseesososocsssc090 136
Nig micniigeess seen doks se aoseseossoccbas sooseaassaocEeenancene aera 48
INN? INC, WALIOR JOOP O0 oo scoca saacsase sassesesoebonesossossousesscss 142
Ikon, WAS, ChisinaloonnOyn, HAO, CWO soc5on5oos sesso saSsoooSHseascosessEseceda 99
Erosion of mountain lands, burned or cleared ....---------------------- 27, 59, 122
WORASH COWEN! 6 so oconcoooaosscosHssescnsosecous 32
EUR) COWCHEG! ac ocososesonasesuesdsoosesS See eser 27
WEMllay Tem) «coc adsccassecSuccoeo bose so seSsuusecosccasssossa0ss 27, 38
OIC OTS eR a Ome COE OOOO COC n OSH Ont Dene EO GoS Bo otaporeronee 26, 129
extentoianid etal eee see eee eee ee eeeee ne aeee PSE Baae Bae Doncodasedad 69
prevention of, by Government control .._.....-..-.---------------- 28,59
BtOw Aleve Cas une De inO lee ee seen Hee Eee eee eee meee eee 137
Evaporation from soil increased by denudation...-.--.--------------------- 122
IDAs WO WIM 535 sahsecossceseasesoos cess onsaouEssosossnesbosscassoss¢ 48
JOSMIGIMN Gir ORO NOS WEOAVO casccesscocsccoosesssoesean socesdacssascoscas 38, 113
F.
Falls. (See Waterfalls. )
Farmers, clearing and cultivation by-------+------------------------ 24, 26, 58, 133
Parms; existing; not to be disturbed. ----------- ---------=------------------ 338
(See also Clearings. )
Faulty trees, removal GU eS EO SU Ae a es RCH Ni sic gy Cea ae 67
Federal Government, necessity for action by ....--------------------------- 3
Felling trees, careless methods in....-.--..--------------- 24, 57, 64, 65, 66, 131, 182
Interaullbluny Ox Sonll (Gas alls winlere Sow!) ob os55 sede cos coo ssosadsoessacacceGac 122) 133
ibineswaneasnecemblysimyUme dub yee recreate eee eee Sh i WAGE EAs TSE 56
@UUEES Ol Se sosdocssceassaubeqosonkesacadadsoepadouesencogedecenncans 65
CLETATAGOS TRON, s ooceeseco ose oe cca S oe sboscescccaseasoeseosessns 24, 55, 65
Hin BUR IOs goasdeddacs suosaceooodeo sen uasdosonedeeeessS 56
IRoo ay MIC WIMIANIS .- soodcsooososeeepeoceesectosscases 57
danger from, increased by lumbering.---... -..--.--------------------- 57
effects of, on forests, reproduction, humus. ---..---------------- 24,55, 56, 13°
soilsHoodsswatenstorac ess aee rena see eee aes ae — 25, 56, 132, 133
RWUAENES AIM! POISE. 5. co gncnsanecceqooeces cussenossS , 65, 66
prevention of, under Government forestry ..-.--.------------------ 56, 59, 65
First Broad River Basin. (See Saluda River Basin.)
Flathead National Forest Reserve, purchase of Indian lands...-.---.-------- 36
Iles Woy MOWAT - ces sonceosee sess soscocconssasascosansussssss 750995 55
Floods, caused by excessive rainfall, clearings, ete ---..---.--------- 28, 122, 129, 133
Gamage espiromye ins OTN oy OO 0) eee eee eee eee 13)
ie Ta Ne oaeqede ssoedd oon GoD SECA See B Ep eos Ee pdoSoseaaoe 32
Gracie G1 Newel OK? eocecco coco scagacooSonaecsqosoessssssesEcssu5 27
TAGS ASTINS THEO TTSIONN/ Olin oa osco sob enc no coop assdooncesccuaeraqscsse= 131
Flow of streams. (See Stream-flow. )
Horage plants destroyed by fires) 22-52 -- ------- 2. -2-- ee ee 25, 133
IHORES ipa e aS) 00110 © Ce ae eee ate 21, 45, 46
EXPOTIEO Lee oe eae Re oe EE ate cen ns Beeice ee Sees 26, 31, 45
F Joh TAN@P PGMS. coos coseesonSsesscosesseder sesseese 69

clearing, method and effects of ------- 23, 24, 28, 31, 45, 47, 57, 69, 122, 131, 133

198 INDEX.

Page.
Horestrconditions sen eralles=es esses eee ne See eee eee eee se See eee eae 23
byAMountamnleroups masses see aa see eee eee 14, 23, 46
cChangeshinisssasces aaa ee eee eee eee eee eee 55
cover; necessity for’... 255252 paces se soci a eee nee eee se eeteeee 31, 118

fires. (See Fires. )
lands; costiobs.- Sasi ae eee is essere so Se a NE eee ee teseeer eect 36
management dit cul hy Ole eseee ees seE eee eEeee eee eee eee 66
by Governments {2¢ sous Ss aces se neste ee ce eee 62, 65
MOMS) Seis ies See ee eee eee eee teen ees ae ee ener aise ata seers 21
alicyamecessityatorxch ane espns epee ae eee 25, 28, 66
protection wamationaliproblemyses==eee eee eee ae eee eee eee eee ane 34, 35, 65
trees, Speciesofi2 ya es oh ee aS ase ae nee aoe iers Stee e sets 93
Rorests,.complexityi1-0 Saar sas ssmsnies Saeco ate Se Soe ee ee eee eer 66
Comiposition sa. 24 y genes sae as Heese ace) Soe e saa ena eens 69
Culling ou oece Se eS ae eis ae SE se ees raw as se eeesee ale eee eee ere 67
descriptions bysmountainicroups==eeeeeeeeeeee ee ee eee eee eee eee 46
PVELrADASINS san Sees aeea doe ne eee eee eee eee 69
destruction byalumibermen\esseese saeco eee ee eee eee 24, 63, 64, 131, 132
fortanbark sabes sae oe cosines Ce ae See eee eee 132
distribution ofseisaiseet oan ota eee See ee eee meee eee eee ee eae 69
effect’ onierasion': hy 52 hs SaaS Sea Oe aes rae ee ree 32
HOOUS) se seh See eas ee ae ee en Scere elem seers 30, 150
WAtET-DOW Ele: seis sem rio See eae ser eiaae aise eee emma 142
WIL Sep canal vn te OL ea bea a eis Senet etme 3 eter: een Mamet 118
renerallicharacterolt ss ss Saas ase so eee ee ease ae See a eraser 46
of particular localities (see under name of Mountain or River basins) . 46,69
reproductionofs eases eease see see aoe See eee ace e eee re 69
Species!contained din thes=ssaee-eee = aeeee oe teo se e- eee eee eee ee 69, 93
variations im thes: 3-425e ca Se ne clee cee ees ee eee ee a cerieeemee 22
Forest reserve, acts of State legislatures concerning ---..-------------------- 172
benefitstanticipatedsiromiass sees ee ee eee eee ee eee ee eee 37
boundariestofiproposederessesese ee eee ee eee eases ee aeee eee 38
extentiol; proposed easaeee see eee eee ae teaser eee sneer 38
extractsromypressi concerning =e een senate ease 180
Government purchase of land fora .........---------------- 37
MANACe MEN DOMpPLO POSE Cee e eee se eee ee see eee 67
memorials and resolutions concerning ---------------------- 15, 158
MOVeMment Ors present status! Olee Eee ees eee ee ee 157
Prohitranticipatedstromles=ss22 ee eeee eee eee eee eee eee 37, 62, 162
reserves valuerasiexam plese sess see ee eee ee eee ee eee Eee eee eee 62
Westerns. 3520 2 ee ea ae sa eee sie eee eterna eeeyar 13, 36
HOKestnyssCONGItLONSH ayOLalD) EM OT eee eee teats eee 63
Mrench: Broad! River on so- sen ee ee eee ee 116, 126
Basin, topography and soil. ..---: Ssheece cos aene Soren ees 76
erosionvandéaericuliiureweeeeee eset ee nae eae ricewh
MORASS}, ChE MMMM, CWO -sogsccgosnsuccsouasaecce 77
Hoods! in lOO sees t ase Ss see cee ee iets eee ere 130
Hlowsandicagin rol eee ante oa eee eee eee 135, 136
water power Onis sass seers eee eee aes eee eee 142

Freshets. (See Floods.)

