Full text of "Methods of teaching history"

See other formats

THE LIBRARY

The Ontario Institute

for Studies in Education

Toronto, Canada

LIORARY

the: ONTARiO INSTITUTE

FOR STUDI>^S [A EDUCATION

TCRO'TO. CANADA

FEB 26 1968

' /I

f jcxlarjcrflUal gUrvarjj.

EDITED BY G. STANLEY HALL.

oj^o

VOL. I.

Methods of Teaching Histoey.

A. D. White, W. F. Allen, C. K. Adams, John W.

Burgess, J. R. Seeley, H. B. Adams, E. Emek-

TON, G. S. Morris, R. T. Ely, A. B.

Hart, W. C. Collar, J. T. Clarke,

W. E. Foster, and others.

SECOND EDITION, ENTIRELY RECAST AND REWRITTEN.

BOSTON :
GINN, HEATH, AND COMPANY.

1885.

J. 8. CcsHiNo & Co., PniNTKna, 115 High Street, Bostok.

00]^TE]S[TS.

•04-

PAGE.

Introduction v

By the Editob.

Methods of Teaching American History 1

By Dr. A. B. Hart, Harvard University.

The Practical Method in Higher Historical Instruc-
tion 31

By Professor Ephrajm Emerton, of Harvard University.

On Methods of Teaching Political Economy .... 61

By Dr. Kichard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University.

Historical Instruction in the Course of History and
Political Science at Cornell University .... 73

By President Andrew D. White, Cornell University.

Advice to an Inexperienced Teacher of History ... 77

By W. C. Collar, A.M., Head Master of Roxbury Latin School.

A Plea for Archaeological Instruction 89

By Joseph Thacheb Clarke, Director of the Assob Expedition.

The Use of a Public Library in the Study of History . 105

By WrLLLAM E. Foster, Librarian of the Providence Public Library.

Special Methods of Historical Study 113

By Professor Herbert B. Adams, Johns Hopkins University.

The Philosophy of the State and of History .... 149

By Prof. George S. Morris, Michigan and Johns Hopkins Universities.

The Courses of Stltdy in History, Roman Law, and
Political Economy at Harvard University . . . 167

By Dr. Henry E. Scott, Harvard University.

IV CONTENTS.

PAGE.

The Tkacuixg of History . 193

Hy rrofcssor J. R. Seklet, Cambridge University, Eng.

On Mi;tiioi>s of Teaciiixg History 203

By Profeasor C. K. Adams, Michigan University.

On Methods of Historical Study and Research in
•Columbia University 215

By Professor John W. BtmoEss, Columbia University.

Physical Geography and History 22.i

Why do Children Dislike History? 227

By Thomas Wentwobth Hioginson.

Gradation and the Topical Method of Historical

Study 231

Part 1. — Historical Literature and Authorities . , 239

II. — Books FOR Collateral Reading 296

III. — School Text-Books 303

Supplement 309

History Topics 323

By Professor W. F. ^Vllen, Wisconsin yniversity.

Bibliography of Church History (see special index to this

article) 337

By Rev. Jouk Alonzo Fisueb, Johns Hopldns University.

I^TEODUOTIO^.

rr^HIS book was intended to be the first of a series entitled
-'- a Pedagogical Library, devoted to methods of teaching,
one volume of which was to be occupied with each of the
more important branches of instruction in grammar and high
schools. The design and plan of the work was not to pro-
duce systematic ti-eatises, and still less to develop anything
ultimate or absolute in method ; but to gather together, in
the form most likely to be of direct practical utility to
teachers, and especially students and readers of history,
generally, the opinions and modes of instruction, actual or
ideal, of eminent and representative specialists in each
department. The present volume has been an unremuner-
ated work of love on the part of each writer , and the appear-
ance of subsequent volumes in the series is not yet assured.
It should be added that the articles are printed in the order
in which they were received by the editor.

Teachers in whom a methodic interest has been awakened
will find many useful hints in the following books, pamphlets,
and articles : —

Georg Gottfried Gervinu^. Gnmdziige der Historik. Leipzic,

1837. pp. 95.
F. Jacobi. Grundzuge einer neuen Methode f iir den vaterlandischen

Geschichtsunterricht in deutschen Schiilen. Niirnberg, 1839.

VI INTRODUCTION.

F. StichJ. Dcr vaterljindische Geschiclitsiuiterricht in uiiseren
Elementarschulen. Koblenz, 1842.

F. W. Mi(]ucl. Ri'itriige eines mit der Ilevbart'schen Piidagogik
bofreundeten Scliulinannes 7a\x Lelire voni biographischen
Ceschiclitsnnterricht auf Gymnasien. Aurich, 18-47.

Lohell. Grundziige einer Methodik des geschichtlichen Unterrichts

auf Gyinnasien. Leipzig, 1847.
C. Peter. Der Geschichtsunterricht auf Gymnasien. Ein metho-

discher Versxich. Ilalle, 1849.

TT''. Ashman. Das Studium der Geschichte. Braunschweig, 1849.

H. V. Si/bel. Ueber den Stand der neueren deutschen Geschicht-

schreibung. Marliurg, 1856.
./. F. C. Campe. Geschichte und Unterricht in der Geschichte.

Leipzig, 1859.

Friedrich Karl Biederinann. Der Geschichts-Unterricht in dcr
Schule, seine Mangel und ein Vorschlag zu seiner Reform.
Braunschweig, 18G0. pp. 45.

G. Weber, Der Geschichtsunterricht in Mittelschulen. Heidel-

berg, 18G4.
Anon. L'eber die Nothwendigkeit einer griindlichen Reform des

I^ehrplans fiir den Geschichtsunterricht auf Real- und hoheren

Biirgerschulen. Neuwied, 1870.
^f. Lazarus. Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte. Berlin, 1872.
.7. G. JJroysen. Grundriss der Ilistorik. Leipzig, 1868. pp. 38.

Rudolph Foss, Realschule Director. Wie ist der Unterricht in der
Geschichte mit dem Geographischen Unterricht zu verbinden.
Dargelegt an der Darstellung der Mark Brandenburg. Eine
Anleitung fiir Lehrer und reiferen Schiilern. Mit Karten.
Berlin, 1874. pp. 48.

A". F. Eherhardt. Zur Methode und Technik des Geschichtsunter-
richts auf den Seminarien. Eisenach, 1874.

0. A . GrilUich. Beitrag zur Methodik des Geschichtsunterrichtes
an hoheren Lehranstalten. Lcibau, 1874.

C. Radenhausen. Osiris. Weltgesetze in der Weltgeschichte.
Hamburg, 1875.

INTEODUCTION. Vll

F. Muster, Hauptlehrer in Koln. Die Geschichte in der Volkschule ;
eine von der Diesterweg-Stiftung in Berlin priimiirte Concur-
renzschrift. Koln, 1876. pp. 78.

F. Krieger. Der Gescliichtsunterricht in Volks-, Biirger- und
Fortbildungsschulen. Eine Anleitung z\vc richtigen Ertlieil-
ung der Geschichte. Niirnberg, 1876.

R. Mayr. Die philosophische Geschichtsauifassung der Neuzeit.

Wien, 1877.
F. L. W. Herbsf, Recter der Kon. Landeschule Pforta. Die Neure

und Neueste Geschichte aixf Gymnasien. Mainz, 1877. pp. 40.

Ottokar Lorenz, Wirkl. Mitgleid der K. Akademie der Wissen-
schaften. Friedrich Christoph Schlosser und ueber einige
Aufgaben und Principien der Geschichtschreibung. Wien,
1878. pp. 91.

Clemens Nohl. Ueber die Nothwendigkeit einer griindlichen Reform
des Lehrplans fiir den Geschichtsunterricht auf Real- und
hoheren Biirgerschulen. Neuweid.

H. NohascTieck. Ueber der Geschichts-Unterricht in einer Volk-
schule von acht Klassen. Ein methodischer Versuch. Mainz,
1878. pp. 38.

F. Jodl. Die Culturgeschichtsschreibung, ihre Entwickelung und
ihr Problem. Halle, 1878.

H. Doer gens. Grundlinien einer Wissenschaft der Geschichte.

Leipzig, 1878.
M. Lazarus. Erziehung und Geschichte. Bi-eslau & Leipzig, 1881.

pp. 51.
E. F. Oscar-Jager. Bemerkungen ueber den Geschichtlichen

Unterricht. Beigabe zur dem "Hilfsbuch fiir den ersten

Unterricht in alten Geschichte." Fiir Lehrer der Geschichte

an Hoheren Schulen. "Wiesbaden, 1882. pp. 47.
Anon. Wie Studirt Man classische Philologie und Geschichte.

Leipzic, 1884.
Maurenbrecher. Geschichte und Politik. 1884.
Keferstein. Historiches Wissen und historiche Bildung. Ziller's

pad. Jahrbuch XIII., p. 130, et seq.

via INTIIODUCTION.

Zillig. Der Gescliichtliche Unterricht in den elementaren Erzie-
hiing Schulen. Zilli-r's piid. Jahrbuch, XIV., p. 89, ei seq.

K. J. Eberhardt. Uelier Geschichts-Unterricht in Rein's pJid.
Studien. Ileft 4.

E. Blume. Geschichts-Unterricht auf den Seminarien Rein's pftd.

Studien.
P. Fre'diricq. De L'enseignement Supdrieur de I'histoire en Alle-

magne. Revue de L'instruction publique en Belgique, 1882.

pp. 18-79

P. Fre'ilc'ricq. L'enseignement Superienr de I'histoire ii Paris.
Revue Internationale de L'enseignement, 1883. p. 742.

See also, Alte und neue Ansichten ueber die Ziele des Geschichts-
Unterrichts. Von F. Noack. " Pjidagogische Archiv," 1883, Apr. G.
Der Lemstoff in Geschichtlichen Unterricht. Von E. Siutzer. Ibid.
2 Aug. Seif/nohos, Revue Internationale, 1881, X., and also in
Revue, Internationale de L'enseignement, Tome I., p. 5G5, and
Aug., 1884. Krau(h% Revue d'instruction publique en Belgique,
XIX. The Study of History, its Lets and Hindrances, by £^. j4 .
Freeman, 1870. See also his recent inaugural address at Oxford,
both of which are, however, little but reiterations of his theory of
the unity, through Roman institutions, of Ancient and Modern
history.

In America nothing has heretofore been published of such
value as "Methods of Historical Study," by Dr. H. B.
Adams, in the Johns Hopkins University Studies, in " His-
torical and Political Science," which be edits. Baltimore,
1884. pp. 136. Also C. K. Adams's "Manual of Historical
Study." The former work is in part Dr. Adams's contri-
bution to the present volume. See, too, Mr. Atkinson's
lectures on " Histor}- and the Study of History." For
teachers of the young Adams's Historical Chart, and for all
Tillinghast's translation of Ploetz's "Epitome of Ancient,
Mediaeval, and Modern History," Boston, 1844, will be use-

INTRODUCTION. IX

ful. Also, " Instruction in History," b}' Dr. G. Diesterweg,
printed in the first edition of this book, but omitted and now
published separately. Boston, 1884.

Man}- of the systematic German treatises on pedagogy
also contain suggestive chapters or sections devoted to the
didactics of histoiy ; of these, Kehr and Schrader may be
mentioned as representatives.

History was chosen for the subject of the first volume of
this educational library because, after much observation in
the schoolrooms of man}' of the larger cities in the eastern
part of our country, the editor, without having a hobT)y
about its relative importance or being in any sense an expert
in history, is convinced that no subject so widely taught is,
on the whole, taught so poorly.

Most text-books now in use are dry compilations, and yet
are far more closely adhered to than even the best should
be in this department. Teachers of history generally give
instruction also in several other often unrelated branches;
and, worst of all perhaps, history is crowded into a single
term or year. Two radical changes, which have long since-
been found practicable in schools of corresponding grades in
Germany, are greatl}' needed here. First, there should be in
all the larger towns special teacheis, who should go from.
room to room, or from one schoolhouse to another, and give
instruction in history alone. They might qualify and be ex-
amined in higher and higher grades of work, and this would'
tend to give to their vocation a professional spirit and char-
acter. It is not impossible that, eventually thus, the way into

X INTRODUCTION.

the professors' chairs in our colleges aud universities might
be as open to teachers here, wlio have worked their way up
through such an apprenticeship, as it is in Germany. The
teacher's mind must be kept saturated with its spirit, stored
with copious illustrations of its varied lessons, by wide and
diligent reading, or histor}^ cannot be taught effectively to
the young. The high educational value of history is too
great to be left to teachers who merely hear recitations, keep-
ing the finger on the place in the text-book, and only asking
the questions conveniently printed for them in the margin or
back of the book, — teachers, too, who know that their
present method is a good illustration of how history ought
not to be taught, and who would do better if opportunity
were afforded them. Nowhere is so much of the time spent
on text-books by pupils lost on school artifacts, mistaken
for perplexities inherent in the subject itself. When we
reflect that what men think of the world depends on what
they know of it, it is not surprising that the wider altruistic
and ethical interests, which it is a special function of history
to develop, rarely become strong enough to control narrower
and more isolated and selfish aims in life.

Secondly, the time devoted to historical study in the pub-
;iic schools should be increased. So slow is historical com-
prehension, and so independent of all cram-work, that even
the time now given to history would probably l)e moi*e advan-
tageously used if distriljuted over more months or years, by
devoting to it a coirespondingly less number of hours per
week ; though this could not be said of most studies, and is

INTRODUCTION. XI

not ti'iie of the examinable elements in this. We have not
yet in this country considered the problem of adapting his-
torical material to the earlier phases of the development of
the childish mind from the first years of school life, as Ziller
and his pupils, especially Rein, Pickel, and Scheller, have
done in their recent Pddagogische Studien. The child's love
of stories, they hold, is the earliest manifestation of historic
interest, and should be developed by systematic story-telling,
which, since the much-lauded invention of Herr Giittenburg,
has become a lost art. So important is this art, that normal
schools should give special training in it, and it should be
made, with respect to young classes, the culmination of
pedagogic skill. These writers have selected and arranged
twelve of Grimm's tales, and would bring nearly the whole
work of school the first year about these, upon the principle
of the well-known concentration method of the late Professor
Ziller. They are to be told and retold, and then reproduced
by the children item b}^ item, and moral and religious senti-
ments, as well as all manner of material information and
illustrative object-lessons, made to centre about them. The
next year connected stories from Robinson Crusoe are treated
in the same way, till the child comes to almost identify itself
with the hero, and repeat with him the slow progress, not
unlike that of the race, from destitution to comfort and com-
parative civilization by the use of powers which every child
feels itself possessed ©f and as competent as Robinson to
put forth under like circumstances for his own amelioration.
Later select tales from the Old Testament are made the focal

xli INTRODUCTION.

points of the school work. Thus the unity of the child's
mind is secured from distracting special studies, which with
advancing school years become more and more independent
and isolated. Selections from the Odyssey, the Norse sagas,
tales from Shakespeare, Herodotus, Livy, Xenophon, etc.,
follow. — all stimulating the historical sense, and creating
centres of interest before technical instruction in history
begins.

A teacher who has a prescribed period of history in which
to qualify pupils in a given time should elect a method with
the greatest care. For certain periods and for certain ages
it may be best to group all the material about the biographies
of eminent men ; for others, about important battles ; while
a ptn-ely i)ragmatic naiTative may again be most effective.
With somewhat older children, the investigating method,
which follows the order and describes the process of search
and discovery of historic facts ; or the discussive method,
which applies a body of historic material to the determina-
tion or elucidation of a problem of the present ; or the other
presentative methods which Droysen has enumerated, maj'
have peculiar pedagogic merit. No rules can be laid down
here or anywhere in pedagogy to be followed blindly. "What
is essential is that the teacher shall know and ponder many
good metliods, so that he may have a wide repertory of
means from which to choose the best for the attainment of
his ends.

A purely colorless presentation of facts, such as used to
be postulated, is clearly impossible for the average teacher,

INTRODUCTION. XIU

and, could it be secured, would rob his instruction of most of
its value and interest, — and yet it is the safest of all ideals.
Teachers of the grades here contemplated seem just now
peculiarl}- liable to hobbies which sometimes actually deform
the pupil's historic sense, and illustrate the danger of great
ideas to minds not well disciplined for them. Some who
have very lately caught the national idea of P'reeman, Stubbs,
etc., do scanty justice to Norman influence in English his-
tory. Others, who have realized the pregnant sense in which
" history is past politics," forget the other sense in which
the history of the world has been at nearly every point
very different from the history of the conscious purposes
of the leaders in its movements, and that " while men
thought they were doing this thing by these means, it was
later seen that they were really doing quite other things
by very different means." Physical geography, as impor-
tant perhaps for a correct understanding of historic events
as some knowledge of the senses and the brain is for
mental science, is very apt to be too much neglected or,
though far more rarely, to be made too prominent. Histor}'',
a wise teacher has said in substance, is neither a theophany,
or a series of special providences, nor a play of absolute
ideas on the one hand, nor the product of material necessity
on the other. This dualism is not normal, and a true peda-
gogy, like a true philosophy' of history, will tend to reconcile
and not to emphasize it. If a teacher feels the need of a
philosoph}' of history as a background for his methods and
as a safeguard against one-sidedness, he will hardly find a

XIV INTRODUCTION.

saner one than iu the chapters of the third volume of Lotze's
Microcosm, which opens up a broad and safe middle way
between extremes, like those of Hegel and Helwald ; but
let him remember that philosophic ideas, while they may
often enliven historic work, are dangerous if premature, and
should be made centres of historic interest only quite late in
the pupil's mental development.

The liberality of the publishers has made it possible to
eliminate from the second about half the material of the first
edition and to substitute new matter to an extent which
somewhat enlarges the volume, and of a kind which it is
believed so increases its value and utility that readers of
the old edition will find this essentially a new work. If the
methods detailed in the first edition were mainly for advanced
historical training, or for teaching " not so much histoi'y, as
how to stud}' history," the present collection of essays will,
it is hoped, prove of service to teachers of all grades.

G. STANLEY HALL.

JoHXS Hopkins Univebsitt, Dec. 16, 1884.

Methods of Teaching American History.

By De. a. B. Hart, Harvard University.

CONSIDEEING the thought which has been devoted to
the deduction of general principles, applicable to history
as a science, wherever taught, it seems almost presuming to
assume that there are any peculiar methods of teaching
American history. It is always well, however, to test
principles by finding out whether they ma}- be adapted to
a particular case ; and if any history meets with special
difficulties, and needs a special treatment, it is that of our
own countr}-.

In the first place, it is almost always the first, and often
the last, branch of the subject to be pursued at all. In the
second place, there exists not only a negative ignorance as
to the facts on which it is based, but too often a positive
misinformation, — a structure to be pulled down before one
can begin to build. It is only necessary to turn to the Con-
gressional Globe, or to the columns of a newspaper, to find
out that public men know a great many things about the
history of the United States which never happened. Where i
there is good will to learn the truth, there is usually an uu- 1
trained helplessness about using books. "Where there is
discrimination, and a readiness to choose the best, there
is a lack of trustworthy authorities in compact form. The
luminous brief histories with which the Germans abound
simply do not exist in America. After 1820, there is no
narrative historv which can be used as a college text-book ;
and, till Von Hoist wrote, there was no critical history
whatever.

2 l^rETHODS OF TEACHING

Yet no country can boast of a richer or more instructive
past : it is full of interesting detail ; it has, iu the slavery
contest, the most dramatic episode of the century ; it abounds
in questions which have nowhere else been worked out^; no
other government ever had more revenue than it could spend ;
no other country ever disposed of the soil of half a continent ;
no other people ever successfully developed a strong federa-
tion. To Americans the great questions of national policy
are of peculiar interest, because capable of personal associa-
tion. To give an example : one of the students at Harvard,
who is writing a thesis on the fugitive slave law, has gone
for information to a man who had been tried under that law
before the student's father. Thus American histor}- has, at
home, a presumption in its favor. It is important not only
to the American, but for any student of political science.
It appeals to that practical side of the American character,
which is likely to prefer a subject which has an evident use
beyond collegiate life. Finally, the authorities are easy to
find, wherever there is a library; and there is no lack of
interesting questions waiting for investigators.

American histor3- will, therefore, be studied more than
other history ; it is not learned without study ; it is worth
studying for itself; it appeals to Americans ; and the materials
are at hand. The next question is, How shall it be studied?
The question naturally- divides itself into a discussion of
general principles, arrangement and division, purpose, point
of view, manner of instruction, helps to the student, and
tests.

First of all, it is necessary to lay down certain fundamental
principles in such form as to leave them sharp!}' defined in
the minds of the students. They ma}' be so framed as to
correct a few of the more dangerous popular errors about
the real relations of the United States to other countries.

AMERICAN HISTORY. 3

It might be well to draw up aud print some such list as the
following : —

FUNDAMEXT^ PrIXCIPLES OF AMERICAN HlSTORY.

1. No nation has a history disconnected from that of the rest
of the world : the United States is closely related, in point of
time, with previous ages ; in point of space, with other civilized
countries.

2. Institutions are a growth, and not a creation : the Consti-
tution of the United States itself is constantly changing with the
changes in public opmion.

3. Our institutions are Teutonic in origin : they have come to
us through English mstitutions.

4. The growth of our institutions has been from local to
central : the general government can, therefore, be understood
only in the light of the early history of the country.

5. The principle of union is of slow growth in America: the
Constitution was formed from necessity, and not from preference.

6. Under a federal form of government there must inevitably
be a perpetual contest of authority between the States and the
general government : hence the two opposing doctrines of States-
rights and of nationality.

7. National political parties naturally appeal to the federal
principle when in power, aud to the local principle when out of
power.

8. "\Yhen parties become distinctly sectional, a trial of strength
between a part of the States and the general govei-nment must
come sooner or later.

To descend from the abstract to the concrete, perhaps no
better way can be found for suggesting a method for the
study of American history' than to describe the methods
actually in use in Harvard College. It is to be borne in
mind that the system is still incomplete and imperfect, and
that a part only of the devices to be enumerated have been
put into operation.

4 METHODS OF TEACHING

Beginning with 1884, two full courses, each consisting of
three lectures a week, will be given. Together they arc to
cover the whole period from the earliest settlements to the
Civil War ; although intended to form a sj'stematic whole,
each is to be complete in itself. Tlie first course (1000-1789)
is intended for a small number of students, and will be sug-
gestive rather than didactic. The point of view will be :
first, the origin of our local institutions ; and, later on, the
nature of the Constitution, as illustrated b}' the preceding
history of the United Colonics and United States. The
second course (1789-1861) is one of the larger electives in
college ; what follows maj- be considered as fipplying more
particularly to this course, — the history of the United States
under the Constitution.

From 1775 down, a course on American history ought to be
primarily for instruction. If human nature were otherwise,
if the fitting schools gave a difTerent preparation, another
method might be followed. As it is, few students know
:auything positive about institutions; how should they, with-
■ out any good elementary text-books? Our political treatises
and speeches show the lack of knowledge, and the danger of
generalizing without it. Van Burcn's "Political Parties"
is an example of a book which thus assumes history instead
of teaching it. On the other hand, it is quite as undesirable
for the student to accept the instructor's generalizations
ready-made. With bright students it is perfectly possible,
after putting clearly before them the facts and the deductions
of both sides, to extract from them an independent judg-
ment. They may l)e required to I'cad specific references, and
then to submit, in brief form, a written opinion embodying
their own conclusions. It is, of course, essential not to turn
the lecture-room into a primary meeting by discussing politi-
cal parties as they now exist. Part of the duty of the

AMERICAN HISTOKY. 5

instructor is to point out the evils in our political s^'stem ;
but having once based his deduction on ascertained facts,
he may safely leave the application to the student. The sug-
gestive method is not to be left out of sight ; but suggestions
must follow and not precede knowledge. In the present
state of the preparatory schools, the present want of text-
books, the present superficiality of more general works, the
present mass of ill-digested material, if the instructor does
not himself supply accurate and detailed information, his
students will not have it.

With all the restrictions thus laid upon him, it is still
possible for the instructor to select a point of view which
will oblige his students to think, and to see the relation of
one part of history to another ; it is, the comparison of the
past with the present. No histoiy is better adapted to the
method than our own ; no treatment lends more life to a
course, or appeals more strongly to young minds. The con-
nection between a subject under discussion, and the same
subject in our present system, is alwaj'S useful in itself and
fructifying to the mind. To give a specific instance : After
a lecture on Jackson's removals, and the effect of the system
thus introduced, the students were last 3-ear required to
submit a written suggestion for a remedy. The results were
crude, but thoughtful, and in some cases shrewd and far-
seeing. Care should be taken, however, to preserve the
consistency of the course ; it is a mistake to work from the
present backward. If each topic, as it comes up in its logical
order, is sketched out clear to its present status, the con-
nection of events with each other need not be broken.

The only practicable form of instruction at Harvard seems
to be that of lectures. The classes are too large for recita-
tions, even did proper text-books exist. In lectures alone
can the instructor arrange the proportions of the coui'se him-

b METHODS OF TEACHING

sell'. In conncctiou with lectures tlie student may be led to
use many books, instead of two or three, or half a dozen.
The lectures arc all, or nearly all, delivered l)y the instructor ;
it is only in rare cases that a student may have looked up a
subject in such detail that he can profitably lecture (not read
a thesis) before the class. The method, in a word, is the
topical. The precise scope of the course for the year 1883-84
may be seen by the following : —

Tones FOR A Course of Eighty-six Lectures ox the Politi-
cal AND Constitutional History of the United States.^

1. Introductory. — Methods of the course. Suggestions on uote-
takins: and on liabits of study.

2. Preliminary Conceptions. — "^^^lat is history ? What is a
Constitution? What is the Uuited States?

3. Authorities. — Official publications. Legal. Newspapers.
Biograpliies. Works of statesmen. Constitutional treaties. Gen-
eral histories.

4. Constitution of England at the outbreak of the Revolu-
tion. Tlieorelical. Actual. Conventional: Esprit des Loin, xi.,
chaps, i.-vi. Institutions of the United States derived from Eng-
land.

.5. The Colonies. — Government by England. Local govern-
ment. Application of English law. The issue in the Revolution.

6. Union of the Colonies. — Early schemes.

7. Colonial Union accomplished. — Difficulties in 1775. Rea-
sons in 177.J. Origin of the revolutionary government. Sovereign
powers exercised. Limitations.

8. Independence. — Early suggestions. Preparatory steps. Xa-
ture and bearing. New State governments. Union older than the
States.

1 The list is condensed from the "Outline" printed by the class in
1883-84 ; only those required references appear which are appended to the
main heads of the lectures ; there are many others in the original. The
coarse for 1884-85 begins later, and comes ten years further down.

AIMEEICAN HISTORY. 7

9. The Confederation. — Formation. Powers. Defects : Story,
§ 265.

10. Conflicts of the Confederation. — Theories of power over
States. Attempts to assert authority. Violations by States. Vio-
lations by CongTess.

11. "Weakness of the States. — In their relations to the people.
In the relations of people to the States.

12. Proposed Amendment of the Articles of Confederation.

— By grants of particular powers. By grants of coercive power.
By change in the form of the government.

13. The Constitutional Convention. -•'Call. Preliminaries.
Task. Parties. Sources. Propositions. Development of action on
individuals.

14. Scope of the Constitution. — Questions settled. Questions
unsettled. Questions imperfectly settled.

15. Origin and Nature of the Constitution. — Ratification.
" W'ho made the Constitution ? " " T\niat is the Constitution ? "

16. The United States in 1789. — Geography, — social, eco-
nomic, political. Origin of parties.

17. Organization of the Government. — Expiration of the
Confederation : /. C, xiii. 170. Elections : McMastei; i. 525-32 ;
Schoulei-, I. 70-73, 82-85. Congress : Snow, 13-14. The executive :
Snoic, 15-17. The judiciary : St^ow, 17-18.

18. Early Constitutional Questions. — Oath. Citizenship.
Amendments. Lidians. Territories.

19. Acts for putting into Effect Clauses of the Constitution.

— Revenue: McMaster, i. 544, 55; Schouler, i. 86-93, 187. Xaviga-
tion and commerce.

20. Same, continued. — Defence and preservation of order.
General weKare of the United States.

21. Questions relating to the States. — Assumption and capi-
tal: Mc Master, 1.574-85; Von Hoist, i. 80-89. Apportionment:
Hildreth, iv. 303 ; Schouler, i. 188-89.

22. Same, continued. — Slavery : Von Hoist, i. 272-309. Fugi-
tive slaves : Von Hoist, i. 309-15. New States : Hildreth, iv. 147,
209, 268, 326. Suits against States : Schouler, i. 273-74.

23. Constitutional Questions of National Policy. — Protec-

8 METHODS OF TEACHING

tion: Hildreth, iv. 05-70; Schouler, i. 87-90. National bank:
Schouler, i. 159-62; Snoiv, 24-27; Slonj, §§ 1231-66.

24. "Washingtou's First Admiuistration. — Appointments :
Schouler, i. 93, 107-9. Washington's character and policy: Von
Hoist, II. 80-83. Quarrels in the cabinet : ^fol•se's Jeff., 96-145 ;
Lodge's Ilatn., 140-48. Investigation of Hamilton : Lodge, 148-52 ;
Schouler, i. 175, 210-20.

25. Foreign Relations : France and England. — Neutrality
question: \'o/i Hoist, i. 100-12; Lodge's H(tm., l.>i-C6. Complica-
tions -svith France : Schouler, i. 246-55, and Lodge, 100-75 ; Morse's
Jeff., 146-65, and Von Hoist, i. 113-18. Complication with Eng-
land : Hildreth, IV. 440—43. Preparations for war : Schouler,
I. 260-73 : Lodge. 175-SO.

