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METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY,
BY OLIVER DAVIE,

AUTHOR OF "NESTS AND EGGS OF NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS," ETC.

NINETY FULL-PAGE ENGRAV-
INGS, CHIEFLY DRAWN BY
THEODORE JASPER, A.M., M.D.

THE WHOLE CONTAINING FIVE HUNDRED FIGURES CLEARLY
ILLUSTRATING THE MODES OF PROCEDURE IN THE ART.
TOGETHER WITH EXAMPLES OF CHARACTERISTIC FORMS
AND ATTITUDES OF VARIOUS SPECIES OF THE ANIMAL KING-
DOM. INCLUDING REPRODUCTIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS OF
ACTUAL WORK BY AMERICAN TAXIDERMISTS.

Y^^ LiBRARV
i J U L 2 2 1902

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PHILADELPHIA,

DAVID MCKAY, Publisher

I022 MARKET STREET

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J)Z7

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1894,
By OLIVER DAVIE,
In the Office of the Librarian, at Washington. D. C.

/S.094

Jghnrntan & Co., IDhimdtljjhia.

PREFACE.

I N April, 1882, my artist delivered to me the first drawings intended for
^ this work. As specimens were procured from time to time, from
which to make illustrations of the various procedures in the skinning
and mounting of animals, the progress was continued until the present
volume is the consummation of our efforts. We have likewise incor-
porated some reproductions from photographs of actual work by
American taxidermists. All scientific technicalities which could pos-
sibly be avoided have been omitted in the text. Our aim has been
to produce a work amply illustrating the various modes of procedure
in the art of taxidermy, intended especially to instruct the beginner.
Those who are experienced in the art may also be aided by some new
and practical methods which we have included within these pages.

We have not followed any established order of zoological classifi-
cation in the arrangement of the chapters, but have taken up the
practical lessons on birds first, because they usually give the most
satisfactory results to the beginner. The mammals, which are more
difficult, come next in order and, lastly, the complicated preparations
of crustaceans, fishes, reptiles, etc.

Acknowledgements are due the New York Engraving and Printing
Co. for the faithful reproduction of my artist's work, and for the skill
and care displayed in the printing of the plates.

239 West Tenth Avenue, ^~ ^ C7^^^^-^

January 10, 1894, / ^/^ r^X)

Columbus, O. L^^<i<Z>^/^^ .^^.^^Zl-U-ri^

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

IT is not my intention to elaborate on the history of a subject whose
life has been so short and uneventful as that of the art of taxidermy.
Our " great lights " in the art are few, and if we cannot point to exam-
ples as ancient as those which immortalize the grandeur of other arts, it
may be because its objects in their very nature are perishable. If there
were any early attempts in the art, the subjects must have been so in-
artistic and unnatural looking while they lasted that they were per-
haps regarded as curious, but as works of art were probably never rec-
ognized and were never recorded in history, tradition, poetry or song,
and, meteor-like, their rays were soon lost in the firmament of the fixed
planets of other arts whose light will continue to shine for all time.
Were the examples as desirable as those of sculpture or painting, we
should be able to trace their history to very remote periods.

If the mounting of the skins of vertebrate animals to appear life-
like was carried on in ancienttimes, we have no evidence as to the quality
of the work or by whom it was done.

An old narrative of the Carthaginian navigator, Han no, has been
verified through extensive research, and that portion relating to the
original discovery of the gorilla may possibly have a bearing on the
question of the antiquity of our art. By this record, five hundred years
before the Christian era this old voyager recorded the capture of goril-
las and the preservation of their skins; or, as the record has it, "we
killed and skinned them, and conveyed their skins to Carthage." His-
tory also relates that these skins were preserved in the temple of
Astarte, where they remained until the taking of the city in the year 146
before Christ, as stated by Pliny, who called them Gorgoies.

From this, however, we cannot infer that these specimens were
mounted or arranged to represent life-like attitudes, but simply that
the skins were preserved. If our art is of ancient date, we have no
relics of it, as we find in the other arts, as lasting as those of Grecian
sculpture, which date back as far as the eighth century B. C. The
famous Lion Gate at ]\Iy cense is supposed to be even older. We
have no monuments in our art that defy the march of time like the
bronze Discobolus of Myron, yet to be seen in the Vatican at Rome,
and many others of equal antiquity and value. We have no traces of

(I)

II HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

our art whicli correspond to those grand mural paintings of Pompeii
now collected in the museum at Naples, which are supposed to date
from the first period of Roman painting. We have no parallel with
these to give evidence that our art was at all practiced in ancient
times.

The art of embalming was invented by the Egyptians for the pur-
pose of preserving dead bodies from decay by means of aromatics,
antiseptics or desiccation. It was an art created by the demands of
the religious superstition of the times, and was practiced by the ancients
from the earliest periods, but, unfortunately, was not calculated to
enlighten and elevate. In their sepulchres, tombs and pits are found
not only countless bodies of human beings, but also myriads of dogs,
apes, crocodiles, cats, ibises, sheep, oxen and other animals.

All this was associated with their religious belief, for they held that
the soul, after completing its cycle of separate existences extending
through several thousand years, again returned to the body, and if that
were found decayed or wasted, it transmigrated. It was not for the
love of having their specimens look natural and life-like, but for the
reason of their superstitious belief, that their spirits would, in course
of time, return to their bodies, and they would again live with their
cats and dogs as before the spirit left the body.

Embalming is simply a means of preservation, is a separate art,
and cannot, strictly speaking, come under the head of taxidermy, while
taxidermy proper attempts to reproduce the forms, attitudes and ex-
pressions of animals as they appear in life.

The skins of animals were used from the most remote periods for
clothing and various useful and ornamental articles, but respecting
those periods we have no knowledge of the skins being mounted to
represent life-like forms and attitudes. History records the fact that
the older Indian tribes decorated themselves on different occasions
with the heads of porcupines, foxes, raccoons, eagles, etc., stuffed so as
to look quite natural.

It is told that the first attempt to stuS" birds was when the Hol-
landers in the early part of the sixteenth century began their commer-
cial intercourse with the East Indies.

A nobleman brought back to Amsterdam a large collection of live
tropical birds and placed them in an aviary, which was heated to the
proper temperature by a furnace. It happened that the attendant
one night before retiring carelessly left the door of the furnace open,
thereby allowing the smoke to escape, which suffocated the birds. The
nobleman beholding the destruction of his large collection, which was

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. Ill

the pride of the city, began to devise means for the preservation of
the dead birds. To this end the best chemists of Amsterdam were
called in for consultation, and it was decided to skin the birds and fill
their skins with the spices of the Indies for their preservation. This
was done, and they v^^ere then wired and mounted to represent life.
For many years they were the hobby of the nobleman and the pride of
the inhabitants.

But with these few very faint and unsatisfactory glimpses we have
taken of our art, through the dark corridors of time, we must leave its
past history to the oblivion that surrounds it, and look at the attempts
of more modern times.

Very interesting allusions are frequently made to taxidermic speci-
mens in some of the world's greatest literature. In Shakespeare's
Romeo and Juliet, Act V, Scene 1, Romeo, in addressing Juliet, says:

" I do r'imembor an apothecary, —
And hereabouts he dwells, whom late I noted
In tatter'd weeds, with overwhelming brows,
Ciillinu; of simples; meagre were his looks,
.Sharp misery had worn him to the bones:
And in his needj' shop a tortoise hung,
An alligator stuff'd, and other skins
Of ill-shap'd fishes."

Samuel Butler, in Hudibras, gives us a picture in the astrologer,
Sidrophel's laboratory.

It would be difficult to supply a better stock in trade for a wizard's
den than that which Hogarth has furnished the apartment in his illus-
tration of this scene. It is the most striking, if not the best, of
Hogarth's illustrations of the Hudibras. Everything we see in the
room bespeaks the cunning craft of the astrologer in the ignorance of
his fellow-creatures. Besides two globes, terrestial and celestial, and
the spread scroll with its cabalistic signs, there is a stuffed crocodile,
a sword fish, a tortoise, a bat, frog, snake and a few lizards. There
is also a human skeleton with an owl mounted upon its shoulder.
The room is luridly illumined by a burning lamp which is suspended
by a chain from the crocodile, which seems to be the presiding genius
of the place.

Not only do we know that examples of taxidermy decorated the
dens of astrologers and the shops of apothecaries in the middle ages,
but many a trophy of a day's hunt adorned the stately halls of pal-
aces. The head and antlers of the stag which was laid low by "my lord's
prowess" were preserved and hung as a memento of the chase. In
recent years, as in the past, those in the humbler walks of life have

IV HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

likewise cherished a love for the preservation of the objects of
animated nature, and in their lowly chambers may often be found
specimens of taxidermic handiwork of great beauty and rarity. In a
large number of instances our art has found patronage by those whose
humble names have become immortal. Highland Mary, the idol of
Burns, the greatest lyrical poet that ever lived, died in a room contain-
ing, among other simple decorations, three or four stuffed birds. We
might recall manv significant instances of individuals whose love for
objects from the fields of nature, through modest personal efforts estab-
lished a nucleus which formed the basis of some of the great museums
of the world. The existing literature on the subject of taxidermy
which has been published from time to time throws considerable light
upon its rise and progress.'

So far as my investigation goes, I have not been able to trace any
writings on the subject of taxidermy farther back than two hundred
years.' The oldest work in my collection is a Natural History pub-
lished at Paris by the Royal Academy in 1687, on the dissection of
various animals. In this work mention is made of the fact that the
Hollanders were the first to bring into Europe live specimens and skins
of the cassowary and a number of other strange birds which they
secured on their first voyages (lolT) to the Indian archipelago. These
were stuffed at Amsterdam.

Reaumur in 1748 published a memoir of the method of preserving
skins of birds to be sent into distant countries. He received birds
from all parts in spirits of wine, according to the instructions he had
given, and formed a beautiful cabinet of natural historv in his own
house which, after his death, became the basis of the collection of birds
in the Museum of Paris.

In 1752 M. B. vStollas issued at Paris a work entitled "Instruc-
tions on the Manner of Preparing Objects of Natural History." The
work contains five full-page illustrations. Some of the most ingenious
devices for the mounting of birds and quadrupeds are given in this
work. Why his methods were not more universally adopted by those
immediately following him is difficult to understand. The same year
appeared H. L. Duhamel's work of a similar title. E. F. Turgot
appears to be the author of an anonymous work on taxidermy, which
was issued at Lyons in 1758. The methods of skinning and mount-
ing birds and small quadrupeds, described and illustrated in this

1. In preparing this historical sketch I have depended almost entirely upon the data found in the books
and pamphlets relating to taxidermy in my own collection, numbering 110 titles.

2. In Mr. L. M. McCormick's valuable " Bibliography of Taxidermy," published in the third annual repor
of the Society of American Taxidermists, the oldest writing mentioned is dated 1G8H.

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. V

work, are not the best by any means, while those for mounting rep-
tiles, fishes and crustaceans are far better than some of the methods
employed at the present day. This book is beautifully bound in
the old style vellum. Another French work, by P. N. Nicholas,
published at Paris in 1801, gives practical methods of mounting quad-
rupeds and reptiles, but the one given for mounting birds is the old
unskillful, soft-filling method. The bird skin is also treated quite
differently. It is soaked in a bath of preserving solution which, if at
all practicable, would certainly aid in its preservation.

In 1786 the Abbe Manesse published a volume under the title of
"Treatise on the Manner of Stuffing and Preserving Animals and
Skins." He presented his work to the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
It contained some very useful advice in the mounting of birds, but the
excluding of poisons and the adopting of alkalies for the preservation
of skins proved a failure in his day and is not admissible in modern
taxidermy.

About this time an old German sculptor living at Lahaye devoted
himself to the practice of taxidermy, and in a short time surpassed all
those who had employed themselves in the mounting of animals.
He excelled in the mounting of large mammals.

Becceur, of Metz, who first compounded the well-known preserva-
tive, arsenical soap, mounted birds and quadrupeds by replacing their
skeleton back in their skins. The muscles being removed from the
bones, which were allowed to remain attached to their ligaments, he
replaced the flesh with flax or cotton, wired the legs and vertebral col-
umn, sewed up the opening in the skin, placed the specimen on its
stand, gave it a suitable position and then put on the finishing touches. It
is recorded that his work was skillfully done and the attitudes of his sub-
jects were natural, because with the skeleton he could not go far wrong.

A German work, issued anonymously at Leipsic in 1788, contains
some rather unusual methods of mounting birds and mammals.
Professor J. S. Wiley in 1855 published a fifty page pamphlet, entitled
" The Preparation and Preservation of Objects of Natural History."
It is one of the best and most thorough treatises on the subject that
has ever appeared. The different methods offered in this work form a
combination based upon those employed by the best French and Ger-
man operators. His manner of collecting and preparing fishes and
reptiles is of the best kind. One in the German by Dr. W. Shilling,
published at Weimar in 1860-61, in three volumes, is one of the best
foreign works with which I have met. Philipp Leopold Martin, in 1870,
published at Weimar a most creditable and complete exposition of our

VI HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

art. A book by H. T. Race, in the Danish, published in 1842, contains
old methods of mounting birds and mammals, in which the methods
of preservation are not at all reliable. A little work of twenty-nine
pages, by S. H, Sylvester, published in this country in 1865, is a
most practical work as far as it goes. The instructions are very concise,
but clear and of the most practical kind. Those given are only for birds
and small quadrupeds. A work by Nathaniel Whitlock, appeared in
London in 1831, and gives some very good instruction in the " Skinning
and Mounting of Birds, Beasts and Fishes." It makes little difference,
however, what methods a man employs if, by their means, he attain in a
satisfactory manner the ends in view ; but of all the above mentioned
works, Martin seems to be the only author who has a proper knowledge
of the uses of clay in taxidermy.

In fact, it is difficult to comprehend how the old taxidermists man-
aged to make the heads and faces of large, and also some of the smaller
mammals, look natural without its use or something equivalent to it.
It would be difficult, indeed, without something of a plastic nature, to
reproduce the exact character of the lips and faces of dogs and larger
mammals, the faces and fingers of monkeys, etc.

It is true that Naumann in 1815 advocated the use of clay in birds
by making a stout wire frame, which he filled with soft clay and
allowed it to dry, thus producing a piece of work of great weight.

The proper uses of clay in our art are well known at the present
day. It can be moulded into any shape desired, and will forever retain
the form given it, and an experienced hand by its use can reproduce to
a nicety ail the wrinkles, hollows and elevations that are characteristic in
the expressions of any animal. This part of the art requires the del-
icate touch which characterizes the hand of the true sculptor when
the image in his brain is first created in clay. In fact, he who would
attain a high standard in the advanced branches of taxidermy must be
in one sense of the word a sculptor. In the work published in 1840
by William Swainson, and also in that of Capt. Thomas Brown,
there appears not one word on the value of clay in taxidermy. Its uses
then in our art may be considered of comparatively recent date. My
venerable preceptor. Dr. Theodore Jasper, has always employed it in
modeling mammals. His expeiience in the art extends over a period
of more than fifty years. The use of clay were undoubtedly known
in Brown's and Swainson's time, but it is a well known fact that many
methods in taxidermy, like the mixing of metals by the alchemists
of old, were held secret by their discoverers, which prevented them
from becoming generally known.

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION. \li

American books on taxidermy are not nnmerous, but besides those
already noticed, we may name Maynard's *' Taxidermist's Guide " and
the "Taxidermist's Manual ;" also Joseph H. Batty's " Practical Tax-
idermy." Air. William T. Hornaday's "Taxidermy and Zoological
Collecting" is the best work that has thus far appeared, foreign or
American.

Our "great lights," if such they may be called, are Charles Wat-
erton, of England, and Jules Verreaux, of France. The hrst was an
enthusiast and had many queer ways of doing things, while Verreaux,
of Paris, is said to have created masterpieces in the art fairly rivaling
" some of the examples of the higher plastic arts." Titian R. Peale,
an energetic collector, is said to have improved the art in the United
States.

The distinguished naturalist, Prince Maximilian, of Nieu Wied,
Germany, for several years explored regions of North and South
America in search of specimens of birds and mammals. In the
American Aluseum of Natural History are numbers of examples in the
Maximilian collection bearing labels in the handwriting of the Prince,
with dates from 1812 upwards.

Associated with the early beginning of the art of taxidermy in
this country is one Scudder, who was proprietor of a small museum
in the old alms-house in the City Hall Park, New York City. A little
later came an Englishman by the name of Ward who did work at this
museum which soon merged into a larger institution under the man-
agement of the Peales, whose museums in Philadelphia and New
York were patrons of the art in those days. Mr. George N. Lawrence,
the distinguished i\merican Ornithologist, and Mr. Daniel Holder,
were enthusiastic collectors and students of birds. They enjoyed the
acquaintance and friendship of Wilson, Prince Bonaparte, Audubon,
Nuttall and others of distinction. During Audubon's collecting tour
throughout the plains of the West he was accompanied by an artist in
taxidermy. Poor Wilson, on the other hand, in this capacity and
whatever he did, depended entirely upon his own efforts and genius to
make his name immortal. Dr. J. B. Holder states that some years
previous to 1840 a Mr. Mann established himself in Boston as a practical
taxidermist. His style of work was of the old school, and purely mer-
cenary. Soon after 1840 a Mr. Ogden came from England with inher-
ited skill in taxidermy and an enthusiasm that despised pecuniary
compensation as the sole incentive to art. The Boston Museum had
been established in Tremont Temple, and the Boston Society of
Natural History had not long before been organized. Through these

viu HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

institutions j\Ir. Ogdeu was at once given employment and his work
on the largest mammals was successful to a high degree, as well
as in the modeling of birds, reptiles and fishes. A large number of
individuals outside of the large cities in those days might be uamed
who gave the subject of taxidermy much time and study and became
enthusiastic wholly for their own pleasure or for professional purposes.
A vast change however has taken place in the more recent productions
of intelligent and earnest American taxidermists. The most im-
proved methods of the world's best artists have been carefully studied
and often improved upon by American ingenuity.

The climax of excellent work has indeed been left for the artists
of the New World to accomplish. The organization of the Society of
American Taxidermists did much for the diffusion of knowledge of the
art. Methods were no longer held secret, but their merits and demerits
were freely discussed by those of the profession, and the doors of the
studios were thrown open to the public. The knowledge of methods
alone does not any longer bespeak a man's genius in this art ; the
only secret being to imitate Nature.

The superior work done at Ward's great Natural Science Estab-
lishmeut has also had its influence over the efforts of the new school
of American taxidermists. We now have many artists in the field.
A vast number of their productions, to be seen in the museums of this
country, attest the high order of excellence of their work, surpassing
anything in the taxidermic art the world has ever seen. The magnifi-
cent groups of mammals and birds in the American Museum of
Natural History, Central Park, N, Y., tell of the profound ability of
the late Mr. Jeness Richardson. The groups in our National Museum,
Washington, D. C, also stand as lasting monuments to the ingenuity
and skill of William T. Hornaday, Frederic A. Lucas, Joseph Palmer
and others. Among those who have likewise been identified with
the recent progressive period in American taxidermy may be men-
tioned the names of Jules F. D. Bailly, P. W. Aldrich, Elwin A. Capen,
William J. Critchley, John G. Bell, Prof. L. L. Dyche, Thomas W.
Fraine, C. W. Graham, John IMartens, Mr. and Mrs. G. H. Hedley,
William Palmer, Chas. K. Reed, J. Rowley, Thomas Rowland, S.
F. Rathbun, John Wallace, Frederic S. Webster, Frank B. Webster,
and a host of others who have gone into the rich fields of nature,
turned from the narrow trodden paths and plucked flowers whose
beauty was never before seen. They have discovered and reproduced
new scenes such as were never carved in stone or painted on canvas.

CHAPTERS.

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

PAGES 1 11 ) \ III.

CHAPTER I.

INSTRUMENTS. MATERIALS, WORKSHOP, ETC,

CHAPTER II.

PRESERVATIVES, POISONS AND COMPOUNDS USED IN TAXIDERMY; THEIR PREPARA-
TION AND THEIR GENERAL USES IN THE ART; TOGETHER WITH OTHER

INFORMATION OF VALUE.

CHAPTER III.

COLLECTING SPECIMENS IN GENERAL; SEASONS; FIELD EQUIPMENTS; CARE AND

TREATMENT OF SPECIMENS.

CHAPTER IV.

SKINNING AND MOUNTING BIRDS.

CHAPTER V.

THE MAKING UP OF BIRDS' SKINS.

CHAPTER VI.

CLEANING BIRDS' FEATHERS; RELAXING SKINS.

CHAPTER VII.

HINTS ON THE FORMS AND ATTITUDES OF BIRDS; ACCESSORIES; GROUPING, ETC.

CHAPTER VIII.

COLLECTING BIRDS' NESTS AND EGGS.

(IX)

X CHAPTERS.

CHAPTER IX.

SKIXXIXG AND MOUNTING SMALL MAM^LALS AND THOSE OF THE LARGER SPECIMENS

IN WHICH IT IS UNNECESSARY TO EMPLOY THE DERMOPLASTIC METHOD;

MAKING UP DRY SKINS AND RELAXING THEM.

CHAPTER X.

THE DERMOPLASTIC METHOD OF MOUNTING MAMMALS.

CHAPTER XI.

HINTS ON THE FORMS AND ATTITUDES OF MAMMALS: ACCESSORIES, GROUPING, ETC.
WITH REMARKS ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF REPTILES.

CHAPTER XII.

MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE MOUNTING OF CRUSTACEANS, FISHES, REPTILES, ETC.

CHAPTER XIV.

ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY.

CHAPTER XV.

MAKING PLASTER CASTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

CARE OF SPECIMENS.

LIST OF PLATES.

Frontispiece. DispLiy (h-oup in tlic- Author's Museum. From a photograph by Baker.

PLATE.

I. Instruments. Eight Jiyures.

II. Instruments. Nine ficfures.

in. Instruments. Seven Jiyures.

IV. Instruments. Nine figures.

V. Instruments. TJiree figures.

VI. Artificial Eyes for Animals. Thirty-mx figures.

VII. Topography of a Bird.

VIII. Feathered Tracts and Unfeathered Spaces in Birds. Two figures.

IX. Skeleton of an Eagle.

X. Skinning of a Bird. Nine figures.

XI. Returning the Skin over the Skull.

XII. Adjusting Feathers of the Head.

XI II. Mounting a Bird. Fourteen figures.

XIV. AViring and Poisoning tlie Tarsus.

XV. Finishing a Mounted Bird. Philosophy of "Walking Attitudes. Five figures.

XVI. Winding the Plumage of Birds. Three figures.

XVII. Removing Owls' Eyes. Taking out Tendons in Birds' Legs. Breast-cut Method
of Skinning Birds. Eight figures.

XVIII. Breast-cut Method of Mounting Birds. Group of Robins. Seven figures.

XIX. Variations and Exceptions in Skinning Birds. Seven figures.

XX. Legs, Wings, Muscular System and Artificial Structure in Raptores. Four
figures.

XXI. Mounting Birds with Spread Wings. Five figures.

XXII. New Method of Mounting Long-necked Birds. Five figures.

XXIII. Mounting Colossal Birds. Framework of the Ostrich.

XXIV. Mending Broken Bones of Birds. Nine figures.
XXV. Drying Forms for Birds. Three figures.

XXVI. Wrapping Skins for the Cabinet. Two figures.
XXVII. Models for Bird Skins. Seven figures.
XXVIII. Ascertaining the Sexes of Birds. Two figures.
XXIX. Forms and Attitudes. Cormorants, Horned Grebe, Sooty Albatross, American
White-fronted Goose, Northern Phalarope. Six figures.
XXX. Forms and Attitudes. Black Tern, Caspian Tern, American Herring Gull,
Black Skimmer. Four figures.

(XI)

XII LIST OF PL A TES.

l-LATE.

XXXI. Forms and Attitudes. Red-head, Green-winged Teal, Swan. Three Jigures.

XXXII. Forms and Attitudes. Canada Goose, Greater Snow Goose, PufBn, American
or Greenland Eider. Four Ji(jure.<.

XXXIII. Forms and Attitudes. Loon, Long-tailed Duck, American Avocet, White

Ibis, Great Blue Heron, Five Jir/ures.

XXXIV. Forms and Attitudes. Least Bittern, Semipalmated Ring Plover, Whooping

Cranes. Four Jigures.

XXXV. Forms and Attitudes. Group of Greenland or White Gyrfalcons. Three
Jigures.

XXXVl. Forms and Attitudes. American (Josliawks, Cooper'sHawk, American Sparrow
Hawks. Five Jigures.

XXXVII. Forms and Attitudes. Great Blue Heron, Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Swallow-
tailed Kite, White-Breasted Nuthatch. Four Jigures.

XXXVIII. Forms and Attitudes. Screech Owl, Great Horned Owl, Snowy Owl, American
Barn Owl. Four Jigures.

XXXIX. Forms and Attitudes. Thrush, American Robin, Meadow Pipit, White-rumped
Shrike, American Titlark, Sharp-tailed Sparrow, House Wren, Chickadee,
American Crossbills. Nine figures.

XL. American White-fronted Goose, in Thread Winding; mounted by the author.
From photograph by Baker.

XLI. Greater Yellow-legs, in Stepping Attitude, with Thread Winding; mounted
by the author. From photogra])h by Baker.

XLII. Cooper's Hawk ; mounted by tlie author. From photograph by Baker.
XLIII. Oological Instruments ; Xest bound with Thread ; Wire Nest Standard. Nine
Jigures.

XLIV. Skinning Sm^ll Mammals. Siz Jigures.

XLV. Wiring Small Quadrupeds. M. B. Stollas' method.

XLVI. AViring Small Quadrupeds. Six Jigures.

XLVII. Sewing up the Opening in Small (Quadrupeds, with Forms and Attitudes.
Six Jigures.

XLVIII. Skins of Quadrupeds. Tv:o Jigures.
XLIX. Skeleton of a Greyhound.

L. Superficial Muscles of the Horse and Dog. Facial Expressions of the Horse,
together with the Formation of its Nostrils, Lips, and ^NToutli. Fivr
figures.

LI. Diagram for Obtaining Measurements of Large Quadrupeds, and for Making
the Opening Incision in the Skin of Mammals to be Mounted upon tlie
Dermoplastic Method.

LIT. First Stage of Building tiie Manikin for the (ireyhound upon tiie Dermo-
plastic Metiiod.

LIII. Second Stage of Building the Manikin for the Greyhound upon the Dermo-
plastic Method.

LIV. Greyhound Mounted on the Dermoplastic Method, from beginning to comple-
tion. Front \'iew Asiatic Eloi)Iiant. Five figures.

LIST OF PLATES.

XIII

PLATK.

LV.

LVI.

LVU.

LVIII.

LTX.

LX.

LXI.

I.Xll.
LX III.
LXIV.

LXV.

LXVI.
LXVII.

LXVIII.
LXIX.

LXX.
LXXI.

Lxxir.

LXXIII.

LXXIV.

LXXV.

LXXVI.

LXXVII.

LXXVIII.

LXXIX.

LXXX.

LXX XL

LXXXIL

Structural Frame-work for Mounting the Elepliant. Completed Asiatic Ele-
phant. Tuo fi(iures.

First Steps in the Frame-work for the Mounting of the Horse upon tlie Dermo-
plastic Method. Tno (Ifiunv.

First Steps in the Frame-work of the Mounting of the Horse, withuut tlie use
of Bones, upon the Dernioplastic Method. Five fupi rex.

Second Steps in the Frame work of the Horse, without tlie use of I'ones, upon
the Dermoplastic Method. 2wo jigiires.

Finished Chiy-covered Manikin of the Horse in tlie Dermoplastic Method, and
the Completed Animal. Tvo jicjuroi.

I'orms and Attitudes. Opossum, Eabbit, Foxes. Four figures.

Forms and Attitudes. "Wildcat, Fox, Marten, Lynx. Four Jiyures.

Forms and Attitudes. Fox, Gray Squirrels. Three figures.

Forms and Attitudes. Otter, Muskrat, Mink, Reaver. Four figures.

Forms and Attitudes. Elk.

Forms and Attitudes. Pointer Dogs. Two figures.

Forms and Attitudes. Setters. Tuo figures.

Proboscis Monkey, mounted at Ward's Xatural Science Establishment. From

photograph.
Chimpanzee's Head, Hands and Feet. Four figures.

Sewing Up the Opening Cut in Heads with Horns, Blocking out tlie Ears,
Xeck Boards, Mounted Goose, Eagle and Fish Heads. Ten figures.

Designs for Center-boards in Heads ; Heads Modeled in Clay ; Fox, Antelope,
Deer, Hyena. Four figures.

Finished Fox Head, Antelope Head, Deer Head, and Hyena Head, with
mouth open, in rage. Four figures.

Mounted Dog Heads — Setter, Pointer, Bulldog, Greyhound, Spaniel, Bull-
terrier, Stag hound. Seven figures.

Buffalo Head, remounted from an old specimen by tlie author. From photo-
graph by Baker.

Head of Big-horn Sheep, mounted at Ward's Xatural Science Establishment.
From photograph.

Caribou Head, mounted at Ward's Natural Science Establishment. From
photograph.

Elk Head, mounted at Ward's Natural Science Establisliment. From photo-
grapli.

Moose Head, mounted by the author. From pliotograph by Baker.

Steer Heads, mounted and photographed by Gustav Stainsky, Chicago.

Skinning and Mounting Turtles and Snakes. Five figures.

Skinning and Mounting Turtles and Fishes. Five figures.

System of Wiring in the Frog.

System of Wiring and Mounting Crustaceans ; example, the Blue Crab.

Five figures.

XIV

Ll^r UI- PLATES.

PLATE.

LXXXIII. Method of Skeletonizing and Mounting a Turtle as shown in a Single Speci-
men. 'Three jigiires.

LXXXIV. Snake and Lizard Attitudes. Three Jhjures.

LXXXV. Bob-AVhites with Painted Background in Convex Glass, by Charles K. Eeed,
^Vorcester, Mass. From photograph.

LXXXVI. Trout Scene with Painted Background in Convex Glass, by Charles K. Keed,
Worcester, Mass. From photograph.

LXXXVTT. "Wtiunded Great Black-backed Gull, mounted by Frank B. Webster, Hyde
Park, Mass. From photograph by Baker.

LXXXV 111. Short-eared Owl in Gilded Crescent, prepared by the author. From photo-
graph by Charles H. Doty.

LXXIX. Making Casts. Six Jigures.

CHAPTER I.

INSTRUMENTS, MATERIALS, WORKSHOP, ETC.

Individual preference may often regulate the quantity and quality
of a collector's outfit, when the size of his purse does not have to be
taken into consideration.

The extent to which you desire to carry on operations in taxidermy
will altogether determine what should constitute your equipment ; but,
as for the beginner, who is to learn the A B C of the art, the instru-
ments necessary to proceed with are comparatively few and inexpen-
sive. As the amateur proceeds, however, he will gradually discover
what is desirable and necessary in his practice, and will provide for
his wants accordingly.

In order to attain the fullest success, the taxidermist must provide
himself with excellent tools, and all materials requisite for the per-
formance of his work. 'Tis the shining steel instruments of modern
make that become favorites among skilled workmen.

Powers could never have executed his '* Greek Slave " with a com-
mon cold-chisel, and many a battle has been lost for lack of the proper
sinews of war. By all means, equip yourself before entering the field.

I shall not dwell longer on the importance of providing a first-class
outfit, but shall inspect the quarters in which we are to do the work,
and the place in which we are to store our specimens, great and small.
We shall first examine the workshop, its general appointments, and the
materials to be used.

The Workshop. — Unless you are an inspired genius, do not select
a gloomy, out-of-the-way room in the cellar or garret, for such environ-
ments are seldom congenial to the best kind of work. The alchemists
and taxidermists of old made this mistake, but I would advise you not
to follow their example, unless circumstances absolutely compel you to
do so. Select a well-lighted, airy room in your house, or have one built
to suit your purpose, and make its appointments as complete as will suit
your own convenience. An ideal workshop, together with a repository
or museum hall, the capacity of which will answer any purpose required
for work in taxidermy, whether you desire to engage in it for pleasure
or for profit, may be described as follows : A room, not less than 18x20

I (O

2 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

feet, and one story in height, should occupy the ground floor, with two
good-sized windows at one end, a door at the side, made large enough
for the egress of your mounted elephants, horses, etc.; a sky-light in the
roof should be arranged so that it can be opened for ventilation. Ad-
joining this, a repository or museum hall should be built, 40 feet long
and 15 feet wide, with two sky-lights, made sufficiently large to admit
plenty of light. This hall should be furnished with glass wall and aisle
cases, made as nearly dust-tight as possible. My private museum hall,
at No. 239 Tenth Avenue, is of this same design and proportioned as
above. In our workshop, which still demands our attention, a dark
closet must be made for the drying of freshly mounted specimens, and
another for the storage of materials, such as tow, excelsior, and straw
by the bale, plaster of Paris, salt, and ground alum by the barrel or
hundred weight, and potter's clay by the ton. Make a work table 7 feet
long, '?>\ feet wide, and 2 feet 6 inches high, the top out of H-inch oak
plank, dressed ; make the table portable, so that you can fasten it to the
wall directly in front of the windows, or move it into the center of the
room under the sky-light. At one end of the table fix a heavy, iron
vise. Have sunken into this table, at one end, flush with the top, a
piece of plate glass 3 feet square, on which to skin birds. A chopping
block, made of a section of a sycamore, is an excellent thing for many
purposes. A case with drawers, to contain the necessary tools, should
be placed close by. Various sizes of stone, glass and earthen jars
should be provided in which to pickle the skins of the smaller mam-
mals. Make a large box-like tank or vat, constructed of oak and lined
with sheet lead, to hold the skins of the large subjects. Over this
tank, in the ceiling, should be fixed a rope and pulley to facilitate the
handling and turning of heavy skins.

The salt and alum solution in which the skins are placed evaporates
very rapidly, and it is necessary to tack a thin strip of sheet-rubber
round the edge of the lid of the large tank to make it fit tightly. The
same construction ma}- be followed in making the lids for the stone jars.

In taking the skins of mammals out of the salt and alum bath to
place or fit them on the manikin, or when the skins in this position are
wrapped in wet blankets to keep them moist during the process of sew-
ing, the liquid is constantly dripping from them. It is quite necessary,
therefore, to provide a water-tighl platform, properly drained, on which'
to stand the manikin.

I have here described an ideal workshop, and it is not, by any
means, expected that the beginner will prepare so elaborately for a line
of work in which he has not attained proficiency.

PLATE I.

— _rj

PLATK I.

INSTR UMENTS.

Figs. 1, 2, 8, best shapes of scissors to use.

Fig. 4, shears for coarse work.

Fig. o, " killing knife" for skinning large subjects.

Figs. 6, 7, scalpels for small woiiv.

Fig. 8, cartilage knife, :ill steel, for heavy work.

6 METHODS IN THE ART OE TAXIDERMY.

Do not be backward in beginning operations on the dining or
kitchen table, and work there, at least, until you have been ejected, spec-
imens and all, by the lady of the house. Do not let a scanty supply of
tools stop your progress. I have seen wonderful pieces of taxidermy
done with a sharp penknife, some wire, tow, needle and thread, and
some arsenic. The qualities which go to make a good ' jack-of-all-
trades' are brought into requisition in taxidermic art.

Materials. — In addition to the excelsior, tow, plaster and other ma-
terials already mentioned, our workshop would be very much lacking in
its requirements if the following were not included : i. e., spirits of tur-
pentine and boiled linseed oil with which to mix paints for painting the
discolored parts of mounted animals, benzine, hard oil finish (white, for
varnishing), arsenious acid, common whiting, bi-carbonate of soda, muri-
atic acid, shellac, white glue, arsenical soap, twine of two or three
sizes, cotton batting, sponges of several grades and sizes, coarse and
fine long-fibre hemp tow, fine flax tow, as used by upholsterers.

Most of the tools used by the carpenter are essential adjuncts to
the taxidermist's outfit ; also many of those used by the blacksmith, in-
cluding the anvil, portable forge, and bolt clippers.

A small supply of walnut, oak, ash, and hemlock lumber is always use-
ful, besides i, ^, |^, and 1 inch dressed pine boards and 2x4 pine scantling.

Essential to our stock is an assortment of annealed wire, and, for the
benefit of those who are inexperienced in the matter, I give below the
common names of a few North American birds and mammals, and the
various sizes of wire which I have used in their mounting. I take for my
standard wire gauge the one manufactured by The Washburn &
IMoen Manufacturing Company, Worcester, Mass.

No. G — American White Pelican, Brown Pelicau, Whoopiug Crane.

No. or 7— Whistling Bwau, Olor colwmhianus fOrd.), Trumpeter Swan, Olor buccin-
ator (Rich.), Sandhill Crane, Orus viexicana (Mull.), Wild Turkey.

No. 8 or 0— Flamingo, Wood This, Bald Eagle, Golden Eagle.

No. 9 or 10— Loon, American White-fronted Goose, Canada Goose, Brant, iJron^a
bernicla (Linn.), Great White Heron, Ardea occidentalis (And.),
Great Blue Heron, often erroneously called "Sandhill Crane" or
" Blue Crane," Roseate Spoonbill, American Egret Ardea egretta
(Gmel.), Turkey Vultuie.

No. 10 or 11 — Double-crested Cormorant, American Herring Gull, Mallard, Redhead,
Canvas-back, American Eider, Red-tailed Hawk, Red-shouldered
Hawk, American Osjirey, Great Horned Owl, Snowy Owl.

No. 11 or 12— American ^ferganser. Red-breasted Merganser, Shoveler, Wood Duck,
Surf Scoter, Barred Owl.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 7

No. 12 or 13 — American Bitteru, Bluck-crowued Night Plerou, Yellow-crowued
Night Herou, Sage Grouse, Crow.

No. l;> or 14— Hooded Merganser, Baldpate, Green-winged, P>lue-winged, and Cin-
namon Teals, Pintail, Buflle-head, Old-stjuaw, Ruddy Duck, Florida
Gallinulo, American Coot, ]\uffli'(l Grouse, Pr.iirie Hen, Marsli
Hawk.

No. 14 — Reddish Egret, Louisiana Herou, Lilllc Blue Heron, Green Hiron, King
Rail, American Barn Owl, American Long-eared Owl, .Short-eared
Owl.

No. I'i or 17 — Dabchick, Greater Yellow-legs, Black-bellied Plover, American Golden
Plover, Mourning Dove, Screech Owl, Ik-lted Kingfisher.

No. 17 or IS— Least Bitteru, American Woodcock, Wilson's or Jack Snij^e, Solitary
Sandpiper, Killdeer, Bob-white, Saw-whet Owl, P'licker, Jilue Jay,
Yellow-lieaded Blackbird, Meadowlark, Purple, Florida, and
Bronzed Grackles, Brown Thrasher.

No. IS— Wilson's or Common Tern, Yellow and Black-billed Cuckoos, Hairy Wood-
pecker, Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, Red-headed Woodpecker, Red-
bellied Woodpecker, Robin.

No. IK— Black Tern, Virginia and Sora Rails, Baird's Sandpiper, Piping Plover,
Downy Woodpecker, Crested Flycatcher, Red-winged Blackbird,
Baltimore Oriole, Rusty Blackbird, Wax-wings, Mockingbird,
Catbird.

No. 20— Red, Northern, and Wilson's Phalaropes, Least Saudpip'er, Semi-palmated
Sandpiper, Kingl)ird, Cardinals, Wilson's Thrush, Olive-backed
Tin-ush, Hermit Thrush, Bluebird.

The sizes from Nos. 21 to 24 are stiitable for so many of the dimin-
utive birds found among the Finches, Fringillidce ., and in the family of
\'ireos, VireonidcB. Nos. 23 and 24 are particularly desirable for nearly
all the American Warblers, Sylvicolidcs ; these sizes are also necessary in
mounting all of the diminutive Wrens, the Titmice, Paridcr^ the Creep-
ers, CerihhdcF.! and the dainty little Sylvians, of which I may mention
the Ruby-crowned and Golden-crowned Kinglets, and the Elue-gray
Gnatcatcher. No. 26 is suitable for any of the North American Hum-
mingbirds. •

In each instance where two sizes of wire are mentioned for the sev-
erally named species, I have invariably used the larger when I was sure
the size of the wire would not break the skin along the back of the leg,
or disfigure it in any way. In motmting a half dozen Flamingos, I used
No. 9 wire. In many birds the sizes of the wires were still larger than
the largest given, especially when the bodies of the birds were massive
and heavy, as in the Loon, Pelican, and Swan. When the bird is to
stand on one leg, and sometimes when it is to be raotinted with wings
spread, a larger size is necessary. The sinaller sizes of wire, it is true,

PLATE II.

JA'S TR UMl^NTS.

Fig. 1, ohaiu aud books for hanging up birds while skinuing.

Fig. 2, drill for making boles in legs of birds, especially dry skins, that the wire may

pass through more easily. Several sizes are necessary.
Fig. 3, long scissor-like stuflfing forceps for placing filling in the necks of birds;

12-inch length is most desirable.
Fig, 4, dissecting saw 41 inches long with movable back.
Fig. 5, fine curved, pointed spring forceps.
Fig. 6, fine straight spring forceps.

Fig. 7, skin-scraper, for scraping or shaving down the dry skins of mammals.
Fig. 8, toothed currier's knife for paring down the dry skins of large mannnals.
Fig. 9, keen-edged currier's knife, suitable for thinning down green or diy skins ol

the larger quadrupeds.

PLATE II.

•'^- I ■ ■ -f r-t FifiiiriM

•■'''twVmvnvmvmtMiv»v..rt^l,mv>,iwv-«v.v/.»mv^,v,v«v»-rtrM-/.-/'*''

6 -

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. II

will support the specimens when thoroughly dry, and they are, in fact,
the sizes most commonly used, but the object is to make every structure
so strong that there will not be the slightest doubt as to its firmness
when finished.

What is more aggravating than to discover, after your specimen is
standing, that the supports are not quite strong enough ; that your speci-
men wabbles, and that, in order to remedy the defect, it must be taken
down and taken apart and heavier supports inserted ! One or two ex-
periences like this, especially with mammals, will teach the novice that
to adopt heroic sizes of wire in the first place, when possible, is the best
course to pursue, even if it does involve a little more physical labor all
around.

Let me recommend to my readers the use of copper wire in the
mounting of birds and the smaller mammals ; for more than one reason
it is far superior to the annealed iron wire which is so generally used. It
is more easily worked, because it is more pliable, and, best of all, it will
last forever. For my first knowledge of the use of copper wire in
mounting specimens, I am indebted to Dr. Jasper, my artist, and the
inventor of so many of the devices in the art which his own hands have
so faithfully delineated in this work.

The sizes of wires which I have used in some of the full-grown
mammals are as follows :

No. 7 — Wolveriue.

No. 7 or S— Wild Cat, Lrpxx rxfus (Guldenstadt).

No. 8 or 9— Reel Fox, Gray Fox.

No. 10 — American Badger, Otter, Raccoon, Ground Hog, Beaver.

No. 11 or 12— Civet Cat, Martin, Skuuk.

No. 12 or 13— Muskrat, Gray Rabbit, Opossum.

No. 14 or 15 — American Mink, Gray Squirrel, Fox .Squirrel.

No. 17 or 18 — Weasel, Red Squirrel, Chipmunk, Gopher

A full-sized Bullfrog, Raiia catesbiana (Shaw), mounted in a quiet,
natural position, requires No. 19 wire for its support; and in an up-
right or human-like attitude. No. 17,

Some of the tailed Amphibians, the size of the Mud Puppy or Water
Dog, Necturtis macidaiiis (Rafinesque), or the species known as the Hell-
bender or Mud Devil, take a No. 14 wire. Most of these however, are
preserved in clear spirits. The African Ostrich requires ^-inch iron rod.

The common domestic cat usually needs a No. 12 or 13 wire;
Pointer, Setter Dog, Coyote, \ inch Norway round iron rod ; Gray Wolf,
^ inch ; Giant Kangaroo, f inch ; Cougar or American Panther,f5^ inch ;
American Tapir, f inch; Caribou and large Mountain Sheep, J inch ;

12 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Moose, Elk, and Giraffe, | inch. The size of rod which I have always
used for supports in the horse and cow was f inch ; this size is also
necessary for the American Bison.

List of Essential Tools, etc.

3 pairs of fine scissors, one curved, Figs. 1, 2, 3, PI. I.

1 pair sliears, P^ig. 4, PI. I.

■.\ ficalpels, Figs, (i, 7, PI. I.

'1 cartilage knives, Fig. 8, PI. I.

•1 " killing knives,"' Fig. 5, PI. I.

3 skin-scrapers, various sizes, one small for birds, " home made'" as directed. Fig. 7,

PI. II.
1 currier's knife, toothed, one with plain edge, Figs. 8, i>, PI. II.
1 bone-saw. Fig. 4, PI. II.

3 pair spring forceps, one curved point, two straight, Figs. 5, 6, PI. II; Fig. 4, PI. III.

4 drills of different sizes, for making holes in legs of birds — dry skins especially.

Fig. 2, PI. II.

1 chain and hooks. Fig. 1, PI. II.

2 pair Hall's cutting pliers, 5 and 7 inch, Fig. 1, PI. III.

3 flat-nosed pliers of difTerent sizes, Fig. 2, PI. III.

1 liand-vise, Fig. 3, PL III.

6 sizes of surgeon's needles, three straight, three curved. Fig. 6, PI. III.
3 stuffing rods, of various lengths as directed, of iron wire, notched at one end, with
loop or w'ood handles, as in Figs. 1, 2, 3, PI. IV.

5 boxwood and steel modeling tools of different shapes. Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, PI. IV.
3 gouges of different sizes.

5 chisels of various sizes.

2 sizes of screw-drivers.
1 2- foot rule.

1 12-foot tape measure.

1 thread-cutter for iron, 1 for brass.

1 bolt-clipper.

1 first-class hand-saw.

1 key-hole saw.

1 ratchet-brace, with bits and drills.

6 gimlet bits of different sizes.

2 sizes of monkey-wrenches.
1 first-class hatchet.

1 machinist's hammer.
1 claw-hammer.
1 tack-hammer.
1 cold-chisel.
1 nail-punch.

3 hack-saws, for iron and brass.
1 pair of calipers.

1 set of files, five sizes.

1 glue-pot.

10 darning-needles of different sizes.

4 awls, various sizes.

3 papers of common needles, various sizes.

JUL 2^i 1902

-^n \^

t-?

^••.^ij^:;-' j.\( X A i^

PLATE HI.

HLATK III.

IXSTRUMENTS.

Fig-. 1, Hall's coiupouud lever nippers; best cuttiug pliers tor the general use of the

taxidermist, the most useful sizes beiug o and 7 inches.
Fig. 2, tlat-uosed i^liers, used in taxidermy for bending and clinching wire, etc.
Fig. 3, hand- vice for holding wire wliile filing sharp points thereon.
Fig. 4, spring forceps, for ]ilaeing filling in necks of the smaller Inrds, etc., best size

5 inches.
Fig. •"), surgeon's bone forceps, used for detaching the legs and necks of turtles and

small quadrupeds ; also handy in skinning fishes.
Fig. 6, straight and curved surgeon's needles.
Fig. 7, bobbin of soft thread fur winding the feathers of birds; obtained at cotton

mills, technically called cops.

l6 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

1 paper of pins.

1 set of glover's needles, five sizes>

2 balls of Barbour's Irish flax, No. 12.
12 spools Barbour's linen thread.

1 thimble.

1 spirit-lamp or gas-stove.

1 l)all best linen sewing twine.

1 ])f)bbin of fine, soft thread for winding the plumage of birds, Fig. 7, I'l. TTI.

1 copper tank in wooden box for coUeeting alcoholics.

1 alcoholometer for testing the strength of alcohol.

4 iron kettles of various sizes, from one gallon upwards.

2 pails, or more.

\ dozen bowls of dilterent sizes.
2 small trowels.

1 sculptor's broad spatula, copjier, 10 inches long, for moulding.

1 R. Hoehn Co.'s taxidermist's salinoraeter for testing strength of salt and alum so-
lution.
1 good stomach and a clear head.

The scalpel is the necessary instrument for skinning small birds,

and there is an advantage in having several with variotis sized blades,
as seen in Figs. 6 and 7, Plate I. Some are made of a solid piece of
steel, like the heavy cartilage knife, Fig. 8, which is best for the larger
birds and the smaller mammals.

The very best knife in shape and quality for heavier work is that
called the " killing knife" (Plate I, Fig. 5), manufactured by J. Russell
& Co., Green River Works, Turner's Falls, Mass. The price of this
knife is only seventy-five cents, and will well repay any taxidermist
who will provide himself with several of them. In case you can not
procure it, the butcher-knife must, of course, take its place.

The surgeon's bone forceps, or bone cutters, either straight or
curved edge, will be found handy for detaching the legs and necks of
turtles, and they are also convenient in the skinning of fishes, birds and
small quadrupeds (Fig. 5, Plate III).

When you come to severing legs and wings, clipping off pieces of
flesh, fat, and tendons, each of the various shaped scissors Plate I have
their special t:se.

The skin-scraper (Plate II, Fig. 7) is an absolutely necessary in-
strument for scraping or shaving down the hard, dry skins of mammals
which you desire to motmt.

The toothed currier's knife (Fig. 8) is most excellent for paring
down the drv skins of large mammals, while the keen-edged one, rep-
resented by Fig. 9, is suitable for use on green and dry skins. A sharp
draw-shave wnll answer the purpose when the currier's knives can not
be obtained. For scraping the dry skins of birds, I ustially take an old

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. ly

tablespoon, flatten the bowl, cut it off square in the juiddle, bend it,
and file teeth in it, similar to Fig. 7, Plate II. This makes a first-class
instrument for scraping dr)- bird skins and also those of the small
mammals.

The dissecting saw (Fig. I, Plate II) should be 4i inches long, with
movable back. It costs $2.75, but it can be substituted much cheaper
by cutting the same length off a hack saw, and fitting it to a wooden
handle. This instrument is indispensable in sawing through the shells
of turtles and through the bones of mammals, as the case may demand.

The long scissor-handled forceps ( Plate II, Fig. 3) are used for plac-
ing filling in the necks of ducks, herons, and other long-necked birds.
The most desirable length of these forceps is 1 2 inches. For placing the
filling in the necks of the smaller birds, the spring forceps, 5 inches long
(Fig. 4, Plate HI), are the most commonly used. Several sizes and
shapes, however, should be at hand, such as are represented by Fig. 5
and 6, Plate II ; light and delicate ones for arranging the plumage of
birds, and doing many other little things which you will soon acquire
by habit and experience.

The chain and hooks (Fig. 1, Plate II), are used for hanging up the
body of a bird after you have reached the point of skinning over the tail,
as shown in the plate illustrating the skinning of the robin. A good-
sized fish-hook with the barb filed off and suspended on a strong cord
will answer the purpose very well.

The drill (Fig. 2, Plate II), made of a sharpened steel wire with a
wooden handle, is a very handy tool for making holes in the legs of birds,
especially in the legs of dry skins where, in many cases, it is almost im-
possible to force a soft annealed wire without first making a hole with
the drill. Several sizes are necessary.

By far the best cutting pliers for the general use of the taxidermist
is Hall's compound lever nippers (Fig. 1, Plate III). These, together
with those represented by Figs. 2 and 3 of the same plate, are manufac-
tured by the Interchangeable Tool Co., Boonton, New Jersey, who also
make a side-cutting pliers on the same mechanical principle. The side-
cutters are used where the end-cutters fail to reach, which is seldom
the case with the latter in our work.

Besides having a most powerful leverage, one of the beauties of Hall's
double-lever nippers is, that when the jaws break new ones can be re-
placed at a trifling cost. These pliers can be procured at hardware stores,
and the best sizes are 5 and 7 inches, respectively. Any wire which the
7-inch nippers will not cut, it is best to resort to the bolt-clipper, com-
monly used by the blacksmith to cut iron rods and bolts.

PLATE IV.

INSTR UMBNTS-

Figs. 1, 2, 3, stuffiug rods ; like Fig. 1 should be two or tlii-ee feet long, made of bard
wood and tipped with steel, notched ; and like Fig. 2 of light steel rod, tliree
feet long for large mammals. Fig. 3 should be 18 inches long for small
mammals.