Hringeitree size. distribution, etes=seseaeees= ee eenee eee ee ese eee eee ee 106

INDEX. 199

Page.

Gaoinaistations assests see ee eer Beceem sia Se are EEN ye Bess 135

data obtainedtateazesteaa nese ates teeter oe eae emer memes 136

lnstandslocatlonyo heme = eee sere eee eee a eee ee 136

GeolopicaliSurvey, xeporton hy. drographiysess-ee esses sense a seee eee ane 125

topography and geology...._.......-.-...----- 115

cooperation of, in investigations -.---..--...-.--...----- 14, 157

methods) of imi sagime, streams sesees see ee sees e ee ese e 135

of Appalachian watershed, 1900.--__..-..../__.-....-:.. 135

OS ULIS Oi, Yylases owl bisa! — as soos os osesee esau ssone 135

Geologic formation of Southern Appalachians .................-.---..2.---- 119

eitectro ino ntsunlace se emer ee Sea eee ee eee 119

Geology of Southern Appalachians (Appendix B) -...........-..._.._--_---- 111

Georgia, act consenting to acquisition of land by National Government. ..---- 179

resolution of legislature favoring Reserve ..-.-...------------------ 178

Ghillesplet Gra pate e re seertee crea sree mesa alee ence ene RL ies Say AE RTH PT 57

Glacial deposits; effect of, m New Hngland_-----.---.-------_-....-....._.- 134

(Cais ROU D), Hie Enarel COMA SMO <<. accscaqdcancseouccosmeosococseueses 119, 120

(GOTOOS fae ae es ereea es ae eee ts ea vopaee eanye chara Emre EYE ce ime JEN CEES Lr ee eae ee OO" OG

Government management of forests, fire protection 56, 65

methods and objects ------- 28, 34, 36, 59, 65, 67

prohtsyino ns ses ees ee eee eee eae 37, 62

(Gradesvotiniversimetiectioiy a=eq-aaae toe oat re ko eee ee 116, 117, 126, 138

Grandfather Mountain, location, height, ete -.-.......-..-..---- 18,19, 46, 114, 126

toposraphiy-stonests; Duns WetCe ase sees eee eee eae 50

(Gira COR eS eer ee Se oie ee are ee es a ee STS Oea Sate SE ee ee ea eh NS 120

(Grazing wextemti olan yas te ete one So epee ae Lene ee Sc 70, 74, 77, 78, 79, 81

MONE Men oro DC! Tony LOWMAN — 5s saooacssoscanessoocecssancesse, Ay}, IGS}

Great Smoky Mountains, cutting, burning, and grazing the forests_....---.-- 54

ERCFETOTNOY tre ees ee eh Ones oe 18, 538, 114

Lopostaphyrandstonestsi= se eeeseeee eee eee ee ee 46,53, 121

Gm, Swear, swe, Chisum, QO .sseecccosoc scccsoodesnceseseaceeeosenne 101

Bok, size, Chiginilomnom, CiCss3secesosscodsoodosuoseseasseeseobassass 105

GuyoteVioumtai me eer acts eee tee einstein aeiemitencie aisles Sere te eine ae 19, 51

list

Hackbernyassizesspecies a Gisinl oUt] ON welC Eee eer eeEer epee een eee ener eee acer 99
Hairy Pignut. (See Hickory. )

leleylyOouls, mins On Gomnuneoyy 05. ssogoscseoss cesoseceussoss ssecesasee 20, 38, 39

DN AOU OF RAMON. « cocossocucossonssseococssasunacsaasus 61

GOMER OF Ag OHIO MEIN. « Gooascqcoasosde acosedovosbeucadas 45

OM. INGE Aiovel QUASPwTNOMIMEMIMNE S95 SSossescobooneasaussessnesee 49, 53

(See also Birch, Cherry, Oak, etc., under the individual names. )

Dea Way BI EK ees eM en tan Cag ap pS al oy Re ni aa 106

FVemlockaCanalinaps ram eeryaee tetas Se eyyse yee eee ae Esai aentee 94

Onulron Roan san drotiersm ountain see =e see eee 48, 49, 52,54

SLZOmOISETUD GL OM CLC ype stapes cy ts pear ae ee ayet nea arr ee EPC reat 94

wanting on Cowee and Nantahala mountains--....-....-....----- 52

Henry, Alfred J., report on climate of region (Appendix D) -.......-...._.- 143

Hickories of the Blue Ridge and other mountains. ......-...------------- 46, 48,52

Ish@komy, SAS, JOCES, ClishallNIIOM, GC .s5265s6sasccsassescasdsocsSeasesaus 95

Toh VESP wae Ake Oil WAS MIKES se coes boncas Seca neeoarenessocauecosaeesoe 137

Hitchcock, E. A., Secretary of Interior, letter to Secretary of Agriculture -... 110