20. "Whiskey Rebellion. — Causes: Adams's Gallatin, 86-93.
Constitutional question of coercion. Suppression. Effects.

27. Jay Treaty. Legislation. Election. — Conclusion of a
treaty ^vith England: Von Hoist, i. 122-28; Schouler, i. 308-18.
General legislation. Retirement of AVashington : Schouler, i. 327-
31 ; Von Hoist, i. 32-37.

28. Foreign Affairs : Spain and France. — Relations with
Spain : Hildreth, iv. 134-36, 569 ; v. 238-39. X. Y. Z. affair : Gil-
man's Monroe, 44-08; Schouler, i. 317-20, 345-51, 374-91.

29. Alien and Sedition Acts. — Third naturalization act :
Schouler, i. 393 ; Hildreth, v. 213-14, 210. Alien Act : Story,
§§ 1293-94; Schouler, i. 394-99. Alien Enemies Act. Sedition
Act: Schouler, i. 390-404; Von Hoist, i. 141-13; Hildreth, v.
22.>-32, Application of the acts : Schouler, i. 420-21, 448-50 ;
Hildreth, v. 247-50, 352, 365, 368.

30. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. History. — Origin.
Kentucky Resolutions : Von Hoist, i. 143-15 ; Hildreth, v. 272-76 ;
Jeff., XI. 464-69. Virginia Resolutions : Schouler, i. 422-24 ; Hil-
dreth, v. 270-77. Action of other States : Hildreth, v. 290-97.
Second Kentucky Resolutions : Hildreth, \. 319-20. Madison's
Report : Hildreth, v. 319-21 ; Von Hoist, i. 147. Was forcible
resistaiico intendfd? Von Hoist, i. 150-58.

31. The Supreme Arbiter. — Necessity of some final tribunal.
Distinction between judicial and ijoiitical cases. Controversies

AMEEIC^'LN HISTORY. 9

between departments of the general government. Controversies
between citizens. Controversies to which States are parties.

32. Interposition as a Remedy for Usurpation. — Other
remedies. Interposition as a remedy : Von Hoist, i. 150-69 ; Madi-
son, IV. 95-106.

33. Fall of the Federal Party. — Unpopularity of the admin-
istration. Unpopularity of Congress : Hildreth, v. 414. Dissen-
sions within the party : Lodc/e's Ham., 188-236 ; Schouler, i. 466-
75. Election of 1801: Lodge, 194-201; Von Hoist, i. 168-78.
Ti'iumph over federal principles : Von Hoist, i. 178-83 ; Hildreth,
V. 415-18.

34. Policy of the Republican Party. — Administrative :
Snow, 69-76; Cook's Notes, 148-02; Schouler, ii. 2-15. Legisla-
tive: Snow, 76-79; Cook's Notes, 163-68; Schoider, ii. 15-26.
Tripolitan war: Cook's Notes, 167-68; Schouler, ii. 16-18.

35. The Public Lands. — Jurisdiction before the Revolution:
H. B. Adams, in Maryland Historical Society Fund Publication, No.
11; Blunt' s Historical Sketch. Question of national jurisdiction.
Administration before 1789. Alienation before 1789. Land sys-
tem of the United States.

36. The Louisiana Annexation. — Previous changes of owner-
ship: Morse's .Jeff., 231-39. Negotiations : Morse's Jeff., 239-46;
Gibnan's Monroe, 74-85; Schouler, ii. 37-51; Adams's Randolph,
75-81. Treaty of cession completed: Gihnan's Monroe, 85-93;
Stevens's Gallatin, 201-2. Constitutionality of the treaty: Story,
§§ 1277-83.

87. "New England Plot of 1803-4." — Early suggestions of
separation. Causes of dissatisfaction. Evidences of a " plot " :
Adams's New England Federalism ; Von Hoist, i. 193-95. Effect
of the " plot " : Von Hoist, i. 197-99.

38. Republican Legislation and Administration.^ — Impeach-
ment of the judges : Hildreth, v. 511-12, 540-44; Adams's Randolph,
131-53. Election of 1804: Schouler, u. 59, 66; Morse's Jeff.,
268-71. The Territories. Finance and defence : Adams's Gallatin,
348-49, 352-55. Internal improvements : Stevens's Gallatin, 300 ;
Adams's Gallatin, 352-54,

10 METHODS OF TEACHING

;]0. Burr's Conspiracy. — Burr's plans: Hildreth, v. 594-G03;
RandaWs Jeff., in. 17;}-78. The expedition: 7/JWre«/i, v. G03-24;
Randall's Jeff., III. 179-86. Habeas corpus cases : Hildreth, v.
01'2-1:3; Raudairs Jeff., in. 194-08. Prosecution for treason: 7f/7-
(//•e//i, V. 0(58-7 ;5 ; Stor;/. ^ 1790-97. Enforcement Act.

40. Neutral Trade and the Embargo. — Foreign aggression :
Hildreth, V. G46-49 ; Schouler, ii. 151-56. Jefferson's policy:
Hildreth, V. 65:3-65, 674-86; Schouler, u. 133-51. The embargo:
Schouler. II. 156-65; Hildreth, vi. 35-14.

41. Failure of Jefferson's Policy. — Enforcement: Schouler,
II. 185-94; Hildreth, vi. 108-24; Vo>i Hoist, i. 209-13. Repeal:
Morse's Jeff'., 310-20; Schouler, ii. 194-98; Hildreth, vi. 124-36;
Von Hoist, I. 214-25. Result of Jefferson's administration:
Schouler, n. 198-204; Hildreth, vi. 138-43.

42. Madison's First Term. — General policy : Schouler, ii. 279-
81 ; Stevens's Gallatin, 305-11. Foreign relations. Impending
war : Von Hoist, i. 22.5-30.

43. Review^ of the First Half Year.

44. "War of 1812. — Preliminaries : Von Hoist, i. 226-30 ; Snow,
100-103 ; Von Hoist's Calhoun, 12-26 ; Schouler, ii. 345-47. Declar
ration of war: Von Hoist, i. "230-42 ; Schouler, ii. 348-56. Progress :
Snore, 103-108; Schouler, ii. 356-75; Roosevelt. The militia ques-
tion : Dirlf/ht, 233-57 ; Story, §§ 1204-10.

45. "War of 1812. — Unpopularity in New England: Von Hoist,
I. 243-54. Hartford convention: Von Hoist, i. 254-72; Adams's
New Enrjland Federalism, 245. Close of the war: Schouler, ii.
402-19, 438-44; Hildreth, vi. 545-66. Martial law: North Ameri-
can Review, xciii. 486, 501-504.

46. End of the "War of 1812. — Peace of Ghent: Schouler, ii,
431-38. Results of the war : Von Hoist, i. 273-77. The bank :
Snow, 109-10, 124-25 ; Bolles's Financial History, ii. 278-82, 317-
29; Sumner's American Currency, 68-79; Von Hoist, i. 382-88.

47. Monroe's Administration. Internal Policy. — "Era of
good feeling : " Schouler, ii. 458-63 ; Oilman's Monroe, 125-40.
Tariff of 1816: Snow, 118-24; Von Hoist, i. 396-400; Bolles, u.
359-74 (Protectionist view). Internal improvements. Constitu-
tional question : Von Hoist, x. 388-96.

AISIERICAN HISTORY. 11

48. Relations with Spain. — West Florida question : Hildreth,
VI. 223-28, 310. East Florida question : Sumner's Jackson, 49-72.
Texas question : Von Hoist, u. 548-58.

49. Slavery (1789-1820). Remedies. — Emancipation:
GoodelVs Slavenj and Anti-Slaver ij ; Von Hoist, i. 273-300. Colo-
nization : Von Hoist, i. 329-33. Abolition.

50. Regulation of Slavery. — Von Hoist, i. 302-39. Slave-
trade : Von Hoist, i. 315-28. Growth of slavery. Fugitive
slaves : Von Hoist, i. 310-15. Petitions. Territories.

51. The Missouri Question. — Rivalry of North and South:
Von Hoist, I. 340-56. Status of Missouri. Arkansas Territorial
Act: Von Hoist, i. 372-74. First Missouri debate.

52. Missouri Compromise. — Second debate, Hildreth, vi. G82-
98, The compromise : Von Hoist, i. 370-81 ; Benton's View, I. 5.
Nature and effect of the compromise : Adams's Mejnoirs, v. 3-13 ;
Benton, i. 8-10. The Missouri Constitution : Hildreth, vi. 703,
706-12.

53. Constitutional Decisions. — McCullough v. Maryland :
Marshall, 160-87 ; Van Santvoord's Chief Justices, 459-65. Dart-
mouth College case : Marshall, 188-220 ; Van Santvoord's Chief
Justices, 450-55. Cohens v. Virginia : Marshall, 221-61 ; Van
Santvoord's Chief Justices, 466-69. Effect of the decisions.

54. American Policy of European States. — Colonies. Revolt
of the Spanish Colonies. Schemes of foreign intervention.

55. Monroe Doctrine. Occasion. — European intervention in
Spain. English proposition for joint declaration. Plan of a
Eurojpean Congress. Cuban question. Republican spirit. Rus-
sian complications. Traditional foreign policy of the United
States : Oilman's Monroe, 162-66.

56. Monroe Doctrine. Enunciation. — Preliminary discus-
sion: Gilman's Monroe, 167-74. The declaration: Gilman's Mon-
roe, 156-62; Von Hoist, i. 419-21. Effect of the declaration.
Exposition of the declaration. Historical development.

57. Tariff, and Election of 1824. — Tariff : Von Hoist, i. QQQ-
404. The election : ]\m Hoist, ii. 1-9.

58. Adams's Administration. Opposition. — Opposition formed:
Sargent, Public Men and Events, 106-14. Panama mission: Von

12 METHODS or TEACHING

Hoist, I. 409-33. Amendmont for rresidential elections : Benton,
I. 37, 78-80. Attempt to control patronage : Benton, i. 80-87.
Anti-Masonic party. Attack on the expenditures. General inter-
nal policy of Adams: Morse's Adams, 199-213.

59. Creek Controversy. — Early difficulties. Negotiations "with
the Creeks : ]'nn llolst, i. 433-35. Controversy about the survey :
Von llolst, I. 435-43 ; Benton, i. 58-GO. Second controversy : Von
llolst, I. 441-48.

GO. Accession of Jackson. — Tariff of 1828 : Von llolst,
I. 4.'39-G3. Election of Jackson: Sumner, 114-18. Jackson's
policy : Von llolst, u. 9-12. Internal events of Jackson's first
administration : Sumner, 139-63 ; Von Hoist, ii. 27-31.

Gl. Removals. Internal Improvements. Public Lands. —
Removals: Von llolst, ii. 13-27. Internal iiiiproveuieuts : Sumner s
Jackson, 191-94; Von Hoist, I. 389-96. Public lands: Sumner's
Jackson, 109, 184-91.

G2. Cherokee Controversy. — Origin of the difficulty : Sumner,
49, 179. Contiict -with Georgia : Von llolst, i. 448-49. Georgian
encroachments permitted : Sumner, 180-81 ; Von llolst, i. 449-51.
Conflict with the supreme court : Von Hoist, i. 452-58.

63. The Bank Controversy. — History of the bank : Sumner's
Jackson, 221-3G. Hostility of Jackson: Von llolst, ii. 31-36;
Swnner's Jackson, 2'-i(j-iii ; Benton, i. 229-29. Struggle for a char-
ter : Von llolst, II. 36-43; Sumner's Jackson, 244-49, 258-74.
Jackson's veto : Von llolst, ii. 43-55 ; Sumner's Jackson, 274-75.

64. Distribution. — Dickersou's distril)ution bills. Proceeds of
public lands scheme. Clay's distribution bill : Benton, i. 27.5-78.
Clay's bill revived : Benton, i. 362. Pocket veto : Benton, i. 365-69.
Calhoun's scheme : Von Hoist, ii. 187-88. Constitutional question.

65. The Nullification Movement — Precedents: Sumner's Jack-
son, 212-10. Agitation by Calhoun : Von llolst, i.ioO-7 5; Sumner's
Jackson, 210-22. Tariff of 1832 : Von llolst, i. 471 ; Sumner's Jack-
son, 222. Action of South Carolina: Von llolst, i. 475-77. Action
of the Executive of the United States.

GO. Nullification Crisis and Discussion (1332-33). — Issue
joined. Is nullififation ooiistitutional? T'o/; //'V>7, i. 405-75.
67. Nullification. Force Bill and Compromise. — Principle

AMERICAN HISTORY. 13

of Coercion. The Force Bill : Von Hoist, i. 484-90 ; Sumner, 285-87.
The compromise : Vo7i Hoist, i. 490-92, 497-501. The settlement :
Von Hoist, I. 501-503 ; Sunmer, 288-90.
68. The Deposits. — Attack on the bank renewed: Benton,

I. 86-89, 294-90 ; Sumner's Jackson, 291-94. " Removal of the
deposits": Von Hoist, u. 51-55 ; Sumner's Jackson, 2d4r-30Q. Con-
stitutionality of the removal : Story, Life and Letters, ii. 155-58 ;
Von Hoist, II. 55-68.

09. Censure and Protest. — Censure of the President : Sumner's
Jackson, 309-11. Jackson's protest : Sumner, 311 ; Von Hoist, ii. 70-
76. Expunging resolutions : Sumner, 313-14 ; Von Hoist, ii. 08-70.
Bank controversy continued: Sumner, 309, 310, 312, 314-21.

70. Anti-Slavery Agitation. — Agitation in the Xorth : Fon
Hoist, II. 80-87. Opj)osition in the Xorth: Von Hoist, ii. 97-110.
Opposition in the South : Von Hoist, ii. 110-121. The mails : Von
Hoist, II. 121-36. Petitions.

71. Finances and Deposit. — Banks and currency. Deposit
act. French indenmity.

72. Texas. — Boundaries: Von Hoist, ii. 548-51. Imj)ortance
to slavery : Von Hoist, ii. 551-58, 569. Independence : Von Hoist,

II. 558-85. Recognition by the United States : Von Hoist, u. 585-88.

73. End of the "Reign of Jackson." — Judiciary in Jackson's
administration. Election of 1836. Jackson's influence : Sumnei-'s
Jackson, 277-80, 38.5-86.

74. Van Buren's Administration. — Character and policy:
Von Hoist, II. 147-72. Panic of 1837. Public Funds. Caroline
affair- : Lodge's Webster, 247-49, 252, 255.

75. The Whigs and Tyler.— Election of 1840 : Von Hoist, ii. 300-
405. Harrison's policy : Von Hoist, ii. 406-12. Tyler and the bank :
Von Hoist, II. 412-26. Breach with Tyler : Von Hoist, ii. 426-39.
Finances : Von Hoist, ii. 440-51. Tariff of 1842 : Von Hoist, ii. 451-64.

76. North-Bastern Boundary. — The dispute. Negotiations.
Xorthern boundary. Treaty of Washington : Lodge's Webster, 253-60.

77. Slavery : International and Interstate Status. — Legal
aspect of slavery. Restriction of the slave-trade. International
status of slaves in the United States. International status of
slaves on the high seas. Interstate status of slavery.

14 METHODS OF TEACHING

78. Polk's Election and Administration. — Election of 1844.
Polk's internal admiuistratioii. '.rariff of ItiiG : P'on IIolsl, in.
L'7G-81.

7n. Northwestern Boundary. — Conflicting claims : Von Ilolst,
III. 29-^30, 31)-40. Joint occupation with Great Britain : Von Hoist,
III. 3G— 14; Barroics, 07-7(3. American settlements establi.shed : Von
Hoist, III. 44-53. " Fifty-four forty or fight." Treaty of "Washington.

80. Annexation of Texas. — Jackson's policy. Recognition
only : Lecture 72. Van Buren's policy : Von Hoist, ii. 599-G12.
Tyler's policy : Von 7/o/s/, ii. Gl 2-1 4, 025-^1.3. Annexation in the
campaign of 1844 : Von Hoist, ii. G77-90, 702-709. Annexation by
joint resolution : Von Hoist, ii. 709-14 ; Greeley, i. 171-73.

81. Causes of the Mexican "War. — Breach of neutrality by
the United States : Voii Hoist, ii. 571-85. Recognition of Texas :
Lecture 72. Question of claims : Von Hoist, ii. 592-601, G04-006,
G27, G34-3G, G81. Jones's attack on INIonterey : Von Hoist, ii. Gl.5-20.
Annexation of Texas : Von Hoist, ii. 680, in. 80-82. Occupation
of Texas : Von Hoist, in. 93-99. Claim up to the Rio Grande :
Von Hoist, III. 84-93 ; Gal. in. 574-79. Greed for California: Von
Hoist, HI. 108-13.

82. Mexican "War. — Preliminaries. Military operations. Peace
of Guadeloupe Hidalgo : Von Hoist, in.

83. Territorial Slavery. — Comparison of North and South.
Constitutional question of territorial slavery. Application to new
territory.

84. The Crisis of 1848-49. — Election of 1848. Status of the
.slavery question.

85. Compromise of 1850. — Compromise proposed. Attitude
of public men : Greeley, 203-207. Compromise carried : Von Hoist,
in. .545-61. Who won the victory? Von Hoist, in. 561-62.

86. Review of the Second Half Year.

It will be noticed that there are but few distinctively bio-
graphical sketches in the course just outlined. The deficiency
is supplied in part l)y constant reference to the character and
motives of the actors in the historical drama ; it is further

AMEEICAN HISTORY. 15

supplied by references to brief biographies, particularly the
excellent American Statesmen Series. Nevertheless, the
course might be improved by systematically taking up one
man after another, in connection with some event in which
he was particularly concerned. Such a plan has been elab-
orated in the following

Topics for a Course of Twenty Lectures.^

1. The United States in 1789.

2. Organization and consolidation of the government. — Hamilton.

3. Foreign relations and neutrality. — Washington.

4. Fall of the Federal party. — John Adams.

5. Public lands and the annexation of Louisiana. — Gallatin.

6. Neutral trade and the embargo. — Jefferson.

7. War of 1812 and its results. — Madison.

8. Slavery and the Missouri Compromise. — Monroe.

9. Florida purchase and the Monroe doctrine. — John Quincy
Adams.

10. Jackson's election and the spoils system. — Van Buren.

11. The United States Bank and the Sub-treasury. — Jackson.

12. Conflicts with States, and nullification. — Calhoun.

13. The tariff, surplus revenue, and internal improvements. —
Clay.

14. The anti-slavery movement. — Giddings.

15. Annexation of Texas, and the Mexican War. — Polk.

16. Completion of the boundaries of the United States. — Benton.

17. Compromise of 1850. — Webster.

18. Kansas-Nebraska struggle. — Douglas.

19. The slavery issue, and election of 1860. — Seward.

20. Causes of the Civil War. — Jefferson Davis.

In connection with the lectures several aids for the student
have been put in operation. The chief ones are : a printed

1 This course has been arranged for the Swain Free School of New
Bedford, Mass.

10 >[ETHODS or TEACHING

"ontliuc"; helps on note-taking; maps; diagrams; and
helps on thesis writing.

The " outline." of whieli a sample follows, is prepared by
the instructor, and printed, at the expense of those of the
class who choose to subscribe for it, under the direction of a
coniniittec of their own number. The cost has been about
a dollar and a half a page. It is printed in paragraphs, so
as readily to catch the e3'e ; it is printed on one side, so that
the successive lectures may be detached and put among the
students' notes, each in its proper place ; it is printed in
advance, so that the student ma}- have it before him while
he listens. The following is the outline for the first four
lectures of the course for 1 884-85 : —

KoTE. — Opposite eacli heavy-face heading are noted several brief
references, any one of wliich is sufficient for a general outline of the
topic taken up in that section ; the more detailed references, in the
body of the text, arc intended for the convenience of those wlio desire
to go deeper into the history of the jjeriod.

I. Provincial Government and Colonial Union (1G12-1765).

Introduction. The Federal building as -wre find it.

1. The .site — territory.

2. The builders — "the people."

3. ^laterials — institutions.

4. The plan — the Constitution.

5. The agent — a per.sonified head.
G. The purpose — government.

I. The Land : Frothinr/hnm, Rise of (he Republic, 1-5.

1. In 1020: the wilderness and its inhabitants. Map.

2. In 17G5: the British Colonies. Map.

3. Who owned the land? Stori/'s Commentaries, §§ 1-.38.

II. The People : Lodge, Enr/lish Colonies in America, ch. ii.,

cli. XVIII. ; McMaster, History/ of the People of the United
States, I., ch. i.

AMERICAN HISTOllY. 17

1. The race : sturdiness of the Anglo-Saxons.

2. Immigration : causes and distribution. Map.

3. Population : increase and settlement. Diagram.

III. Free Institutions : Frothingham, 11-3-2 ; Bancroft, ii., eh. xvii.

1. Rights of Englishmen : Stonj, §§ 146-58.

2. English reiiresentative institutions.

3. Principle of self-govermnent : Porter, Outlines of the Constitu-

tional History of the United States, 1-36.

4. Special Colonial Institutions : Story's Commentaries, §§ 159-

67.

a. "Provincial governments."
h. " Proprietary governments."
c. " Charter governments."

5. Control by the home government : Lecl-y, History of the Eigh-

teenth Century, ii. 2, in. 272,299 ; Bancroft, in. 1-12, 100-108;
Story, §§ 183-97.

IV. Attempts to form Colonial Unions : Porter, 36-37.
1643. " The United Colonies of Xew England " : Lodge, 351-58.
1696-1752. Various English and American plans : Frothingham,

111-16.
1754. Congress of Albany — Franklin's scheme: Frothingham,

132-40.
1765. Informal union in the Stamp-Act Congress : Frothingham,

177-89.
Why union was difficult.

II. Revolutioxary Uniox and Txdepexdexce. (1765-1776.)

I. Union Accomplished: Von Hoist, History of the United States,
I. 1-20.
A. The Way Prepared : Frothingham, 266-86, 320-39 ; Lodge,
476-91.

1 . "NATiy union was possible.

2. Effect of the Stamp-Act Congress.

3. 1772-73. Committees of Correspondence.

4. 1774. First Continental Congress, union still voluntary:

Journals of Congress, i. 3-67.

18 METHODS OF TEACHING

B. 1775-81. A General Government in the Second Conti-
nental Congress : Lodge, 408-500, 510-21 ; Frothin(jham,
4G(J-00.
'•Tho form of the structure."

1. "What was Congress? Storij, § 201; Frothingham, 420.

2. AVhat was Congress authorized to do? Journal of Congress,

I. 73-78.

3. What did Congress do ? Story, §§ 202-205, 211-17 ; Diagram.
Conduct of the war — Foreign affairs: Ilildrclh's United

States, III. 76-98.
General governing powers. Direction of the States.

4. "Wliat Congress could not do.

n. Independence Accomplished : Z on //o/.s/, i. 20-35; Ilildretk,
in. 121-;J!J.

A. The "Way Prepared : Frothingham, 490-539 ; Bancroft, viii.

384-93, 434-02.
Early predictions and suggestions.
Loyalty at the beginning of the Revohition.

1775. jMay 31. IMecklenbui'g resolutions.

Xov. 3. X. II. advised to form a government.

1776. March-June. Instructions of the States.
]\Iay 15. Congress votes for independence.

B. The Declaration of Independence: Frothingham, 5'i9-Q0;

Morse's Life of Jefferson, 26-40.

1 . Who made it ? Jefferson, i. 9-20.

2. By what authority? Stonj, §§ 205-13.

3. Its influence.

4. Its nature and bearing : Banc7-oft, viii. 462-75.

5. W^ho was made " independent " : Story, § 213.

III. State Goveknments and Imperfect Union.
(1776-1786.)
I. The States.

A. What is a State ? Story, §§ 207-209.

B. Birth of the States: Ilildreth, lu. •i74:-05; Curtis, History

of the Constitution of the United States, i. 37, 116-20.
Colonies left without government.

AMERICAN HISTORY. 19

1775-76. Advice of Congress : Frotldngham, 443-44, 447-51.
Adoption of State constitutions : FroihingJiam, 491-96, 506,

563-68.
C. Is the Union Older than the States ? Fbn Hoist, i. 7-11 :

Stori/, §§ 210-13 ; Curtis, i. 37-40, 122.
State rights view. Calhoun's Works, i. 190.
Temporary purpose A-iew : Jefferson in Von Hoist, i. 7 n.
National view : Lincoln's Message, July 4, 1861.

II. The Confederation : Von Hoist, i. 20-46 ; Story, §§ 218-42.

A. Articles of Confederation. " The plan of the sti'ucture " ;

Hildreth, in. 395-410.
1775-77. Suggestions and drafts : Curtis, i. 104, 124-30.
1777. Nov. 15. Congress adopts the Articles ; Frothingham,

569-79.
The Territorial disputes : //. B. Adams in Maryland Historical

Society Publications ; Curtis, i. 131-40; Afap.
1731. March 1. The Confederation in effect. Map.
Powers granted — Powers withlield : Curtis, i. 140-49.

B. Defects of the Confederation : Story, § 265.

1. In form.

2. In powers gTanted,

3. In means of carrying out its powers.

4. Weakness and timidity.

C. Violations of the Articles of Confederation : Elliot De-

bates, V. 207-208,

1. Tlie States do not perform their duties. Diagrams.

2. Congress oversteps its powers : The Federalist, Xo. 39.

3. The States quarrel with each other : McMaster, r. 210.

III. Union of States in a Confederation a Failure : McMaster,

I., ch. III. ; Schouler, History of the United States, i. 19-34 ;

Story, §§ 243-71.
Debts unpaid ; Newburg Addresses : Bancroft, History of the

Constitution of the United States, i. 76-101 ; Curtis, i. 155-74.
Commerce improtected : Curtis, i. 276-90.
Treaty unfulfilled : Curtis, i. 249-59.
State governments oppressive : Bancroft, Constitution, i. 228-41..

20 METHODS OF TEACHING

The people rebellions : McMaster, i. 204—354.
Western territoiy iingoverned : Curtis, i. 291-308.
Threatened withdrawal of the West: Curth, i. 309-27.
Tlii^ I^lan must be altered or the building abandoned.

]\' . A Xatioxal Goverxmext axb the Uniox. (1781-1789.)

I. Attempt to Improve the Articles of Confederation : Curtis,

I. ;]L>s-7i).

A. By granting Particular Po^vers.

1781. Five per cent scheme : Bancroft, Constitution, i. 34-45.

1783. Revenue scheme : Cwrtw, i. 233-48.

1784. Commercial scheme: Curtis, i. 27G-90; Bancroft,

Constitution, I. 184-209.
1787. Xorth-west Ordinance.

B. By granting Pov^ers of Enforcement.

C. By altering the Form of the Government.

1. To a monarchy. (^Morris.)

2. To a centralized government.

3. To a closer federal government : Bancrof, Constitution,

I. 1 10-07.

II. The Philadelphia Convention : Von Hoist, i. 47-53 ; Froth-

inr/ham, 589-07 ; llildrelh, iii. 482-526 ; Bancroft, Constitution,
II. 3-222 ; Curtis, Constitution, ii. 3-487 ; McMaster, i. 438-53.

Early suggestions of a Convention: Bancrof, Constitution,
I. 11-76.

Annapolis Convention and formal call : Curtis, i. 340-79. ,

1. Powers of the Convention : Curtis, n. 3-17.

2. Its task.

3. Its difficulties.

4. Its compromises.

'5. Its product, — the "New Roof": Von Ilolst, i. 64-79;
Frothinrjham, .597-010.
a. A " government " established : in practical form.
h. A government with power over individuals.

c. A government with power to protect itself.

d. A government which could govern; purpose of the

structure.

A]MERICAN HISTORY. 21

IV. Acceptance of the Constitution : Von Hoist, i. 53-63 ;
McMaster, i. 454-501 ; Curtis, ii. 491-604 ; Bancroft, Consti^
tution, II. 225-350.

1. Process. (1787-88.)

2. Who ratified it? Elliot, i. 319-35.

3. Who were the people of the United States ? Federalist,

No. 39 ; Calhoun's Works, vi. 151-52 ; Elliot, iv. 499-510 :
Story, §§ 362, 463.

4. 1789. April G. The new government in effect. Map.

As will at once be seen, the outline is meant to guide, and
not to be memorized. Indeed, it is purposely cast into
a negative form, which shall not convey too much direct
information. The advantages of the system are many. It
is an aid to intelligent note-taking : the references are veri-
fied by the committee, and annoying errors in getting down
the references given by the lecturer are avoided ; and since
most of the citations are thus before him, the student may
follow the lecture m.ore closely. A convenient means of
reference and cross-reference to the notes themselves is pro-
vided. The lecturer is saved the necessity- of putting tables
and chronologies on the board, and the arrangement and
sequence of his thought is made perfectly clear. To the
student it is a skeleton ready to be clothed from his own
reading, or always at hand hereafter for a more elaborate
study of any topic that may become interesting to him. A
further advantage is, that it is possible, together with the out-
line, to have printed other helps or suggestions, such as do not
strictly fall within the scope of the lectures. Such are the

Principles of Constitutional Discussion.
I. Distinguish clearly into which of the following departments
of Controversy the question falls.

1, Origin of the Constitution : including the question of its
form.

22 METHODS OF TEACHING

2. Scope of the Constitution : usually, but not always, a dis-

cussion of the extent of legislative powers.

3. Interpreter of the Constitution : ihvays involving the judi-

ciary powers aiifl the jurisdiction of the United States Courts.

4. Execution of the Constitution: particularly relating to the

executive powers, but including others.

II. Observe the two aspects selected by the two great schools
of Constitutional exposition, — the loose constructionists and strict
constructionists.