Figs. 4, 5, 6, box-wood modeling tools.

Figs. 7, 8, 9, steel modeling tools.

iM A 1 1: i\'

]

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 21

The hand-vise (Fig. 3, Plate III) is essential in holding the annealed
wire while filing sharp points thereon, while several sizes of flat-nosed
pliers (Fig. 2, Plate III) are necessary in bending and clinching wire,
and for many other uses to which they are adapted.

In sewing up the openings in mammals and birds, preparatory to
putting on the finishing touches, it is best to use the regular surgeon's
needles, straight and curved, of various lengths (Fig. 6, Plate III). Few
taxidermists, however, use anything better than a common needle for
birds.

If you cannot buy extra long needles for sewing manikins, you can
make them by grinding a sharp point on one end of steel wire ; heating
the other end red hot and, whils in this state, flatten the end with a
hammer. It becomes cold during this operation, but heat it again and
while hot, with an awl punch an eye in it while it rests on a bar of
lead. In this way you can make excellent needles for any large size
for mammals.

Experience has taught me that a soft, downy thread is best for wind-
ing the feathers of birds, and this is particularly the case in the smaller
species. For this purpose I prefer the thread from the bobbin, which
can be obtained at the cotton mills, technically called cops ( Fig. 7, Plate
III). When this can not be obtained, a spool of No. 40 thread will answer
the purpose for the smaller birds. For the larger species — hawks, owls,
etc., the soft, fluffy Barbour's No. 12 Irish flax, commonly used by
shoemakers for making wax-ends, is the very best.

The stuffing rods are shown in Plate IV, Figs. 1, 2, and 3. Two that
I use for large mammals are made of ash, tipped with steel, notched as
seen in Fig. 1 ; they are 2 and 3 feet long, respectively. Another is
made of a light steel rod, curved at the point, and notched, and is 3 feet
long, with wooden handle, like Fig. 2. One represented by Fig. 3, for
small mammals, is made of a lighter steel rod, and is 18 inches long. To
make a small stuffing-rod for birds, take a piece of hard, straight iron
wire, No. 13, twelve inches long, hammer one end flat, notch it, give
the point a slight curve, or make it straight (both kinds are useful), make
a loop for the handle, or put on a wooden one, as indicated in Figs. 2
and 3, Plate IV.

The stock of implements which has already been described and cata-
logued is yet incomplete, for we must bring to our assistance some of the
essential tools and materials which are employed in other arts. For put-
ting on the finishing touches — painting or tinting the discolored fleshy
parts of mounted animals, and for modeling the open mouths of mam-
mals, etc., we must not forget to bring into our studio or workshop our

v'^'^" LIBRAR

I !

22 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

artistic ability, tube paints, brushes, the palette, and a number of
sculptor's modeling tools.

The modeling tools are made of various materials, such as cocoa-
wood, boxwood, wire, zinc, copper, and steel, and are of various shapes.
Any of the instruments or materials used by artists may be procured of
any dealer in artists' materials, or of F. W. Devoe & Co., IManufacturers
and Importers of Artists' Materials, New York City. A few of the most
desirable shapes of the modeling tools for our purpose are illustrated in
Plate IV ; Figs. 4, 5, and 6 are made of wood, and 7, 8, and 9 are of steel.

The following Windsor & Newton's tube colors are necessary :
Burnt umber, burnt sienna, chrome green, chrome yellow, chrome red,
emerald green, flake white, Indian red, indigo, ivory black, lampblack,
Naples yellow, Prussian blue, raw sienna, raw umber, sugar of lead, van-"
dyke brown, Venetian red, vermilion. These colors are put up in con-
venient collapsible tubes, and are the best for fine work.

A palette 10x14 inches is sufficiently large. This should be accom-
panied by a palette-knife and cups. Most of the above colors, it should
be remembered, can be procured ground in oil in one-pound cans, and also
in dry colors; these will be found absolutely necessary for coarse work on
mammals, and the brush suitable for this grade of painting is the com-
mon socket sash tool, the best sizes being from Nos. 3 to 9, costing from
fifteen to thirty-five cents each. In this kind of work it is also very de-
sirable to have a 3 and 4 inch stippling brush, or " stippler," as it is
called. For medium work, the best brushes are of fitch hair, or a com-
bination of fitch and French bristles, both round and flat ; the sizes
from 1 to 6 are the most desirable. For fine work get the artist's round
Russia sable hair brushes; the sizes run from 1 to 12, the intermediate
sizes answering the more general purpose.

The artist's materials enumerated above are of the utmost import-
ance to any person who would engage in the higher branches of tax-
idermic work. With these he must test his ability in putting on the
final touches which give expression and color to many of the specimens
belonging to the higher orders of the animal kingdom, while they are
of just as much importance in finishing a large number of the birds,
reptiles, and fishes.

Artificial Eyes for Animals. — Glass eyes are manufactured in every
variety of shape, color and size to suit the various animals. Plate VI
will give a fair idea of the sizes, shapes, and styles commonly used.

In skinning a specimen, be sure and take particular note of the
color of the eye, and in ordering from your dealer, you should always
give the name of the animal for which the eyes are intended, and state

PLAl K V

INS TR UiTENTS.

Figs. 1, 12, pocket field cases of iustrumeuts.

Fig. 3, common dissecting case, containing many of the tools needed by the begin*
ner as well as the field-collector. (See Chapter III).

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 2;

that you desire the sizes figured iu this work. You will then receive
exactly what you order. Most eyes come attached to wires, as seen in
Figs. H and K.

Nos. to 27, it will be observed, have a round, black pupil ; the color
of the iris of these is extremely variable, being carmine, yellow, straw,
white, green, blue, brown, reddish-brown, and dark hazel.

These are the kind used for birds, and they are the plainest for
mammals, except the entirely black eye, which is often substituted for
the colored ones, both in mammals and in birds, when the iris is of so
dark a hazel or brown that it can scarcely be distinguished from black.
This is the case in a large number of the smaller birds, as the Titmice,
Creepers, Wrens, Warblers, Tanagers, Swallows, Finches, and many of
the larger species. The plain black eye, for instance, is commonly in-
serted in the Barred Owl ; its proper color, however, is blue-black. The
same may be said of the Barn Owl. Of the mammals, in which the
plaiu black eye is generally used, except when the subject is albino,
I may mention the Weasel, Mink, Skunk, Raccoon, all of the squirrels.
Ground Hog, Gray Rabbit, Opossum, and the Black Bear. Sometimes
our sensibilities are shocked upon seeing a solid black eye in a mounted
deer's head. Solid black eyes, it should be understood, can be obtained
in any of the sizes given, but they should never be substituted if there
is a distinctly visible tint in the iris of the specimen for which they
are intended.

So far as my experience goes, the most convenient glass eye for the
taxidermist to use is the clear flint eye, which, with tube colors and var-
nish, can be painted any color to suit the eyes of the subject' in hand.

In the grade with the round, black pupil, the sizes range from Nos.
to 27 ; in those of the clear, transparent kind, used for various mam-
mals with round pupil and ivhite corners.^ the sizes range from Nos. G
to 27 ; elongated pupils in the clear glass have Nos. G to 27 ; in the
irregular pupil, for fish, the sizes range from Nos. 6 to 24.

For any animal in which there is a preternatural whiteness of the
feathers or hair, and a peculiar pinkness of the iris and pupil of the eye,
the albino glass eye should, of course, be used. The albino eyes can
be obtained in sizes from Nos. 1 to 17 in the plain round style, and from
Nos. 18 to 27 with white corners.

Figure A in our plate represents an eye with elongated pupil and
plain iris. The sizes in this style range from 16 to 27, and the colors of
iris are brown, and a very light brown suitable for deer, elk, moose, cari-
bou, goat, sheep, etc. A finer quality is represented by Fig. B, elon-
gated pupil, veined green, yellow, straw or brown iris. They can be

26 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

had in sizes from Nos. 6 to 17, and are the best styles for cats ( Fig. C).
The larger ones of the same style range from Nos. 16 to 26, and
are suitable for wildcat, leopard, lynx, panther, etc. An eye of the
same grade (Fig. D), which has a round pupil, veined iris, hazel or
brown, is for fox, dog, bear, etc. The same is made in sizes from Nos.
10 to 16, with white extending entirely around the iris, for dogs and
other small quadrupeds. For fish, irregular pupils are made (Fig. E),
with silver, gold, green, or bronze iris, the sizes being from Nos. 8 to 24.
The eyes with zvhite corners., combining all the qualities of the
finer grades which I have described, are considered by many taxidermists
to be the best. They are shown by Figs. F and G. Nos. 10 to 18, round
pupil, veined brown iris, for fox; Nos. 10 to 22, round pupil, veined
hazel iris, best for dogs, bears, etc.; Nos. 15 to 18, elongated pupil,
brown veined iris, for fox; Nos. 16 to 27, round and elongated pupil,
veined hazel iris, for large mammals.

Sizes and Colors of Eyes for Birds. — In giving the following
sizes and colors of birds' eyes, I should state that they are given chiefly
from personal knowledge and experience, or from specimens now ac-
tually in my private collection. There is often a wide difference be-
tween the color of the eyes of the adult birds and those of the j-oung
of the same species.

Xo. 23 — African Ostrich, browu.

No. 18 to 21 — Great Horned Owl, Straw.

No. IS or 19 — Snowy Owl, straw.

No. 17 — Barred Owl, blue-black, or black; Great Gray Owl, brownish-yellow.

No. 1") — Bald Eagle, adult, straw; young, called Gray Eagle, hazel. Golden Eagle,
browu.

Xo. i:{ to lo — Screech Owl, straw.

No. 14 or 1") —White Pelican, adult, pearly white; young, brown. Brown Pelican,
white.

No. \'-\ or 14 — Great Blue Heron, pale yellow, straw; Osprey, straw.

No. lo or 14 — Loon, red ; Night Heron, adult, red ; young, brown. Yellow-crowned
Night Heron, orange.

No. 12 to 14 — Red-tailed Hawk, yellow or brown ; Bichardson's Owl, straw.

No. 12 or 13 — Canada Goose, hazel; "White-fronted Goose, hazel or brown; Wood
Ibis, Goshawk, red; Long-eared Owl, .straw; Short-eared Owl,
straw.

No. Ill — Flamingo, reddish-brown ; American Bittern, straw; Acadian Owl, straw.
No. 10 or 11 — Wood iHu-k, red ; American Hawk Owl, straw.

IM \ I I VI.

ARTIFICIAL EYES FOR ANIMAES.

This plate represents the various shapes, sizes aud styles of glass eyes usually inserted
in taxidermic specimens. (8ee page 22).

METHODS Ii\ THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 29

No. S or !) — Doubk'-erested Conuoiant, Florida f 'oninnanl, \'i(iIt't-^rcLii Cornioi-
aut, greeu ; Loiiisiaua lleroii, itii ; ijitUu IMue Heron, yol low ; Red-
dish Egret, red ; Greeu Herou, yellow; Biiowy Heron, straw; Cioldeu-
eye Duck, golden-yellow or straw*; Burrow's (Jolden Eye, golden ;
Ikittle-hi-ad, yellow ; Old R(niaw, straw ; HarlcMiuin Duck, reddisli-
brown ; American Eider, brown; tStellar's Duck, brown; J'aeilic
Eider, brown; King Eider, brown; Ruddy Duck, reddish-brown;
American ^Merganser, carmine; Red-breasted Merganser, carmine;
Hooded ISrerganser, yellow; Black Duck, brown; Pintail, brown;
Uadwall, reddish-brown; Wigeon, l)ri)wn ; (Jreen-wingcd Teal,
brown; ]>iuc-winged Teal, brown; Cinnamon Teal, brown; Shov-
eller, orange-red; Canvas-back, red; Red-head, orange; American
Scaup Duck, yellow; Mallard, brown, hazel ; Shar]i-shinned Hawk,
adult, red ; young, straw.

No. G or 7 — Glossy Ibis, red or brown ; White-faced Glossy Ibis, red ; White Ibis,
pearly blue.

No. 5 or G — Auhinga, or Snakebird, carmine ; Least Bitteru, straw.

No. 5 to 7 — Flicker, Robin, Blue Jay, Red-winged Blackbird, hazel or black.

No. to 5 — Sparrows iu general, hazel or black.

Sizes of Eyes for Quadrupeds — Like the sizes given for birds,
those of the quadrupeds are, in a number of cases, taken from speci-
mens in my private collection. Many of the sizes, however, are taken
from the lists of experienced dealers.

Mink and Skunk, Nos. 7 or 8; Red Squirrel, No. 8; Gray Squirrel, No. 10;
Fox Scjuirrel, No. 11 ; Raccoon, Nos. 11 to 14; Rabbit Nos. 12 to 1-5; Jack Rabbit,
Nos. 14 to 17; Fox, Nos. 15 to 17 ; Coyote, Nos. 15 to 17 ; Wolf, Nos. 10 to 18; Bull
Dog, Nos. 17 or 18; Pug Dog, Nos, 14 to 18; Blaek-and-tan Dog, Nos. 14 to 16; Set-
ter and Pointer Dog, Nos. 10 to 18; Black Bear, Nos. 15 to 17 ; Grizzly Bear, Nos. 17
or IS; Domestic Cat, Nos. 11 to 10; Wild Cat, Nos. 10 to 18; Lynx, Nos. 16 to IS;
Cougar, or ^louutain Lion, Nos. 20 to 22; Jaguar, Nos. 22 or 21^; Bengal Tiger, Nos.
24 or 25 ; African Lion, Nos. 23 to 25 ; Horse and Cow, Nos. 25 to 27 ; Deer, Nos. 22
or 23, Maine; Nos. 23 or 24, New York ; Nos. 24 or 25 in the West; Nos. 21 or 22
Florida ; Caribou, Nos. 24 or 25 ; Moose and Elk, Nos. 25 or 27.

Doubtless, few of my readers will attempt to eqtiip themselves so
perfectly for work in taxidermy as I have detailed in this chapter. In
order to pursue a single branch of zoological collecting — birds for in-
stance — it is necessary to possess btit few of the tools and mate-
rials already enumerated. Many will learn to do what they can in the
art simply as a pastime ; others with a view to making a collection of
zoological specimens of a certain district or territory : while some who
have the right kind of ambition, enthusiasm, pluck, and energy, will not
allow the gigantic specimens of zoology to stagger their ingenuity. If
the student is undecided as to how far his practice in the art will ex-
tend, a very few of the more important instruments and materials are
all that are necessary until his fire is kindled or suddenly goes out.

30 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

As dealers in naturalists' supplies I can recommend The Frank
Blake Webster Company, Hyde Park, Mass., who keep every article the
naturalist and taxidermist requires. It will pay any beginner to send
ten cents for their illustrated catalogue of naturalists' materials. Mr.
Frank H. Lattin, of Albion, N. Y., is also an extensive dealer in natur-
alists' materials and zoological specimens. Codman & Shurtleff, surgi-
cal instrument makers, Nos. 13 and 15 Tremont street, Boston, INIass.,
manufacture many of the instruments figured and recommended in
this work. For the best taxidermist's salinometer in the world, for
the alcoholometer, or any kind of hydrometers that you may desire,
I can recommend The R. Hoehn Co. manufacturers, No. 44 College
Place, New York City.

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PLATE VII.

TOPOGRAPHV OF A BIRD.

1, forehead {pons ) ; 2, lore ; ;>, eircuinocuUir region ; 4, crown [vertex) ; 5, eye ;
6, hindhead (occ-qjut); 7, uai)e [nucha); 8, hiud ueck [cervix)] 9, side of neck; 10,
interscapular region ; 11, dorsum, or back proper, including 10; 12, nofceiim, or upper
part of body proper, whicli includes 10 to 13 ; 13, rump (xiropijgium) ; 14, upper tail-
coverts; 15, tail; 1(>, under tail-coverts (crii^suni)] 17, tarsus; 18, abdomen; 19,
anal region ; 20, hind toe (haUux) ; 21, outer or fourth toe ; 22, middle or third toe;
23, second or inner anterior toe; 24, heel; 25, gasirfeum, including 18 and 26; 26,
breast (2:>ecf us); 27, primaries ; 28, secondaries ; 29, tertiaries; Nos. 27, 28, 29 are all
remigcs; 30, primary coverts; 31, greater coverts; 32 jnedian coverts; 33, lesser
coverts; 34, bastard wing ; 35, lower throat or jugulum ; 36, middle throat ov guln ;
37, chin or mentum ; 35rt, the throat, including 35, 36 and 37; 38, auriculars; 39,
malar region; 40, corner of mouth, or angle of commissure; 41, rajiius of under
mandible; 42, gomjs; 43, apex or tip of bill ; 44, side of under mandible; 45, cutting
edges of bill, or tomia; 46, side of upper mandible; 47, ridge of upper mandible,
culmen; 48, nostril.

CHAPTER II.

PRESERVATIVES, POISONS AND COMPOUNDS USED IN TAXIDERMY;

THEIR PREPARATION AND THEIR GENERAL USES IN THE ART ;

TOGETHER WITH OTHER INFORMATION OF VALUE.

Arsenical Solution and Arsenical Paste. —

Crystallized Arsenic - - - 1 pound.

Bicarbonate of Soda - - - - ^J pound.

Place these two ingredients in a vessel containing five pints of
water and boil the whole down to three pints, or until the arsenic and
soda have disappeared, stirring frequently to keep thein from settling to
the bottom. Crush the large pieces of arsenic in order that they may
more quickly dissolve. When cold it is ready for use. Put the liquid
in a large bottle, properly labeled, " Poison." When a quantity
of this solution is mixed with common whiting to the consistency
of cream it is ready to be applied to the inside of skins with a brush,
and is called Arsenical Paste. For the purpose of mixing the solution
and whiting take a wide-mouthed bottle or a shallow dish and keep a
large and a small brush in it for use on the various sizes of skins.
Other uses of the clear solution alone will be treated presently in this
chapter. The beauties of the Arsenical Paste are, that it is quickly and
easily made, is cheap, makes a most substantial coating and its poison-
ous effect on skins is equal to anything of the kind made, not excepting
the time-tried Arsenical Soap which many m.ay still prefer to use.

Arsenical Soap. —

Wliite soap, - - - - 2 pounds.

Powdered arsenic, • - - 2 pounds.

Camphor, - ... 5 ounces.

Sub. carbonate of potash, - - C ounces.

Alcohol, . - . - s ounces.

Directions. — Slice the soap and melt it in a small quantity of
water over a slow fire, stirring it sufficiently to prevent its burning.
When melted, add the potash and lime, and boil until it becomes
quite thick. Now stir in the powdered arsenic, after which add the
camphor, previously dissolved in the alcohol. W'hen the mass has

(34)

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

been boiled down to the consistency of thick molasses, pour it into an
earthen jar to cool and harden. Stir it frequently while coolinj^ to
prevent the arsenic settling to the bottom. When cold it should be
like lard or butter. For use, mix a small quantity with water until it
resembles buttermilk, and apply with a common paint brush.

Poisoning Feathers and Hair. — One of the best methods I know
of for poisoning feathers and hair to protect them against the ravages
of moths, dermistes, etc., is by the application of the arsenical solu-
tion in a weak form. Take any quantity of water, one-fourth of which
should be the arsenical solution. Thoroughly saturate with this weak-
ened solution a sufficient quantity of clean, white sand to bury a bird
skin in from twelve to twenty-four hours. At the end of this time
the feathers will be sufficiently poisoned. This liquid can be made as
strong as desired by adding more of the arsenical solution, but it should
be tested with a black feather to see that it is not too strong of the so-
lution, and if too strong there will be a gray or white deposit left on
the feather.

With a liberal coating of arsenical paste or arsenical soap on the
inside of the skin your specimen is made as much proof against the
attacks of insects as possibly can be. A small quantity of the pure
arsenical solution put in the salt and alum bath is a most thorough
means of poisoning hair of mammals.

Upon finished specimens of quadrupeds this solution should be
used in a slightly stronger form than that directed for the treatment of
bird-skins. In applying it to these it should be poured from the spout
of a small tea-pot. Should the solution be so strong as to cause a gray
deposit to develop on the hair when dry it can be sponged off with
warm water.

Corrosive Sublimate Solution. — This is a most powerful solution
for saturating the hair or feathers of mounted specimens. Its propor-
tions are half alcohol and half water, with all the corrosive sublimate
the alcohol will take up, and is prepared in this manner : Should you
desire to make two gallons of the solution, first take one gallon of
the alcohol and dissolve the corrosive sublimate in it — about six
ounces — which would be about one ounce to every three pints. The
alcohol does not take up all sublimate and the liquid must be poured
off that which settles to the bottom. When this is done add a gallon
of water and your saturated solution is made. It should be applied in
the same manner as that given {ox poisoning feathers and hair, with the
weakened arsenical solution.

PLATK VIII.

FEATHERED TRACTS AND UNFEATHERED SPACES IN BIRDS.

Although the feathers of a bird lay over each other hke shiugles ou a roof it does
notfollow that they grow everi/wherc upou the skin. Feathers grow iu tracts with bare
spaces between. A uniform and continuous feathering, however, occurs in some
birds as, in the ostriches, penguins, and toucans. Some birds, to be sure, are naked
about the head or feet.

Figures A and B in our plate are taken fi-om a siDecimen of the Flicker Colapes
auratus, A representing the under portion and B the upper part of the bird's feath-
ering. Fig. 1 is the capital tract which clothes the head and generally joins the
dorsal and ventral tracts. Fig. 2, alar tract, all the feathers which grow on the wing,
except the humeral tract. Fig. 3, humeral tracts, being the place where the beginner
often fails to make the feathers of the shoulders lay as they do in life, caused chiefly
by making the artificial body too full at this point. Fig. 4, spinal or dorsal tract,
running along the middle of the bird Irom above the nape of neck to the tail, subject
to great variation. Fig. 5, femoral tracts, band upon outside of each thigh, subject
to great variation. Fig. 6, leg tract covers the legs as far as these are feathered, gen-
erally to the heel, always below the knee and sometimes to the toes as in many owls.
Fig. 7, ventral tract, the plumage along the belly and under parts commencing at or
near, and frequently running into the dorsal tract, but subject to great variation in
forms. Fig. 8, the tail or caudal tract, includes the feathers ot the tail, their coverts
and those about the elcrodochon, and usually join the termination of the dorsal, ven-
tral and femoral tracts. Fig. 9, represents the salivary glands so wonderfully devel-
oped in woodpeckers.

I'l.A'lK VIII.

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METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 39

The "Wickesheimer Solution. — Tliis is a solution in which fleshy
objects may be preserved entire.

The formula is as follows :

Ahmi .... .")i!i) jrniiiis.

■Sail ----- lilo grains.

Saltpetre - - - - (K) grains.

Potash ----- 300 grains.
Arsenic trloxide (white arsenic) - - 100 grains.

The whole should be dissolved in one quart of boiling water and
then allowed to cool, when it should be filtered. For every quart of
this solution add four quarts of glycerine and one quart of alcohol. In
this preparation objects may be preserved indefinitely.

Solution for Keeping Bird Skins Soft. — The taxidermists and field
collectors in general are indebted to Mr. Thomas M. Earl, for the dis-
covery of this invaluable solution. It is simply an expedient. The
object of the preparation being to preserve a bird skin in a soft condi-
tion for at least four to five months, so that it may be mounted at any ^
time to suit the convenience of the collector or taxidermist. It is
composed of two-thirds glycerine and one-third pure carbolic acid.
When collecting in the field in any quarter of the globe, and es-
pecially in distant tropical jungles, where heat and time count,
where packing space is not the least of the many vexatious ques-
tions that arise, this simple solution will lighten the burden of any
man's mind as well as his cargo.

After having skinned your bird as usual, apply the arsenical solu-
tion with a bru.sh all over the inside of the skin. After this apply with
a soft brush the glycerine and carbolic acid. Do not be afraid to put
plenty of it on the skin. See that the wing and leg bones, the base of
the tail, the entire neck and around the base of the skull are thoroughly
saturated. When this is done the skin is ready to be packed flat.
In this manner a vast number of skins can be packed in a small com-
pass. It is absolutely necessary to clean all fat and grease from skins,
so that the solution may have free action. On large skins it is neces-
sary to repeat the application in about four months if it is desirable to
keep them soft for a longer time. When you come to mount a skin
prepared in this way, the feet which have, of course, become hard,
must be relaxed or softened in the same way as described in the chap-
ter on relaxing bird skins, and after they have become sufficiently soft
proceed in the regular manner of mounting.

Salt and Alum. — Two of the most important ingredients known
for the preservation or curing of skins in taxidermy, and they are used
in various wavs.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

A strong salt and water bath is commonly used in which to im-
merse very large alligators, turtles and other reptiles of extraordinary
proportions, immediately after skinning. The length of time they
should remain in this solution is twenty-four hours or more, according
to the condition of the subject.

Upon being taken from this bath the entire inside of the skin,
bones and all, should be heavily coated with the arsenical paste or
arsenical soap and, lastly, with powdered alum.

Salt alone is used by many collectors in the field for curing skins
of mammals until the salt and alum bath in some taxidermist's shop
or that of their own can be reached. When salt is used alone on the
skins of mammals they should have plenty of it rubbed and spread
upon them, especially in warm weather. In damp climates, however,
powdered alum will be found by far the best, and in either case skins
should be, by all means dried in the shade, never in the sun.

A mixture of two-thirds powdered alum and one-third arsenic
thoroughly rubbed on skins of mammals and birds is for the purpose
of curing them, and also for poisoning them against the attacks of in-
sects. It is used chiefly when the specimens are to be made up into
dry skins. George Graves, F. L. S., recommends this preparation in
his Naturalists' Pocket-book., published in 1818, and it has been in vogue
ever since. Some take the double precaution and give the skins a
heavy coating of arsenical paste or arsenical soap, and supplement it
by rubbing on equal parts of salt and alum. The use of salt and alum
in taxidermy, however, reaches its climax in the

Salt and Alum Bath. — No taxidermist can do any considerable
work in quadrupeds without using this important preservative, and,
since it is so cheap, simple and convenient, none should be without a
thorough knowledge of how to prepare and handle it.

My formula for making the salt and alum solution is as follows :
For every gallon of water put in two ounces of alum and six ounces
of salt; boil until the salt and alum have dissolved, stirring frequently
during the process. When cool or lukewarm test it with your salinom-
eter. It will probably register lo°, which is <?.r^r//j/ right ; at a less
degree of strength you are liable to ruin the skin, for the hair is likely
to slip off; if stronger it will harden the skin too much. You can now
put this solution into your glass or earthen jars or lead-lined tank,
described in the last chapter.

The taxidermists' salinometer can be procured for one dollar, pre-
paid, from the R. Hoehn Co., 44 College Place, New York City. This
is the ideal salinometer, seven inches long, and you can make up

I'LAI K IX.

-Skull

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PLATE IX.

SKELETON OF AN EAGLE.

Cervical Vertebra'. — "We use all the neck vertebrte iu mounting long-necked birds,
like the herons, etc. The wind pi])e is imitated by w r;ii)))ing wire with fine
tow.

Humerus. — This is the bone whicli can lie i)roken or snapped with the tingers before
skinning the smaller birds, in order that the wing will drop down out of the
way. It should remain whole and intact in the large species.

Elbow. — In the very small birds you may detach the humerus at the ell)OW, skin
down the ulna and radius, detaching the feathers from tlie ulna, clear down
to the carpal Joint. In the larger birds we detach the humerus from the
coracoid socket, or shoulder socket ; skin down to the elljow, clean the tlesh
off and stop there, skinning tlie wing afterward from the outside, as directed
in Chapter IV.

i^emwr.— This is the thigh bone, and we allow it to remain attached to the body in
l)irds, and never use it except in some cases as discussed in Chapter IV (see
Legs iu Raptores, and also Plate XX.)

Knee. — This is where we sever the tibia from the thigh bone or femur and skin
down to the heel, stripping olf the flesh clear to the heel. The fibula, it
should 1)6 remembered, is the small spike-shaped bone on the outside of the
tibia which goes to make up the drumstick

METHODS I.Y THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

any quantity of solution required in the field without the use of a
test-glass.

Every taxidermist of any experience whatever knows now much
more difficult it is to mount a dry skin than a fresh or wet one.

The chief beauty of the salt and alum bath is that it will preserve
a skin for many years in as soft and pliable condition as when it is
taken from the animal, and it can be mounted as easily as though the
skin had been taken off yesterday. I once placed in a sealed jar of
this solution the skins of an opossum, raccoon and a fox squirrel and
kept them for seven years. These skins were as easily mounted as
though they had just come from the backs of the animals. I kept the
skins of two African elephants for eight months in a tank containing
this bath, renewing the liquid but once, however, and for the first week
or tea days changed the position of the skins and moved them about
each day, so that no spot in the skins was left untouched by the
action of the bath. I once dug a tapir out of the ground which had
been buried three days, and had about given up all hopes of saving the
skin on account of the hair starting out on the abdomen and on several
parts of the body. With a warm salt and alum bath, containing an
extra quantity of alum, the hair in the skin was made perfectly firm
and the skin easily managed. With this solution used in the manner
described you can often save the skin of an animal which has been
dead for several days, with the hair starting out on the blue-green ab-
domen.

In this case make the solution so strong that a fresh hen's &%% will
float in it. For years this has been Dr. Jasper's method of testing the
strength of brine when the skin was so far gone that the preservation
of it was in question. At 25° an egg will float ; at 20° it will sink
to the bottom of the solution. If the skin you have is a bad case you
had better make the solution 35° by adding more salt and alum.

In placing the skins in the salt and alum bath put them in leg-
bones and all, and be sure to change their position and move them up
and down and around for the first two or three days. See that the
skin is spread out as much as possible, that it is not doubled and folded,
for when this is the case there are spots on the inside of the skin that
the liquid is liable not to touch or penetrate, and in these places the
epidermis and the hair will come oS". When this solution has been in
use, or if it is allowed to stand open it loses its strength ; this can be re-
newed by adding more fresh liquid of a much greater degree of
strength than usual.

The young of the smaller species of mammals, such as foxes, squir-

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 45

rels, rabbits, etc., should never be put into the bath. It is better to
mount these without wetting the hair, for it is very difficult to comb
out and dress the matted hair to look perfectly natural. It is next to
impossible to take the skin of a rabbit from the salt and alum
bath and comb and brush it out so as to give to the fur that fluffy ap-
pearance, which it should have.

Never put a skin into the bath without first thoroughly cleaning
it; take off all the fat and particles of flesh and wash from the hair all
blood stains.

Alcohol. — Used as a preservative of fle.shy objects entire when col-
lecting in the field, or when it is not practical to skin and mount them
by the usual processes in taxidermy, such, in particular, as the small
and medium sized reptiles and fishes, entire and in the form of skins.
Uo not take any risks on the quality of spirits which you purchase for
the preservation of alcoholic specimens. The U. S. Pharmacopoeia
recognizes alcohol, containing 94 per cent, of absolute alcohol, or
alcohol having the specific gravity of 0.<S20. Its quality, however,
will frequently range all the way from 75 to 94 per cent. Use your
alcoholometer and see that it is 94 per cent, alcohol before you dilute
it for the preservation of your specimens. The proper strength for
the preservation of fishes is one-third of its bulk of water ; for reptiles^
one-half water. Just as much as the quality of the alcohol varies from
94 per cent., the amount of water added to its bulk must be measured
proportionately. For this reason it is of importance to always have
at hand an alcoholometer with which to test the strength of the spirits.

In all specimens preserved in this manner be sure to make an ab-
dominal incision so that the fluid may have free action.

Potter's Clay. — This is one of the most valuable substances that
the taxidermist can employ in his art. In many cases it is absolutely
impossible to reproduce the forms and features of various animals with
any degree of accuracy without the aid of this pliable and plastic mate-
rial. The German veterans in our art have used it for coating the man-
ikins of quadrupeds for a half century. Dr. Jasper has employed it in
building out the structures of mammals for forty years. Phillipp
Leopold Martin, the German taxidermist, advocates its use in his work,
published in 1876. Its general adoption, however, by American taxi-
dermists is of recent date.

In a paper read at a meeting of the Society of American Taxider-
mists in 1881, Mr. William T. Hornaday sets forth the advantages, in
many cases, of clay as a filling over fibrous materials. My experience
with it extends over a period of twenty years. The muscles on the

46 METHODS LV THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

skull and neck of my first deer's head were modeled in clay,
and I keep it as a relic to prove that there is some truth in the
theory of evolution, especially in the work of " ane wha was ance a
'prentice han." Since then the muscles on the manikins of all my
large mammals have been built out of clay and the forms of all snakes,
turtles, alligators and other reptiles, including several twenty-inch
Hellbenders and many fishes have been made chiefly by the use of clay.
I may say the same of many of the dogs which I have mounted ; the
modeling of the heads and flippers of seals ; the tail and head of the
beaver; the heads, hands and tails of monkeys, down to the tail of the
muskrat, together with its hind feet. The soft, spongy feet of any of
the smaller mammals should always be opened and filled with clay, and
in skinning the heads of any of the larger mammals pocket the skin
of the upper lip, and when you place it on the model fill this pocket
with clay and press it into shape. The deep hollows, elevations and
wrinkles which are characteristic in the faces of some quadrupeds, and
their flabby lips must be wrought out by the use of clay. It cannot
be done satisfactorily with any springy material like tow. When a
skin is shrunken smaller than it should be and it is desirable to stretch
it to its natural size, then an elastic substance such as tow is the
proper thing to force its expansion. The filling in mounted fishes
should be of clay — around a core of wood or tow.

There are many advantages to be gained in the use of clay in tax-
idermic work : one is that it will not expand or contract and will re-
tain any form you may give to it. Should you desire to alter any point
in the form of your subject the dry clay can be softened and worked
beneath the skin. If you are working a large mass and it happens to
get hard, soften it again with water. If you have your model partially
finished and desire to keep the clay soft, do as the sculptors do, throw
a wet blanket around it. To prepare clay for use, chop some tow very
fine with a sharp hatchet on your chopping block and mix it with the
clay ; this will toughen it. If you desire to make it a solid mass when
dry add a quantity of strong glue liquid, mix the whole thoroughly.
There is only one fault, if it may be called such, to be found in the use
of clay on manikins, it is that the mounted specimens are sometimes very
heavy. A carefully made manikin does not require a heavy mass of
clay everywhere upon it. It should lay in masses only where the
prominent muscles are to be developed.

GustavStainsky, a pupil of Phillipp Leopold Martin, has, however,
devised a means by which the clay can be mixed and the mounted
specimen wdien dry will be considerably lighter. His method is sim-

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

ply to mix saw-dust with the clay, or saw-dust, plaster of Paris and clay.
Where it must be laid on in great masses he uses fine wood shavings
mixed with the clay and plaster of Paris.

Papier- M ache. — It will repay any taxidermist four-fold to learn
to make and use a good quality of papier-mache. In fact, it is im-
possible for him, in many cases, to produce certain effects without its
use. It is indeed very simply made, and when you have experimented
with one or two batches of it you will discover what is required to
make the proper quality.

This material has been manufactured in Europe for more than a
century, where it has been employed in making articles of ornamenta-
tion and use, and its composition has been modified according to the
nature of the articles manufactured.

i shall first describe how to make it for our purpose, and then tell
in what way we employ it. Paper pulp, of course, is the first ingred-
ient you must prepare. If you cannot obtain it already manufactured
you must make it yourself. Take some old newspapers, of the soft
kind, tear them into bits and put them into a kettle of boiling water.
Beat them or grind them in any manner you choose until it becomes a
pulp free from lumps of any size whatever or small particles of paper.
Now dissolve some of the best quality of glue in your glue-pot to a
consistency commonly used in gluing articles of any kind. Take the
pulp from the water and gently squeeze it, but nol until it is perfectly
dry. Put the pulp in a bowl and pour in some of the hot glue and
stir it until it becomes a sticky mass. Now add some plaster of Paris and
again stir the whole together. If, after thoroughly mixing it, you dis-
cover that it is too dry to stick fast to some smooth surface add a few
more drops of glue or water. The whole mass should be vigorously
kneaded through the fingers until it is absolutely free from lumps. It
should always be kept in the form of a ball, and it will retain its soft-
ness for a day or two by wrapping it in several thicknesses of wet
cloth, or by placing it under an inverted bowl. If you desire to work
with it a number of days add a few drops of glycerine while you are
mixing it. Papier-mache to be of the best quality to work well should
be so sticky that when rubbed on the palm of the hand a thin coating
will adhere to it. There is positively no better material or composi-
tion than papier-mache when it comes to modeling the open mouths
of mammals, mending broken bones, modeling entire bones which are
to go into "restored" skeletons, filling up the chinks, seams and holes
in the skins of elephants or any other animals, restoring the portions
of the beaks and claws of birds that have been partly or wholly shot

48 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

away; making artificial rock-work, branches of trees, tree stumps,
etc., etc. The uses to which it can be put are indeed numerous. I
remember distinctly that a gas-pipe once suddenly sprang a leak in
my work-shop. In the opening, which was several inches long, I ap-
plied papier-mache and to-day it serves the purpose, apparently as well
as solder. In making artificial work of any kind with this material
a common putty knife or a small trowel are the instruments to use ; in
modeling mouths and other finer work in papier-mache the various
shaped modeling tools should be employed.

Setting Artificial Eyes in Animals. — There are several composi-
tions which may be used as a foundation in which to imbed the arti-
ficial eyes in mounted specimens. Putty is commonly employed.
Papier-mache is better, or potter's clay mixed with a solution of glue
is by far the best. Next in order of superiority is absorbent cotton
thoroughly saturated with mucilage. ( See foot-note Inserting Glass
Eyes, Chapter IV.)

To Anneal Iron "Wire. — Take common iron wire, make it red-hot
and allow it to cool gradually ; this renders it soft and pliable.

To Straighten Annealed Vyire. — Any of the smaller sizes of an-
nealed wire may be made as straight as a new knitting needle by fast-
ening one end in a vise, and, with a pair of flat-nosed pliers take hold
of the other end and pull steadily until every kink disappears. It can
then be cut up into pieces to suit your purpose. The heavy wire must,
of course, be hammered straight on an anvil or other solid surface.

Gluing Hair on Mammal Skins. — It very frequently happens that
there are bare spots on the skins of your mounted specimens "which
need to be repaired with hair which must be glued fast. The seams,
cracks and accidental holes which have been filled with papier-mache
must also be covered with hair from pieces of skin of the same species
or any cjuadruped whose hair will match that of your mounted speci-
men. Sometimes colored, fibrous tow is used to take the place of
hair. To replace the hair, or when you substitute, use common fish-
glue or a bottle of royal glue will answer the purpose. Either of these
glues will answer for mammals, and I have used them in gluing
feathers in birds, but for good reasons I prefer the following :

Glue for Feathers. — This should be placed in a wide-mouthed
bottle and applied with a small fine brush :

Guinarabic .... 4 ounces.

"White sugar - - - - 1 ounce.

Arsenical soap - - - - \ ounce.

iStarcli .... 4 ounces.

Water ..... 10 ounces.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Melt the gum arable in water, after which boil all the ingredients
well together.

Artificial Branches. — Take a piece of annealed wire of a suitable
thickness, fasten it to a stand and wind fine tow around it, binding it
firmly down with twine. Bend it to the desired angle. Over the sur-
face apply common glue and then cover it with lichen that has first
been pulverized. This makes a most natural looking artificial branch,
and any number of shoots desired can be made from the main trunk.
Artificial leaves should first be fastened at various points on the branch
before the glue has been applied.

The method I employ in making artificial branches is similar to
the one just described, except that I spread papier-mache over the sur-
face, comb a grain in it to look like bark and paint it to represent the
color of the natural surface. Artificial stumps can be made in this
manner and decorated round about with grasses and mosses

In my collection I have a number of specimens mounted on nat-
ural cedar stumps admirably arranged and decorated by Mr. Frank B.
Webster, and I do not hesitate to pronounce them a success. I shall
here quote what he says concerning them : "A good assortment of old
roots, obtained from the dead trees in swamps — the soft rotten brown
ones and the bleached cedars should be sought after. In fact, the
finest and most valuable stumps are some of these choice natural ones.
These, with a few principles to work upon, will produce variation of
results as great as the imagination."

Artificial Branches. — Another method of making artificial branches
which ver)- closely resemble the natural may be simply and quickl)-
done in the following manner : Prepare a skeleton tree of heavy wire,
brush the same with glue and wrap with tow to the desired dimensions.
Brush glue over the tow and wrap with strips of rags about an inch
in width, in order to give smoothness. The tree is now ready to be
modeled with what I shall term a plaster; to be made as follows : Into
a cup place a quantity of yellow ochre in the dry form, and with the
ochre mix a very small amount of dry lampblack. Have ready some
well-cooked glue, such as would be used for joining, and pour the
same slowly into the dry mixture of ochre and lampblack, stirring
until the mass becomes a thick paste or plaster. Get a small twig
from a tree and compare in color with the mixture. If the latter is too
dark, add more ochre, if too light more lampblack. Now, with an old
case-knife spread the plaster over the trunk and branches of the arti-
ficial tree. If you want leaves on the tree place them as desired before
modeling the branches. Allow the plaster to become hard, and if your

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

work has been properly done the branches can hardly be distinguished
from natural ones. It is sometimes best to brush over the trunk and
branches thus formed a similar mixture but thinner, resembling paint
in consistency. Keep the mixture in the cup warm while \ou are en-
gaged modeling. This may be best done by placing the cup in a pan
of hot water. Artificial stumps and rocks may be made in a similar
manner. The color of the plaster may be varied for other purposes
by the use of the dry pigments used in mixing paint as elsewhere ex-
plained in this chapter.

Artificial Rocks. — Rock-work may be constructed by making a
framework of wood on a base of dimensions suitable to the size of the
specimen to be mounted thereon. Over this tack sheets of paper, duly
crumpling it to give the surface a rough, rock-like form. Give it a coat
of common glue and allov/ it to dry. Now put on coarse quality of
papier-mache here and there and shape your rock to your own taste.
The next step is to give the whole surface a coating of glue and
sprinkle it until completely covered with crushed granite, sandstone
or any other rock you may desire to imitate. Fine pieces of rock-
work can be made of pc^at or cork on which sand, mixed with various
colors of smalts, with moss and lichens carelessly thrown on here and
there for natural effect. It does not require a profound geological
knowledge to know when you have made a well-shaped bouloer, but it
requires the genius and the " touch" to mould the regular and irreg-
ular lines of stratification which go to make up many varieties of the
erratic forms of rocks.

Artificial Rocks, Branches, Etc. — Dr. B. H.Warren's method of
making rock-work, stumps, branches, etc., is with paper pulp, plaster
of Paris, cement and glue. In this mixture is put lampblack or other
dry colors to obtain the various tints of rocks, bark, etc. It is laid on
a light frame of wood covered with building paper.

Snov^ Scenes. — Icebergs and snow scenes miay be made on the
same principle described for rock-work. Some taxidermists fill in with
excelsior and tack thin cloth over all the surface, producing the irreg-
ularities with papier-mache. Wx. Webster in his article, " Practical
Taxidermy " in Ornithologist and Oologtst^ for July, 1886, gives us the
desired information in a nutshell : " Paint * '^ '•'" and use plaster
of Paris, glass frosting and mica snow. Powdered burnt alum can also
be used. Icicles can be obtained from any dealer, and grass immersed
in strong alum water will, by the alum adhering, have a decided winter-
ish appearance. If a scene made by this causes a shiver in July it
may be considered a success."

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. - ,

For Modeling Tongues, Mouths, and in General Fancy- W^ork. —
The following is Jose|)li 11. I5aLL)'s composition, which he has success-
fully employed for years: " Procure three pounds of white glue, one
pint raw linseed oil, and one pound of resin. Heat the oil and resin,
then add hot glue and stir thoroughly. Thicken with Paris white until
the mixture has the proper consistency to mould when warm. This
composition soon dries, becomes very hard, and can be colored or
gilded. Fancy decorations of any design can readily be made from
plaster or wood, and be glued on shields and cases, thereby saving the
expense of carving."

To Tan Small Skins.— "When taken from the animal, let the
skins be nailed in the shape of an oblong square to dry, fur side down.
Before taking them from the board, clean oflf all the fat or oily matter
with a dull knilc. Be careful not to cut the skins. When yon wish to
tan them, soak thoroughly in cold water until soft; then squeeze out
the water, and take of soft water three quarts, salt half a pint, and best
oil vitriol one ounce. Stir well with a stick, and put in the skins
quickly, and leave them in thirty minutes. Then take them in
your hands and squeeze (not wring) them out, and hang in the shade,
fur side down, to dry. If you get the quantity of liquor proportioned
to the skins, they will need no rubbing to make them soft ; and tanned
in this way, the moths will never disturb them." — Col. Horace Park's
Sportsman'' s Hand-Book.

Paints, Varnishes, and Stains. — It is necessary for the taxider-
mist to have some knowledge of staining and polishing woodwork
and mixing colors for branches, rock-work, etc. It matters little how
perfect he has made his specimen if its mountings are improperly
finished, the general effects will be displeasing. A well-polished sup-
port for his bird or a properly finished shield for his deer-head will add
much to the artistic appearance of his work.

To paint or varnish well requires care, good tools and materials.
He who thinks to lighten his labor by brushing over his work a little
oil, or a coat of thick, unsuitable varnish, makes a great mistake. The
idea that anything is good enough has its origin in ignorance or lazi-
ness, much to the detriment of the final condition of the work in
hand.

Paints. — To keep a great variety of paints on hand will be found
inexpedient, since they are impaired by exposure to air or by long
standing, and as the taxidermist requires but a little at a time, it is
best to mix what he needs as occasion requires. A small jar of the
best boiled linseed oil is indispensable, also a like quantity of the spirits

r2 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

of Uirpeniiiie and ^ood japan-drzcr. The most suitable pigments to be
kept on hand are lampblack^ white /^^^ ground in oil, vermilion, burnt
umber, chrome yellow, yellow ochre, Venetian red, etc., all of which
will be found useful from time to time. These can be obtained in the
dry state or ground in oil — the former condition probably being the
best for the taxidermist. With these materials a great variety of colors
can be produced, although only a few will be found ordinarily service-
able. For mixing black paint, take a small quantity of linseed oil, add
japan-drier in the proportion of one gill to a quart of paint, then
thicken with lampblack to a pro23er consistency. For second coat tur-
pentine may largely take the place of the oil unless the work is to be
exposed to the weather, in which case turpentine should not be used.
For mixing white paint, thin white lead to a proper consistency with
turpentine, using no oil after the priming coat. Give two or three
coats and finish with varnish mixed with a small quantity of the white
paint. Let this coat of color-and-varnish, as it is called, have time to
dry, then polish with pulverized pumice-stone and water, in the man-
ner hereafter described.

Tints.— In mixing tints the body color — that is, the one that pre-
dominates over the others used — must be first secured, then the other
colors may be gradually stirred in. Experience will teach the neces-
sary quantities of these to be added in order to produce the desired
tint. It should be remembered that the finer the quality of the mixing
pigments, the better will be the effect sought for. The following tints
may be produced by the use of the annexed colors. The body-color is

the first mentioned :

Gray— White lead, aud lampblack.

liuff— White, and yellow oi-hrc

Pearl — White, black, aud blue.

Orange — Red, aud yellow.

Violet— Red, blue, aud white.

Purple — Violet, red, aud white.

Olive — Yellow, blue, black, aud white.

Chestnut— Red, black, aud yellow.

Flesh — White, yellow ochri', and veniiiliou.

Fawu — White, yellow, aud ltd.

Chocolate — Raw iindicr, red, aud black.

Drab — White, raw aud imruf uuiIht.

Pea Green — White, aud chionie green.

Copper— Red, yellow, aud black.

Lemon — White, aud yellow.

Pink— W^hite, vermilion, and lake.

Cream— White, and yellow.

Straw— White, and chrome yellow.

Lilac -White, and violet.

METHODS 7.V THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 33

Laying on Paint. — Get rid of all defects as far as possible in the
woodwork to be painted. Don't depend upon the paint to hide the
imperfections if they can be removed. All uneven surfaces must be
reduced by the plane, scraper, or sand-paper. Set all nail-heads, and
after the priming coat is dry putty up the holes. The first, or priming
coat, should be laid on evenly and with as much care as the last. It is
a mistake to suppose that it makes no difference how rudely the first
coat is applied. Sand-paper lightly before applying a second coat.
Three or four coats are generally necessary, each being laid on with
particular care and finished by long strokes of the brush.

Varnishing. — ^lany kinds of varnishes are in use, each adapted to
some particular work. Shellac varnish is a solution of shellac gum
and alcohol, and consists of three kinds — brown, white and French
shellac, the latter being of a pale cider color and adapted for any kind
of work. This varnish is often rubbed on with a cloth, drying rap-
idly so that a number of coats may be applied in a few minutes. Ordi-
nary carriage varnish^ which can be obtained from any dealer in
paints, can be used to good advantage in many kinds of work. It is
made by melting copal gum, mixing it with linseed oil, adding a small
quantity of dryer and thinning to the proper consistency with turpen-
tine. It dries in about eight hours and excels in brilliancy and dura-
bility. Hard oil finish is very serviceable and should find a place and
a use in the taxidermic workshop. It hardens in a few hours and
when properly worked will give a fine polish. Varnishes should be
kept in a dry place, and when applied it should be in a dry place where
there is no dust. Do not varnish your work and then begin to sweep
your room as I have seen some do.

Brushes. — The taxidermist needs but few brushes, but they
should be of the best and should be well cared for. Two or three
brushes varving in size from one to two and one-half inches will suf-
fice for ordinary work. Do not use the same brushes for paint that are
used for varnish, nor the same for varnish that are used for paint. Do
not allow brushes to become hard for the want of care, as in such a
case they become useless for good work. Paint brushes may be kept
soft in water, but varnish brushes should never be placed in water.
Paint brushes that are set with glue should never be placed in water
until they have been used in paint. A good way to keep varnish
brushes is to suspend them by the handle in a can of slow drying var-
nish, the bristles not being allowed to touch the bottom. It is best
not to rinse varnish brushes in oil or turpentine ; if they become dirty
cleanse them by working them over a clean surface.

54 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Polishing Natural Wood. — While the taxidermist may sometimes
have occasion to paint his stands, shields and artificial work of various
kinds, he will usually obtain a better eflfect by polishing the natural
wood. Black and white walnut, cherry and oak are favorite woods,
and when well polished by an expert present a handsome appearance.
To do these well requires experience and care. The jack-of-all-trades
seems to go upon the precept that anything is good enough and does
his work with any kind of tools, while the expert mechanic must pro-
ceed about his work systematically and with the best of tools.

Before proceeding to apply varnish the pores of the wood must be
properly filled. Hard ivood filler may be purchased of any dealer in
painters' supplies. If it cannot be obtained, however, a good substi-
tute may be made as follows: Take a small quantity of whiting and
mix with such colors as will approach the nearest the color of its wood
to be filled. This mixture should be dry. Give the wood a coat of
oil^ then sprinkle over it the dry colors, which are now to be rubbed
over well with a cloth or a piece of chamois. Clean off all superfluous
material, and when the oil has thoroughly dried the varnish may be
applied. Shellac varnish may be put on with a cloth, being rubbed
briskly over the wood. A good polish may be produced by the use of
hard oil finish., which is a kind of varnish and not difficult to work.
Having properly filled the wood apply a coat of the hard oil which
will dry in a few hours. When it has dried hard, rub off" the gloss with
pulverized pumice-stone and water, taking care not to rub through to
the wood, especially at the angles and sharp places of the work. Clean
thoroughly and apply a second coat of the finish. Rub off the gloss
as before and apply a third and a fourth coat in the same manner, rub-
bing down the work after each coat dries with the pumice-stone.
Having applied the last coat and again eiuployed the pumice-stone to
kill the gloss, clean the work and rub down with roden stone and
siveet oil. Clean and polish with chamois leather. Good copal varnish
may be applied similarly.

Stains. — If the wood of which our work is made is pine or poplar,
and it is desired to give it the appearance of hard wood, stains can be
employed to do this. Dealers usually keep good cherry and walnut
stains in stock, but if they can not be obtained, they can be produced
with little trouble and expense.