200 INDEX.

Page.
ISON ISAO INNS S Ko Snsaces cacoonaonaoo cone qaqa se coos SnSOnoCECDODES SoSSs6 115
Basineatoporraphysandesolless== sees eee ee 82
apriculture;and RerOsi Ones == s= ee eee eee eeea eee eee 82
MORES, CNET OMIOM, QO ooccssceccesesoasesoseesecese 85
floodsiot WOOW 2 sc eeS Se eas eae Ses ease eee eee 13
flowsandimeasurementione sees eee eee re eee eee ee eee eee eee 137
WALLET OO WOT O fe Ay: Sess e te a epee See Re vO py Sh errayey eee 142
Molly ;, species of i252 Saco aera cee cee ere eae see ee ee Barrera 103, 104
Molstons MountainiRid oe hearers see eee eee ete eee ee ee 47
River, flow, measurement, and power......------------- 116, 135, 136, 142
Basin (southern tributary basins only) topography and soil - - 71
Erernkoullinnies) AiaGl QOSMIO cab csoosccuadssacscascaascese 71
WOVRISL, (COLaM NOMI, CUO. 25 5 soocccse oeeeanesoedeseoees 72
Hop Hormbeam\)sizendistnibution, etches peeeeee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee 97
Humidity of Southern Appalachians (Table 5) ......-.-.------------------- 153
ati various citieslsjusk occ. 6 s5oSecos ce oe oe eee eee eee 150
HMumus, damaged by fire seco sees see ee cece eet eee eee eeeee 24, 25
Hydrography of Southern Appalachians (Appendix C) ........----.-------- 125
I.
TMlustrations: sist toi ease este eek sees Se ae Ee Ray eecera eres 9
Interior Department. (See Secretary of Interior; Department of the Interior;
Geological Survey.)
Interiormountain rid gcesstorests|Oles= se eee eeeeee nese sasee ee eee eee eee 19, 46, 51
Investigation of Appalachians, appropriation for...........-..-.------------ 13
cooperation of Interior Department in_------- 14
extent and location of area. .....--.---------- 15
SCOperobiec: caaat ences aecee sian Ooee eee 14
Tron: Mountains i 72s oho nue ae ee ree Sor eeactiees seater eee ees 18, 47, 114
IRA OCOUL, HA, CMBIOUIIOM, CWO. 6 oscs2ocssoaosoocou sence coscuacosascanes 97
Irregularities of streams. (See Stream-flow. )
J.
James! Rivenand tri butariesst ood Silo 01te === see = eee ees ee eee ee 130
gagin s¢Stallon sto Mess eee = eee eee eae eee eee ee eee 136
WEEP JSOWEP Ol sos cesenao bosoussosooposceobsecusseesesessecss 141
Aolovn Iniere, BIAS ENMONUS ON =ssdassococccssosesss Sogossuusesseesesssoce 136
k.
KanawhayRivert (seeralsorVeuwPh vem) neta ee eeeene eee Hee e eee eee eee eae 126
floodsiofeLOOW a. se8 esate eacieciae oes as eee eeas 130
WEI? JOOWKE OM = a scasgsccdscoseqossasoecuscessdossccosess _ 141
Keith, Arthur, Report on Topography and Geology of Region....--.-------- 111
i:
Walkestilacktofe eres ejay fet is See eee elena etn state See ise ioe seer ee meee 129
ILE ROCCO Onarga ncaseuoddsssoosenadonascuassocasoeeoosuseoseccasseececsd 36
Byeytn SVG OS toe oes ye Na es ste ar a ROY OY EES 32
titblesissty= fee tear he ee ee See se cist meee een seicec samme treme 37
ILE’ Whrn RIED, RAO 5 scaeas Ssaaaaooeebsoqcousobosdoobeadeod sSbeaecase 100

Large-tooth Aspen. (See Aspen.)
Late Elm. (See Em.)
Legislatures, resolutions and acts of (see names of the several States) -..-.- 172, 190

INDEX. 201

Page.
etter Presidents Mickinleyatol Conpressesseee eee eeeeee eect ee sae eee aeons 166
President Roosevelt to Congress.........--.------------------------ 3
Secretary of Agriculture to President McKinley -..--....------.----. 166
Secretary of Agriculture to President Roosevelt............-.-----.-- 3
Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester, to Secretary of Agriculture -_......__- 43
Secretary of Interior to Secretary of Agriculture .......--...-..---.-- 110
Mr. Charles D. Walcott, Director of Geological Survey, to Secretary of
Tn. tent onset sey ee ene a nee eee eee ae eater tance eee 110
Mr. Willis L. Moore, Chief of Weather Bureau, to Secretary of Agri-
Culture se senescence atone te Sa ee eee oe Se cm cee neients 145
ILO, CIEWAMDWMON OF sososccosocsscccoossoocussucosscoasesonboecsosee 119
STOUp yw Shaleswsandstones Netcleesesse eee eee eee ace eee eee 119
IcinnssizenGistribution ne icp aan aeee meee een renee merece tone eae eee 105
Blue Ridge (see also Basswood) .......-------- SS als Meters alae tn 105
MSLTa LLL Oy Cea ee seep eae a ee ee a mae nL SUA BUS Tas a 127
VEO mn tabi geese rere eee aes eS Eee sees 126
RAV pial SO te eeey see ete eee | Sette lieckires try mye ae oe TONS NSA AT A 126
gagino stations! sm ea ea naae eens ciseee csc ciiaoenee eens 136
istof shrubs of southerneAppalachiansseess esses se eee eee ee seeeeee eeeeees 107
ILS Teor INTE, WENN NONIOP Ole o cosanesocasscosscesouubccenssaceseous 142
ThittlemRock Creek mete as sees ee ee cia esa sisi Seine Saar meee Hees 50
ILA ANsMNEsS hVEe, ChMAYS Ol 5 os cosoneosgecsodeassussoseadsssosseaee 116
LOC MCW Se Se GuasSoseoCUbS bos ass RERe He anHSeee 13
WALLET POW CRON seas sas seco eee nancies ee a Seciae 142
BERN, WO) XOAEN NON? LUNG! Soll 65 ogoocasssusoueseecous 80, 81
Ae nllipnD Eiovel GOS — See osaceccodcconacea 81
HORE, GTA OOIMON, CKO cososcoososseesesoses- 82
Loblolly Pine. (See Pine. )
ILGOUS, HOSCS, Sid, Ghisinallopiilorn, GK s sos ccodecocsoseticeooodoneseadoodauses 103
Logging. (See Lumbering. )
ILOyRar Chim HAE TOAINO: =o Sooke sso uooS sce sooeceocsocuscsoeoeusseeesoesas 119
TR mae reo Ay cul tra exer epee eee pes otet te eter ere sia ates season nine nig eran ee Soto 57, 67
damages in, by felling, rolling, ete.....---...---- 24, 57, 64, 65, 131, 132
extentiandhinerease! seme ce acc eeeeene cee em cise Sane eee ae ee 24,57
firesicausedit by sac ede deen casos Jee ees sas secs eee ee oss 57
Coveunmerns GoMneoll Otc ocssdsboseossossosetessssesccsdesescues 61, 68
TDP HROVSMMO NE WM, INACISEIAT. oocbesoooseoacddosnudeaseedbeocucre 66
in Southern Appalachians) generally ----..5.2-.----522------- 52, 53, 61
methods, early and present -....-..---.-:----:.--------- 24, 61, 63, 64
SEISOMOM Oi WRIES Ws coco dooce sbasonaccosossussacssesaousousuans 67
M.
IMicDantelt Bald seco ses ten MERE eae te encla ci Naan yoiae aiajyaemaseaeie sine ee ane 53
MicGee Prot. \W.. Ji:, article’ by, on forest reserve = -22----2---------------2-- 158
CRUE CLUS a eek Bader = rape te rssepe pee eyes aue ie oe Mot 189
McKinley, President, message to Congress .._....-.-...---------+-:------ 158, 166
Management of forests by Government. (See Government management.)
Manutecturineattected\bya stream Owerse a= lee eee reer tee een ease 134
imiportan Ce1Oleaas-eeise soca ote ee ee see toce oe ceicies oe eee ae 139
iIncreasingsiendency, lO Ward see=enee= eee sees eee eee eee 39
OMMlOWeLIStReaMiS = ses eects eel sie ieee aero ees ee ers ciara ee 139
Maplemsizem distribution aspeclesmelCmen = sees eee teen re seen ee tee ee 104