1. Origin, a. Did " the people " form the Constitution ?

b. Is it a "Compact"?
Discussed particularly in 17!Jl and 18.30.

2. Scope, a. Are there " Constructive powers " ?

b. Are powers limited to " express grants " ?
Discussed particularly in 1701, 1799, 1803, 1819, 1833, 1842.

3. Interpreter, a. Is the Supreme Court the " Common arbiter " ?

b. Can States "interpose" to make acts void ?
Discussed particularly in 1799, Ibl.j.

4. Execution, a. Can the United States " coerce " the execution

of its acts?
b. Can States by " secession " make themselves
independent ?
Question raised in 1861. It involves the cpiestion of allegiance.

III. Draw arguments from four sources.

1. Nature of government in general.

2. "Words of the Constitution.

0. Opinions.

a. Testimony of " the fathers."

b. Views of statesmen and jurists.

c. Decisions of the Supreme Court.

4. Usage, as shown in the history of tlio United States.
TV. Kf.-p in mind and avoid certain difficulties.

1. Confusion of arguments among the different departments of

controversy.

2. Possibility of bringing strong proofs of contrary aspects.

3. Change of party views and party arguments.

AIVIERICAN HISTORY. 23

The main purpose of the '• outline " is, however, to direct,
or rather to suggest, the reading of the students. The range
of references in any of the larger courses in history is re-
stricted by three difficulties : one mechanical, one temporal,
and one general. In the first place, no library' has a suf-
ficient number of copies of original sources to furnish fifty
or a hundred men with working materials ; recourse must
therefore be had to easily accessible books, which the stu-
dent may own or borrow. In the second place, allowing a
fair proportion of study hours to the subject of American
history, there is time for reading, but not for research, col-
lation, and selection of authorities. The difficulty is made
greater by the overwhelming mass of undigested details :
the instructor owes it to his students to select the really sig-
nificant events for them, and to send them direct to a pas-
sage where these events may be found described. If time
is to be fouud for original investigation, the field must be
restricted. Here comes in the third difficulty. To refer
a student in a general way to a library or an alcove, or a
work, or even a volume, for information, is, in average
cases, to make sure that he will get none : the moral repug-
nance to deciding what to do first and where to begin, is
great enough, without addiug the discouragement of having
to select one's materials. It is, of course, a good thing for
a man to read books which are not ver}' useful, and to handle
and recognize many that he cannot read. But, as a practical
matter of fact, ordinary students cannot be got to investigate
in a course covering so much ground ; and, indeed, where
there is so much trash, it is unfair to turn them into an intel-
lectual cornfield, to help themselves. The references there-
fore should be specific and limited : there should be no excuse ■
for not taking hold somewhere. The first class of references
in the outline is made up of those opposite the sub-heads of

24 MJETIIODS OF TEACHING

the lectures ; many are given in the list of topics quoted
above. The}- are to common books ; they are precise ; they
are limited ; the student is held responsible for one, at least,
on cver^' sub-topic. The second class of references, in the
body of the outline, is intended for the more ambitious stu-
dents, or for special work ; the references are chiefly to the
sources.

In aiTanging the references, care is taken to introduce the
reader to a variety of authors, and to refer often to books
which take a different view from that presented in the lec-
tures. The whole plan rather takes for granted some system
of " reser\^ed books," by which the books most often cited
are kept altogether for use in the library, or may be drawn
out only over night. The one book on which most reliance is
placed is Yon Hoist's. No writer has so thoroughly studied
and digested the enormous mass of material ; no writer
searches more carefull}' for the hidden springs of action ;
none is so suggestive. He assumes, however, a general
knowledge of the history of the country, which must be
supplied by other reading or from the lectures.

Xeithcr the outline nor the study of the references is con-
sidered sufficient. Students are expected to take careful
notes, and to complete them out of their own reading. As
an assistance to the somewhat difficult labor, a system is
recommended : it is designed to spare as much time from the
manual labor of writing as may be, and thus to leave as
much as possible for study.

Suggestions for taking Notes.

1. Have a regular system.

2. If you have worked on), a system of your o-wn which satisfies
you, do not change it.

3. Shorthand is not a great convenience, unless the notes arc
afterwards put into a form which may be read by any one.

AIMERICAN HISTORY. 25

4. A system of recognizable abbreviations is desirable.

5. Take notes all the time during the lecture.

6. A word-for-word reproduction of what you hear is much less
valuable to you than yom- own condensed form, embodying the
lecturer's ideas.

7. Distinguish in your own mind the heads of the lecture as it
proceeds, and paragraph your notes accordingly.

8. Aim to set down the substance of general statements, in
your own words, rather than to note a part of each sentence.

9. Practise getting the exact -words of sigiiificant phrases or
quotations.

10. If you miss something important, ask to have it repeated.

11. If you lose a lectm'e, fill up the blank innuediately, from
the note-book of a fellow-student.

12. After each lecture, go over your notes, and clearly indicate
the heads : (a) by catch-words in the margin ; or (h) by under-
lining words.

13. Once a week review the notes taken since the j)revious
review.

1-1. Make out a brief table of contents, as you go along, refer-
rmg to pages of your note-books.

\_For courses, in any subject, made u}') chiejiy of lectures
with parallel readings, the folloiving specific system is recom-
mended.']

1. Use a note-book ruled in three vertical columns : a narrower
one next the outer edge ; the remaining space on each page equally
divided. Let there be a broad horizontal line an inch or more
from the top.

2. Enter your notes in the middle column ; dates and headings
(if desii'ed) in the outer column.

3. Do not rewrite the notes taken in class.

4. Enter abstracts or quotations from your later readings in the
inner column, each oj^iDOsite the passage in the notes which it is
meant to illustrate.

26 METHODS OF TEACHING

5. Across the top of tlie page write a running heading in two,
three, or four members, summarizing the matter ou the page ; e.g.,
" History, — Methods, — Note-Taking."

G. Begin to write on the right side of the opened book, and
begin each distinct general head on a new leaf.

7. Each leaf being thus complete in itself may at any time be
detached and used in another connection ; or others may be inter-
leaved, without disturbing the logical connection.

8. Copy or reproduce tables, diagrams, or maps before the
succeeding lecture.

One of the most important aids to the study of American
histoiT is the use of maps. A large outline map should be
painted on a movable blackboard ; it is sufficient to indicate
the coasts, and a few great water-courses, and the State
boundary lines. By using colored crayons, it is cas}-, in a
few minutes, to present any desired general maps, on a scale
large enough to be seen at a distance of forty feet. Where
a larger scale is desired, or the field is out of the limits of
the United States, sketches may be made on the blackboard,
or permanent maps on thick paper. It is much simpler than
it seems to draw rough maps on a large scale : even those
who are not draughtsmen will find no difficulty. A roll of
strong mauila paper, a few colored cra3-ons, or, better still,
water colors, a yard-stick, and a small map on which rect-
angles ma}' be lightly ruled, are all the materials necessaiy.
For the student's use, the signal-service weather-map, which
costs ciGrhteen cents a dozen, is exactly what is needed : with
a few colored pencils he can reproduce the large map ; and,
at the end of the 3ear, he will have a historical atlas of his
own.

The first use of the maps is to illustrate the territorial
development of the country, by bringing before the eye the
successive cessions and purchases. At the same time, the

AMERICAN HISTORY. 27

perplexing boundary controversies may be made clear. The |
close connection between annexations and the inner political )
history of the country is often brought out ia startling relief, ,
when presented to the eye. Next comes the internal devel- i
opment of the country. Successive maps, dated saj^ ten
years apart, may show the extent of settlement, and the
formation of Territories and States. Even political affairs
may sometimes be strikingly inapped out : thus, a series of
maps showing the distribution of the Presidential vote in
each succeeding election will forever fix in the mind the
slow growth of sectional parties. Special maps ma}- be used
for a variety of purposes. The theatre of wars and cam-
paigns, detailed boundary controversies, proposed sites for
the national capital, schemes of internal improA-ements, —
these and many like subjects maj* be made to appeal to the
eye.

Another form of illustration, equally useful, and much less
generally known, is the use of graphic charts. A set of
coordinate lines, ruled on a blackboard, or perhaps on the
back of the movable map, and a dozen colored crayons, are
all that is necessary. The student can use cross-section
paper and a few colored pencils. All the various forms of
graphic charts can be put iu use : curves, blocks, squares,
triangles, circles, or shaded maps. Tlie easiest subject to
illustrate is the growth of population : a curve may be drawn
in five minutes which will leave on the mind a clearer notion
of the progress of the United States than could half a dozen
pages of print. Two similar curves will show inetfaceably
the comparative growth of the sections ; anotlier diagram
may show a comparison between the population of this and
of other countries : and the student will never forget how
the United States has outstripped most European powers if
he has once seen its rocket's path plotted out. In like man-

28 METHODS OF TEACHING

ner, the apportioumcut of representatives to the States and
sections may be represented, or the status of political parties
in Congress. A most suggestive diagram may be made of
the changes in the rank of States, reckoning by population.
Then come revenue, expenditure, and debt : they may be
compared with each other, or with similar statistics in other
countries. By the same system may be shown the territorial
extension of the United States, and the division of the acqui-
sitions between the sections. The depreciation of paper cur-
rency, the number of banks, and other economic phenomena
may be clearly shown. Tlie sales of the available public
lands, appropriations for internal improvements, are exam-
ples of similar possibilities. In the census atlas of 1874,
and the census reports of 1870 and 1880, may be found a
variety of such charts. It is even possible to represent cer-
tain great political doctrines by diagram : thus the different
theories as to tlic ratification of the Constitution may be
defined from each other by a few simple drawings.

Only one aid for the student remains to be described. To
require theses is to expect more than the average student can
give, in time and thought. It is well, however, to encourage
them ; and it will almost always be found that the best writer
has also the best general knowledge of the course. The only
general instruction given in connection with the course is
summed up in the

Hints to Thesis Writers.

1. Be sure you are willing to do the necessary work.

2. Select a subject whicli interests you, if possible in a limited

field, but over a lonj^ period.

3. Begin by noting the chief authorities.

a. Furni.shed by the instructor.

b. In Poole's Index and the Q. P. Indexes.

c. In the Subject Catalogue.

AJSIEEICAN HISTORY, 29

d. In other classified library catalogues.

e. In accessible bibliographies.

Write the title, author (with initials), place, and date.

4. Have a system of note-taking.

a. Note only one subject on each piece of paper.

h. Note the authority, volume, and page, for each quotation or

abstract.
c. Preferably use loose sheets, arranging as j'ou go.

5. From the general authorities, make out a synopsis of the chief

points which are to be studied, observing :

a. New authorities and references for extension of details ;

b. Chronological development ;

c. Salient sub-heads of your subject.

6. Extend the details which appear to you to need further exam-

ination. If necessary make synopses of the sub-heads. Make
references for other sub-heads, but abstract them later.

7. Arrange your sheets of notes in a logical form, sub-heads

under main heads. Choose between chronological or topical
arrangement, or a combination.

8. Compose the thesis.

a. First settling the proportions.

i. Introducing striking quotations.

c. Giving exact references for all important statements of fact.

9. Write only on one side of your paper, and leave space for

your foot-notes on the same jaage as the text which they
illustrate.

10. Do your work throughout as though it were to api^ear in print.

11. Add a bibliography of authorities, with brief remarks on the

bearing of the most important.

The value of the work to the student needs no argument ;
and the results at Harvard have been such as to justify the
system. Those who engage in it find their interest in the
whole field aroused ; they are quicker to seize on the great
principles of the subject, and, in some cases, they do work
of real scientific value.

30 i^rExnoDS of teaching American history.

The means employed to keep students up to their work
may be very brieflj' described. Tlie first is, a series of writ-
ten exercises. Perhaps the most lielpful are the brief written
suggestions on questions raised in tlie lectures, to which ref-
erence has ah-ead}' been made. They can be arranged so as
to call for a little original thinking. The second test is a
system of brief examinations, — perhaps ten or fifteen min-
utes, once a week ; they may be contrived to require the
application of principles, developed hi the lectures, to new
specific cases. A third means, the recitation or quiz, takes
time from the lectures, and is nearly impossible in a large
class. The main dependence is on the regular examinations,
twice a year. Questions can always be so framed as to call
for thought rather than for a memory of details ; and an
opportunity' may be given to put most of the time on two or
three general questions, testing the knowledge of the whole
subject.

The Peactical Method ix Higher Historical

lNSTRUCTIOi\.

By Epiieaim Emeeton, of Harvard University.

IN the academic teaching of history three possible methods
of insti'uction suggest themselves at once : the recitation,
the lecture, and original work. We may assume for the
present that the discussion as to the value of recitation from
a book is practically at an end. Wliile admitting that the
power of accurate re-statement of a thing learned is valuable
to the student, the common sense of most has concluded
that the time spent by an educated man in listening to such
repetition is an actual loss to science, and that the brighter
students of a class can employ themselves very much more
profitably than in hearing the mistakes of their duller mates.
Addino; to this that the learninsj of what is contained in auv
one book, especially on a subject admitting wide difference
in point of view, can go but little way toward widening or
deepening a man's mental capacity, and remembering that
such acquisition is usually easiest to shallow minds, we may
at once relegate recitations to their proper place, namely, in
elementary instruction, where they ought to be insisted upon
mth unbending severity.

The historical lecture, while liable to great abuses, has
certainly its well-defined use, and, therefore, its right to be.
It should not be designed to convey definite and detailed in-

32 TITE TRACTICAL METHOD IN

formation. That is the evil in Germany. Men of mediocre
— even men of splendid talents often commit the glaring
mistake of spending four or five hours a week in the dreary
recitation of facts which their hearers could gather in one-
tenth of the time from printed books. Perhaps the book
might even be the work of the very lecturer who is now
making his capital pay him a double interest. I recall a
course of lectures on German History given by a man whose
name, standing among the verv highest in Germany, served
to fill his auditorium with a keenly-expectant audience. In
the course of a fortnight a dozen hearers might have been
counted, scattered about among the nearly empty benches.
The instinct of the students had shown them that he was not
offering them anything which they could not gain more easily
elsewhere.

The justification of academic lectures on history, is that
they shall contain suggestion, which shall enable students to
do their own reading intelligently, and, therefore, profitably.
Thev should contain the result of varied reading and re-
search, summarizing the outcome of long controversies,
showing how events of one period explain and are explained
by those of another. It would take the inexperienced student
weeks of reading to grasp the meaning of men and events
which his instructor may present to him in a paragraph.
Not that this presentation can ever be accepted as a substi-
tute for the student's own reading, but that it forms the
almost indispensable condition of a wise and profitable use
of historical works. Heading alone soon becomes repulsive
and wearisome because one sees no way out of it. All
books seem alike dreary and stale ; but let the living word
of a living man once illumine the whole study with its in-
vigorating rays, and the student finds his reading filled with
a meaning he never dreamed of.

HIGHER HISTORICAL IXSTRUCTION. 66

The danojer here I have akeady hinted at. Goethe saw
it clearly enough :

" Denn was man schwarz auf weiss besitzt
Kann man getrost nach Hause tragen,"

says the already half -conventionalized scholar to his infernal
counsellor. The scholar cannot be wiser than his master.
If a mere unthinking note-taking be accepted as sufficient
effort on his part, he would be more than human if he made
a greater one. Doubtless the result will disappoint him.
He will find himself at the end of his studies wretchedly
equipped for any scholarly work ; he will wonder why this is
so, but he cannot be expected to reach the reason. Let him
be assured that the reason is a very simple one ; his mind
has never been called upon for independent, individual effort,
and it is only the mind of a rare genius which works without
being called upon. It would seem an astonishing proposition
at this day that chemistry or physics could be taught without
a laboratory, and yet it is not so very long since laboratories
were either not used at all, or so very little as to be scarce
worth mentioning. Experiment and demonstration by the
instructor to his class go very little way. The student must
have his chemicals and his apparatus in his own hands before
he can have any realizing sense of the meaning of his science.
Men have learned this in regard to physical study. In every
new school of learning a well-equipped laboratory is as much
a necessity as a well-trained teacher. It remains to apply
the same method to other branches of education. Here
we are concerned with history only, and the conclusion is
inevitable, that historical teaching, to be effective, must not
confine itself to lectures, but must supplement these by the
method of original work.

Attention has recently been called to this subject by two

34 THE PHACTICAL MKTIIOD IN"

articles' by Professor Paul F'rt^dc^ricq, lately of Li^ge, now
of Ghent, wlio, in the years 1881 and 1882, visited the
principal nniversities of Germany, and the various schools
of Paris, to observe the methods of hisrher instruction in
history. Tliese articles are, as the author informs us, merely
a traveller's notes, without any pretence at completeness or
profundity. 1 have made use of them for certain statistical
information not elsewhere easily accessible. Their grace
of style and amiability of tone make them altogether quite
attractive reading.

The phrase employed by Professor Fr6d6ricq for the pecu-
liar institution he was observing is the '^ cours 2^ratique," as
opposed to the usual lecture-course, which he calls the " co7C7-s
theoriqne." The term " Practice-course" seems to me really
an improvement upon the varioiis originals employed in the
different German universities, thou<i;li tiiese orio-inal terms
have each an liistorical significance whicli the men who made
them and have handed them down would doubtless be sorry
to lose. The " Gesellschaften " (societies), "Seminaria"
(training schools), and "Uebungen " (exercises) of Germany
appear all together in M. Fred(jricq's report as " cours pra-
tiques " (practice-courses) . His word expresses the actual
fact that these classes now form a regular part of the univer-
sity work ; are numbered among its published courses of
instruction, and are counted as such, to the credit of both
professors and students. The German terms, on the other
hand, express the fact of their development out of originally
voluntary and, one may say, extra-academic exercises. The
Gesellschaft implies a society of students grouped about a

1 " De rEnsei;;uement Supc'ricur de I'llistoire." Gand, 1882, pp. 49. In
the "Revue de I'lnstriiction publique on Belgique."

" L'Enseignement Superieur de I'Histoire k Paris." Paris, 1883. pp. Gl.
In the "Revue International de I'Enseignement." July 15, 1883.

HIGHER HISTOllICAL INSTETJCTION. 35

professor, and working with him in hnes of special research,
and under conditions not imposed by academic rules, but
growing out of the common enthusiasm for the study in
hand. Their relation to their teacher reminds one of the
early mediiEval relation of the university student to his lec-
tiu-er. It is personal, feudal almost, for there is a bond of
mutual servi:ce here which adds its force to distinguish these
classes from their contemporaries, grouped in the ordinary
lecture-room, and learning from the spoken word. While
there a certain tradition, if not fixed statute, has determined
the attitude of the student to the imposing being who tallcs
at him ex cathedra, here all is voluntary, free, uncon-
ventional. This is a society, a club, presided over by a
professor, but composed, not of subject students, but of
"members," of whom the guiding scholar, chancing to be
a professor, is the chief.

The word "Seminarium" brings us to another phase of
the institution we are studying. The primitive society became
a ti-aining-school. The German, with his hard-headed prac-
tical sense, having allowed university teaching to crystallize
into the form of a lecture-system, saw an escape from its
deadening influence upon the mind in this new form of
instruction. This enthusiasm of the individual student was
now to be made practical. The name " Seminarium" denotes
the fertilizing power of the historical " Gesellschaf t " on the
intellectual life of Germany. Out of these training-schools
came the men who gave to historical science in Germany,
and through Germany to the world, the impulse under which
it is now moving.

But by this time the voluntary association had become a
recognized feature of university life. The professor con-
ducted a Seminarium as a matter of course, and the student
who meant to distinguish himself in the department entered

36 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

one or more scrainaria equally as a matter of course. And
now comes the third of the disthictive names — the oldest
in point of time — to express sharply the marked difference
in kind of ■work done here from that of the ordinary class-
room. " Uebungen " still denotes the practical character of
the Seminar work, and is the one tex-m from which M. Fr6-
dericq has derived his " cours pratique." Its meaning is
that uppermost in the student's mind. Elsewhere he is a
listener, here he is a worker ; no longer a mere receiver of
another man's thought, he becomes an investigator, a dis-
coverer, a creator.

The founder of practice-courses as an adjunct to higher
historical instruction is the veteran professor Leopold llanke,
now, in his eighty-ninth 3'ear, laboring with juvenile enthu-
siasm and power on his crowning work, a History of the
World. As early as 1830 Ranke began to gather about him
such students as desired to learn the method of historical
investigation, inviting them to a weekly meeting at his
house. These meetings appear upon the Berlin university
programme of that day as " cxercitationes historicae."
This private class in Ranke's study became in the truest
sense of the word the seminarium for all futui'c historical
•work in Germany. Among its earW meml)ers were "VVaitz,
Duncker, Giesebrecht, Sybel, Adolf Schmidt, Wattenbach,
and many others whose names have become synonyms for
powerful and honest work in opening up the record of the
past. These men, called to various universities, carried
with them the practice-course as their chief instrument in
spreading the doctrine of true historical method which the
great master Ranke had taught them. They have now be-
come veterans in their turn, and their pupils, an army of still
younger men, have carried out still more widely the theory of
the practical method.

HIGHER HISTOEICAL INSTRUCTION. 37

At first the sul)ject most often treated was the history of
Germany's heroic age, the mediaeval empire ; but soon,
under the leadership of the elder Droysen, modern history
found its place, and at present no department of historical
research is without its practice-course as a supplement to
theoretical teaching. At Berlin there are regularly six or
eight such courses, led by men like Mommsen, Droysen.
Wattenbach, Weizsacher, Bresslau, and Hassel. Other
universities follow with a number of courses proportioned to
their sti-ength in the department of history.

Any one familiar with the inner working of these classes
feels at once that here is the true life of the historical de-
partment. Here it is that the professor reveals himself to
his select pupils as a fellow-worker with them. He is at
work upon inquiries which are to bear fruit in his own publi-
cation, and these young men are made to feel that they are
contributing personally, by their researches, to the comple-
tion of these works. The method of procedure is practically
the same in the various universities and under the various
teachers. Indeed, it is but one method employed with
endless diversity, according to the character of the man in
whose hands it may be. The essential principle of the
practice-course is to lead the student back from the ordinary
presentation of history as a completed whole in standard
naiTatives to the original sources from which these narratives
have been composed. To tlie ordinary student, higher as
well as lower, the study of liistory means the reading of
narratives describing men and events in the form of more or
less entertaining stories. He fancies that he has passed
from elementary to higher study when he reads somewhat
biggei books and more of them. Even the German " Gym-
nast " is liable to this error. He may bring it with him to
the university ; he may even retain it there so long as he

38 THK J'JIACTICAL METHOD IN"

confines himself to the hearing of lectures and collateral
rcailing, — Imt the moment he passes the door of the semi-
narium his error falls from him as by magic. The charm
which has heretofore surrounded the names of great histo-
rians vanishes. He learns to accept nothing on their word.
He demands the i)roof of every assertion, or if, as is often
the case, i)roof be impossible, he demands at least evidence
as to dejrree of probability. And this he does not ])lindlv,
not in the spirit of mere carping criticism, but intelligently,
under the guidance of men who are themselves makers of
books, and who are on the watch at every step to detect a
flaw in his argument, an error in his judgment, or a gap in
his powers of perception. Thus he becomes trained, not
merely learned, as we use that phrase to describe a man who
has taken in an enormous amount of material, without
regard to his ability to use it. The German Seminarist is
armed at all points to grapple with his material wherever he
may find it.

The ordinary course of the Seminar work is somewhat as
follows. The professor assigns to each member some topic
for investigation, usually some controverted point upon
which various opinions may be possible. Often these topics
are selected from a limited i)eriod, so that the various re-
searches will cross each other at many points. Thus each
student becomes familiar with the authorities used by all the
others, and is able to form an intelligent judgment of their
work. As the tenn progresses, any student may be called
upon to criticise the work of every other. Ordinarily the
result of each investigation is presented in the form of a
written dissertation, which is read by its author, and publicly
criticised, first by a member of the class selected beforehand
for the puiijose, then by other members at their pleasure,
and finally by the professor himself. It is evident that this

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 39

criticism is h}' no menus the least useful jjart of the work.
It is dealt out with an uusparing hand. Indeed, M. Fr6-
dericq informs us that Professors Droyseu and Mommseu
refused to admit him to the exercises of their Seminars, ex-
cusing this apparent want of courtesy by saying that the
presence of a stranger might be a check upon the unlimited
criticism which was there the rule.

I had the good fortune to be, during one year, a regular
member of the practice-course of the elder Droyseu in Berlin,
and can thoroughly confirm the impression received by M.
Fred^ricq. The criticism was free and unrestrained to the
verge of savagery. I weU remember one unhappy youth,
who ought never to have been there, whose productions were
received with a mixture of derision and scathing: logical
analysis which, to a member of a less thick-skinned race,
would have been torture. At the same time, I cannot help
bearing testimony to the uniform consideration which I, as a
stranger and a foreigner, received from students and profes-
sor alike. The inspiration of the Saturday evenings spent
amidst that vigorous intellectual jousting has entered into
every moment of subsequent study, and been a constant
support in the effort to carry on the impulse there received.

The papers thus produced, especially by studcMits who have
been for several terms members of the Seminar, are often of
more than passing value, are actual contributions to historical
science. The younger Droyseu began some time since to
publish the more important papers contributed in his class at
Halle, and an association of university professors is now
carrying on a similar work, with a larger scope, and a wider
promise of usefulness. One can well understand that the
prospect of such distinction must be a keen spur to the
diligence and activity of mind of many a student, who, under
the ordinary conditions of the lecture-room, would never have
risen above his fellows.

40 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

"Within a few years a distinction has arisen between what
we may call private ami public practice-courses. The
former are such as I have been describing, in which the
membership is determined by the professor's judgment as to
the capacity and promise of the individual student.

The pul)lic courses mark an innovation upon the original
plan. Certain professors, strongly impressed with the abso-
lute importance of the practice-course as an agent in in-
struction, and wishing to extend its advantages to as many
students as possible, obtained from their governments suf-
ficient appropriations of money to pi'ovide working-rooms
for their classes, to furnish these rooms with reference libra-
ries, and with all necessary appliances for study, and also
to establish scholarships for regularly enrolled members.
This system, while offering great attractions to a large body
of students, has met with violent opposition from the more
conservative professors to whom the traditions of the practice-
course, as established by Eanke, had become especially dear.
To their minds, the substitution of state control for the per-
sonal relation of the instructor to the student must endanger
the essential and vital principle of the Gesellschaft. In
short, they believed that the very nature of the association
implied the membership of picked men only, and more espe-
cially of such as pi'oposed to make historical work the business
of their lives. However this may be, the two systems are
now in operation side by side, and the future must determine
which is based upon the truer foundation. Thus far, I
incline to believe that the conservatives have the best of
the argmtient.

But it must not be supposed that the practice-course in its
essential theory has escaped criticism and opposition. The
])oint is made, and with much show of reason, that German
historical writing has within the last two generations steadily

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 41

lost in breadth of view and in power of effective presenta-
tion, while its gain has been steadily in the direction of
minute and careful investigation of narrow and narrowing
details. Perhaps the most striking illustration of the truth
of this criticism is the fact that we are still without a satis-
factory treatment of the history of Germany as a whole,
while the number of treatises, lai'ge and small, upon detached
periods or single institutions is simply distracting. There is
scarceh^ a point in the whole range of German history which
has not given rise to at least a Gymnasium-program or a
Doctor-dissertation. It seems as if the very minuteness
of the research into the records of the Fatherland had
frightened ever^^one away from the task of moulding this
whole mass into an available and comprehensive form.

Now the charge is made that the cause of this deficiency
in grai)hic power among German historians to-day is the
belittling influence of the training in the Seminar. Certain
it is that both leaders and followers in the work of disin-
terring the German record from its long burial, and of
preparing it for use in the world, have been the men who
organized and developed the practice-course. We may
admit 'further, that if the practice-course had not been, the
Monumenta of Pertz, and the host of investigations leading
up to and based upon that colossal undertaking, could
scarcely have been produced. But I incline to think that
this character of minute investigation does not imply the
entire absence of graphic skill or breadth of liistoric insight.
It is rather the evidence of a deeply-felt reaction from the
false methods, — the dramatic form, the partisan purpose,
the rhetorical elaboration, which mark the historical writing
of the eighteenth century. The falseness of that method
was so strongly felt that men avoided consciously any ap-
proach toward brilliant presentation. Germans especially

42 TUE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

did not care to cultivate a kind of ability which seemed to
them of questionable value. Before philosophizing about
the record, the record must be had ; and so the last half
century has been a time of accunuilalion and preparation of
material upon which future philosophies of history may, if
one pleases, be constructed. The distinctive character of
German historical science has been an absolute devotion to
the discovery of historical documents ; to comparing them,
and thus ascertaining their A'alue ; and then to publishing
them in a form convenient for the use of scholars.

If one must choose between a school of history whose main
characteristic is esprit, and one which rests upon a faithful
and honest effort to base its Avhole narration upon the great-
est attainable number of recorded facts, we cannot long
hesitate. This character of diligence and honesty of research
into the actual story of the past has been stamped upon
Germany by the work of the seminary. Training has taken
the place of brilliancy, and the whole civilized world is to-day
reaping the benefit. Doubtless, if this mechanical skill were
to be the sole object of instruction, the result would be most
unsatisfactory. After all, it is the power of arranging and
combining liis material which makes the great historian.
Ranke himself is the triumphant vindication of his system.
Let one Init read the modest words of his preface to the
German History, where he speaks of mastering the contents
of something like a hundred folio volumes of proceedings of
the Diet in one library, and as many more in another, before
putting pen to paper, and then let one turn to his narrative,
m which the spoils of this gigantic research are utilized with
telling power, and one sees how in the hands of the master
these two elements — minute research and gift of presenta-
tion — are combined to produce a truly great historical
work.