An excellent black stain, which is susceptible of a high polish,
can be made as follows: Pour two quarts of boiling water over one
ounce of powdered extract of logivood, and when the latter is fully dis-
solved add one dram of yellow chromate of potash, and stir. Give the

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 55

wood several applications and polish with shellac varnish, or tinish in
hard oil.

Prepare cherry stain by dissolving four ounces anotia by boiling"
in three quarts of rain-water; add a lump of potash the size of a wal-
nut, and boil for one-half hour longer. When cool it is ready for use,
and may be bottled for keeping.

Rosewood may be imitated by giving the wood to be stained sev-
eral applications of a decoction of logwood and redwood chips in
equal parts.

The appearance of walnut may be given to wood by sponging
with a strong solution of permanganate of potash. Several applica-
tions may be necessary to produce the desired effect. Dark stains
may also be obtained by the use of the pigments before mentioned ap-
plied in oil. Walnut may be imitated, for instance, by the use of
Van Dyke brown and a little sienna. A little experience and care will
soon teach the inexperienced the proper proportions of the pigments
to be employed.

CHAPTER III.

COLLECTING vSPECIMENS IX GENERAL ; SEASONS ; FIELD EQUIP-
MENTS; CARE AND TREATMENT OF SPECIMENS.

The rule is to secure your specimens wherever you encounter
them, whether it be at market or in the field. Obtain a typical male
and female of each species during the season when their fur or feathers
are at their best ; and if you have many specimens to select from do
not waste time in preparing an inferior example of a race. If the
species are rare, however, prepare all that are obtainable — good, bad
and indifferent — together with their skeletons. The young at different
ages are valuable studies, and should be collected whenever possible.

Labeling, Sketching, Measurements, Etc. — Never collect a speci-
men without recording in a book and on a label the full measurements,
date of capture and the name of the locality in which it was taken,
and, if you are not ashamed of your work, put your own name on the
label. Adopt some system of measurements and use it in labeling
every specimen. It is one of the best habits you can form in prepar-
ing specimens in any branch of zoology. In their proper places I give
directions for measuring mammals and birds which are commonly used.
Note the color of the eyes, bill, feet, naked patches of skin or any soft
parts liable to fade or change in any way while the specimen is drying.
Take as your guide Ridgeway's Nomenclature of Colors^ published by
Little, Brown & Co., Boston, Mass. Best of all, paint the colors on
the spot with your water-color paints in the sketch you have made.
Do this in the case of any specimens you collect, be they reptiles, fish,
birds or mammals. To be able to make a good sketch of the whole, or
any portion of an animal, is an accomplishment of great value to the
collector. If you can not do this so that it will be intelligible to
others, by all means make a sketch that you can interpret yourself.

When the plumage of birds is alike in male and female, the sex
may be determined by dissection

One of the most valuable aids to the taxidermist is an exact out-
line of the dead specimen. Lay it out on a large sheet of manilla
paper before skinning it, arrange the legs in a natural walking atti-
1 56 )

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. -^

tude, and with a long lead-pencil mark the entire ontline of the quad-
ruped. Take plenty of time, study your subject, and make this diagram
with great accuracy. You can hardly estimate the value of this outline ;
its use is the next best thing to a cast when you come to mount your
specimen. Any taxidermist will heartily thank you for your pains-
taking if a sketch like this accompanies the skin.

Seasons for Collecting — BiRDS: Any month in the year is suit-
able for collecting birds in the temperate zone. Spring and fall, how-
ever, are the ornithological harvest times; for these are the periods of
migration with most birds, and at these seasons they are the most
abundant. In the United States, during the months of July and
August the young are not fully feathered and the old are moulting.
December and January are the best months for collecting hawks and
owls, for most of these breed in February and March. In tropical lati-
tudes the dry season is the best; in the Arctic regions, midsummer.

Mammals : From the first fall months to February is the season
for collecting mammals in temperate latitudes, but December and Jan-
uary will find many of them in the finest fur. The young may be col-
lected from May to August. They are of interest, but should not be
taken when too young, before they are sufficiently developed to be
typical representatives of S^i^ young of a species.

Guns, and Modes of Capturing Specimens. — The gun offers the
most certain method of obtaining specimens, and is, in most cases, the
only one that can be pursued with much probability of success. Strych-
nine placed in portions of carcasses and in pieces of meat brings down
many a wolf, fox, eagle, etc. For procuring small mammals and birds,
traps of various kinds are often employed, but ordinarily firearms are re-
sorted to. The selection of a gun depends largely upon the means of the
collector, if not upon his preference. If he is addicted to the use of
first-class instruments, he will purchase a No. 10 or 12 gauge hammer-
less breech-loader, for hunting large birds and small mammals. For
large birds and small mammals I use a Xo. 12 hammerlcss gun ; for
the smaller birds I have a No. 20, with which I have killed large hawks
and owls, and it seems to be a good all-around weapon, as also is a No.
32 breech-loader, which I use with success on the smaller birds. The
Frank Blake Webster Company, of Hyde Park, Mass., has just placed
on the market a No. 32 auxiliary barrel or tube, which fits in either a
No. 10 or No. 12 gauge breech-loader. It is provided with brass shells,
which can be reloaded at a trifling cost. With this tube inserted in
one barrel, and its shells loaded with mustard-seed ; the other barrel
reserved with shells containing coarse shot, you are prepared for birds

58 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

of almost any size, and also the smaller mammals. If possible, always
use brass shells with your shotguns, though expensive at first, like the
copper wire which I recommend for mounting birds, they will last for-
ever. In selecting a rifle for hunting large game, the quantity of pow-
der and weight of lead is all there is to be considered if you intend
using any of the first-class rifles. By all means choose a rifle for
which you can most readily procure ammunition. The 45-calibre
Government cartridge, loaded with 70 grains of powder and 405 grains
of lead, has sufficient penetration to kill the largest game we have in
this country, and it has no unpleasant recoil.

If you are to hunt in the land of the elephant, rhinoceros and hip-
popotamus you should provide yourself with a double No. 8 rifle or a
double-barreled No, 8 smooth-bore. The latter is the style of weapon
which was used by Mr. Hornaday while hunting elephants in India.'

Field Outfit. — If you are to collect specimens in the vicinity of
your home, you will, of course, return to your workshop to prepare
them. This is the case at least with the smaller specimens which can
be transported entire without much difficulty. The large subjects
must, in most cases, be skinned where they happen to fall, and this is
often far from camp when the means of transportation is limited.
Sometimes in traveling we must skin our smaller specimens on the
top of our tool chest, on our lap, and on any other surface where we
can work to the best advantage.

If the procuring of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes are to oc-
cupy your entire time and attention on a collecting trip of perhaps
eighteen months, in any quarter of the globe, the following, which
chiefly formed Prof. Wiley's outfit while collecting in Africa, would
undoubtedly fill the bill on any similar occasion of a trip extending
over the same period of time.

1 s-boiv double-barreled rifle.

1 Sharp's special rifle, 45-100-500.

1 12-gaug(' <louble-barreled Itreecli-loadiiig shot guu with fifty brass sliells and 1000

No. '1 primers; a 'A'l auxiliary l)arrcl, with two dozeu brass shells, and 1000

No. 1 primers.
1 Barclay loader.

1 .';2-calibre Smith ct "Wesson revolver.
10 pounds powder.

50 pounds of shot, various sizes, from the size of mustard-seed and upwards.
1000 paper labels, two or three sizes.
200 lead labels.
200 pun- tin labels.
6 butcher knives, or better still, killing knives, PI. 1, Fig. 5.

1. Si-c "Two Years in the Jungle," bv \\'illiam T. Hornadav. Ftiblished Ijy Charle> Sciibner's Sons, New
York.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 59

.'{ pouiuls No. lit copper wire.

() iill-sleel sealpels.

G eartilago knives.

1 pocket knife.

1 >kin scraper mid one currier's knife, tootiied, Fi^s. 7, S, I'i. 11.

1 .small, liome-made skin scraper for birds and small mammals described in Chapter I,

3 pair scissors.
1 pair shears.

8 pair tiat-uose pliers.

1 pair scissor-shaped forceps Vl inches in length.

1 pairsinini; forcei)s, Fig. 4, PI. III.

1 tool-holder containing chisels, awls, screw-driver and gimlet bits, saw-blades, etc.,

all of which can be (luickly fitted into an adjustable clamp.
1 first-class claw hammer.
1 first-class laatchet.

1 medium sized hand-saw.

2 pair Hall's cutting pliers, Tl. Ill, Fig. 1.
2 fiat files.

2 three-cornered files.

G papers needles and pins, assorted sizes.

G spools Coats' thread, various sizes.

4 Ijalls hemp twine, various sizes.'

2 dozen surgeon's needles, curved and straight, \ arious sizes.

2 papers Glover's needles.

1 dissecting saw, \\ inches long, with movable back, PI. 11, Fig. 4.

1 Davie's taxidermist's saliuometer.

1 alcoholometer.

1 thermometer.

1 12-gallon lead tank in wooden chest for mammal .skins.

1 copper tank in wooden box for alcoholics.

1 compass.

8 sponges, small, medium, large.

1 two-foot rule.

1 twelve-foot tape mea>ure.

1 oil-stone.

8 pounds crystalized arsenic.

4 pounds bicarl)onate of soda.

15 pounds dry arsenic.

15 pounds arsenical soap.

1 field glass.

1 opera glass.

With few exceptions this elaborate equipment, together with the
hygenic otitfit, clothing, etc., was classified and packed in five sub-
stantial walnut boxes and served the purpose for collecting and pre-
serving several thousand skins and rough skeletons of mammals, birds,
reptiles and fishes in Central Africa/

For a short collecting trip in any section of this country the fol-
lowing outfit, put up in a neat box 6x3x13 inches can be purchased

1. See Wiley's Preparation and Preservation of Objects of Natural History pp. 18-24.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

for $15.00. It is suitable for the amateur and sportsman, in the field
as well as at home ; is compact, convenient and very easily transported
from place to place.

1 12-ineh scissor-shaped stuffing forceps.

1 6.1-inch stuffing forceps.

1 ")-in('h spring forceps.

1 o-inch spring forceps, fine.

1 ;>-inch s[)ring forcejis.

1 (j-iuch tlat-uoscd pliers.

1 .")-iiH'li llat-noscd pliers.

1 4-inch llat-nosed pliers.

1 medium scalpel.

1 large scalpel.

1 pair fine scissors.

1 pair curved scissors.

1 pair shears.

1 5-inch Hall's cutting pliers.

1 o-inch cutters.
() curved needles.

2 files.

r vise and needle.

1 hooks and chain.

2 brain spoons.
1 oil-stone.

With the addition of a half dozen large skinning knives (Plate I,
Fig. 5), four cartilage knives, needles, thread, tape measure, two-foot
rule, poisons, note book, labels, etc., you are well enough equipped
to collect large numbers of skins and rough skeletons of any of the
mammals or birds which exist on the North American continent.
For the sportsman-naturalist who takes an occasional trip for speci-
mens and desires to skin and preserve the trophies of a day's hunt,
the cases of instruments figured in Plate V are as handy as anything
of their kind. Fig. 1, for instance, costs $5.00 and contains the fol-
lowing:

1 cartilage knife.

1 scali)cl.

1 brain sjxjon.

1 pair line scissors.

1 pr()l)e.

4 curved needles.

1 5-inch forceps.

A dissecting case which can be purchased for $3.50 will be found

serviceable at home and in the field. It contains :

1 cartilage knife.

1 scalpel.

1 pair of scissors.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 6 1

1 dis.stcliiig pomt.
1 pair of forceps.
1 liooks and chain.
1 blow-pipe and drill.

If you intend to collect nests and eggs you may consult Chapter

VIII.

Care and Treatment of Specimens in the Field. — In shooting a

specimen one of the points to keep in view is to injure it as little as

possible. If the preservation of the skin is your object the specimen

demands your care and attention the moment it falls into your hands.

Therefore, study well the amount of ammunition you should use in

your guns.

The damage to your specimens will depend largely upon the size
and quantity of shot, the weight of ball, and the drams of powder
used. Shoot to kill, but not to mangle. A well-shot specimen is as
good as " a stitch in time," for it will frequently save you untold extra
labor in the way of mending broken bones, patching skins, cleaning
and substituting hair, feathers, etc. We shall first consider the care
and treatment of

Small Mammals. — Skin a small quadruped precisely as I have
directed in Chapter IX, and if you desire to make it into the form of a
skin the same Chapter will instruct you as to the best shape for trans-
portation from the field (see Plate XLVIII, Fig. 1).

If you expect at any time to mount the skin of a mammal by all
means preserve it in a wet state in the salt and alum solution described
on pages 40 and 44. Take into the field with you a lead tank similar
to that devised by Prof. Wiley.'

Take along with you some No. 19 copper wire, and small lead
and pure tin labels about Ix v^ inch in size, with a hole punched in one
end. Have stamped or embossed on these labels, by pairs, num-
bers, so that one can be attached to the skin just before placing it into
the salt and alum bath. The other label with the corresponding num-
ber may be attached to the skull.

Before placing the skin in the salt and alum solution be sure
to wash all blood from the hair, and for the first day or two change
its position so that the solution will act freely on all parts. While
collecting in the field all skins of the smaller mammals should be

1. Lead Field-Tank. — This tank can be made cheaply and of any desired size — from two to twelve
gallons. It is made of sheet lead and is either round or square in shape, with a large, round opening in the top,
the lid being constructed with threads to screw on. I have seen them made with a square opening and the lid
arranged to be soldered on when the tank is filled with skins, or previous to shipment. It is fitted in a pine box
with iron handles, the lid on hinges which is fastened by means of hasp and padlock. Ordinarily, a four or six
gallon tank is sufficiently large, but for an extensive collecting trip into remote regions a twelve-gallon tank is the
best size, or two of the smaller ones. Any metal-worker c.t.i make these tanks.

62 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAX/DEjkMY.

preserved in the salt and alum solution and they may afterward be
put into the forms of skins or mounted. If this is not practicable, the
skins should be treated with arsenical paste or soap and rubbed with
equal parts of powdered alum and salt and allowed to dry in the
shade.

Large Mammals. — In the case of such mammals as the elephant,
rhinoceros and hippopotamus, when of large size, the skin must be
cut into three or four sections in order to facilitate handling. They
should be treated with a coating of arsenical paste or soap and by
rubbing on equal parts of powdered alum and salt and dried in the
shade. The leg-bones should be detached, poisoned, and tied together
with the skull, and all carefully labeled.

Deer, moose, elk, horse, etc., should have the skins taken off
entire, and the leg-bones allowed to remain attached to the hoofs.
They should be treated like the larger skins just mentioned because
it is not altogether practicable to place many skins of this size in solu-
tion while in the field. Fold the skin together as seen in Plate
XLVIII, Fig. 2.

The time is not far distant, however, when taxidermists the world
over will demand that all skins shipped them from distant localities
for the purpose of mounting shall be sent in a wei stale. The salt
and alum pickle then should have the careful study of every field
collector, and the salinometer should be one of his most valued
instruments.

Birds. — Upon shooting a bird, the first thing to do is to plug its
mouth, nose-holes, vent, and the shot-holes with cotton, in order to
keep back the blood and juices which are liable to ooze out and soil
the plumage. With all the care you may exercise in shooting your speci-
mens blood will frequently soil the plumage, and sometimes badly,
too. Mr. L. S. Foster says: '* Equal parts by measure of fine white
sand and fullers-earth makes a good absorbent for blood. Carry this
mixture in a small salt holder, one of the pepper pot style, and use
it freely in the field on blood-besprinkled plumages." In your note
book record at once the colors of any of the fleshy parts liable to fade
by the drying. The bird, if a small one, can now be thrust head
foremost into a paper cone and carried in the game bag or collecting
box. Chapter V will instruct you how to make what is technically
called a "bird skin.''

The best way to transport bird skins is in wooden or tin boxes.
They should be carefully laid in layers and each one properly labeled.
Do not shoot more birds than you can practically make good skins of

METHOD^ IIM THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 63

in a day. If yon do yon will probably have to resort to Earl's Solution
for Keeping Bird S/cins So/t^ for which see page o!*.

Reptiles. — The large reptiles shonld all be skinned as directed in
Chapter XIII, and the skins placed in the alcohol solution or in the
salt and alum bath. The smaller ones may be preserved entire in
spirits by making an opening along the abdomen so that tlie spirits
may have free action. For this purpose use the lead field-tank with
the salt and alum brine, or the copper tank with alcoholic solution.
The copper tank is made precisely like the lead tank described in
foot-note on page 61,

Fishes. — h^ishes should be preserved in brine and in alcohol in the
same manner as the reptiles — the larger ones should be skinned com-
pletely and put in brine. The smaller ones are better preserved entire
in the alcohol solution, as directed on page 45, and as described in
Chapter XIII.

There is no one, so far as I am aware, who has surpassed Prof. J.
S. Wiley in collecting and preserving reptiles and ^s\\qs in the field.
While he constantly attended fish markets he was usually the fisher-
man himself. Upon capturing a fish he would make a water-color
sketch of it, reproducing in the most artistic style every color in the
fish which had just been caught. His plan was to immediately make
an outline of the fish and paint its actual colors in this outline. Let
every collector of fishes follow his example. To be a successful col-
lector of reptiles and fishes you mtcsi learn to paint in colors the tints
which so quickly fade. It is one of the best accomplishments you can
acquire.

After making a color-sketch of the specimen to be preserved Prof.
Wiley's first procedure was to clean the whole fish with a solution of
spirits of turpentine and alum. This was done by washing the entire
surface with a stiff brush until the mucus on the fish disappeared.
See Chapter XIII.

CHAPTER IV.

SKINNING AND -MOUNTING C1RD3.

Tn this chapter I propose to tell you how to skin and mount birds.
With the assistance of the illustrations each procedure will be so
clearly depicted that the student will, I believe, about as readily
understand the system of work as though he were to see the actual
operations performed on the bench. For our first attempt we sliall try
the American Robin Jlknila niigratoria (Linn.), and I care not if it be
Mr. Ridgway's Western representative, Meriila niigratoria propinqiia —
it's a robin just the same. The beginner should study the skeleton of
a bird, Plate IX. All the principles of skinning and mounting the
robin will be given, while all the variations and exceptions in the skin-
ning and mounting of other birds from the size of a hummingbird
to that of the ostrich will be found chiefly in foot-notes. It will, there-
fore, make very little difference what kind of a bird you may ]ia\e in
hand to work upon. Perhaps you have carried the bird wrapjjcd in a
paper cone in }'our satchel or collecting box for a half da}^ or more
and the rigor mortis has passed off The cotton in all the shot-
holes, mouth, nose-holes, ear cavities and vent should be taken out
and carefully renewed, as this will prevent the blood and liquids
from soiling the feathers during the process of skinning.' A strict ob-
servance of this rule in all cases will often save a great amount of
labor in cleaning the feathers after the bird is skinned. Have a box of
corn meal or plaster of Paris at hand ; this should be frequently and pro-
fusely sprinkled on the carcass to absorb any blood or grease which is
liable to soil the feathers. ■ The first thing to do before you proceed
to skin the bird is to take full measurements of the specimen and re-

]. Filling Ear Cavities. — As a rule it is not necessary to fill the ear cavities with cotton, except in the
case of uwls and other birds which have very large ear orifices.

•J. Fastening the Beaks of Birds Together while Skinning.— In large birds their beaks should

be held together while skinning with a piece of cord run through the nose-hole, and under the lower mandible
and tied fast. .\ small piece of bee's wax will hold together the beaks of the majority of small birds. To the be-
ginner this precaution may seem superfluous afterhaving plugged the mouth, nose-holes, vent, etc., with cotton ; but
it frequently will save him a vast amount of labor in cleaning blood and liquids from specimens that might
otherwise come through and stain the feathers.

(64)

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 6-

cord them in your note-book." You may now break the humerus or
upper arm bone of each wing with your fingers in order that the wings
will hang down out of the way.'' Lay the bird on its back and sepa-

1. Directions for Measurement of Birds. — I cannot recommend any other system lonicnl than that

given by Dr. Elliott Cones in his matchless work : Key to North American Birds. His directions are as follows :

For large birds, a tape-line showins; fonrlhs will do; for smaller ones, a foot-ride graduated for inches
and eighths, or better, decimals to hundredths, must be used ; and for all nice measurements the dividers are
indispensable.

Length. — Distance between the tip of the bill and end of the longest tail-feather. Lay the bird on its back
on the ruler on a table ; take hold of the bill with one hand and of both legs with the other; pidl with rea-
sonable force to get the curve all out of the neck ; hold the bird thus with the tip of the bill flush with one end
of the ruler, and see where the end of the tail points.

Put the tape-line in place of the ruler, in the same way, for larger birds.

Extent. — Distance between the tips of the outspread wings.

They must be fully outstretched, with the bird on its back, crosswise on the ruler, its bill pointing to your breast.

Take hold of rij;ht and left metacarpus with the thumb and forefinger of your left and right hand, respect-
ively, stretch with reasonable force, getting one wing-tip flush with one end of the ruler, and see how much the
other wing-tip reaches. With large birds pull away as hard as you please, and use the tabic, floor or side of the
room ; mark the points and apply tape-line.

Length of Wing.— Distance from the carpal angle formed at the bend of the wing to the end of the longest
primary.

Get it with compasses for small birds. In birds with a conve.\ wing, do not lay the tape-line over the
curve, but under the wing in a straight line. This measurement is the one called for short " the wing."

Length ok Tail. — Distance from the roots of the rectrices to the end of the longest one. • Feel for the pope's
nose; in either a fresh or dried specimen there is more or less of a palpable lump into which the tail feathers stick.
Guess as near as you can to the middle of this lump; place the end of the ruler opposite this point, and see where
the tip of the longest tail-feather comes.

Length of Bill.— Some take the curve of the upper mandible; others the side of the upper mandible from
the feathers; others the gape, etc. I take the chord of the culiiten. Place one foot of the dividers on the culmeii
just where the feathers end; no matter whether the culmen runs up on the forehead, or the frontal feathers run
out on the culmen, and no matter whether the culmen is straight or curved. Then with me the length of the bill is
the shortest distance from the point just indicated to the tip of the upper mandible; measure it with the dividers.
In a straight bill of course it is the length of the culmen itself; in a curved bill, however, it is quite another thing.

Length of Taksis. — Distance between the joint of the tarsus with the leg above, and that with the first
phalanx of the middle toe below. Measure it always with dividers, and \x\ front of the leg.

Length of Toes. — Distance in a straight line along the upper surface of a toe from the point last indicated
to the root of the claw on top. Length of toe is to be taken luithoiit the claw, unless otherwise specified.

Length of the Cl.wvs. — Distance in a straight line from the point last indicated to the tip of the claw.

Length ok Head, — Is often a convenient dimension for comparison with the bill. Set one foot of the dividers
over the base of the culmen (determined as above) and allow the other to slip snugly down over the arch of the
occiput.

2. Breaking the Humerus in Birds' Wings. — This is of little importance and entirely a matter of habit. As
for myself I prefer never to break the upper arm bone of any bird, even if the wings do come constantly in the
way during the process of skinning. It is easier to skin a bird after the rigor mortis has passed ofT than while it
remains in its death stiffness. This comes on more or less speedily according to temperature and climate, and a
freshly killed bird at all times bleeds too freely to skin. It should be given time for the blood to coagulate and
the muscles to rela.\.

With a little care and gentle force, after hanging the bird on the hook you can peel the skin down to the
shoulder joint and there disjoint it without disturbing the feathers to any great extent.

The best bird artist I ever knew never broke the humerus in any wing in order to facilitate the skinning of
the bird. He skinned down the body completely as represented in Fig. 6, Plate X, and exposed both upper arm
bones ; these were cut off, skinned and cleaned as seen in Fig. 6, Plate X, leaving the other wing attached to the
body, skinning it down w ith the assistance of a second hook.

In the smaller birds it is well enough to cut the wing off at the end of the humerus, where the dotted lines
show in the upper portion of Fig. 6, Plate X. In all of the larger birds, however, the humerus should be allowed
to remain attached to the ulna and radius as seen in Fig. 6,/, Plate X, especially when a bird is to be mounted
with the wings spread, which is well illustrated in Plate XXI.

In all of the larger birds, the eagles, the hawks, owls, herons, pelicans, ducks, etc., be sure and leave all the
wing-bones remain attached to one another and skin the wing from the outside leaving the secondary feathers
attached to the ulna of the forearm as illustrated in Plate XIX, Fig. ". The reason of this will be further dis-
cussed when we are ready to skin the wing of the subject we have on hand.

SKJXNINf; A BIRD.

Pig. 1, first incision a to b; Fig. 2, severing tlu> leg at the knee-joint; Fig. 3, leg-
bone strii)]ie(l of Hesh down to the heel; P'ig. 4, fj showing where to cut
through tuil-joint or pope's nose ; Fig. o, l)inl hanging on hook, skinned as
far as wings; Fig. 0, skinning wings, talcing out ear incnilirane; Fig. ~,)ii
showing where to cut the thin membrane of eye in order to take ball out of
socket, n where the neck is severed at base of skull ; Figs. 8 and 9, proper
shape of opening, and where to make it in skull in order to take out the
brain.

IM.A'IK X.

icavaa^a^

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 69

rate the feathers along the breast, and, with a scalpel or sharp pen-
knife make an incision, beginning high up on the breastbone and down
to the vent' ( Plate X, Fig. \ a io b). Do not cut through the wall of
the abdomen, for the intestines, blood, etc., will come out and give you
trouble. Now raise the skin carefully along the cut until the muscles
of the leg are visible; push gently but with sufficient force until the
knee-joint protrudes, and cut it off here (Plate X, Fig. 2 af), leaving
the thigh attached to the body.- Most of the cutting from this point
until the bird is finished may be done with the scissors. Skin the leg
down to the heel, strip the flesh off perfectly clean (Plate X, Fig. 3 /)
and poison thoroughly with arsenical paste or arsenical soap (see for-
mulas, page 34). 3 Proceed in the same manner with the other leg, then
loosen the skin down on the back as far as possible, stand the bird on
its breast, bend the tail down and cut carefully through the tail joint
or pope's nose (Plate X, Fig. ^g). In doing this you will find it neces-
sary to work slowly and carefully in order to avoid cutting the skin.
You may now hang the specimen up on one of the hooks suspended
from the ceiling. Be sure, however, to leave enough of the pope's nose
to hold the feathers fast. Skin down the body, cut off one of
the wings at the shoulder joint, as indicated by the dotted lines in
Fig. 5 //, Plate X. Strip off the flesh from the humerus or upper arm
bone and also the forearm (ulna and radius) or double bones, detaching
the secondaries of the wing down to the carpus or wrist joint ( Fig. 6
/, Plate X). In the smaller birds, like the robin for example, you may
cut the wing-bones off at the dotted lines in Fig. G, Plate X, and leave

1. Opening Cut in the Backs of Birds. — In the grebes, loons, gulls and many of the ducks I shall recom-
mend making the opening cut along the back as this will enable you to preserve with more certainty the beauty
of the underparts which in these birds are so much exposed to view.

2. Skinning the Legs of Birds. — In skinning the legs of birds the rule is to skin down as far as feathers
grew or in all cases to the heel. The legs of many of the owls should be skinned down as far as the base of the
toes which is as far as we can reach from the inside. The legs in all hawks and eagles should be skinned to
below the heel.

3. Removing Tendons from Legs of Birds. — The tendons in the legs of eagles, large hawks, pelicans, flamingoes
and lari;e herons, down to the m/i; of tlie American Bittern Botaitrus lentiginosus (Montag.j, should be
taken out so that the wire will pass more easily through the leg. To do this make a cut in the ball of the foot
and draw the tendons out by means of a hook turned on the end of a piece of hard wire. If you choose to do so
you may put a wooden handle on the wire and make it a permanent tool for your outfit. This whole procedure is
well illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5, Plate XVII. After making the slit in the h:.\\ of the foot I sometimes cut the
tendons where they branch to the toes, take hold of them with pliers and draw them out. It requires much
longer time to remove the tendons from a drj- skin which you have relaxed than from a fresh bird.

In making up large birds in the form of skins the tendons should, by all means be taken out and the legs
thoroughly poisoned, both to cure them and protect them against the attacks of insects.

The best plan to follow is illustrated in Plate XIV. After the tendon has been removed run a sharp-pointed
wire in at the sole all the way up and through the heel as seen in our illustration. On this wire, at the sole and
at the heel place with a brush, all the arsenical paste or arsenical soap that the wire will hold, and then draw
the wire up and down until the tarsi has been thoroughly poisoned. I have frequently repeated this operation
two and three times, and then coated the outside of the tarsi and toes with the clear arsenical solution. See
also page 45.

70 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

the double bones of the wing remain intact.' Anoint the wing-
bones and skin thoroughly with poison and let them drop back in their
place. Both wings being detached and skinned we now proceed down
the neck until the base of the skull is reached.- For good reasons do
not pull or stretch the neck skin in this operation. In order to keep
back any blood or liquid which is often ready to flow before severing
the head from the neck tie a cord firmly about the neck just above the
skull, as shown in Plate X, Fig. 6 i. Before severing the head from
the body we will carefully detach the membrane of the ear by insert-
ing an awl or other pointed instrument under it, and by pulling up-
ward and outward quickly the membrane will come out (Plate X, Fig.
6 k). The eyes come next and can be observed through the thin
membrane ; cut very slowly through this until the eye is exposed, and
be careful not to cut through the eye-lids (Fig. 7 ?w, Plate X).^ Now
loosen the skin from the skull until you come down to the base of the
mandibles. Scoop out the eye-balls, sever the head from the neck at
the base of the skull, as in Fig. 7 n^ Plate X, taking out with the neck

1. Leaving All the Bones in Wings of Birds. — Never take any of the wing-bones out of any of file larger
birtls, such as eagle;., hawks, owls, loons, pelicans, geese, ducks, large gulls, lierons, etc. Vou can hardly esti-
mate the value there is in leaving all the wing-bones in the larger birds and, I may say, even in the smaller
ones. Skin down to the double bones of the wing (ulna and radius) or elbow, clean the flesh thoroughly from
the single bone (humerus) and stop there; and if it has been done properly the humerus w ill be seen as it is in
Plate XIX, Fig. 7. After treating both wings alike, and, after you have skinned the bird completely as directed,
and it is lying V>efore you, separate the feathers along the under side of the wing, make an incision, take out all
the flesh, but leave the secondaries of the wing attached to the ulna. This is clearlj' illustrated in Plate XIX,
Fig. 7. In order to thoroughly clean the entire wing of the flesh an opening between the metacarpal bones should
be made. This is also seen in the Fig. just referred to. While it is of great importance to make this cut in
order to take out all the flesh and poison the skin and bones thoroughly to the end of the wing, many taxidermists
overlook this important point. In order to skin the wing in this manner, make the incision along the under side
of the wing as indicated in our drawing, and after having the skin lifted up along both sides of the cut drive pins
along its edge into your bench to hold the skin back out of the way while you are removing the flesh. Poison
the bones and skin thoroughly, take the pins out and the wings are completely prepared. If the wings are to be
spread you should sew this opening up very nicely. In mounting a bird with the wings spread never detach the
feathers from the ulna of the wing, for you cannot replace them as nature has done; nor can you spread them so
regularly if you detach them. In skinning the wings as 1 have described there are many advantages to be
gained. The wings fold up or spread out perfectly; you can also always depend upon getting the proper length
of the wing by placing the knob of the humerus in the coracoid hollow or socket which you have made in the
artificial body. This is well illustrated in Plate XXI, Figs. 1, 2, 5, and the folding of the wing in the hawk and
owl is shown in Figs. 3, 4, Plate XX. There is another point in the philosophy of leaving all the wing-boncs in
birds. They assist materially in obtaining the proper shape of the back, and it is absolutely impossible to find
any artificial structure whirh will fill tlnif place in this regard, while their solidity is beyond question.

2. Exceptions in Skinning the Heads of Certain Birds.— The heads of some birds are too large to pass

through the neck-skin, and they nuist be skinned and treated differently. To skin the heads of woodpeckers,
ducks, geese, swan, flamingoes, cranes, ostrich, peacock, etc., an opening cut must be made from the outside as
seen in Fig. 5, Plate XIX. Skin down to the base of the bill as usual, cut away the flesh, take out the eyes and
brain, poison thoroughly, fill the eye-sockets with cotton and sew up the slit as seen in Fig. C of the same plate.
This is done, of course, after skinning down as far as possible on the inside. Make a hole in your bench to fit the
shape of \n\\T bird's bill and rest it in there while skinning the head fPlatc XIX, Fig. 5.)

3. Owls' Eyes. — Never remove the bony eye-cup in owls. If you take these out your owls will lose
their characteristic expression. Dig the eye-ball out with your scalpel and scissors as seen in Plate XVII, Figs. 1, 3.
If you desire to do so you can take the eye-cup out and clean it of its contents, as seen in Fig. 2, Plate XVII. but
you must put it back in its place. It is far better to leave the eye-cups in place and clean the contents out with-
out disturbing them.

PLA'iK xr.

Ri:TURXiyG THE SKiy OVER THE SKUI^L.

This illustratiou shows clearly the manner of returning the skin over the skull.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

the tongue. The muscles of the lower mandible and around the skull
must be cut away. Now take out the brain. Do not cut the whole
back of the skull off in order to get at the brain, as I have seen some
taxidermists do; but make an opening at the base of the skull extend-
ing over into the roof of the mouth, exactly as we have it pictured in
Figs. 8 and 9, Plate X. Scoop out the brain with your brain-spoon or
knife, and clean the head all over in a thorough and general manner.
Give it a heavy coat all over with arsenical paste or arsenical soap ;
fill the eye-sockets loosely with balls of clean, white cotton, and the
skin is ready to be returned. Before you do this, however, while the
skin is lying before you, wrong side out, clean all the particles of flesh
and fat from it and poison the skin all over in the most thorough man-
ner. The returning of the skin back over the skull is well illustrated
in Plate XI. Let me caution the beginner that he will find some diffi-
culty in performing this operation the first two or three times, espec-
ially if he is in haste to do it. Take your time by all means with the
first birds, and you will soon learn the knack of returning the skin
over the skull. Do not imagine that you can poke the skull straight
through the neck-skin without some careful manipulation. Work the
skin over gradually, and whenever it becomes rolled up on top of the
skull or elsewhere work on the opposite side until the folded portion
will clear itself, and suddenly it will pass through and the skin will
once more be right side out as seen in Plate XII. The arsenical paste
or soap will here be of great assistance in aiding the skin to slip easily
over the skull. The skin now being turned right side out, the feathers
may be very much disarranged. Take hold of the bill, adjust the
feathers with your fingers and spring forceps, and assist them to fall
back in their natural position. Insert the blunt end of a darning
needle in the eye-hole and rub it along under the skin above the skull
(Plate XII), and the skin and feathers will fall back to their natural
places. This little procedure, so clearly portrayed in our illustration,
is of the greatest importance in adjusting the skin and feathers of a
bird's head. You must now with a needle point pluck out the cotton
in the eye-sockets to the natural fullness of the eyes, but do not make
them bulge out. ]\Iake the circle of the eyelids perfectly round, adjust
the feathers of the neck carefully, and if all has been done according
to directions our robin skin lies before us ready to be mounted as it
appears in Plate XIII, Fig. 1.

Mounting Birds. — As we have the robin skinned, we shall now
proceed to mount it. The carcass of the bird is lying before you
(Plate XIII, Fig, 2). Cut off three pieces of annealed wire No. 18

- , METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

(which is about the right size for the robin), two of them twice as
long as the entire leg, the third long enough to encircle the body
lengthwise and extend about an inch and a half beyond the natural
neck, as is seen in Plate XIII, Fig. 3. With a file sharpen these wires
at one end ; make them very sharp, and smooth them off with fine
sandpaper. Now encircle the body lengthwise with the longest wire,
the sharpened end extending at least an inch and a half beyond the
length of the natural neck, as seen in Plate XIII, Fig. 3. Turn the
wire over and clinch it at the base of the neck ( Plate XIII, Figs. 3
and 4), using considerable force with flat-nosed pliers. You now have
the exact shape of the body lengthwise, which is figured in Plate XIII,
Fig. 4. Take a sufficient amount of tow to make an artificial body,
and form it firmly with your hands until it is about the size of the
natural carcass, which is lying before you. Place this tow which you
have thus moulded in the wire frame (Plate XIII, Fig. 4). With
needle and strong thread sew it through and through, and also sew the
wire to the tow all the way around (Plate XIII, Figs. 5, 6 and 7).
Take a pair of calipers and measure W\^ natural body carefully, and
make the artificial one exactly like it. Imitate every characteristic of
the natural carcass in the artificial one. Sew through and through the
artificial body, and make a hollow for the wings to lie in, as seen in Fig.
7, Plate XIII. In a word, imitate nature as closely as possible. Fig-
ures 5, 6 and 7 will sufficiently illustrate how this should be done.'
Now, the next procedure is to sew the wings to the side of the skin
so that they will hold firmly to the skin and in exactly the proper place
when the bird is mounted. First of all, pull the double wing-bones on
the inside of the skin ; sew through the bare place in the side of the
skin, now through the wing at the fingers, and back again into the
skin, and tie it firmly on the inside. This operation is clearly shown in

1. Making Artificial Bodies for Birds. — I cannot impress the beginner too forcibly on the importance of
making tlie arlUicial bodies lor lurds as nearly like the natural ones, both in size and shape, as is possible to make
ttiem. After skinning a bird study the carcass critically ; note its characteristic shape; observe the hollows where
the wings lie; measure it with the calipers all over, measure its circumference around the breast and abdomen,
and try to copy the natural body in every detail by sewing it through and through with needle and thread, bring-
ing out in the artificial body every characteristic elevation and hollow. If the artificial body is made with
extreme accuracy and the leg and wing bones carefully adjusted to their places, there will be very few stubborn
feathers sticking up out of place and the plumage will require little or no winding down.

Make the false body for all birds, exxept for such as the ostrich, exactly as I have described for the robin.
There is a difference, however, in forming the necks in long-necked birds which will be treated separately in its
proper i)lace. In large birds you can use e.vcelsior or straw for the core and tow on the outside. Many taxider-
mists use straw or excelsior alone. In making huge bodies a long needle and strong twine is necessary to sew
them throush and through. While it has been advised that the beginner measure every portion of a bird's body
with calipers in order that the artificial body may be made with accuracy, there is one measurement which, with
sufficient experience, really need not be taken. It is the one illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XIII. Vou will
oliserve that by encircling the natural body lengthwise with the body-wire you obtain, when carefully done, the
exact shape and size of body lengthwise. It is one of the beauties of this method of mounting birds.

PLATK NIT.

ADJUSTING FEATHERS OF THE HEAD

"When the skin of a bird has been turned right side out the feathers are
usually very much disarranged, especially about the head Avhere the skiu has
become folded. To adjust the skin over tbe head, Insert the blunt point of a
darning needle in the eye-hole and rub it along under the skin above the skull; hy
this operation the skin and feathers of the head will fall nicely in their ijluce.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. yj

Plate XIX, Fig. 3, and if properly done the wings will always remain
in their proper place without the aid of pins or sharpened wires.' Take
one of the smoothly sandpapered wires intended for the legs and run
it into the ball of the foot and out at the heel, as seen in Plate XIII,
Fig. 8. This operation is well illustrated in Plate XIV. Saturate the
wire above the heel and below the sole with the arsenical paste or soap ;
now draw it up and down half a dozen times in order to allow the poison
to penetrate that part of the leg between the sole and heel (the tarsus),
for this should be poisoned as well as any portion of the bird. Draw
the wire back below the heel and thrust it through to the end of the
tibia and wind it with a wrapping of fine tow to replace the muscles
of the leg, as seen in Plate XIII, P'igs. 9 and 10, Draw the leg with
the artificial muscle back to its place, smoothing the feathers nicely on
the skin, and proceed with the other leg in a similar manner. The
skin now lies before you (Plate XIII, Fig. 10) ready for the reception
of the artificial body. Before proceeding, however, see that the entire
skin is thoroughly poisoned with the arsenical paste or soap. IMake
some loose little tow-balls (Plate XIII, Fig. II ) a trifle larger than the
natural neck on the carcass before you. Insert the balls in the neck-
skin. The number depends upon the length of the neck.^ You may
now take the artificial body and thrust the sharpened neck-wire
through these balls of tow and through the skull, as represented in
Plate XIII, Fig. 12. Take hold of the leg with the wire in it and
thrust the wire through the artificial body and clinch or anchor it, as
is represented in Plate XIII, Fig. 13. Locate the wire about the mid-

1. Fastening the Wings in Birds. — Many taxidermists fasten the wings of the smaller birds to the artificial
body from the outside with sharpened wires or pins. This is proper in eagles, hawks, owls and, in fact, all the
larger species, especially when all the wing bones remain intact. To make a substantial and finished job in the
smaller species tie the wings to the side of the skin thrnui;li the bare spot as illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, Plate
XIX, and if you have made the false body with accuracy xhs wings will lie in position without the aid of pointed
wires or pins. This mi-tliod has Ix-en practiced for years by Dr. Jasper, and there are none, I am sure, can look
upon his mnuntcd birds and skins without observing the supreme accuracy with which the wings fit the body. The
secret lies chiefly in this little point. Another method answering the same purpose has been devised by Mr.
Thomas M. Earl, and it is illustrated in Plate XVII. Fig. 6. It is to fasten a piece of thread at the upper ends
of the double wing-bones and draw them together until they are the same distance apart that the width of the
back measures ; tie them fast there. In order to make the strength and firmness doubly sure both of these
methods are often employed, as seen in the several figures of Plate XIII. Either of these, however, employed
in making skins of the smaller birds are most excellent in holding the wings to their proper place, and will do
away with the use of many sharpened wires and pins.

2. Making Artificial Necks for Birds. — I have just described above my method of making the artificial
necks in Ijirds with bulls of tow. Perliaps most taxidermists make a solid neck of natural thickness and length
on the neck-wire, in the same manner they do the body before inserting it in the skin ; others simply take a roll
of tow of the proper size and insert it in the skidl cavity as seen in Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, Plate XIX. The solid
neck, however, is far preferable to the loose tow because it makes a firmer job, and. you can form the neck to
better proportions. The advantage in the method I use is that you can lengthen or shorten the neck to suit
your own taste, on the same principle of running the center wire through the nose in small quadrupeds. If the
balls of tow are made reasonably solid the same strength can be had as in the solid neck.

This is applied to the short-necked birds and not to herons, cranes, etc., where we use the actual bones
of the cervical vertebrae over which to form the neck.

jS METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

die of the body. Bend the legs parallel with the body ; adjust the
wings and feathers nicely all over in a general way, pull the skin again
and again over the opening, and gradually make it meet as closely as
possible. Stick a needle with thread in the right-hand edge of the
cut at the beginning of the incision ( Plate XIII, Fig. 14) on the tinder
side of the opening. Sew over and over, drawing the skin together
and adjusting the feathers as you proceed until the opening is com-
pletely closed. Now bend the legs to what you may deem a proper
angle, and the bird will be lying before you as it is in Plate XV, P'ig. 1.
Place it on a temporary or permanent T-perch,' run a pointed, smoothly
sandpapered wire in the tail-joint, and with a little further manipula-
tion, such as filling the throat out, etc., with cotton, your bird will ap-
pear as it is figured in Plate XV, Fig. 2. Open the bird's mouth, and
with a blunt piece of wire fill the throat out so that it will be smooth
and symmetrical. Never allow a specimen to go without filling the
throat out perfectly smooth, but not too full. The eyes may be set
in immediately, while the lids are soft, or the bird may be allowed to
thoroughly dry before setting them. If it is to be allowed to dry the
circle of the eyelids should be nicely adjusted and arranged perfectly
round and full, but not to bulge out. The advantage of inserting the
eyes in dry mounted birds lies in the fact that the skin being stiflf and
hard one can work about the head with more freedom, and with less
delicacy of touch than is required in handling the fresh specimen, and
if the eyelids have been properly adjusted in the first place, a much
neater job can be made of them in every particular. To soften the
eyelids in dry specimens, cut a piece of sponge that will fill the eye-
hole up completely; take your tweezers and soak it for a moment in
water and then place it in the eye-hole. The lids will soon become
soft enough to insert the eye without trouble.'' Take a piece of soft

1- Perches- — it is a good jdea to have made, and keep them in readiness, a number of tempcrary T-shaped
stands. The cross-piece on many of them can be set at different angles, to give variety to the positions of the
specimens. From these temporary stands the specimens can be transferred to the permanent ones.

2. Inserting Glass Eyes. — Vou may insert glass eyes in your birds on a foundation of putty placed over
the cotton in the eye cavity. Absorbent cotton thoroughly saturated with mucilage is likewise good but above
all potter's clay mixed with strong glue liquid is the best, or papier-mache.

You may suit your pleasure as to -a'lien you put in the eyes. 1 never write or telegraph my dealer that I
must have the eyes before the eye-lids of my specimens dry. 1 prefer to insert them after the bird is thoroughly
dry, for reasons given above. Take just as much care to insert the eyes in a bird as you do any portion of the
whole operation of mounting. The head is one of the chief beauties of a bird and the setting of the eye has all
to do with the expression. When you insert the eye, it should afterwards be nicely cleaned and polished.
In fact, be neat and cleanly with all of your specimens, it will add fifty per cent, to their value. It requires
care and some experience to properly adjust the eyes in many birds, and especially in the hawks and eagles.
If you can obtain a live hawk it will pay you to carefully note how the eyes set in the head — how keen his
expression on account of their forward position in the head, and how beautifully the eye-lid fits around the ball of
the eye. The latter fact, however, is true of the eyes of all birds, and is one of the nice points which should be
shown in your mounted specimens. In leaving a specimen to dry without inserting the eyes, be sure that the eye-
lids are rounded and nicely adjusted. Do not leave one of them half closed and the other fully open

PLA.TK XIII.

MOL'NTiya A BIRD.

Fijr. 1, skin ready for artificial Ixnly, wires, etc.; Fig. 2, natural body as taken
oul of the skill ; Fig. o, encircling natural hody with the body-wire to obtain proper
dimensions lengthwise; Fig. 4, showing inoper shape and size; Fig. .">, tow sewed
and bound in tlie body-wire, Fig. (>, exhibiting tlie under jiortion of artificial body
with body-wire sewed fast; Fig. 7, illustrating side and back of artificial body
showing hollow where the humerus rests; Fig. 8, skin in shape witli Mire
protruding from heel in order to poison leg between heel and base of toi's; Fig.
!», wire inseiled to end of tH'ia ami muscles i'i'])lace(l with tow; P'ig. pi, l)oth legs
made and ])ulled back in position ; Fig. 11, balls of tow for tlio neck; Fig. 12, 1)alls
of tow inserted in neck and artificial body adjusted ready for reception of wires;
Fit:'. b'>, leg-wires inserted in body, and showing manner of anchoring them; Fig,
11, sewing up the oi)euiug.

32 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

putty of the required size, place it in the eye above the cotton, and the
artificial eye of the proper size and color over it; adjust the eyelids
carefully and the bird is ready for the final touches. The next pro-
cedure in the mounting of our robin is wrapping it with thread. Do
this with the soft thread from the bobbin, which you can get at the
cotton mills, called copse, or No. 40 thread. Wind it carefully where-
ever there are any feathers out of order, or wherever there seems to be
a break in the symmetrical outline of the mounted bird.' Look at it
from the head, tail and both sides ; make the outline easy and graceful,
and wind it so that the feathers will lie like they do in life — alike on
both sides. Now cut two pieces of pasteboard for a tail band ; adjust
the tail feathers and pin the two pieces of pasteboard across the tail
as shown in Plate XV, Fig. 3. These will rest on the wire used for a
tail support. Your specimen is now ready to put away until thor-
oughly dry. Instead of using the strips of card-board to hold the tail
feathers in place many taxidermists sharpen and sandpaper smoothly
a piece of wire of the proper size and pass it through each quill at the
base of the tail. The feathers are then arranged to suit the attitude
of the specimen. This can be done on the smallest birds.

Another Method of Mounting Birds. — We shall here depart from
the regular mode of skinning and mounting birds, and use another
method having advantages which the usual procedure does not obtain.
Some will perhaps adopt this method altogether and use it in prefer-
ence to the former which we have already fully described and illustrated.
We shall term it the " breast-cut" method for, instead of making the

1. Winding Birds' FeatlierS. — Piof. J. S. Wiiey, in a pamphlet entitled The Preparation ami Prese}-z>ation
of Objects of Natural History, published in 1855, dwells at length on the arrangement and winding of birds'
leathers. He advices the use ot three hooked wires along the back and belly and the supporting nei k-wirc to be
liooked at the top of the head. Mr. Frederic S. Webster, in a paper read before the members of the Society
of American Taxidermists in IbSl, advocates a similar method.

Our Plate XVI represents two figures of a hawk ; the upper one is supposed to be properly wound with the
aid of hooked wires; the lower, with simply sharpened wires stuck in it here and there, illustrates a bird badly
wound, the threads being too tightly drawn, making the symmetry or outline of the whole bird very imperfect.
The object of the hooked wires, as Professor Wiley says, " is to wind the thread over them and bring sufficient
pressure down on the feathers that stubbornly stick up and to hold them in place till the skin is dry ; to miss those
that lie perfectly natural or need little or no pressure at all." Every taxidermist has his own method of winding
birds' feathers and he varies his modes of procedure in every case according to circumstances — to suit
the condition and attitude of the specimen under treatment. In my first efforts I employed the as-
sistance of hooked wires to bring my birds into shape, but now 1 seldom have to resort to them. To
obtain symmetry in our specimens a general and careful wrapping is necessary. The feathers that require pres-
sure to hold them down are usually those that have sprung up on account of some irregularity in the shape of the
false body, or too much filling, or because of some misplacement or disarrangement of the wing or leg bones.
Take the utmost care in making the artificial bod). Do not make it too large ; do not make an elevation where
there should be a hollow ; anchor the legs in the proper place in the body ; in the smaller birds sew or tie the
wings in the proper place so that the feathers will not stick up at the shoulders, which is usually such a trouble-
some place for the amateur to work over. Study the bird and note how the feathers cover the bare places on the
body and you will soon know the way they must be adjusted in order to obtain the smoothness that nature gave
them. In this a careful study of Plate VI 1 1 may assist yr>u.

METHODS IN THE ART OE TAXIDERMY. 83

abdominal cut in skinning, we begin the opening incision far up on the
breast and stop at the end pf the breastbone (PKite X\'II, I'ig. 7 a to b).
Loosen the skin from the breast down to the wings and neck, cut the
wings and neck off close to the body and skin them in the usual way
(Plate XVII, Fig. 8). Now skin down the back a little and then hang
the bird up on the hook at the point where you have cut off the neck.
Skin down to the legs and cut them off as usual at the knee joints,
stripping the flesh off down to the heel. vSkin over the neck and
head and treat them as previously directed. Now having the robin
before you as in Plate X\'II, Fig. 0, and in Plate XMII, Fig. 1, it is ready
for the artificial body. Take a piece of annealed wire and encircle the
natural body lengthwise and clinch it at the neck. This is in order to
obtain the correct dimensions of the body for future use as you will
notice directly. Now take the long sharpened and smooth wire which
is intended for the body-wire and encircle the carcass lengthwise as
shown in Plate X\'III, P'ig. 2, bending it straight across, however,
about three-quarters of the way down on the carcass, where the dotted
lines are in Fig 2. If you have carried the directions out fully you
will have an outline form in the wire similar to Fig. •'>, Plate XMII.
Take a quantity of tow and mould it with your hands to about the
proper size, place it in the frame and sew it through and through, as
directed for the usual way. You will now have a three-quarters por-
tion of the artifiicial body made. By measuring or comparing this with
the wire which you encircled lengthwise around the carcass to obtain
its size you can easily mark with a file how much should be allowed for
the lower or abdominal portion of the body. You can cut it apart and
bend and clinch it where you have marked it, thus making the shape
of the lower portion of the artificial body as seen in F'ig. 3, Plate
XVIII. Put tow within this frame and sew it as before directed.
Place in the balls of tow for the neck, as usual ; take hold of the large
portion of the artificial body which you have just made and thrust the
pointed wire through the balls of tow in the neck and through the
skull. Now run the wires of the legs into and through the artificial
body, clinching them on the respective opposite sides in the usual
manner, as is illustrated in Plate XIII, Fig. 13. When a beginner
skins a bird and mounts it, using the abdominal cut, he often, indeed,
almost invariably finds great difficulty in sewing up the opening so
that it will be neatly and perfectly done — in fact, this is one of the
constant defects in mounted birds, and it is here that the work is
slighted or neglected, even by those who have long experience in the
matter. The feathers high up along the ventral tract are more abun-

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

dant and compact than they are lower down, making the opening cut
along the breast more easy to close than- that along the abdominal
region, while the latter is preserved intact.