oni CowecandeuNantahalaylountainstess=seeeeeee ees ee eeeeere eee 52

202 INDEX.
Page.
Maps‘ of forests: s.0ce2/ssouis ates cosa Soe ee Se aoe ee eee See eee beaoseaeeee 21
Marshes; lacl: of3 cas ee ee oe een SPREE 129
Mature trees; removaltofii sis. 23 -2e2 eas aecen we ee ee enemies ee aoe meseeisis 67
INGE RereroNE Chi SWAEEIAM ONY Goon osaonccgcu soobes anoaadeceecascedeubsousss= 135
ACI CIS tab ON SHO lees es 135, 137
tables) whexe published/2o-sssss25-2e- see oe ee 137
Memorials and resolutions favoring reserve .-.----.---------------------- 155, 190
Meteorological report on Southern Appalachians -......-..-.----.---------- 147
Molitary nationallparkss purchasevof land fore sssee essen eee eae ee ee ene 36
Mills wihtereestallo lish eclie eye sate ect ry ep ae es ncaa Se ee <6, 47
Mineral deposits may still be worked =2--2- 5-22 5-22-2-25--- 522-2225 -2 ee eee 38
Minnehaha; Mall sig svc Bact sree ceetarare ote Sa oe eae eee eee ERC Ree eeeee 19, 139
Mississippi Hackberry. (See Hackberry. )
River, drainarewto sy ceseke ee ceo sae eee se oases =e es eee 115
Mitchell (County ase 25 eer cee a sae See see EROS oe ee ee ee ise eee e eee 126
Mountain: forests Otoaa- eases aac ae ae aan eee enone eee 23,51, 114
Seasonushvanyewathvelevation === eeee eee eaten eee a eeeeee 23
Moore, Willis L., letter to Secretary of Agriculture ..........:..-..-----+--- 145
Mountain groups, description of forests by ...:--.--------------+----------- 46
lands. (See Erosion. )
Maonolia. 2=seosecascccbss case ee as eset one se see ae eene ees 100
peaks. (See Peaks. )
TAN PES AES sa ap se Oey a ae raeones tate eine esa sitesi cies 18, 118, 115
SYSLEMISS sta een ee tee oe Se See pee alleinceeeetlos setae ee erace 113
Mountains of Southern Appalachians -..........---.--------------- 16, 20, 114, 115
Mount Mitch elliore, 5 22h ee oie pated ey ed Spey Se ete oh ae ae ere 23, 114
Mullbexnyausizendistribution netcCse=e sass eee er mee ee ee een ene eee eee 100
Myers, E. W., report on hydrography of region.......----.---..----------- 123
N.
Nantahala\Gorgestimber ines 225s ease see eins sessile eee eee 53
Mountains, culled land and forests .....-.-.----...-------2.- 51, 52, 115
IRgoG ere, alOKR AoaKell WANKEIP JONES =o on5 occoscossaccoocedcasasccusce 135, 142
Narrowleaf Crabapple. (See Crabapple. )
NationalsBoarduotenradesresolutlonio hese eee enna e sae eee 165
National control of land in the several States. (See names of States. )
forest reserves, only means of preserving forests ........----------- 40
IMAGE INVES SE ose ae ers res tae yy ep er 36
forests; umportance ol presenvingyeesseee eee eee eee eae eeeeees 35
Owaership no tin ewapolicygessrree reer teen aeeeeee eee ee eee 36
Park v. Forest Reserve-.-.-.-- Bae is Sorc ork SSeS SS RS Spe eee 36
accessibility and size of proposed .....----------------------- 113
Navigation of lower streams, affected by flow ..--..---.-.----------------- “39, 134
Needsiof|SouthermAppalachianinesionees=ses— see see sees eee eee ee eeeeeeee 59
Newfound Mountains, forests and culled lands .........-.-.-...-------- 51, 52,115
New River (see also Kanawha) flow and gaging stations..-..------ 116, 126, 135, 136
Basing toposraphyaanduaericulturess=seeeeee = eee ee eee eee reer 69, 70
fOLestsw COMposiionyielLCaes aaa eeaea sees eee eee eee sees 70
Gapiand! Valléy.cue..c2 5 saab eee ioce ote ce cae S net sae eeeeeeee 47
Newspapers commenting on proposed reserve, list of-...-----.-------------- 192
Nolichucky River Basin, topography and soil ---.....-...........---------- 74
TAO AbNTS AiaKel GROMNO. S sascoesedcacesooscooecoas 74

HOMES, ComnjoyoysyhnOyey, CWO. oo sogoscacsuoescasceseceas 75

INDEX. . 208

Page.

NOMKOAME Sy ITI, WO OF ~ccaacacacdsoconduoacacuesuocceosdousdooae 116, 126, 135

HoodstofplOO Masses Nema ee eee eee aerate an eee Sete es oe 130
gaping Stahl Onsee see ees eee Ree eee ns ee seesc esos 136
WALELPOWeROMi aa errenen meee ca eee e ste nee see oe 142
North American Review, article by Prof. N. 8. Shaler ............-...------ 188
North Carolina, resolution favoring reserve ._...............-.-...-.--_--- 173
act of legislature consenting to national ownership ..__-.-.-- 173
North OevR Ver cesta eee easy ae een ree ge i ates OE PSE Goyal 50
Northwestern slope Smoky Mountains, agriculture and erosion.._._.___.___- 79
forests, distribution, ete .-.___._.___- 80
toposraphiandlsoilessseesees22 5. == 79

O.
Oalk-gsize; tdistribution eters ee yee cae eee ees see ee 97
SPeClesiOfe eae sae ne Sess EE ee Sie age Braiciaeet pe ne 97, 98, 99

Oaks on Blue Ridge and other mountains............__.__._.._.-- 46, 48, 52, 54, 55

Obj ectilessontforestimese ny.crasee meee see ante eran ay ee 37

Observations of stream flow. (See Stream-flow.)

OcmulgeesRivertnreasuiera crib] 0 ieee ee nea na ae ee ee 137

OcoeeiGroupi(seelConglomeratelgroup) ieeeeee eee eee eee eee ee 119

RIVET pMeASUTE Mento hse tm a oeetete i Cee Lae anemia 115, 137

OconalluiivaR ivererarlroac eal on oan ean a A 5

HON? Olly ZING! WASP OMWIEPS oo ocscsooossssoocecasuoecace 135, 142

OWoaes IRV, WASAS TIEN OF -ooscosess cesecosconosccuascaseocucusesccese 137

Okoee River. (See Ocoee. )

Ovwnershipronland ine Ne we Rivernm ecto rise ae eee ae ne 48

sizeroholdin gees en era seek ae eee eee ee 36
1?

PAPA, Mae, ChisgmMllowiior, CW. soc caccossoseusooodecunsescudsesousesesocbone 100

Park. (See National Park.)

Beaks characte ml lees eee pee a ae cate RSM ET eS ere 18, 19, 20
Geserip hone hese sess ok ee brs se Sera ees SE el ray 113, 114
HOTESt=COVETC Oma Serre eee mre Sis re A Ee OER ig e AE len all a 20, 38
SAPO Rests cose ap ces EECOCSe a Meee eee a NRE eer aa 20, 114

IRE OCC, Se, Clignnlowinen, G03. -bccscesacodanesacsaseeonccobooneseLsosos 105

IRE TSNTOM, GWA, CHARM OUUNOM, CWC soc cogocasnosee aco saecconcoesoneccebneos 105

LARC TDS MIO UTE ae See aces Ses Sea RSP ta ches en ee eam 48

Physiographic features of Southern Appalachians _._.................------ 125

IRiedimonime atealiaee eee eee 17, 45, 47, 54, 113, 114, 117, 119, 125, 126, 138, 150

Hd OOM SyITPNO Oita Ass estes sR Fes amin Ses yiye Mi rranSy PID uA fae 13
logy Cepaindls Om Chemis cosas scocbescocccansseasoseace 134

IP Bom IRhIGIE, Woes OF NO. oc cocoansnaasonsseseodanaseceassunosuussecse 13
gaping stations: ss Aee aaeee cee ee eae OEE ee ae Eee ee ae 136

Pignut. (See Hickory.)