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION.

So it must be with insti'uction, — the training of the hand
must not exclude the culture of the mind. Nor does this
seem to be, even in Germany, a tlireatening danger. With
Treitschke, lecturing in an improvised auditorium to seven
hundred students ; with Droysen, holding three hundred to
a course of lectures on modern European history ; with
Georg Voigt delighting a crowded audience in Leipzig with
his brilliant picture of the French Revolution, — there can
be no fear that the student will be left without inspiration to
broad and liberal reflection upon the great movements of
history. Admitting a certain tendency to narrowness in the
technical training of the seminary, there is the widest oppor-
tunity for counteracting it and making it effective by the
broader view and the more comprehensive range of the
public lecture.

The following table, compiled from the " Deutscher Univer-
sitats-Kalender," shows the amount of historical instruction
offered in 1883-4 by the seven German universities which
pay most attention to the subject. The proportion of prac-
tice-courses to theoretical teaching may easily be perceived.

■d

-i

5
1

-a
o

S-l

1
o
Q

-3

I— (

+-1

O
C/2

5
5

s
o

Berlin

IPr.

2()

Leipsic . .

IPr.

Halle . . .

Breslau . .

2Pr.

GOTTINGEN .

Bonn . . .

Heidelberg

44 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

But perhaps the best proof of the value of the practical
mctliod in historical teaching is its progress and its success
in countries outside of Germany, notably in France.^ Until
within twenty years, there had scarcely been such a thing as
real historical instruction in France. There were, to be
sure, at the ancient CoUi^gc de France, coui-ses of history,
held by men of distinguished excellence as historians and
lecturers ; but, strange as it sounds to our ears, these lectures
were not addressed to studenls at all. They were held iu
open halls, where all the world might come, and the audience,
varying with each lecture, was composed of women, travellers,
and old men, of whom many chose this opportunity for their
afternoon nap. If here tmd there a young man was seen, he
was in no relation to the lectm-er. He had only to take his
notes, and do the best he could with them.

It is evident that this sort of historical ti'eatment of any
subject must be wholly wanting in every element of fruitful-
ness. It could never produce men, who, in their time, should
become effective teachers and writers. The glaring al)surdity
of such a system was visiljle to all the rising generation of
scholars, but the method of reform was doubtful. The pro-
cess finally adopted was to go around the ancient forms, and
to establisli new schools upon a different basis. This process
has now been going on, witli interruptions, from the time of
the first Napoleon. The final result is a complex of schools,
each with a certain purpose, with a separate government
support, its own buildings or rooms, and its own pupils.
And yet, so often do the purposes of these schools cross
each other, that their separation cannot be kept complete,
and simply causes a vast and inexcusable waste of money,

1 The details of the French system are taken mainly from Professor
Fredericq's article.

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 45

time, and energy. No less than five different scliools in
Paris are devoted wholly or in part to the study of history.

1. The College de France, dating from the time of Francis
I., continues, almost unchanged, the ti-aditions of the past.
M. Fred^ricq heard some of the most distinguished scholars of
France lecturiua; in enormous halls to a score or so of chance
hearers, of whom scarce one could have had any serious
scholarly purpose.

2. The Faculte des Letti-es, the successor of the ancient
Sorbonne, occupies the building which still perpetuates the
name of that venerable institution. _ Here, too, until within
a few years, the instruction was mainly intended for hearers
rather than for p?tp<7s; but now, mainly through the energy
of Victor Dm-uy, as minister of public instruction under
Napoleon III., the substitution of pupils for hearers has be-
come almost complete, and many of the more serious courses
are now designated as cours fermes, to which admission can
be had only on the written order of the Dean. The same
general purpose has been followed in the appointment of
promising young scholars as maUres de conferences, a posi-
tion corresponding somewhat to that of the inivatdocent in
the German University. Students under the Faculty des
Lettres are in ti-aining for a special diploma as teachers of
history. This diploma has existed only since 1880, and
marks the recognition of history as one among the sciences
demanding trained teachers.

3. The Ecole des Chartes was founded in 1821, but lived
a precarious existence until 1847, when it was provided with
sufficient quarters and a competent staff of instructors. Here
we may learn especially the method of historical research.
Instruction is given in paljeography, romance languages,
bibliography and classification of libraries and archives,
diplomatics, political, administrative, and judicial institutions

4G THE TRACTICAL METFTOD IX

of Franco, the civil and canon law, and the arclireology of
the middle ages. Here is to be found at least as great, if not
a greater opportunity, for preparation in the art of writing
history, than can be ol)tained at any German university.
The excellent " Bibliotht'ciue de I'Ecole des Chartes " con-
tains the work of professors, pupils, and graduates.

4. The Jficole Normale Superieure dates back beyond the
Revolution, but was also first placed upon a sound working
basis in 1847. History enters here as part of a general
course for all students during two years, and may be made a
specialty during the third and final year. During this third
year, pupils may attend courses in the other schools. The
distinct purpose of the l5cole Normale is the preparation of
teachers. Only a limit^^d number of pupils can enter each
year. — perhaps one in every six or seven apphcants, — a
curious instance of protecting industry.

5. The £cole Pratique des llautes fitudes was another
creation of Minister Duruy in tlie year 18G8. The condition
of French advanced teaching, even as late as that, was such
that M. Duruy, in presenting his plan to the Emperor, was
forced to say that a student in Paris, however able lecturers
he might hear, and however many and excellent books might
be accessible to him, was left altogether without the personal
guidance necessary to apply his study most effectively. This
was true of all subjects. The remedy suggested l)y the
minister was to offer, in addition to all the valuable and in-
teresting instruction then given, a series of practice-courses,
winch, taken together, should form the £cole Pratiques des
Hautes l^tudes. One of the fom- branches of this school was
that of history and philology. Beginning with but few
pupils, the historical and philological branch of the Hautes
£tudes now luuabers twenty-five professors, and offers more
than fifty practice-courses. Before presenting the plan for

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 47

this new departure, a systematic study of methods in use in
other countries was made, and, of com-se, one sees clearly
where the real model was found. The Conference of France
is the " Seminar" of Germany. The most prominent leaders
in the new movement have themselves studied in Germany.
M. Alfred Maury is director of this department, aided by
M. Gabriel Monod, known to all the world of scholars as the
editor, first of the " Revue Critique," and afterwards, of the
" Revue Historique," altogether the leading historical periodi-
cal of the world. From the beginning, the administration has
been largely in the hands of young and comparatively little
known men, who were in sympathy with the practical method,
and had no ambition to become historical orators in the grand
style of the previous generation. Thus, to the l)rilliant and
vivacious Frenchman, as well as to the more stolid and plod-
ding German, it has become clear, that to make a science
fruitful, productive of new work and new men, it must be made
practical. The record of the past, as it lies there in inscrip-
tions, institutions, legal records, names of places, coins,
systems of chronology, as well as in consciously written
histories, imist be put into the hands of students, and they
must be trained in the way to use them.

There is something positively pathetic in the words of M.
Lavisse, in the year 1880, to the pupils of the Faculte des
Lettres.^

' ' I recall the time when I was a candidate for the histori-
cal diploma, and, better still, the time, far less remote, when
I watched the third-year pupils of the Ecole Normale at
their work. At the beginning of the year they set them-
selves bravelv at their task, without a breathing-space from

1 Quoted by ]\I. Frede'ricq, from the " Revue Internationale de I'En-
seignement" for February 15, 1881.

48 THE TRACTICAL METHOD IN"

morning till night. They helped c^ch other, but each did
the burden of his work for himself. The study-room was
filled with books borrowed from the emptied shelves of the
library. The drawers were filled with well-arranged piles of
notes. Their comrades, who were preparing for otlier exami-
nations, especially in philosophy, where the demand was less
burdensome, made fun of the unhappy historical students,
whom they considered as mere day-laborers. But they held
out bravely. Histor}^, thank God, has so potent a charm
that it helps one to bear fatigue, as the hope of discovering
a vast new horizon sustains the weary traveller who climbs
painfully the steep mountain side ! But some of the travel-
lers give out, and 1 have scarce known one of our future his-
torians who was not overcome by discouragement on his
way. It comes when one has passed over the grand ques-
tions which attracted him at first, and finds that he has
barely glanced at their surface, while he is already pressed
upon by a throng of new ones, less important, but any one
of which may, as we say, ' be given.' ' Do you think, sir,'
they say to the tutor, ' that we shall have this question ? or
this?' and the tutor cannot alwa3's say 'No.' There comes
a moment when the student feels that he is going to drown
himself. He loses his head, and begins to draw up lists of
the kings of Egypt, the sultans of Turkey, or the Hansa
cities, and rushes feverishly from the successors of Alexan-
der to those of Charlemagne, from the Samnite war to the
wars of the Roses, from the tributaries of the Danube to
those of the Mississippi, from Hanno and Pytheas to Living-
stone and Nachtigal, taking Marco Polo on the way. He
comes down from books to outlines, and from outlines to
manuals. He keeps before him the lyceum program ; he
divides it into numbers, and marks off twenty or thirty num-
bers on which he is prepared. There remain a hundred

HlCxHER HISTORICAL IXSTRUCTIOX. 49

about which he knows not a, word. He comes up to his
examination jaded out, and, what is worse, ti-ained to
wretched habits, which may lead his mind astray forever, and
disgust him with all honest work."

Out of this slough of despair and self-deception French
students have been rescued through the influence of the Ger-
man Seminar system, applied with that wider tact which
might have been expected from a people more susceptible
to general ideas, and less in danger of becoming mechanical
in their methods.

"We are thus brought to the point toward which all that I
have said thus far has been tending, — the possibility of use-
fulness for the historical practice-course in America. It will
be generally admitted that our historical instruction is at
least in an undeveloped condition. "Whether as a reflection
of the ultra- American notion that we here are independent of
all tradition, have nothing to learn from the experience of
the past, or for whatever reason, the fact is that history
forms an extremely unimportant clement in our plans of
education. The New England colleges requu-e for admission
only a nodding acquaintance with Greek and Roman history,
an amount of knowledge which may be readily taken in
through the pores while "reading" classic authors. Of
European and American history the ordinary Freshman has
a colossal ignorance. "Within these Eastern colleges them-
selves the situation is not very much better. It would be
idle to assert that history has as yet reached anything like
an equality with classics, mathematics, or science, either in
the amount of time devoted to it or in the character of the
men to whom its teaching is entrusted. As to the average

5t) THK I'llACTlCAL METHOD IN

"Western college, the attention paid to liistorv is simply in-
finitely small, and mav be neglected. Until within a few
years sneh a thing as a special preparation for teaching his-
tory had not l)een heard of. Any classical instructor conld
teach the history of Greece or Rome, no matter if he had
ucA-er in his life looked into his classics with any other pnr-
pose than to solve grammatical puzzles. Any " cultivated
gentleman " could teach pAu-opean history ; and as for
Ajiierica, one might suppose a knowledge of its history to
form a part of those innate ideas some philosophers tell ns
about, for all the effort visible to compass it by way of
education.^

Within these few years a very great change has taken
place. The leaven of the German method has begun to work
among us. Young Americans at German universities, be-
coming impressed with the value of the system of instruction
there, saw the hope of occupation and usefulness in trans-
plnnting this method to our shores. They threw themselves
with a new energy into the study of history as a science by
itself, and their enthusiasm was rewarded bv finding on their
return that the leading colleges of their own land had kept
pace with the demand of the time and were ready to employ
them. The number of these younger scholars is* not very
great. The road is an arduous one ; the rewards tardy and
never dazzling. But, in spite of obstacles, the number of
devoted scholars in this field is increasiuG;. Thev are reason-
ably certain of finding employment. The lesser colleges
must follow in the footsteps of the greater ; where classes of
liistoi'v do not exist, thev will l)e created. Tlie elementary

ft. ' ft. «r

1 Since the above was written, attention has been called to the defects
in American historical teaching by President Eliot of Harvard University,
in an address at Johns Hopkins University, printed in the ' ' Century ' ' maga-
zine for June, 1884.

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTIOX. 51

teacliiusf must become better and more widely diffused as the
students of our colleges go out from under enthusiastic teach-
ers to become teachers in their turn, vSo far as quantity
goes, we mav well believe that the futm-e of historical teach-
ing in our country is secure. It is now with quality that we
are concerned. As soon as a branch of science takes a rec-
ognized place upon the college programme, the question of
method becomes of the first importance.

If my argument as to recitations and lectures shall have
been approved, it follows that the method of original work
remains as the indispensable supplement to whatever other
means of instruction the wise teacher may employ. I am
aware that there is an intelligent opposition to this view.
There are educators who maintain that the original work of
college students is in itself of so little value that it is a mere
waste of tiine. These youngsters cannot be expected to
produce anything better than what now exists, and would
much better spend their time in learning the best of what
has been done. "As well advise students of Shakespeare,"
said an accomplished professor of English, " to practise
themselves in composing plays, in the hope of some day
producing something better than their master."

But this line of argument wholly misses the point at issue.
It is not for the sake of the immediate results that the prac-
tice-course is to be commended. The student in chemistry
does not expect to gain from his own early and awkward
experiments any new or startling results. He only aims to
compreliend, as one can only do by personal experiinent,
those laws of chemical action already laid down by previous
investigation. So the student of history may not expect to
arrive at new results during the time of his apprenticeship,
but he will certainly learn how other men have arrived at
their results, and will thus know how to measm'e these at.

62 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

tlioir tnio vnlno. "We may even go a step further. Just
as here and there a rarely gifted mind, working patiently
through hands and eyes in the chemical laboratory, may
strike out a truth wliich has escaped the experience of the
past, so the vigorous mind, working out by means of origi-
nal investigation problems of liistory, may here and there
light upon a conclusion which shall at once elevate his work
to the rank of distinguished excellence.

In natural science we Iuia'c come to recognize the absolute
necessity of practical methods, and the expression of this is
found in the countless chemical, physical, zoological, and
geological laboratories uoav used even in the most element-
ary scientific instruction.

But, now, are not these illustrations of a great general law
•of education ? Do they not declare that in moral science, as
Tvell as in physical, the practical method of instruction is the
only effectual method? I believe that underneath all schemes
and devices and systems and theories of education there lies
one single great principle, — that one learns, in any true sense
of the word, only that to which he puts the whole force of
his own mind. AVe might throw away all oiu* machinery, and
still the man who should put the force of his mind upon the
■similarities of structure in flowers could produce a svstem of
botany. Without a laboratory or a book the human mind
would be capa})le of results, great because original, if it
sliould turn itself with single devotion to dissecting animals,
breaking and comparing stones, watching the developments
of foetal life, or following out any other of those processes by
which our present knowledge of the material world has been
gained. And, conversely, given all our magnificent macliin-
ery of instruction, and the mind which does not apply itself
to the problems before it, which is content to simply absorb
what is offered to it without vigorous action of its own, may

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 53

pass through the mill from hopper to bin without any change,
excepting that, like the grain, it has grown smaller in the pro-
cess. I take it that one very strong reason for the popu-
larity of physical science in these latter years is found in its
method of study. The senses are reached more easily than
the reflecting powers. Minds to which history, philosophy,
law, seem mere accumulations of learning in books, — learn-
ino; which is to be got at only by years of reading and remem-
bering, — are attracted instantly by the manual processes
which introduce them into the study of natural law. And
until lately they have been justified in supposing that all
those branches of study which they somewhat sneeringly,
perhaps, designate as culture studies, were nothing })ut
masses of fictitious learning, founded upon nothing, and
leading to nothing.

If we think for a moment of the slough into which the
study of language had fallen twenty-five years ago, and out
of which it has not yet wholly freed itself, we can understand
why the phrase " classical study " had come to be almost
a reproach. What has redeemed linguistic study from its j
downfall has been the use of new methods, practical methods I
in acquiring language, and the application of this acquired/
knowledare to the discovery of new truth in archfleolo2;y,'
ethnology, and in every other branch of human learning.
Now, instead of aimlessly cramming a Greek grammar into
their pupils, enlightened teachers are teaching them to read
and write Greek, then to use Greek, and thus to love and
appreciate Greek. Or, if we glance at political science, we
find that where twenty-five years ago there was one teacher,
now there are a dozen, and we see again that men are learn-
ing no longer by studying so many pages a clay out of a
book, but by putting their own powers of mind upon ques-
tions whose solution can be reached by no other process.

54 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

Wise teachers of philosoj)!!}' are forcing their students to
grai)plc with problems of the mind, and so giving them
power to follow and api)reciate the work of those who
liave gone before.

Thus everywhere we see the conviction gaining ground that
the method of practice is indeed the only effectual method.
Lalioratories in natural science, the "natural method" of
learning language, instruction by topics instead of ])y text-
books, — all these arc parts of one movement towards a
hio-her and more effectual standard of instruction. How
docs it stand now with history? Perhaps more than any
other study, history has suffered, and is sutlering, from that
misconception I have alluded to, that it means only a dreary
mass of facts, dates, and events, strung along like so many
beads on a chain, and with no more distinction in value or
meaning. It is the rarest thing to find a man who has any
idea whatever about the materials of historical writing, or of
the methods used in dealing with these materials. Even
educated men are inclined to regard history as a collection
of stories merely, more or less entertaining to read, but not
having any really serious bearing upon the present active
life of men. That there is a science of history, with its
apparatus, its scliools, its devotees, and its great results
already reached, is an extremely unfamiliar fact.

A professor of chemistry once asked me to explain what
original work in history could mean. He had supposed that
all history was in the books, and that all one had to do was
to read these. One could not, he fancied, make new history
as one made new experiments and discovered new relations
in his own science. The answer made to him may be in
place here. Original work in history consists in an inquiry
into the sources of authority for a given period or for a given
statement or scries of statements. Every conscientious his-

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 55

torian of to-day goes through such a process in preparing
his narrative, but this process is not final. The mass of
material for any period or for any series of events is so great
that the powers of one man in one lifetime are not sufficient
to grapple with it. There must still be a multitude of special
investigations which he cannot pursue, a multitude of points
still left obscure. These furnish the subjects for the original
work of the future. A history of the world, for example, is
to the historical scholar not a final account of what has hap-
pened since the world began, but rather a vast encyclopedia
of problems awaiting solution. He cannot meet them all ;
he must content himself with selecting one or two upon
which he shall spend the labor of a life.

Now the practical question is, how can this original work
be made a fruitful means of instruction in our higher schools ?
In answering this question, we may be guided by the expe-
rience of Germany. It is our problem to secure the advan-
tages and avoid the dangers to which I have already called
attention. Emphasis was laid, it will be remembered, upon
the voluntary character of the various associations which
were classed together under the name of practice-courses.
This voluntary character must be retained whenever the
practice-course is made at home among us. It is inconceiv-
able that whole classes of students should be called upon
to do original work in any subject with any prospect of
success. The practice-course is not designed to replace
more ordinary methods of instruction but to supplement
them. It presupposes an election of studies by which it
should be possi])le to bring only devoted students under its
influence. With these conditions, it should be the duty and
the pride of every historical- instructor to conduct, at the
side of his theoretical courses, another for practice in the
especial line of work he is engaged upon. Supposing there

56 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

be at a given college uo professor of ancient history, then
classical insti'uctors should make it their business to guide
tlicir most promising pupils in historical research, using as
materials the classic authors, who would thus become living
sources of knowledge to them, instead of being, as they too
often are. mere collections of grammatical puzzles. History
and literature would both be the gainers, each lighting up
tlic other and filUng it with nnthought-of meanings.

As to mediaeval history, both of England and the conti-
nent, its materials lie before us almost complete. The in-
dustry of the recent awakening has turned with especial
interest to this field. It would be possible for any American
teacher to put before his students the volumes of original
medifeval sources from which all existing histories have been
written, and to guide them into independent use of these
materials in the criticism of ^\Titteu books and in preparing
dissertations of their own. In modern European history,
the case is somewhat more difficult, the mass of material
increasing enormously, and far surpassing the powers of
printing to place it all before the reading public. But here,
loo, very much has been done. The chief reports of am-
bassadors, correspondence of princes, pamphlets, literatin*e
of the time, can be procm^ed, and its complicated story be
unravelled.

But the field which should prove most attractive and
remunerative to the American scholar is the growth and
develojMuent of our own institutions. Here the material,
ponderous as it is, hes all within our grasp. The same
hunting-grounds invite us as those which led on European
scholars of an earlier day. In every corner of America are
to be found documents of every description bearing upon
the fonnative period of our national life. Here are prob-
lems not beyond the sti'ength of any vigorous student. Be-

HIGHEE HISTORICAL LS'STEUCTION". iH

sides hearing lectures and reading books, let such studente as
can be convinced of its usefulness be brought tt^ether into a
practice-course where they shall be bi-ought face to -face with
actual records, and be caUeil nix)n to solre a few of the
unsolved problems which confront the futm-e historian of
America. "WTiat a mass of conflicting CAndence will gather
a]>out the case of Fitz-John Porter ! The historian of the
next generation will stand appalled before it ; but it wiU be
his duty, and that of tlie student also, to analyze the con-
flict of motives which has produced this conflict of evidence.
Now the j)ast is fuU of such cases. The •* rights " of scarce
any historical question are fully understood. It is not
enough to say to students, Bancroft or Hildretli or Yon
Hoist is right or wrong on this point. To impress them
with the fact, we must put into their hands the very docu-
ments from which these authors diew their argument, and let
them draw their own. For the lecture to a lai^e class, the
statement might be enough, all that a majority of the hearers
might be able to assimilate, but there should be among them
some few capable of being inspu'ed to more thorough work.
These few should be encouraged. They should become the
intimates of their instructor. He should see in them the
companions of his own researches and the sure rewanl of his
own industry. They should see in him their leader in a road
which is to take them up out of a boyish way into a manly
way of study.

And what is more, they wUl and do come to look upon
each other, teacher and scholar, in this manly way. The
work of the teacher is reUeAxxl of its worst element of drudg-
ery, and the work of the student loses its worst element
also, — that of mere memorizing and rei)eatiug. Both enter
tc^ether. out of the realm of i>edagogy into the world of let-
ters. 2sothing impressed M. Fredericq so much, both in

58 THE PRACTICAL METHOD IN

Germany and Franco, as the free and familiar footing
uix)n which professor and student met in the practice-
courses. There wa.s no mystery about it. Both were, for
the time, upon the same level. In America, the same result
will be more easily attainable.

1 can recall only with orntitnde the inspiration which came
from the generous enthusiasm of those young men who have
sat with me about the green table in the Harvard College
library, working over, with a pure scholarly spirit, the dusty
record of the middle ages. What a sense of discovery when
they found themselves touching the very thought of the men
who lived through the events they describe ! AVhat a triumph
when they proved this l)ook, bearing the imposing name of
some famous scholar of our daA', to be a tissue of gaps and
errors ! Nor could a scholar ask for any ampler reward than
the repeated assurance of these young men that this power of
independent thought was the best fruit of their student lives.

One apparent obstacle to success in America lies in our
almost universal system of grading students, by which all
efforts, after a true scholarly standard, are hampered, and
many of them wholly defeated. It may well be imagined,
that, to very many persons controlling our higher education,
it would seem like dangerous favoritism for a professor to
surround himself with picked students for a definite purpose.
How shall these especial students be rewarded in marks?
How can we measure their work so that neither they nor
their fellows shall suffer by the comparison? It would not
be surprising if such petty considerations as these should
actually prevent the adoption of the method I am suggesting.
The hope is that the distrust of all individual rank in college,
which has now become evident in several of our leading insti-
tutions, will spread so widely that this primal curse of our
whole educational system will soon disappear.

HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION. 59

Another obstacle, greater still perhaps, lies in the deep- i
seated dread of putting pen to paper, which generally marks
the American student. Writing appears to him oftenest as
a kind of extra work. It suggests compositions with all their
train of absurdities. It is to him a thing apart from his or-
dinar}' studies, instead of being, as it should be, an instru-
ment, the most useful instrument, in pursuing those studies.
Our boys, for instance, may be forced to study Latin for
years without writing one Latin sentence. The young Ger-
man, on the other hand, must write constantly, so that form
becomes a thing of nature to him, and writing is only what
it ought to be, a means of education. The practice-course, to
be successful, must be reinforced b^' earl}- training in similar
kinds of practice, and by the presence of similar exercises in
related fields of study. If the time spent in what is called
"English" in colleges were spent upon the use of English
in the pursuit of other studies, the results could hardly fail
to benefit immensely both the studies and the English itself.
In a word, the time must be hoped for when in all the moral
sciences as well as in the physical, practice in 2)roduction shall
supplement the reception of information. The man to whom
Harvard College owes an impulse in this direction, which has
never been lost, used to say, "If there is any one thing I
despise more than another, it is information." Another man,
who is now giving his life towards stamping upon a great
American university this character of independent, original
investigation, said to me, " Our young men make a mistake
in not writing. What if their productions are immature ?
They are at least production, and their very immaturity will
be of service in pointing the wa}' to better things."

What the laboratory is to physical science, that the library
must be to moral science. The library must become, not a
store-house of books, but a place for work. Books must

GO HIGHER HISTORICAL INSTRUCTION.

exist not so much to be read as to be studied, compared,
digested, made to serve in tlie development of new truth by
the method of practice willi them. One unfamiUar Avith
student life would be surprised at the unwillingness to use
other books than those presented b}- their instructors. Num-
bers of students pass through college without knowing how
to consult the library catalogue. Instruction b}- means of
text-books, even with wide suggestion of collateral reading,
can brina: a student into relation with but few minds, can
give him almost no power of getting out of books the mate-
rial wanted for a given purpose. The practice-course alone,
calling upon a student to use dozens of books, though prob-
ably never to read one, must go far toward giving him right
ideas about their value. lie sees how men before him have
gone to work, and his inevitable loss of faith in the infalli-
bility of printing may be counted as liis greatest gain.

The danger pointed out in Germany, that a wholly practi-
cal method must lead to a loss in breadth and vigor of grasp
upon the whole broad subject of history, is one we are not
likely to fall into. Our danger lies rather in the opposite
direction, and it is from this danger that we must look to
the practice-course to relieve us. M. Fr^dericq laments the
entire absence of practice-courses in Belgium. We are some-
what better off than that. Johns Hopkins is not the only
American university which has taken a step in the right
direction. In all, perhaps a half-dozen have done some-
tliing already, so that it seems not without reason to hope
that Ijcfore very long every historical professor in America
will consider his practice-course as much an essential to suc-
cessful work as his lecture or recitation.

On Methods of Teaching Political Economy.

By Richard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University.

IT is easy to compress into the compass of a single sen-
tence all the information needed to qualify au}^ man of fair
native ability and liberal education to teach political economy
as it was taught eight years ago in one of the proudest
institutions in the United States. The information in ques-
tion is this: Buy Mrs. Fawcett's "Political Economy for
Beginners" ; see that your pupils do the same ; then assign
them once a week a chapter to be learned ; finally, question
them each week on the chapter assigned the week before,
using the questions found at the end of the chapter, and
not omitting the puzzles which follow the more formal ques-
tions ; as it is a test of the academical learning and grasp of
economic science of a senior to have a puzzling problem
like this hurled at him : "Is the air in a diving-bell wealth ;
and, if so, why ? "

Let no one suppose this description satirical or exag-
gerated. It is the literal truth ; and the hour a week for a
part of a year of such instruction was absolutely all the
teaching of political economy done in any department of the
rich and powerful college. It is scarcely necessary to de-
scribe the state in which the students' minds were left.
They learned by heart a few truisms, as, e.g., that it is a

62 ON IkfETHODS OF TEACHING

good thing to be honest, diligent, and frugal ; that prodncts
are divided between capitalists, laborers, and landlords ; and
that values being defined as certain relations of things to
one another, there cannot be a general rise or a general fall
in values ; and they acquired an imperfect compreliension
of certain great fundamental facts, like the Ricardian theory
of rent and the Malthusian doctrine of population. This,
with not a very high opinion of political economy, was the
sum-total of results for the student, and prepared him for
the dejrree of A.B. first, and afterward for that of A.M.
In our national banks we have a wonderful and unique
economic institution, but they were not once mentioned, nor
was a single allusion made to the financial history of this
great country. And yet this instruction was to fit the <!>lite
of the youth of the land for the duties of citizensliip !

This is a tnie picture of one way to teach political econ-
omy, and it is a method of instruction for which a high
salary was paid. Is it a state of things entirely exceptional?
It is to be feared not. A preface to Amasa Walker's
" Science of Wealth," edited 1872, contains these words,
which seem to have met with very general approbation :
" Although desirable that the instructor should be familiar
with the subject himself, it is by no means indispensable.
AVith a well-arranged text-book in the hands of both teacher
and pupil, witli suitable effort on the part of the former
and attention on the part of the latter, the study may be
profitalily pursued. Wc have known many instances
where this has been done in colleges and other institutions
higlily to the satisfaction and advantage of all parties
concerned."

The writer holds that better things than this are possible,
even in a high school ; and it is certain that political econ-
omy ought to be taught in every school of advanced grade

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 63

in the land.i The difficulties are by no means insuperable.
It is, in fact, easy to interest young people in economic
discussions which keep close to the concrete, and ascend
only gradually from particulars to generals.

The writer has indeed found it possible to entertain a
school-room full of bovs, varying in asfe from five to sixteeu,
with a discourse on two definitions of capital, — one taken
from a celebrated writer, and the other from an obscure
pamphlet oi] socialism by a radical reformer. As the school
was in the country, illustrations were taken from farm life,
such as corn-planting and harvesting, and from the out-door
sports of the boys, such as trapping for rabbits. Some
common familiar fact was kept constantly in the foreground,
and thus the attention of the youngest lad was held.