Mounting Birds with Wings Spread. — In skinning a bird that is
to have its wings spread leave in all the wing-bones. Skin the humerus
down to the elbow, strip it of its flesh and open the forearm on
the outside underneath ; take out all the muscles and tendons, but
leave the secondaries attached to the ulna. This can be clearly seen
in Plate XIX, Fig. 7. Skin the bird otherwise as previously directed
in skinning the robin. The artificial body for birds J;hat are to have
the wings spread should be made solid and compact in order to secure
the many wires that must be thrust into it. In birds of prey the
muscles of the leg should be well developed. Make the artificial body
exactly like the natural one. If you will examine the skeleton of the
eagle in Plate IX you will observe that the humerus is attached to the
large stout bone called the coraciod, which joins the sternum or breast-
bone. There is always a neatly rounded hollow where you sever the
humerus from the coraciod bone. This must be emphasized strongly
in the artificial body as seen in Fig. 1, Plate XXI. It should be
strongly developed in all artificial bodies where all the wing-bones are
to remain intact. The wire which is to be used in the wing should be
well sandpapered and oiled in order that it may slip along the joints
of the wing and also through the cords which are to hold the wires close
to the bone. Sharpen the wire at both ends. It should be strong enough
to support the weight of the wing and long enough to project beyond
where the first primaries begin to grow, after having anchored it in the
body as represented in Fig. 5, Plate XXI. Make it perfectly straight
and polish it well. Lift the opening of the skin and pass the wire up
along the humerus and out between the ulna and radius to the carpal
joint, thence under the skin of the metacarpal bones, until it appears
where the first primaries begin to develop. All this is clearly shown
in Figs. 2 and 4, Plate XXI. Tie the wire to the humerus and to
the radius, and if you have properly skinned the wing as shown in
Fig, 7, Plate XIX, you may also tie the wire fast to the metacarpal
bones. In large birds the flesh around these bones should always be
taken out. Make the wire fit snugly against the wing-bones. Now fill
the neck with balls of tow to the proper length and thickness. Take
the artificial body in hand and force the neck-wire through these and
out in the center of the head as seen in Fig. 2, Plate XXI. Place the
knob of the humerus in the coraciod hollow which you have made in
the body, and force the wire through the body, and clinch or

I'l.AI K \1V.

iS?f

fe\ I'

WIRING AND POISONING THE TARSUS.

The tarsus of the leg should he poisoned as well as any portiou of the liird's
skin, and it is done as here illustrated. .Saturate the wire with arsenical paste (see
recipe, page lo) above the heel and at the hall of tiic foot. Draw the Mire up and
down several times until the ])oison has penetrated the tarsus. Now draw the wire
hack l)elow the heel and then continue it up along the tibia and form the leg as
seen -in Plate XIII.

METHODS IX THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. ^-j

anchor it firmly as seen in Figs. 2 and 5, Plate XXI. Some
taxidermists bend the wire at its point (Fig. o, Plate XXI) and
clinch it under the metacarpal bones. Having inserted the wires
of the wings, replace the fleshy portion of each wing with tow and sew
the openings up neatly. The art of giving a natural poise to the body
and proper bend and elevation of wings all remains with the operator.
This must be done after the bird has been placed on a temporary
perch. If it is to be in full flight the feet must be drawn up and al-
most concealed in the feathers; if grasping prey, place the object at
once underneath the talons before the feet begin to dry.

The feathers of the wing should be held in their proper place by
pinning card-board over them, as represented in Fig. '1, Plate XXI.
The tail-feathers of all large birds should be wired by running a piece
of small wire through each feather at the flat part of the quill near
the body, and should also have card-board pinned across them, and
then spread in position.

Mounting Long-necked Birds. — I use only one method in mount-
ing long-necked birds, and I wall match it against any method that has
heretofore been devised. My venerable instructor in taxidermy, Dr.
Theodore Jasper, has, for thirty-five years, mounted the herons, etc.,
on this same principle. In securing the best results it is the simplest
and most practical method known. Prof. J. S. Wiley and many others
have used a similar method but not exactly like the one I shall de-
scribe. It is applied to birds that are heron-like, from the size of the
Least Bittern Botaiiriis exilis (Gmel.) and upwards; in any of the true
cranes, in the ostrich, emu and the like. The necks of the herons
are long, thin and flat, and the angular joints of the neck vertebrae are
often visible through the thin coat of feathers. To imitate nature what
is better in this case than to use the bony structure of the neck itself?
Try it, and you will never waste time on experimenting with other
methods.

Skin your heron exactly as I have directed in this chapter, and
after having cut the cervical vertebrae ofi at the base of the skull, sever
it where it joins the body as we have it illustrated in Fig. 1, Plate
-XXII. You now have in your hands the bony structure and muscles
of the neck, the wind-pipe, etc. Clean this vertebrae of its flesh and it
will appear as in Fig. 2, Plate XXII. Do not disjoint the vertebrae;
leave them remain attached to one another, and clean them
thoroughly and poison the whole well. Sharpen a piece of annealed
wire at both ends ; make this wire long enough so that vou can anchor
it in the artificial body as seen in Fig. 4, Plate XXII, and also long

PLATE XV.

FINISHING A MOUNTED BIRD. WAl,KING ATTITUDES.

Fig 1, robin with lei:s l)eiit in shape ready for perch ; Fig. 2, robin on tem-
porary perch with wire iu tail for support ; Fig. 8, robin with thread winding; tail
band ; Figs. -4 and o, showing position of femur (Ai which, iu the natural body, can
not descrilie more than one-ciuarter of a circle. In stepping or running attitudes
the leg, which is to set forward, should be anchorerl in the artificial body about as
far up as the femur would reach in the circle (cZand d) ; the leg that is to drop 1 jack-
ward should be placed far down in the circle as seen in c of both figures. Where tlie
end of the middle toe is to barely touch the ground (Fig. ■")) the wire sliould lie run
from the inside of the skin to point of toe, so that no " visible means of support"
will be seen when fastened on the stand. .See section. Stepping and Running
Attitudes, page 9().

li.AlK XV.

f^/V

I r

. ;.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY, 9 1

enough to protrude from the skull. Make it exactly as represented
in l-'ig. •>. Now run this wire straight through the ceiiter of this cervi-
cal vertebra.^ and leave it project out an inch or two, according to the size
of your bird, and stick a small piece of cork on the sharpened end as
in Fig. ■">, Plate XXII, to keep your hands from being injured with the
sharp point of the wire while you are making the neck. You may now
wrap this neck skeleton with fine tow to replace the flesh ; bind it
down with thread, and just before inserting it in the neck-skin cover
the whole with clay. The clay should have a mixture of stiff glue
liquid. The windpipe which moves so easily from one side to the other
can be imitated by taking a small piece of annealed wire, winding it
with tow and anchoring or sewing it at the u])])cr and lower end of the
neck. In making the false body carry out the same instructions to
form it as given in mounting of the robin, except, of course, that
when you take the size of the body lengthwise with wire you leave off
the neck- wire which is used in the short-necked birds. After carefully
forming the neck of your heron anchor it firmly in the proper place on
the artificial body. You can see how this should be done by examining
Fig. 4, Plate XXII. Be very particular in making the false body for
your herons as you should in all others, imitating every hollow and
elevation. If your heron is to stand on one leg the wire in the leg that
is to support the body should be heavier, and if the bird is to be placed
in a walking position with one of the large toes just touching the
ground, sharpen the wire that is to go in this leg at both ends, and run
it in from the inside to very nearly the end of the great toe and let it
come out at this point so that there will be no visible supporting wire
from the leg when fastened on the stand, as seen in Fig. 5, Plate XV,
and Fig. 5, Plate XXII.

Skinning and Mounting Colossal Birds. — The ostriches, emus,
and cassowaries, on account of their immense size, require special
treatment in their skinning and mounting. The opening cut must be
begun high up on the breast and continued to the vent. Make another
incision across the abdominal region from one leg to the other; con-
tinue this cut down the inside of the leg and down to the ball of the
foot, if it be an ostrich. Through this opening you can remove the
tendons and muscles and detach the skin of the leg all the wav around
the bone. Sever the legs at the knee-joint and cure the skin with
arsenical paste or arsenical soap and a little powdered alum and salt.
Skin over the tail and down the back till the wings are reached, de-
tach the humerus from the body and strip it of its flesh, leaving the
other portion of the wing to be skinned from the outside as seen in

g2 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Plate XIX, Fig. 7, and as I advise in the foot-note on page 42. Skin
down the neck as far as possible, for the head of an ostrich cannot
pass through the skin of the neck. Detach the cervical vertebrae as
near to the head as possible without breaking any of the bones, as we
must use them in forming the neck. Turn the skin back and make
an opening cut in the back of the head and far enough down the neck
to take out that portion which remains (Plate XIX, Fig. 5), and after
you have skinned and cleaned this part of the neck and head and have
thoroughly poisoned them, fill the eye-sockets with cotton, but do not
yet sew the opening up as seen in Plate XIX, Fig. 6, and as recom-
mended in foot-note on page 70, for through this opening we can
more easily adjust the skin of the neck over the clay-covered vertebrae
and form the muscles of the head, etc., than we could were it closed.
Sew the opening up when this has been done. As we now have the
skin off, cured with arsenical paste and powdered alum, we will wrap
it in a damp blanket, for it will take two days at least to complete
the specimen, and it is necessary to have the skin soft and pliable when
we place it on the manikin, which we shall now begin to build.
]\Iake a center board exactly the shape of the contour of the body
which lies before you. The shape of the ostrich body is illustrated
precisely in our Plate XXIII. Cut three square holes in this center
board for the purpose of sewing the tow through and through as fig-
ured in Plate XXIII («, h, c) to build out the manikin. Now lay the
skin out on the floor and arrange the legs in the position you desire to
have the bird appear when mounted — standing, running or stepping.
The latter is the attitude in our plate. Take a piece of large-
sized annealed wire and obtain the exact position of the legs by
placing the wire along the leg-bones and follow closely and neatly
everv bend in the joints down to the sole of the foot, precisely as we
have it in our illustration (Plate XXIII). Out of half-inch round iron
rods make from these patterns their counterparts in form ; at the same
time have them threaded at both ends and provided with nuts and
washers. If you cannot do this yourself have your blacksmith do it
for you. Now, if you will examine figure d in our plate you will see
that the leg-irons are to be fastened in an iron square which resem-
bles a hinge open at right angle. Three of the holes made in this
square are to fasten it on the center board with screws or bolts ; the
other three are made large enough for the reception of leg-irons. We
make three holes for the leg-irons, but, of course, only use one.
The other two are made for emergency — in case you have placed the
iron square too far forward or backward you can take the nut off and

PI.ATK XVI.

WINDING BIRDS.

Fig. 1, winding tlie plumagv of bird.s \>\ lueau? of hooked wires; liawk prop-
erly wound; Fig. 2, liawk badly wound, threads drawn too tight, spoiling the sym-
metry or outline ; Fig. 8, shape of hooked wire ,,see foot-note, page 82).

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. q-

shift the leg-irons into either one of these holes which will suit the
position of the leg best. Even after your manikin is standing com-
plete it is an easy matter to change the position of the leg forward or
backward by this simple device. Place one nut on the threaded end
of the leg-irons, so that it will come below on the iron square, and,
having adjusted the leg-iron to place, screw the nut on top firmly down
on the square. Make the side of the square which is to hold the leg-
irons broad enough so that the legs will be held out from the center
board sufficiently far enough to make the proper thickness of the body.
I shall speak more of the value of this square in the mounting of quad-
rupeds. For additional strength you can place blocks snugly under-
neath the leg-irons and fasten them on the center board and then drive
staples over the leg-irons into the blocks. Tie the leg-bones to the
rods with wire — copper is best. Now fasten a heavy size of annealed
or copper wire on the center board for the neck support, and, after
cleaning the neck vertebrae thoroughly, string it all on this neck-wire.
Now form the body of tow or excelsior ; make it solid by sewing through
and through with a long needle and strong twine, and model the whole
in clay containing chopped tow and a thin glue liquid. Form the
large muscles of the leg in a similar manner. Replace the flesh of the
oeck and the windpipe with a wrapping of fine tow and a coating of
the clay. You will discover that you can form the muscles around the
head better with clay than you can with any other substance. Do this
through the opening which you have made in the back of the head and
neck. The manikin at this stage is ready for the skin. The tendons
and muscles of the legs to the ends of the toes should be replaced
with clay and sewn up.

It will be seen from the above that all colossal birds are mounted on
what we shall term the dervwplastic method — the skin being arranged
over a clay-covered manikin, as is the case with the large and the
short-haired mammals.

Legs in Raptores. — The best mounted hawks, eagles and owls
I ever saw were those mounted with all the leg-bones remaining at-
tached to one another. Take for example the illustrations in Plate
XX. If you will carefully examine each one of the figures you will
see at once the philosophy of the whole arrangement. By leaving the
femur and tibia connected and replacing the muscles nicely with fine
tow and anchoring the wire at a point where the femur is attached to
the body, you can bend the leg into shape, as seen in Fig. 1. This
method gives to the legs the prominence which is characteristic of
those parts in the Raptores.^ or birds of prey. vShould you prefer, in

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

the iv^Lial way, to detach the bones at the knee in the rapacious birds,
and vet desire to develop the femur, you can anchor the wire where
the femur joins the body, draw the leg out on the wire and leave it the
length of the femur inside the skin, bend at the knee-joint and fill in
around the wire to make the muscles of the femur the right size.
Figs. .') and 4 of the hawk and owl with the imaginary outline of
feathers will give a very clear idea how the legs and wings are
placed in these birds and how the leg-wires should be inserted and
bent.

More About Mounting Hawks, Owls, etc, — Tl\ere appears to be as
much mechanical ingenuity required in the mounting of hawks, owls,
etc., as there is in the construction of the manikin for the ostrich.
The following is another method of Dr. Theodore Jasper for obtaining
a more life-like appearance in hawks and owls when they are to be
represented in anger (Plate XXXVIII, Fig. 2) at which time the
feathers of the breast, back and wings stand out loosely. When the
bird has been skinned, thoroughly poisoned, and is ready for the false
bodv, give the inside of the skin a very thick coating of potter's clay,
especially along the spinal or dorsal tract of the back (Fig. 4, B, Plate
VIII) and along the ventral tract of the breast or underparts (Fig. 7,
A, Plate 8). Cover this clay-coating with any kind of old, thin cloth
in order to keep it from adhering to the artificial body when inserted.
The clay acts as a cushion in which the ends of the quills rest and
when the feathers are lifted and arranged in any position, they will re-
main so without any other support. When a bird is to be represented
in a fierce and enraged attitude, at which time the feathers stand out
all over the body, there is no other method in the world better than
this. It also makes a more lasting piece of work.

Stepping and Running Attitudes. — Some of the worst examples
of bird-mounting are to be seen in those specimens which taxidermists
attempt to pose in the act of stepping or running. Let us examine
the arrangement of the legs in Figs. 4 and 5, Plate XV. If you could
turn the femur ia) completely around like a clock-hand it would of
course describe a circle. In life, however, the femur can move just so
far and no farther. If you will examine the natural body after skin-
ning the bird and move the femur as far as possible up and down you
will discover that it cannot describe more than one-quarter of a circle, as
seen in Fig. 4 r to rt'iu our plate. If the bird is to make a long stride the
leg that is to drop backward should be anchored very low down in the
artificial body, and the one which is to come forward should be placed
high up in the circle (see Figs. 4 and 5). The pose of the body has

PI.Al E XVII.

-<^.

PLATE XVII.

OWLS' EVES. TEXDOyS IN LEGS. BREAST-CVT METHOD.

Fig. 1, repR'seiiis an owl's hciul witli eyes iutact. If you take the eye-cup out
to clean it iuside aud out (Fig. 2) be sure and place it back iu the skull (Fig. 3), for
it preserves the expressiou of the face. Most taxidermists uever remove the eye-
cups from the skull, l)ut simply leave them rrmain in place and dean the contents
out (see foot-note, page 70).

Figs. 4 and 5, illustrate a maimer of taking out the tendons in the legs of
large birds, by making an incision in the hall of the foot aud i)ulling the tendons out
with a hooked wire. Some take liold of the tendons with flat-nosed pliers and draw
them out.

Fig. (), shows the skin of a robin ready for mounting, prepared by the breast-
cut method ; Fig. 7, first incision in the breast-cut procedure; Fig. 8, skin loosened,
neck and wings ready to l)e severed in the breast-cut proces.s (see Another Method
of Mountiny Birds, page 82).

lOO METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

a great deal to do with the natural attitude of the bird arranged in this
position. If you are to place the bird in a running attitude, with the
toes of one foot barely touching the ground, sharpen both ends of the
wire which is to support the leg whose toes are thus to be adjusted.
Instead of forcing it up through the sole, pass the wire on the inside of
the skin of the leg clear to the end of the middle toe, as seen in Fig. 5.
When the bird is fastened on a stand, no wire leg-supports are visible.
This is also illustrated in Plate XLI.

While this automatic principle is found in all birds, it is more
noticeable in long-legged ones, and by the application of these princi-
ples, formed on the basis- of the natural structure, any attitude or angle
can be obtained ; whether the bird is gracefully stooping to drink or
running with outstretched legs. The same principle can be applied to
all the smaller birds. For example, the little warbler with one foot on
the top of a slanting twig and the other farther down the branch can,
with this method, be produced with most gratifying results. It is far
better than any of the methods which I have seen, for there is no
guess-work about it.

Hummingbirds. — These diminutive creatures really require no
other treatment in skinning than that given for the robin in this chap-
ter, and illustrated in Plate X. There is, however, so little flesh in
the wings of a hummingbird that many taxidermists consider it un-
necessary to skin the wing farther than the full length of the humerus,
or upper arm bone. At this point the wings should be well poisoned
with the arsenical paste (see formula, page 34). The false body should
be made exactly as described for the robin and as illustrated in Plate
XIII. If the wings are to be spread a small wire should be run
through each wing into the body for support. The tail should be
spread with strips of thin card-board as seen in Plate XV, Fig. 3. The
bird should be placed in a bed of clean sheet cotton and the feathers
of the wings and tail spread and nicely adjusted. Groups of these
tiny birds may be mounted with the wings spread, or in various other
attitudes. A pair may be mounted, one hovering over a flower or just
approaching the nest, while the other, male or female, may be arranged
in a quiet, sitting posture near the nest. The wire which supports
the hummingbird when flying is usually anchored in the body and
brought out immediately under the tail; when in a sitting attitude the
supporting wire is allowed to come farther forward in the body, the feet
being arranged on each side on the perch while the wire is hidden with
a small piece of moss or lichen. The accessories in the way of leaves,
branches, etc., for groups of hummingbirds should be natural and ele-

PLA'IK XVIII.

BREAST-CUT METHOD OF MOUNTING BIRDS.

Fig. 1. skiu of robiu ready for reception of artificial body; Fig. 2, taking
measurement of the natural carcass lengthwise with wire; Fig. 3, showing the front
three-ijuarters section of the artificial body and how made, and also the one-third
abdominal portion.

Fig. 4, tlie three-quarters and abdominal sections of the artificial body in place
in tlie skin.

Fig. 5, robin group in various attitudes.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 105

o^ant, corresponding with the gorgeous colors of the birds themselves.
The best work I ever saw done in hummingbirds was where the legs
were wired with small wire as is done in the larger birds. These
were in sitting attitudes, the heads being turned, wings slightly raised,
tail spread and other characteristic arrangements were made to diver-
sify their postures.

Painting Discolored Parts of Birds. — Soon after a bird has been
mounted (and likewise in making up skins) the colors of the feet,
legs, beak and bare places about the head begin to fade, and finally
disappear. They must be restored by artificial colors, tube paints
being the best for this purpose. The paints should be squeezed out
on the palette and thinned with turpentine only^ so that the paint will
not have a varnished appearance, for very few birds, except in
wet conditions, have a glossy texture to the parts which should
be painted.

In coloring the soft, spongy feet of an eagle or hawk, or the
caruncular head of a vulture, the paint should be put on by stippling^
not by strokes. Cut the bristles of the brush off square in the middle
so that it will have a flat or stubby end ; with this put the paint on
by dotting, covering the surface wherever coloring is required, being
careful not to lay the pigment on so thick that the divisions of the
scutella and the tubercular processes will be invisible.

The best time to paint the discolored parts of a bird is, just as soon
as it has been mounted — before the colors have faded, if possible. You
can paint over these at this time, and even if you are a trifle color-blind
you can be sure of approaching near the correct tint. The colors used
in obtaining the various tints are given on page 52. If you intend to
wait until the specimen is dry before painting, you will have to make a
color sketch of the parts before they have faded, or depend upon your
memory which, for the beginner, is a hazardous thing to do, unless the
bird is a familiar one.

If you have mended a broken bill or scutellum with papier-mache
give the mache a coating of either white or French sJiellac varnish to
form a non-absorbent surface for the paint to lay upon. Papier-mache
will absorb several coats of paint which will change its texture and, as
the painted surface should be uniform, the use of shellac as a body i«
apparent. For the uses of various kinds of varnishes see page 53.

Combs, Wattles, Etc. — The combs and wattles of fowls may be
reproduced with sheet lead covered with papier-mache. Cut the comb
neatly from the head, lay it on a piece of sheet lead or copper ; cut
a piece out the exact pattern of the comb and cover it with papier-

104

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

mache to the proper thickness and form. Replace the comb on the
head with mache, which will stick fast if carefully done.

The wattles, iflarge, may be made in the same manner; if small,
can be formed with papier-mache alone, or upon thin card-board.
The coloring should be laid upon a body of shellac as directed for
painting other discolored parts.

To Imitate Blood.— Blood or flesh wounds may be imitated by
thickly painting on vermilion and red lead mixed with varnish. Torn
flesh, fresh blood and coagulated blood differ in tint, and they are best
obtained by modeling the parts in wax colors to suit the tint, which
is either vermilion, madder brown or madder lake, blended with one
or the other. Should you represent a vulture tearing open a sheep
you may reproduce the liver, wind-pipe and other organs by model-
ing them in papier-mache and covering them with colored wax of the
proper tint.

Mending Broken Bones. — It very frequently happens that in
shooting birds and quadrupeds some of the bones are broken — so badly
too sometimes that they must be substituted entirely by artificial ones.
Ordinarily, however, they can be neatly mended, and where you de-
pend upon the length of the bone to obtain the exact length of the
leg, etc., it is of the utmost importance, and the same may be said in
preserving the shape of the head. The manner of mending bones is
well illustrated in Plate XXIV. When a skull is badly cracked, stitch
the broken sections together v;ith strong thread, as seen in Figs. 1 and
2. Fill the cavity of the skull with fine tow, which will answer as a
cushion for the broken pieces to rest on. If one-half of the skull is so
badly crushed that it is impossible to mend it, then make that portion
of tow, as represented in Fig. 3. When the leg-bone is broken, splice
it by inserting a piece of wood into the bones and bind it around firmly
with strong thread or light copper wire (Figs. 4 and o). If the upper
portion of the tibia is completely gone, take a piece of wire of the
proper thickness and length, and, with your round-nosed pliers, turn a
loop on one end, insert the other into the portion of the bone remain-
ing and wrap it strongly with thread or very light wire (see Fig. 6).
A similar construction is used in mending broken wing-bones (Figs. 7
and 8), and also the beak, as in Fig. 9. If the bill is entirely gone,
build it out with papier-mache and paint it as directed on page 10:5.

CHAPTER V.

THE MAKIXG UP OF HIRDS' SKINS.

What is technically known to ornithologists and taxidermists as s
"bird skin" is one constructed more or less artificially to conform to
the general shape of the actual dead bird. It is intended for scientific
study, because a mounted bird is not so easily handled, and a collec-
tion of them ordinarily occupies too much space. The shapes into
which these skins are made all depend upon the structural peculiari-
ties of the specimen in hand.

To make up a clean, shapely, well-prepared bird skin requires con-
siderable experience and practice. F'acility and speed will come with
both. I have already described in detail the manner in which a bird
should be skinned.

In these directions we shall again take up the robin as our exam-
ple and skin it exactly as I have directed in Chapter IV, and, if it be
any other species much larger, you will, as before, refer to the foot-
notes in case there be any variations or exceptions to the general rule.
as for instance, skinning the heads of woodpeckers, ducks, skinning
the wing by an opening cut along the underside of the wing in large
birds, etc. Do not fail to take full measurements, ascertain the
sex, etc., before beginning as before recommended.

Having skinned the specimen it lies before you exactly as you see
it in Plate XIII, Fig. 1, ready for the filling. Some taxidermists fill
the neck with tow (Plate XIX, Figs. 1 and 2) before turning the skin
back. I prefer always to fill the neck after the skin has been returned
over the skull. Poison the entire skin thoroughly. Make a roll of fine
tow the thickness of the natural neck and longer than the entire neck and
body ; insert one end of this into the cavity of the skull and let the
other extend as far as the tail. Many do not allow the neck roll to ex-
tend farther down than shown in Figs. 3 and 4, Plate XIX. The wing-
bones in very small birds need not be wrapped with cotton. In all
cases the leg-bones should have a wrapping of cotton or fine tow ; for
the small ones cotton will do ; but tow should be used in the large
ones. Cotton will answer for the body-filling in the small birds, but

( 105 )

PLATE XIX.

VARIATIOyS AND EXCEPTIONS IN SKINNING BIRDS.

The flr.st four figures in this plate must not be considered as "exceptions" to
the general rule for skinning birds.

In the shape that Figs. 1 to 4 appear they are prepared for what is technically
called "skins," in this way, that the neck-filling is inserted in the cavity of the skull
before returning the skin over the skull to its proper place. I believe it is by far the
best method, however, to insert the neck-filling after the skin has been returned
over the skull.

Fig. 3, fastening the wing to the skin by sewing through the bare spot in the
side of the skin, through the lov/er joint of the phalanges and back again through
the skin, tying it fast on the inside. See foot-note, l)age 77.

The neck-filling in Figs. 3 and 4 is placed in the necks of birds in chis shaj)e
when they are to be made uj) into skins.

Fig. 5, incision in the head of a duck for the purpose of skinning it. This
must he done in all birds whose skulls will not pass through the skin of the neck,
such as the heads of the woodpeckers, ducks, geese, swan, flamingos, cranes,
ostrich, etc.

Fig. 6, sewing up the opening in the head. See foot-note, page 70.

Fig. 7, showing how to skin the Aving from the outside, by making a cut under-
neath from the elbow to the carpal joint Take out tlie muscles and tendons with-
out detaching the secondaries Irom tlie ulna. In large birds the flesh between the
metacarpal bones should be removed in the same manner. See foot-note, page 70.

IM.AIE XIX.

METHODS L\ THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 109

tow is the thing to use in the larger ones. This should be made in one
mass, rather firmly moulded into something like the shape of the bird's
body or trunk, but rather less in bulk. Insert this into the skin until
it fits nicely, bring the edges of the incision together and the skin is
about completed. In some cases the opening is held together by tak-
ino- one or two stitches with a needle and thread.

The usual fault of beginners is in using too much stuffing, thus
making the skin to " bulge out " in the wrong places, especially be-
tween the shoulders and along the neck. Never make the neck of a
skin too long. The specimen is usually meant to lie on its back with
the head drawn down near the body. It only remains to " set " the
specimen in a shapely manner by folding the wings neatly, adjusting
the head and neck, bringing the legs together and crossing them. The
throat of the bird should be filled with cotton and the skin can now be
labeled and placed in a drying-board.

These are found very useful in forming or moulding the .shape of
the skin. They are made by gluing or tacking pieces of thin wood of
the same size on a board, equal distances apart. Pieces of heavy paper
are fitted between the cross-boards and glued or tacked in position, so
as to form semi-cylindrical grooves (Plate XXV, Figs. 1 and 2). Tin
or zinc can be used for making drying-boards for large birds. The old-
fashioned paper cone, in which you thrust the bird head foremost, pin-
ning the cone on the wall while the bird is drying, is an excellent method
in some cases. All birds with crests should have the head turned
slightly to one side and their crests raised. This is illustrated in Plate
XXVII, Figs. 1 and 2.

Ducks, herons, geese and all other long-necked birds should,
when placed to dry, rest upon the breast with the head and neck
placed upon the back. The feet of the long-legged waders should be
placed underneath the breast. This is beautifully illustrated in Plate
XXVII, Figs. 3, 5 and 6, in skins of the Great Blue Heron, Avocet and
Marbled Godwit. In Fig. 4 of the same plate we have an illustration
of the skin of the Hooded Merganser, which has just as long a neck
as some of the ducks. When preparing a long-necked skin in this
manner always wrap tow to the natural thickness of the neck around
a piece of wire, anchor it in the skull cavity and form the body-filling
around it. All long-necked birds should be treated in this manner, no
matter how you place the neck. It will often prevent them from becom-
ing broken oflf. The opening in all large skins should be neatly sewn
up. All skins prepared for the cabinet and all specimens mounted should
have a label attached to the legs giving the species, sex, locality, date of

jjQ METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

collection, etc. In many adult birds the sex can be determined by the
color of the plumage. In most cases the body should be examined to
make sure of the sex of the specimen. The testes of the male and the
ovaries of the female lie in the same position in the small of the back,
close to the kidneys, and may easily be reached by cutting through
the wall of the abdomen on one side and pushing the intestines out of
the way. The testes of the male are a pair of yellowish bodies lying
close together (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2). The ovary is a mass of small
spheres (Plate XXVIII, Fig. 1). In the breeding season both these
organs are subject to such enlargement that they become very con-
spicuous, and differ so much in appearance that they cannot be
mistaken. At other seasons of the year they can only be recognized
upon close examination. The male is denoted by the sign of Mars ( $ ),
the female by the sign of Venus ( 9 ), or the right leg is crossed over the
left to indicate the male, and the left over the right to denote the
female.

The best method in the world for laying skins away in the cab-
inet is to wrap them in sheet cotton batting, allowing the label to be
seen when placed in the cabinet drawer (see Figs. 1 and 2, Plate
XXVI). When collecting in the field in remote regions you may fill
the body of the skin with leaves, dry grass or paper, when tow or
cotton cannot be obtained, but never with wool or hair.

It is essential for the preservation of skins to use nothing for the
filling that can be attacked by insects.

Some years ago I very nearly ruined my reputation as a taxider-
mist by attempting to mount five hundred bird skins, from the Ploly
Land, which were filled with old woolen clothing of the Arabs and
the hair of quadrupeds. Upon these the moths had feasted and
become fat and robust. The skins and feathers had next received
their attention. The havoc they wrought is indescribable.

One evening after a desperate struggle with the hundredth speci-
men of these bunches of hides and feathers I was indulging in reveries
of stern realities — how patience will sometimes pause — how ingenuity
will stagger when invention fails — how time as well as love's labor is
sometimes lost.

I sat in my study till the last slanting sunbeams were gilding the
walls — till the objects before me became indistinct in the twilight, and
in fancy saw Job in one corner of my workshop smiling at my impa-
tience, and heard Shakespeare by his side whispering, "What fools
these mortals be !"

ri.AlK XX

I,EGS AND WINGS IN RAPTOKES.

Fig. 2, represents the natural body of a hawk with the legs attached as in iifV.
The end of the humerus is also intact.

Fig. 1 shows exactly how the legs should be made in hawks and owls Ity leav-
ing the thigh bone attached to the tibia.

Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate clearly the muscular system in hawks and owls, exact
position of the legs and wings and how these members should be arranged in the
mounted specimens.

CHAPTER VI.

CLEANING BIRDS' FEATHERS; RELAXING SKINS.

Cleaning Birds' Feathers. — To remove grease and blood stains
.Tom the plumage of birds is a simple matter when once understood ;
the chief requisites being spirits of turpentine, plaster of Paris, patience
and perseverance. For our example we will take an old duck skin, the
plumage of which has, in many places turned a rusty yellow from the
grease that has come out through the openings and shot-holes. It is
one of those skins which, instead of being thoroughly treated in the
first place, was, by the carelessness of some one, allowed to go imper-
fectly cleaned. This skin is several years old, the grease has penetrated
every quill, and the feathers are matted, making it a difficult subject to
clean. It is, in fact, often impossible to effectually efface grease stains
from skins of this description. We will first relax the skin as directed
below and then proceed with the cleaning. With a soft sponge satur-
ated with turpentine wash the feathers carefully, rubbing with the grain,
lifting them when necessary to get at their base. Use pressure when
required. Continue this course of treatment until the stains are removed.
The turpentine will cut and dissolve the greasy substances. It is a
good idea to first wet the sponge with warm water before soaking it with
turpentine. Now get out your plaster box, spread the bird out and
completely cover it with plaster of Paris and allow the skin to remain
covered until the plaster has absorbed the turpentine. When this is
done take the skin out and shake it several times. Now whip the skin
with a slender rattan or stick to get the plaster out of the feathers,
dressing and arranging them with your fingers. Cover it again with
more clean plaster and again take it out and work with the plumage
until it obtains its natural fluffy appearance. It is best to perform the
cleansing operation where there is a current of air, and the specimen
should be beaten and brushed until every particle of plaster disappeared.
If not thoroughly beaten out it will fall on the pedestal when the
specimen is thoroughly dry. Upon a very old greasy skin this entire
operation must sometimes be performed three ox four times before the
grease stains will totally disappear, and frequently then, after all oui

8 ( 113 )

Ij_^ METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

painstaking and labor we are compelled to give it up in disgust.
The time to take out blood stains and grease is when the skin is fresh.
Never, upon any consideration allow a bird skin or a mounted specimen
to leave your hands with a thick coat of fat on the inside and blood
stains on the feathers. While skinning fat birds use plenty of corn
meal and plaster, scrape the fat all loose and allow the plaster and meal
to absorb it. Scrape it again and again, put in more clean meal and
plaster until every vestige of fat has disappeared. Use the home-made
scraper described on page 16. If the feathers are soiled with grease and
stained with blood treat them with turpentine and dry them as above
directed with plaster. Do not allow a specimen to leave your hands
without being thoroughly and properly cleaned. I have removed grease
from the inside of very fat skins by an application of hot sand and
plaster — using the white sand and applying it abundantly in the same
manner described for the meal and plaster. When blood is hard dried
upon feathers it is almost impossible to efface it. When it is a bad case
we frequently have to pull the feathers out that are stained and replace
them with others from the same bird, I have removed old stains from
feathers with very satisfactory results in the following manner : Take
a quantity of water and alcohol — about half of each ; wash the stained
parts with this and then apply a thin paste of corn-starch to them and
allow it to remain there until drv.

The best time to clean the feathers of a bird that is to be mounted
is just before it is placed upon its perch.

Relaxing Bird Skins. — There are many ways in which a dry bird
skin may be relaxed and made ready to mount, and nearly every taxi-
dermist has his own method. I consider the following method the
simplest, easiest and most effective :

The skin should be opened and the entire filling removed. Tear
some cotton cloth into strips from an inch to two inches in width, wet
them thoroughly in warm water and wrap them around the leg and foot
until they are covered with several thicknesses of the wet cloth. Lift
up the wing and put two or three thicknesses of wet cloth around the
joint, and also between the wing and body. Put some wet rags inside
the skin, wrap the whole skin completely in several thicknesses of wet
cloth and lay the skin aside. If the bird is not larger than a robin, the
skin will be soft enough to mount in about twelve or fourteen hours.

It is necessary to place all birds above the size of the robin under
the head of large btrds^ for the reason that the legs, being large and
thick in comparison with the skin of the body, require longer treatment.
The legs of some birds require several days' soaking, and were the skin

BIRDS WITH SPREAD WINGS.

Fig. 1, the artificial body of aa eagle, with the ciiaraeteristic coracoid socket,
in which the end of the humerus should rest in all birds mounted with spread wiugs.

Figs. 2, 4 and 5 illustrate the whole system of wiring the bones of the wing,
anchoring the wing wires in the artificial body, etc. See page 84.

METHODS IN THE AHT OF TAXIDERMY. I i j

of the body relaxed for the same length of time it would macerate and
the feathers would come out. The legs of large birds must, therefore,
be started first in the relaxing process.

Take, for example, the skin of a pheasant : wrap the feet and legs
witli wet cloths as described above, and let the skin lie without other
wrapping for one day. At the end of this time the joints can be bent
somewhat, and they should be manipulated until they bend easily.
When this can be done, put wet cloths around the joints of the wings —
in the body, neck and head, and wrap the whole skin in a wet cloth.
At the end of the second day the entire skin will be soft. The next
step is to scrape all the hard parts of the skin and manipulate it until
it is as pliable as when fresh.

This process applies, with slight modifications, to all large bird
skins, but the larger the bird, the longer it will take to relax. Some-
times the wings require soaking half as long as the legs in a very large
bird. By the above process, skins may be softened and made ready to
mount according to their size, about as follows: Wren to robin, in
twelve to fourteen hours; rufTed grouse, two days; great blue heron,
three days ; bald eagle, four days ; skins which are but a few months
old will soften in about half the time they would require were they five
years old.

There is a mistaken idea among many taxidermists that to soften
a skin is all that is necessary. There is a wide difference between
softening a skin and relaxing it. The smallest and thinnest skins must
be worked and manipulated with the fingers if not with the scraper
until they are perfectly relaxed or pliable. The fibers of the skin
which have become contracted in drying must be stretched to their
natural proportions. This requires a tedious amount of manipulation,
involving the utmost patience and care. If you will carefully study
Plate VIII, you will discover where the patches of feathers grow. It
is on these tracts the scraper should be vigorously used until the
feathers become movable at their base, and until all parts of the skin
become as pliable as when it was taken from the carcass.

When we come in contact with old dry skins of such birds as the
pelican, swan, eagle, etc., we must use the toothed scraper vigorously in
order to cut the fibre and make the skin perfectly pliable. It means
constant hard work for any man to mount dry skins.

The quality of the skin however has a great deal to do with the
success attained in its mounting. With a good sYnx — and, I mean one
made by a taxidermist who knows what a good skin is — there is little
difficulty in obtaining satisfactory results.

J ig METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Another Method of Softening Skins. — Here is a most efficacious
method of softening bird skins. It is the device of a French taxi-
dermist who lived in the latter part of the last century, and it has been
employed more or less ever since, especially by many of the older
taxerdermists and ornithologists.

A box is made of convenient size, the top of which, without hinges
and fastenings, is free to be lifted off. The sides, top and bottom within
are lined with a coating of plaster of Paris, two or three inches
thick. When skins are to be softened, fill tht box with water, and
allow it to stand until the water has been absorbed by the plaster. If
the plaster does not take up all the water within twelve or fifteen hours,
pour off that which remains. Take out the filling in the skins and
place them in the box. The lid should be made to fit tightly in a
groove cut in the plaster. It is necessary before placing the skins in
the box to soften their feet and wing-joints, and some taxidermists give
the entire skin the usual wrapping of wet rags before placing them
within the box. It is sometimes desirable when working on fresh
birds to lay them away in a half finished condition over night or for a
day or two. This plaster box will be found a most excellent receptacle
for the purpose of keeping the skins in a soft, pliable condition until
work can be resumed on them again.

The general method pursued in mounting dry skins is, of course,
the same as that practiced upon fresh specimens. Difficulty is often ex-
perienced in the placing of the soft, annealed leg-wires in position from
the dry and shriveled condition of the tarsi. This may be overcome
by first making a hole with the drill (Fig. 2, Plate II).

Hot Water Bath for Relaxing. — Mr. William Brewster, the orni-
thologist, under the title of " A New Wrinkle in Taxidermy," in
Messrs. Southwick & Jencks' Raiidom Notes ojt Natural History^ \o\.
II, No. 1, describes his experience with hot water for relaxing:

"Wishing to turn a mounted bird into a skin, and having but a
limited time to devote to the task, I tried an experiment. Taking a
funnel and inserting the pointed end in the stuffing between the edges
of the skin on the abdomen, I poured in a quantity of hot water
(nearly boiling hot), taking care to regulate the injection so that it
should be rather slowly absorbed by the stuffing, and holding the bird
at various angles, that every portion of the interior might become
soaked. The effect was magical ; the skin quickly relaxed, and with-
in fifteen minutes I could bend the neck and make other required
changes without any risk of a break.

" My first experiment was with a gull ; afterward I tried other

IM.AIK. XXII.

LOSG-NECKED BIRDS.

Fisr. 1, uutural body, sbowiug where to sever the cervical vertebne from the
body ; Fig. 2, ueck vertebra? stripped of its flesh ; Fig. .'>, cervical vertebrae with
ueck-wire rim through it and Mrai)ped with fiue tow to replace the llesh. Cork ou
eud to keep jioint of wire from catching in skin while the artificial neck is being
inserted in skin ; Fig. 4, artificial neck anchored in artificial body, tsee page S7.

Fig. 5, European Great White Egret, Herodias alba.

METHODS IN THE AKT OF TAXIDERMY. 121

birds, both large and small, with equal success. I found also that the
plan worked equally well with skins which had been overstuffed or
otherwise badly made. In a very few minutes they would become
nearly as tractable as when freshly taken from the birds, and much
more so than I have ever succeeded in making them by the use of a
damping-box. The only difficulty experienced was that the water,
especially if turned in too fast, would escape through shot holes and*
other rents in the skin, thus wetting the plumage in places. Of
course after the required improvements or changes have been made
the stuffing is so thoroughly saturated that the skin must be placed in
a very warm place to dry. I dried mine most successfully by placing
them on a furnace register and leaving them exposed to the full blast
of heat for several da vs."

CHAPTER VII.

HINTS ON THE FORMS AND ATTITUDES OF BJRDS ; ACCESSORIES;

GROUPING, ETC.

Do not allow your mounted specimens to look like sinjjed ones.
Make them such marvels in symmetry of form and expressive in
character of attitude that the most critical will declare that " this is
truly art of a high order.'' The song or the cry of the birds and
their movements may be lacking, but let every other element which
enters into their structures stand out as life-like as it is in your
power to make them.

Some are intuitively gifted in this line of work, others can
approach near to the ideal only after long years of patient study
and experience. But, in the beginning, do the best you can. Among
your first eflforts may be found specimens which will have the imprint
of extraordinary ability.

Of all the models of taxidermic skill in birds and mammals, the
productions of my venerable teacher, Dr. Theodore Jasper, surpass
anything of their kind I have ever seen. They possess the same
grace, ease and elegance which are portrayed in the illustrations of
this work, and they fairly rival some of the examples in the plastic
arts. His mounted specimens, while not great in number, will stand
as monuments to his inimitable genius.

The study of the birds in life is the only true way to obtain a
knowledge of their forms and attitudes. The field-glass or opera-glass
must often be employed in making these observations. In all mounted
specimens one of the chief beauties is symmetry of outline. No
harsh lines should appear in your work. If you will critically observe
the forms of even the most grotesque looking birds you will discover
in them lines of grace and beauty. Give to every bird with running
or stepping movements the ease of posture and the tilt of body which
will correspond to the action you intend to represent. See to it that
the legs do not come abruptly out from a wrong place in the body and
throw the bird out of its equilibrium and disarrange the feathers at

( 122 i

Pl.Al K Win.

PLATE XXIII.

MOZ'NTING COLOSSAL BIliDS-THE OSTRICH.

This plate illustrates the whole groimd-\\<>ik on whieli to build au ostrich
luanikiii. The outline of its curiously shaped trunk was taken from tlie actual car-
cass after skinning. A, B, C are sijuarc holes cut in the center-board for tiie i)urj)ose
of sewing througli and through the tow wliich is laid on to build out the body which
is afterward coated with clay. D is the iron s(juare which is made like a hinge ojjen
at right angle ; three holes arv drilled in one side of it for the purpose of fastening it
to tlie I'cnter-board and three are made for the leg-irons; one of these only is used,
two being in readiness in case the leg luq^pens to be placed too far forward or back-
ward it can easily be changed, even when the mauikiu is liuished. JSee page 91.

126 METHODS IX THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

that point. Observe how gracefully and symmetrically the legs of all
birds come from the body, and how beautiuilly the feathers form
around the thigh. Uo not allow the heels of your birds to be spread
as far apart as their feet. If your specimen is to assume a stepping or
running attitude, read carefully what has been said on this subject on
page 96, and study Figs. 4 and 5, Plate XV. How often do we see
the postures of mounted birds distorted — herons and rails stepping
off like ducks — sandpipers, snipe, tell-tail and plover, running or
stooping to drink and catching at aquatic insects in the most unnat-
ural postures, entirely contrary to the anatomy of the birds ; which, in
nature, when in motion, are so graceful, and which hold that marvelous
symmetry of outline so necessary to be attained before we can claim
any approach to perfection in our work. The directions for Moniitvig
Long-necked Birds, page 87, and illustrated in Plate XXII, will
guide you in obtaining the best results in the cranes and herons and
others of their character who walk by placing one foot in front of
another. The ducks and geese walk pigeon-toed — hence the wab-
bling motion in their gait. These are beautifully illustrated in various
figures of Plates XXIX, XXXI, XXXII, and XXXIII. The Canada
goose, for example, in Plate XXXII, shows very clearly the natural
position of the legs and feet in these birds and the gait they assume.

It has been my habit to make actual drawings of the foot-prints
of sandpipers, plovers and other water birds which I happened to find
in the mud at the edge of ponds, etc. This is the best wav to obtain
the actual distance of their strides.

In grouping and arranging a colleciion of mounted birds attention
should, in the first place, be paid to giving each specimen a character-
istic attitude, which will show to the best advantage some peculiarity
in the bird's external anatomy. Many of the beauties of a bird's
plumage are hidden when the wings are closed, as in the case of the male
Rose-breasted Grosbeak, which has a belt of red extending across the
breast and wings, and which, when the wings are closed, leaves only the
rose color of the breast visible. If one goatsucker is mounted sitting
lengthwise on a branch, another should be arranged with outstretched
wings, mouth wide open in the act of catching an insect. One swallow-
tailed kite may be placed in a quiet attitude, while another should be
displayed in mid-air with a small reptile in its talons (Plate XXX\'II,
Fig. 3). The little wrens, chickadees, sparrows and finches, etc.,
may be given innumerable characteristic attitudes, some of which are
figured in Plate XXXIX. There is no other class of birds which can
be mounted with better effect than the cranes, herons and ibises.

PI.ATF. NXIV,

^H+-m^^''\

Xn-^-^,;

s' -^

})

('-

— ^

MEXDTNG BROKEN BONES.

Ill list ratinjr tho various ways of meudiiig boues which accideutally become
broken l)y shot or otherwise. »See page 105.

METHODS IX THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 129

They are ihe embodiment of all that is graceful and beautiful in bird-
life. Groups of herons can be poised in attitudes sufficiently varied
to illustrate every phase in their life history. A male and female with
young, for example, may be arranged about their flat nest of sticks on
the trunk of a tree ; on the ground one may be standing on one leg
with its head resting upon its shoulders, another preening his plumes,
while his neighbor is silently watching for prey in the shallow water,
and another with outstretched neck, legs and wings has taken flight
over the marsh of reeds and rushes.

A solitary Wood Ibis on a stump in a lonely swamp, with a
painted background, is, when properly delineated, one of the most pic-
turesque scenes the taxidermist can devise (Fig. 4, Plate XXXIII).

The hawks, figured in Plates XXXV and XXXVI, illustrate some
striking attitudes of the various species. In museum groups it does
well enough to arrange some of these birds in the " spread-eagle
style," but for the most part they should be mounted so as to exhibit
some peculiar trait or characteristic of the species. Passive attitudes
are preferable for owls. Some of the best positions, however, in
which I have seen these birds placed are those representing anger,
similar to the Great Horned Owl when attacked by other birds (Fig.
2, Plate XXX\'III). When more fiercely enraged the feathers of his
breast, wings and back stand out loosely, his head is drawn in and the
bill is open in the act of snapping. The best method to obtain these
results is described on page 96.

Owls with young in the hollows of trees represent a striking and
picturesque scene. Groups of birds of any class, when arranged with
due regard to their forms, attitudes aud natural surroundings are, in
themselves, intensely interesting and instructive.

The excellence of all groups is judged according to the qualities
found in the following points : Forni^ attitude^ naturalness of colored
par is ^ adjiestmeni of wings ^ angle of legs., centre of gravity^ smoothness.,
neatness of finish^ quality and arrangement of natural or artificial sur-
roundings. If your conceptions of all these have the touch of the true
artist and student of nature your work will be admired and studied by
the most indifferent observer.

Where the design is to promote the knowledge of the peculiarities
of a species there is nothing which will assist more quickly in throw-
ing light on its life habits than to see the specimen elegantly mounted
in its natural surroundings. The more elaborate and costly the flower,
branch, rock or ground-work, the more impressive it will be. The
work on the specimen, however, must correspond to the accessories

130 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

and vice versa. Let your specimens be the chief objects in the
group. The accessories used should not overshadow or obscure the
specimen, or in any way tend to throw it into the background.

^\\^ forrns and attitudes of birds figured in our Plates XXIX to
XXXIX inclusive are characteristic of the species they illustrate and
they exemplify the peculiarities of a number of families of the North
American Avi-fauna. The actual environments of the species are
also delineated. These surroundings are all of such a nature that they
may be reproduced by artificial structures for single pieces or for large
groups in museums. The methods of making artificial rock-work,
branches, etc., are fully discussed in Chapter II.

The accessories used, in all cases, should be of good quality,
and all artificial materials should be selected with the greatest
care. Where the object is to imitate nature closely the more costly
accessories are, by far, the best to use. Cheapness never entered
into a high standard of art. It costs labor, skill and time to
imitate nature and when you make artificial branches or ground-
work bear this in mind. When you purchase a leaf or a flower
to decorate your scenes buy the most natural and elegant that the
market affords. Make your prices such that you can lavish all the
time and money necessary to attain your ends — and if you have the
ability it means the highest standard of art. When you imitate ice
do not use common tallow and plaster of Paris, as I have seen some
slovenly taxidermists do; make ice scenes with transparent paraffine,
which is very cheap and can be purchased from any dealer in artists'
materials. Icicles can be obtained from your dealer in naturalists'
supplies. Water effects may be produced with plate glass through
which the bottom of the stream or pond can be seen. In selecting
glass cases for your specimens, let them be neat, and tastefully made.
The most elegant cases I have seen have a light frame of ebonized
wood and are placed on a table of the same material. Some of the
finest groups of birds are arranged in wall cases with painted back-
grounds.

Whatever you design in mounted birds, let them be so arranged
that each scene will serve as an object lesson representing some phase
in the life history of the species. If you are building a museum for
instruction, the best way to interest and instruct is with scenes fresh
from the fields of nature.

It is easy to imagine the sensation of the occasional visitor to
many of our public museums, when he beholds the specimens mounted
on the old-fashioned turned T-perch or flat stand. The situation can

PLATK XXV.

DRYING BOARD -rAPUR CONE.

Fig. 1, board witli thin strips of wood for cross pieces placed atecpial dislauces
wiiich are covered with heavy jiaper, zinc or tin in a senii-cyhndrical form for
niouldiug the sliape of tlic liack of a liird sisin wiiiic (h'ving, as in Fig. 2.

Tlie paper cone in wliich the old ornithologists used to dry theii' l)ird skins is
as good as ever in many cases (Fig. o).

METHODS I.V THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. I 33

be taken in at a glance. The innumerable rows of birds stand like
columns of immovable troops and leave but one impression — that of
immense numbers and their soldier-like appearance.