Pinchot, Gifford, letter of transmittal to Secretary of Agriculture.......-__-- 43

Pine, on Blue Ridge and other mountains -------.-_-_1_-_.____.-...- 46, 48, 54, 55

Ssizentdistni butlonmetcusmpes: seer ae nee See yaa eel aa eee eee ee cere 93
SPECIES Olen trays eet Teepe a Seater aR Se ths INS ara la 93, 94

Pinnacle Peak .....-- Pedi che) NSS See iat tle tt fe ERT a Net 114

Pin Oak. (See Oak.)

IBiscaheVlOUntain spas amet ew x ney sitet ge eleiien serene sate Uae Lun naal toner nie ol, 115

Planta wlistyOn ery pene Mees eae esate pe ee eras enna ale aati iene Raed 107

204 INDEX.

Page,

Plums Wildss saan ats Boe aay AO EE ee ee eee 102

Chickasaw. 2.2 se Ss aeeaese sess eae eee eee oe eee 102

Ponds; ‘lack oft \j-ss2's 2 aonc b cee So eae Sse Cee ESSE Se EE CoE ee ee eee 129

RondsMfountains hei g hijo teas see ss=ee eee eee eee eee eee 47

PoplarseyellowiesizenGistrbutlonwetce eee ee eee see ee eee rer eee ee 100

Post Oak. (See Oak.)

Power. (See Water power. )

Precipitation, affected by altitude and season -..-....---..----------------- 118
averagerandadiscussionee ess ee aes e eee eee eee eee eee 128
elfects:onystream ss 54 ft Sek oc ssi ce eee ce See cee eae 117
heaviest, except on Pacific Coast........---.------ 31, 33, 38, 128, 149
IT 9OO MAL OOM sea eeee eee oa eee eee ee eee 5 LUBY
mean monthly and annual (Table 4) .-......--..-------:----- 153
on Mount Mitchell in summer of 1873 ..........--..-----.---- 149
torrential ess see Ses ae re Sn ee oe erase e eet 150

Preliminary report of Secretary of Agriculture-..-...--.--.--22-2----:--:--- 166

Preservation of forests by National Government..........-...---...-.------ 3+

beyondifiel dtofandiva diallers ee ae 34
powerioliStates).= 22s eeesceeh eee ees eae eee 30

President, the. (See McKinley; Roosevelt.)

Press; (extractssfroml thease ass sere ee ects ee ae oe eee eee ee eee 180

Pressey, H. A., report on hydrography of region -..-.---------.--.--------- 123

Price, Overton W., report on lumbering in the region.-....-----.------.---- 61

Primevalforests: “aneayo fesse ee eee yy ee ene ae eee 45

Pritchard, Senator J. C., bill in Congress presented by--...----------------- 158

Private) protectionson forests) impractical ekesee assesses eeeeen eee eee neeeee 34

iProfiterom storestmesenvees= see ee ees aseec cack eee Ore er Ee ae eee eee 37, 162

CONSEeTyaluyesl MIA CTs Cee et ee ea 62

Protection of forests a national problem........_.--------.--+-------------- 35

Purchase of forests by Government, how effected...........5..------------- 35, 36

Quantziteyoroup location thickness etCss sees = see eee eee eee een 119
Quartzites<distributionsoteses sae orcas ene aae ener Geer eee 119
R.

Railway sine B all Sammi Mio ura tela See 53
in: Shady: Valleys este soe oes eee eye a oe ae 48
Manrettarands Nor, thi G corgi desea ee sess eee se 55
We} CreMlomAy io) JOlmason CNY sas ncsocssossoasasocdsessosesasce 46

(See also Transportation. )
Rainfall (see Precipitation). ;
mecessitatesifonresticoveTas eee esee ne eee eee eee eee 31, 33, 129, 149

INEM Ea. (ING. Ch) lataTTIOUNAY Elis aie sre se cboaedooooudogoandeesoosasceocceSosses 153

Rapidity,/ofestream sowie cwaaahee nce coat See eee eae eee 117

Rapids; mumiberiandimse xyes yee ete eolelartateiaie ates ree se ie eee 138, 139

Red budsece Hoe opens Sate O22 ee Ne rene a So ae cee att eee 2 102

Red Cedar. (See Cedar. )

Redheart Hickory. (See Hickory.)

Red Oak. (See Ouk.)

Red Spruce. (See Spruce. )

Retorestationkotabandoneditieldseeesee eee tee see eee eee eee eee 59
Region. the: Appalachiane: 225). 5432 Saeee cece eRe eee eee eee eee 16

INDEX. 205

Page.
INGAOA, WHS SoOntilaean AjqEMENN — 55s 5cccasqnoconcenamacn seebasenanccas 17
essentiallymountainouseseessneeeeeseeeeeeeaee eee 113
Sourceolmriverseen:s-7 selec aecee coca ee cease scence 28
Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, preliminary...-.--....-------------- 166
poresentiqofca-ce--ioceeeeeeecceseeees 13
Scope Olin eames nee eee se 15
BureawtoteHorestny sae ee secs se Secale os ae eet ose eee eistgsierese nese 43
GeologicaliSunyeyaeeeeeeeeeeee eee ee Ws yeaa iate eerie tae iakeeene ace 110
Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and Protection of Game.. 168
Weather Bureaultaasacce hoses ema at meieecnin= Se ats eisisieeisein eile 145
Reproducti ontoftorests cre sao ieee mee ese Seco nieie oe aisles cece me ssicete ene 69
tolberconsideredtinulmm bering ease eee eee nese eee eee eee 68
Reserve. (See lorest Reserve. )
Reservoirs) lacksofe rece see eel eee tle rece esse ere oe eee cae a wesoake 129
Resolutions. (See Memorials. )
Rhododendron ss -meclecverses tere Seem aoa eee eee ee ee meee cece seemiccties 118
Richland iBall Same =< ss sess ee Atlee eee aoe eR ee caaine ee emcees emnea ce 51,115
Rivers of Southern Appalachians, drainage of -_....----------------------- 28, 116
falls of. (See Waterfalls.)
floods in. (See Floods. )
PORLESHOL Aaya saa a ate eee ec see ONT I6
PTAGESAN ae nae ss SSS Eee seas se ee esses 116
importance of, for agriculture, power, navi-
Pablo ayes ise outs ees oe se ee 28, 29, 38
velocitygandavolum cree ee sseee eee eee 117
(See particular names. )
IRN BASIS, CEC AVO NON OH WORE ON\os55 5555 csscdGocsosdSnocuedacaeasedes 69
(See also under Forests, description of. )
Birch. (See Birch.)
HO WAGE CEO MEO Leeper aa pte ere et ae Sere eer ae ens tae ee ee 115
Grommet, Cleans}, Gael IOEAWIAY — och db coccascooscoscccseuasesdsessoseeesce 126
PLAC GS ean ee iekee eee rat ae ae See cece seme tease 116, 117
MSWMM oo. Fob bbsdéostosesuosneecouscbearedn odes ossHoepbogseeoes 115
Roan Creek Mountains, gaging stations on.....-......-----.---------------- 136
deScniptionts 3-6. neeeeeese a meesese po gees 18, 46, 115, 121
HOOOAAOL OHY, HOMES, IOWANS -osocecscssoescssescccsccs 49
IRoRMO CS Iyer, jkooals im WOW o ceecososscocssouus socabe So 55b sso oseaEseosese 130
PACING YS tALIOM Se sean Ste trey tale ieee See Se ee Sees 136
WENO TONNE ON) coo son congonns GaebosoesonGaEEsouesauouEedS 141
Rocks. (See Granite, Quartz, Gneiss, Limestone, ete. )
NE) At ONROILORSU LAC C Maem yaaa eee cero oe eee eee ane 120
collibinomn gine! ChishmMiGAPAKOM OF 5 65555sedsqooscescesa6e snenocesesss 120
SACS, Clio), GHA OWING, CROs 5.5 Sco ono Ebb scossoesbasoaenosdosedec 119
Roverssvlountainwheroh twee eaece eee ease ee meee oes yma ees 47
Roosevelt, President, message to Congress. ---..-.--.----------------------- 3
Rough Hackberry. (See Hackberry.)
Raby wall see he sues se essence Sat aie pale Soesaie Qeee cee ewanctecceeecisige 19, 139
Run-oif of water, regulated by forests .......--.-..--.---.------------ 128, 131, 150
recent, changesnniscs ses ases see saaacses sees ose sas aeeeces 137
8.
Shilling einer, Chris WO APIO oo cocosccouSusoosausassousEodescesoueEouS 116, 126