Perhaps money is as good a subject as any for an opening
lecture to bright boys and girls, and the writer would recom-
mend a course of procedure somewhat like this : Take into
the class-room the different kinds of money in use in the
United States, both paper and coin, and ask questions about
them, and talk about them. Show the class a greenback and
a national bank-note, and ask them to tell you the difference.
After they have all failed, as they probably will, ask some
one to read what is engraved on the notes, after which the
difference may be further elucidated. Silver and gold cer-
tificates may be discussed, and the distinction made clear
between the bullion and face value of the five-cent piece, etc.
Other talks, interesting and familiar, about alloys, the extent
to which pennies and small coins are legal tender, the cliar-

1 In Belgium it has been proposed to introduce political economy even
into the elementary schools ; and in view of the immense importance of the
economic problems which will one day be pressing for solution in the
United States, it is to be hoped that such a proposal at some future time
will not be Utopian in our country.

^>4 ON ]^rETH0Ds of teaching

actcr of the trade-dollar, etc., etc., wW] occupy several hours,
and deliglit the class.' The origin of money is a topic which
will instruct and entertain the scholars for an hour. Various
kinds of money should be mentioned ; and it is possible you
may find examples of curious kinds of money in some hill
town not very remote, e.g., eggs, and you are very likely to find
several kinds of money in use among the boys and girls, e.g.,
pins. In one boarding-school, near Baltimore, bits of butter,
served the boys at meals in quantities less than they desired,
passed as money, and quite an extensive use of bills and
orders, " negotiable instruments," was established.- After
this, a work like Jevons's "Money and the Mechanism of
Exchange,"^ or at least parts of it, will interest the pupils.

Banking very properly comes under the head of political
economy, performing as it does most important fun{;tions in
industrial life ; and the most prominent banking institutions
in this country are the national banks, which have also played
an important r61e in our history. There is likely to be one
in every town where there is a high school, and it is well to
continue the course of instruction with the village national

J The teacher will find the necessary information in the Revised Stat-
utes of the L'nited States (Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C),
which should be in the school library. It is contained in more convenient
shape in the " Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Cur-
rency " and "Instructions and Regulations in Relation to the Transaction
of Business at the Mints and Assay Offices of the United States." These
pamphlets, like most other government publications, can be obtained gratis
of the congressman of the district in which the school is situated. They
are kept on sale by various book-dealers in Washington.

2 Cf. Mr. John .Johnston's instructive paper, "Rudimentary Society
among Boys," published in the "Johns Hopkins University Studies in
Historical and Political Sciences," second series, No. XI., edited by Dr.
Herbert B. Adams.

3 This is published in paper covers In the Humboldt Library for forty
cents, as well as in the * ' International Scientific Series " of D. Appleton & Co.

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 65

bank. Procure for this purpose "The National Bank Act,'"
and study it with your class in connection with reports and
advertisements and circulars of the village bank. You will
find a certain minimum number of directors prescribed by
law : ascertain the number in the bank in question, and their
functions. Some luembers of the class will be acquainted
with them, and all the class will know of them, and tliis will
give a personal interest to the study. Then compare the
amount of capital required with the actual amount, and have
the class ascertain from the law the amount of bank-notes
which the bank could receive from the comptroller of the
currency', and the actual circulation. After the various feat-
ures of the bank have been examined, it is desirable that
some bright boy should write a history of the bank, to read
before the class, and afterwards, perhaps, to publish in the
village paper. Files of the paper, to which the editor will
doubtless give access, will contain all the published reports
of the bank, as well as the proceedings and the village talk
about the bank at its foundation. If officers of the bank are
properly approached, they will assist with hints and informa-
tion. In this way the pupils will acquire a new interest in
banks ; and when they pass by the national bank, it will never
again seem quite the same lifeless institution. From the
history of one national bank it is easy to pass over to the
history of national banks in this country, and to a descrip-
tion of the State banking systems, which preceded the
national banking system.- Then the student may be glad
to read what General Walker says on banks, in his " Politi-

1 A government publication ; also published by the Homans Publishing
Company, 251 Broadway. Care should be taken to secure the latest edition,
as there have been various changes in the banking laws.

2 For this purpose the teacher should consult the reports of the comp-
troller of the currency, especially for the years 1875 and 1876.

Ob ON METHODS OF TEACHING

cal Economy," and in his "Money, Trade, and Industry,'"
and a work like Bagchot's "Lombard Street" will not be
without attractions. -

Taxes can be studied in the town or village. The pupils
can learn from their fathers what the taxes are, how they
are assessed and collected, and what part of the revenues is
used for village purposes, what part for schools, what part
for the county, and what part for the State. In any vil-
lage it cannot be diflicult to induce one of the assessors to
explain before the class in political economy the principles
upon which he does his work. All the pupils can then write
essays about taxation in the said place, and perhaps one of
them will be able to write a financial history of the town.
In this way the pupils will be prepared for the perusal of a
work like the " Report on Local Taxation," prepared by
Messrs. WeUs, Dodge, and Cuvler.'' It mav be learned from
the reports of the Secretary of the Treasury '' how the ex-
penses of the federal government are defrayed. In this way
a complete view of taxation in the United States is ob-
tained,'^ and in many respects a small town or village offers
better facilities for such a course than a large city, where
manners are less simple, and where city officials for well-
known reasons often show a manifest unwillingness to impart
information. This course will teach pupils to observe eco-
nomic phenomena, will impart to them an interest in financial
questions, and will prepare them in later years to deal with
large problems. As Carl Ritter prepared himself for his

1 Published by Henry Holt & Co., New York.

2 Published by the Scribners, New York.

8 Published by Harper & Brothers, New York.
* Government publications.

6 The United States Census Reports contain valuable information, and
every high school should be provided with copies.

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 67

great geographical work hv the study of the geography of
Frankfort/ so bright pupils, beginning with the study of
local finance, will learn how to deal with even the difficult
problems of war finance when they arise.

The two great impelling causes of economic study have
ever been financial difficulties of government and social
problems, or discontent with the condition of social classes,
coupled with a desire to improve this unsatisfactory condi-
tion, and it is with these two kinds of topics that political
ecouomy chiefly deals. In a manner similar in principle
to that described, the aduiinistration of public charity and
its relation to private charity may be studied in the town
and county. If poorhouses, insane asjdums, hospitals, etc.,
are in the vicinity, and can be visited, so much the better.
The manner of caring for the criminal classes may be studied
locally. Reports of State boards of charities will euable
the pupils to connect local with State charities.-

Then there is the ordinary laborer. Let the pupils de-
scribe his manner of living, his wages, etc. If the school
is a mixed one, some young girl of sufficient tact will be
found to visit the ordinary laborers in their homes, to talk
with them, and obtain their ideas. In some towns a real
laboring population can scarcely be said to exist ; but factory
towns afford favorable opportunities for studies of this
character. ]\Iany a Massachusetts factory town furnishes an
excellent field for such study, and the reports of the Massa-
chusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics will be found helpful.

1 This illustration is taken from Dr. Adams's paper, v. p. 161 of first
edition.

2 Teachers and pupils will find much useful information in the large
work of Dr. Wines, entitled "The State of Prisons and of Child-Saving
Institutions in the Civilized World," Cambridge (Mass.), 1880.

68 ON METHODS OF TEACHING

A book like " AVork and Wages," by Thorold Rogers,^ will
then be enjoyed by many of the class. ^

After part or all of this ground has been gone over, it will
then be time to take up the more systematic study of politi-
cal economy. The work described might be gone over in
exercises once a week, extending through one year, and the
second year a systematic course might follow ; and this is
not too much time for so all-important a study in a high
school. There arc few good text-books of political economy,
but for the English-speaking student the writer would rec-
ommend Francis A. Walker's " Political Economy," or Lave-
leye's " Elements of Political Economy," with additions by
Taussig.^ Here is an admirable high-school course sketched
out. All the works referred to ought to be accessi])le to the
teacher, and should be mastered before he begins to teach.*
This may seem like requiring a great deal ; but preparation
is as necessary iu a teacher of political economy as in a
teacher of mathematics ; and it is as absurd to venture to
teach political economy, without a knowledge of the subject,
:as to teach trigonometry without a knowledge of trigonome-
try. It is because this has been attempted that such con-
tempt has been thrown on the study of political economy,
and that the science is in such a sad condition.

1 Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York.

2 In his "French and German Socialism" (Harper & Brothers), the
writer has attempted to give a brief sketch of the more prominent Utopian
theories in a manner adapted to school and college use. Albert Shaw has
described admirably an American communistic society in his "Icaria: A
Chapter in the History of Communism." Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons.

3 If there is sufficient time, Walker's larger work is preferable; if less
time can be devoted to the study, I.aveleye's is better. The teacher should
have both. Laveleye's " Political Economy " is published by the Putnams,
New York.

* Let one who proposes to teach political economy master, first of all,
F. A. Walker's "Political Economy."

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 69

For a more advanced course, a preliminary training in
logic is advisable, as the discussion of deductive and in-
ductive methods, of conceptions and definitions, etc., will
otherwise hardly be intelligible. ^ Besides this, the training
one obtains in the study of logic is excellent preparation for
much of the work required in political economy. It teaches
students to analyze conceptions, to combine elements, and
to reason closely. The writer has often felt that a want of
this training in his pupils was an obstacle in his way.

The more profound one's knowledge of history the better
for teacher in high school or college. This economic life, this
working, buying, selling, this getting a living, is only one part
of the historical life of a people ; and the more that is known
about the whole, the better will each part be understood.

For the advanced mvestigation, a knowledge of foreign
languages, especially of German, is indispensable. Rosclier,^
Wagner,'' Knies/ Schmoller/ Schonberg,'' and Leroy-Beaulieu^
should be studied.

Colleges and universities ought also to provide periodicals
like the " Jahrbiicher f iir Nationalokonomie und Statistik."
" Jahrbuch fui- Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Yolkswirth-
schaft," the "Tiibiuger Zeitschrift fiir die Gesammte Staats-
wissenchaft, " the "Journal des Economistes," the English
"Economist," " Bradsti-eets," and the " Banker's Magazine."

1 The two little works by Thomas Fowler, "Deductive Logic " and " In-
ductive Logic," published in the Clarendon Press Series, Oxford, are
recommended.

2 System der Yolkswirthschaft.

3 Lehrbuch der politischen Oekonomie.

* Die politische Oekonomie vom geschichtlichen Standbuhkte, and his
"Geld und Credit."

6 Ueber einige Grundfragen des Reehts und der Yolkswirthschaft.
6 Handbuch der politischen Oekonomie.
'' Traite de la science des finances.

70 ON METHODS OF TEACHING

The teacher of college students, who ought always him-
self to ])e an original worker, should he. perfi'dhi indcppiident.
It is clou])tless owing largely to a lack of independence on
the part of the teacher that political economy has not made
more progress in this country. Men are too often emj^loyed
to teach free trade or to teach protection^ — and as usually
taxight., it is difficult to tell ichich of the two is more unscientific,
— or to teach Henry C. Carey's system,, or teach monometallism
or bimetallism, xohereas the teacher should be encouraged in
the j)^irs'(i!, of truth, regardless of lohere it strikes.

Independence is nowhere more necessary than in the study
of economies. A new theory of the iota subscript does not
move the mass of men profoundly, l)ut a new theory of taxa-
tion is bound to call forth from some one the cry " heresy."
In fact, as there are always large and powerful classes in-
teiested in the present condition of things, every change
proposed, no matter what it is, is certain to meet with a
storm of opposition. Ignorance, prejudice, and selfishness
have always combined in their attacks on every political
economist who has contributed to the advance of his science.

The political economist requires likewise, if he is to do his
best work, a salary which shall enable him to mingle Avith
the world, to become, to a certain extent, a man of the
world, in order that he may the better understand the world
with which he deals. He ought further to be able to travel
and conduct investigations in industrial regions at home
and abroad. So important is travel, indeed, that one great
French school, that of Le Play, has made travel the chief
method of investigation.'

1 The following note on Le Play may be interesting in this connection:
In 1S20 I^ Play began a series of journeys, Avhich continued for over fifty
years, and extended themselves into all parts of Europe, and even into the
regions of Asiatic semi-civilization. These travels have borne plenteous

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 71

The thoroughly equipped teacher of political economy
ought, in addition to his qualifications in history and philos-
oph\', including chiefly logic, to be a careful student of the
principles of law. Evidence and practice, and the formal
details of law, are not of great importance to him ; but real-
estate law, the law of contract and of banking, etc., are.
The political economist lays the basis for legal study, he
tells the reason why such and such legal institutions, e.^.,
private pi'operty in land, exist, and should exist ; but he can
manifestly lay a much better basis if he knows the superstruc-
ture which is to be erected thereon.^

A legal friend, at the same time a political economist,
recommends the following course in law for advanced stu-
dents of political economy : " Blackstone's Commentaries,"^

fruits, of which the most prominent are the following: the publication of
numerous works, the establishment of a method of study in social science,
and the foundation of a school. Le Play's method, which he calls " La
Methode social,"' centres in what maybe called the doctrine of travel. The
quintessence of his theory is, that it is as essential for the economist to
observe economic phenomena as for the mineralogist to observe minerals.
The economist, however, not being able to gather together and arrange in a
laboratory manufactories, laborers' quarters in cities, agricultural villages,
extensive mines, and the commercial phenomena of a great port, must
travel to them, observe the manifestations of social and individual life
which are there to be seen, and classify the results thus obtained in such
manner that instructive and useful generalization may be drawn there-
from. The most important among the works of Le Play bears the title
" les Ouvriers Europeens," in which the author describes from actual obser-
vation the minutest details of separate laborers' households in every jjart
of Europe. The third service to science, which these journeys enabled
Le Play to render, consists in the foundation of a school, called " L'Ecole de
la Paix Sociale," which manifests its activity in various ways, of which the
most striking is the publication of their semi-monthly organ, " La Reforme
Sociale."

1 In many German universities every law-student is obliged to take a
course in political economy. The study of political economy is likewise
obligatory in French law-schools.

- Chase's edition is one volume.

72 ON METHODS OF TEACHING POLITICAL ECONOMY.

wliic-h should be thoroughly digested ; Pursou ou " Con-
tracts " ; Washburu on " Real Estate," Benjamin on "Sales
of Personal Property," and Bispham on "■ Equity." I would
add, at least, Morse on " Banks and Banking," Cooley on
'' Taxation," and Morawetz on " Corporations."

Only one point more remains to be mentioned. The best
original economic work is, for the most part, expensive.
Laws, government reports, as blue-books and financial
statements, and all sorts of original documents are required.
Much economic work can be done only in connection with a
learned institution oi- a govenmient oflice, or by a very
wealthy person. Any university which would have good
work on the part of its teachers of political economy nmst
not begrudge the expense of material as necessary to the
economist as chemicals to the chemist. Of course, it cainiot
be expected that an American college will provide the p<^li-
tical economist with a special library of seventy thousand
volumes, like the Library of the Prussian Statistical Bureau ;
but it is doubtful whether a fair working university library
of political economy can be produced for less than five
thousand dollars.^

1 It will readily be understood that a university library, designed to aid
original research, is something quite different from a high-school library.
One hundred dollars would pun^haso ccouomic books which would answer
fairly well the needs of a high school.

Historical Insteuction in the Course of

History and Political Science at

Cornell University.

By Andrew D. White, Cornell University.

THE theor}^ and practice of historical instruction in Cor-
nell University may be outlined as follows : —

1 . The basis of historical study among university students
is to be found in the necessities of their general development
as men, and of their special development as citizens prepar-
ing to take positions of influence among the civilizing activi-
ties of their land and time.

2. As to the general system upon which a course extending
through four yeai's is conducted, the first step is to enable the
student to secure some adequate general knowledge of the
simpler fundamental facts in that evolution of man and of
society in the past wliicb best aids in solving the problems
reffarding the evolution of both in the future. This is done,
as regards ancient history, by a rapid sm'vey of the main
ancient nations ; as regards mediaeval histor}-, by a study
of the general transition from the ancient to the mediaeval
period, and of the more important and fruitful elements,
institutions, and men developed in mediaeval life ; as regards
modern histor}^, b)' a study of the ti'ansition from the medi-
aeval to the modern period in leading modern nations, and

74 HISTOIIY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

especially by attention to the movements, phases of thought
and action, institutions, epochs, and men in those which
throw most light on the evolution of existing society.

3. As to special work, having in view the education of
the student as a man and citizen, there naturally comes next
the more careful study of such nations, cpoclis, movements,
systems, phases, or tendencies as bear most directly on the
world of thought and action in which the student is to live
and moA'c and have his being. These subjects for special
study are frequently found in ancient, mediaeval, or general
modern histor}', Init students are especiall}' encouraged to
devote their most careful labor to sul)jects which have to do
most directly with thought and action in their own country.

4. As to the i)ractical i)lan pursued, the general knowledge
of ancient and mediaeval history, and of the histor}- of Eng-
land,— considered as a typical example of a great modern
state, — is given in the lower classes by text-books, with
supi)lementary lectures b}' the resident professors, and
occasional courses of lectures by others. This elementary
knowledge is afterward developed in the advanced classes
by various courses of lectures upon the more important
nations and periods, supplemented by recommendations as
to the examination of authorities and general reading, and
by " seminar}- exercises" calculated to increase the famil-
iarity of students with important sources, and to stimulate
their investigation of these.

5. As to methods of teaching, it is taken for granted that
the student must be directly interested in his work, and that
he is not to be considered a passive recipient of facts and
ideas flung at him by his instructors. Efforts are constantly
made to trace back important events and institutions through
the various stages of their development, and to make sug-
gestive comparisons between different phases of progress

AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 75

in the same nation, and between similar pliases iu diiierent
nations. In general modern history and in American his-
tor}-, while pains is taken to present the framework and
connections historically, the fiUing-in is largely biographi-
cal. It is believed that history- is thns more surely made
living and real, that the development of principles and
events is more firmly planted into the thinking of stn-
dents, and that the ethical content of events may be
grasped as it can be in no other way.

6. The importance of leading the student to make indi-
vidual investigation into original som-ces is fully recognized ;
but it is felt that such special investigations are likely to be
narrow and poor, in fact, to be simply those of an attorney's
clerk preparing a case, unless there has been some large pre-
liminary study of human events, and some good philosophical
conception of the values and relations of tliese ; that to pro-
mote special investigation among young men not matui'ed by
broad historical studies, and by thought upon these, is simply
to train up annalists or historical special pleaders. To
guard against this danger, it is thought best to advise, first,
that such individual investigations be made as a rule iu the
latter years of the course ; and, secondly, that they be made
upon points of permanent and direct interest in the history
with which American citizens have most directly to do ;
more especially in the constitutional history of England, and
in the general, political, and constitutional history of the
United vStates.

7. During the entire course of four years efforts are made
to keep up the interest of the student, and to increase his
power of looking upon historical events and developments
from various points of view. It is for this reason that such
special lecturers as Goldwin Smith, James Anthony Fronde,
Hermann von Hoist, Edward A. Freeman, George W.

70 HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE.

Groene, Charles Koiulall Adiuus, aiul others have at various
times beeu called to supplement the work of the resident
professors.

8. Instruction in political science, international law, and
the great literatures, ancient and modern, is brought as far as
possible into conucctiou with historical study. As to litera-
ture, courses of general reading are suggested which shall
aid in making history a living study, and not a mere
'• swallowing of formulas."

9. As to the philosophy of histor}^, efforts are made from
the first to stinuilate the student to find in the progress of
the world's affairs philosophical principles and underlying
laws, and toward the end of the course a special series of
lectures on the subject is delivered for the benefit of those
thus matured in general and special historical work.

10. To sum up as regards the connection of theor}' wiih
method, the effort is, first, to proceed from the simple to the
complex b}' the survey of single nations in ancient history
and single elements in mediieval history before taking up
with more minuteness the complicated history of the modern
world ; and, in modern history, to study nations and even
individuals separately liefore grouping all together ; secondly,
to proceed from the concrete to the abstract by a large use
of the biographical method before presenting extended
chains of historical events ; and, thirdly, to proceed from the
empirical to the rational by encouraging students to draw
philosoi)hical principles out of events before an}' connected
discussion upon the philosophy of history is given as a whole.

Adyice to an Inexpeeienced Teachee of

History.

By "W. C. Collar, A.M., Head Master of Roxbukt Latin School.

YOU contemplate 3-our task with a kind of despairing
shudder, and it is not strange. If we except the in-
structors in a relatively small number of city high schools,
the American teacher who is a college graduate is supposed
to be equipped for instructing in most branches of human
knowledge, or, to speak guardedly, at least in languages,
ancient and modern, physical and natural science, mathe-
matics, history-, and English literature.

Histor}- has been with you a favorite pastime rather than
a subject of severe, absorbing, protracted study. You have
read a good number of standard histories of ancient and mod-
ern times without attempting to make a careful and minute
stud}' of any one nation or period, and this you rightl}' feel
is a very slender preparation for the weighty responsibilities
that you are now to assume. For 3-ou have not to teach a
definite portion of a well-defined subject in accordance with
tried and accepted methods, or even under the guidance of
certain established principles of historical instruction. The
teaching of history has hardly 3et reached the scientific stage.
Both the What and the How are to be largely' of your own
invention. The subject itself is vast. It opens in luany
and far-reaching vistas that lose themselves in a tortuous
complexity. Where is a clue to be found? Evidently time,
reading, observation, experiment, reflection, judgment will
all be needed.

78 ADVICE TO AN INEXrERIENCED

Then what of the class of minds to be taught? For in-
struction must be adapted to the condition and needs of
3-our pupils, or it will count for little. It is said that " the
German pupil at the age of fifteen or sixteen has been able
to complete two distinct surveys of universal history." It
will not be safe to assume anv such amount of knowledge
and training in the case of high-school scholars of that age
with us. Their acquaintance with history is most likely
limited to a meagre outline of facts in English history', and
such a knowledge of United States' history as may be got
from the study of a manual like Anderson's or Berard's.
It is hardly necessary to say that the imagination has not
probabl}' been cultivated by their contact with history, still
less have they any developed historical sense, any notion
of the continuity of history, and most like!}' no love whatever
of historical reading. It is fortunate if thcv do not think of
history as a mere collection of dry facts, without interest or
significance, — a dreary, barren study, to be cast aside and
done with as soon as possible. How often does one hear from
children the exclamation, " Oh ! I hate history ! " Or from
grown persons, " I never could get interested in history."

Finally, account must be taken of the school time allotted
to history. This reveals perhaps the most discouraging
feature of all. I have found three hours a week for a year
too little time for Greek and Roman history alone ; but that,
I am sure, would seem in most high schools a liberal, if not
excessive, allowance of time for a much wider range. The
statement made in another essay in this volume, that
"In America, history is generally crowded into one or two
terms, or at most into a single year," is probably within the
mark.

Such, then, are some of the conditions under which )^ou
must work. A consciousness of inadequate jDreparation,

TEACHER OF HISTORY. 79

insufficient time, and pupils without historical training. The
situation is not exhilarating ; but neither is it without hope.
Certainly it is of the utmost importance first to appreciate
clearly under what limitations one must work, and then to
conceive definitely the kind and amount of work to be done.
To supply your own lack of knowledge and training will be
the slow task of years ; but nothing is so satisfying and
stimulating as the consciousness of progress. This is the
one of the conditions enumerated that it lies in j-our own
power to change, and you may be sure that on the increasing
depth and fulness and freshness of your own knowledge will
depend in large measure the interest and progress of your
pupils, that is, the power and success of your instruction, and
accordingly 3^our own satisfaction in your work.

Let us suppose the subject of ancient history is assigned
to 3-ou. The field is immense, and the time is absurdly in-
adequate. But it is only the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the
Romans, whose history and literatures are of great interest
and importance to us ; and many as are the points of con-
tact of these nations with. Egypt, Phoenicia, Assyria, Persia,
and a few other oriental peoples, some incidental notice only
of these relations will suffice. Thus, the area is at once greatly
circumscribed. And even Hebrew historj- must not be per-
mitted to occupy a relatively large place ; partly because a
considerable portion of it is not important ; partly because
what is of the greatest value to us requires, for its compre-
hension and appreciation, a degree of mental training and
maturity. The Plebrews have transmitted to us their con-
ceptions of God, of religion, and of morality-. Their thoughts,
beliefs, aspirations, emotions, have entered into our inmost
being, and constantly affect our outward life and conduct.
Their ecstas}' of jo}-, of triumph, of hope ; their passion of
remorse, of sorrow, of despaii-, have been embalmed in our

80 ADVICE TO AN inexperienci=:d

sacred music, nnd hallowed by the most tender and solemn
associations of religion. Their language and their iniag-
erv have permeated our literature and color our daily speech.
But it would be vain to attempt to show a class of begin-
ners the immensity of the influence for good, and likewise
for evil, that has been wi'ought upon us through the ages, by
the faith, the ethics, the laws, the literature of that strange
people. Of these things, a partial, fragmentary, or even
incidental treatment nnist suffice.

r.ut to be more precise. As a basis for such instruction,
as circumstances allow, it is enough to read with a class,
first, the life and work of Moses, contained in the first twenty-
four chapters of Exodus, and the first three and the thirty-
fourth chapters of Deuteronomy ; second, the first eleven
chai)ters of Joshua ; and, finally, the life of David.

It is necessary to assume some familiarity with Bible
stories ; though how so many intelligent boys and girls,
accustomed to attendance at Sunday-schools, grow up with-
out such familiar knowledge is something of a mystery. The
discovery, some years ago, that in a class of thirty bright
boys of about fourteen years of age, only three understood
an allusion to the story of Ruth and Boaz, led to my laying
out a course of Bible reading in my own school for each year
of a six years' cun-iculum.

Thus far, we have considered the nature and scope of your
work, and have pointed out some of the limitations imposed
by circumstances for which you are not responsible, but which
you must not disregard. It is time to speak of the method
of teaching. But the method must be determined in the
main by the object aimed at. If the object is to deposit
in the mind the greatest number possible of historical facts,
there is perhaps no better way than to confine the instruc-
tion to drill upon the contents of a manual by question and

TEACHER OF HISTORY. 81

answer, with frequent examinations in writing. Such a method
would probably be effective in two ways : it would give learners
positive knowledge, or the semblance of it, and it would pretty
certainly make them hate history. I do not hesitate to say
that the ultimate purpose of school instruction should be to
incite an interest in history, and to create a love for historical
reading. If this is a correct view, it gives the key to right
methods ; and, from other essays in this volume, you will
gather many useful suggestions. Only consider well what
hints you can use. Remember that your task is not that of
a college professor. It is very different, and it is much more
difficult. Therefore, many excellent methods described by
eminent teachers of history in the preceding essays you may
be unable to put in practice. You have to deal with minds
less mature and less capable of independent study ; and you
cannot probably- send your pupils to a well-furnished librar}-
for reading and research. Perhaps what is contained in this
volume, in answer to the question "How shall history be
taught? " is most directly helpful. Let me try to add some
suggestions derived from my own experience.

I will suppose that your pupils have some brief manual of
Roman or Greek history, like " Creighton's Primer of Roman
History," or " Smith's Smaller History of Greece." First read
over the lesson assigned for the next day, or portions of it, with
the class ; indicate brieflj' what is of greater and what of less
importance ; make such explanations as are needful for an
intelligent comprehension of the text, and indicate what
dates should be committed to memor}'.

A word may be here most conveniently said on the sub-
ject of chronolog}'. A few dates should be well fixed in the
memory- ; they should be carefully selected by the teacher,
and some explanation given of their significance. But " a
few," you will say, is a little indefinite. Of course, opinions

82 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED

will dilTor as to the number of indispensable dates in any
history, though there miglit be a general assent to the prin-
ciple of requiring the pui)il to commit as few as possible.
Of the two hundred and fifty dates given in " Smith's Smaller
History of Greece," I insist on fifteen, and I think the
number might be reduced to ten. But if learners are prop-
erly taught, the}' will, of course, be able to determine a great
many dates approximately. For example, a boy who has
clearly undei-stood the cause, purpose, and results of the
Confederacy of Delos could not possil)ly place it in time far
wrong, with reference to great events before and after it ;
and a single important date in the century well remembered
would enable him to fix very nearly its absolute time.

Remembering that you must make histor}' interesting, to
that end use all available means to produce vivid impressions.
This is a trite remark, but it will bear repeating. Casts,
models, coins, photographs, relief maps, ma}- not be at ^our
command ; but maps of some sort you must have. Historical
instruction, without tlie constant accompaniment of geography,
has no solid foundation, — "is all in the air." The imagination
must be stirred ; the sympathies must l)e quickened. How?
I answer, first, by drawing with judgment from your own stores
of knowledge. An interesting, but perhaps not historically
important, incident is merely alluded to, or not mentioned at
all in the manual used by the class. Tell the story in all
its details. You might read it in a form more perfect from
a literary point of view, but you ought to be able to tell it
in a way far more impressive, and that is the main thing.
For events of a different class, I should, following sugges-
tions more than once made in this volume, read from original,
and, if possible, from contemporary records. What a vivid
idea, for instance, will be got of the plague at Athens from
the reading of a few pages from "Thucydides," with a word

TEACHER OF HISTORY. 83

or two added from modern medical studies of that scourge.
The opportunity and the advantage of studying history from
original documents is one strong reason why I have advised
the study of a small portion of Hebrew history, though I am
not ignorant what modern criticism has established regarding
the age and authorship of those writings. It is not necessary,
however, to communicate to a class knowledge for which they
are not prepared.