It is gratifying to know, however, that a number of the principal
scientific museums of the world are breaking away from the old style
of mounting their zoological specimens, and we can now look upon
groups of mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes with surroundings which
are illustrative of their peculiar habits. It has been proven by the
groups in these museums that they are of as much interest to the
scientist as they are instructive to the public. In the British Museum
groups of birds are now being arranged with great care as to life-like
attitudes, while the surroundings are reproduced by natural and arti-
ficial accessories; many of the artificial plants and flowers being of a
rich and costly design.

No person can visit the American ]\Iuseum of Natural History in
New York without being greatly impressed with the high order of
art infused into the bird groups arranged in that institution by Mr.
Jeuess Richardson. Every accessory that was necessary to make up
each one of these charming woodland scenes has either been carried
from the field of nature or manufactured to represent the natural
abode of the species. Among the studies which struck me most favora-
bly in this collection (and I must confess it is a mere matter of choice)
were the grouping and arrangement of some of our common birds.
The designs are all characteristic of the life-habits of the species they
represent, while the various forms and attitudes of the birds are all that
can possibly be desired. The nest has been collected on its branch with
its surroundings as well as the perforated tree-trunk, the home of the
woodpecker; the ground-nesting birds are at home in the tussocks of
grass, as natural as art can make them. These are chiefly arranged in
cases suitable to the size and design of the group. The cases are
placed on neat tables; the frame-work of these and the tables are
black or ebonized, giving to the whole an elegant finish.

Our National Museum at Washington contains a number of these
highly interesting bird groups, all of which are most beautifully
wrought. Many of them are by members of the Society of American
Taxidermists. The mammal groups in this institution are the finest
to be seen in this country. The most notable of these, which I shall
mention in Chapter XI, are the work of Mr. William T. Hornaday, the
representative American taxidermist. While his line of work has been
chiefly confined to mammals he has likewise produced unexcelled
examples of mounted birds. I can recall one of his efforts which has

134

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

always pleased me, entitled, " Does your mother know you're out?"
representing a Scarlet Ibis stalking along the bank of a tropical river;
he comes suddenly upon a tiny alligator which has just emerged from
its shell. Two other alligator eggs lie half buried in the sand ready
to hatch. This scene is arranged in a glass case of suitable dimen-
sions, and it has a painted background representing a picture in those
tropical regions which the Scarlet Ibis inhabits.

Some of the most attractive bird groups in the National Museum
illustrating the peculiar habits of the species are those of the California
Woodpeckers and their store-house; Swallow-tailed Kite, feeding;
Carolina Paroquets, roosting; Prairie Chickens, courting; Jacanas,
walking on lily pads ; the curious Bower birds and their exquisitely
formed play-house ; the Lyre birds and the dancing mound of the
male; the dove-cot with a number of species of domestic pigeons in
characteristic active attitudes. These are all so charmingly and artis-
tically wrought that the most skillful critic would almost lose his crit-
ical powers upon beholding the striking likenesses they bear to the
ideal and the real.

At the second exhibition of the Society of American Taxidermists
]\Ir. Frederic S. Webster produced his well-known group entitled
" The Flamingo at Home." It is a group of three flamingos, and
near the edge of a tropical lagoon a female has built her elevated nest
of mud and grass, and, in a half standing posture, is covering her eggs.
The nest is of the conventional type, molded according to the descrip-
tion and measurements given by Audubon. At the left of the nest a
stately male flamingo on the bank is stepping into the water, while
on the right another large male bird is stooping down, intently watch-
ing a small turtle which has just been discovered at the bottom of the
water. The accessories, a dwarf palmetto and aquatic plants, are pur-
posely few in number, and many desirable features in color have been
omitted for the sake of preserving the entire naturalness of the sur-
roundings.

In the frontispiece of this work will be seen a group of two flam-
ingos prepared by the writer on the same principle as those just
described.

Mr. Frederic S. Webster's examples of single mounted specimens
and of groups may be cited as models of their kind, and they have
justly placed him in the front rank of the bird taxidermists of this
country. He has likewise won an equal reputation in the originality
of designs in artistic and ornamental taxidermy.

Another one who has displayed skill and ability in taxidermy is

I'l.ATE XXVI.

^1^

"■"^-'^K-m.^iemt,

"«Slv

-»»S»*.«>=»«'-~'

WJiAPPIX^G SKTXS FOR THE CABINET.

When yon desire to place skins in cabinet drawers, tlie two figures in this plate illus-
trate Ijy far the best method of wrapping in cotton.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. , .j

Mr. Frederic A. Lucas, and mans- of liis pieces exiiibited at the ex-
hibitions of vSociety of American Taxidermists called forth universal
praise and admiration. Among the bird groups in the National ]\Ius-
eum is one entitled " An Interrupted Dinner," by I\Ir. Lucas. A Red-
tailed Hawk has just killed a partridge, and has scarcely begun to
devour it when a Goshawk swoops down upon him with outstretched
talons to seize the quarry. The hawk has turned upon his back,
shielding his prey with one wing, and, with open beak and talons is
ready to receive his assailant, who hovers in mid-air immediately
above him. The hawk in mid-air is supported by a wire which passes
up along the tail feathers into the body.

Plate LXXXVII of this work is " The Wounded Cxull," represent-
ing a Great Black-back Gull which has just been wounded, throwing
up one wing and screaming, while the blood is oozing from the wing
that is broken. It is the work of Mr. Frank B. Webster, of Hyde Park,
Massachusetts, and is an admirable design well executed. There is
but one thing that this gull lacks — the scream or notes of distress.
This, with a number of herons, ibises, hawks, owls, grouse, and other
birds arranged with natural surroundings by Mr. Webster, are in the
writer's collection, and many of them are equal to some of the best
work I have ever seen.

It is with especial pride that I call attention to the artistic taxi-
dermic w^ork which I have recently seen prepared by Mr. Charles K.
Reed, of Worcester, jMassachusetts. Fortunately for Mr. Reed, he is his
own artist in every particular, and can paint his own backgrounds and
arrange his accessories with far more than ordinary ability, while the
forms and attitudes of his mounted specimens are equal in every
respect to the beauty of his landscapes.

I refer in particular to the groups of birds, small quadrupeds and
those of fishes which this artist arranges in convex glasses, and which
are placed in massive frames to be hung on walls like pictures. The
foreground is made of a cutting from the natural twig, or trunk from
the tree on which the bird would perch, and, if it be a ground-bird,
the foreground is made up of artificial or natural materials on which
the bird rests, and the background is painted. When properly worked
up by the artist the effect is charming, and when I recall to mind Mr.
Reed's Snowy Owl scene, that of the Kingfisher, the group of Ruffed
Grouse and young, the Bob-whites, the scene of squirrels at home,
the Golden Plovers, the bunch of trout, etc., we feel that no adequate
idea can be formed of the beauty and naturalness of these designs

138

METHODS J/V THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

from any photographic pictures that may be produced, as in our Plates
LXXXV and LXXXVI.

The true artist in these pieces can surround his mounted speci-
mens with all the images of creation. Those beautiful realities, the
rivers, the mountains, the trees, the green prairie, the sky and the sea,
can be worked in as backgrounds from the rich treasury of colors of
the palette.

The convex glasses have flat corners and fit nicely into a frame.
The sizes range from 10x14 inches, for birds the size of a quail,
woodcock, etc., to 22 x 28 inches for large gulls, ducks, hawks,
owls, etc.

CHAPTER VIII.

COLLECTING BIRDS NESTS AND EGGS.

This chapter is taken in part from the writer's Nests and Eggs of
North Americmi Birds ^

In making a collection of mounted birds, or when they are made
into the forms of skins for the drawers of a cabinet, it is often desira-
ble to collect their nests and eggs for the purpose of obtaining a
knowledge of their nesting habits. The nest with its eggs in the bough
of a tree or in a bush with the parent birds, when artistically executed,
reveals at once a most interesting chapter in the life history of the
species. It is always best, when possible, to preserve the nest intact
on its branch, and when the arrangement of the group is made, addi-
tional artificial surroundings or natural accessories can be added. In the
case of woodpeckers a section of the tree trunk may be removed to ex-
pose the nesting burrow and eggs. Many birds build no nest whatever,
simply depositing their eggs in a hollow of the sand, on the earth in a
furrowed field, on bare rocks, or in hollows in the sod. The murres de-
posit their eggs on the flat rocks, while some of the gulls and terns
lay them in hollows of the sand ; snipe, plovers and sandpipers deposit
their eggs in hollows of the ground ; the goatsuckers seek the shelter
of some dense thicket and lay their eggs on the bare ground or on
leaves midst old logs. The Nighthawk CJiordeiles virgmiamis (Gmel)
now commonly deposits its eggs on the flat tin or gravel roofs of high
buildings in cities and sometimes on bare rocks; but it chiefly resorts
to the ground for breeding purposes, like others of the family. In col-
lecting the eggs of these species and in grouping them the nest or
place must be imitated with the natural surroundings — the actual
sand, dirt, sod, etc., should be taken from the spot and arranged so as
to exactly imitate the place where the eggs were deposited. The
ground-nesting birds that build nests which can be transported are
quite numerous and, when properly handled, make some of the most
interesting studies the taxidermist can devise. Prominent among

1. Nests and Eggs of North American Birds. The fourth edition ; introduction by J. Parker Norris.
Illustrations by Theodore Jasper, A. M., M. D., and \V. Otto Emerson. Columbus, f)., 1889.

( 139 )

PLATK XXVII.

MODELS FOR BIRD SKINS.

The seven figures in this plate ilhistrate the forms in which the various kinds
of bird skins should be made, Figs. 1 and 2, Cardinal Curdinalls cardmalis iLiun.),
with heads turned and crests slightly raised ; Fig. 8, Great Blue Heron Ardea
herodias (Linn.), showing how the skins of loug-ueeked and long-legged birds
should be folded; Fig 4, Hooded Merganser Lophodtitcs cucuUcdiis (Linn.) ; Fig. o,
American Avocet IieourviroHtra amcricana Gm.; Fig. (>, Marbled Godwit Limosa
fcdoa (Linn.) ; Fig. 7, Northern Fhalarope Phahiropus fobafits (Linn.). All skins
should have a label attached to them. It should contain the name of the species,
locality where taken, date of capture and sex as seen in Fig. 3. INIeasurements
and notes of interest may be recorded on the other side of tag and in a record book,
the numbers corresponding with those on the labels of your specimens. Besides
your own number (called the collector's number) the label on the skin, if a North
American species, should bear the number from the American Ornithologists'
Fnion Check-list.

PI.ATK XXVII.

Tf5^^

"-«^:<i

METHODS IN THE ART OE TAXIDERMY.

143

these are some remarkable nests of the North American species, .such
as that of Bachman's Sparrow Peiicara cesitvaNs bacJiviaiiii (And.),
whicli is distinctly roofed over or domed ; and a closely allied species,
the Texas Sparrow E))ibcrnagra rufirirgata^ Lawr, constructs a simi-
lar nest. The Meadowlark Slurnella magna (Linn.), builds its nest in
a thick tuft of grass; it is usually formed with a covered entrance in
the surrounding withered grass, through which a hidden and sometimes
winding path is made. The typical nest of the Oven-bird Sciurus
atirocapiUus (Linn.), is roofed or domed, with an entrance more or less
to one side, like the mouth of an oven.

When a nest is very fragile and liable to fall apart, it is always
advisable to carefully wrap it with thread or light wire to hold it to-
gether, as seen in Fig. 10, Plate XLIIL If you use thread, get it as near
the color of the outside materials of the nest as you can. Nests which
have been removed from the branch on which they were placed can
be displayed in cases on a wire standard made similar to the one in
Plate XLIII, iMg. 5'. This is the style employed by Captain Bendire for
the arrangement of nests in the National Museum collection. The
label can be glued to one of the edges of the block in which this
standard is fastened.

If you are desirous of making a collection of eggs of the birds of
any locality, the following directions may aid you :

Remember that an egg has no scientific or financial value if it has
no name. Therefore, be very particular to identify all eggs collected.
If you do not, you will have, in many respects, a worthless collection.
If the eggs in a nest are strange or unknown to you, do not touch
them until you have procured the parent bird. If you cannot skin
the bird, preserve its head, wings and feet until you can have them
identified. The student of oology should by all means learn to skin
birds and put them in proper shape. He will then make few mistakes
in his data.

Empty the contents of an o^^r^g through one smoothly drilled hole
in the side, and drill it as small as can be got along with. Force the
contents out by blowing into the hole with a blow-pipe. Do not make
holes at the ends of an egg for the purpose of blowing out the con-
tents. Do not hold it too tightly in your fingers, for, if it breaks, you
will learn at once that a thing of beauty is noi alzcays a joy forever.
If the embryo is partially or fully developed it will require time and
patience to completely remove it. Sometimes incubation is so far
advanced that the shell has become very tender and it should be
strengthened by covering the entire ^%'g with court plaster. The hole

144 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

must uecessarily be made larger, and the embryo should be extracted
a little at a time with an embryo hook or forceps, and cut in pieces
with fine, narrow-bladed scissors. If the Q<g<g is valuable fill it with
water and set it aside until decomposition makes the embryo more
easily to extract.

After the egg is blown it should be thoroughly rinsed by taking
water into the mouth and spurting it through the blow-pipe.

Some oologists who have weak lungs fasten a piece of small rub-
ber hose to a tank of water. The blow-pipe is fastened to the end of
the hose and the contents of the &^<g are forced out with water instead
of wind.

Eggs, as a rule, should be kept in sets ; a " set " being those taken
from any one nest ; and each one of a set should bear a number refer-
ring to a corresponding one in a note-book where full particulars of
the nest and eggs should be given. A printed label or data blank sim-
ilar to the following diagram is also necessary :

Collector's No A. O. T'. No

Nuiiic

( •ollectcd by

Locality

Date. .\

Set Iikntitv lueubation

Nest

^leasiiivineiits of Eggs

For illustration, the blank lines of the label should be filled in the
following manner: Collector's No. 12G, which should be written on
each egg of the set. A. O. U. No. 4-17. Name, Arkansas Kingbird
Tyraiiuus vcrlicalis Say. Collected by J. L. Clemmons. Locality,
San Diego, California. Date, June 2, 1881. Set, Y^^ (indicating that
the number of eggs in this set is four). Identity, bird shot. Incuba-
tion, begun. Nest, made of coarse sticks and twigs, lined with hair
and cotton, placed in an " Australian Gum Tree," twenty feet from the
ground. Measurements of eggs, .94 x .03, .92 x .63, .95 x .64, .95 x .63
inches. Each egg in the set should have the collector's number and, if
North American, also that of the American Ornithologists' Union.
Check List' written with lead pencil or India ink on the ^%%' AH these
data should be carefully written and the label placed in the cabinet with
the eggs. If there are several sets of the same species, the collector
should have his own number to distinguish the sets. The label with

1. The Coile of Nomenclature nnd Check-list of North American Birds. Adopted by tlie American Ornith-
nloaists' Union. Beini» the report of the Committee of the Union on Classification and Nomenclature. New
York, American Ornithologists' Union, 1S86. (L. S. Foster, 35 Pine Street, N. Y.)

PLATK XXV! 11.

^1^-^^

,v^:

v^r:

\ •

■^

>., \

PLATB XXVIII.

ASCERTAIXiyo THE SEXES OF EIKDS

I shall here quote what I say on this sultjrci in Chaiiter \', 77/'. M<j.kiit<j (p <ij
Birds' Skins :

All skins prepared for the cabinet, and all mounted specimens should have a
label attached to the legs, giving the species, sex, locality, date of collection, etc.
In many adult birtls the sex can be determined by the color of the plumage.
In most cases the body should be examined to make sure of the sex of the specimen.
IIk' testes of the male and the ovaries cf the female lie in the same position in the
small of the luick, closr to the ki(hieys, and may easily be reached by cutting through
the wall ot the abdomen on one side and pushing the intestines out of the way.
The testes of the male are a pair of yellowish bodies Ij'ing close together. Fig. 2,
The ovary is a mass of small si)heres. Fig 1. In the breeding season l)oth these
organs are subject to such enlargement that they liecome very conspicuous, and
dillerso much in appearance that they cannot be mistaken. At other seasons of
the year they can only be recognized upon close examination. The male is denoted
l)y the sign of jNIars ( $ ), the female by the sign of Venus ( 9 ). or the right leg is
<-rossed over the l(>ft to indicate the male, and the left over the right to denote the
female.

It would be well for those who desire to capouizc fowls to give this plate some
studv.

148

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

full data should alzvays accompany the set in making exchanges. Be-
sides the above particulars the note-book should be filled with memo-
randa devoted to the records of nests found and examined ; the gen-
eral nature of the surroundings ; the precise color and condition of
the eggs when found, as all these fade quickly from the memory.

I shall here recommend taking the measurements of all sets of
eggs and recording the same in your note-book and on the label. It
will assist in keeping each set together and will add more to their
interest and value. To facilitate the measuring of a large series
of eggs for records in my Nests and Eggs of North American
Birds., I designed for my private use an oological ride ' with a scale
of inches and hundredths on one side and a scale of millimetres on the
other. It is so simply constructed that a child can read the measure-
ments when they are once registered. It also answers the purpose
for taking measurements of the smaller ornithological specimens.

In climbing high trees, climbing irons are often used. A wooden
or tin box, filled with cotton, should be taken up with you ; in this,
securely place the eggs before descending the tree.

When eggs are to be shipped by mail or express they should never
be packed in anything but wooden or tin boxes. Each egg should be
wrapped in cotton and bound tightly with thread and then wrapped in
tissue paper. Place them in layers in the box with bits of cotton be-
tween each ^%'g. The bottom, sides and end of the box are often lined
with .sheet cotton which is still better protection.

In all ordinary cases collections of eggs are preserved in the
drawers of a cabinet. These are divided by partitions, and each sec-
tion partially filled with grated cork or boxwood sawdust, in which the
eggs are placed. Every collector should adopt some method of
arranging eggs in the cabinet, and a system of classification should at
all times be followed.

The very best trays or boxes ever designed for keeping eggs in
the drawers of a cabinet or for exhibition purposes are those manufac-
tured by E. J. Schaefer, No. -538 Second street, New Orleans, Louisiana.
They are neatly made of paste-board and the sides and bottom are in-
geniously cushioned with strips of sheet cotton. Each box has a lid
on which the label can be pasted. These boxes are made to suit all
sizes of eggs, and range in price from $2.50 to ;^8.00 per hundred, ac-
cording to size.

Oological Instruments. — In our Plate XL I II are figured the vari-
ous instruments used in the collecting and the preparation of birds'

1. This rule will shortly be manufactured and will hu for sale liy <lealers in naturalists' supplies.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 149

c^gs. The egg drills are made with octagon handles six inches long,

as represented by Fig. 1. The sizes of the burrs, as will be seen in

Figs. 1 to <), range from o-.'J'i inch to 16-32 inch. The following is a

list of the essential oological instruments, with their prices:

Egg drill No. 1, ."-02 inch liurr . . ! SO 25

" " 2, 0-32 " " 35

" • • 3, ()-32 " " 50

4, S-32 " " 75

5,12-32 " " 100

" " 0, l(J-:;2 " " 150

' 1010, common, short 20

Hlo\v-iii])e 25

(■|liul)iiiii irons 3 50

Km'oryt) hook 25

Emhryo scissors SO 25 to 1 5o

Si)ring forceps, lino 75 to 1 25

Davie's oological rule

If you are just beginning to make a collection of eggs, two or
three drills are all that are necessary for ordinary purposes, Nos. 1, .3 and
;") being the most desirable sizes. If you are to make an extensive col-
lecting trip to remote regions, the entire outfit enumerated above
should be taken with you.

PLATE XXIX.

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fig 1, Coriiiorauts; Fig. 2, Horned Grebe t'oIymhciH auritus Liuu.; Fig. 3,
8()()ty Albatross Phccbctria fidifiinom ((tiu.1; Fig. 4, American "White-fronted Goes-;
Anser albifrous gambeH (Hartl.j ; Fig. 5, Northern Phalarope Phalaropus lobatm
(Tiinn.).

PI.ATK XXIX

/ r

1-1. A I I. \\\.

»t'

«•»

S*^>^y^—

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fig. 1, Black or Short-tailed Tern Ili/drochclidon nigra surincuneiisls iGmel.);
Fig. 2, Caspian Tern Sterna (scher/rava Lepech.; Fig. 3, American Herring Gull
Larus argentaius smithsonianus Coues; Fig. 4, Black .Skimmer I?yncfiopi< nigra
I. inn.

IT.ATK KvCXr.

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fig. 1, Redhead Ai/(hi/a americana (Eyt.) ; Fig. 2, Green-winged Teal Anas
caroUnensis Gmeliu. ; Fin. -5 Swan.

:x.Kit.

"■'"'*'/,

-1

&fc^ - '^

^i*.

'■^^y

.^^^

■.^'

FOKJ/S ^AT) ATTITl'DES.

Fig. 1, Canada Goose Branta canadenfi/s (Tjinn. i ; Fig. 2, Greater 8now Goose
CJirn luiperborea nivalis (Forst.); P^ig. 3, Puffin Fratcrcida arctlcxi (Liiiii.); Ameri-
can or Greenland Eider Somateria mollissima borealis Brelmi.

l'l.\ I I. WXlll.

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fij;. ], Loon Urinator imber (Gunii.) ; Fig. 2, Old-squaw or Loug-tailed Duck

Clangula fii/ema/is (Liun.); Fig. ;>, American Avocft /iccurv/rosfra americana

(ini.: I'ig. 4, ^Vhite Ibis Guara alba (Linn.); F^ig. 5, Great JUue Hi-ron Ardea

lierodids I,iini.

1 1

I'lAI K XXMV.

. ,=.-** —

FORM^S AND ATTITVDES.

Fig. 1, Least Bittern Botaunis exilis (Gmel.l; Y\\^. 2, Senii])almatod Rlui;
Plover ^Egialifi.'i semipalmata Bonaii. ; Fig. 8, "Whooping Crane Grus americana
(Linn 1.

I'l.ATK XX W

Y-^-

r^ -'• rV^'

■ ^

%^.\ .'^

^- i

^"^

^-r^'

W'fV*>

^,^ vHj:i^-^ 'CT'-'^^f*

j-^. Vi«l.';"'^' »•■

FORMS AND ATTTTVDES.

riroup of (ireenlaiid or White Gyrfalcons Fcdco islandna Brunn.

PI^ATK XXXVI.

■V

<.v

ViC'*5

' %% ">■■'■

FORMS AND ATTITT'DES.

Figs. 1, 2, American Goshawk Aooipiter atricrqoiUw^ (Wil.s. ); Fig. 3, Cooper's
Hawk Accipiter cooperi (Bonap.); Fig. 4, American Sparrow Hawks Falno sparver-
/'^^• liinii.

I'l.AI K WWII.

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fig. 1, Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias Liun. ; Fig. H, Ivory-billed Wood-
pecker Campephilus principalis (Linn.); Fig. 3, Swallow-tailed Kite Elanoides for-
ficatus (Liun.) : Fig 4, AYhite-breasted Nuthatch Sitta carolinensis Lath.

-^^fj

'.^

PI.AIK XXXVIII.

f *■-

>-^^

...V*..

■ v

■r f»

V V '•^, w.

%. V

L'-»»" H^'

--'^-•

— - 'Hi?*"" "

l^*^^!)^'

FORMS ANT) ATTTTZ'DES.

Fig. 1, Screech Owl 3fef/ascops aftio (Linn.); Fig- -, Great Horned Owl Bubo
virriinianus {Gmel.); Fig. ;>, 8uowy Owl Xi/ctea nyctea (Linn.); Fig. 4, American
Barn Owl S'trix jiractincola Bonap.

ri AM \\\i\.

; \3£'.iJH v*'

x^'

'51%;

•'Si^,^

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fig. 1, Thrush; Fig. 2, Americau Hohiu Mcrula migratoria (Liun.); Fig.
3, Meadow I'ipit Anthus pratensis (Linn.) ; Fig. 4, White-rumped Shrike, Butcher-
bird Lanius ludovicianus exr.ubitorides (Swains.); Fig. 5, Americau Titlark Anihits
pensilvanicus (Lath.); Fig. 6, Sharp-tailed Sparrow Ammodramns c.nudncutus
(Gmel.); Fig. 7, House Wren Troglodytes aedon (Viell.) ; Pig. 8, Chickadee Parus
atricapiUus Linn.; Fig. 9, American Cvo&sh'xWs, Loxia curvirostra minor (Bxehm) .

IM. \ IK XL.

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

American White-fronted Goom; Anscr albij'ronti (jarnbdi (Hartl.), mounted by
the author.

-3

a
o

i f

I: 2

g 5
?-<

■n

■<->

es
o

I'l.AlK XI.ll.

FORMS AISD ATTITUDES.

Cooper's Hawk Accipiter cooperi (Bonap.), mouuted by the author.

PLATE XLIII

PLATK XLIII.

OOLOGICAL IXSTRUMENTS, ETC.

In this plate are figured various instruments used in the collecting of birds'
eggs. The egg drills arc made with octagon handles six inches long as represented
in Fig. 1. The sizes of the burrs, as will be seen in P^'igs. 1 to (i, range from 3-32
inch to 16-32 inch. These can be obtained from any dealer in naturalists' supplies
at the following prices, as already quoted on i)age 140 :

Egg drill Xo. 1, 3-32 inch hurr SO 25

" 35

" 50

" 75

" 1 00

" 1 50

5-32

0-32

8-32

12-32

<5,

10-32

iniA

1016, common, siiort 20

Blow-pipe, No. 7 25

Embryo hook, No. 8 25

CHAPTER IX.

SKINNING AND MOUNTING SMALL MAMMALS AND THOSE OF THE

LARGER SPECIMENS IN WHICH IT IS UNNECESSARY TO

EMPLOY THE DERMOPLASTIC METHOD ; MAKING

UP DRY SKINS AND RELAXING THEM.

The drawings in our Plates XLIV, XLV, XLVI, XLVII and
XLVIII were made from specimens of fine, large fox squirrels in actual
course of preparation ; we shall, therefore, try for our first effort in the
skinning and mounting of small mammals, the same kind of a subject.
In describing the various procedures I shall follow the arrangement
which has been carried out in Chapter IV — Skittning and Moimting
Birds — all the variations and exceptions to the general rule will be
found in foot-notes.

The list of mammals which can be skinned and mounted under
these directions is a very large one, embracing as it does mice, moles,
shrews, squirrels, bats, weasels, minks, otters, beavers, opossums, rab-
bits, muskrats, skunks, ground-hogs, raccoons, martins, badgers, cats,
foxes, wolves, and dogs with heavy coats of hair, and monkeys.

While the specimens under consideration require far less delicacy
of touch than do birds in their preparation, the skill necessary for the
skinning and mounting of mammals is, from the nature of their struc-
tures, of a diSerent character, and, as a rule, the methods employed
must be modified according to the peculiarities of the subject in hand.

Before we begin to skin a quadruped full and accurate measure-
ments should be taken ; ' the color of the eyes should be carefully noted,
and likewise the bare portions of skin or fleshy appendages.

1. Measurements of Small Mammals. — The following are the most valuable measurements :

The TOTAL LENGTH is the distance between the tip of the nose and the end of the tail vertebrae. It is
taken by laying the animal on a board, with its nose against a pin or upright post, and by straightening the back
and tail by extending the hind legs with one hand while holding the head with the other; a pin is then driven
into the board at the end of the vertebra.

The LENGTH OF TAIL is the length of the caudal vertebrae. It is taken by erecting the tail at a right angle
to the back, and placing one point of the dividers on the backbone at the very root of the tail, the other at the
tip end of the vertebrae.

The HIND FOOT is measured by placing one point of the dividers against the end of the heel [calcaneum], the
other at the tip of the longest claw, the foot being flattened for this purpose.
( ,82 )

METHODS IX THE ART OE TAXIDERMY.

•83

Make the opening incision as we have it indicated in Vv^. 1, Plate
XLI\', beginning at a point between the fore legs and continuing to
the vent, but not through it." Lift the skin until you can see where
the legs join the body; sever them at these points, which are clearly seen
in the skinned carcass, Fig. 3, Plate XLIV. Now skin them down to
the end of the toes and strip them of their flesh.' Having cleaned the
legs of their flesh we now loosen the skin down on the back a little
and cut the tail vertebrae oflf at its base. Form a loop on a piece of
strong cord and fasten it over the end of the stump of the tail ver-
tebrce. By fixing the other end of the cord to some stationary object
and by placing the tail stump between two sticks and pulling steadily
the entire caudal vertebra; will slip out.^

Having thus far followed the directions, continue to peel the
skin down the back until the base of the skull is visible. Here
you will shortly discover the ears. Sever the ears by cutting slowly
and carefully close to the head and, presently, the eyes will appear
through the thin membrane. At this point work slowly lest in the
first efforts you may cut the eyelids. Cut through the transparent
membrane and the eyeball will be exposed. The best manner to skin
over the eyes of a quadruped, and especially the large ones, is to place
the fore finger under the skin of the eye and pull with sufficient force
to make the eyeball visible through the thin membrane. You will
then either cut through the membrane properly and around the eyelid
or into your finger ; so be careful. Most taxidermists, however, resort
to this method of skinning over the eyes. Now skin to the lips and
cut them away from the skull, and also sever the nose by cutting
through its cartilege. You will now have the skin turned wrong side
out ; the carcass will be lying before you as it appears in Fig. 3, Plate
XLIV. Before reversing the skin pare the lips down thin ; skin the

1- The Opening Incision. — If the animal be a male, or if it possesses abdominal pouches, the opening cut
should be made to one side of the testicles or pouches as seen in Fig. 1, Plate XLIV, and these organs should be
carefully skinned so that their character can be preserved. If your subjecf be a monkey of any description
make the opening cut along the back.

2. Skinning the Feet of Small Mammals.— All mammals having fleshy feet should have the sole of the foot
opened its full length, beginning from the end of the middle toe. The io.->t may then be completely skinned
and thoroughly poisoned. In order to skin with facility the feet of a fox, or those, of mammals larger, it is neces-
sary to extend the cut nearly all the way to the carpus joint and heel. The to ^s and fingers in the feet and hands
of all monkeys and apes must be opened from the outside and skinned entirely l,' the tips. The opening cuts are
shown in the foot of the chimpanzee, Fig. 4, Plate LXVIII.

3. Skinning the Tail. — I shall recommend this method of skinning the tail in such mammals as squirrels,
weasels, minks, skunks, ground-hogs, raccoons, etc., but those having fleshy or flat I'ails like the opossum, kangaroo,
muskrat, beaver, fox, dog and monkey, the tail must be slit open on the underside, beginning just below the vent
and continued to within a half inch of the end of the tail. When the whole animal is skinned the carcass will be
seen as it appears in Fig. 3, Plate XLIV.

184 METHODS hV THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

ears to the tips' and remove every particle of flesh and fat from the
entire skin. Be careful in cutting the flesh away from the lips of a
quadruped that has whiskers. If you cut too deep the whiskers will
come out. Be sure and pare the lips down thin. When the skin has
been returned right side out wash any blood stains off with warm
water and a sponge. Do not allow any blood or grease to dry on the
hair ^ for it is next to impossible to efface it after it becomes hard and dry.'
A French taxidermist wrote this caution in 1752, and many of his fol-
lowers have since spent hours of fruitless labor upon the careless work
of others.

If the skin has been treated according to the direction-s her.e given
it will appear before you as seen in Fig. 2, Plate XLIV.

We must now sever the head from the carcass, clean the muscles
from the skull, take out the eyes and tongue. Flatten a piece of wire
at one end, make it hook-shaped, and draw the brain out through the
occipital opening. In most of the common mammals it will do well
enough to cut a larger opening and take the brain out with a brain
spoon or other instrument ; but under no consideration cut the whole
back of the skull off to get at the brain. Now see that the skull is
thoroughly cleaned and poisoned. When this has been done you are
ready to prepare the skin as you may desire ; either to make it up
into a dry form or preserve it in a wet state in the salt and alum solu-
tion as directed on page 40.

In this chapter I shall discuss the making up of dry skins of the
small mammals, but for the present we shall take from the salt and
alum bath our fine, large fox squirrel skin. We shall proceed to mount
it. Look carefully over the entire inside of the skin for shot holes or
cuts of any kind and neatly sew them up,- and be sure to clean off any
particles of flesh or fat which have, in the first cleaning, been over-
looked. Give the skin a heavy coating of arsenical paste (see recipe,
page 34) and then rub on a mixture of two-thirds powdered alum and
one-third arsenic.

In our Plates XLV and XLVI are figured two methods of wiring
small quadrupeds. I use both systems, according to circumstances.
The former was recommended by ]\I. B. Stollas, the French taxi-
dermist, in 1801, and by Prof. Wiley in 1855. The latter is a system
of wiring which is also the invention of a French taxidermist who pub-
lished the method in 1758. The best mounted small quadrupeds I
ever saw were constructed upon the system of wiring illustrated in

1. In Chapter X the manner of skinning the ears and ILps of quadrupeds will be fully described.

2. The surgeon's needle which threads from the top is by far the best to use in sewing up mammal skins.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 185

Plate XLVI. However, I shall recommend to the beginner the method
of wiring as figured in Plate XL\'. Let us lay the skin out full
length on our work bench or table and cut a piece of No. 15 annealed
wire (see sizes of ivire for mammals.^ page o) six inches longer than the
entire length of the animal from the tip of its nose to the end of its
tail. This is the center wire. Now measure the leg bones and cut oflf
four more pieces of wire of the same size so that they will reach from
the ends of the leg bones inside the skin to five inches beyond the sole
of the foot. Straighten these wires and polish them with sandpaper, as
bright as a darning needle. We shall now begin to form one of the
hind legs by first passing the wire in at the sole of the foot and up along
the leg bones, allowing it to project two inches beyond the upper end
of the femur inside of the skin, and three inches beyond the sole of
the foot. Now bend the wire until it fits snugly along the leg bones,
and tie it fast, first to the bones of the foot and next to the tibia and
fibula (see skeleton of greyhound, Plate XLIX).' P'orm the muscles
of the leg, beginning to wrap fine, long fibre tow around the bones of
the foot ; here the wrapping should be very slight as the upper portion oi
these bones are almost bare of flesh. Now wrap tow around the tibia
and fibula, but be careful not to build on too much, for near the heel
the muscles are spare and must be given only a slight wrapping; the
tibia lies close to the skin, and for this reason the wrapping over the
front of the tibia must be very slight. Higher up between the heel
and knee the muscles are heavier and must be built out stronger. The
knee, however, is bare of flesh and requires a very slight wrapping or
none ; the skin should lay immediately above it as seen in Figs. 1 and 4,
Plate XLVI. We are now ready to form the muscles of the upper
portions of the thigh, which really go to make up the lower portions
of the back of the animal. Remember that as far as the muscles ex-
tend, the limb is flat on the inside and rounded on the outside. To
make up the muscles around the thigh bone, roll up a small ball of tow
and place it on the outside between the femur and the leg wire and
wrap tow around it until the thigh has attained its proper size and
rotundity on the outside and its flatness on the inside. Work with it
until you have built it out and formed the thigh according to your ideal
of it. When you have proceeded this far with the leg draw it back

1. Wiring the Legs in Small Mammals. — One of the very best methods of wiring the legs in small quadrupeds
is illustrated in the various figures of Plate XLVI. In Figs. 1 and 4 the system is shown very clearly. Instead
of tying the v/ire fast to the bones of the leg the end of the femur is fastened to the wire ; the wire is also fastened
to the bones of the foot. The leg bones are then given the proper bend and the muscles of the leg are built out to
their proper size. By this method the tibia will lay along close to the skin, and the knee, which is bare of flesh,
will also lay in a similar position. The fore legs are wired on the same principle, by tying the end of the humerus
to the wire.

1 86

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

into the skin and observe how the leg fits in the skin. If your judg-
ment tells you that it is too flat or too rounded turn the skin back and
correct the error whatever it may be. When the form of the leg has
reached your ideal, give the tow leg a coating of thin clay, and coat
the leg skin with arsenical paste, and the artificial leg will slip easily
back into the skin. In forming the legs make them compact but not
too hard, winding the tow with thread or cord until the proper strength
and solidity is obtained. Make the fore legs in the same manner de-
scribed for the hind legs; when all has been done, and just before sew-
ing up the slits in the soles of the feet, replace the flesh which you
have cut away with clay (see uses of potter's clay, page 45). See that
each hind leg and fore leg match each other in size and shape.

We shall now turn our attention to the skull and replace the
muscles with clay ; this is shown in Figs. 4, 5 and 6, Plate XLIV.
The most careful work is necessary here for the muscles of the head
should be developed as perfectly, if possible, as they were when the
skin was taken from the head. If you have made a drawing or a cast
refer to either constantly. Replace the muscles with potter's clay
and glue-water mixed with fine chopped tow. Lay the head aside to
dry while we struggle with the center wire which supports the tail, and
is the entire backbone of the animal and takes the place of the center
board which we employ in mounting short-haired and large mammals.

Take hold of the center wire which runs up through the middle
of the animal and out of its nose as seen in Plate XLV, and begin to
form the tail by winding fine tow on the small point of the wire, grad-
ually enlarging as you proceed until you have reached its natural thick-
ness all the way to its base. In order to have the wire pass on a straight
line through the left or right nasal cavity make a hole in the back of the
skull just below the occipital opening. Now put plenty of arsenical
paste on the skin and insert the skull in the skin of the head. Lay
the skin out and adjust the leg wires inside the skin so that they will

1. Systems of Wiring Small Quadrupeds. — The system of wiring small mammals as seen in Plate XLVI has
advantages over that illustrated in Plate XLV not necessary to explain in detail. The center or body wire is
anchored into two pieces of cork, or, if cork is not near at hand roll up two balls of tow, bind them with strong
cord and make them hard. Into these the wires of the legs, tail and head can be anchored as seen in Plate
XLVI, Fig. 3. In this method all of the wires require to be sharp-pointed and the head wire is held in place in
the skull by filling the brain cavity with thin plaster of Paris, inserting the wire in the hole made in the back of
the skull and the plaster allowed to harden, which will hold the wire in place (Fig. 5, Plate XLVI). It is a good
idea to form a loop on the blunt end of the wire which goes into the sknll. The tail is made on a separate wire
as seen in Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XLVI, and anchored in the cork or ball of tow. In filling the skin of a quadruped
to be mounted upon this method a thick cushion of fine tow should be placed under each cork ; all around the
base of the tail and around the thighs and humerus, the neck and, lastly, the lower or abdominal region should
have your attehtion. In bending the legs together at a right angle the ends of the femur and humerus can rest
on the lower side of the corks or tow balls which will insure that these bones are the proper distance apart, as
they were when attached to the pelvis and the shoulder blade.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. I 87

cross each other in their proper places. Take the center wire on
which you have made the artificial tail and form two loops with your
round-nosed pliers. These loops should be formed where the wires of
the legs cross each other in the skin. Insert the end of the center
wire into the opening you have made in the back of the skull and then
through either the right or left nasal cavity. If the skin of the tail has
been slit open simply lay the artificial tail in place in the tail skin ; if not,
draw the center wire out through the nose as far as necessary and
carefully insert the artificial tail in its skin by forcing it entirely to the
point. You may now insert the leg wires into the loops (see Plate XLV)
and twist them on the center wire. Give the entire inside of the skin a
coat of arsenical paste. Everything is in readiness for the body filling.
Now adjust the eyelids so that they will come in their proper place over
the eye orbit and then drive a tack over each eye through the skin and
into the skull. This is of great importance as they will hold the skin of
the head in place. The tacks are removed when the specimen is about
finished or ready to put away to dry on its temporary stand. But
before we fill the skin with finely chopped tow we must arrange the
legs in their proper position and give them the pose we expect the ani-
mal to assume when mounted. We can bend the wires at the head of
the humerus and femur at a right angle, and by referring to the outline
and accurate measurements (which should always be taken before-
hand) know that they are the same distance apart as they were when
they were attached to the pelvis and the shoulder blade. Cover the
center or body wire and others that are visible with tow. Now begin
to fill the neck with fine tow, and also around the hips, shoulders and
the base of the tail, and from these points the entire skin should be
filled out in a general way, gradually and equally filling out the cor-
responding parts on all sides, being careful to make both sides alike.
If the skin of the tail has been slit open adjust the artificial tail which
you have made on the center or body wire and neatly sew it up. When
you have filled the skin out evenly in every part begin to sew up the
opening, using the understitch for this purpose, for the seam can easily
be covered by lifting the hairs over the stitches when finished (see Plate
XLVII, Fig. 1). While you are sewing up the opening is the time to
detect any portion of the body which needs more or less filling in the
different parts, and this should be done as you proceed.

There is no rule or rules for securing a correct attitude of an ani-
mal. It will all depend upon your knowledge of its anatomy, your
conception of what the ideal should be, and your p.ower to execute and
imitate.

1 88 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Comb out the fur with a fine steel comb and, by using pressure
with your hands, squeeze the squirrel into better proportions if pos-
sible ; if he is to sit on his haunches give his back the characteristic
curve, and gracefully turn the tail over the back ; push the thighs up
close to the body ; press the heels closer together than the feet. Now
measure the distance between each of the hind feet and drill two holes
in a board the same distance apart for the reception of the wires of the '
hind feet. Two other holes should be made in the board in order to run
the wires back into the board from underneath to clinch them. If you
desire to have the squirrel mounted on the limb of a tree eating a nut,
as our little gray squirrel appears in Plate LXII, Fig. 3, fasten the
limb on the board by means of screws and then drill holes in the limb
the proper distance apart for the leg wires. If our squirrel is to be
placed on all fours as the fox squirrel is seen in Plate XLVII, Fig. 2,
the same method must be resorted to and four holes should be drilled
to receive the wires of all the feet. One of the most pleasing attitudes
in which to place a squirrel, with appropriate artificial or natural sur-
roundings is illustrated in Fig. 2, Plate LXII. Mounted on its pedes-
tal our squirrel needs shaping up in general. Look carefully all over
the specimen ; if you find any hollows where they should not be,
thrust an awl through the skin, catch hold of some of the tow and
raise the hollow into a hill if necessary. Make the proper eleva-
tion and smoothness at all hazards. If there is a hump where a
hollow should be, work the elevation out by pressing and distributing
the extra filling with your fingers and the awl. See that every outline
is symmetrical ; watch the proportions on every side and make them
match one another. Now let us turn our attention to the head. If
you have failed to cover the head with clay equally on both sides,
or if there is a deficiency apparent on either side, fill it out with
chopped tow; make both cheeks alike. Fill in the lips with clay and
press them into shape with your fingers, moulding the skin of the
cheeks and lips close to the clay where they will remain in place when
dry. Insert the eyes next by filling the sockets with clay mixed with
strong glue-water or imbed them in papier-mache. Put the eyes in
edgewise and turn them over flat with the point of a darning needle or
awl. Nicely adjust the eyelids over the glass eye, being careful not to
have them bulge out too far. See that the eyes are set alike in their
sockets — that they are both looking in the same direction. The ears
should be pinned close to card-board cut the shape of the ear. The
toes of each foot should be carefully arranged and pinned in
position — a point which many taxidermists overlook, and which is

PLATE XI. IV

_ -»a&2Si!»iS,--;

■^'.

SKINNiyO UMALl, MAMMALS.

Fig. 1, showiug where to make the first ineisiou, begiuuing at a point between
the fore legs, or higher up if advisaiile, and continuing to the vent, thence to the
tip of the tail; Fig. 2, ^kin completely taken off; Fig. P>, carcass as it appears
when the skin has been removed ; Fig. 4, view of the upper portion of the
skull, the muscles replaced with clay; Fig. 5, view of the under i)ortion of tiic
head, the muscles replaced with clay : Fig. (j, side view of the head with muscles
modeled in clay.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. I9I

one of the Utile things that go to make \\\) the general neatness and
excellence of the specimen. Now give the specimen a critical looking
over on all sides and see what fault you can find with it. And, after
you have given it a combing and brushing, pinned the corners of the
eyes down in their hollows, cut the wire off that protrudes from the
nose, adjusted the tail, etc., set the specimen away in your dark
closet to dry for two or three weeks. During all this time, however,
it should be examined daily to see that the ears are drying smoothly,
that the lips still remain in shape ; that the toes still hold the posi-
tion you gave them. If you desire to paint the color of the eyelids
and the end of the nose, or to model an open mouth in colored wax,
I shall refer you to Chapter X. Remember this is your first speci-
men of mammal mounting and you are very likely in the future to
regret that you did not spend more time, and exercise more care
and patience in its mounting. But keep it as a relic; you can
always find some out-of-the-way corner, dark enough to hide its defects,
and you may even venture to look at it once in a v/hile and thereby
have an opportunity to congratulate yourself on the improvement you
are making in the art.

Mounting Mammals with the Center Board— The method of
using a center wire for the backbone as we have done in the squirrel
which we have just mounted will not answer in the larger specimens
of long-haired quadrupeds, such as coyotes, large dogs, bears, large
monkeys, anthropoid apes, etc., because the leg supports must, from
the size of the animals be something more than a light wire that can
be twisted at will. Iron rods or wires of a large size must be used (see
sizes of wires and rods, page 11). Many old, dry skins cannot be
mounted on the dermoplastic method, i. ^., on a manikin covered with
clay, because the skins are shrunken to such a degree that nothing
but plenty of tow or straw and physical force will stretch them to their
proper proportions — hence in the cases of aged, dry skins a heroic
method must be adopted ; it is the old taxidermic style and is recom-
mended and practiced by the best German taxidermists.

I shall here describe Dr. Jasper's method of handling these sub-
jects, and we shall take for our example a coyote. It is skinned ex-
actly as we have directed for the squirrel or small mammals. Lay the
skin out on the work-bench, arrange the legs in a natural walking
attitude. Place them in the position you desire to have the animal
stand when mounted. Take a heavy annealed wire and make it con-
form to every bend along the back of the leg bones. In each leg
allow the length of the wires to project far enough out of the soles of

192

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

the feet so that a thread can be cut on the rods, to receive a nut, which
depends entirely on the thickness of the pedestal on which the coyote
is to be mounted. Also allow the wires in all of the legs to project
far enough above the ends of the femur and humerus so that they can
be anchored into the center board and firmly fastened by means of
staples on the opposite side of the board. This is not all, the wires
must be left long enough to be bent at a right angle down on the
board and the same distance between the two femora and the two
humeri as when they were attached lo the pelvis and shoulder blade
must be calculated upon. This can be done by taking accurate
measurements beforehand from the carcass after skinning, or from
a skeleton. The wires which have been bent along the back of each
of the leg bones will serve as patterns by which to make their coun-
terparts in iron rods. The iron rods should be one-fourth inch in
thickness and should be bent and made the exact shape of the wire
patterns. Now insert them in the leg skin, tie them fast to the bones
and begin to replace the muscles of the legs with tow precisely as you
have done in the legs of the squirrel, wrapping and binding the tow
down with cord.

The tendon of Achilles forms over the heel; between it and the
lower end of the tibia there is always a deep hollow where the skin of
both sides touches. It is very pronounced in the large and the short-
haired mammals. This may be nicely imitated by drilling a hole in
the end of the calcaneum, and, by winding a copper wire with tow to
the thickness of the_ tendon, fasten one end of this artificial tendon in
the hole you have drilled, and the other end half way up to the knee
on the tibia. This is clearly shown in C. C. Plate LII. Having
imitated the muscles of the legs in tow, with the leg irons in their
places, we shall now begin to make the center board. Lay the
skin out full length on the work bench and allow the leg irons
to cross each other where they naturally will inside the skin, as
seen in the squirrel skin, Plate XLV. In order to form an idea of
the center board we shall examine the one in the first steps in the
structure on which we mount the greyhound, Plate LII. The center
board we are about to make, however, is very much different^ being in a
single piece, much narrower, about four and one-half inches wide for our
coyote, of tough wood and rounded or oval at both ends. It is simply
a slender bar of wood, arouud which you can easily work while filling
the body skin. Now give the skin of the head a heavy coating of
arsenical paste. The ears having been skinned to their tips and the
cartilage removed, it must be imitated with sheet copper or lead cut

IM.AIK \I \'

WIRING SMALL QUADRUPEDS.

M. B. Stollas' method of wiring small quadrupeds. See page 184.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. ,gj.

and haiiiinered out the proper shape and inserted in the ear skin.
When tlie cartilage of the ear has been made the exact size and
shape with sheet copper or lead and carefully adjusted with clay it is
impossible for the ears to lose their shape or shrivel. This is by far
the best method of shaping the ears of all the large quadrupeds.
Ere this time the muscles on the skull have been replaced with
clay and chopped tow, and you may now insert the modeled
head in its proper place in the skin. On the top of one end of the
center board fasten with staples the neck rod, and pass it through the
opening in the back of the skull and through the nasal cavity as seen
in Plate XL\'. For the tail wire cut off a piece of wire sufficiently
long for its full length, and also long enough to fasten on the other end
of the center board in the same manner you have fastened the neck
rod. Before doing this the tail must be made on the wire by wrapping
tow around the wire to its proper thickness its full length. We will
now fasten the leg wires to the center board. If you have taken
measurements of the distance between the lower end of the shoulder
blade and the lower end of the pelvis bone, you will know exactly
where to drill the holes in the center board. For various reasons the
holes should be slanting on just about the same angle as the wires ap-
pear in Plate XLV. The ends should be bent close to and on oppo-
site sides of the board and clinched fast with staples. The next bend
we make in the leg wires is at a right angle in order to stand the
animal on its feet. In doing this be sure that the width between the
lower ends of the pelvis and shoulder blades (where the femur and
humerus join them) are the same as they were in the carcass. These
measurements are of great value and should be followed closely.
When this has been done we are ready to fill the body skin and shape
the animal for mounting on its pedestal. Before we begin this opera-
tion let us examine the center board to see if it is in the middle of the
skin, so that we can work freely all around it; and also that every
joint is firm. Give the entire skin a coat of arsenical paste and rub
on a mixture of two-thirds powdered alum and one-third arsenic.
Begin to fill the neck skin with tow or hackled straw ; place a cushion
of tow, along the back, on top of the center board ; fill around the
shoulders, around the thighs and at the base of the tail. Do not fill
one side before you begin on the other, but fill both sides alternately
and all other points as you proceed in a like manner ; you can by so
doing equalize the skin on all parts of the animal. In the larger spec-
imens use the stuffing rods as figured in Plata IV. When you have
filled the skin to its natural fullness from measurements previously

196

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

taken, begin to sew up the opening as I have directed in the mounting
of the squirrel, by the understitch, filling in any of the parts that
seem to be deficient as you proceed. Continue to sew the opening all
the way to the end of the tail. The coyote is now ready to be placed
on its pedestal, but only for trial. If the holes you have made to re-
ceive the leg irons in the temporary stand are not exactly correct you
will have to make others until the legs assume their proper attitude
on the board. At this stage the animal may be unsightly in form and
attitude, but do not get discouraged. It may need filling here and
there where you have overlooked the proportions, or miscalculated ;
or, perhaps you have not followed your measurements close enough.
Take it from its pedestal, and wherever there is a place in the body
that needs filling which you can reach through the seam which you
have sewed up, cut the threads in the opening, and fill with tow any
part that is deficient in filling, or, distribute the tow in the portions
that are too full to other parts that are lacking. In this way you must
manipulate, mould and form your animal until it has reached its
proper proportions in every part. Study your subject as carefully now
as you did before it was skinned, and refer to your measurements,
!rawings, casts, etc., constantly. We shall once more place it on its
pedestal and examine critically its form, attitude, and the position of
the legs. Upon this trial we have succeeded in shaping the coyote
nearly as we desire, and it begins to look more natural; the finishing
touches, however, will work wonders in its appearance. We can now
place washers on the threaded ends of the leg irons beneath the pedes-
tal, put on the nuts and screw them up firmly. At this stage the im-
portant part of the operation lies in giving the correct form to every
part of the animal, and for this you will depend largely upon your
measurements, drawings, etc., and also upon your knowledge of the
proportions of the living subject ; the latter being, sometimes, all that
we have to depend on in mounting specimens from dry skins. We
will fill the cheeks out to their natural fullness with chopped tow
and potter's clay, and if you have pocketed the lips (see Chapter
X), fill the pockets with clay and press them into shape, and make
them come close together as in life; in this shape and position they
will dry and never shrink. Some taxidermists sew the lips closed
with thread, as seen in Fig. 6, Plate XLVI. This is quite unnecessary,
and you will never resort to it when you have learned by experience
the value of clay for this purpose. Insert the eyes in clay mixed
with strong glue-water, or imbed them in papier-mache. The color-

PI.ATK M.Vl.