Pagina stationsiOn se. - saose sees sana Sess see cle see cele = cee 135, 136

(Bb 0 06

206 INDEX.

Page.
Saluda River Basin (and First and Second Broad) topography, agriculture,
CUO we coe eee ee Me Sane eee See ane ae eee 87
LOTESTS CUS Gren lO UIGL OTIatC LC See ae 88
Sand and /cravellas water reservOitsh* == see—- ee) -S eens see eae aaa ease eee 134
Sand Hickory. (See Hickory.)
Sagsainasssize 1S tir bo,U tl @ ie UC pees aa 100
Savannah Rivers 22sce ace ees eeecee meee eee Renee eee eee eases Eee ee 126
gaging stations! <4. cers Seca elon cic eee ae ees eer 136
WatenpOWer ees sass fsee sciet On ee BEDE SEE ee eR eS 141
Sawai Selo cartromsy calynerc iitayz yer © IN Cl Gls eae es a 46, 131, 132
Scarlet Oak. (See Oak.)
Scenery. eka se ee Nae ee ase ae epaereta acne Sayseve pe aerate roe 19, 29, 116, 160
Serub Pine. (See Pine. )
Seasonskosi1 90 Ojar GlyliOO lie yaeree ee eye Ne cstaya tv aies tlie eee epee yale Sat OE 137
vary with altitude on Mount Mitchell--.-./--.--2+---.2--22..-.---- 23
Second Broad River Basin (see Saluda River Basin)......--.-..-----.------- 87
Secretary of Agriculture, conclusions of, from report ......-.------+--------- 38
letter toilon ANE Beveridoe saaeas== saa e ee eees 171
MEPORtSHOPEkeSi cl e nites ea eee 13, 166
Interior, cooperation in investigation.....-...-.-...--.--------- 14
letter of transmittal to Secretary of Agriculture-___._-__- 110
SeeditreessselectiomsO foie cis sen ayaa ee ee een pee os oe 68
SElECELOMES SCE NNN pa | etry eg eae er 67
Senate of United States, reserve bill reported to ..........-.---------------- 158
bill 5518, Fifty-sixth Congress, second session -..---- 168
Committee on Forest Reservations and Protection of
Games neporbiolos ase see eee ae ese eee 168
Setwicehtneesenec ace nerer sae e citinsis Seer eee ree Sere e eee 101
Settlementsimotmtosbercistui oe clamps etapa tae ela eee 3
Shady Walley, forests: oe =e has see sna ee bem snc einstein oe ese 48
railway Win sete ys ee See es area esis sioelt sites 48
Shagbark. (See Hickory. )
Shaler, Prof. N. S., extract from article in North American Review-.------- 158, 188
Shellbark. (See Hickory. )
Shingle Oak. (See Oak.)
Shooting: Creek: Mountaine-sa-smae ce eee eee eee ee eeee ee eee aera eeeeee sees Bi)
Shortleaf Pine. (See Pine. )
Shrubsanisouthernenippalachians listo te==——eeee— Hee eee Ee eee eee eee eee 107
Silky Willow. (See Willow. )
SH his Woyrooe oor Aya! THVONCMMNNG O54 abomosoesosocdGessauoseeseecceese 26, 121,134
Slates distil uti myo li ciate zee rescence eee era tern ee ea aU 119
Slippery Elm. (See E/m.)
Slopes of mountains, agriculture on, short lived ._...-.--.-.-----.---------- “AS
Gleanings io mje 2 eras ei as ae eos Se Se oe ee 57
LOTESt=-COMERER a eee ee eee eee aan Ene eee 21, 126
OTASS=COVENEOID yas eae eee see ee oe ee een 27
SOL Omit ea eee ree el yere aes vere heft a see ert re 125
steepness of thers ss oe sete ua oe Roe ae 21, 25, 115, 126
Smoky Mountains. (See Great Smoky Mountains. )
SNOW. Vearliestiam Gates tye ryote specs eye eee amt SE Unk mn es ra pera gntT a eee ee 118
stored inilorestsce 2 fs eke ee ase 2 ee ee oa ese eee 118
Soco.Gap az 2 sees case hee chs Seve oe oe So Ser ate ree nee Spe me Pe 53
Soil}, affected by forests: sasohaso55- Sac ee aeeae a casace eee oe eee eet eee 31, 121