But for awakening the sympathies and moving the imagi-
nation of childi'en, I attach greater importance to the aid to
be derived from imaginative literature, particularly poetry.
Poetry gives life and reality to history. History describes,
poetry paints ; and this is often true of poetry that ranks
neither in the first nor in the second order. For years I
have found it very useful to have Macaulay 's ' ' Lays of
Ancient Rome " read in connection with the mythical part
of Roman History. There is nothing like the magic charm,
whether of sublimity or pathos, that poetry lends to historical
events, persons, and places. Who can read Milman's mag-
nificent ode on the Israelites crossing the Red Sea without
a consciousness, if he reflects upon it, of a fresh and more
vivid realization of a scene familiar to his imagination from
childhood? How Scott's beautiful hymn, sung by Rebecca
in "Ivanhoe," makes us see, as the Scripture narrative never
did, the slow onward toiling of the Israelites through the
rocky fastnesses and over the sandy deserts of Arabia, guided
by the pillar of cloud by day and the pillar of fire by night !

At the distance of fortj^ years I recall the emotion, the
tears, with which I read in our country school reading-book
a poem which I have never since seen, entitled " Jusrurtha in
Prison," beginning,

" Well, is the rack prepared, the pincers heated ? "

84 ADVICE TO AN INEXPERIENCED

I knew nothing of Juguitha. neither when he lived nor in

what part of the world, nor what he had done that he was to

l)c starved to deatli in prison. It is true, in this particular

case, that if I had known what a scamp Jugurtha was, my

sympathies for him would have been considerably less

ardent ; but in that case they would only have been transferred

to his brothers, whom he had so foully murdered.

With what a swell of patriotic pride, too, did I use as a

boy to recite, —

"Departed spirits of the mighty dead,
Ye that at Marathon and Leuctra bled."

"Marathon and Leuctra" signified nothing to me. I had not
the remotest idea who the ''mighty dead" were who had
fallen there, but I felt as if it would have been a joy to have
shed my blood with them.

Do not make the mistake, which I am afraid is a common
one, of teaching the history of one ancient nation as if it
had no relation to that of any othei\ To point out relations,
to contrast and compare times, institutions, events, men, is
•one of the most delightful and most useful parts of the
teacher's work. To encourage pupils to discover likenesses
and differences is to promote thinking, to enlarge the mental
horizon, to induce a habit of mind of incstinial)le value.
Take, for example, the fundamental laws of the Hebrews,
the Greeks, and the Romans ; their constitutions, which
embodied and expressed their most striking and distinctive
national characteristics. It would be easy to show, how on
the one hand the Mosaic constitution, the Decalogue, aimed
to make men moral and religious; while on the other the Greek
and Roman constitutions sought to form men into soldiers, and
to make them into members of a body politic. Hence the
importance of private conduct under the one, and its relative
unimportance under the other, with all the far-reaching

TEACHER OF HISTORY, 85

consequences that followed. In the study of Greek histoiy
a comparison of the two rival states, Athens and Sparta, in
spirit and policy, and the tracing of the immediate and
remote effects on themselves and all Hellas, will not only
impart increased interest, by bringing into clearer relief the
essential characteristics, the heroism, the selfishness, the
hardihood, the cruelty, the narrowness of the one, and the
intelligence, love of knowledge and beauty, but also, alas !
the sensuality, levity, and weakness of the other ; but it will
suggest many an important lesson, and will be an excellent
preparation for the reading of modern history with a more
intelligent observation and reflection.

Again, how interesting is the comparison in detail of the
growth of the Athenian constitution under Solon, Cleisthenes,
and Pericles, with that slowly evolved among the Romans
after the beginning made by Servius Tnllus, by the struggle
for two centuries between the patricians and plebeians.
There is the same' exclusive possession of political rights on
the part of the nobles, and accordingly the same control of
government by the few for their own benefit and pleasure ;
the same misery, poverty, and indebtedness of the lower
classes ; the same struggle to escape from intolerable
burdens, and then to share equally with the more fortunate
the rights of citizenship, that meant so much in ancient
times ; the same shifting of the basis and condition of
political privileges from birth to wealth, estimated, observe,
in both cases, by the amount or income of property in land ;
and finally the same issue, the turning of the tables, the
ultimate predominance of the people, and the transference of
the sceptre of power from the noble by birth to the rich.
And can there be a more interesting lesson in histoiy than
to continue this analogy, and trace the upward struggle of
the common people in England? There the same contest

86 ADVICE TO AN INEXPEllIENCED

has been going on for six hundred years ; the same forces
are at work, and there are many signs that the same results
will follow.

I have anticipated in the last few sentences the only
additional suggestion that I can now permit myself to make.
I mean the comparison of ancient with modern history.
According to Herbert Spencer, there is no thinking without
a consciousness of similitude, and no knowing without a
perception of relation, dilference, and likeness. If, then,
comparison, conscious or unconscious, is a necessary con-
dition of knowledge, is one in danger of pressing the com-
parative method of historical study too far? P^xplicit
comparisons at every step are not necessary', and the strict
limitations of time must not be forgotten. I have never
failed to awaken interest by such comparisons, whether in the
study of ancient or modern history, even when the basis of
knowledge on the part of pupils was of the slenderest. But a
striking parallelism pointed out here and there will be enough
to give direction to the thoughts in reading history, to lead
pupils, as has already been observed, to see and follow out
analogies themselves, to bring home to the consciousness
what is far away, and to recognize in what appears new and
strange what is known or even familiar. Let me illustrate.

Suppose the topic for a lesson has been the Sicilian Expedi-
tion. There is hardlj' to be found a more thrilling narrative
than that by the great Greek historian, and the reading of
some pages from Thucydides may well occupy a half-hour.
A class will hardly find in their course in ancient history so
conspicuous an exami)lc of the utter disastrous failure of an
important undertaking through the irresolution and incapa-
city of a leader. Let the teacher now tell the story of the
I Peninsula Campaign of McClellan in our late Rebellion, to
illustrate how history is repeated in events and in the

TEACHER OF HISTORY. 87

characters of men. Nicias was a man of upright character
and respectable talents, but as a general cautious to timidity,
and in a pinch incapable of coming to a decision. He was
one of those men who are always thought to be sure to do
great things, without its being possible to tell what inspires
such confidence. He had the resources of the state at his
back, and to support him the unflinching determination of
his countrymen to win. He was ably seconded by his
subordinates, and he almost achieved a great success. But
at the last moment victory slipped from his grasp, and the
hopeless ruin of all his plans quickly followed. Such, at
least in the opinion of many, was McClellan, and so ended
disastrously his strategy of the spade. As the elder Nicias
barely missed capturing Syracuse, so did the modern Nicias
all but take Richmond.

Again, at first, a boy or girl would not see much likeness
in the characters of the Romans and the English. But reflec-
tion, aided by the hints and questions of the teacher, would
bring out a surprising number of points of resemblance, and
it would appear that the English might be fairly called the
Romans of the modern world. There is at bottom the same
solidity, massiveness, and sobriety of nature. The same
indomitable will and tenacity of purpose is characteristic of
the two peoples. They are alike in their respect for woman,
their domesticity, their love of old-fashioned ways and
things, their arrogance, their dislike of foreigners. They
have above all other nations a genius for law and govern-
ment.

Tu regere imperio popolns, Romane, memento,
Hae tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem,
Parcere subjectis, et debellare superbos.

In many ways their defects and limitations are the same.
The brusqueness, harshness, and indifference to the rights

88 TO AN INEXPERIENCED TEACHER OF HISTORY.

and feelings of others which foreigners complain of in the
English, seem to have been traits of the Romans. Cato,
a tj'pical Roman, was willing that the prayer of the Achaan
exiles shonld be granted that they might return to their own
country after having languished seventeen years in prison,
but lie gave his consent in these gracious words : "Have we
uotliing better to do tiian to sit here all dav Ions: debatin<>-
whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be carried to their
graves here or in Achaia?" Both are incapable of the
highest excellence in certain forms of art. Matthew Arnold
is fond of repeating of a large part of his countrymen, that
they are characterized by "a defective type of religion, a
narrow range of intellect and knowledge, a stunted sense
of beauty, a low standard of manners." This seems to be
equally true of the Roman Philistine, and, I imagine, true
of a far larger part of the whole body of the Romans than of
the English.

Our aim has been to show how to give life and reality to
history, and we have seen that the methods by which this
end may be reached are also those by which the greatest
benefits are to be derived from historical study ; I mean the
culture of the imagination, the quickening of the sympathies,
the elevation of the moral nature, the forming of mental
habits of observation, comparison, and reflection, and finally
an increased interest in history and general literatui'e.

A Plea for Aech.eological Insteuction.

By Joseph Thacher Clarke.

'■''Die Werkstdtte ei'nes grossen Kiinstlers entwickelt den
keimenden Philosophien^ den keimenden Didder, mehr als der
Horsaal des Weltiveisen und des KritikersJ" — Letter of
Goethe to Oeser, 1768.

IT has long been evident that, as matters now stand, a
living interest in classical antiquity is difficult to in-
ti'oduce in the studies of 3'outh, and almost impossible to
maintain in the busj- life of later years. To some men of
acknowledged intelligence it appears inadvisable to devote
even that attention to classical attainment hitherto customary
in our educational systems. Such complaints that the stiuh-
of the ancient languages is not productive of adequate results
are not new, and unfortunately are not without foundation.

Teachers of long experience in the University- of Cam-
bridge tell us "it is quite usual to find among advanced
classical students so complete an absence of the feeling of
the reality of ancient life that they will sometimes in constru-
ing put into the mouth of one of the characters of history or
fiction a sentiment in ludicrous disaccord with his position and
with what might have been expected, and will do so without
the slightest sense of incongruity." If the case elsewhere
is otherwise, it certainly is not more favorable than with so
great and so typical an institution.

90 A TLEA FOR

This absence of the feeling of reality, this want of acquaiut-
auec with the actual circumstances of the life of the Greeks
and Romans, touches the secret of the entire matter. We
nmst admit that, in this regard, there is indeed the need of
improvement, almost of a revolution, in the presentation of
tlie classics to the student and to the public if these branches
are to hold their own against the pressure brought to bear
upon tliem bj' the absorbing utilitarianism of our age.
Such an improvement can only proceed from a rejuvenation
of philological studies by that living knowledge of antiquity
gained by practical archaeology. A means of adapting class-
ical instruction to the needs and tastes of present generations
has long been sought, and has gradually become more and
more needful. An increase of the direct study of ancient
life, which unites the advantages of philological scholarship
and the exact research of natural science, is the only satisfac-
tory resort in the present emergency. Archaeology is that
combination of tangible acquisition with intellectual attain-
ment which is the ideal compromise between the conflicting
principles. Not long ago a prominent statesman spoke of
archffiolog}' as a "great and healthgiving" science. In this
application it may trul}' bear out his curious characterization.

It is not difliciilt to demonstrate that the real disease of
modern classical instruction, — notably in our own country,
which is entirely without archaeological study, — is this very
want of the sense of realit)', resulting from the omission of
what Boeckh has termed the material discipline of the science
of antiquit}'. The history of classical learning, during the last
four centuries, shows clearly that, without frequent and sys-
tematic research among the material remains of earlier life,
the real intercourse of modern generations with antiquity
steadily declines. The want of archaeological investigations
during the ages succeeding the first great impulse of the

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 91

Renaissance, and of that intelligent understanding only to be
derived from discoveries thus made, resulted in the stagnation
and pedantic lifelessness of all classic learning which is so
characteristic of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
The promising beginning of antique research made in the
Quatrocento, by Italian architects and travellers, — Brunel-
leschi, Bracciolini, Squarcioue, and particularly Cyriacus
of Ancona, — did not meet with encouragement sufficient to
insure the position of archaeological investigations during the
following ages. Even as late as the time of Millin, scholars
did not generally recognize the fact that the study of ancient
monuments of art is the study of one of the chief expressions
of human genius and attainment ; did not perceive that a
knowledge of the monuments alone could lift the veil by
which the earlier civilizations were shrouded.

This inability to recognize and enter into the actual life
of the ancients led to the appearance of that great and
yet deplorable race of scholars who, Cyclop-like, lacked
the eye of practical acquaintance with the material remains
of those civilizations to whose literary vestiges they devoted
an erudition not since surpassed. Philologists and phil-
osophers stretched and contracted the few facts of antique
civilization known to them until they fitted as best they
might the Procrustean beds of their preconceived theories.
In all branches of intellectual attainment there was a lack
of practical knowledge which it is difficult to comprehend.
Erasmus, besides his mother tongue, could only speak Latin,
and did not even understand the languages of France, Italy,
or Eno-laud, althouo-h he had lived long in those countries.
Duval, at the court of Francis I. of Austria, could repeat the
names and alleged dates of all the rulers of Egypt, Greece,
and Rome, but could not tell how many Imperial Electors
were living, and did not even know the beautiful sisters of

02 A TLEA FOR

the Emperor Joseph, — who himself excused the schohxr with
the explanation: ''But then my sisters are not antiques."
Perhaps the greatest coryphcus of this school of pedants
was, however, one Hermann Conring, who wrote something
over two hundred "opera" and " opuscula," and whose
epitaph in the little churchyard of Ilelmstiidt, after enumerat-
ing his many attainments and more titles, concludes : " mul-
tus putes conditos? Unus est, Conringius, Saeculi Miracu-
lum ! " But who to-day gives a thought to this Wonder of his
Century, with all his learning?

The study of the classics with these men of the schools,
even more than with our own, was dominated by a purely
philological and literary spirit, to the exclusion of practical,
that is to say of archa?ological and definite historical concep-
tions. Scholars had come to regard the words of the ancients
more than their meaning, even as style rather than matter
still generally decides the choice of classical reading. In
their limited minds they were always ready to measure the
im[)ortance of archaeological study by the meagre informa-
tion they had concerning its materials.

One of the first effects of this misjudgment was the neglect
and decay of the ill-arranged collections of antiques then
existing. The lamentable fate which befell so many of the
Arundel marbles is a striking instance of the lack of general
interest in arclueological studies at the time. Early in the
seventeenth century the collection had been brought from the
Cvclados to England by a fortunate chance ; but its value
could not then be worthily appreciated. The influence of
this unrivalled accession of antiques to one of the chief cen-
tres of European thought is hardly perceptible in the intel-
lectual life of those times. Tlie statues and reliefs in vain
appealed to the learned world : " Be not so blind ; we, too,
are that Hellas which ye seek."

AECH^OLOGICAL INSTEUCTION. 93

The continental museums of this period, while accumulating
worthless curiosities and bric-a-brac of all kinds, dwindled
in character to the discouraging cabinets of varieties which
were the idle delight of ever}' petty potentate. Tliere was
no conception of the gi'eat value of such collections as indices
of former development. A representative work of this mis-
directed antiquarianism is Martorelli's notorious volume of
800 quarto pages on an antique ink-stand found at Portici,
in which bulky work there is nothing of practical importance,
nothing definite, even in regard to antique ink-stands.

When a superficial knowledge of Greek antiquities or
costume was acquu-ed, it was onl}' to play an ignoble part
in the masquerades of Louis Quatorze. Even as late as the
time of Gessner, in the first years of the eighteenth cen-
tury, these branches of learniug were generally held in such
low esteem, that he, the learned Rector of the Thomas-
Schule, Gottingen Professor, and President of the wisest
existing Academj' of Sciences, seriously recommended a
study of the classics to the homines elegantes of his da}' ;
that thej" might thereby be enabled righth' to comprehend
the elaborate displaj-s of fire-works then in vogue, and dilate
with learned emotions before the complicated and tasteless
structures of white-of-egg and tinsel placed by the sugar
bakers upon the tables of the great !

Such was the debased state of classical instruction, which
resulted from a neglect of that material discipline of anti-
quit}', assured by the researches of the archaeologist and by
the practical investigations of the explorer. The rise of
humaniora in Germany and France is due to the more just
recognition of the unity of classical studies.

Apart from the futility of such comparisons, no archaeolo-
gist would go so far as to maintain that the group from the
eastern gable of the Temple of Zeus, at Olympia, is more

04 A PLEA FOR

majestic tli.an a riiularic ode ; that the Victory from 8amo-
thrace is a more spirited creation than the warhke 'jhoriis
of Oidipous at Kolonos ; or tliat, for instance, the agora and
fortifications at Assos convey a higher conception of the civic
and military life of Greece than do the works of Xenophon.
But it is right to insist upon the fact that the thoughts of the
Greek poets and historians ai-e presented in a dilllcult lan-
guage, — the full force and delicacy of which are only to be
appreciated after years of devoted study, — while the un-
rivalled monuments of art of that people speak directly to
the intellect and heart of the modern observer. It would be
wrong indeed to assert that the language of Greek architect-
ure and sculpture, and of all other arch.Tological materials
as well, speaks alike to all ; for archjeology also has its
grammar and lexicon. vStill, it remains true that its interest
is more immediate and more accessible.

pjverv teacher of the classics knows how much a refer-
ence to an antique monument, or a description d, j^^'ojyos of
an otherwise obscure passage, increases the interest and
reality, even of the driest author. Such explanations awaken
attention, and give that vivacity of conception so dependent
upon the imagination. A line of Pindar or Theokritos thus
acquires the living and picturesque value of modern A'erse.
Names of things not in use to-day are met with frequently in
the usual school autliors, and juay be, in fact generally are,
mechanically translated, without couA'cyiug even the most
vague idea of their real signification. But let the objects,
or even an adequate representation of them, be shown to the
class, and, thenceforth, the pupil will see in the word the
thing itself, — its shape, color, and, above all, its character.

Now, archaeology stands in the same relation to all antique
literature as docp the object to the word in the case referred
to. Such brilliant discoveries upon ancient sites, as the last

AP.CH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 95

generation has witnessed, give us that feeling of the inade-
quacy of our theoretical infonnation, which is the greatest
stimulant to advance. They open new and far-stretching
regions, and ma}- be pronounced the only specific for that
common and most dangerous tendency of the human mind
to form a system from a few facts accidentally known, and
then lapse into self-satisfied sterility.

Another reason wh}- the position of archeology should
become important in our modern plans of study is to be
found in the fact that, although political research attained
the full perfection of its apparatus in antique fields, histo-
rians have long been inclined to relinquish the prosecution
of Greek and Roman history to classical, and particularly to
archaeological specialists, who are better prepared to con-
sider the monumental and epigraphical testimony' afforded
b}' the remains now daily brought to light. The present
representatives of classical science cannot be too thankful
that so man}' great masters of historical induction have
bestowed upon it the comprehensiveness of their methods.
In return for this, it now devolves upon epigraphists and
archaeologists to increase the supply of materials for the
determination of the political and social relations of ancient
life.

What better illustration of the brilliant advance of the
wealthy cities on the Lydian and Mysian sea-board during
tlie latter half of the fourth century B.C. have we than the
appearance and peculiar transformation of Attic architecture
and sculpture in Asia Minor during this period? And how
could the political union of the small autocratic states to one
world-wide dominion be exemplified and defined without an
understanding of the art and material culture of the Hellen-
istic and earlier Roman epochs? In view of these tasks it
almost appears that, as Littre has said, the true end of all

9G A TLEA FOR

cnulition is to furnish materials for the science of history.
Our :igo has no greater honor tluui the zeal with which all
brandies of learnino; work in concert to recover the riches
of the past from the shadow of oblivion ; recognizing the
intellectual physiognomy of extinct races by the traces of
its material expression. It is by the acquirement of such
knowledge that we are put in full possession of the attain-
ments of previous generations, and become capable of in-
creasing and improving this inheritance.

In this regard, archaiolog}', though late, is not least in
rank among the sister sciences. Not one furnishes to this
grand history more varied and more solid materials, or adds
to the picture of furmer greatness firmer outlines and brighter
colors. Indeed, as a handmaid of Ilistor}', Archaeology is
more trustworth}'^ than Literature. A monument of assured
authenticity is the most indisputable witness to the con-
temporary fact which it asserts. An author, on the other hand,
may have been content to follow a groundless tradition, to
speak on hearsay, sometimes even may have knowingly mis-
represented the truth. INIoreover, the date of a document does
not necessarily indicate either the age or the general accept-
ance of the fact recorded, still less of the idea which inspired
it : while a work of art involuntarily and unconsciously
furnishes us with this information. The artist of a complex
and imitative age may, it is true, attempt to mislead his gen-
eration in regard to the spirit of his design. As we see, to-
day he may even succeed with many of those before whom
he displays his archaistic or foreign work. But he cannot
deceive the trained discrimination of the later historian of
art.

Every form given to a material by man is the envelope or
sign of a thought. Thoughts thus expressed are translated
by archaeology, which science may consequently be defi.ued

AECH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 97

as the study of all visible monuments of early human activity ;
it excludes from its limits only the spoken and written lan-
guages of the past. It is thus the science which alone can
teach us the most remote history of the race ; for, while man
has not always written, he has, from the first days of his
existence, fashioned the materials which surrounded him to
accommodate them to his needs, uuconsciousl}' impressing
upon them the evidence of his conceptions and abilities.
Hence, no object, however insignificant it may appear to un-
trained eyes, is deemed by the archaeologist unworthy his stud}-.
He regards, with, a respectful and almost tender curiosity,
the smallest vestige of an earlier age, for in it he recognizes
some human thought. The minutiae of archasological methods
are often ridiculed by the vulgar ; nothing is more easy than
to jest at an uncomprehended activity of any kind. The
justification lies in the result. Those researches are surely
not in vain by which we are enabled to decipher a single
line of the nearly obliterated pages of early human history.

It is owing to those self-sacrificing explorers who for the
last hundred years have followed in the footsteps of Stuart
and Revett, that we have to-day in archaeology a new science,
which, in perfection of apparatus and results, may be proud-
ly ranked with comparative anatomy : that branch of re-
search which practical archaeology most closely resembles in
point of method. For, as the naturalist from a handful of
bones can present the image and describe the very habits of
an animal which for thousands of years has had no repre-
sentative on earth, so can the classically educated architect
reconstruct the buildings of extinct civilizations by study of
their overthrown and widely scattered stones. And as the
anatomist sees in the varieties of species certain stages of
advance dependent on environing conditions, — so does the
student of antique sculpture note in the monuments of the

98 A TLEA FOll

Asiatic sea-board, of -Egina, and of Attica, the develop-
inent of artistic conceptions and technical execution. These
observations gradually grow to a history of a iierfectlv
parallel human advance, a warning and directing guide.

The great advantage of arclireological studies in peda-
gogical respects lies in the fact that, although the ultimate
subject of research is the human mind, it deals primarily
with the tangible facts and institutions of antiquity. For
the purposes of instruction it has all the advantages of the
concrete over the abstract. Xon scholae, sed vitae. An}'
man who builds a house, or drives a horse, will do it the
better for knowing how houses were arranged, or horses
trained, in tlie antique world. This must surely be the
manner in which tlie out-of-door Greeks would themselves
have desii-ed to lie studied. It has often been remarked
that no race has ever lived upon whose life external sur-
roundings worked with deeper effect. More than any other
people the Hellenes had a highly developed sense of the
beautiful, and they found the deliglits to be derived from
this appreciation as much in their works of art as in their
poetry and eloquence. Certainly no people was ever so
surrounded by works of its own hands, and these works
influenced most decisively the great body of the Greek
public, for whom the scrolls which contained the writings of
their comparativel}' few authors were far out of reach. It
was not merely a literary education which raised the citizens
of Athens to the eminence of the Pheidian age; it was not
the wisdom of their writers, but of their artists which
occupied the most prominent place in the minds of the Greek
people. Archaeology and the history of art teach us to
comprehend Hellenic genius as expressed in these most
characteristic works, which may be of a like beneficent
influence upon our receptive ond cosmopolitan generation.

ABCHiEOLOGICAL i:N^STEUCTIO]Sr. 99

To stucty exclusively the literary aspects of Greek life, to

refuse classical archjfiology its high place in the unity of

Hellenic studies, is to refuse to profit by those lessons of
antiquity most needed by modern civilization.

In consideration of these many and varied advantages, —
I may even sa}- of this imperative necessit}', — it is certainly
most deplorable that there is to-day absolutely no recognized
archaeological instruction in the United States. A barrier
like the Chinese Wall seems to separate those who study
antiquitj' in its written works from those who seek its genius
in material creations. One American university has, in the
strength of its youth, lifted itself upon tip-toe to glance over
the wall ; but from one domain to the other there is no
regularly established communication, no widel}' open gates.

AYith this state of things the verdict of the most enlight-
ened minds concerning the results of our pedagogical systems
ought not to surprise us. What M, Renan has said is only
just: " The United States has created considerable popular
instruction without any serious higher instruction, and will
long have to expiate this fault by its intellectual mediocrity,
its vulgarity of manners, its superficial spirit, its lack of
general intelligence." Our own Lowell has stated the fact
more tersely: "Americans are the most common-schooled
and the least cultivated people in the world."

The gradual advance of archaeology in the academical in-
struction of Europe during the last hundred years indicates
one of the most important lines of improvement. The six-
teen most prominent universities of Germany, for instance,
have regular chairs of archaeology, and there are doubtless
others which have escaped the inquir}' of the present writer.
Even ten years ago, when Meyer and Stark were complain-
ing so bitterly of the history of art, ' ' that Cinderella among

100 A PLEA FOR

modern sciences," being neglected by native universities,
there were independent professorships of this branch, in
addition to the regular archaeological instruction, at Berlin,
Bonn, Konigsberg, Leipzig, JNIunich, Strassburg, Prague,
Tubingen, Vienna, and Zurich.

France, England, and Italy follow this example. There
exist no better arguments concerning the importance of
archffiological studies in the higher curriculum than those
delivered by M. George Perrot upon accepting the newly
created chair of archaeology at the Sorbonne, and by Mr.
Percy Gardener upon being called to a similar position at
Cambridge.

Even so small a university as that of Bucharest has a
chair of archaeology. The fifteen lectures delivered by
Professor Odobescu on the pedagogic importance of this
science and its history up to the time of Montfauconi are
well worthy the attention of those interested in the sub-
ject. The Roumanian language — though it presents no
: serious difficulties to one acquainted with the other daugh-
ters of the Latin — has not hitherto been much needed by
scholars for purposes of reference ; the appearance in it of
such a work indicates the rapid advance of archaeological
studies beyond the narrow limits to which the last generation
saw them confined. In view of this example, given by a
state which until so very recently was between the upper
and nether millstones of Oriental misrule and disturbance,
we must cease to lay that flattering unction to our American
souls which has too often been found in the "newness" of
our country and its institutions.

The decree which founded the Ecole d'Aihdnes gave a

1 A. L. Odobescu, Istoria Archeologiei, Studiu Intraductiou la Ac&ta
ijciintia. Bucharesci, 1877.

AECH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. • 101

great and enduring impulse to these studies iu France ; let
us hope that our new American School at Athens may be-
come something more than a philological seminary, and
develop the broad interests of its well-arranged predecessors.
For it is in Greece itself, amongst the vestiges of Hellenic
civilization, that the study of its antiquities is pursued to the
greatest advantage. Indeed, the chief difficulty of archte-
ological studies lies in the fact that, in order to enjoy and
fulh^ to understand the material remains of antiquity-, it is
necessar}- to see them often, and to study them closel}'. By
the magic of a few lines of Homer, of Euripides, of Catullus,
the master of ancient languages carries his hearers on the
wings of imagination to the classical world. But the
archfeologist and the historian of art are less free from
the material. The thoughts which they study are eml)odied
in a tangible form, of which a mere description is necessaril}^
insufficient. It is not difficult to lay out a plan of archae-
ological study, aided by that admirable scheme of acade-
mic instruction founded b^' Hermann ^ upon K. O. Miiller's
great work, b}' Gerhard's similar schedule of lectures,'^
and by useful hints to be derived from later pedagog-
ical treatises. 3 The difficulty lies rather in providing
adequate illustrations for the historical and descriptive course
determined upon. Hence an imperative requirement is the
formation of a collection of antiquities, which is to arch?e-

1 Schema akademischer Vortrage liber Archaologie, oder Geschichte
der Kunst des klassischen Alterthums. Von Dr. K. Fr. Hermann. Gottin-
gen, 1844.

2 Grundriss der Archaeologie, fuer Vorlesimgen, nach Mueller's Hand-
buch. Vou Ed. Gerhard. Berlin, 1853.

3 One of many: Vorschlage 7a\ einer Methode des asthetischen Unter-
richts, nebst Beispielen. Mit besonderer Hervorhebung der Griechen.
Von Rudolf Menge. In the Piidagogische Studien, Von Dr. Wilhelm
Kein. Heft XII. Eisenach.

102 A PLEA FOR

ology what a laboratory is to clieiiiistry. In this respect
also the example is given by European countries. As late
as l-'^oO Gerhard could scarcely' find material iu Berlin for
the illustration of his lectures ; but iu 1873 only five of
the German universities (the inferior estal)lishments of
Erlangen, Giessen, Marburg, Miinster, and Rostock) were
without archteological collections intended for the purposes
of instruction. ]Many of these have gradually grown to
great importance, Bonn, Breslau, and "Wiirzburg possessing
antiques of inestimable value. Even the preparatory schools
of Germany often haA-e admirably complete collections of casts,
— as. for instance, that in the little town of Schulpforta,
the catalogue of which, by Benndorf, is a work of independ-
ent scientific interest.

For the illustration of the liistor}- of classical sculpture
such a collection should consist of types chosen to represent
the characteristics of different centuries and of various
schools, rather than of those elegant and familiar figures
which please at first sight. These examples should be
arranged as far as possible in chronological order, so as to
exhibit the modifications of technical methods and style, the
gradual development of artistic means, the advance from
the archaic to the highest perfection, and, finall}', the aflTec-
tation and insincerity of work which led to the decadence.
Without such collections, or the far less trustworthj' aid of
engravings and photographs, the history of antique art and
archaeology can only be pursued at the expense of laborious
journej's, impossible to most students, w^hich even the i)ro-
fessional explorer has continually to recommence.