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WIRING SMALL QVADRVPEDS.

The figures in this plate illustrate a system of wiring different from that
exhibited in Plate XLV. The various procedures are so clearly shown that an
explanation is unnecessary. 8ee foot-note on page ISfi.

METHODS IN THE ART OE TAXIDERMY.

199

in^ of the nose and the modeling of tongues, open mouths, etc., will
be described in the next chapter.

It sometimes happens that certain parts of aged skins have been
stretched too full, and it is necessary to cut out an oblong or thin trian-
gular piece of the skin; the shape of the cut depends altogether on
the quantity of skin necessary to be worked away and the position of
the cut in the skin. The filling can be taken out and the seam sewn
up ; if the part needs stretching, a slit can be made and more tow can
be introduced and the skin forced out to better proportions.

The Center Board Method with Iron Squares. — We have already
discussed the center board, and we must now consider the iron square.
This is a contrivance which looks like a door hinge open at right angle.
It has three holes for the reception of the leg irons, and two or three
may be made to fasten it to the center board. The iron square has
been used in the mounting of the ostrich, Fig. D, Plate XXIII ; in the
greyhound, Figs. A, B, Plate LII ; and in the horse, Figs. A, B, Plate
L\'I. There are several advantages in using the iron square on center
boards of any description, and chief among them may be cited the fact
that in case you have the quadruped coupled too long or too short it is
an easy matter to change the leg irons from one hole to another in the
square until the proper distance has been obtained. Therefore, the
reason we make three holes in the square for the reception of the leg
irons is obvious. Even after we have the animal very nearly com-
pleted, and discover that the legs are coupled too long or too short, it
is a matter of only a few minutes' labor to make the change without
the extra labor of taking the entire quadruped apart. This iron square
is very useful when we are mounting a dry skin which has come to us
without measurements, and where we have to make our measurements
by analogy. The distance between the joint where the humerus con-
nects with the shoulder blade and where the femur joins the pelvis
can be adjusted with very little effort. The iron square is fastened to
the center board with screws or bolts, the latter being the best in the
larger specimens; these can be taken out and the square put forward,
backward, raised or lowered, according to the deficiency in either case ;
but after a little experience in mounting mammals by this method it
seldom occurs that the screws or both have to be removed to make a
change ; the holes made for the leg irons generally give us sufficient
latitude to correct any error in the coupling. The thickness of the
square should vary in strength according to the size of the animal —
from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch. Do not allow the half of
the square which receives the leg irons to extend out too far. This

20O METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

should correspond exactly to the width of the pelvis and the distance
between the heads of the humeri. Of course you will have to
depend upon the measurements you have taken of these points in the
carcass or skeleton. The iron square may be used on the narrow center
board in all the larger qjiadrtipeds mentioned in this chapter, and the
specimens are all stuffed precisely as we have directed in the case of
the coyote which we have just finished, and it would be unnecessary
for me to repeat the details. It requires forethought, ingenuity and
hard work from beginning to end to mount any of the larger mammals
by the soft filling method. The broad center board and the iron square
obtain their highest value in the dervioplasiic method, as exhibited in
the mounting of the ostrich, Plate XXIII ; that of the greyhound, Plate
LII, and of the horse, Plate LVI. The mounting of large mammals
will be fully discussed in the next chapter.

Making up Skins. — The object of making up dry skins is either to
form them into shapes best to handle in scientific study, that they
take up as little space as possible in a cabinet, or for the purpose of
transportation from the field, or for mounting at some future time.
We shall first consider the making up of cabinet specimens. The
most beautiful and artistic small mammal skms which I have ever seen
are those prepared by Dr. Jasper. The fox squirrel skin in Plate
XLVIII is an example of how some of them are shaped ; in this speci-
men the tail is thrown over the back. Sometimes the tail is arranged
over the belly, which is better in case the skin is made up for trans-
portation. In all the smaller long-tailed specimens, and in every case,
the tail should be wired and made as directed on page 83, to protect it
from injury, and the legs and feet should be arranged with the same
end in view. Many skins are made up with the tail parallel with the
body. In large specimens the tail, which has been split open, may be
left flat. The skull can be replaced in the skin of the head if desired,
the cheeks filled out to their fullness, the muscles of the legs replaced
with tow, aud the body filled full and pressed into shape after the open-
ing has been sewn up. If, after you have sewed up the opening, you
discover that the skin is too full, or lacking filling in any part, cut the
seam open and remedy the defect, whatever it may be. Be sure not to
fill the skin too full; this is a common fault. One of the best methods
to dispose of the skull is to place it in the abdominal region with the"
filling. When this is done, the skin of the head must be nicely filled
with tow. The lips may be held together by taking a stitch
in the middle of the upper and lower and tying them together.
In all cases, in the field or in the workshop, before filling the skin give

I'LAl K \I.VI1.

^ '

S-EUTXG VP THE OPENING IN SMALL QUADRUPEDS, WITH FORMS

AND ATTITUDES.

Fig, 1, showing the manner of taking the understitch in sewing up the open-
ing in quadrupeds; Fig. 2, Fox Squirrel mounted on a limb; Figs. 3 and 4, Striped
Ground Squirrel, Chipping Squirrel or Chipmunk ; Fig. 5, Common Shrew ; Fig.
6, Common Mole.

METHODS JX THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 203

the inside a coating of arsenical paste and llicn rub on a mixture o(
two-thirds powdered alum and one-third arsenic. If you are in the
field and nothing but salt is obtainable, put on all the skin will Ijold.
When large skins are to be hung uj) to dry, it is best to give them a
coat of arsenical paste and equal parts cf powdered alum and salt.
Mammals that are skinned, like the deer in Plate LI, should be folded
similar to our dog skin in Plate XLX'III, with the leg bones attached
to the skin and folded. The legs may be arranged underneath. In this
case the bones of the legs should be wrapped with tow, paper, cotton,
cloth, straw or dry grass to keep the bones from touching the skin.
In this shape the skin is a good one for study or for mounting, and in
excellent condition for shipping. If the subject is larger than a deer,
for example an elk or a moose, it is always best to di.sjoint the legs at
the first joint above the foot, in the hind legs leaving the cal-
caneum attached to the canon bone, which will remain in the skin.
By so doing the skin may be folded into smaller compass, and the leg
bones and skull may be bundled together and properly labeled as be-
longing to a particular skin. The skin and the bones may be done up
in separate bundles and more easily transported than with all the
bones attached to the skin in animals of large size. Any collecior
who has had the least experience in mounting mammals, especially
those prepared upon the dermoplast^ic method, will never be guilly
of throwing away any of the leg bones. They are the guide by
which we are to obtain the true length of the legs and the shape of the
joints. If we do not have these or others, we must imitate them the
best we can by carving them out of wood. If it is absolutely neces-
sary for you to lighten your burden in traveling from the field, do at
least, save all the bones of one hind and one fore leg; they are valua-
ble, for accuracy is the chief object in mounting a mammal.

Never allow the flat skin of a mammal to dry in the sun, but
always in the shade, using the preservatives as directed above and as
noted on page 40.

No animal skin should leave your hands without a label attached
to it, containing date, locality, measurements, etc , as noted in Chapter
III, page 56. The measurements which should be taken of small
mammals will be found on page 182 (foot-note), and those for the large
specimens in foot-note on page 220.

After all that has been said on the preparation and making up of
dry mammal skins, I shall emphasize what has already been said con-
cerning \\\Q. preservation of skins in a zvet state with the salt and alum
bath in the lead-lined tank, as devised by Professor Wiley, pages 61-02.

204

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

If you are so situated that the lead tank is out of the question, then
resort to kegs and barrels, while salt and alum may be procured any-
where you may travel in the world. If the design be to mount
the specimens collected in the field, this is positively the best manner
for their preservation, under all circumstances.

Relaxing Dry Skins of Mammals.— I shall here describe the
method I have always employed in relaxing the dry skins of mam-
mals, whether they be the size of a mouse, or from that upward to the
size of an elephant. To relax an old, dry skin of a deer, elk, moose,
horse, or anything larger, the best plan is to place it in clear, luke-
warm water, or, in case that cannot be had, cold water will do. In
this condition, the skin must not be allowed to remain in the water too
long, and must be examined frequently to see that it does not macerate,
which will cause the hair to come out. It will soon become pliable,
however, especially if worked vigorously with the hands. The next
step is to take it out of the water bath, throw it over a beam, as the
tanners do, and either scrape it with a skin-scraper or toothed currier's
knife (Figs. 7, 8, Plate II), or thin the skin down with a sharp, com-
mon carpenter's draw-shave, or a keen-edged currier's knife ( Fig. 9,
Plate 11 ). Do not be afraid of cutting the skin too thin ; do not trim
down below the roots of the hair, for the hair will come out. Where
you cannot use the currier's knife or draw-shave, apply the scraper and
plenty of physical force. Work at the skin with the determination to
make it as soft and elastic as possible, and this can be done only by
hard zvork. It is sometimes necessary while at work to place the skin
on a smooth surface in order to work to the best advantage with the
scraper.

To lessen the power of shrinkage in a skin, the fibres must be
separated, and this maybe done by cross-cutting the skin with a sharp
knife. This is particularly essential about the head, where frequently
a peculiar expression is to be obtained, and if the animal has whiskers
by this mode of cutting you are not liable to pare the skin down so
thin that the whiskers will come out.

I once spent three days' labor on a horse's skin which was
two years and a half old, and at the end of the third day the skin was
almost as soft as a kid glove. If there were any faults in the shapes
which I afterward gave to the various parts of the skin on the clay
model, they could not be attributed to the condition of the skin, for its
pliability was all that could be desired. You cannot give the proper
form to a skin that is hard and thick.

In order to have complete control over the shaping of a skin to

PLAl K XI.\1II

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SKIXS OF QVADRVPEDS.

Upper figure, Fox Squirrel slvin, ^^howiug one method of shapiuj; skins of
small tjuadrupeds for cabinet specimens.

Lower figure, Dog skin made up as a specimen for study or for transportation
(see page 200).

METHODS IN THE ART OE TAXIDERMY.

loy

the clay, it miifft be thinned down so as to be perfectly elastic and soft.
Then you can model it down to the clay and give it characteristic
shapes — this is particularly the case in forming the face, where there
are often peculiar hollows and elevations impossible to produce with a
thick, hard skin.

Skins can usually be relaxed in the salt and alum bath of 12°
strength. If they do not yield in that, the clear water must be re-
sorted to. In relaxing all skins smaller than that of a deer, I use the
salt and alum solution at 12° strength with perfect success. A chim-
panzee skin which was made in 1890 I relaxed this year (1893) in this
manner within eighteen hours.

Dr. Jasper has a method of thinning down the skin so thin that it
becomes translucent, and colors can be painted on the inner side so
that they will show through. In the faces of the great baboons that
are striped with brilliant colors the skin is pared down in this manner
and the colors applied both to the skin and skull. If, for example, the
color of the face be a red, the skull and the skin should be painted an
intense red; sometimes, in order to produce the proper red tint on the
outside, it is necessary to iise Chinese vermilion.

Open Mouths, Tongues, etc — If a mammal is to be mounted
with open mouth, exposing the teeth and tongue, expressing a state of
rage or anger, the entire head must first be modeled in clay, as when
the mouth is to be closed. The nose and cheeks must be filled to their
natural fullness. The lips must be brought in position and held there
with the clay and arranged according to the facial expression desired
to be obtained. Sometimes it will be necessary to hold the lips in
place by driving double-pointed tacks rnto the jaws, or by taking
stitches across from one side to the other over the jaws. Now allow
the clay to dry before you begin to model the mouth with papier-
mache. Do not be alarmed if the lips have shrunken a little. If you
have pared them down thin enough the shrinkage will be very little, if
any. When the skin and clay are thoroughly dry, clean the whole
mouth out generally by digging out the surplus clay from between the
lips and the jaws and in the interior of the mouth. When this has
been done, mix up some fine, sticky papier-mache (see directions, page
22), and get out your steel modeling tools, as figured in Plate IV.
Model the gums with the mache up to the jaws, keeping the modeling
tools wet so that they will slip over the macke smoothly. Model the
entire inside of the mouth in the same manner, imitating as closely as
possible all the characteristics which you saw in the mouth of the ani-
mal before it was skinned. When you have done this according to

208 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

your taste, set the animal away until the papier-mache is perfectly drv.
A tongue must now be made from the skin of the natural one or
constructed artificially. The best are made by using the skin of the
natural tongue, for it is impossible to imitate accurately the papillae,
which are so characteristic in the tongues of many species. To do this
the entire tongue must be taken out while the animal is being skinned,
and preserved in alcohol diluted with one-third its bulk of water.
This is the best means of preservation until we are ready to prepare it.
The tongue should be slit open on the under side almost to the tip and
nicely skinned. Now cut out a piece of sheet copper or lead the shape of
the tongue and imbed it in the skin of the tongue with clay and sew the
opening up. Be sure, however, to leave the copper or lead project long
enough from the rear of the tongue so that it can be anchored in the
back part of the mouth in papier-mache. Now give it the proper
shape, and when dry it may be painted with tube colors and turpentine
and inserted in the mouth. The tongue and mouth of the Bengal
tiger rug, in my private museum, seen in the frontispiece of this work,
were made in the manner above described, also that of the cougar in
the same plate. Another method of making a tongue is simply to cut
out a piece of sheet coppei the proper shape, cover it with papier-
mache and paint it. Be sure to study the color of the tongue before
applying the paint, and mix the tube colors with nothing but turpen-
tine. Before you proceed any further, clean the teeth with a weak
solution of muriatic acid ; make them as white as ivory, if possible.
In coloring and finishing the inside of the mouth, the lips and the
gums, use white wax and tube colors. It must be borne in mind that
this final touch is to be done over the papier-mache. Place the wax
in a small tin vessel and heat it until the wax has melted ; then mix
in the desired color from the tube paints and apply it on the modeled
gums and lips with a small flat bristle brush. This should be done by
strokes, and great care should be exercised not to allow the colored
wax to pile up. Should this be the case, however, heat a steel model-
inof tool and smooth the colored wax out over the surface. The most
useful vessel in which to mix the colors with wax is one made of tin
like a glue-pot, but of very small size. The wax, by this means, can
be melted, without any danger of its " burning" or changing color, as is
sometimes the case over fire heat. The open mouths of all mammals
and reptiles should be modeled in the same manner as described in this
section.

Restoring Colors to Dried Specimens — Many museum speci-
mens lose during the drying process certain characteristic colors which

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METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 21 i

must be restored by artificial processes. The patches of bare skin in
some birds and quadrupeds, as well as the lips, tongue, nostrils, etc.,
of the latter must be restored to proper coloration by the use of paints.
To accomplish this skillfully is not always an easy task. The taxider-
mist who would execute his work in the most efficient manner must
put into use a considerable amount of skill, patience and ingenuity.

Careful notes should be made when the specimen is fresh of the
colors that are known to be evanescent, or it will serve better if a live
or freshly killed specimen can be used for observation at the time the
dried one is to be colored. The surface to be painted should be
dry and clean. All shot-holes, if any exist, must be filled with papier-
mache, over which two coats of shellac varnish should be applied. The
papier mache being porous, rapidly absorbs the oil of paint applied
directly over it, leaving the paint to dry with a dead color. The shel-
lac prevents the absorption of the oil, and the whole painted surface
will dry uniformly.

Materials. — The best materials for restoring colors are such as are
used by artists in oil painting. The Windsor and Newton tube
colors, as recommended on page 22, are fully sufficient for all fine
work. The pigments and other supplies to be employed in coarse
taxidermic work have already been discussed in Chapter II, pages 51
and 52. Of the many colors that may be obtained in tubes, a few only
will answer the purpose of the taxidermist, since from these, carefully
selected, all the ordinary tints that will be found serviceable in taxi-
dermy may be produced. They may be mentioned as follows :
Vandyke brown, Prussian blue, ivory black, chrome yellow, Naples
yellow, zinc white, raw and burned umber, raw and burned sienna,
yellow ochre and vermilion. Possibly a few others may be added
with advantage. Use the middle of the palette for blending colors and
the margin for depositing such primary colors as you desire to use in
mixing.

Tone of Colors.— It will be noticed that the colors in specimens
to be painted are usually of a subdued nature, seldom gaudy or glossy.
Care should, therefore, be exercised that the proper tone may be ac-
quired before applying. The lips of quadrupeds must be mentioned
as exceptions to this rule, as they are always more or less glossy.
When it is necessary to produce a gloss, boiled linseed oil may be used
in thinning the colors on the palette ; but if no gloss is desired, tur-
pentine should be used exclusively. The less gloss required the less
oil should be used and the more turpentine.

PLATE L.

SVPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE HORSE AISD DOG. FACIAL EXPRESSIOyS

OF THE HORSE, TOGETHER WITH THE FORMATION OF ITS

yOSTRILS, LIPS AND MOUTH.

Fig. 1, illustrating many of the promiut'ut muscles of the horse, as follows :

Muscles of the Head. — o, dilator uaris lateralis; b, orbicularis oris; c, levator
labii spurioris; rf, zigomaticus; c, buccinator; /, masseter; g, abducen.s aurem.

Muscles of tJic Neck, ami S/ioiildcr — o, «, levator humeri ; l>, trapezius; c, c,
scalenus ; d, Rhomboideus lougus ; e, steruo maxillaris ; e' sterno scapulari ; /', aiitea
sijinatus; (j, scapulo-uluaris; A,/, triceps extensqr brachii; /.-, postea spinatus; e,*
latissinius dorsi.

Muscles of the Fore Leg. — 6, extensor uietacarpi magnus; c, extensor, meta-
carpi obliquus; d, extensor pedis; e, extensor sufFraginis; /, flexor nietacarpi exter-
nus; ,r/, tendon sperforans ; A, flexor metacarpi externus; ?, flexor carpi radialis; A",
flexor metacarpi medius.

Muscles of the Breeist and J5e%.— (0, pectoralis magnus; (7, d, seratus mag-
nus; c, f, serratus luiiiborum; d''., obliquus interuus abdominus.

Muscles of the Pelvis. — a, tensor vaginae; b, e, gluteii muscles; c, triceps ab-
ductor; d, d, biceps abductor tibialis; /. rectus ; g, vastus externus.

Muscles of the Hind Leg.— a, extensor pedis; 6, extensor; c, tendon Achilles ;
rt, gastrocnemi; e, flexor pedis; ./', flexor digiti longus; g, gastrocnemius iuternus;
/i, flexor pedis accessorius ; «, f , tendons.

Fig. 2, side view expression of the face; Fig. 3. formation of the nostrits, lips
and mouth; Fig. 4, front view of face; Fig. 5, superficial muscles of the dog, letters
eorrespouding to those in the horse.

PLATE r.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. ^^.

Applying Colors. — Apply your colors smoothly and, as a rule, very
thin. If it is desirous that paint should dry rapidly, mix with it on the
palette a little sugar of lead, which may be obtained in tubes similar
to the paints. There are cases in which a brush cannot be used with
advantage. In the case of some quadrupeds sparsely covered with
hair, the skin will assume a disfigured appearance and be plainly visi-
ble. To restore the natural color, mix paint of the desired tint very
thinly with turpentine. Take a small funnel, place the opening close
to the skin and pour very slowly the thin paint into the funnel, allow-
ing the skin to become saturated. The paint will spread quickly and
evenly over the adjacent portions of the skin. ■Move the funnel to
other parts of the skin and repeat the operation till all the skin has
been colored.

CHAPTER X.

THE DERMOPLASTIC METHOD OF MOUNTING MAMMALS.

Here is a branch of taxidermy which partakes more or less of
the elements of the sculptor's art. The principles embodied in this
plan of mounting mammals are of the most practical kind, lacking in
no detail which will aid in attaining any form or attitude the artist
may design.

The dermoplastic^ method involves the building of a manikin of
iron, wood and tow, the muscles being modeled in clay and the skin
perfectly fitted over the clay-covered structure.

If the beginner is a born sculptor he will have ample opportunity
of displaying his powers in the construction of mammal models upon
these principles. Dr. Jasper has employed this method of mounting
large mammals since I80O. Phillipp Leopold Martin, the German tax-
idermist, was the first to advocate by publication the clay-covered man-
ikin in 1870, and again in 1876 ; it has since been very generally
adopted by taxidermists the world over. While the procedures require
longer time for their execution, and are more complicated in their
manipulation than others heretofore employed, the results possible to
be attained are far superior to any method ever adopted. The dermo-
plastic method is, in a word, employed in the mounting of all large
mammals, all short-haired and hairless quadrupeds, as for example the
hairless Mexican dog, pointer, bull-dog, greyhound, tapir, bears of
great size, deer, antelope, elk, girafife, rhinoceros, hippopotamus,
elephant, etc.

Before skinning an animal which is to be mounted by this method
we should take full and accurate measurements of the subject as it lies
before us. To the beginner these are of the utmost importance, for
by them he must reproduce the sizes and proportions which are natu-
ral to the animal in life. If you would be accurate, by all means pos-
sess a sketch-book and make an outline drawing in pencil of the spec-

1. This word, which best describes the particular method, is from the Greek </£r»/a, skin, and the verb
plasso, to form, to give form or fashion to a mass of matter capable of being modeled or moulded as plastic clay.
( 216 )

PLATe LI.

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PLATE LI.

MEASIREMENTS OF LARGE MAMMAES.

Height of shoulder, whieli means from the sole of the foot to tlic lo)) of ilie
shoulder. This is best takeu by placiug u rod perix'tidieularly at the top of the
shcndder, a, aud holdiug the leg u}) ou a level with the l)()dy in an easy ])ositiou;
uow lueasure froiu the sole to the i)erpi'udicular at the shoulder.

Leugth along the back is made by l)eghiniug at the base of the skull and
running the tape-line along the line of the back to the base of the tail.

Leugth of body is on a straight line from the chest to the end of the hip
muscles, or muscles of the rump, as in b. This measurement may be made l)y
holding a rod in a straight line and placing a stick perpendicularly at the chest and
another in the same position below the tail. The measurement is taken between
these.

Length of neck, from the chest to the base of skull back of the I'ar, r.

Thigh measurement, from the knob of the thigh-bone down to largest part ot
thigh under the tail, (L

Circumference of neck just below the head, r.

Circumference of neck just in front of the chest,/.

Circumference of body behind the f(jre legs, </.

Circumference of body just before hind legs, //.

Top of back, from humerus to middle of l)ack, /. To obtain this measure-
ment you will have to feel for the knob of the femur and then strike the center
line of the back.

Hind and fore leg measurements, J:, I, and »; ; n, o, and p, circumference at
three points as indicated.

Humerus and femur measurement. This is one of the most imj>ortant
measurements which can be recorded, and it should be again taken after the animal
has been skinned, r. Feel for the knobs of the humerus and femur and measure
the distance between them. With this measurement you can place the ii'on
squares in their proper places for the reception of the leg irons.

Length of tail is always a necessary measurement when a mammal is to be
mounted on the dermoplastic method.

Circumference of muzzle and head. The circumference of the muzzle in at
least two places should always be recorded, also one of the head in front of the ears.

220 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

imen, on a similar plan as we have it in Fig. 1, Plate LI, and on the
opposite leaf enter carefully each measurement, together with other
notes and remarks which you may think would be of value to you in
the construction of the manikin or clay model. This sketch-book
should be kept for future reference. In the smaller specimens, which
should be mounted upon the dermoplastic method, the best plan after
taking full measurements, sketches, etc., is to make plaster casts of the
prominent muscles of the hind and fore legs and of the head after skin-
ning. Making casts will be fully treated in the last chapter. For my
purpose of describing the measurements of mammals to be mounted by
the directions given in this chapter, I shall take for my outline the
deer, Fig. 1, Plate LI.' These same directions will be found facing this
plate, which will facilitate ready reference. The measurements given
below are recommended for all mammals which are to be mounted upon
the dermoplastic method.

Skinning Large Mammals. — The manner of skinning mammals
of great size and the short-haired ones for mounting by this method
differs from the skinning of small quadrupeds, chiefly in one particu-
lar, which is as follows : A cut is made from the bottom of the foot
up the back of the leg nearly to the first joint, and from thence up the
inside of the leg until it meets the center incision which has been made
along the belly. This is very distinctly shown in Fig. 2, Plate LI.

1. Measurements of Large Mammals. — Before taking these measurements make notes of the color of any
external fleshy parts which the animal may possess. If it is to be mounted with the mouth open study its tints
and peculiarities.

Height at Shoulder, which means from the sole of the foot to the top of the shoulder. This is best
taken by placing a rod perpendicularly at the top of the shoulder, a, and holding the leg up on a level with the
body in an easy position ; now measure from the sole to the perpendicular at the shoulder.

Length along the Back is made by beginning at the base of the skull and running the tape-line along
the line of the back to the base of the tail.

Length of Body is on a straight line from the chest to the end of the hip muscles, or muscles of the
rump, as in h. This measurement may be made by holding a rod in a straight line and placing a stick perpendic-
ularly at the chest and another in the same position below the tail. The measurement is taken between these.

Length of Neck, from the chest to the base of skull back of the ear, c.

Thigh Measurement from the knob of the thigh-bone down to largest part of the thigh under the tail, d.

Circumference of Neck just below the head, e.

Circumference of Neck just in front of the chest,/".

Circumference of Body behind the fore legs, g.

Circumference of Body just before hind legs, li.

Top of Back, from humerus to middle of back, i. To obtain this measurement you will have to feel for the
knob of the femur and then strike the center line of the back.

Hind and Fore Leg Measurements, k, I, and vt : >i, o, and/, circumference at three points as indicated.

HiMERUS AND Femur MEASUREMENT. This is One of the most important measurements which can be re-
corded, and It should be again taken after the animal has been skinned, r. Feel for the knobs of the humerus
and femur and measure the distance between them. With this measurement you can place the iron squares in
their proper places for the reception of the leg irons.

Length of Tail is always a necessary mk.asurement when a mammal is to be mounted on the dermoplastic
method.

Circumference of Muzzle and Head. The circumference of the muzzle in at least two places should
always be recorded, also one of the head in front of the ears.

A few years ago, before skinning two African Elephants of small size I obtained the exact curves of their
backs by pressing bars of lead close along the middle line of the back, thus obtaining very accurately theii
shapes. The shapes of the curves between the legs were secured in the same way.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 221

The center incision begins at the throat and extends to the vent, and
the tail is slit open and skinned quite to the tip. In large mammals,
such as elephants, the skin is removed in three pieces, so that it may
be handled with facility.

The skin of the elephant Jumbo, for example, which was mounted
at Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, New York, was
taken off in three pieces, the head and neck in one, the body in two,
by cutting along the middle of the back and belly until the cuts met
that severed the head and neck and divided the body skin.

The legs should be disjointed from the body where the fore leg
joins the shoulder blade and where the hind leg joins the pel-
vis bone. Skin the legs by turning the skin wrong side out over
the foot, and cut all the flesh away from the bones and clean them
thoroughly. In mammals above the size of a deer, the bones of the
legs may be detached at the first joint above foot, as the skin can then
be more easily handled ; the bones, however, should remain attached
to their ligaments.

The skin should be cut neatly from the body and every particle of
flesh adhering to it removed.

When you have skinned down far enough to reach the ears, cut
them off close to the head and continue to turn the skin wrong side
out over the head, being careful while skinning over the eyes, mouth
and nose, as I have previously directed. The thick, fleshy upper lip must
be split open from the inside and the flesh pared off. When split in
this manner it can be thinned down, and a pocket formed in which we
can place clay and give the lip its natural fullness. The head of an
animal having horns must be skinned through an opening made in the
back of the neck and across from one horn to another, as is seen in
Fig. 1, Plate LXIX. Some make this opening in the shape of a Y, the
incisions reaching to and around each horn. The skin is cut away
completely around the base of each horn, while the skin of the head
worked down over the skull and cheeks.

Skinning the ears to their tips and removing their cartilage is a
tedious operation, requiring patience, care and perseverance. There is
more than one decided advantage in skinning the ears all the way to their
tips and removing the cartilage. In the first place, you can thoroughly
poison them ; secondly, when the cartilage has been nicely replaced
with sheet copper or lead cut and hammered the proper shape, and the
lower portion filled with clay, it is impossible for the ear to curl up or
shrivel ; it will always retain the shape you give to it. Now wash ofi
every blood stain before you go any farther.

222 M'ETHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

The first thing to do after you have removed the skin from an
animal and carefully washed all blood stains out is, to set about and
prepare it, so that you can successfully mount it. To do this you must
spare no labor. In order to give any form you may desire to the skin
while molding it down to the clay on your model, you must cut it as
thin as it is possible to make it. Fasten the skin with hair side down on
your workbench and pare it down thin. This is half the battle in hand-
ling the skin on the manikin. Moreover, the thinning down of a skin
lessens its shrinking powers, for you cut the fibres, which of itself is
worth all the time and labor you may bestow upon it. Go at it
with the scraper, and if you cannot make an impression on it in that
position, place it over a beam and work at it with your draw-knife or
the keen-edged currier's knife. You will have to do most of the cut-
ting on the skin of the head with sharp scissors and sharp knives ; and
as this is the most difficult part of the animal to prepare, you must not
slight one inch of it. Make it so thin that you can pinch any portion
of it on the wet clay and it will retain that particular shape ; make it so
pliable that you can have perfect control over its shape. But I have
already warned the beginner under the head of " Relaxing Dry Skins of
Mammals," page 204, of the necessity of having the skins of quadru-
peds well thinned, and any further remarks on the subject would be
superfluous. We shall place in the 15° strength salt and alum pickle
the skin of the greyhound, which we have prepared exactly as we
have described above, and begin to build the model on which we shall
mount the skin.

Building of the Manikin. — The illustrations in Plates LII and
LIII, which figure the building of the manikin for the greyhound, are
so clearly laid off that a description of them seems unnecessary. The
framework of the horse in Plate LVI is of similar construction. There
are many procedures, however, which cannot be illustrated, and must be
described in order to successfully carry out our plan. There are varia-
tions in the methods of constructing manikins in certain cases — as in
the figures of the greyhound in Plate LIV ; also that of the horse in
Plates LVII, LVIII and LIX, and that of the elephant in Plate LV.
All of these variations will be given in foot-notes, as has been previ-
ously done with the birds and the small quadrupeds.

The first thing to be done after you have placed the skin in pickle
is to make a center board, which is accomplished by making an out-
line of the contour of the animal's body from the measurements and
sketches you have taken. This can be made on the floor or on a large
piece of paper. Now, on an inch thick pine board mark oft' a portion

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METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 225

from this outline which will conform to the shape of the back and up
into the neck a little, extending almost to the outline of the chest and
to a point which will take in the upper muscles of the thigh, about as
we have it in Plate LII. Saw this board out and make two square holes
in it, which are for the purpose of sewing the tow on with long needle
and cord through the holes. If you desire to give the body of the ani-
mal a curve, saw the center board in two in the middle, and have your
blacksmith make four narrow strips of iron of the desired curve, and
fasten two of these on each side with screws, as seen in Plate LII. In
making a center board, do not make it too wide; leave enough space
on the line of the back for the binding down of tow with cord, and for
a layer of clay. The center board in the smaller mammals should be
so narrow that you can work all around it while placing the tow on the
sides, chest and under parts.

If the leg bones still remain attached to the skin which is in
pickle, take the skin out and detach the bones at tlie first joint above
the foot. Now place these bones on the center board and arrange
them in the position you desire to have the animal assume. Have
your blacksmith make four iron squares, as we have directed on page 90,
and as seen «, b, Plate LII, for the reception of the leg irons, as will pres-
ently be described. Place the knob of the humerus and femur on the
center board against the iron squares at the distance apart which your
measurements indicate, and be sure you are right, because upon this
alone you must depend for the proper coupling of your animal. Mark
the places on the board, and fasten the iron squares there with screws.
Now place the bones again in position and take four pieces of heavy
annealed wire and bend them close to the back of the leg bones in the
position you have arranged them, following accurately the bend of
every joint. Allow enough for the missing bones of the foot, and also
to go through the pedestal, and to project through the iron squares to
receive nuts. Now have made out of ^ inch round iron rod their
counterparts in shape and length, and have both ends of each rod
threaded to receive nuts. When this has been done, you will soon
have the center-board standing on four leg irons. The next thing to
be done is to fit the leg irons into the back of the bones. Low down
on the tibia the iron must be sunken into the bone so that it
will not project out too far and give to that part of the leg an ill
shape; by cutting a groove in the tibia behind the calcaneum and all
the way down to where the bones of the foot have been detached, the
iron can be sunken almost out of sight. The hollow formed where
the tendon Achilles passes over the calcaneum may in this manner be

2 26 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

nicely preserved (see r, c, Plate LI I, and r, Plate LVI). For cutting
these grooves use saws and chisels. The leg irons must be tied fast
to the bones by winding them with copper or annealed wire. Now
place a nut on the upper end of each leg iron and turn it down so that
it will come below the iron square when it has been inserted in one of
the holes ; when the leg irons have been adjusted, place another on top
of each leg iron and screw them up firmly, as in Figs. «, b^ Plate LII.
The leg irons must be secured in the same manner in the pedestal!'

Fasten the neck iron in the skull with plaster of Paris, and on the
center-board with staples, which should be clinched on the opposite
side, as seen in Plate LII. The rod for the tail support should be
fastened with staples on the top edge of the center-board. Tie the
lower jaw to the upper with wire until you can replace the muscles in
clav. Should vou desire to turn the head to one side, this can be
done by bending the neck iron. Before we proceed, let us test
every joint to see that it is firm and secure. Let strength be one of
the main objects in building every structure ; do not allow it to
wabble in any of its parts. In all mammals the size of a greyhound,
the strength should be such that it will bear the weight of an ordinary
sized man ; the same strength prevailed in a cougar which I recently
mounted, and my last horse held the weight of three men on its back
at once. Now is the time to try the skin on the skeleton manikin to
see if there are any changes necessary. In the smaller mammals
mounted upon this plan it is easier to build the greater bulk of the
muscles out with tow, as seen in Plate LIII, before we develop the super-

1. Mounting Mammals without Bones. — In Plates LVII, LVIII, LIX and likewise in Plate LIV are figures
illustrating a method of mounting mammals by the dermoplastic method without the use of the iron square or
tow in building out the underlying muscles. No bones are used, the entire structure being built from measure-
ments and the skull carved in wood. One of the best mounted horses 1 ever saw was mounted upon this plan.
But the method requires vast experience. It will be observed that instead of using an iron rod for the neck sup-
port, a neck board has been cut out of lumber in the same manner in which the center-board for the body has been
made ; when it is desired to turn the head to one side, the neck board is sawed crosswise on one side, commonly
termed kerfing in carpentry, in order to make the bend, and then the neck board is fastened to the main center-
board with iron braces, as seen in Plate LVII, Figs. 3 and 4. In employing this method we must depend entirely
upon the skeleton for accuracy. Many of the French and German taxidermists adopt this method solely, preferring
not to make use of any of the bones whatever, bending the leg irons with absolute accuracy according to the measure-
ment and position of the bones, making the necessary extension in the irons, where the thigh bone joins the pelvis
and the femur joins the shoulder blade. They claim that it gives them " the freedotn of touch which the actual
bones in contact with the iron supports will not admit ." As for myself I have frequently been compelled to cut ofT
and throw away bones of the common mammals when I was endeavoring to produce the ideal. The effect desired
must be carefully considered before this is done.

In constructing a manikin on these principles the entire frame is covered with thin strips of wood, and ai
far as possible down on the legs. The strips arj firmly nailed to the quarter round sections which form the shape
of the body. They are placed so close together that when the clay is put upon them it is forced through to the
under side, where it forms a "key" by which it holds. Clay mixed with strong glue water is the material employed
Ry exact measurements from the skeleton the leg irons are inserted in the center-board and held fast by nuts on
both sides, as is seen in Fig. 4, Plate LVII.

The same method has been employed in the mounting of the greyhound. in Plate LIV, the figures bein&
from a specimen in course of preparation.

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METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 2''0

ficial muscles in clay. Begin by laying on the tow and binding it
with cord and sewing it down with a long needle through and through
and winding it around and around until it has become hard and firm
all over. In the center-board two square holes should always be cut
so as to sew through with the needle, and thus bind the tow firmly
down. Sometimes I cut the center-board in the middle and leave an
opening of three or four inches, which gives additional advantage in
sewing through the body, the iron bands holding both ends of the
center-board out perfectly secure and separated in the middle. To imi-
tate the hollow in the hind legs so visible in most short-haired and large
mammals, take a piece of copper wire, neatly wind it with tow the proper
size, cut a groove in the calcaneum and bind it nicely over the back of
this bone and extend it to about three-quarters of the way up on the
tibia and bind it there. This is seen in <r, r, Plates LII, LIII and LVI.
When the tow has been placed on all parts of the animal, and its form
has been made as nearly the natural shape and proportions as it is in
your power to develop it, the next thing to do is again to take the skin
from the salt and alum bath and try it on the manikin and carefully fit it
to every part of the model. Here use your critical powers and discover,
if possible, where you can make any improvements. See that the
edges of the skin meet everywhere. Take several stitches at dififerent
places and examine closely the form at every point. Wherever it is
too full, cut the tow away, or build it out where needful. Try the
skin on once more before putting on the clay. Notice in particular the
coupling of your manikin ; if it is coupled too long or too short, cut into
the tow, take the nuts off, remove the leg irons, and place them in any
hole in the iron square which will correct the error. This is the chief
beauty of the iron square — any error in the coupling can be corrected
in a few moments' time, even when the manikin has been completed.'
We will assume that the manikin is ready for the clay, which can be

1. Just in the nick of time, as »hese pages are going into the metal, I have constructed a device which will
do away with three holes made in the iron square for the reception of the leg irons. With this contrivance one
hole for the leg supports can be made to answer the purpose in all cases. 1 regret that it is now too late to have
this device illustrated, for it is a difficult construction to describe. When the center-board has been cut in two
in the middle, one inch is sawed off from each end where it has been severed, thus leaving two inches of play in
order to be able to lengthen or shorten the center-board. A square bar of iron is made the proper length, which
should not be so long as to interfere with the leg bones. In this iron bar holes are drilled for screws, and it is in
this way fastened to the rear half of the center-board. A shoulder of iron is made through which this iron bar
will pass. A screw hole should be made in the top and middle of this shoulder and four others (two on each side)
in the flanges of the shoulder, which rests on the center-board. This shoulder is fastened to the forward half of the
center-board by means of screws in the same manner as the iron square. Along through the end of the iron bar
which is to pass through the shouldei, holes are drilled about half an inch apart. They should be of the same size
as the one drilled on top and middle of the shoulder. If, after you have your manikin standing, you discovei
that it has been coupled too long or too short, instead of making any change in the iron squares, simply take out
the long screw which passes through the middle of the shoulder and through one of the holes in the iron bar into
the center-board, and make the necessary change to another hole to suit the case.

2 30

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

mixed and put ou with a small trowel, but the hands should be used
in rubbing it into the tow and in forming the various muscles. For the
uses of clay, see page 45. Replace the muscles of the head with clay,
and your model is ready for the skin. Insert sheet copper or lead, cut
and hammered into shape, into the ear skin, as advised on page 192.
In sewing up the opening in a mammal mounted by this method, much
can be done in developing and bringing out the beauties of the various
muscles as you proceed with the sewing. The thin skin which ex-
tends from the thigh to the side of the body should be filled with clay
and nicely pressed into shape. When sewing has been begun on an
animal, and it is desirous to leave it for a time, the skin should be
covered with wet blankets in order to keep it in a soft condition
until the sewing is completed. The head is now ready to be finished
with clay and chopped tow, through the mouth, and the most careful
work must be done here. See Chapter XII. In this position the
mouth, if the skin has been properly thinned, will retain its shape
forever. The eyes come last and may be imbedded in clay mixed with
glue water or in papier-mache. Now comb the hair with a steel
comb, and clean the specimen up generally by brushing it with a
moderately stiff brush. The animal is now ready to set away until
it is thoroughly dry, during which time it should be examined daily
to see that all parts are properly drying.

There are no rules by which a person can acquire skill and sound
judgment in the finishing up of mammals mounted by this method.
His skill, which may be excellent, will improve by practice and
experience. Whatever you do, let neatness of finish be one of the
characteristics of your completed specimens, and let the merit of your
work speak for itself.

I should advise the beginner not to take a dry skin for his first effort
in the dermoplastic method. By all means skin the animal yourself,
and have it as fresh as you can secure it. It should be remembered
that in skinning hoofed animals to be mounted on this plan the leg
bones should be detached at the hoof; in all others the bones of the
foot only should remain attached to the skin.

In large mammals, such as the deer, elk, horse, etc., we must
'make a center-board out of inch and a half pine lumber; this should
be exactly the shape of the contour of the body as seen in Fig. 1,
Plate LVI. The iron squares for the reception of the leg irons for a
horse should be three-eighths in thickness, and the leg irons should be
made of five-eighths Norway iron. The skull is fastened to the cen-
ter-board by means of an iron rod on which it is bolted. This rod

I'NATK I.I\'

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DERMOPLASTIC METHOD.

The thiee stages of Iniildino- the manikiu for the Greyhound without tlie use
boues. See foot-uote, page 22(1, P'ig. 1, Asiatic Elephant.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 233

may be turned or bent in any direction to give any desirable curve to
the neck. The next thing is to make side pieces to contorm to the
shape of the sides of the animal, which, on the whole, are about quarter-
round. These are fastened about nine inches apart on each side of the
center-board, between the legs, as in Fig. 2, Plate LVI. Across these
are nailed thin strips of wood, and the whole are bound with tow.
The legs and neck are built out with tow, as in the greyhound. Over
all these the muscles are imitated with clay. The skin should be
fitted on the manikin at various stages in the progress of its making,
in order to see that all the dimensions are correct. All other pro-
cedures in the mounting of large mammals are similar to those
described for the mounting of the greyhound, except in the case of
some of the large elephants, which are mounted on a manikin of wood
similar to the one in our Plate LV. As my experience with these ani-
mals is limited to two small African elephants, I shall place in a foot-
note a description of the mounting of the African elephant Jumbo, at
Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Y,'

1. The Mounting of the Elephant Jumbo. — In ihe mounting of this particular elephant one of the important
elements which had to enter into its structure was itringtli ^the building of the manikin so that it would witli-
stand the constant rack and strain of travel in transporting it from place to place with a menagerie. The follow-
ing is compiled from Ward's Natural Science Bulletin :

A heavy oak pedestal was built with 8 .\ 10-inch cross pieces of oak to hold the leg irons, which were of
2-inch round iron. These were secured in place, two to each leg, by heavy nuts and iron plates. Connecting the
tops were heavy oak cross pieces, upon which were fitted joists serving as a back bone for the manikin. Two-
inch planks fitted between these were cut to the contour of the back, others gave the shape of the sides at dis-
tances of a foot apart, while still others were put around the leg irons and the heavy beam in the trunk. All of
this work was accurately done and firmly fastened and braced and bolted so that there should be no shaking of
the parts. Over this outline frame two series of strips of inch square steamed basswood were firmly nailed, bent
and hewn so as to give the exact shape of the animal ivithout any stuffing between ihe tvood and skhi. This we
deemed necessary that the specimen might withstand the exceptional usage which it was to undergo. The tusks
were sawed off a little above the part protruding from the skin, bored and threaded, and into each a heavy iron
was screwed which ran back into the framework of the neck w here it was securely bolted. After this manikin was
completed and the skin had been dressed down to its proper thickness, less than half an inch, and thoroughly
poisoned with arsenic, the work of applying it to the manikin was commenced. To hold the skin firmly in place
it was nailed to the wooden manikin. For this purpose several thousand steel wire nails of various sizes were
used, weighing in all about fifteen pounds. Perhaps no other animal was ever stuffed in this manner, and in fact
for any other purpose than railroad travel, or, even then, in mounting any smaller animal such a method would be
unnecessary. When these thousands of nails had been countersunk so as to be entirely invisible, and all the
seams firmly sewn up, the finishing touches weie put on, and Jumbo stood complete and as lifelike as his photo-
graph. All the hundreds of creases, wrinkles and folds that characterize the elephant and were so prominent in
this one were brought out. This was no easy matter to accomplish — a thing hardly even attempted in any other
stuflfed elephant — and it was only by very painstaking and tedious work, together with a rigid adherence to the
exact size of the animal, that the result was so successfully attained. We give a few measurements of the stuffed
specimen that may be of interest. Greatest width of ear, 5 feet 5 inches. Length of trunk from base of tusk, 5
feet 11 inches. Circumference of tusk, 1 foot 6 inches. Circumference of front foot, 5 ff>et 3 inches. Greatest
circumference of fore leg, 5 feet 7 inches. Smallest circumference of fore leg (14 inches above ground), 3 feet 4
inches. Circumference of head back of eyes, 10 feet 4 inches. Circumference of neck back of ears, 11 feet
6 inches. Greatest circumference of body, 18 feet. Measure from sole of fore foot to top of back between
shoulders, 12 feet.

PLATE LV.

DERMOPIASTJC METHOD.

Frame-work for the manikin of an Elephant. Asiatic Elepliant.

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PLATE LVI

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DERMOPLASTIC METHOD.

Fig, 1, center-board, with iron squares, for horse manikin; Fig. 2, leg bones and
leg irons in position in iron squares, A, B. The letter c is the ealcaneum, where
the tendon Achilles forms over it, and makes the hollow.

In Fig. 2 are seen the quarter-round sections which form the shape of the
body ; these are fastened to the center-board and covered with thin strii)s of wood.

PLATE LVII

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is.

DERMOPLASTIC METHOD.

First stages ia mounting mammals without the use of bones. Fig. 1, center-
board; Fig. 2, side and rear view of center-board with leg irons in place. Fig. 3,
head with neck-board bent by kerfing. Fig. 4, head, neck-board and leg irons in
place ; Fig. 5, front view of horse's chest.

IM.ATK lAlII

DERMOPLASTIC METHOD.

The figures io this Plate show the frame-work of a horse prepared without the
use of bones.

^-'TT^SSlfefc.

PI.ATK MX.

\ I K

f II

DERMOPLASTIC METHOD.

Fig. 1, completed clay-covered manikin of a horse; Fig. 2, finished specimen.

IM.AIK I.X

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FOR.VS ^A^D ATTITZ'DES.

Fig. 1, Opossum; Pig. 2, Rabbit; Figs. 3, 4, Foxes.

IM,ATF. I. XI.

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FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fig. 1, Americau Wild Cat ; Fig. 2, Fox; Fig. 3, Marteu ; Fig. 4, Canada Lynx.

IM.ATK I.XII.

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FORMS AND ATTITUDES.
Fig. ], Fox; Figs, 2, 3, Gray Squirrels.

I'l.AlK 1X1 11

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FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Fig. 1, Otter; Fig. 2, Muskrat ; Fig. 3, Miuk ; Fig. 4, Beaver.

IM.A'IE LXIV.

FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

This figure was made expressly to illustrate how closely the heels come together
in Elk, Moose, I;eer, etc.

IM.AI r. I. XV,

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FORMS A\D ATTITUDES.

Poiuter Dogs.

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FORMS AND ATTITUDES.

Setter Dogs.

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CHAPTER XI.

HINTS ON THE FORMS AND ATTITUDES OF MAMMALS ; ACCESSORIES,
GROUPING, ETC., WITH REMARKS ON THE ARRANGEMENT

OF REPTILES.

The chief object of the taxidermist's art is to faithfully reproduce
the forms, attitudes and expressions of living animals with the
actual skin. From the moment you take up the pencil to make a
sketch and to take the measurements of an animal for the purpose of
mounting its skin, your strife to imitate nature has begun. The per-
fection of everything depends upon the relation it has to the end
which it is to serve. A mounted mammal is intended to please the
eye just as much as its figure does in stone or on canvas, and in order
to do this the inanimate form must compare closely with the animate.
The size and shape of the various muscles, the general form and atti-
tude and expression must be life-like. This is not an easy task
to accomplish with a shapeless skin ; it involves the highest princi-
ples of art. You need not attempt to make black white or white
black or purposely mistake, for with all your pains you may fall far
short of the mark. The specimen that is worth preparing demands
all the skill you are able to bestow upon it. Go at your task then with
the determination to copy nature to the best of your ability. At
every opportunity study the living animal, and, of the dead ones, make
sketches and casts, take measurements, study colors, and whenever
possible study their skeletons. These are the principles which, with
the proper application and skill, will bring forth fruits of labor ap-
proaching closely to the ideal.

The taxidermist should, by all means, study the fundamental
principles of osteology in order to knoiv the attitudes which 2.x^ possible
and tho.= e that are impossible for an animal to assume. No sculptor
would deem his education complete without a thorough knowledge
of the skeleton. We must, therefore, adopt the same system of study
in order to secure the best results.

Never allow your quadruped to be better developed on one side

( 261 )

262

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

than it is ou the other; make it so accurate and so well-balanced on
all sides that it will bear the closest scrutiny from every view. Fill
the body out to its natural size, but never too full ; the latter is the
most common fault to be found in the work of the beginner. Remem-
ber that the legs of your mammal are never perfectly round and thick ;
on the contrary, the thigh is broad and flat and the muscles of the upper
arm are of a similar shape, but not so broad as those of the thigh. The
examination of a single mammal when skinned will reveal all this and
many other points which are unnecessary to describe. In mounting
quadrupeds, as in birds, be sure that the heels are brought close together ;
do not spread them far apart. A quadruped in life cannot walk or stand
with the heels very far apart unless it is deformed. This point is well
illustrated in a number of figures in Plates LX to LXVI inclusive.
One of the most important parts of a mounted animal is the head.
Every detail of the body may be most perfectly wrought, but if the
head and face be poorly finished, the chief beauty of the specimen is
lacking : the life expression is gone. The ears, lips and nose must then
have your special attention in their preparation, and the eyes must be
set with the greatest care. The time necessary to model and develop
this particular part of the animal depends, of course, altogether upon
the character of the head and the shape the mouth is to assume. The
beginner should be very careful when mounting an animal with its
mouth open.

In using the clay, papier-mache, the wax and tube colors, the best
judgment must be exercised. These have all been discussed in former
chapters. You may approach more nearly to perfection if you will often
be your own critic. Allow no mounted mammal to pass out of your
hands that has not undergone your inspection. You should be able to
assert the excellence of your work, or "damn it with faint praise," or
somebody will do it for you. It is better to shoulder the responsibility
and let your specimens speak for themselves.

I will say with Mr. Lucas, that nine-tenths or more of the carniv-
ores mounted by taxidermists have their mouths wide open, and are
trying to look fierce without having any adequate cause for so doing,
and without, in the least, showing their emotion by their attitude.
Animals rarely open their mouths without accompanying the ac-
tion with an equally expressive movement of the limbs. A knowl-
edge of methods in taxidermy by which we can overcome difficulties
in the construction of the frame-work, is absolutely necessary, but a
mere knowledge of methods will not give the artistic eye and skilled
hand necessary for attaining the best results. While practical methods

,.. ,■,.,.

'.lit.

CHIMPANZEE.

Fig. 1, head; Fig. 2, hand; Fig. 3, foot; Fig. 4, hand, showiug where to make
the opening cuts in the fingers and pahii in order to take out the flesh, whicli must
be replaced with clay and neatly sewn up.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

?65

will assist one in attaining the desired results, he must be possessed
with "a spark o' nature's fire" in order to catch the spirit of his
subject.