TOD IOVS, 207

Page.
Soil*sattectedtbyatines aay perenne rete rete ise eae aa sear eee ae eats 25, 26
Gleanings thee eee ees Cee ee ease a ece 26, 38, 121, 122
NEG bite GiOs 5 dasocascoros ao asboeres Gkeuaecaesteteeenee 133, 134
described ibyeniveribasinstas=e- tere seers aceseae eases Ser aoe iecaee 69
HO) EH HOY OV OY: Sega feces ay en re SE St ler 121
natural fertility of -.-.- esas See ee Meee see ine Se eteian meen 122, 133
Shonagerolawaterbysthesce ssc cerer eer ee emer erie Sa aaceeese ec eneiem. 31, 134
Solutionvoterocksie He Cts o tspe ee eee eee eee 120
RSLOVUD AY AGXOYG lee Sete Hite ies SU ees Pa naar ee Ha tes eS I a a 105
SoutbwElol stomsRay eryes se ee seer eae ge eae ees erat eye eon ease kee 47
South Carolina, resolution of legislature favoring reserve -...--.--.-.-------- 176
act consenting to national control of reserve ...-.....------- 177
Southern Appalachians, clearings and agriculture...-...-...--..-.-.--..---. 25,28
Climate saeco eee ere nie eee ears sae eee 148
TOTEStS Ee see ee eee OE Eee See EERE: 45, 69
ceologyiete, seston ie Sere SESS Oana SHEE 113
hy dro prap hive sare seis Sete arse eee eee nee ees ae 123
= sli baal|OYe) OEY? eee cae oe erat eS are ee tes 24,61
PAOVENMAA NOP MISHAS Wee saccccocssceacsoosescecen 157
HOO LTUOMENUOS URES ae els Eee tee wigs we SN, 16, 20, 114
TLE CCL SLO fey sete sete SS NSS Seen NS em ces 59
MEDION. eee Oca kee ape aoe thse seca eEe mttaer 17
DRL G1 fees eo ays RE NLS rent Ce iva peta ay Dea ae Nt 17
SOONOAY So Seman cosuoonoceboosuees sesuseasonaaeenEes 19
Stream=flowssastsas nce cielo asae cine cleo eee 135
WA LED OW EDs erie rara ieee ereea ia mers apes ears 29, 38
(See under above headings for details. )
Soniiacin acl or Aj pHAOMAME: 256 coc scagocasogesagasaceadoassacoseesosese ‘
topography and forests......-.---.-------- 46, 54, 55
Southern Red Oak. (See Oak).
South fork of Holston River. (See Holston River. )
Spotted Oak. (See Oak.)
SOUS pods See e cosh OaGHs NEON SAS SCEr SHE A erase rset ars see rie 19, 116, 125, 133
SOMUCS, SOCCIES, MWAD, CUSAMOUINOGM, CWOs sos -soobsanesecnS ses soss soesusdoseue 94
Onebalsamivan cloth ersnlOUmtaln Spee eee ee ree ae 48, 49, 52
Staghorn Sumach. (See Swmach.)
S fem clit alin Glare Ce ee O10 sp Neb ae see seein ve teases ey aL eS) ar 114
SANS OQUMEI Alls) OF RESGAVES . coconcescceseodesccess edacccuuussonsceseuoess 35
States, action by, concerning proposed reserve_--.-------------------------- 172
common corner of Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. .-...----- 47
SUEIDVALOMN INNS, Cera SATO ON. =o acon asesaocesscascesoussadseoeste sone ne 136
Stomem UO wate s ever es ep Py le a Ayal Peper pce eae an cl 47,115
Storage of water, aided by humus, forests, porous soil............_-- 25, 31, 122, 131
Shiezoan Copaxeliiniomns tha WOOO), WN oo es sete ccbuseasnoscossecebacssecusns- 137
SUREMMALO Y, HAW: We: Win — ones asscoteasssdesoseasssces es oseeseneaae 127
affected by springs, seepage, fires, forests, clearings, etc -....__- 30,
117, 122, 133, 134
Couchhion ii, in IO, TOOL eco ookossoosdannebesaddoesouseeas 137
Chie, O CaoloenGall SWAY ccoacococood so sencoeadsusondeasasnase 137
LA TeMO wes Amel FHENEAOE, oes coos oncheeoageesesocosaneeoes 134, 135
INVES PALL ONNOlISCODC EEE Eee ene sense eae eee eae yee 15
TN CASUTEM CLG YO fie sree eter sere eure ne eo eee eens Soe 132

208 INDEX.

Page
Stream-flow, regulates floods, droughts, power -.-.-...--------------------- 117
umfomm bye esse nial eee eee eae eee 30, 117
volumejandsyelocitviOtes==s sees eee eete eee eae eeeeae 117, 187, 138
(See also Rivers, Floods, Water power).
Sioreie NCUA ~ 3655 poe po oboe ooo cos oes csos os ssesne sone ohocSecesucososess 49
Sumach, Staghorn 103
Surface affected by solution and disintegration of rocks....-...---.---------- 120
IASIT OS pose sroduoesasedeoouodaaeSoo esos noosdeobessa conEocbSeseS 115
Swamp White Oak. (See Oak.)
SwannanoaRivers-.s-20- seer eset eee ee eae cee aero seca setae eeeaaes 51
Sweet Birch. (See Birch.)
Gum. (See Gum.)

Sweetleales2e tesa. aap ete eee eae Eee ee eee eee eee Ee eeeer ene eeaeases 105
Sycamore size disinlbutlon (ele s=eene sere sere eee tena eters eeee ee eereeeae 101
AN

Tables. (See Temperature, Humidity, Precipitation. )
Table Mountain Pine. (See Pine.)
Mallapoosayiver.j measurement; Olt s eee see eee ee eee eee eee eee 137
Tallulah; Balllsz Soto ae eo eee a ee Pee econ oe eae eee 19, 139
IRENE, ECAR ANIONS GouocSsseeaas oon aaessonsenonancooeenoSeacoS 136
Chattooga River Basin, topography and soil ....--.-.-----.-------- 84
agriculturejandlerosiony= ee =a eee eee ee 84
forests, distribution, ete......-------------- 85
Manebarktorestd estruchlon MOLES == herer eee Ee eee eee eee eee eee eee e eee 132
MellicorRiverswatenipowen Ones eweee sere eee Ree eee Renee Hee erate re 142
Temperature, general, in region ---.------- 33, 117, 128
highest monthly (Table 2) 152
lowest monthly (Table 3) 152
norimal-ameansnmn onthihya (halle) pease sneeeee esas eee 151
on MounteMitehelll im summer 873) 254-2 esses sess eeeeeee eee 33, 149
pProportionalatovaltitud easqs=) ese ee eee eee eee eee eee eee 148
Tennessee River, drainage and measurement of. ......------------ 115, 126, 135, 137
WEIGH? JOOP ON 55 s5dcceo das ponaseaccdoneo seus osessoceenes 142
resolution of legislature favoring reserve --...-------------------- 174
act of legislature consenting to Government ownership of land-.---. 175
Mhornwsizerdistributionyspeciessete=ssese reeset ee eee eee eee eee eee eee 101, 102
Phree:TopsMiountain eee meese meres eee eee eee a eee eee eeiseeeeers 48
Pimber: tuturesupplyro lessee eee eee eee ae eee eee eee eee errr 25
kind sof ae ee sane Cer See eae sete eee acne eee eeee eEEEe eee reas 63
Ditlestojlandsi(seey Ownership) \eseee eee eee eae o eee eee eee eee eee 37
Toccoa River. (See Ocoee River.)
TOCERAV ER face ae eee ES TE eS a Se eon ee eee eee era 50, 51
Topographic features of mountain groups -.-------.------------ 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54
Mopogsraphiy byerlver basin se se sess eee eee eee eee eee eee eee 69
of Southern Appalachians generally --......----------------- 111, 115
Moxaway Nlountains# asec eee teeta ee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee 51
River Basin, agriculture and erosion -..-...----------------------- 86
forests compositions eClCease es eeeee ee seeee eee eee 86
topographiyzand Sollee areas eee eee eee eee 85, 86
Tram Toads: 3-52 oh = eae eb e eee ee o ee ee ee ee sees eee essere sets 131
Mransportation (seejalsovharlwars)a-sssee eee ee aes eee eee eae eee ee 59