!Much has already been done in Europe to give to classical
studies their true importance and to enable them to exercise
their peculiarly salutary influence upon our generation ; but
far more remains. We have improved, it is true, upon the

AKCH^OLOGICAL INSTRUCTION. 103

narrow pedantry of Conring and Gessner, to whom the
texts were everything. The science of antiquity has become
something more than that suffisance inurement livresque ridi-
culed by Montaigne. But practical explorations are still
not sufficiently encouraged, and archaeological instruction as
yet has not attained its worthy place.

The great "\Yinckelmann stood on the portal between the
past and the present of classical learning. It was the sug-
gestiveuess of his historical methods that first pointed out
the way which has led from the tasteless and unprofitable
collector's mania of the Roccoco to the eminence of true
archaeological science. But even in his exposition much
was empirical, disconnected, and hopelessly entangled. The
purely literary accounts of artistic development in Egypt,
Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, and Greece obscured rather than
enlightened the scholars of the last century, and were ever
before their eyes like distoi-ting fogs.

As late as the time of Zoega and Visconti the field of
archaeology was a promised land, — seen by them with much
the feelings of Moses upon Mount Pisgah. It has first be-
come possible to the younger generation of to-day to enter
into full possession of the milk and honey of Greek perfec-
tion. And this possibility is almost wholly due to the
investigations of practical workers upon classic soil, and to
those archaeological scholars who have taught the world the
true value of the materials thus obtained.

The Use of a Public Library in the
Study of History.

By Wm. E. Fostek, Librakiax of the Providence Public Librart.

IT would he a mistake to assume that the usefulness of
such an institution as a public library is manifested ex-
clusively, or even chiefly, in connection with any one line of
investigation. On the contrary, the demands made upon it
represent the widest variety of studies and researches. At
the same time, some of its methods have been found to adapt
themselves with peculiar du-ectuess to the requirements of
historical stud}'.

For the sake of brevity, the instances cited below are
drawn in every case from the experience of a single library ;'
vet manv of the phases of the work here indicated mav no
doubt be met with in other libraries ; and there would seem
to be no inherent reason why they are not applicable to
libraries in general.

From the outset there has been a definite purpose to main-
tain a concert of action, and a mutual understanding, between
this library, on the one hand, and, on the other, such institu-
tions and agencies as a local historical society, courses of
study in college and in the public schools, private schools,
local debating societies, private historical classes, and bodies

1 The Providence Public Library.

lOG THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBRARY

of students pursuing the admirable courses of the Society to
Encourage Studies at Home, and similar plans of study. In
the college just referred to — Brown University — topics are
regularly assigned for theme-writing, not only in tlie dei)art-
ment of history, but in that of English literature and iMiglish
comi)ositiou. In one of these departments from the outset,
and in the other dm-ing a great portion of the time, a memo-
randum of the topics assigned has been invariably sent to the
public library ; and carefully prepared lists of references to
authorities have thereupon been made. Naturally a large
share of the topics in both the departments above mentioned
maj' be described as distinctly historical ; in many cases,
however, biographical or literary. The lists of references
thus prepared have not merely been forwarded to the college
class, but have also been placed on file at the library, for the
use of the students. Gradually, moreover, an extension of
this system to the requirements of the other readers and
st\ideuts named above — those of the pu])lic and private
schools, etc. — has grown up, in which the same method
is followed with greater or less elaborateness. The aim has
been, in short, to observe diligently the nature and extent of
the actual demands upon the library for specific assistance of
this kind, and then to meet it in the fullest possible manner.

But this is only one phase of the work ; for the aim has
been not merely to meet such a demand, but to create it as
well. For instance, it has been the unbroken practice, from
the very first day on which the library was opened,' to post a
series of "daily notes" on current events and topics. A
newspaper slip, cut in nearly every instance from the morn-
ing i)aper of the cm-rent date, is posted on the l)ulletin-board
in the public portion of the library ; and under this are

1 In 187S,

EST TETE STUDY OF HISTORY. 107

gi'Oiiped references to authorities, — iu mau}' instances citing
volume and page, — which illusti'ate, or supplement, or iu
some way bear upon this topic. Opposite each entry, more-
over, the reader finds the book-number, by which to appl}'
for the woi'k in question ; and this he is very lilcel}' to do.
It is, in fact, a slice out of the catalogue wliich is thus pre-
sented to the attention of readers each morning, but the
references are on a much more minute plan than would be
possible in any ordinary catalogue. AVhat relation, it may
be asked, has this to the study of histor}^ ? In the first place,
most of the topics thus presented, distinctly illustrate Mr.
Freeman's suggestion, that ^'History is past politics; and
pohtics present history " ; and during the past six years cases
in point have been the "Berlin Congress," "Nihilism in
Russia," the "Operations in Egypt," etc. In the second
place, it has lieeu found that the works in the library, to
which the references have thus been made, are, iu a very large
percentage of instances, works of standai'd history.

The most significant fact iu connection with this system of
suggestions and assistance is the completeness with which
it has been recognized and used by the readers. These daily
notes, hanging always in a well -recognized place, near the
entrance, have from the first been regularly scanned ; and
the extent to which the suggestions have actually been put in
practice has been at all times an appreciable feature in the
intelligent use made of the library. But this " daily " system,
though the earliest of the library's schemes of suggesting lines
of reading, has not been the only one. From it, as a basis,
have been developed several very interesting outgrowths, iu
some instances unforeseen. (1) It was found that these
daily lists had, in the eyes of the readers, a more than
ephemeral value. They were not merely examined on the
day when posted, but were consulted weeks after, by those

108 THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBRARY

who rcincinbcroil haviug seen on a given day a list on a given
subject. So many, moreover, were the instances in which a
desire was expressed to make copies of the more extended
list*i, that the copying process known as tlie hektograph was
introduced, and thus a numlier of copies could be supplied to
those wlio desired them. (2) To the surprise of the librarian,
the innnber of readers who could thus be supplied (70 or 75)
was soon found to be too limited, and resort was had to
printing them. At first this was only at rare intervals, and
in special cases, but in 1880 the practice was begun — and
since continued witliout interruption — of regular weekly
printed lists in each of two local daily newspapers. This
has proved an eminently practical and successful measure.
The in>rary's "constituency," so to speak, consisting of the
local iniblie, has, placed under its eyes each week, whether
visiting tlie library in person or not, a memorandum of read-
ing, in certain specified lines. As a matter of fact, it is
noticed that in a large number of instances readers come to
the library with these weekly lists in their liands, which they
have cut from their newsi)aper, and which they plainly use as
a species of order-list. (3) The next step is of curious
interest as illustrating the repeatedly demonstrated fact, that
the usefulness of such an institution is not limited by the
disti'ict or municipality in which it is situated. In response
to numerous requests, several of the more extended lists were
printed in the "Library Journal" (New York), and else-
where, in 1880. In 1881, however, was begun tlie regular
monthly issue of tlie periodiord entitled tlie " Monthly Refer-
ence Lists."

Tliis i)eriodical, published at a specified subscription-price,
began with a subscx'iption-list which was chiefly local, but
which has gradually widened to include readers in all parts of
this country, and several in Europe. Among the historical

IN THE STUDY OF HISTORY. 109

lists which have appeared in this, from month to month, have
been references on such current topics as " The Stabihty of
the French Republic," " The German Empire," " European
Interests in Egypt," "Indian Tribes in the United States,"
etc. At the same time a very areneral demand for references
in connection with topics which may be called standard,
rather than current, has led to the furnishing of lists on such
subjects as " The Unification of Italy,' '" The Closing Years
of the Eoman Republic," "The Plantagenets in England,"
and ' ' Tendencies of Local Self-government in the United
States." Other topics again, lilve " Elements of Unity in
South -Eastern Europe," stand for the interest awakened by
historical lectures like those of Mr. Freeman ; while stiU.
others, like " Yorktowu," plainly connect themselves with
the recurrence of some anniversary.

Certainly not the least notewortliy of the phases of recent
historical research has been the newly-awakened interest in
the study of American history, and very naturally the read-
ing and study connected with public libraries have reflected
this fact. Four years ago the librarian prepared for use in
connection with several of the schools, a series of lists on
American liistory, covering (1) the early stages of colonial
histxjr}', (2) the adoption of the constitution, and (3) United
States history since 1789. The first set of these lists (on
the colonies) has been printed, in part, in the " Library
Journal"; the second (on the constitution), in "Economic
tract. No. 2," issued by the Society for Political Education,
in 1881 ; while the third (on the administrations since 1789),
has for the past year been published, mouth by month, in
the "Monthly Reference Lists"; a separate list being
devoted to the administration of each successive president.
In thus re-issuing them, the librarian has wished to render
them as distinctly adapted to the use of readers as possible ;

110 THE USE OF A PUBLIC LIBRARY

aiul the proofs have accordingly passed, mouth by month,
under the eyes of accom[)Uslied historical investigators at
Cambridge, New Haven, Ithaca, Princeton, Baltimore, Ann
Arbor, and ]\Iadisou.

Perhaps there is no more significant featm-e connected
with an institution like a public library, than the fact that its
service is rendered alike to the intelligent reader and to the
untrained mind ; to the specialist and to the general reader.
"What has been the fact in connection with the class last
named ? Greatly to the librarian's satisfaction, it has been
found that one of the results of this systematic plan of assist-
ance and suggestions, is actually to awaken an interest where
none existed, and to supply a clue to historical researches,
which may be followed out, with greater or less comprehen-
siveness, by the reader himself. In repeated instances com-
ing under the librarian's own observation, this result has
been noted, and it is of course impossible to say in how many
other instances it ma}' have been the case. And, in truth, it
is not at all strange that it should be so. These daily,
weekly, and monthly references, on topics of current interest,
are precisely in the line of what is at the time uppermost in
the thought of the public ; and it is for this reason that they
appeal to the interested attention of a very wide circle of
readers wMth so much more than ordinary directness.

A study of library methods like these, moreover, reveals
the very marked extent to which a public library becomes
almost of necessity an agency in the diffusion of knowledge.
Given a certain portion of the library's constituency who are
known to be desirous of certain aids to advanced research ;
given also the desired aids. Who is to say that the only ones
who will avail themselves of these aids are the skilled students
for whom they are primarily supplied ? The reverse has, in
fact, been found to be the case, by actual observation. The

IN THE STUDY OF HISTORY. Ill

references in connection with college themes, for instance,
placed on file at the library, where they may be used by any
one, have indeed been constantly used by the students them-
selves ; but they have also been used to a very marked extent
by the general public. There should be observed, of course,
on the one hand, a caution against ' ' shooting above the heads
of the public " ; but there is a no less important necessit}-, on
the other, for not undervaluing the intelligence of readers,
and for supplying what may even be regarded as a mental
stimulus or impulse. In historical studies, as in other fields
of investigation, there can be little doubt that a public
library may so ally itself (to quote from Mr. Charles Francis
Adams, Jr.) with certain " wide, deep currents of popular
taste," and with the pervasive spirit of the time, as to become
a constant force in the progress towards better results.

Specul Methods of Histoeical Studt

AS PURSUED AT THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
AND FORMERLY AT SMITH COLLEGE.

By Professor Herbert B. Adams, Johns Hopkins University.

THE main principle of historical training at the Johns Hop-
kins University is to encourage independent thought and
research. Little heed is given to text-books, or the mere
phraseology of history, but all stress is laid upon clear and
original statements of fact and opinion, whether the student's
own or the opinion of a consulted author. The comparative
method of reading and study is followed by means of assign-
ing to individual members of the class separate topics, with
references to various standard works. These topics are duly
reported upon by the appointees, either ex tempore^ with the
the aid of a few notes, or in formal papers, which are dis-
cussed at length by the class. The oral method has been
found to afford a better opportunity than essays for question
and discussion, and it is in itself a good means of individual
training, for the student thereby learns to think more of sub-
stance than of form. Where essays are wi'itten, more time

1 This article contains extracts from a paper on "History: Its Place
in American Colleges," originally contributed in October, 1870, to The
Alumnus, a literary and educational quarterly then published in Phila-
delphia, but now suspended and entirely out of print. A few extracts have
also been made from an article on "Co-operation in University Work," in
the second number of The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical
and Political Science. But the body of the article is new, and was %vritten
by request, for the purpose of suggesting to teachers how the study of His-
tory might be made more interesting and vital by beginning upon home
ground, with the investigation of local life and its widening relations.

114 SPECIAL METHODS OF

is usually expended on stj'Ie than on the acquisition of facts.
If the student has a well-arranged brief, like a lawyer's, and
a licad full of ideas, he will express himself at least intel-
ligibly, and clearness and elegance will come with sufficient
practice. The ex tempore method, with a good brief or
abstract (which may be dictated to the class) is one of the
best methods for the teacher as well as for the student. The
idea should be, in both cases, to personify historical science
in the individual who is speaking upon a given topic. A book
or an essay, however sjunmetrical it may be, is often only a
fossil, a lifeless thing ; but a student or teacher talking from
a clear head is a fountain of living science. A class of bright
minds quickly discern the difference between a phrase-maker
and a man of ideas.

As an illustration of the kind of subjects in mediaeval his-
tory studied in 1878, independently of an}- text-book, by a
class of undergraduates, from eighteen to twenty-two 3-ears
of age, the following list of essay-topics is appended : —

1. Influence of Roman law during the middle ages. (Savigny,

Sir Henry Maine, Guizot, Hadley.)

2. The kingdom of Theodoric, the East Goth. (Milman, Gibbon,

Freeman.)

3. The conversion of Germany. (Merivale, Mihnan, Trench.)

4. The conversion of England. (Bede, Milman, Freeman, Mont-

alembert, Trench.)

5. The civilizing influence of the Benedictine Monks. (Montalem-

bert, Gibbon, Mihnan.)

6. Cloister and cathedral schools. (Einhard, Guizot, Mullinger.)

7. The origin and character of mediaeval universities. (Green,

History of England ; Lacroix ; various university histories.)

8. Modes of legal procedure among the early Teutons. (Waitz,

J. L. Laughlin, Lea.)

9. Report of studies in "Anglo-Saxon Law." (Henry Adams

et al.)

HISTORICAL STUDY. 115

10. Origin of Feudalism. Feudal rights, aids, and incidents.

(Guizot, Hallam, Stubbs, Digby, IMaine, Waitz, Roth.)

11. Evils of Feudalism. (Authorities as above.)

12. Benefits of Feudalism. (As above.)

13. The Saxon Witenagemot and its liistorical relation to the House

of Lords. (Freeman, Stubbs, Hallam, Guizot.)

14. Origin of the House of Commons. (Pauli, Creighton, and

authorities above stated.)

15. Origin of communal libertj". (Hegel, Stadteverfassung von

Italien ; Testa, Communes of Lombardy ; Wauters, Les liber-
ies communales ; Stubbs, Freeman, Guizot, et al.)

At Smith College, an institution founded at Northampton,
Massachusetts, by a generous woman, in the interest of the
higher education of her sex, the study of histor}- is pursued
by four classes in regular gradation, somewhat after the col-
lege model. The First, corresponding to the "Freshman"
class, study oriental or ante-classic history, embracing the
Stone Age, Egypt, Palestine, Phoenicia, the empires of Meso-
potamia and ancient India. This course was pursued in
1879 by dictations and ex tempore lectures on the part of the
teacher, and by independent reading on the part of the pupils.
The first thing done by the teacher in the introduction to the
history of any of the above-mentioned countries, was to ex-
plain the sources from which the history of that countrj- was
derived, and then to characterize briefly the principal literary
works relating to it, not omitting historical novels, like Ebers'
"Egyptian Princess," or "Uarda." Afterwards, the salient
features, in Egyptian history, for example, were presented by
the instructor, under distinct heads, such as geography-, re-
ligion, art, literature, and chronology. Map-drawing hy and
before the class was insisted upon ; and, in connection with
the foregoing subjects, books or portions of books were recom-
mended for private reading. For instance, on the ' ' Geography

Ill) SPECIAL METHODS OF

of Egypt," fifty pages of Herodotus were assigned in Rawlin-
sou's translation. This, and other reading, was done in the
so-called " Keference Library," which was provided with all
the books that were recommended. An oral account of such
reading was sooner or later demanded from each pupil by
the instructor, and fresh points of information were thus con-
tinually brought out. The amount of positive fact acquired
b}' a class of seventy-five bright young women bringing to-
gether into one focus so man}- individual rays of knowledge,
collected from the best authorities, is likely to burn to ashes
the dry bones of any text-book, and to keep the instructor at
a white heat.

As an illustration of the amount of reading done in one
term of ten weeks by this class of beginners in history,
the following fair specimen of the lists handed in at the
end of the academic year of 1879 is appended. The read-
ing was of course by topics : —

EGYPT.

Unity of History (Freeman).

Geogi'aphy (Herodotus).

Gods of Egypt (J. Freeman Clarke).

Manners and Customs (Wilkinson).

Upper Fg\-i:)t (Klunzinger).

Art of Eg)-pt (Lubke).

Hj'patia (Kingsley).

Egyptian Princess (Ebers).

PALESTINE.

Sinai and Palestine, 40 pages (Stanley).
History of the Jews (extracts from Josephus).
The Beginnings of Christianity, Chap. YII. (Fisher).
.Religion of the Hebrews (J. Freeman Clarke).

HISTOEICAL STUDY. 117

PHCENICIA, ASSYRIA, ETC.

Phoenicia, 50 pages (Kenrick).
Assyi'ian Discoveries (George Smith).
Chaldean Account of Genesis (George Smith).
Assyrian Architecture (Fergusson).
Art of Central Asia (Liibke).

In the Second, or "Sophomore" class, classic historj* was
pursued by means of the History Primers of Greece and
Rome, supplemented by lectures and dictations, as the time
would allow. The Junior class studied mediaeval history in
much the same way, by text-books (the Epoch Series) and
by lectures. Both classes did excellent work of its kind, but
it was not the best kind ; for little or no stimulus was given
to original research. And yet, perhaps, to an outsider, fond
of old-fashioned methods of recitation, these classes would
have appeared better than the First class. They did harder
work, but it was less spontaneous and less scientific. The
fault was a fault of method.

With the Senior class the method described as in use at
the Johns Hopkins University was tried with marked suc-
cess. With text-books on modem history' as a guide for the
whole class, the plan was followed out of assigning to indi-
viduals subjects with references for private reading and
for an oral report of about fifteen minutes' length. The class
took notes on these reports or informal student-lectures
as faithfully as on the extended remarks and more formal
lectures of the instructor. This system of making a class
lecture to itself is, of course, very unequal in its immediate
results, and sometuues unsatisfactory ; but, as a system of
individual training for advanced pupils, it is valuable as a
means both of culture and of discipline. Contrast the good
to the individual student of any amount of mere text-book

118 SPECIAL METHODS OF

nioniorizino; or idle note-taking with the positive cnlturc and
wide acquaintance witli books, derived in ten iceeks ironi such
a range of reading as is indicated in the following bondjide
report by one member of the Senior class (1879), who after-
• wards was a special student of histor}' for two years in the
"Annex" at Harvard College, and who in 1881 returned to
Smith College for her degree of Ph.D. First are given the
subjects assigned to this young woman for research, and the
reading done bj' her in preparation for report to the class ;
and then is given the list of her general reading in connec-
tion with the class work of the term. Other members of the
class had other subjects and similar repoi-ts : —

1. SUBJECTS FOK HESEAKCII.

1. Anselm and RosceUinus.

INIilman's Latin Christianity, Vol. IV., pp. 190-225.
Ueberweg's History of Philosophy, Vol. I., pp. 271-385.

2. Platonic Academy at Florence.

Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo di INIedici, Vol. I., p. 30 et seq.
Burckhardt's Renaissance, Vol. I.
A'illari's Machiavelli, Vol. I., p. 205 et seq.

3. Colet.

Seebohm's Oxford Reformers.

4. Calvin.

Fisher's History of the Reformation (Cahan).

Spalding's History of the Reformation (Calvin).

D'Aubigne's History of the Reformation, Vol. T., book 2, chap. 7.

5. Frederick the Great.

Macaulay's Essay on Frederick the Great.
Lowell's Essay on Frederick the Great.
Ency. Brit. Article on Frederick the Great.
Menzel's History of Germany (Frederick the Great).
Carlyle's Frederick the Great (parts of Vols. I., II., HI.).

6. Results of the French Revolution.
French Revolution (Epoch Series).

HISTORICAL STUDY. 119

n. GENERAL READING.

Roscoe's Life of Leo X. (one-lialf of Vol. I.).

IVIrs. Oliphanf s Makers of Florence (ou cathedral builders, Savo-
narola, a Private Citizen, ]Micliel Angelo).

Symonds' llenaissance (Savonarola).

Walter Pater's Renaissance (Leonardo da Yinci).

Hallam's Middle Ages (ou Italian Republics).

Benvenuto Cellini's AutoI)iography (about one-half).

Burckharut's Renaissance (nearly .ill).

Vasari's Lives of the Painters (da Vinci, Alberti).

Lowell's Essay on Dante.

Carlyle's Essay on Dante.

Trench's Mediaeval Church History (Great Councils of the West,
Huss and Bohemia, Eve of the Reformation).

Fisher's History of the Reformation (Luther).

"Wliite's Eighteen Christian Centm-ies (16th).

Macaulay's Essay on Rauke's History of the Popes.

Lecky's European Morals (last chapter).

Seebohm's Era of the Protestant Revolution.

Fronde's Short Studies on Great Subjects (studies on the times
of Erasmus and Luther, the Dissolution of the Monasteries).

Spaldmg's History of the Reformation (chapter on Luther).

Carlyle's Essay on Luther and Knox.

Hosmer's German Literature (chapters on Luther, Thu'ty Years'
"War, Minnesingers and Mastersingers).

Gardiner's Thkty Years' AVar.

Morris's Age of Anne.

George Eliot's Romola (about one-half).

Hawthorne's Marble Faim (parts).

It is but fail' to say in reference to this vast amount of
reading, that it represents the chief work done by the above-
mentioned young lady during the summer term, for her class
exercises were mainly lectures requiring little outside study.
The list will serve not mereh' as an illiisti-ation of Senior
work in history at Smith College, but also as an excellent

120 SPECIAL METHODS OF

guide for a course of private reading on the Renaissance and
Reformation. No more interesting or profitable course can be
followed than a study of the Beginnings of ]Modern History.
With Syinonds' works on the " llenaissance in Italy," Burek-
hardt's "Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance" (Eng-
lish translation) , and Seebohm's ' ' Era of the Protestant
Revolution" (Epoch series) for guide-books, a college in-
structor can indicate to his pupils lines of special investiga-
tion more grateful than text-book " cramming," more inspiring
than lectures or dictations. The latter, though good to a
certain extent, become deadening to a class when its
members are no longer stimulated to original research, but
sink back in passive reliance upon the authority of the lec-
turer. That method of teaching history which converts
bright young pupils into note-taking machines is a bad
method. It is the construction of a poor text-book at the
expense of much valuable time and youthful energy. Goethe
satn-ized this, the fault of German academic instruction, m
Mephistopheles' counsel to the student, who is advised to
study well his notes, in order to see that the professor says
nothing which he hasn't said alread}- : —

Damit ihr nachher besser seht,
Dass er nichts sagt, als was im Buche steht;
Doch eueh des Schreibens ja befleisst,
Als dictirt' euch der Heilig' Geist !

The simple-minded student assents to this counsel, and says
it is a great comfort to have everything in black and white,
so that he can cany it all home. But no scrap-book of facts
can give wisdom, any more than a tank of water can form
a running spring. It is, perhaps, of as much consequence to
teach a young person how to study history as to teach him
history itself.

The above notes were written in the summer of 1879, and

HISTOEICAL STUDY. 121

were published in October of that 3'ear, after the author's
return to Baltimore. Subsequent experience at Smith Col-
lege, in the spring terms of 1880 and 1881, when the lec-
turer's four 3'ears' partial connection with Smith College
terminated, showed the necessity of a reference librarj-
for each class, the resources of the main collection in the
reading-room having proved inadequate to the growing his-
torical needs of the college. Instead of buj'ing text-books,
the members of each class, with the money which text-books
would have cost, formed a library fund, from which a book
committee purchased such standard works (often with du-
plicate copies) as the lecturer recommended. The class libra-
ries were kept in places generally accessible ; for example,
in the front halls of the " cottage " dormitories. Each class
had its own system of rules for library administration.
Books that were in greatest demand could be kept out only
one or two davs. The amount of reading by special topics
accomplished in this way in a single term was really most
remarkable. Note-books with abstracts of daily work were
kept, and finally handed in as a part of the term's examina-
tion. Oral examinations upon reading, pursued in connection
with the lectures, were maintained throughout the term, and,
at the close, a written examination upon the lectures and
other required topics, together with a certain range of optional
subjects, fakl}' tested the results of this voluntary method
of historical study. The amount of knowledge acquired in
this way would as much surpass the substance of any system
of lectures or any mere text-book acquisitions as a class
library of standard historians surpasses an individual teacher
or any historical manual. This method of study is practi-
cable in any high-school class of moderate size. If classes
are generous, they will leave their libraries to successors,
who can thus build up a collection for historical reference

122 SPECIAL METHODS OF

withiu the school itself, which will thus become a seminar}-
of living science.

A ckneloi)ment of the above idea of special libraries for
class use was the foundation in Baltimore, at the Johns Hop-
kins University, in 1881-2, of a special librar}- for the study of
American Institutional History bj- college graduates. There
was nothing really new about the idea except its application.
German universities have their seminarium lil)raries distinct
from the main universit}- library, altliough often in the same
building. In Baltimore the special library was estaljlished
in the lecture-room where the class meets. The design of
the collection was to gather within easy reach the chief
authorities used in class work and in such original investiga-
tions as were then in progress. The special aim, however,
was to bring together the statutory law and colonial archives
of the older States of the Union, together with the journals
of Congress, American State papei's, and the writings and
lives of American statesmen. The statutes of P^ngland and
parliamentary reports on subjects of particular interest were
next secured. Then followed, in December, 1882, the acqui-
sition of the Bluntschli Library of three thousand volumes,
with many rare pamphlets and Bluntschli' s manuscripts, in-
cluding his notes taken under Niebuhr the historian, and
under Savigny the jurist. This librar}' of the lamented Dr.
Bluntsclili, professor of constitutional and international law
in Heidelberg, was presented to the Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity liy German citizens of Baltimore ; and it rei)resents, not
only in its transfer to America, but in its very constitution,
the internationality of modern science. Here is a library,
which, under tlie care of a great master, developed from the
narrow chronicles of a Swiss town and canton into a library
of cosmopolitan character, emljracing many nations in its
scope. Into this inheritance the Seminary Library of Ameri-

HISTORICAL STUDY.

123

can Institutional History has now entered. Although the
special work of the Seminary will still be directed toward
American themes, yet it will be from the vantage-ground of
the Bluntschli Library, and with the knowledge that this
great collection was the outgrowth of communal studies
similar to those now in progress in Baltimore.

A word may be added in this connection touching the nature
of graduate-work in history at the Johns Hopkins University.
What was said in the early part of this article applied only
to undergraduates, who develop into the very best class of
graduate students now present at the University. The idea
of a co-operative study of American local institutions, by
graduate students representing different sections of country,
evolved very naturally from the Baltimore environment. G er-
minant interest in the subject originated in a study of New
England towns, in a spring sojourn for four years at Smith
College, Northampton, Mass., and in summer tours along the
New England coast ; but the development of this interest was
made possible by associations in Baltimore with men from
the South and the West, who were able and willing to describe
the institutions of their own States for purposes of compari-
son with the institutions of other States. Thus it has come
about that the parishes, districts, and counties of Maryland,
Virginia, and the Carolinas are placed historically side by
side with the townships of the West and the towns and par-
ishes of New England ; so that, by and by, all men will see
how much these different sections have in common.

There is a great variety of subjects pertaining to American
local life in its rural and municipal manifestations. Not only
the history of local government, but the history of schools,
churches, charities, manufactures, industries, prices, eco-
nomics, municipal protection, municipal reforms, local taxa-
tion, representation, administration, poor laws, liquor laws,

124 SPECLVL METHODS OF

labor laAvs, and a thousaiid aud one chapters of legal and
social history are yet to be written in every State. Johns
Ho[)kins students have selected only a few topics like
towns, parishes, manors, certain state systems of free schools,
a few phases of city government, a few French and Indian
villajios in the North-west, certain territorial institutions, Can-
adian feudalism, the town institutions of New England (to a
limited extent) ; but there is left liistorical territory enough
for student immigration throughout the next hundred years.
The beauty" of science is that there are always new worlds
to discover. And at the present moment there await the
student pioneer vast tracts of American institutional and
economic histor}' almost as untouclied as were once the for-
ests of America, her coal measures and prairies, her mines
of iron, silver, and gold. Indivitlual aud local effort will
almost eA^erj'where meet with quick recognition and grate-
ful returns. But scientific and cosmopolitan relations with
college and universit}' centres, together with the generous
co-operation of all ex[)lorers in the same field, will certainly
yield the most satisfiictory results both to the individual and
to the community which he represents.

It is highly important that isolated students who desire to
co-0[)erate in this kind of work should avail themselves of the
existing machinery of local libraries, the local press, local
societies, and local clubs. If such things do not exist, the
most needful should be created. No community is too small
for a book club and for an association of some sort. Local
studies should always be connected in some way with the life
of the community, and should tilways Ijc used to quicken that
life to higher consciousness. A student, a teacher, who pre-
pares a paper on local history or some social question, should
read it before the village lyceum or some literar}' club or an
association of teachei's. If encouraged to believe his work

HISTORICAL STUDY. 125

of any general interest or permanent value, he should print
it in the local paper or in a local magazine, perhaps an edu-
cational journal, without aspiring to the highest popular
monthlies, which will certainly reject all purely local contri-
butions by unknown contributors. It is far more practicable
to pubUsh by local aid in pamphlet form or in the proceed-
ings of associations and learned societies, before which such
papers ma}' sometimes be read.