The preparation of some one of the most common animals which
we have an opportunity of observing and studying in life almost daily,
is the proper subject for the beginner to first undertake in mammal
mounting. Nearly every one is familiar with the forms of squirrels,
rabbits, raccoons, foxes and others, and it is easy to decide whether
they look natural when one of them has been mounted. Almost any of
your friends will be kind enough to act as your critic on this point.
In mounting squirrels on the flat surface of a stump do not m.ake them
appear as though they were taking a toboggan slide or backing up.
Watch their equilibrium. Some very bad work is indeed done by
taxidermists on the common animals, the fox being one of those
whose form and attitude most of them fail to interpret. The
failure is usually in the expression not conforming to the appar-
ent agility of its movements. In Plates LX, LXI and LXII are
four attitudes of the fox, all of which are capable of being repro-
duced, together with the accessories. The forms and attitudes of the
wild-cat and the lynx in Plate LXI are characteristic of these animals,
and, when well executed with similar surroundings, make striking
studies. The same may be said of the single pieces of the otter,
muskrat, mink and beaver in Plate LXIII, which, to give effect, are
arranged with simple accessories, easy to imitate.

One of the finest mounted pointer dogs I ever saw is one prepared
by Dr. Jasper, similar in attitude to the one represented in the upper
figure of Plate LXV. In this specimen our artist has reproduced all
the prominent muscles which are visible in the animal while in the
characteristic attitude it assumes when coming to a point. The
anxious expression in its face is most faithfully preserved, while the
hard work and excitement it has undergone has brought the slobbers
to its mouth.

This dog was mounted on the dermoplastic method described and
recommended in the previous chapter, which is the only proper method
to employ in the mounting of all short-haired mammals and those of
large size.

Some of the best specimens of mounted mammals to be seen in
this country have been prepared by Mr. William T. Hornaday, formerly
of Ward's Natural Science Establishment, and late chief taxidermist of
the National Museum. His work: is stamped with the imprint of extra-
ordinary genius, and through his efforts the new school of American tax-

266 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

iderinists owes much to the high order of art which is now being infused
into the taxidermic specimens all over the land. Besides the very ac-
curate form, attitude and expression of his mammals, there is one fea-
ture which is also characteristic of his work : it is the apparent natural,
flexible texture of the skin, if I may be allowed the expression. That
taxidermy is a true art, this man has surely proven it. Among some
of the single pieces which I have seen that have been prepared by this
artist is the little African elephant, " Mungo,'' an exquisite piece of
work which was awarded the first prize at the third annual exhibition
of the Society of American Taxidermists, a hairless Mexican terrier, a
most difficult subject, a cinnamon bear and a baby ourang-outang.
Numbers of pieces illustrating his skill may be seen in the various
museums of this country, including many charming mammal groups.

A new era has come in with the arrangement of museum speci-
mens in groups, with their natural surroundings. Often the old and
the young of a species are represented in families placed in character-
istic attitudes, the whole illustrating some phase in the life-history of
the species. The natural surroundings of the animals are reproduced
as accurately as possible by artificial accessories, or they are made from
the actual materials brought from the woods and fields. The leading
museums of America and Europe have entered upon this new era of
improvement, and already there are to be seen within their halls
scenes from the fields of nature such as were never wrought in stone
or painted on canvas.

There are a number of American taxidermists whose skill has
contributed to the success which has been attained in the various
museums. Some of the finest groups of mammals that have been pre-
pared are to be seen in the American Museum of Natural History in
Central Park, N. Y. With one exception they were prepared under
the direction of the late Mr. Jeness Richardson,' the leaves and flowers
being modeled by Mrs. E. S. Mogridge.

A red squirrel group is among those of the small mammals. In a
yellow locust in full bloom, intertwined with the Virginia creeper, is a
nest with young and old, male and female. For elegance of finish
and general beauty, this is considered the finest of the small mammal
groups. The flying squirrel group is represented by a male and female
and young, with the summer nest in a hemlock tree-top; and close by
and under the same cover are the winter quarters in a hollow chestnut
stub. The curious opossum scene contains an old butternut stub, with

1. This highly accomplished naturalist and taxidermist died June 24, 1S93, his place in the American
Museum now being filled by Mr. J. Rowley.

IM.ATK l.XIX.

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MOUNTING HEADS.

Fig. 1, opening cut in deer head sewn up, showing the incision that is necessary
to be made in the heads of mammals liaviug horns in order to skin over the head ; in
this figure the end of the center-board is shown ; Figs. 2, ."., neclv board which is
fastened to the end of the center-board, around which the sl^in of the neck is tacked
as seen in Fig. 4; Fig. 5, ear block; Figs. 0, 7, ear block in position in ears; Fig.
H, eagle head mounted on shield ; Fig. 9, goose head mounted on shield ; Fig. 10,
mounted fish head.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

269

the nest in the hollow. The male hangs from a branch overhead by
his prehensile tail, and the female sqnats below with her tail thrown
up over her back. A number of young are hanging to the mother,
with their tails wrapped around hers, in the manner peculiar to this
species. More of the young are shown in various places in the foliage
at the base of the butternut stub. A very striking and interesting
group is that of the woodchuck, which shows the construction of the
burrow and situation of the nest. The old and young are in various
attitudes on the sward above, which is covered with daisies and red
and white clover. A beautiful and costly group is that of the musk-
rats, which represents the construction of the burrow in the bank, with
nest and young, and the house or winter quarters built out in a pond
filled with water lilies and rushes. A portion of the house at one cor-
ner has been cut away, revealing the interior of their dwelling. The
ourang-outang group in this museum was prepared by Mr. Hornaday
while employed at Ward's Natural Science Establishment, and is one
of the finest of its kind represented in the museums of this country.
It contains five specimens, all admirably mounted. The group repre-
sents a quiet scene in a Borneon forest. Another superb group of
ourang-outangs prepared by ]\Ir. Hornaday, entitled, "A Fight in the
Tree-Tops," is to be seen in the National Museum. The largest
and perhaps the best piece of work ever done by Mr, Richard-
son is the bison group. It contains an old bull, represented as
"shying" at a rattlesnake partially concealed under a soap-weed
bush ; three cows standing, one three-year-old cow feeding, one two-
year-old cow lying down, and a two-weeks'-old calf standing beside
its mother on the edge of a buffalo "wallow." The ground-work is
very carefully represented from studies made in northern Texas, and
the actual prairie sod and other accessories were brought from the
field and introduced into the scene. Such vegetation as could not be
satisfactorily preserved was made up artificially in wax ; as, for instance,
the beds of cactus. The vegetation was prepared entirely by Mr.
Richardson, and too much cannot 'be said in praise of the superior
workmanship and artistic skill shown in every detail of this group.
It is a masterpiece. In the National Museum is a group of bison
prepared by Mr. Hornaday, similar to that by Mr. Richardson. It
is likewise most skillfully executed. The skins of the animals, the
ground and accessories, were obtained in Montana. This group is
matched, only in size, however, by the monarch moose group ; and this,
with a number of other mammal groups in the same institution, attest
the profound genius of their author.

2/0

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Some of the best examples of mammal mounting that have been
done in this country, are the work of Prof. L. L. Dyche, of the
Kansas University. A proof of his skill and genius in this branch of
taxidermy, in the arrangement, grouping and effect of the whole was
exhibited in the Kansas building at the World's Columbian Exposi-
tion. This was a mammoth exhibit of mammals, consisting of those
species belonging to prairies, woods and mountains, and consequently
the scene was as varied as the localities and their fauna demanded.

The groups consisted of the moose, elk, deer, antelope, Rocky
Mountain sheep, American bison, cougars, wolves, coyotes, etc. These
were all arranged in a manner illustrative of some peculiar habits and
characteristics of the animals.

Mr. Frederic S. Webster has prepared a most interesting group of
Duck-billed Platypus Ornillwrhynchus paradoxus. This is one of the
most singular little creatures belonging to the animal kingdom — com-
bining, as it does, the external characteristics of a duck and a mole,
with fur and tail like a beaver, spurs like a cock, and in every way
aquatic in its habits. The group is composed of nine specimens — four
adult males, four females and one young — arranged in positions rep-
resenting their life habits: swimming in the water, coming from and
entering their burrow, rolled up in sleeping attitude, climbing limbs,
and playing. The vegetation of the locality in which they live is also
reproduced as closely as possible, and in every respect teaches the life
history of the animal. A caving of the bank of earth discloses the
interior of burrow and its narrow passage. In this burrow are two of
the animals (a mother and young): the mother just waking up, dis-
turbed by the catastrophe, while the little one is yet fast asleep.

Mammals and birds can be much more easily combined in artistic
and instructive groups than reptiles. So far as postures are concerned
it is not possible to give to the latter the variety of striking attitudes
and peculiarities of which mammals and birds are capable. To make
up a group of reptiles, illustrating their life habits and their haunts,
we must depend largely upon the truthful reproduction or imitation
of the natural surroundings which they inhabit. An illustration of
this may be seen in Plate LXXXIV.

There have been prepared some very interesting and striking
groups of the snakes, lizards and turtles, and also of the batrachians.
Among the groups in the National Museum is one of edible terrapins,
prepared by Mr. Frederic A. Lucas, It well illustrates what may be
done with animals which, like turtles, do not readily lend themselves
to the making of groups.

PLAIK l.XX

f >

MANIKINS FOR MAMMAL HEADS.

Fig. 1, Fox head, modeled iu clay with center-board in i)lace. Fig. 2, Prong-
horn Antelope head modeled in clay and neck wrapped Avitli tow, ready for the
clay. Fig. 3, Deer head modeled iu clay with center-board in position ; Fig. 4, head
modeled in clay for an animal snarling.

CHAPTER XII.

MOUNTING MAMMAL HEADS.

The chief procedures, in the mounting of mammal heads, are shon-n
ill Plates LXIX and LXX. If the head has horns it must be skinned
through an opening incision made in the back of the neck (Fig. 1,
Plate LXIX), and this cut must extend all the way around the base of
the horns. This incision can also be made in the shape of a Y, the
stems extending around the horns. If the head has no horns, the skin
should be cut off the desired length on the neck, and it can be skinned
wrong side out over the skull. Heads having horns are often shipped
to taxidermists by sportsmen and others with the neck cut off entirely
too short. You may have a head mounted whose skin has been cut
oflf just back of the ears if you choose, but you cannot in this case
blame the taxidermist for not producing the ideal.

In the heads of all mammals with large horns the skin should be
cut off just in front of the shoulders, and it should be left longest on
the under side of the neck. The reason this should be done is that
the head can then be given \\\q. proper elevation^ and when mounted on
a shield the horns will clear the wall. Moreover, the neck, which adds
to the beauty of the animal, can be given the curve and shape which
are characteristic of it in life. Therefore, if elegance and beauty are
the objects in mounted heads, the length of the neck is, before skinning
the subject, one of the important calculations to be made. Sportsmen,
when you are in the field, and by your prowess, lay low an elk, a
moose or a deer, and desire to have the heads mounted to decorate
your halls, be sure that the length of the neck-skin is sufficient for
your purpose before the knife has severed it from the body-skin.

In heads with short horns or without horns the length of the neck,
is arbitrary, and must be governed by one's judgment and taste.

With these preliminary remarks I shall proceed to describe the
best method of mounting a mammal head of anv kind. We shall take
for our trial a deer head, one similar to the fine specimen represented
in Fig. 3, Plate LXXI, which was mounted and drawn by Dr. Jasper.
When the opening cut has been made up the back of the neck and
around the base of the horns, proceed to separate the skin from the
flesh until you come to the base of the skull. At this point you will

IS (273)

274 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

discover the butt of the ears ; here you may cut them off close to the
skull and continue skinning forward over the face to the tip of the
nose. Perhaps the most difficult point for the beginner to work over
is the eyes. When you come to these the best plan, adopted by nearly
all taxidermists, is to place the index finger on the outside of the eye,
pull the skin away from the skull gently and cut through the mem-
brane, being very careful when you come down into the corner of the
eye where the skin closely joins the bone. Separate the skin neatly
along the jaws all the way to the end of the nose, where the cartilage
must be cut through in order to detach the skin entirely from the
skull. After taking the skin off roughly, begin to pare off all particles
of flesh that remain adhering to it. Clean it thoroughly. If you do
or do not intend to mount the head immediately, skin the ears all the
way to the tips and pocr/cet the upper lip. In skinning the ears of the
larger mammals it is a good plan to use a pair of flat-nosed pliers for
pulling the skin of the ears apart. Toward the tips the skin joins
closely together, and it requires force to separate it. The cartilage
after this must be carefully cut away. The upper lip may be pocketed
by cutting into the fleshy part and the skin proper, leaving a pocket
between the fleshy part and the skin. In previous chapters I
have given sufficient directions for tJiinni)ig the skin. This is of
such great importance to the person who is to mount the head that it
will well repay him to study carefully what I have said in the last
chapter concerning the thinning of skins, when expression and shape
are desired in the head of an animal. On page 204 there are special
directions for thinning skins under the head of Relaxing Dry Skins
of Mammals. After washing all blood stains from the hair w^e shall
place the skin in the salt and alum pickle, as directed on page IS. The
flesh ere this time has been thoroughly cleaned from the skull, and the
brain has been taken out through a long hole, cut forward from the
back of the occipital opening. In this hole the center-board for the
neck is fitted into the skull cavity. Now mix up some plaster of Paris
in water, place the center-board in the cavity, pour in the plaster until
it is full; pile the plaster up and around where the lower jaw joins the
upper, so that it will also be held in place. This is a good method of
fixing the center-board for the neck in the heads of deer, antelope, etc.,
but in the skulls of elk, moose, etc., on account of the great weight,
we must employ a different means of fastening, which I shall describe
in this chapter.

For a deer head you may make the center-board the shape it ap-
pears in Fig. 3, Plate LXX, or you may make it perfectly straight, for

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FINISHED MAMMAL HEADS.

Fig. 1, Fox; Fig. 2, Prong-horn Antelope; Fig. 3, Deer; Fig. 4, head mounted
representing an animal snarling, as in a wolf, hyena, etc.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

277

the neck must be formed around it, whatever shape )ou adopt. I pre-
fer for the neck of a deer a gracefully curved center-board ; the natural
shape of a deer's neck is more easily obtained by it (see Fig. 3, Plate
LXXI). At the end of this center-board there must be fixed a neck-
board around which to tack the skin. It should be the shape of the
neck at its base. This is seen in I'ig. 2, Plate LXIX. The neck-
board is fastened to the center-board by means of screws. In order to
make the neck-board the proper shape and size, measure the neck-skin
and make the proper shape out of a one-inch pine board, from these
measurements, which, for a deer, is about as we have it in Fig. 2, Plate
LXIX. Fasten it to the center-board, the end of which can be seen
in Fig. 1 of the Plate just referred to. Now put an eye-screw in the
top as seen in F'ig. 3, Plate LXIX, by which to hang the head on the
wall in a convenient place where you can work at it. If you prefer to
do so you can fasten it temporarily to a square board with an eye-
screw, and, in this shape, hang it on the wall (Fig. 2, Plate LXX). Now
begin to form the neck by wrapping tow around the center-board all
the way up to the skull, giving it the proper shape and size by bind-
ing it firmly down with cord. Having gone this far take the skin
out of the salt and alum pickle and try it on the manikin. Pull the
skin together at the opening along the back of the neck and around
the base of the horns and see how it fits. You can easily judge where
more tow is needed, or where it should be taken away. When this
has been done take the skin off and model the head with clay and
chopped tow as is represented in the figures of Plate LXX. Now
is the time to give the inside of the skin a heavy coating of
arsenical paste or soap (see page o-t), and leave it lie until just be-
fore you place it on the model for the last time when it should have
another heavy coat. Paint it also thoroughly around the base of the
horns where the skin is to form around them. Give the ears all they
will hold all the way to their tips. Continue to model the neck proper
all over with clay mixed with chopped tow, until your model is com-
plete. The next thing in order are the ears ; these must have sheet
lead or copper cut and hammered the shape of the ear, to replace the
cartilage you have taken out and to fill them all the way to the tips.
These metal ears should be trumpet shape at their base that they may
rest snugly on the skull. They may be inserted in the skin of the ear,
and when the skin is placed in position on the head the base of the
metal ears may be imbedded in the clay. When you have placed the
skin on the manikin take several stitches along the back of the neck to
hold it in place while you proceed with the sewing. Begin at the base

278

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

of the horns and draw the skin close!}- around them and sew it firmly
together. At this point you can lift the skin of the head and fill in
around the base of the ears and any parts along the neck. In sewing
up the opening, use a surgeon's curved needle, and when you sew
through thick skins an awl must be used to make the holes for the
needle to pass through. When the seam has been completely sewn
up tack the base of the neck-skin around the neck-board as shown in
Fig. 4, Plate LXIX.

After you have the skin on and the neck opening sewed up and
the skin tacked around the neck-board, you must frequently comb the
hair and rub it smooth. Keep this up until the head is finished. A
tack should be driven into the deep corners of each eye, which will
hold the eye-lids in place over the orbits. You are now ready to put
the finishing touches on the head.

The mouth, cheeks and nose demand attention first. Turn the upper
lip back and fill in clay, mixed with chopped tow, around the nose
where the cartilage has been cut away, then fill in the same manner
the pocket you have made in the upper lip. The cheeks may be
reached through the mouth. By pressing the clay carefully from the
outside you can form the lips and face to their natural shape and full-
ness. The under lip must have a coating of clay and chopped tow and
then brought up and pressed into shape close to the upper. If you
desire to add strength to the clay and chopped tow, put in some strong
glue water. The best modeling clay which I have ever used is fur-
nished at one cent and a half per pound, by C. Hennecke Co., 162 and
164 West Water street, jMilwaukee, Wis. A stitch may be taken in the
middle of the upper and lower lips, which will hold them in place. The
clay when dry, however, will hold the lips forever in place, and if the skin
has been thinned down properly there will be little or no shrinking apart.
Now carve out of soft pine a block that will fit the ears, which is, for
a deer, exactly as we have it illustrated in Fig. 5, Plate LXIX. Drive
tacks in a row on the flat side of this block, in the middle ; place the
block in the ear and wind soft, light cord around it (Figs. 6 and 7,
Plate LXIX), using the tacks as anchors by which the thread can be
wound around. This is called " blocking the ears." While the lead
or copper inside will hold them in shape, the blocks and thread will
help to give additional smoothness and beauty. Now place some
clay, mixed with glue water, in the orbits and "set" the eyes. See
that they are set even in the head, and are looking at the same object.
Do not allow them to bulge out too far — staring — but give to them
the expression of mildness or gentleness. The head now is ready to

I'l.AlK I.WII,

MOUNTED DOG HEADS.

Fig, 1, Setter; Fig. 2, Pointer; Fig, 3, Bulldog; Fig. 4, Greyhound; Fig. 5,
Spaniel ; Fig. G, Bull-terrier ; Fig. 7, Stag-hound.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 28 1

be let alone until it is dry, when the final touches around the lips,
nose and eyes must be done with papier-mache, and then colored.
For this portion of the work, and for modeling of open mouths, I refer
the reader to page 207.

The very best way to preserve the skin of a head while collecting
in the field is in the salt and alum bath, which keeps the skin as soft
and pliable as when it was taken from the animal. The next is by
rubbing on equal parts of salt and alum and hanging the skin up to
dry in the shade. If the head be that of a moose or an elk, space may
be saved in shipping by sawing the skull through in the middle —
through the middle line of the cranium — separating the skull in
halves. Each half of the skull, with the horns and the lower jaw, can
be bundled together in one package for shipment. In mounting a
head whose skull has been cut in half, the center-board for the neck
can be placed between the two halves and securely fastened with bolts.
Enough of the skull should be taken from both halves of the skull to
allow for the thickness of the board. On each side of this center-board
there should be fastened with screws a piece of 2x8 pine, all the way to
the base. This is necessary to give strength, and to provide sufficient
anchorage for the heavy screws which must pass through the neck-
board to support the weight of the head. The neck-board for a moose
is somewhat more oval than that for a deer (Fig. 2, Plate LXIX), and
should be made of inch and a half pine.

Never mount your mammal heads on anything but elegant, mas-
sive shields, and have them highly polished. Oak, red-wood, walnut,
mahogany and cherry are among the best woods for this purpose.
Various shapes of panels and shields may be made on which to mount
heads, and a number of designs are shown in Plates LXXI to LXXVII,
inclusive. Bird and fish heads may be mounted in the same manner
with fine effect, as shown in Figs. 8, 9 and 10, Plate LXIX.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE MOUNTING OF CRUSTACEANS, FISHES, REPTILES, ETC.

I am indebted to Mr. Frederic A. Lucas, of the National Museum,
for the use of his vahiable paper " On the Mounting of Crustaceans.'''*
The figures in brackets refer to Plate LXXXII, which is intended to
illustrate this article :

"The mounting of crabs, lobsters and other crustaceans is some-
what of a thankless task, requiring an outlay of considerable time and
trouble to arrive at results at all satisfactory. At first sight it would
seem an easy matter to mount an animal whose form is determined
beforehand, but a little trial develops the fact that, like bringing up
children, it is much easier in theory than in practice. As crustaceans
dry they become very brittle, and the small legs and delicate feelers
break only too readily. Worse than all, the beautiful colors with
which these creatures are adorned while living fade rapidly, and the
only way in which they can be renewed is by a dextrous use of paint.
Therefore, the great requisites for mounting crustaceans are a careful
touch, a good eye for colors, and some knowledge of the proper meth-
ods of applying them. The preparation of crustaceans is a little
peculiar, inasmuch as, instead of the skin being removed from the
body, the body is removed piecemeal from the skin. The first step in
this process is to detach the carapace (Fig. 1) or covering of the back,
and this, in many crabs, is a work of considerable time and patience.
Commence by inserting a knife-blade — an ordinary table-knife is
good — at the junction of the body with the tail and work it carefully
around the hinder portion of the shell until it is detached. Now pry
up the back portion of the shell, cutting away the attachments as fast
as they can be reached, and the carapace will soon come away from the
body (Fig. 2), leaving the modified legs that surround the mouth at-
tached to the body. To scrape the flesh from the carapace and ex-
posed portions of the body, is an easy matter, and it is only needful to
exercise a little care not to scrape through the upper joints of the legs.
To clean the legs it will be necessary to make some small hooked
scrapers by flattening, sharpening and bending one end of a piece of
annealed wire (Fig. 3) sufficiently long to run the entire length of the
leg. These scrapers are inserted in openings made between the joints

(282)

BISON HEAD.

Remounted from an old specimeu by the author.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY..

285

of each leg and the meat drawn out, an operation nnidi more quickly
described than performed. Usually it is most convenient to make the
openings on the upper side of the leg, as it is a very simple matter to
close them with a little glue and cotton in the manner hereafter de-
scribed. After carefully scraping the interior of each leg, wash thor-
oughly with a syringe to finish the work of cleansing. As crustaceans
are particularly liable to the attacks of dermestes, they should be care-
fully poisoned, either by a liberal application of thin arsenical soap, 01
better still, by soaking for two or three hours in a bath made by dis-
solving arsenic in hot water. If the soap is used, see that it is worked
well into the legs, as well as every nook and cranny of the body, by
means of a small brush. The method of wiring varies a little accord-
ing to the desired position of the finished piece, but, owing to the
nature of the subject, but little variety of attitude is possible. The
best wire to use is zinc, as it never stains by rusting, but, unfortunately
it is, so far as I know, impossible to procure zinc wire in this country
except by special importation, and iron wire must ordinarily be made
to answer. It is well to wrap iron wire thinly with tow. If the animal
is to be walking with the body clear from the ground the wire must be
passed through the tips of the claws, and in many species which, like
the common blue crab, have sharply-pointed claws, it will be necessary
to remove a little of the tip in order to render this operation possible.
Ordinarily it will be quite sufficient to support the animal on four legs,
thus leaving the others intact. The wires for the large claws must be
carefully worked to the very tip, and not infrequently these claws are
so heavy that they must be allowed to rest on the pedestal. The leg-
wires should be so long that the free inner end can reach from the
opening of the leg to the opposite side of the body, so that the leg-
wires cross one another. (Upper a «, Fig. 2.) ' Bend the ends into
hooks, place a little tow between the wires and the shell, and fill the
opening of the leg-joints with cotton. Place the animal in a walking
attitude on the temporary pedestal, supporting the body by a block of
wood just as thick as the height that you wish to have it from the
ground. Bear in mind that the third pair of legs keeps step with the
first, and the fourth with the second, and that they do not sprawl away
from the body, but keep pretty close to it. Therefore, what may by
courtesy be called the knee-joint, should be bent at a pretty sharp
angle. All this being done, pour in a little thin plaster of Paris, and

1. The lower a, a and b, b in Fig. 2 are intended to illustrate another method by which the wires of four
legs in pairs, on each side are twisted together; these should reach to the opposite sides and they should be
hooked together before the plaster is poured over them.

286 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

thus unite the wires in a solid mass. Do not meddle with the speci-
men until the plaster has thoroughly set. When it has, put the cara-
pace in place, adjusting it carefully over the legs, and tie it firmly on,
lest it should warp in drying ; also, pin out the eyes and arrange the
feelers. In case the specimen is to be resting on its pedestal it will be
unnecessary to run the wire through the legs, and quite slender wires
may then be used, since their only purpose will be to keep the legs in
place and render it impossible for them to fall off should they become
disjointed. The animal is held in place by means of a wire bent into
the shape of a wide U, one end of which is run through the front por-
tion of the body and the other through the hinder part, the middle of
the U passing over all the leg-wires and holding them securely in place
(D, Fig. 2), Lobsters are usually placed flat on their pedestals, and the
fastening wire is run through the entire length of the tail and brought
out at the tip of it. For museum or other purposes it is often desira-
ble to study all sides of a specimen, and in such cases the mode of pro-
cedure is as follows : Shape a piece of wood so that it will fit loosely
in the body cavity (Fig. 4) and attach it securely to a rod of sufficient
size to firmly support the finished piece. This rod is variously placed
according to the position in which it is wished to have the finished
specimen. '

In the case of crabs it is desirable to have them " stand on end,"
and the rod may be brought out at the rear of the body, while in lob-
sters it may be brought out through the center of the thorax. The
legs having been wired, this piece of wood is introduced, the legs fast
to it (Fig. 4, 1. 2, 3, i), and plaster poured around it to form a firm
attachment. First, however, place fibers of tow or pieces of twine
over the wood and poke them down into the space between it and the
sides of the body. Of course, in a lobster thus mounted the tail-wire
would need to be of some considerable size, and it is well in such a
case to use a tow wire for additional security. When the specimen is
quite dry glue on the carapace (Fig. 1) and fill the holes between the
joints of the legs with finely cut cotton and thin glue. First, put a
little cotton into the hole, smear it over with glue, and apply cut cotton
and glue until the gap is completely filled. Le Page's fish-glue used
thin, or his mucilage, is excellent for this work. In painting crusta-
ceans, first give them a thin coat of sugar of lead, which fills the pores
and prevents the color from striking in and thus looking dead in spots.
When dry, paint with turpentine color, the main point being to stipple

1. The rod is threaded at the lower end, and it is fastened on a wooden base by means of a nut below and
ornamented by a rosette above (Figs. 4 and 5).

PLATE LXXIV

BIG-HORN SHEEP.

Mounted at Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Yc From
photograph.

f( JUL 2 2 1902 ij

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

289

over with a soft brush. This should be done very carefully, as other-
wise it is almost impossible to avoid giving a streaked appearance to
the animal. Crustaceans may be mounted either on plain pedestals or
on artificial rock-work, according to the purpose they are to serve, and
in any case they should be kept out of the dust so far as possible,
since, owing to their fragile nature, they are very difficult to clean,"

Fishes. — We shall take for our first attempt in the skinning and
mounting of fishes a bass or a common red-horse. The principles upon
which these are skinned and mounted will apply, with slight modifi-
cation, to all others.'

The first thing to be done in order to keep the scales intact and to
keep them from curling is to cover the entire fish ( excepting the fins )
with tough linen writing paper or thin muslin. The mucus on the
fish, like glue, is usually sufficient to hold this firmly. The fins, tail
(or caudal fin) should be kept damp with wet cloths until the speci-
men is finished. This will keep them from splitting. With a pair of
dissecting scissors begin at the vent and make a straight cut along the
middle line of the belly, prolonging the incision to where the
V-shaped point forms between the gills. Start the cut again at the
vent and continue it to one side of the anal fin, all the way to the cau-
dal fin, or tail. This opening incision is shown in Plate LXXX, Fig.
4. You may now carefully cut with the scissors the spines which sup-
port the anal fin. The flesh that adheres to it may be cut away after-
wards. Now divide the pelvic arch where the ventral fins are joined,
and sever these fins from the pubic bones. Skin down to the tail and
cut through the processes of the caudal region. You may then begin
to lift the fleshy portion of the fish until you come to the back,
where arises the median fins, supported by the interspinous bones.
These may be separated with the scissors. Skin up to the base
of the skull, where the vertebral column should be detached. Take
the brain out, remove all flesh, and scrape clean the entire inside of
the skin. The silver lining on the inside, which gives the fish its sil-
very color, should not be touched. After cleaning all around the head
carefully, taking out the eyes, etc., give the skin a heavy coating of
arsenical paste or soap. If you are collecting in the field, then place
the skin in alcohol, as directed on pages 45 and 63. Upon catching a
fish, an outline of it should be made and its colors painted in water
colors. This was Prof. J. S. Wiley's method in the field.

1. For those who are unacquainted with the anatomy of fishes I should recommend Packard's First
Lessons in Zoology, published by Henry Holt & Company, New York. See pages 130 and 131, treatiBg on this
subject.

2Q0 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY,

But, for the present, we have skinned our fish for the purpose of
mounting it at once. The best method for mounting the skin of a
fish, when there is no decided curve to be given to the body, is by-
carving a block of soft wood to about the size and shape of the car-
cass. This should be surrounded with potter's clay, mixed with
chopped tow. In this wooden center-board two holes should be bored
at a proper distance apart, along the abdominal line, to receive the
threaded ends of the brass rods which are to support the fish when
mounted on a pedestal, similar to Fig. o, Plate LXXX. These brass
rods must be threaded at the ends which are to go into the pedestal,
that they may be secured by nuts beneath. Above the pedestal an
ornamental rosette should finish off the brass standards, just above the
pedestal. This may be seen in Fig. 4, Plate LXXXII, the brass stand-
ard on which the crab is mounted. The best material in which to
imbed the artificial eyes of fish is papier-mache or potter's clay, mixed
with strong glue water.

If you desire to mount a fish, giving tiie body a curve, as when it
comes struggling from the water, the best mode of procedure is to
make a core of tow around a piece of wire, to which you can give the
proper bend. This core should very nearly fit the skin, and the end ol
the wire should be anchored in the skull cavity. Now apply clay all
over this core and insert it in the skin. When this is in position, and
while you are sewing up the seam, you can add or take away whenever
it is necessary to give the proper form to the fish. Some prefer to fill
the skin entirely with finely chopped tow, around a center-board.

The advantages of clay, as a filling, over fibrous material, in
special cases, has been fully discussed in this work. The rays may be
taken as significant examples of failures when fibrous materials are
exclusively introduced, and will demonstrate the value of clay as a
filling material when it is necessary to secure thinness and smoothness.
Even with the use of clay the most experienced taxidermists fail to
make " a thing of beauty a joy forever " out of a ray.

Large fishes such as sharks may be mounted by using a center-
board, and the filling should be hackled hay or straw.

Mr. Walker's method of mounting a fish is to cut a section out of
one side — using about one-half of the fish. The skin is filled with^
cotton or tow. When thus filled the edges of the skin are fastened
with small tacks to a board previously cut to the proper shape. This
makes a very nice fish medallion, and, with the use of clay, can be
very much improved. The fins of fishes should be spread out and

PLATE LXXV.

CARIBOr.

Mounted at Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, X. Y, From
photograph.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 203

held in position with cardboard, pinned in the same manner you do a
bird's tail to hold the feathers in position while drying. Fig. .'>, Plate
XV. Small and medium-sized fishesare best preserved in jarsof alcohol.

Stuffed fishes are not always a triumphant success. In many cases
it is better to cast them in plaster and paint them. See Chapter XV,
Making Plaster Casts. Of the species found in Ohio which give the
best results in mounting are the Black Bass, Perch, Goggle-eye, Straw
Bass, Sunfishes, Pickerel, INIuscallonge and Gars. Mr. Charles Dury's
method of preparing the fishes for the Ohio exhibit at the World's
Columbian Exposition is as follows: Choose and keep intact the most
perfect side of the subject, i. e., the side having the most perfect set of
scales and fins. Split the other side from the gill opening down the
middle to the tail. Skin out the body, cut away as much bone of the
head as possible, clean and scrape away every vestige of flesh and fat.
Anoint every part with arsenical solution. Sew up the seam and fill
the skin with saw dust, pouring the saw dust through a funnel placed
in the mouth or gill opening. Lay the filled skin (seam down) on a
board and mould it into shape with the hands. Spread the fins and
tail as desired and hold them in position with pins until dry. The fish
when dry may be painted and mounted on a medallion of wood of
suitable color and shape.

Painting Mounted Fishes. — We have already in this work given
directions for the mixing of tints and the manner of applying them.
To paint the skin of a fish successfully, with its silver or golden metallic
lustre — to produce those glorious colors as seen in a fish just taken
from the water, and as viewed by a Waltoniau eye, is truly a work of
art. It requires the most delicate touch and dextrous use of the
brush and colors. Tube colors alone will not impart the silver or
golden lustre. Where the metallic tint is required nickel leaf must first
be laid on with sizing ; where a golden tint is necessary use gold paint.
When these metallic tints are laid on, the tube colors may be worked
in above them, after which the entire skin should be given a thin coat
of clear white varnish.

Collecting in the Field— Prof. W^iley's method of preserving a
fish during Ions: vovages was as follows: If the fish had a coat of
mucous on it this was washed off with a solution of spirits of turpen-
tine and alum. This was done after a finished water-color sketch of
the subject was made. The skin having been taken off, was neatlv
wrapped in a piece of linen and placed in a copper field-tank contain-
ing alcohol. This tank is made precisely as directed for the the lead
field-tank on page 61. For the strength of spirits necessary see page

2^ MET HODS IN TE£ A? 7 ZF T .-LI':: DERM Y^

20. Small casks will answer the purpose when the tanks are not avail-
able. Before putting the entire fish into spirits. Prof. Wiley plunged
it into spirits of turpentine, sometimes making the fish die in the rnr-
pentine. This was done to preserve their metallic Instre. A fish to be
preserved entire in spirits should have an opening made along the belly.
beginning from the vent and prolonging the cut to between the ventral
fins ; the spirits may then have quick and free action.

Prof. Wiley's method of placing an entire fi^h in alcohol is the
same as he employed when the fish is skinned, the fish after being
washed is wrapped in linen. A bed of clean flax, tow or cotton is placed
in the r^TiV or barrel to prevent the rubbing and tossing about in the
conveyance. The tank should not contain more than two-thirds of fiih.
the rest ought to be flax or cotton and spirits. Each fish should have
attached to it a pure tin or a copper label on which is embossed a nnm-
ber which should correspond to the sam.e number in your record-t-: : ^
containing the full data of each fish. Skins of the larger fishes, sharks.
etc.. may be preserved equally well in the salt and alum pickle. It is
a notable fact that the great naturalist, Cuvier, received from North
America a small cask of fishes placed in strong brine. The colors were
better preserved than any which had before been seen.

Frogs. — Plate LXXXI shows the system of wiring in a frog de-
signed to stand upright in a human-like attitude. It "will be seen that
the wire of one of the hind legs is used as the center wire which runs
up through the nasal cavity. The other hind leg wire \s twisted
around the one used as the center wire. A loop is turned in the cen-
ter wire to receive the wires of the front legs which are also twisted
together. The legs are made by wrapping the bones with cotton in
the same manner the legs of the small quadrupeds are formed of : : "
The body filling is -of the same material, stuffed in by way of the
mouth piecemeal until the desired shape and fullness is attained-

Frogs for mounting should be skinned through the mouth ; the
front legs should be detached and drawn through the mouth and
skinned ; continning all the way down the body every particle of fiesh
should be removed and the hind legs skinned in the same manner as
the fore le^. But vou must not detach any of the veri^bral column from
the skin of the back : leave it attached to the skin the entire length as
seen in the Plate, because it gives shape and character to the back
which vou cannot Dossibly oroduce in any other way. If these art
removed you would be able to fill the skin out perfectly round, zn:
yon cannot reDroduce the characteristic shape of the back. Of course
yon must scrape and clean around the bones very carefully, and then

PLATE LXXVl.

ELK.

Mounted at Ward's Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N. Y. From
jihotograph.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

297

give the skin and bones a thorough poisoning before returning it right
side out. This is one case in taxidermy where there are no seams to
sew up. With this system of skinning and wiring a frog it is possible
to give it a life-like attitude, besides many human postures, represent-
ing men boxing, fencing, playing billiards, etc., and all manner of
human caricatures may be produced. There is an opportunity, how-
ever, in these animals, to display artistic skill in the coloring and
varnishing of their skins. If the mouth is to be opened, it must be
modeled in colored wax.

Lizards {Lacerilid). — Specimens of this order, with few excep-
tions, mounted by the usual processes in taxidermy are, generally
speaking, unsatisfactory. Most lizards have cylindrical bodies and
thin tails, adorned with bright metallic colors, making their reproduc-
tion a very difficult task. The best method for the preservation of the
smaller reptiles is that employed at the National Museum. They are
preserved in spirits in jars, and are arranged on slabs of glass^ in life-
like attitudes. Crustaceans and fishes are preserved in the same man-
ner. It is done simply by passing threads through the feet or body
and carrying them through holes bored in the glass with a piano drill,
and then wedging the thread fast with a little plug of wood. Some-
times the plug is made long enough to penetrate the specimen part
way and help sustain its weight. In boring the holes in the slabs of
glass a chilled steel drill with a triangular point is used, moistened
with a preparation known to dealers as "bore glass." Turpentine will
do if that is not obtainable. Jars for the preservation of alcoholic
specimens may be had from any dealer in natural history materials.

The larger lizards, as well as some of the larger salamanders, may
be successfully mounted on wires, and, with the proper application of
clay and chopped tow in the skins, their peculiar forms may be beauti-
fully imitated. It remains then for the artist to deftly reproduce their
wonderful colors and the natural effect will be complete.

Mounting Snakes. — I have tried almost every method of mount-
ing snakes that has been devised, and have tested the merits of the
various procedures on serpents ranging in size from the smallest to
some of the largest in existence. I have come to the conclusion that
there is only one practical method of mounting snakes. ]\Iake an
opening incision, beginning at the throat, and continue it to the end of
the tail, as we have it illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5, Plate LXXIX.
When this has been done take the skin off clean, preserving the full
length carcass for measurements, etc. The eyes may be removed by
an opening into the orbit from the inside. Now give the skin and

298 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

skull a heavy coating of arsenical paste and leave it in that state while
you make a manikin of tow and wire. Select a piece of annealed
wire sufficiently strong to bear the weight of your subject and several
inches longer than the carcass before you. Now wrap this wire with
tow and bind it with thread or strong cord, according to the size of the
specimen. INIake this manikin as nearly like the serpent's carcass as
possible, both in size and shape. Coat the skin and skull once more
with arsenical paste. Give the manikin you have made a heavy coat-
ing of clay mixed with chopped tow, insert the center wire (which
should always be left long enough) into the skull cavity, at the same time
arranging the clay-covered manikin in the skin and, after all has been
carefully adjusted, begin to sew up the opening. If you desire to give
the snake a curled up attitude, it will be necessary to provide an extra
wire, which should be wrapped with the body wire in the tow and
come out at any point necessary to enter the pedestal in order to give
the snake the desired attitude. An additional wire should extend
from the tail if two bends or curls are to be made. This is clearly
shown in Fig. 3, A, B, Plate LXXIX, and also in Fig. 5. By this
method you can place a snake in any desired attitude. For modeling
the open mouth, etc., I shall refer the reader to page 207. The eyes
are, of course, set in the same manner as those of birds or quadrupeds.
All the smaller snakes are best preserved entire in spirits, as directed
on page 45.

In collecting the skins of the large serpents they should be pre-
served in spirits or in the salt and alum solution, to make them of any
value for mounting.

The Mounting of Turtles. — The methods which I have employed
in the mounting of turtles within the last ten years have chiefly been
those laid down by Mr. Frederic A. Lucas, whose skill in this branch
of taxidermy is unexcelled. The most humane manner of killing a
turtle is with chloroform or by quickly piercing its heart and severing
its spinal column after the plastron has been lifted. We have taken
for our illustration in the mounting of turtles the hawkbill, that beau-
tiful marine turtle whose shell is so valued in commerce. It has an
elegant shape, hooked bill, large scales and long, fin-like flippers. The
figures we give in Plates LXXIX and LXXX will be sufficient to dem-
onstrate methods in other groups. With a small dissecting saw (Fig.
4, Plate II) you can cut through under the edge of the plastron on both
sides and all the way around the rear portion of it {b^ b to a^ a^ Fig. 1,
Plate LXXIX), but not any farther than the points «, a in front.
The plastron should remain attached to the front skin. With a long

IM.ATK I.XWII.

MOOSE.

^Mounted by the author. From photograph by Baked*.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

knife blade you can detach the plastron or under shield from the flesh
clear around to the points <?, a, and lift the plastron up just as you
would the lid of a chest/ This will expose the interior of the turtle.
Enough skin should remain attached to the sides of the plastron so that
you can sew the edges together just before finishing. Now make an
incision along the under side of the tail, and on the under side of each
flipper to facilitate skinning and, as an opening through which you
can work in the clay. Sever the front legs at the shoulder bones and
the hind legs at the pelvis. Skin them and clean them of flesh just as
you do in a quadruped, skinning ys far toward the end of the flippers
as possible, and leaving the leg-bones attached to the flippers. With
the aid of a chisel and bone forceps (Fig. 5, Plate III) separate the
pelvis from the upper shell and skin out the tail. Sever the cervical
vertebrcc, skin to the base of the skull where the neck vertebrx- should
be disjointed, take out the brain and remove all flesh from the skull.
The eyes of turtles are removed from the outside.

The interior must be thoroughly scraped and cleaned of flesh, and,
after skinning, all large turtles should be placed in the salt and alum
pickle for a few days. In mounting the larger species a narrow center-
board is used in which to anchor the wires, as described for quadru-
peds on page 101. The body filling should be of tow, and the legs like
those of quadrupeds should be wrapped and made of the same material
and surrounded with clay mixed with finely chopped tow. The pecu-
liarities of the broad flat flippers can only be wrought out of the plas-
tic clay, and the seams should be neatly sewn up. In the very small
box and snapping turtles the system of wiring I have usually followed
is similar to that in Fig. 3, Plate LXXX. When the body filling has
been securely placed between the upper shell, and the wires that have
all been twisted on the center wire which extends from the brain cavity
to the end of the tail, (and sometimes through it), I pour on a thin
mixture of plaster of Paris and water which, when dry, unites the wires
which have been twisted together in one solid mass. Sometimes in the
small specimens I anchor the leg and center wires in solid balls of tow.
After the filling has been completed in turtles the plastron is brought
down and fastened with brass wires and the edges of the skin sewed
firmly together with strong thread. The final touches involve the
forming of the wrinkles and folds of the skin in their proper places,
the natural finish of the specimen, proper attitude and general neatness.

1. Some taxidermists hold to the old method of removing the plastron entire (Plate LXXX, Fig. 2). This
is quite unnecessary and involves additional labor when the plastron is to be put back in place again. More than
all, it is impossible to sew up the seam in front so that it will be invisible. By the dextrous use of papier-
mache and colors, however, any unsightly seam may be covered up. Another method of skinning a turtle is
hrough a square section cut out of the plastron as seen by the dotted lines in Plate LXXIX, Fig. 1.

.Q2 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

But who should attempt to write on the mounting of turtles since
Lucas has written !

" For skinning purposes turtles may, like Gaul, be divided into
three groups. First, the sea-turtles, having a moderate sized lower
shell or plastron, feet in the form of paddles, and legs which, like the
short neck, are practically non-retractile ; second, those which, like the
snapping-turtle, have a small plastron and neck and legs largely re-
tractile ; and, lastly, turtles with a large under shield, and the power
to draw the neck and legs quite under cover. This third group com-
prises the large majority of turtles, and, unfortunately, those most
difficult to skin. A word as to the killing of turtles : ' I am told ' —
but have never tried it — that a short immersion in warm water is
fatal, and sincerely hope it may be so, as these reptiles are ordinarily
very tenacious of life. Cyanide of potassium, so deadly to animals
more highly organized, acts very slowly, and although the spinal col-
umn becomes paralyzed in a few hours, the limbs move at the expira-
tion of a day and a half. Chloroform, however, appears to kill rapidly
and easily, and it is only necessary to saturate a wad of cotton with the
liquid, tie it over the animal's nose when he draws in his head, and
leave for half an hour or so. In the absence of chloroform and warm
water, there remains only the barbarous but rapid plan of sewing
through the shell into the heart.

" To skin a turtle with any degree of comfort it is absolutely nec-
essary to have a small saw. If wealthy and addicted to the collec-
tion of good tools, buy a small dissecting saw, which costs twice as
much as it should. A very good substitute can be made by breaking
three or four inches off a hack saw and fitting it to a wooden handle,
drawing the temper at one end to punch holes for the rivets. A pair
of bone forceps may be a luxury, but they will be found a great con-
venience in detaching the neck and legs, and are wonderfully handy
in skinning large birds and small mammals. In skinning a sea-turtle,
saw through the under shell on either side, and with a knife continue
the cut clear around the hinder portion of it. Leave sufficient skin
attached to the border of the plastron to enable you to readily sew the
edges of the cut together when the specimen is mounted. Continue
the cuts toward the shoulder far enough to allow the plastron to be
turned forward, thus exposing the interior of the body. INIake a cut-
under each flipper and the last half of the tail. Disjoint and skin the
legs, removing by the cut on the underside what flesh cannot be readily
reached from within, and working as far toward the end of the flipper
as is possible. Leave all the leg-bones attached to the flippers. "With

— ■ r

METHODS I.V THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. -j^q^

J'-'3

bone forceps or an old chisel separate the pelvis or hip bone from the
upper shell and skin out the tail. Sever the neck from the body, skin to
base of skull, disjoint the neck bones and remove the brain. Scrape
away as much flesh as possible from the back of the skull. Unlike
most other animals, the eyes of turtles must always be removed from
the outside, care being taken not to cut the eyelids. Be sure to re-
move the small muscle from the outer hind portion of the jaw; other-
wise it shrinks in drying, and creates an unsightly depression. Snap-
ping turtles, and others with small under shells, are skinned in the
same manrer as sea-turtles. It is not positively necessary to make a
cut under the foot of these, but it will be found to greatly facilitate
turning the legs and the manipulation of the clay during the process
of mounting.

" Tortoises and other turtles, whose legs can be withdrawn under
the plastron, cannot be properly skinned by the method just described,
owing to the impossibility of sewing up a cut along the hinder edge
of the under shell. True, they often are thus skinned and mounted
with the edges of the skin simply tucked in, but the result is unsightly,
and the only gain is in time of preparation. Turtles of the last class
should be skinned through an opening made by removing as large a
section of the under shell as is practicable, drawing out the legs to
their full extent to lessen the danger of cutting through the skin. The
process of skinning is a somewhat difficult one, but the absence of un-
sightly seams after the animal is mounted amply repays the trouble.

" The smaller turtles may be mounted immediately after skinning,
but all preferably, and the larger ones invariably, should be soaked for
a few days in the usual bath of salt and alum. Always poison thor-
oughly, especially around the feet and back of head.

" As the skinning of a sea-turtle has been first described, it is con-
sequently in order to proceed with the mounting. It must be borne in
mind that the skin of turtles shrinks considerably in drying, and the
sewing should, therefore, be done very solidly ; also all wrinkles should
be somewhat exaggerated, as they disappear in drying. Therefore, a
turtle must not be filled out, but the skin should be left loose and the
apparent excess will vanish.

"The main principles in mounting large turtles are similar to
those in mounting mammals, except that as sea-turtles lie flat on the
ground much lighter wires may be used. First, make the tail, by
winding coarse tow on an iron rod until it has the same shape but not
quite the size of the original. Now cover this with clay, prepared ac;
cording to ]\Ir. Hornaday's directions, by mixing with soft clay a quan-

3o6

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

tity of finely chopped tow. Lay it in the skin and sew up, beginning
at the tip of the tail and working toward the body, adding or subtract-
ing clay here and there as occasion may require. Form in a general
way the larger folds or wrinkles of the skin, leaving the finer markings
until the animal is on its pedestal. Always decide the position of the
finished piece before commencing work, and bend all your irons and
shape the legs, neck and tail with that predetermined form in view.
Remember that turtles swim and walk with the same movements as
do most animals — the right fore and left hind leg moving together.

" The tail being finished, proceed with the hind legs, making so
far as possible the same bends in the wires that are to be in the joints
of the leg when finished, and tying the wire securely to the bones.
Wrap the legs with coarse tow, taking care not to get the lower part
too round. But little pains need be taken with the upper part of the
leg, as it is concealed within the body, and most of the lower portion,
as well as the " paddle," will need to be made with clay in order to in-
sure a proper degree of flatness. If the animal is sufficiently small, the
three hinder wires may be fastened together as follows : Place the
knees and tail in their proper position — the animal lying, of course,
on its back — and form a ring in the tail-wire just where the leg-wires
cross. Through this pass the leg-wires and twist all firmly together,
so that there shall be no ' wobbling.' If the specimen is large, the
wires must be fastened to a piece of wood running lengthwise of the
body, as in a large mammal. Secure the tail-wire with staples, and
bore holes for the leg- wires through which they are passed, adjusted
to the proper length, bent down against the boaid and secured with
staples. It will next be necessary to fill in from the base of the tail
to the legs. This can be done with chopped tow, after having first
placed a good coat of clay on the skin in which to model the wrinkles.
Now proceed with the neck and front paddles. Run the neck rod
into the brain cavity and fasten it there securely, either by tying or by
bending it down through the roof of the mouth, and turning it back-
ward. It can be run out through the mouth, but this plan is not so
solid as the above. The neck and front flippers are made and fastened
in a similar manner to the tail and hind flippers.

" Secure the cut edges of the plastron together with wires, and in
sewing the skin use strong thread, and pull the edges tightly together,
in order that the shrinkage in drying may not cause an unsightly gap.
In very large turtles it is sometimes necessary, in addition to the leg-
wires, to run a bolt through the plastron into the wood, to which the
leg-rods are fastened. After the specimen has been placed on its tern-

PLATE LXXIX

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'-« *

PLATE LXXIX.

SKINNING AND MOUNTING TURTJ.ES AND SNAKES.

Figs. 1, 2, Hawkbill tunle; Fig. 1, a, a, h, h, sliowiug where tlie plastrou
should be separated in order to skiu a turtle ; the cut should be begun at the rear
edge of the plastron and continued to the letters a, a, where the plastron should
remain attached to the front edge of the skiu. The plastron may be lifted like the
lid of a chest and the turtle skinned. The dotted square in Fig. 1 is another method
of skiuuing a turtle, by cutting a section out of the plastron, through which the
animal is skinned. Fig. 3, A, B, showing the extra supporting wires in a snake
uhich are attached to the main or center wire for the support of the snake. These
are brought out at a point where it is desired to anchor the serpent fast to a pedestal
or base. The dotted lines in Fig. 4 show where the opening incision should be made
in order to skiu a snake. Fig. 5, shows a single extra wire which is attached to the
center wire, when only one coil is to be made in a snake.

3IO

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

porary pedestal go over it carefully, marking in the wrinkles and
working out the prominences, and, if needful, adding, by way of the
mouth, clay and tow to complete the throat.

"In mounting small turtles the wires of each end are secured as
follows : Having made the tail and hind legs, bend an eye in the tail
wire, opposite the inner ends of the legs, pass the leg-wires through
this, and twist all firmly together. Fasten the neck and front legs in
a similar manner, and twist the wires of both ends firmly together, so
that the united wires form a sort of backbone. .