MreesiolisouthennPAppalachiansescee see ser ee eee eeeetecee eee eee eee 93

INDEX. 209

Page.
uckaseeree River stoodsroiso0lee sees saceee ease aeeae sree seeeecenae 130
HO weANGUSI ZC easter eee ron ee SelB ate eat near 116, 126, 136
WALETAPOW Els ON see meee sere eas ae ener ia a eee yee nat 142
MOKA OY) IRIN, CATIONS SENHKON Ol oo ooosouecbeoscocnousdeacesoaudscasdeseuue 136
Rusquitee@lountain sm xecee sees sine ease ase ee eee aoe eee eecey See nee 115
Types of weather. (See Weather. )
t U.
Wimibrellastree sar see seam e ma ne NR MeN ate Be LE EE Cy SVMS Ce eT 100
larce=lea ten: Saas sein pees nite iyamice Sees eis Asse me eee ee 100
Unaka Mountains, description and topography .--.:---------------- 18, 19, 113, 114
Rancetclopess descrip tlonyas= sateen eee a seen See eee 51, 53; 1127,
Streamsho ieee aaa ae ease ee iscic nae Seininia Sect isee wine Secs See 127
Unenlledsforests:tarearo fis see Ane Mr ree ae eae Ae ee ea 45
ineNewsRivers Valleys seeeseeeeeaecene Stace scecseeesese ee 48
United States Geological Survey. (See Geological Survey. )
V.
Walleyalandsjicleared ees-eemenccise ce se ee eee meee eae eaince cme er sense cincte 26
washedsb yet ood shy te emer ses mesa are Oech ee Se cicae 27
Valley, Great Appalachian, and others -......--..------.-------------- 16, 17, 114
Nalleysscharacter,of eee eet eee see er satel Se ya eine neha eeeinisieapiaeeersie 20, 21
affected by floods ----..---- SAE REIS Ree 5 tee nea Ree aE ae 27, 129
WalleyaRiversMoun taimsizes ssc teere seca eee se eraateresee are ace cieisceice 58
Virginia, act of legislature consenting to Government ownership of reserve... 172
resolution of legislature favoring reserve ......-------------------- 190
Volumeyandivelocityvofriversie. soonse oer eae ee cece neces eee eae name 117
W.
Walcott, Charles D., letter of submittal to Secretary of Interior ........-.-.--- 110
Walnut. (See Black Walnut. )
Wataucaphiver .Gescriptlo neers see = eee oe eee aeerree sae eeeeeee eee 116, 126, 127
HOOAS INBLOOI sek Oe Pe EIN ee ac eee ee kaya 130
gacinpistationsssesac meres citee tise reine ceieicte tee sce 136
WEUEE DONE Olle saclaeoosAsssooHaesAeanpaoseanopadorsoced 142
Basin stoporrap hiysanGdesOllpeseee sa eee see meeti 72
agriculture/and erosion 22252. ..2----s------2-2------ 73
forests, distribution, etc.......-.-.--.-------- Soh eSe'< 73
Water abundance ofa aye seetiear sigan e semesters ce are cee mane eemeeieys 125
fallsslistyofpprin cipalysae ses ssc css seee Sete e aces case 19, 116, 126, 139
ValuepfonpOWwerdosas sc aemin cis ost eiciesecteuaieeace See beirs he ae 29, 139
flowsdependsioniorests)a- sane ano secre oer ciaisieielsicia eae oe einisieiccie 30, 39
PAIN CIStallONS ese cer see eee eens eee eee ae See osisiaeee es 15, 136
MN ECASTIGEINVGTULLO Late pa per eee te ree eet hg i in ae a Ue Ree ag 15, 135
(See Stream-flow. )
Water Oak. (See Oak.)
Waterspower,abundancelolsssesaseeees see sae crise sce eine cecces 29, 39, 131
avallalbilibyio ference eter one yon me a cee elu 30, 141
dependstoniflowsatlowiwatereass-1 oases asec eee eeeeaeee nance 131
An poTtAn cero flee epee sy aster eee ia ee hina eee clases incised 140
streamsiadaptedntO mest eaaono- soc eet a- scimeeeee cess 128, 137, 139
totalamountiused andiunusediee ss assee sense eee scne se ee aoe 141

(See also individual rivers by names. )

*S. Doc. 84——14

210 INDEX.

Page

Watershed ofarea)BluewRidgesseessasseseeee oer neeoeeee pees e eee eee eee 135

EXAMiIMation Ole noe. Ae ee las cea ESOS, Coser eee ec Here eee 155

Water storage in soil, affected by forests -.-..--------:---.---+--------- 20, 31, 122
Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 49, Report of Geological Survey ----- 137

Weather Bureau, Report of, on Southern Appalachians, ..-.....--..-------- 143

conditionsjatihiehyleyelsaese ee eee ee eee eae eee eee 149
Obsenvationsone\lounteviitchell SiS /asecee serene eee ee eee eee 149
tables + 42/5 saat ey Ae eet caps ete eae aS ee 151, 152, 153
Gy PES ist Ws Nee oe ep eee oe a orek mciaminninclaeiice enact em eee 148

White Elm. (See Him.)

Hickory. (See Hickory.)

Oak. (See Oak.)

Pine. (See Pine.)
in Shady. Valley seaciees cainit sae Were ese See a mese clean eae 48
om Lim ville Riversc sees sade tame Saco cee ne ees seer 46
one Nevioundéiounitaineeesee-reeeeeer er cease eae eee 52
SIZEO PONS 3s Hae Oak On Serpent here ate epg = eee oe at 118
MopeVlountaimyeTOuUps POLES SHO table yee epee sree ere 46, 47, 48
region, forests and topography of ----...-.--.--------- 47
Wallowmasizesdistrilbution ebeee ere e reese cee Geet ee ene ae ee eae 96
BPPCCIES': O Late sre meee ha RO Rta nS he Sa eh pe rn Rp ee 96

Wilson, Hon. James. (See Secretary of Agriculture. )

Wind siprevailine pases eee Pea TS ES en sreyemye ay serene ae —feletaharaa (ee vpn ah eee Sue 118
moist, effect on vegetation -......-.-.--.------- aR SeeEeee eSos 119
detemnmedybyacyclonicstormcie eee eeee eee Eee eR aeee aeee eee 148
dayzandinight snksumim enses se emaecse ee eSe ese ee eee eee sere eS enees 148

Winged Elm. (See Elm.)

Watchwitazelasizemcdistribucion se tCerer Eee eeeereeeeeceecee eee eeee eee eee ee 100

WiolfiCreeksdumiberinesOnteesaeeeee eae cee ceeee eee eeteaeneeste nearer 52

Wooded lands, percentage of. (See Morests by river basins. )

WiorldisnwWork article inv byalrotaw JM Vlc Gee meee = nessa ase eee ne ee esa ee 189

VEC abe ei heeen clon, now EN Moke sho MA aSae SSE ean ecssaateo ate be bastesetass 116, 126

HOOdS MBO ONS Ses esate ee es 2 See de eter tae 130

gaping statlons.ee. - saci saeco ee cnisjsiaia ies ists see eee 135, 136

WatenipO Wer On sre eas pha terse ce teenie mice cee aeearae 141

asin ae culiureandlerOslionsee ees eee renee eee esata ae eae 90

HORISHIT, COUMKOMMOMN, COs conoconsesocesancecsosae= sess 91

topostaphyan desolate csega. aeceee sees oes 90

Vatest!Kmob: Ridges 2cac2 cates eae Sea e eee eee ee eae eee eee ems 51

Yellow Birch. (See Birch.)
flowered Cucumber-tree. (See Cucumber-tree. )
Who ari ienir' ss Se Se eye ek A el an ives dV NE Sis oe ase eae IS 50, 115
Oak. (See Oak.)
Poplar. (See Poplar.)
WOOO nas iclns Soe ern Geekery arte hate Cem ee rasinvetalsfeye onan aera ea 103

IRESS

LIBRARY OF CONG

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Message from the President of the United States, transmitting a report of the secretary of agriculture in relation to the forests, rivers and mountains of the southern Appalachian region"

See other formats