" In making the legs of small turtles be sure that they 2,x^ flattened
instead of round, and before skinning note well their shape. Fasten
the leg-wire solidly to the bone, and wrap firmly and smoothly around
with tow, forming a leg much smaller than the finished one will be.
All the vacancy is to be supplied with the clay and tow mixture, which
can be modeled into shape from the outside. It will be remembered
that in the beginning it was noted that it would greatly facilitate the
mounting to make a cut along the foot and under the lower part of the
leg. Through this cut superfluous clay can be removed or additional
clay introduced ; and it is a very easy matter to sew up this cut in such
a manner as to render it practically invisible. The manipulation of
clay will be found at first somewhat aggravating, as it will persist in
going where it is not wanted rather than where it is ; but without the
use of such a material it is practically impossible to correctly mount
a turtle. The neck-wire of turtles can be fastened to the head by run-
ning it into the occiput and down through the base of the skull, and
then twisting it upon itself. Be careful to get enough clay on the
upper back portion of the skull to properly supply the great temporal
muscles, as any deficiency there will create a very ugly, shrunken ap-
pearance. Modeling the neck and its junction with the fore legs is th«
most difficult part in mounting, and unfortunately no directions can be
given which will insure success. The main thing, after the mechan-
ical part of the work has been mastered, is to study well the form of
the living and dead animal, and to strive to reproduce that form
exactly. " That is good enough," is a phrase I am sorry to say most
of us use, but it is a very mischievous little sentence, and can usually be
translated — that is not good enough. There is no royal road to good
taxidermy, nor can it be done by machinery, nor by the use of unlim-
ited tools. Tools are a great help, but they are only a help, and to do
good work you must be careful, thoughtful and observant. Without
those requisites, although your work may be good enough, it will never
be good. Occasionally in the making of groups, or in mounting spec-

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. ^n

imens for museum purposes, it is needful to place a turtle in a swim-
iniug attitude. lu such cases the work of procedure is the same as
that previously described in the paper on mountin<( Crustacea. A
block of wood is fastened in the body, to which all the wires are at-
tached, and to this is secured a rod of sufficient size to bear the weieht
of the finished piece.

"A word in regard to finishing: Sea-turtles, snapping-turtles,
and a few others, whose colors are dull, need only a coat of varnish,
greatly thinned with turpentine, to render them fresh looking. It is,
of course, understood that you have thoroughly washed the specimen.
But all turtles marked with bright colors will need to be painted, and
this must be done with thin color, often stippled over to avoid a
streaked appearance. Large cracks and broken scales can be repaired
with papier-mache; small ones, such as seams, etc., with colored wax.
White wax can be colored by melting it and stirring in a little tube-
color; use hot. Of course particular cases will often require particular
modes of treatment ; but once the general principles are thoroughly
mastered these can be readily met."

Another Method of Preparing Turtles. — A very ingenious and
exceptional method of preparing a turtle so as to show both the
skeleton and the outside in a single specimen is the subject of
Plate LXXXIII. Our drawings were made from a specimen of the
"Slider" Pseudeniys rugosa., beautifully prepared by Mr. Lucas.
This method of preparing a turtle is particularly valuable when it
is desirable to preserve the bony structure and, at the same time,
show the external characteristics of a rare turtle. It is likewise
advisable to use this method in the common species as study speci-
mens. Our illustration, we think, gives a fair idea of the manner in
which they may thus be prepared. Specimens of this kind may be
mounted on a brass standard which is split at the upper end like a Y,
the stems being riveted to the lower part of the shell. One-half
of the plastron may be fastened on the other by means of small brass
hinges so that it may open like a door. ]\Ir. Jules Bailly was the
originator of this method of preparing the skin and skeleton of a turtle.

Crocodiles and Alligators (Cr6'^(9^//z'rt). — The crocodiles and alli-
gators form the highest order of existing reptiles. Their tough skin,
thick scales, their shape determined beforehand, make them easy sub-
jects for the experienced taxidermist to handle. For him it amounts
to little more than physical exertion to mount one of the largest speci-
mens. The very small ones require more delicate manipulation. To
skin an alligator, make an opening incision at the throat and continue

312 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

it along the middle line of the abdomen, and all the way to the tip of
the tail. The legs should be detached at the shoulder-girdle and
pelvis, and the cervical vertebrae at the base of the skull so that the
brain may be removed through the occipital opening. Cut the skin
away from the flesh all the way around the body and remove the car-
cass. The eyes may be removed from the inside. In shaping the legs
in the larger specimens I always form them with tow around the leg
bones and leg irons, using clay wherever it will assist in developing
any peculiar shape. When this has been done I prepare a narrow
center-board of tough wood in w^iich the leg irons are anchored in
holes bored the proper distance apart, and then they are bent down
and clinched with staples on opposite sides of the center-board. The
neck iron is fastened to the center-board by means of staples and so is
the tail support, the latter being made a trifle shorter than the full
length of the tail, to allow for shrinkage. We must now provide for
guy wires to hold the tail down while drying. Around the tail iron,
at two points, there should be securely fastened heavy copper wires
doubled^ designed to pass down through the pedestal and to fasten be-
neath, for the purpose of holding the tail flat to the ground; other-
wise, when the specimen is dry, it will be sure to spring up.
This little device I have used in all sizes of alligators, varying the size
of the wire according to the size of the subject. It is of great impor-
tance in the larger specimens. When these details have been arranged
and the entire skin thoroughly poisoned, fill the body (in the large
specimens) wnth tow or straw, filling the skin out full and even, first
placing a heavy cushion under the center-board. Be sure that the
center-board is in the middle of the bodv and that the bend in the leg
irons is correct. The filling on all sides and in every part should be
uniform. The sewing up of the opening should begin at the tip of the
tail and continue to the ending of the opening in the throat. In the
process of sewing you will have sufficient opportunity to add or take
away filling where it is necessary to produce a particular shape. You
will find that the use of potter's clay mixed with chopped tow will help
most wonderfully in forming the different parts where tow alone or
other springy substances will not produce the desired form. Use a
large curved surgeon's needle, with strong linen thread doubled and
waxed for sewing up the opening. An awl must be used to make
holes in the skin so that the needle will easily pass through it. x^r-
range the legs in a natural position ; and, to accomplish this success-
fully, you must study a living spechne7i. The pedestal, which has been
previously prepared, must have holes bored in it for the reception of

ri.AI K I. XXX.

SKINNING AND MOUNTING TURTLES AND FISH.

Fig. 1, a a a a, showing where the plastrou should be dettiched aud tukeu oft"
entire. (Fig. 2^. This is not the best method, see page 301. Fig. 3, system of wiring
a small turtle, joining the leg wires to the center wire, see page 301 ; Fig. 4, showing
where to make the opening cut in a fish; Fig. 5, fish mounted on pedestal.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

the leg irons which have been threaded and provided with nuts. By
this means the animal is fastened securely to the pedestal. The copper
guy wires which are attached to the tail rod to hold the tail down may
be fastened through holes bored in the pedestal, and held in place by
staples underneath. For modeling and coloring of open mouths,
tongues, etc., see page 207.

For mounting all the small alligators I employ M, B. Stollas'
system of wiring as shown in Plate XLV. The legs and the thin tail
of the diminutive ones are chiefly made of clay mixed with chopped
tow. The eyes are set in clay mixed with strong glue water.

PLATK LXXXI.

SYSTEM OF WIRING A FROG.

A frog should be skinned through the mouth and the entire vertebrae cohimu
should remain intact attached to the skin of the back in order to preserve the
peculiar characteristic shape of the back. The legs are made with cotton and the
body is filled with same material through the mouth. The manner of wiring is
clearly shown.

ri \ I K I xxxi.

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IM.AIK LXXXIl.

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PLATK LXXXII.

SYSTEM OF WIRING AND MOUNTING A CRAB.

Fig. 1, carapace, or coveriug of the back, detached froin the Ixxly ; Fig. 2, illus-
trating a system of Miriug; the lower a a and h b show tlie Avires of the legs in
pairs twisted together ; they should he loni;' enough to reach to the opi)osite sides
and should he liooked together, before the plaster is poured over them, to unite
them in one solid mass. The wires may also l)e liooked together singly — Mith-
out twisting them in pairs as in upper a a. The letter D in Fig. 2, indicates the
U-shaped wire which passed over all the leg wires and enters the pedestal when the
crab is to be mounted in a walking position. Fig. 3, hooked-shajx- wire for draw-
ing the flesh out of the legs. Fig. 4, brass rod with piece of wood attached which
is placed in the body, showing the hooks where the leg wires should be anchored,
Figs. 1 , 2, 3, 4. This is done when it is desirable to have the animal "stand on end."
See Chapter XIII.

PLATE LXXXIIl.

MOUNTING AND SKELETONIZING A TURTLE IN A SINGLE SPECIMEN.

This i)l;ite illust rates a raetluxl of preparing a turtle so as to exhibit one iiide of
the auinial mounted as sliown in Fig. 1 ; and tlie entire bony structure in the same
specimen preserved intaet as in Fig. 2; Fig. 3, shows how the ])lastron is divided in
order to expose the interior. This is an excellent method when it i.:> desirable to
preserve tiie skeleton and at the same time exhibit the exterior peculiarities of rare
turtles. tSee page 311.

I'l.AlK IXXXIH.

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REPTILES.

In making up groups of reiJtiles we must dei)en(l largely upon the truthful re-
production or imitation of the natural surroundings which they inhabit, which
this plate fairly illustrates.

I'LA IK I, XXXV.

BOB-WHITES.

Mounte.l under convex glass, with painted back-ground l.y Cl.arlc.s K. Keed, Worcester,
Mass.

CHAPTER XIV.

ORNAMENTAL TAXIDERMY.

Taxidermy furnishes some of the most beautiful and artistic arti-
cles of decoration that can be devised. The variety of the designs is
numerous, and the ideas which may be worked into useful or orna-
mental pieces all depend upon the skill and taste of the artist.

Some of the most handsome and skillfully wrought pieces of this
class ever made were those exhibited at the third annual exhibition of
the Society of American Taxidermists. There were designs in the
shape of bird medallions, gilded crescents with owls, fire screens,
grotesque groups of frogs, table pieces of various kinds and rugs with
mounted heads. A few of these I shall take occasion to mention :
Mr. Thomas W. Fraine exhibited one of the handsomest styles of
screens ever designed, in the shape of a

Peacock Fire-screen. — With the tail feathers, head, neck, breast,
and feathers of the back, a gorgeous screen can be made with this bird
of royal colors. In our frontispiece a figure of one of these screens
may be seen which I prepared on the same plan. Out of thin pine
boards, less than a quarter of an inch in thickness, cut three circles
twenty-eight inches in diameter. Fasten them together with glue and
screws. In laying the circles together the grain of the wood should
cross in order to keep the circle from warping, which it is sure to do if
it is made of a single piece. A better way by which these circles may
be made and whereby their weight may be lessened considerably is by
making a felly and screwing the thin circular boards to it. Now
fasten a tripod stand to the edge and gild it; cover the side on which
the feathers are to be arranged with green muslin or satin. The back
of the circle should be covered with some rich color of satin or silk,
plaited from the outer edge to the center, where it is held with a draw-
string. The tail feathers are arranged in circles and held in position
with double-pointed tacks. For the one represented in our frontis-
piece I had a pattern made for the legs of the stand which were cast
in brass and then gold-plated. They are fastened by m.eans of bolts,
screwed into the ornamental upright. In the center of the back where
the plaited satin is drawn together there is a gold-plated knob which

serves the purpose of lifting the screen.

( 329 )

ooQ METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Mammal and Bird Medallions. — One of the finest ways to
display a bird to be represented as dead is on a panel. Bunches of
snipe, duck, geese and grouse prepared in this way make handsome
dining-room ornaments. Squirrels, rabbits and other small mammals
may be arranged in the same manner. Be sure that your specimen
looks dead. In order to do this with accuracy you must hang the
specimen up before skinning it and study it caiefully.

A bird medallion may be made by mounting one-half of a bird on
a back ground of suitable color. If, for instance, the bird is white, a
black velvet back-ground is the proper color.

Mr. Frederic S. Webster's style of bird medallions surpasses any-
thing of the kind that has been designed. The entire bird is mounted.
In preparing a snowy heron, for example, the back-ground is of vel-
vet ; it is surrounded with a deep, massive frame with a glass top. The
heron is standing on a gilt log. Mr. Webster's exquisite skill and
taste in the preparation of the specimen make these bird medallions
all that the most critical in art can desire in this line.

An Arctic hare medallion, prepared by j\Ir. Webster and exhibited
at the third annual exhibition of the vSociety of American Taxider-
mists, was the first mammal medallion ever made.

Miscellaneous. — A very desirable wall ornament may be made by
carving and gilding a crescent and placing an owl on the point, as is
shown in Plate LXXXVIII.

Mr. Frank B. Webster's " Wounded Great Black-back Gull " in
Plate LXXXVII is an example of a table-piece in the writer's museum.
It is a fine piece of work, beautifully and skillfully executed.

If it is desired to prepare single birds of any kind for the top of
book cases, on wall brackets, etc., they may be placed on turned stands,
or pedestals more or Iciss elaborately made to suit the design and the
location they are to occupy.

Frogs mounted to caricature man make some of the most amusing
subjects the taxidermist can prepare. All imaginable human atti
tudes may be given them ; groups representing negro minstrels on
stools, the end-men holding their tambourines as when playing; frogs
playing leap-frog; billiards, fencing, dueling, smoking, etc. The
best work I have ever seen of this nature is that done by Mr. J. F.
D. Bailly. On page 294 I give full directions for the skinning and
mounting of frogs, and the system of wiring of these is illustrated in
Plate LXXXI.

The mounting of mammal heads, so desirable for the decoration
of halls and dining-rooms, is fully treated in Chapter XII.

METHODS IN THE ART OF TXXIDERMY. m

No one who visited the anthropological building at the World's
Columbian Exposition is likely to forget the highly artistic group of
birds, small mammals, and the fish pieces with painted back-grounds
in handsome frames with convex glass, by Charles K. Reed, of Worces-
ter, Massachusetts. In these we have pictures of exquisite beauty for
our walls, with the actual mounted specimen in the foreground and
scenes in the back-ground painted from old nature. The accessories
are usually a combination of natural and artificial leaves, branches, tree
stumps, etc., the ground work also being made of natural and artificial
material. The sky or other back-ground is painted in oil. Plates
LXXX\' and LXXXVI are reproductions from photographs of two
subjects.

Perhaps one of the most admired of Mr. Reed's pieces is that of a
group of screech owls, representing a hollow tree stub containing four
downy voung of the same species. On the top of the stub is one of
the parent birds, presumably the female, wnth a dead bird in her talons,
and is just making ready to spread a feast before its waiting young.
Close by sits the male quietly watching in another direction. The
scene is picturesque and pleasing, the accessories and painted back-
ground are true to nature, and, the whole being encased in an elegant
massive frame under convex glass, forms a picture of unusual interest
and beauty.

Fur Rugs with Mounted Heads.— All but the head of a skin
which is to be made up into a rug should be tanned in the regular
manner by a tanner. If you have the skull you may mount it accord-
ing to the directions given in Chapter XII. Some prefer to mount
the head without the lower jaw, using only the upper part of the
skull, so that it will lie flat on the floor. The finest manner to
mount the head on the skin of a leopard or tiger is with the mouth
snarling, similar to the one figured in the frontispiece. If you have
no skull for the skin you must either carve one out of wood or pur-
chase a papier-mache one. Papier-mache skulls can now be obtained
from dealers in natural history supplies for nearly all the commoner
mammals. To give the proper stiffness to a rug it should be lined with
thin leather or buckskin, and beneath that the felt lining should be
placed, allowing the edge of the latter to project two inches beyond the
edge of the skin. It should then be pinked with pinking iron.

Polishing Horns. — Some very handsome pieces of furniture are
made up with highly polished horns. The chief element necessary to
polish a pair of horns by hand is physical force. If machinery is at
your service, so that you can use a buffer, then the labor is not so great.

234 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

and a liigher degree of polish can be obtained in a short space of time.
We shall take for our trial a pair of steer horns. With a piece of glass
scrape the horns perfectly smooth, and then go over the surface care-
fully with fine sandpaper. After this has been done, rub it down with
pumicestone and linseed oil. A high polish may now be obtained by
rubbing the surface with a heavy piece of felt.

By soaking the horns in concentrated lye yon can give to them
any curve you may desire and they may be scraped and polished much
more easily. If any holes are to be bored in the horns it must be done
while they are soft, for when they become dry the horn is as brittle
as glass and is easily broken.

GREAT BL,ACK-BACKED GULL.

Wounded Great Black-backed Gull, mounted liy Frank 15. \VeI>3ter, Hyde
Park, Mass. In the author's collection. From photograph liy Baker.

CHAPTER XV.

MAKING PLASTER CASTS.

The first knowledge I received concerning the value of making
casts for taxidermic purposes was from the late eminent sculptor,
Thomas D. Jones. Describing to him the dermoplastic method of
mounting mammals, he remarked in words to this effect : " Do you
call this process stuffing animals? If you do, I beg to differ with you
on this point. Your method involves the highest principles of art. My
young friend, I should never think of mounting an animal on the prin-
ciples you have laid down without taking plaster casts of the carcass.
To obtain accuracy in the size and form of the muscles you should de-
pend on something more than mere measurements. You should learn to
make casts of the carcasses of the animals you intend to mount, and I
will agree to teach you the process." His oflfer was quickly accepted.
I spent one-half day with Mr. Jones in making " piece moulds " of vari-
ous objects, and a " w'aste mould " and cast of a raccoon head.

I should advise those who intend to practice taxidermy to any great
extent to learn by all means the simple art of making plaster casts.
Casts of mammal heads, legs or other parts, or casts of fishes and rep-
tiles will serve to secure accuracy in the form of mounted specimens
better than any other means you may adopt. A quick, skillful hand,
with a knowledge of how to proceed, is all that is necessary. When
the object you are to make a cast of has elevations and hollows in it
you will be compelled to make the mould in several pieces, because the
mould will not "draw" away without breaking. For illustration you
can make a mould of one-half of a perfectly round object and it will
"draw" off readily because there are no " undercuts" in which the
plaster can catch. Therefore, for an object having hollows or eleva-
tions, of which several casts are to be made, the mould must be of
several pieces, and is called a

Piece Mould. — All references to figures refer to Plate LXXXIX.
We shall take for our lesson in the making of a piece mould a pear.
The first thing to do is to wipe it oflf clean and imbed the smaller end
in damp sand up to a point just before the oval begins to turn (Fig. 1),
and the larger end, which is exposed, should be coated with sweet oil,

22 ( 337 )

!38

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

lard oil, or clay water, so that the plaster will not stick to the pear.
Now pat the sand down all around the pear and make it flat and
smooth.

Whittle a small plug of soft wood sufficiently rounded at one end
so that it will " draw " out of the plaster. Place this plug in the sand
as we have it in A, Fig. 1. When the plaster is poured over the pear
to the edge of the sand this plug will form a counter-sunk hole in the
rim of the one-half of the mould as shown in Fig. 4, A. The exposed
end of the plug should be oiled as well as the pear, in order to keep
the plaster from adhering.

Mix up some water and plaster of Paris considerably thicker than
cream and cover the exposed portion of the pear as shown in Fig. 2.
While the plaster is hardening you can trim it off and shape the
exterior. When it has become hard, lift the pear out of the sand with
the plaster around it. Trim the edges of the plaster smooth and flat
around the pear and, with a camel hair brush, paint the edges with
shellac dissolved in alcohol. In order to give this sufficient body, it
should contain one part of shellac and four parts of alcohol.

When the shellac is dry, coat the edges of the plaster with
oil, or clay water and also the surface of the pear. Now imbed the pear
with the one-half covering of plaster in the sand sidewise as we have
it in Fig. 3. Be sure to have the counter-sunk hole which the wooden
plug has made buried in the sand.

Place three wooden plugs around the pear in the sand, one at each
side and one at the end, as shown in A, B, C, Fig. 3, These should
be oiled the same as the surface of the pear and edges of the surround-
ing plaster. When this quarter of the pear has been covered with
plaster it will have about the same appearance as is represented in
Fig. 2, and the wooden plugs will make the counter-sunk holes as seen
in B, Fig. 4. It may be preferable to some to make these counter-
sunk holes with a knife blade as each section of the mould is made.

When the plaster has become sufficiently hard you may lift the
pear with the plaster around it and you will have covered three quarters
of it. The section just covered is B, Fig. 4, showing the counter-
sunk holes which the wooden plugs have made. Without taking
this section off, proceed to cover the last portion with plaster, first
giving the fresh edge of section B a painting of shellac and alcohol
and then anoint the pear and edges of the plaster all around with
oil. When you have covered this with the plaster and it has " set "
sufficiently hard, by tapping on it gently and, with a little trimming
and cutting the three sections will come apart and the pear can be

IM.A'l K LXXN.V1II.

«yS<*-

GILDED CRESCENT WITH SHORT-EARED OWLc

Prepared by the author. From a photograph by Charles H= Doty.

METHODS IX THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. o. j

taken out. Fig. 4, C, represents the last section, showing the "re-
taining points" ' formed by the counter-sunk holes in sections A and B.

The manner of filling the mould to make the cast is as follows:
After coating the interior of each piece of the mould with shellac and
alcohol, cut a groove around them on the outside in order to bind them
firmly together with cord. After giving the inside of each section
a coating of oil, place together in their position sections A and C,"
Fig. 4, filling these first with a thin mixture of plaster; the third, B,
should be filled with plaster last and then placed in position and the
whole tied together with cord and revolved slowly around until the
plaster sets. While turning the mould over and over, tap on it gently
in order to have the plaster form in every part, free from air-bubbles.
When the plaster is thoroughly dry, workaround the joints by carefully
cutting and prying, and the cast may easily be taken out. Innumerable
casts may be made from moulds if they are preserved.

Waste Mould. — This is an excellent method of making casts when
only one copy of the object is desired and when you do not care to
preserve the mould. Any part of a mammal's carcass, or of a fish, reptile,
etc., may be cast by this method. Either the whole object or half of
it may be copied. The subject may have undercuts in various places,
but if it is soft and fleshy enough to yield and " draw '' from the mould
a cast may easily be taken by this process.

We shall take a raccoon's head to illustrate this manner of
making casts. Bury it in damp sand- to half its depth on its side,
as shown in Fig. 5. Make the sand around it perfectly smooth and flat.
Give the exposed part of the head a coating of sweet or lard oil, being
careful not to slight the eye or teeth. Now, mix up some water
and plaster and cover the entire exposed portion of the head with the
plaster, to about a quarter of an inch in thickness all over. Wait for
the plaster to harden. If you want a cast of the entire head, turn the
hardened plaster over, with the head in it; paint the edges of the
plaster around the head with shellac and, when this is dry, coat the
edges and head with oil, and then cover this side with plaster as you
did the other. When dry, the two parts of the mould can easily be
separated and the head taken out. Before pouring in the plaster to
make the cast be sure to give the inside of the mould two or three
coats of shellac, and when this is dry give it a coat of oil ; then pour the
plaster in each half of the mould, tie them together and turn the mould
over constantly until the plaster has set. When the plaster is hard
lay it on some soft surface and chisel the mould off carefully.

1. Or dowel pins. 2. Wet saw-dusl will answer.

^^2 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

Of course, if you only desire a cast of one-half of the object, sim-
ply use one-half of the mould, coating the inside with shellac, then oil
before filling in the plaster. When hardened lay it on a cushion and
carefully chisel the plaster mould off as represented in Fig. 6.

When a mould breaks it may easily be mended with more plaster,
or the pieces may be stuck together with glue or shellac. If it is
desirable to make a cast of one side of a mammal with the skin on, the
hair must be held down with thick clay water so that the plaster will
not adhere to it. The whiskers and eyelids may be coated with warm
bees-wax. It requires careful manipulating to work a subject out of
a mould in this case.

Casting Fishes. — After all that has been said in Chapter XIII on
the skinning and mounting of fishes there is at least one objection
which may make a. plaster cast, properly colored^ the most desirable.
No matter how well a fish may be skinned and prepared, it is sure to
get greasy about the jaws. Those mentioned on page 123 may be the
most successfully mounted for a time without this defect, but even
these will "grease" sooner or later. The Cat-fishes and many others
"grease out" very soon and are utterly worthless as mounted subjects.
By making casts we are enabled to obtain correct copies of the shapes
and peculiarities of any specimen. When a specimen has any curious
appendage, as, for instance, the snout of the Paddle-Fish or Spoon-Bill,
Polyoden spathnla^ the body can be cast, the snout or paddle cut off,
treated with benzine to get the grease out, poisoned with arsenic and
set in position on the cast.

My method of making a plaster cast of one side of a fish which is
mounted in high relief on a flat slab or back-ground is as follows:
When the mucus of the fish has been washed off with alum water or
diluted vitriol, lay the fish on its side, with the side which is to be cast
uppermost, and build clay around the fish until the dipper half only is
exposed. Build under the fins, including the caudle one, spreading
them out as you may desire, which should of course appear as they are
in life. The clay should extend at least one inch beyond the edge of the
fish, all around. Now coat the entire exposed portion of the fish very
lightly with sweet oil. When this has been done mix up some plaster
of Paris and water and pour it on a little at a time until it has com-
pletely covered the fish to a thickness of about one-half inch. While
you are building on the plaster you can shape the exterior as you
please. When the plaster has hardened sufficiently )-ou may turn the
mould over, pull off the clay and carefully lift the fish from the mould.
You will now have exactly the same kind of a mould as shown in

■I. \ 1 I 1 XWIX.

■i~-

I ■■'■ ^■-^■*

vyKvr^'-mxssKvi^^-.;-_T,

,■5.

€'

- V

iHAA'JxVG C^STS.

Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 illustrate the various steps iu making a jiiece mould, see page
337 ; Fig. 5, the first step iu makiug a waste mould ; Fig. 6, chiseliug the mould
from the cast, see page 342.

I OEf
^RAR

^'UL 2 2 1902

yv^'-"' LIBRARY

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. 345

Fig. 6, Plate LXXXIX. The entire inside and edges of the mould
must be painted with shellac and then carefully coated with oil.
Plaster of Paris and water should be mixed to the consistency of cream
and poured in the mould, which should be constantly shaken until the
plaster has settled in every part of the impression made by the fish.
This, too, will prevent air-bubbles from forming in the cast. You may
keep on building out the plaster until you have made a square slab on
which your cast, when the mould is chiseled off, will stand in bold relief.
The finishing lies in neatly pointing up the surface here and there which
is sometimes pitted with air-bubbles, taking the rough edges off the back-
ground, and, finally, the coloring, which is a very important part. This
is a quick and simple method of making a cast of a fish when only
one copy is desired. When several copies of the cast are wanted the
piece mould is the proper method to employ. Casts of fishes may be
painted and mounted on polished medallions with fine effect, or on
brass rods previously prepared and inserted in the mould before filling
in the plaster.

Casting Reptiles. — In casting reptiles both the piece mould and
waste processes are used, according to the formation of the subject.
If it be a serpent and its attitude is to be that of fighting or striking
a wire for support must be placed in the mould and the plaster poured
in around it. The piece mould for making the casts of some reptiles
is often divided into numerous, intricate sections, requiring considerable
ingenuity in their preparation. They are in this case taken away from
the cast, piece by piece.

Painting Plaster Casts of Fishes and Reptiles. — After you have
pointed up the air-bubbles or other defects in your cast and allowed it
to become thoroughly dry, begin to carefully and artistically put on the
oil colors, reproducing all the varied tints as they appear in the freshly
caught specimen. When the first coat has been laid on, give the entire
surface a coat of enamel varnish, and, when this is dry, go over the cast
a2:ain for the final artistic touches. If vou are an artist and can blend
colors you will have an opportunity to display your ability here. On
page 62 are given directions for mixing tints, and elsewhere in the work
will be found the manner of laying on colors. There are absolutely
no rules for putting on these final touches, upon which the beauty of
the finished piece so much depends. The greatest care and delicacy
of touch, with a knowledge of blending and applying colors, are neces-
sary to produce a highly artistic and natural ejffect.

CHAPTER XVI.

CARE OF SPECIMENS.

In the preparation of all specimens one of the most important
objects in view is to poison every skin so thoroiio^hly as to make its
destruction by the ravages of insects, such as dermestes, anthernus,
moths, etc., impossible. If there happens to be a spot in any of your
specimens which has not been thoroughly poisoned it is sure to be
attacked sooner or later by insects. All specimens coming from un-
known hands should be quarantined and carefully inspected before
putting them into your collection. " Eternal vigilance," together with
a knowledge of how to destroy and prevent the progress of the
destroyer, are the best safeguards.

Moths. — The first in rank of destructiveness are the moths, of
which four species are known as persistent workers : Tmea Jiavi-
frontella Linn., the common or cloth moth ; T. tapetzella Linn., or
carpet moth ; T. pellionella Linn., or fur moth, and T. granella Linn.,
or grain moth. They are nocturnal insects, although the little
" millers " may often be seen flying in darkened rooms during the day.
They begin to fly about actively in INIay, but in warm rooms their
work of destruction is carried on all winter. Thev infest woolens,
furs, grain, etc., and the destruction wrought by the larvse is well
known. The stage in which this insect does its destructive work, is
a plump, white caterpiller, provided with strong mandibles and sixteen
legs.

Dernnestes.— There are none of the destructive insects which give
the museum builder more trouble than this small, universal pest,
known as the " bacon beetle." The most common species is D.
lardarms. In my museum I have encountered him several times ; I
know him well and I know how to conquer him. His color is brownish,
the body being encircled with a transverse band of grayish. The
larva is hairy, brown back, and white abdomen, and jaws equipped
with drilling tools equal to any steel instrument m^de. He can drill
a hole as round and clean as though done with a gimlet. Whenever
you discover brown dust, and sometimes the color of cayenne pepper
on the pedestal of any of 5'our mounted specimens, it is high time to
look for the larvae of Dermestes at work.
(346)

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. ..^

Anthernus. — /Inother pest is the " buffalo bug," AntJiermis lepidiis
Linn., and, like the tiiica larva, the "buffalo bug" larva cuts leather,
woolen goods or fur. The adult is a small, round, brown beetle with
white or variegated scales on the wing covers. The larva.% which do
,the damage, are short, plump worms with numerous stiff brown hairs.

Remedies. — Whenever any of your specimens are attacked by the
larvce of moths, Dermestes, etc., a simple and most effective remedy
for destroying the insects and their larvae is by the use of the corrosive
sublimate solution, as given on page 3.3. It may be applied on hair or
feathers by spraying with an atomizer. This is a strong, volatile
solution and should be used with care. A weakened arsenical solu-
tion, the same as that given on page 34 and as directed in poisoning
feathers and hair, page 35, may also be applied in the same manner.
A solution of alcohol and arsenic may be used with similar effect.
When poisoned with either of the above it is impossible for an insect
to live in the hair or feathers.

Before applying any of these solutions to hair or feathers their
strength should be tested by dipping black feathers or hair into the
liquid and allowing it to dry. If a white deposit forms the solution is
too strong and should be weakened. In tight cases naphthaline cones
or crystals may be used.

One of the very best remedies to use on infected specimens is to
spray them with benzine containing a percentage of arsenical solution.
This makes a very volatile and effective poison ; the benzine carries
the arsenic to the roots of the hair or feathers and deposits the poison
" all along the line." The fumes of the h^wzwi^ immediately destroy alt
larvce and eggs ; after the benzine evaporates the arsenic " will hold its
own" for all time. Care should be taken not to make this solution too
strong of arsenic ; it should be tested as above directed. Wherever
the arsenic forms a deposit it can be washed out with warm water
and sponge.

When the feathers of your birds have been eaten in two in various
places and the feathers of the tail and wings begin to drop out; when
the larvae are visible, and the hair of your mammals pull out easily
from the roots, their preservation is a matter of no small diflRculty.
In such cases the bird or mammal may be taken from its pedestal and
literally soaked with this solution. In a valuable article by John B.
Smith, entitled :

"Some Observations on jMuseum Pests"- the author states that
the only real chance of safety consists in constant examination, tight

t Published in the proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 113.

348

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

boxes and a free use of chloroform or bisulphide of carbon. According
to Mr. Smith the principal enemy in the Museum collection is An-
ther mis vamis^ though Trogoderma is not uncommon. A large
number of boxes received from North Carolina, containing principally
Coleoptera, were found to be infested with Trogoderma. Bisul-
phide of carbon was freely used, and naphthaline cones were placed in
all the boxes. For a while no larvae developed, and throughout the'
summer the boxes remained free. With the approach of cold weather,
and when the cones were nearly all evaporated, it was found that a
very general development of larvae had begun, all of them Trogo-
derma., and none of them more than two to three millimetres in length,
most of them apparently just hatched. This was in December. The
entire collection was scrutinized and an occasional Anihernus larva
was found but no other 7'r^^crc»(^^r?;m, even in the most exposed boxes.

The following is from Walter Hough's excellent paper on "The
Preservation of Museum Specimens from Insects and the Effects of
Dampness," in the Smithsonian Report for 1887; Vol. II, pp. 549-558.
The quotations which we make from this article will be found useful
to the taxidermist, furrier, entomologist, botanist and the housewife :

"There are several classes of substances to be poisoned, in which
the colors, fabric, or character of material, and therefore the kind of
poison and the strength of solution, are important factors. For
instance, goods not fast dyed (especially cotton), or which are dyed
with colors that contain solutions, will start; also fabrics or substances
which may be corroded or hardened, or otherwise injured, as feathers,
fur, dressed deer-skin, etc. Too strong a solution may also cause a
deposit on fur, etc., with a dulling effect. As a test for this, a black
feather should be dipped in the solution, if it is of corrosive sublimate
or arsenic in alcohol. If the solution be too strong, it will produce a
white coating when dry. Any solution should exert its action in two
ways, first to repel the adult insect, and second to destroy the hatched
larva. Pungent odors are noxious to moths and the higher orders of
insects, but this is hardly true in the case of the beetles to which we
have before alluded. The pungency of odor can not be made to last
long, so that the poisoning quality is of prime importance. The sub-
stances used for solutions are deadly poisons, and no one who has not
had experience in handling them had better undertake to apply
them. Corrosive sublimate will attack the finger-nails and the skin.
It is also volatile. Arsenic is prejudicial to the health ; the dust, it is
said, produces catarrh, both gastric and nasal, though this has not been
confirmed by observation.

METHODS IX THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

349

" Before poisoning, all objects should be treated with benzine, by
putting them in a close box or vessel, and pouring the benzine in,
leaving them tightly closed therein for several days. This operation
destroys any larvae or eggs. They should then be hung up until the
benzine evaporates before proceeding with the poisoning solutions.
Bisulphide of carbon is more volatile and more quickly effective than
benzine, and may be used, if preferred. There is reason to believe
that both kill the eggs — quickly, if the fluid comes in contact with
them, and less rapidly if they are directly affected only by the fumes in
the vapor. Great care must be taken not to allow fire of any kind to
come in contact with the vapor of bisulphide of carbon. There are
several reasons why benzine is preferable, and the latter is sure to be
effective when followed by the arsenic-naphtha solution. The solution
found more satisfactory for poisoning nearly every kind of specimens
is as follows :

Saturated solution of arseuic acid and alcohol 1 piut.

Stroug carbolic acid 25 drops.

Strychniue 20 graius.

Alcohol strong' 1 (|uart.

Naphtha, crude or refiued 1 jjint.

"The use of strychnine is not absolutely necessary; but it is a
very good a^^ent and adds much to the value of the solution. Other
solutions and poisons will be noticed below\ It will be found advisa-
ble to apply solutions in the form of spray to delicate objects, such as
feathers or specimens of similar character. In this treatment an
atomizer may be used. Some small specimens may be dipped and
allowed to drain, and the solution may be applied with a brush to a
large class of objects, taking care to saturate every part. The speci-
mens can then be hung up to dry or laid away as they are. They
should be kept free from dust, which is exceedingly injurious to them.
As soon as poisoned, they ought, if intended for exhibition, to be
mounted in dust-tight cases, or carefully stowed away in close-fitting
drawers or boxes. In unit or costume boxes a small packet of naphtha-
line may be concealed behind the specimens, and the junction of the
lid should be made dust-proof by pasting on strips of paper with paste
containing arsenic or corrosive sublimate.

''Some specimens present probleins that do not fall under any
rule and have to be left to judgment and experiment. As an instance
in point, we mention a fine deer-skin robe collected by ]\Ir. Turner,
beautifully tawed, with the hair on, and ornamented with a medium
which will not stand wetting. It is obvious that no solution can be

-qo METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

used in this case, since alcohol or water will harden the buck-skin and
destroy the decoration. Satisfactory results might be obtained by
judicious spraying, but there would be doubt as to the completeness of
the poisoning. It would be better to rub into the kid surface a pow-
der made of precipitated chalk and white arsenic. The fur side should
then be well rubbed, care being taken to allow the powder to penetrate
into the roots of the hair. By all meaps protect the hands with gloves.
Powdered soap would also be a good medium for the arsenic. Great
care should be taken in applying this poison and in handling a speci-
men poisoned in this way. Such specimens should be at once closed
up tightly and put on exhibition.

" Corrosive sublimate has been much used for poisoning and is a
valuable agent. Several specimens in the Museum, which were
poisoned years ago with this substance, were so filled with it that they
are dusty. They are made of fur-skin, and are stiff and unpresenta-
ble for exhibition. I do not know what was the condition of the arti-
cles when they were acquired ; they are, however, undeniably moth-
proof. I have found numerous adult moths destroyed in the act of
laying their eggs. A careful use of corrosive sublimate is very efifect-
ive, if it is not brought in contact with skins, as it coagulates albumen.
It is also volatile, and Dr. G. H. Beyer, U. S. Navy, has proposed to
take advantage of this property in preventing the growth of fungi on
materia-medica specimens in jars. One objection to corrosive subli-
mate is that it crystallizes out very easily; this might be obviated by
adding a little naphtha to the alcoholic solution.

"Naphthaline is used by Mr. J. B. Smith, of the Museum, and by
other entomologists, to preserve insect collections from Acart^ Psoci^
Dermestes^ Antherni^ and other museum pests. It destroys the two
former, but only tends to repel the others. It also acts as an antisep-
tic, destroying schizomycetes, moulds, bacteria, etc. The salt is per-
fectly neutral, is not poisonous to man, and is cheap. It is customary
in this department to put a small packet or cones in cases containing
mounted costumes.

" Vaseline may be called perfect grease, since it does not become
rancid or corrosive. It is especially useful to protect iron and steel
from rust, and no doubt would preserve woodwork from extraneous
attack. It Js also good to soften leather which has become hard. In
the case of clubs, spears, and implements of hard wood, like those of
Polynesia, a fine polish may be obtained by using vaseline. I regard
vaseline as a good vehicle in which to apply white arsenic to skins, as

METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY. .- ,

is done with arsenic soap. It penetrates very well, especially if thinned
a little with naphtha. Vaseline is also used on book-backs to soften
them, to prevent mould, and to keep insects away."

" For botanical specimens this is said to be an excellent pre-
servative :

One ounce of corrosive sublimate to one quart of alcohol, diluted
fifty per cent. The best plan is to dip the specimens and then care-
fully dry them. The poison can also be painted on with a camel's hair
brush.

'* For the preservation of entomological specimens, the strongest
solution used should be corrosive sublimate and alcohol, 1 to 100, and
the weakest 0.1 to 100.

" For insects on plants, the following solutions are recommended :

FIRST SOLCTIOX. SIXOND SOI.CTIOX.

Salt \L\ pounds. First solution 1 (juiirt.

.Saltpeter -4 ounces. Arseniate of potash 2 ounces.

Water 1 gallon. , Water 1 gallon.

Filter.

" A cheaper solution can be made by taking —

White arsenic 1 pound.

Sal soda 4 ounces.

Water 1 gallon.

Boil till a solution is made. Take one quart to forty gallons of
water. These solutions have been found by the Department of Agri-
culture to be very useful in destroying the scale-bug and the red spider,
so harmful to plants.

" The following method is employed by furriers in the treatment
of fur skins for the purpose of rendering them pliable : The skin is
steeped and scoured in a bath of alum, bran and salt, in order to
remove greasiness; then in a bath of soap and soda, to remove the oil
from the fur. When thoroughly Avashed and dried it is found that the
pelt has become tawed or kid leather.

"To soften and cleanse buck-skin or chamois leather, rub plenty of
castile soap into the skin and soak for two hours in a weak solution
of sal soda in warm water and rub well until quite clean. i\fterwards
rinse in a weak solution of sal soda and soap in water; after rinsing,
wring it dry in a coarse towel, and when fully dry beat it until soft
and smooth.

"For domestic purposes the following preveniives from moth rav-
ages are suggested . Dissolve in 200 parts of alcohol two parts of

0-2 METHODS IN THE ART OF TAXIDERMY.

salicylic acid and two parts of thymol ; perfume with oil of lemon.
This is a neutral solution and will not injure colors or texture, and has
a pleasant odor, but is rather expensive.

" A good preparation to sprinkle among furs being packed away in
a close box or drawer, is naphthaline and menthol or thymol, in pro-
portion of one ounce of the former to twenty grains of either of the
latter, rubbed together. The odor w'ill disappear from the furs or
goods after they have been aired for a short time. Even if moths are
present and are hatched, they will not feed when closely shut up in the
odor of this mixture, and in this respect it is far superior to camphor.
Thymol alone is very good. Naphthaline is now on the market in a
very convenient shape called " moth marbles, " and seems to be going
into general use."

INDEX.

PAGE.

Accessories. Grouping, etc.. of Birds 122

Grouping, etc., of Mammals I'tjl

Alcohol 4o

Alligators. Mounting of :>11

Arsenical Solution and Arsenical Paste 34

8oap 34

Alum. Powdered 40

Batty. Joseph H 51

Bird MetlaUious 330

Bird Skins, the Making up of 105

Drying Board for 109

Long-Xecketl and Long-Legged 109

Relaxing 114

Birds. Mounting of, another Method S2

Artitieial Bodies for 74

Feathers. Cleaning of 113

Winding Feathers of. S2

with Wings -Spread '^4

Long-necked, Mounting of 87

Colossal, Mounting of 91

Treatment of. in the Field ^'^

Painting Discolored Parts of 103

Skinning and Mounting of. 64

Breasi-cut Method of Mounting 82

Grouping and Arranging of 126

Blood, to Imitate 10^

Absorbent, Foster's - 62

to Absorb - - - 64

to Remove ^^"^

on Specimens ^^"^

Bolt Clippers ^

Bone Forceps ^^

Bones, Broken. Mending ^'-'■*

Branches, Artificial "f?

Breaking the Humerus in Birds' Wings 65

Brewster's, William. Method of Relaxing Bird Skins 118

Brushes ^^

Capturing Specimens, Modes of '^ '

Care and Treatment of Specimens in the Field ^1

-J

f 353)

354 INDEX.

PAGE

Care of Specimenis 346

Casts, Making Plaster 337

Piece Mould 333

Waste Mould 341

of Fishes and lieptiles, the I'aiutiug of 345

Center Board ^Method with Iron Scjuares 199

Chain and Hooks 17

Chloroform 3U2

Clay, the use of 46

the use of, with Saw-dust 47

the use of, with Plaster 47

Filling Checks, Nose and Lips with 278

Cleaning liirds' Feathers 113

Codman & ShurtlefT. 30

Collecting Specimens in General 56

Seasons for 57

Outfit for 58

iu the Field 293

Colors, Tone of 211

Applying 215

Comhs, Wattles, etc 103

Corrosive Sublimate Solution 35

Crocodiles, INIounting of 311

Crustaceans, Mounting of 282

Currier's Knife 16

Cyanide of Potassium 302

Date Blanks for Egg Collections 144

Davie's Salinometer 59

Devoe & Co., F. W 22

Dermoplastic Method of Mounting ^lammuis 216

Dissecting Saw 17

Drills for Boring Holes in Birds' Legs 17

for Eggs 149

Dury's, Charles, Method of Preparing Fishes 293

Dyche, Prof. L. L 270

Ear Cavities, Filling of 64

Ears, Treatment of 192. 221, 274

Eggs, how Preserved 143

Measurements of 148

How to Pack for Shipment 148

Exceptions in Skinning the Heads of Certain Birds 70

Eyes, for Annuals 22

Sizes and Color for Birds 26

Sizes for Quadrupeds 29

Flint 25

Wliite Cornered 25

Albino 25

Elongated Pupils 25

INDEX. 355

PAGE.

Eyes, .Settin<i' Artificial Mammal 196

.Settiuy Artiticial in Animal.- 48

Fastening the Beaks of Birds together u iijlc Sl^lnning 64

Fastening- tlu" Wings in liirils 77

P^athers, Adjusting, of the I lead 73

Field Outfit 58

Filling Ear Cavities 64

Fire-screen, Beacocl; 329

Fish in Alcohol 45, 63

Fishes, Preservation of in the I-'idd 63

Preservation of 63

( V)lor Sketches of 63

Mounting of 289

the Casting of 3-42

Painting :\rounted 293

Collecting of, in the Field 293

Forceps, Seissor-handled 17

Forge, Portable 6

Forms and Attitudes of IVirds 122

of Mammals 261

Foster's, L. S., Method of Absorbing Blood on Feathers 62

Fox Squirrel, Mounting of. 184

Frogs, Mounti ng of 294

Fur Rugs, with Mounted Heads 333

Graves, George 40

Glue lor Feathers 48

(iluing Hair on Mammal Skins 48

Guns \ 57

Hand-vise 21

Hard Oil Finish 53

Hard Wood Filler 54

Hawks and Owl, ]More about Mounting of 96

Heron, Mounting of the 87

Henuecke Co., C ^78

Hoehn Co., R 30

Hornaday, Wm. T 45, 133, 265

Hot Water Bath for Relaxing P>ird Skins 118

Huranjingbirds ^^^

Inserting Glass Eyes in Birds 78

Interchangeable Tool Co 1 '

Iron Square 199,230

Jars, Glass and Earthen -'40

Jasper, Dr. Theodore '^^

His Method of Coloring Faces of Baboons 207

Jumbo, the Skinning of. 221

the Mounting of 233

356 INDEX.

PAGE.

liabeliiig 56

Lattiu, Frauk H 30

Lead Field Tauk 61

Leaving all the Boucs iu Wings of Birds 70

Leg-bones, Vahu- of. 203

Leg-irons, iu Mauiinals 195

iu Greyhound 225

Legs iu Raptores 95

Forniatiou of, in Hawks and Owls 95

of Birds Stei)i)iug or lUmuiug 96

Lizards, Mounting and preservation of 297

Lucas, Frederick A 137, 270, 282

INIaking Artificial Bodies for Birds 74

xVrtificial Xecks for Birds 77

Mammals, Glass and Earthen Jars tor 2

Lal)eling .Skins of 203

Large, Treatment of 62

Making up Skins of 200

Measurements of Large 220

Mounting, without Bones 226

Mounting Avith the Center Board 191

Opening Incision in 183

Relaxing Dry Skins of 204

Skinning and Mounting Medium Sized 191

Skinning and Mounting Small 182

Skinning Heads ot 273

Skinning Large 220

Skins of, in Wet State 62, 203

Skins of Large 222

Small, Measurements of 182

Small, Skinniug the Feet 183

Small, Skinning the Tail of 183

Small, Treatment of 61

Small, Wiring the Legs of 185

Manikin, Building the Greyhound 222

Strength of 226

Fitting Skin on 229

Martin, Phillip Leopold 45, 216

Materials 6

for Restoring Colors 211

Measurements of Birds, Directions for 65

of Large Mammals, Directions for 220

of Small Manunals, Directions for 56

Medallions, Mammal and Bird 330

Modeling Tongues, Mouths, and Fancy Work 51, 207

Tools 22

^Nlogridge, Mrs. E. S 2G6

Mouth, Modeling of 207

^Mounting Birds, Another Method 82

Small Birds 73

INDEX. 357

PAGE.

MoLiiitiuj:: Hawks and Owls 90

IJirds witli Wings Spread 84

Long-necked Birds 87

Hawks, Owls, etc 96

of the Elephant .Tuniho 238

INIaninial Meads 273

Turtles 298

Crustaceans, Fishes, Ke[)tiles, etc 282

Frogs 294

Lizards 297

Snakes 297

Museum, Autlior's 2

American l.'W, 2(j()

Brit ish i;«

National 133, 134, 1:!7, -.'lir,, 209

Neck-boards for Heads '. 274

Needles, Surgeons' 21

Elxtra Long 21

Oological Inslrunients 148

Oology 139

Opening Cut in the Backs of Birds 69

Ornamental Taxidermy 329

iMiscellaneous pieces in 330

Ostrich, Skinning of the 91

Mounting of the 92

Owls' Eyes 70

Painting Discolored Parts of Birds 103

Mounted Fishes 293

Paints 51

Laying on of o3

Palette 22

Papier- JNIache 47

Painting of 103

Peacock Fire Screen 329

Perches for Birds 78

Pliers, Cutting 17

Poisoning Featliers and Hair 35

Polishing Natural Wood 54

Potter's Clay 45, 186, 188, 195, 196, 230, 233

Quadrupeds, Small, Systems of Wiring 186

Reed, Charles K 137

Relaxing Dry Skins of Mammals 204

Skins, Hot Water Bath for 118

Removing Tendons from Legs of Birds 69

Reptiles in Alcohol 45

Arrangement of 261

358 INDEX.

PAGE.

Reptiles, Castini,'' of 345

Treatmeut of 63

Restoring Color to Dry Specimens 208

Colors, Materials for 211

Richarflson, Jonoss 133, 2G6

IJidgway's Xouicnclature of Colors 56

Roeks, Artificial 50

Russell & Co., J 16

Salinometer, Taxidermists' 16, 30

Salt and Alum 39

Bath 40

Batli, Beauty of 44

Scalpels 16

Seasons for Collecting 57

Sewing up S(iuirrel Skin 187

Sexes of Birds 110

Shaefer's, E. J., Egg Trays 148

Shields, flaking of 281

Sketcliing 56

Skin, Returning over Bird's Skull 73

Skin Scraper 16

Scraper, Home Made 17

Skinning the Legs of Birds 69

and Mounting Colossal Birds 69

Hoofed ]Mammals ■ • • • 230

the Feet in Small ^Mammals 183

the Tail in Small Mammals 183

Skins, Making up of Bird 105

Adv'antages of Thin 204

Another Method of Relaxing Bird 118

Cleaning Bird 113

Hot Water for Relaxing Bird 118

Making up Dry ]\lammal 200

Making uj) Small Mammal 200

Making up of Long-necked and Long-legged Bird 109

Placing in Salt and Alum Bath 44

Preservation of while in the Field 281

Relaxing Bird 114

Tanning Small 51

Snakes, Mounting of. -9"

Snow Scenes 50

Society of American Taxidermists 134, 137, 266

Soda, Bi-carl )onate of "

Softening Skins, Another Method 118

Solution for Keeping Bird Skins Soft, Earl's "^^

Si)ecimeus, ( "apturing, JSIodes of. *"

Specimens, the care of _"

Stains '^^

Stainsky, Custave ^'^

Stepping and Running Attitudes ^^

INDEX. 359

StoUas, M. r, 184

Stuffing liods -jl

Tail, of Suuill .Muiiiiiial>, Wiring thr 105

Tau, Small Skius to 5i

Tauk, Lead 40

Teeth, How to ( "U'an 208

Thread for Winding Feathers 21

Tints, jNIixing of o2

Tougues and Mouths, Modehug of 51, 207

Treatment of 208

Tools, List of Essential 12

Turtles, Mounting of. 298

Another Method of Preparing oil

Varnishes 51

Varnishing 53

Walker's Method of Mounting Fisiies 290

Ward's Natural .Science Establishment 221, 233, 265, 269

Warren's, Dr. B. H., Method of Making Artificial IJocks, ihanches, etc 50

Wax, use of, in Mouth Modeling 208

Webster Co., Frank Blake 30, 49, 50, 57

Webster, Frederick S 134, 270

Wickesheimer SolutiMn 39

Wiley's, Prof., Field Tank 61

Winding P>irds' Feathers 82

^ a Mounted Bird 104

Wire, Sizes for Birds 6

Sizes for Mammals H

Sizes for Reptiles H

Standard for Xests 143

to Anneal 48

to Straighten 48

Use of Copper H

Workshop 1

Outfit l._-

World's Columbian Exposition -'0

Wrapping Skius for Cabinet ^^0

IBRARY,

•' U L 2 2 1902

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Davie, Oliver

Methods in the art of
taxidermy

Bio Med

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