From a variety of considerations, the writer is persuaded
that one of the best introductions to history that can be given
in American high schools, and even in those of lower grade,
is through a study of the community in which the school is
placed. Histor}', like charity, begins at home. The best
American citizens are those who mind home affairs and local
interests. "• That man's the best cosmopolite who loves his
native country best." The best students of universal history
are those who know some one country or some one subject
well. The family, the hamlet, the neighborhood, the com-
munitj^, the parish, the village, town, city, county, and state
are historically the ways by which men have approached
national and international life. It was a preliminary study
of the geography of Frankfort-on-the-Main that led Carl
Ritter to study the physical structure of Europe and Asia,
and thus to establish the new science of comparative geog-
raphy. He says : " Whoever has wandered through the val-
leys and woods, and over the hills and mountains of his own
state, will be the one capable of following a Herodotus in his
wanderings over the globe." And we may sa}', as Ritter
said of the science of geography, the first step in history is
to know thoroughly the district where we live. In America,
Guyot has represented for man}- 3'ears this method of teach-
ing geography. Huxley, in his Physiography, has introduced
pupils to a study of Nature as a whole, by calling attention

126 SPECIAL METHODS OF

to the physical features of the Thames valley and the wide
range of natural phenomena that ma}- be observed in any
English parish. Humboldt long ago said in his Cosmos :
"Every little nook and shaded corner is l)ut a reflection of
the whole of Nature." There is something verv suajo-estive
and very quickening in such a philosophy of Nature and his-
tor}' as regards everj- spot of the earth's surface, every
pebble, every form of organic life, from the lowest moUusk
to the highest phase of human society, as a perfect micro-
cosm, perhaps an undiscovered world of suggestive truth.
But it is important to remember that all these things should
' be studied in their widest relations. Natural history is of
no signidcance if viewed apart from Man. Human history is
without foundation if separated from Nature. The deeds of
men, the genealogy of families, the annals of quiet neigh-
borhoods, the records of towns, states, and nations are per se
of little consequence to history unless in some way these
isolated things are brought into vital connection with the
progress and science of the world. To establish such con-
nections is sometimes like the discovery of unknown lands,
the exploration of new countries, and the widening of the
world's horizon.

American local history should first be studied as a contri-
bution to national histor}'. This countr}- will yet be viewed
and reviewed as an organism of historic growth, developing
from minute germs, from the very protoplasm of state life.
And som.e day this country will be studied in its international
relations, as an organic part of a larger organism now
vaguely called the World State, but as surel}' develoi)ing
through the operation of economic, legal, social, and scien-
tific forces as the American Union, the German and British
Empires are evolving into higher forms. American his-
tor}- in its widest relations is not to be written b}' any one

HISTORICAL STUDY. 127

man nor by any one generation of men. Our history will
groTV with the nation and with its developing consciousness
of internationality. The present possibilities for the real
progress of historic and economic science lie, first and fore-
most, in tlie development of a generation of economists and
practical historians, who realize that' history is past politics
and politics present history ; secondly, in the expansion of
the local consciousness into a fuller sense of its historic worth
and dignity, of the cosmopolitan relations of modern local
life, and of its own wholesome conservative power in these
days of growing centralization. National and international
life can best develop upon the constitutional basis of local
self-2;overnment in church and state.

The work of developing a generation of specialists has
already begun in the college and the university. The devel-
opment of local consciousness can perhaps be best stimulated
through the common school. It ma}' be a suggestive fact
that the school committee of Great Barrington, Mass., lately
voted {BerTxsliire Courier^ Sept. 6, 1882) to introduce into
their village high school,^ in the hands of an Amherst grad-
uate, in connection with Nordhoff's " Politics for Young
Americans" and Jevons' "Primer of Political Economy,"
the article upon "The Germanic Origin of New England
Towns," which was once read in part before the Village
Improvement Society of Stockbridge, Mass., Aug. 24. 1881,
and published in the Pittsfield Evening Journal of that day.
Local demand really occasioned a university supply of the
article 2 in question. The possible connection between the

1 The catalogue of the Great Barrington High School (1882) shows that
the study of history and politics is there founded, as it should be, upon a
geographical basis.

2 Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science,
II. " The Germanic Origin of New England Towns." (Xow out of print,
1884.)

128 SPECIAL MKTIIUDS OF

collogc and the common school is still better illustrated by
the case of Professor Macy, of Iowa College, Grinnell, who
is one of the most active pioneers in teaching "the real
homcl}- focts of government," and who in 1881 published a
little tract on Civil Government in Iowa, which is now used
by teachers throughout that entire State in preparing their
oral instructions for young pupils, beginning with the town-
ship and the county, the institutions that are "nearest and
most easily learned." A special pupil of Professor Macy's
— Albert Shaw, A.B., Iowa College, 1879 — is now writing
a snnilar treatise on Civil Government in Illinois, for school
use in that State. There should be such a manual for every
State in the Union.

But the writer would like to see a text-book which not only
explains, as does Principal Macy, " the real homel}' facts of
government," but which also suggests how those facts came
to be. A stud\' of the practical workings of local govern-
ment and of the American Constitution is the study of poli-
tics which every young American ought to pursue. But a
study of the origin and development of American institutions
is a study of history in one of its most important branches.
It is not necessary that young Americans should grapple with
"the Constitution" at the very outset. Their forefathers
put their energies into the founding of villages, towns, and
plantations before thej^ thouglit of American independence.
Their first country this side of the Atlantic was the colonj^ ;
in some instances, the county. It is not unworthy of sons
to study the historic work of fathers who constructed a nation
upon the solid rock of local self-government in church and
state.

If young Americans are to appreciate their religious and
political inheritance, they must learn its intrinsic worth.
They must be taught to appreciate the common and lowly

HISTORICAL ST LTD V. 129

things around them. They should grow up with as profound
respect for town and parish meetings as for the State legis-
lature, not to speak of the Houses of Congress. They should
recognize the majesty of the law, even in the parish constable
as well as in the high sheriff of the count}'. They should
look on selectmen as the head men of the town, the survival
of the old English reeve and four best men of the parish.
They should be taught to see in the town common or village
green a survival of that primitive institution of land-com-
munity upon which town and state are based. They should
be taught the meaning of town and family names ; how the
word "■town" means, primaril}', a place hedged in for pur-
poses of defence ; how the picket-fences around home and
house-lot are but a survival of the primitive toivii idea ; how
home, hamlet, and town live on together in a name like
Hampton, or Home-toivn. The}' should investigate the most
ordinary things, for these are often the most archaic. For
example, there is the village pound, which Sir Henry Maine
says is one of the most ancient institutions, "older than the
king's bench, and probably older than the kingdom." There,
too. are the field-drivers (still known in New England) , the
ancient town herdsmen, village shepherds, and village swine-
herds (once common in this country) , who serve to connect
our historic life with the earliest pastoral beginnings of
mankind.

It would certainly be an excellent thing for the develop-
ment of historical science in America if teachers in our pub-
lic schools would cultivate the historical spirit in their pupils
with special reference to the local environment. Something
more than local history can be drawn from such sources.
Take the Indian relics, the arrow-heads which a boy has
found in his father's field or which may have been given him
by some antiquary : here are texts for familiar talks by the

130 SPECLVL METHODS OF

teacher upon the "Stone Age" and the progress of the
worki from savaire beicinnings. Indian names still Unger
npon our hindscapes, npon our mountains, rivers, fields, and
meadows, affording a suggestive parallel between the "exter-
minated" natives of England and New England. AVhat a
quickening impulse could be given to a class of bright pupils
by a visit to some scene of ancient conflict with the Indians,
like that at Bloody Brook in South Ueerfield, Mass., or to
such an interesting local museum as that in Old Deerfidd,
where is exhibited, in a good state of preservation, the door
of an earh" settler's house, — a door cut through by Indian
tomahawks. A multitude of historical associations gather
around every old town and hamlet in the land.

There are local legends and traditions, household tales,
stories told by grandfathers and grandmothers, incidents
remembered by "the oldest inhabitants." But above all in
importance are the old documents and manuscript records of
the first settlei's, the early pioneers, the founders of our
towns. Here are sources of information more authentic than
tradition, and 3'et often entirely neglected. If teachers would
simply make a few extracts from these unpulilished records,
they would soon have sufficient materials in their hands for
elucidating local history to their pupils and fellow-townsmen.
The publication of such extracts in the local paper is one of
the best w^a^s to quicken local interest in matters of history.
Biographies of "the first families," of the various ministers,
doctors, lawyers, "Squires," "Generals," "Colonels,"
college graduates, school-teachers, and leading citizens, —
these ai'c all legitimate and pleasant means of kindling his-
torical interest in the communit}' and in the schools. The
town fathers, the fathers of families, and all their sons and
daughters will quickly catch the bearings of this kind of his-
torical study, for it takes hold upon the life of the community

HISTOEICxlL CTUDY. ISl

and quickens not only pride in the past but hope for the
future.

lu order to study history it is not necessary to begin with
dead men's bones, with Theban dynasties, the kings of
Ass3a-ia, the royal famQies of Eiu-ope, or even with the presi-
dents of the United States. These subjects have their im-
portance in certain connections, but for beginners in history
there are perhaps other subjects of greater interest and vital-
ity. The most natural entrance to a knowledge of the history
of the world is from a local environment through widening
circles of interest, until, from the rising ground of the pres-
ent, the broad horizon of the past comes clearly into view.
There is hardly a subject of contemporary interest which, if
properly studied, will not caiT}' the mind back to a remote
antiquity, to historic relations as wide as the world itself. A
stud}- of the community in which the student dwells will
serve to connect that community not only with the origin
and growth of the State and Nation, but with the mother-
countr}', with the German fatherland, with village commu-
nities throughout the Aryan world, — from Germanj- and
Russia to old Greece and Rome ; fi'om these classic lands to
Persia and India. Such modern connections with the dis-
tant Orient are more refreshing than the genealogy of Darius
the son of Hystaspes.

I would not be understood as disparaging ancient or old-
world history-, for, if rightly taught, this is the most interesting
of all history ; but I would be understood as emphasizing the
importance of studying the antiquity which survives in the
present and in this country. America is not such a new
world as it seems to man}- foreigners. Geologists tell us
that our continent is the oldest of all. Historians like Mr.
Freeman declare that if we want to see Old England we must
go to New England. Old France survives in French Canada.

132 SPECIAL :\nETHODS OF

In Virginia, poculiaritics of the "West Saxon dialect arc
still prcscn-cd. Professor James A. Harrison, of Lexing-
ton, Virginia, writes me that in Lonisiana and Mississippi,
n-here i^pon old French and Spanish settlements the English
finally planted, there are " sometimes three traditions super-
imposed one on the other." Men lilve George W. Cable and
Charles Gavarr6 have been mining to good advantaore in
such historic strata. If American students and teachers are
equally wise, they will look about theii" own homes betore
visiting the land of Chaldrea.

The main difficultv with existing methods of teachins his-
tory seems to be that the subject is treated as a record of
dead facts, and not as a living science. Pupils fail to realize
the vital connection between the past and the present ; they
do not understand that ancient history was the dawn of a
light which is still shining on ; they do not grasp the essen-
tial idea of history, which is the growing self-knowledge of a
living, progressive age. Etymologically and practically, the
study of history is simply a learning by inquiry. According
to Professor Droysen, who was one of the most eminent histo-
rians in Berlin, the historical method is merely to understand
by meanfi of research. Now it seems entirely practicable for
ever}' teacher and student of history to promote, in a limited
way, the " know thyself " of the nineteenth centur}- by orig-
inal investigation of things not yet full}' known, and by com-
municating to others the results of his individual study.
The pursuit of history may thus become an active instead of
a passive process, — an increasing joy instead of a depressing
burden. Students will thus learn that history is not entirely
bound up in text-books ; that it does not consist altogether
in wliat this or that learned authority has to say about the
world. What the world believes concerning itself, after all that
men have written, and what the student thinks of the world.

HISTORICAL STUDY. 133

after viewing it with the aid of guide-books and with liis own
eyes, — these are matters of some moment in the developmental
process of that active self-knowledge and philosoyhic reflec-
tion which make history a living science instead of a museum
of facts and of books "as dry as dust." AVorks of history,
the so-called standard authorities, are likel}' to become dead
specimens of humauit}- unless they continue in some way to
quicken the living age. But written history seldom fails
to accomplish this end, and even antiquated works often con-
tinue their influence if viewed as progressive phases of human
self-knowledge. Monuments and inscriptions can never grow
old so long as the race is young. New meaning is put into
ancient records ; fresh garlands are hung upon broken statues ;
new temples are built from classic materials ; and the world
rejoices at its constant self-renewal.

Since the publication of the foregoing pages, in the first edition of
this book, I have elsewhere described, in greater detail, certain special
methods of historical study. The following abstract is taken from the
"Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science,"
Second Series, Numbers I. and II. " Methods of Historical Study,"
page 137 : —

1. The Topical Method. — If there is any guiding prin-
ciple in the study of historical as well as of natural science,
it is "The way to that which is general is through that
which is special." It makes little difference with what class
of facts the student begins, provided they are not too com-
plex for easy apprehension. The point is that universal
histor}' may be approached m a great variety of special
ways, any one of which may be as good as another. They are
like the Brahminical philosopher's idea of different religious
revelations, — gates leading into the same city. All roads

134 SPECIAL METHODS OF

lead to Rome, and all roads lead to history. But while this
goiu'ral truth remaius, it also remains true that there is a
eortaiu practical advantage iu beginning historical study with
that which is nearest aud most familiar. A man's own
family, community, country, and race, are the most natural
objects of historical interest, because man is born into such
associations, and because an historical knowledge of them
will always be the m(i,st valuable form of historical culture,
for these subjects most concern our own life, our past, pres-
ent, and future. In history, as in biology, live specimens
are usually better than dead ones. Life is of supreme
interest to histor}*, as it is to biology ; hence those nations
and men that have made the present what it is will always
be the best topics for historical study.

I should be inclined to recommend, in beginning the study
of history by any special method of approach, like the liis-
tory of America or the history of Egypt, that teacher and
class begin work upon the geograph}- of the United States,
or of the Nile valley. Then, after a thorough consideration
of the lay of the land, comes naturally the topic of the
people, the first inhabitants. After the topics of a chosen
land and of a chosen people should come the subject of the
sources of that people's history. "What memorials of them-
selves have the primitive inhabitants of America or of
Egypt left behind them ? It is of great importance in the
pedagogical process of teaching history that the student
should learn the origin of written history, how manuals and
standard histories are constructed ; otherwise, the student
will look uj)on the book or manual as a final authority. He
should, on the contrary, look at all written history as simply
a current, more or less colored by human prejudice, a cur-
rent which has come down, like the Nile or the Mississippi,
from some higher and more original source than the passing

HISTORICAL STUDY. 135

stream. Such a consciousness leads the student to further
inquiry, to a habit of mind like that of explorers who sought
the sources of the Nile or of the Congo.

Professor Moses Coit Tyler, of Cornell University, has
prepared the following brief account of a special class-
course, which admirably illustrates the topical method :
" Perhaps it may be a peculiarity in my work as a teacher
of History- here that I am permitted to give my whole atten-
tion to American history. At an}' rate, this fact enables
me to organize the work of American history' so as to cover,
more perfectly than I could otherwise do, the whole field,
from the prehistoric times of this continent down to the
present, with a minuteness of attention varying, of course,
as the importance of the particular topic varies. I confess
that I adopt for American history the principle which Pro-
fessor Seeley, of Cambridge, is fond of applying to English
history, namely, that while history should be thoroughly
scientific in its method, its object should be practical. To
this extent I believe in history with a tendency. My in-
terest in our own past is chiefl}' derived from my interest in
our own present and future ; and I teach American histor}',
not so much to make historians as to make citizens and good
leaders for the State and the Nation. From this point of
view, I decide upon the selection of historical topics for
special study. At present I should describe them as the
following : The native races, especially the Mound-builders
and the North- American Indians ; the alleged Pre-Colum-
bian discoveries ; the origin and enforcement of England's
claim to North America, as against competing European
nations ; the motives and methods of English colony-plant-
ing in America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ;
the development of ideas and institutions in the American
colonies, with particular reference to religion, education,

136 SPECIAL METHODS OF

iudubtry. and civil freedom ; tlie grounds of iuter-colonial
isolation and of iuter-colonial fellowship ; the causes and
progress of the luovemeut for colonial independence ; the
history of the formation of the national constitution ; the
origin and growth of political parties under the constitution ;
the history of slavery as a factor in American politics, cul-
minating in the civil war of 18G1-G5. On all these subjects,
I try to generate and preserve in myself and my pupils such
an anxiety for the truth, that we shall prefer it even to
national traditions or the idolatries of part}'.

"As to methods of work, 1 doubt if I have anything to
report that is peculiar to myself, or ditferent from the usage
of all teachers who ti'y to keep abreast of the times. I am
an eclectic. I have tried to learn all the current ways of
doing this work, and have api)ropriated what I thought best
suited to our own circumstances. As I have students of all
grades, so my methods of work include the recitation, the
lecture, and the seminary. I have found it impossible by
the two former to keep my students from settling into a
mereh' passive attitude ; it is only by the latter that I can
get them into an attitude that is inquisitive, eager, critical,
originating. My notion is that the lecturing must be recip-
rocal. As I lecture to them, so must they lecture to me.

" "We are all students and all lecturers. The law of life
with us is co-operation in the search after the truth of his-
tory."

2. Tlie Comparative Method. — A great impulse was given
to the historical sciences by the introduction of the compara-
tive method into the stud}^ of i)hilology, mythology, religion,
law, and institutions. It seemed as though the horizon of
all these fields suddenly widened, and as if the world of
human thought and research were expanding into new
realms. ''Before the great discoveries of modern science,"

HISTORICAL STUDY. 137

says Freeman, "before that greatest of all its discoveries
which has revealed to us the unity of Aryan speech, of
Aryan religion, and Aryan political life, the worn-out super-
stitions about 'ancient' and ' modern' ought to pass by like
the specti-es of darkness. . . . The range of our political
vision becomes wider when the application of the compara-
tive method sets before us the ekklesia of Athens, the comi-
tia of Rome, as institutions, not merely analogous, but
absolutely the same thing, parts of the same common Aryan
heritage, as the ancient assemblies of our own land. We
carry on the tale as we see that it is out of those assemblies
that our modern parliaments, our modern courts of justice,
our modern public gatherings of every kind, have grown."
(" On the Study of History," Fortnightly Review, March 1,
1881.)

It would be a fine thing for American students, if, in
studying special topics in the history of their own country,
they would occasionally compare the phases of historic truth
here discovered with similar phases of discovery elsewhere ;
if, for example, the colonial beginnings of North America
should be compared with Aryan migrations westward into
Greece and Itah", or again with the colonial systems of
Greece and of the Roman Empire, or of the English Empire
to-day, which is continuing in South Africa and Australia
and in Manitoba, the same old spirit of enterprise which
colonized the Atlantic seaboard of North America. It
would interest young minds to have parallels drawn between
English colonies, Grecian commonwealths, Roman prov-
inces, the United Cantons of Switzerland, and the United
States of Holland. To be sure, these various topics would
require considerable study on the part of teacher and pupil,
but the fathers of the American constitution, Madison,
Hamilton, and others, went over such ground in preparing
tlie platform of our present federal government.

138 SPECIAL METHODS OP

But my special plea is for the application of the compara-
tive method to the use of historical literature. Students
should learn to view historj- in different lights and from
various standpoints. Instead of relyiug passively upon the
ipse dixit of the school-master, or of the school-book, or of
some one historian, pupils sliould learn to judge for them-
selves by comparing evidence. Of course some discretion
should be exercised by the teacher in the case of young
pupils ; but even children are attracted by different ver-
sions of the same tale or legend, and catch at new points of
interest with all the eagerness of original investigators.
The scattered elements of fact or tradition should be broug-ht
together as children piece together the scattered blocks of a
map. The criterion of all truth, as well as of all art, is
fitness. Comparison of different accounts of the same his-
toric event would no more injure boys and girls than would
a comparative study of the four gospels. On the contrary,
such comparisons strengthen the judgment, and give it
greater independence and stabilit}'. In teaching history,
altogether too much stress has been laid, in many of our
schools, upon mere fonns of verbal expression in the text-
book, as though historic truth consisted in the repetition of
what some author had said. It would be far better for the
student to read the same story in several different forms,
and then to give his own version. The latter process would
be an iudependent historical view based upon a variety of
evidence. The memorizing of "words, words," prevents
the assimilation of facts, and clogs the mental processes of
reflection and private judgment.

Tlie prosecution of the comparative method in the study
of history requires an increase of facilities beyond the
meagre text-books now in use. "While by no means advo-
cating the abolition of all umiiuals, clironologies, and gen-

HISTORICAL STUDY. 139

eral sketches of histoiy, I would strongly urge the estab-
lishment of class-libraries for historical reference. This
special practice would be quite in harmony with the growing
custom of equipping public schools with special libraries.
It is a practice which the interest of puljlishers and the
good sense of all friends of education would tend to foster.
At Smith College, Harvard College, and at the Johns Hop-
kins Universit}-, the comparative method of study in history
and other subjects has long been in operation. In Cam-
brido;e and in Baltimore, certain books are reserved from
the main library of the university for class-use. In Balti-
more, such reservations are occasionally supplemented by
drafts on other libraries in the city, and by private contri-
butions. The books are read in the university reading-
room, but are taken out by special arrraugement, for a
limited time, when there is no other demand.

3. The Co-ojierative MetJiocl. — It is not possible, within
the limits of this paper, to describe the development of that
new system of writing history, which is based upon the
economic principles of division of labor and final co-opera-
tion. The time was when individual historians, monks and
chroniclers, grappled boldly with the history of the whole
world. There are still compilers of text-books for schools
and colleges who attempt to epitomize the deeds of men
from creation down to the present day. Indeed, the great-
est of living historians, Leopold von Ranke, is now rapidly
reviewing universal history in a work which already em-
braces several volumes, and which he hopes to finish soon,
being now at the age of eighty-nine, so that he may resume
more special work. But, in spite of this extraordinary
example, which seems to defy the weakness of age and the
will of fate, it may be said with confidence that the day of
universal histories by individual men is past. The day for

140 SPECLiL I^IETIIODS OF

the special and co-operative treatment of history by coun-
tries, epochs, and monographic themes is ah-eady here. We
see a co-operative tendency in the best school-books. The
history even of a single nation is now recognized as too vast
a thing for one man to handle in a truly scientific manner,
although special results of individual research are still co-
ordinated in popular ways. The most notable example of
the co-operative method in universal history is the ucav mon-
ographic history of the world, edited by Professor ^Mlhelm
Oncken, but composed by the most eminent specialists in
Gennany. One man writes the history of Egypt in the
light of modern research ; another that of Persia ; a third
reviews the history of Greece, giving the latest results of
Grecian arclueological investigations ; others revise lloman
history and the earl 3- history of Germanic peoples.

This co-operative method has lately been applied in
Schonberg's great work on political economy, and was
applied many years ago to a dictionary of political science
by the late Dr. J. C. Bluntschli, of Heidelburg. Under his
editorial guidance, contril>utions were made b}- French and
German specialists to a great variety of sul>jects relatiiig to
European history and politics. Bluntschli's example has
been followed in this countrj- b}' the publication of Lalor's
"Cyclopa3dia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of
the Political History of the United States." In America, the
co-operative method of writing history has long been in
quiet operation. Perhaps one of the earliest and most fruit-
ful examples was that of the Massachusetts Historical So-
ciety, which, in the latter part of the last century, began to
encourage the writing of New England town history upon
principles of local co-operation. The contrilmtions of parish
ministers and local antiquaries were published in the pro-
ceedings of the society, and proved the humble beginnings

HISTORICAL STUDY. 141

of that remarkable series of town histories, which have now
speciaUzed the constitution of New England into a vast
number of village republics, each one thought worthy of
independent treatment. Co-operation has entered even the
local domain, e.g., the history of Boston, after passing
through various individual hands, has lately been rewritten
by a group of specialists, working under the editorial direc-
tion of Professor Justin Winsor, of Harvard College. This
method is now proposed in Providence and other cities. It
has been extended by Justin Winsor to the whole country,
for the " Narrative and Critical History of the United
States," whicli he is now editing, is made up of monographs
by the best specialists that the country affords.

The urgent plea, then, for the co-operative method which
I would make is this : apply it to the study of general history
in classes. Experience at the Johns Hopkins University
and at Smith College has shown the advantage of this
method for classes with a short period of time at their com-
mand, who nevertheless desire to cover a goodly stretch of
historical territory. The method, in its practical operation,
consists of a division of labor in a class guided by an
instructor, who undertakes to dh'ect special work into co-
operative channels. The student, while to some extent
upon the common ground of text-books, or prescribed
authors, and while taking notes upon class-lectures, of a
special character, carries on investigations in close connec-
tion with the general course. Written reports are submitted
to a critic for correction, are read before an elocutionist for
the sake of training in the art of presentation, and are then
finally presented, either wholly or in part, to the class, who
take notes and are examined upon these co-operative studies
in the same way as ou material presented by the insti'uctor.

An interesting and valuable practice has gradually gi'own

142 SPECIAL METHODS OF

lip among students of historical and political science at the
Johns Hopkins University, namely, that of students lectur-
ing to their own class upon subjects connected with the
course. The practice originated several years ago among
undergraduate students of history and international law ;
it was the natural outgrowth of the topical method of study.
It is a practice considerably different from that of reading
formal essays, which often i)rove very burdensome to a class
of intelligent pupils. The idea of oral reports with the aid
of a brief or of a few notes, or, best of all, of an analysis
written upon the blackboard, led the way to the preparation
of a regular course of co-operative lectures by members of
a class working conjointly with the instructor. Greater
dignity was given to the efforts of students by asking them
in turn to come to the front, to the map or blackboard, or
else to the instructor's chair. For the time being the stu-
dent became the teacher. Pretensions were seldom made to
original investigations in preparing for such a class-lecture.
The understanding was that students should collect the most
authoritative information upon a given suljject, and present it
to his fellows in an instructive way. This naturally implied
the selection of the best points of view, and the omission of
all irrelevant matter. The success of the lecturer turned,
not upon his occupying the time by reading an encyclopaedic
article, but upon his kindling the interest of his classmates,
and keeping their attention to the end.

4. Tlie Seminaiij Method. — The Seminariiim, like the
college and the university, is of ecclesiastical origin. His-
torically speaking, the seminary was a nursery of theology
and a training-school for seminary priests. The modern
theological seminary has evolved from the mediajval institu-
tion, and modern seminary-students, whether at school or at
the university, arc only modificutious of the earlier types.

HISTORICAL STUDY. 143

The Church herself early began the process of differentiat-
ing the ecclesiastical seminary for the purposes of secular
education. Preachers become teachers, and the propaganda
of religion prepared the way for the propaganda of science.
The seminary method of modern universities is merely the
development of the old scholastic method of advancing
philosophical inquiry by the defence of original theses. The
seminary is still a training-school for doctors of philosophy ;
but it has evolved from a nursery of dogma into a laboratory
of scientific truth.

The transformation of the Seminarium into a laboratory of
science was first accomplished more than fifty years ago by
Germany's greatest historian, Leopold von Ranke. He was
born in the year 1795, and has been Professor of History at
the University of Berlin since 1825. There, about 1830, he
instituted those practical exercises in historical investigation
(exercitationes historicae) which developed a new school of
historians. Such men as Waltz, Giesebrecht, Wattenbach,
Von Sybel, Adolph Schmidt, and Duncker, owe their meth-
ods to this father of historical science. Through the influ-
ence of these scholars, the historical seminary has been
extended throuohout all the universities in Germanv, and
even to institutions beyond German borders.

It is easy to outline a few external characteristics of the
seminary at the Johns Hopkins University, but difficult to
picture its inner life. Its -workings are so complex and
varied, that it cannot be confined within walls, or restricted
to a single library. Its members are to be found, now in
its own rooms, now at the Peabody Institute, or again in the
library of the Maryland Historical Society. Sometimes its
delegates may be seen in the libraries of Philadelphia, or in

144 SPECIAL METHODS OF

the Library of Congress, or in some parish registry of vSouth
Carolina, or in some town clerk's office in New England.
One snmmer the president of the university found a Johns
Hopkins student in Quebec stud^'ing French parishes and
Canadian feudalism. The next summer, this same student,
now a teacher in AVashington, D.C., was visiting lona, and
tramping through the parishes of England. He called by
the wayside upon the English historian, Mr. Freeman, at his
home in Somerset. Once the seminary sent a deputy in
winter to a distant village community upon the extreme
eastern point of Long Island, East Hampton, where he
studied the history of the common lands at Montauk, with
the queen of the Montauk Indians for his sovereign pro-
tectress and chief cook. Half a dozen members of the
seminar}' have gone off together on an archaeological excur-
sion, for example, to an old ^Maryland parish, like St.
John's, where lies the ruined town of Joppa, the original
seat of Baltimore county ; or again, to North Point, the
scene of an old battle-ground and the first site of St. Paul's,
the original parish church of Baltimore ; and still again, to
Annapolis, where, with a steam launch belonging to the
Naval Academy, and under the guidance of a local anti-
quary, they visited Greenberry's Point, upon the river
Severn, the site of that ancient Puritan commonwealth
which migrated from Virginia, and was originally called
Providence, from which sprang the Puritan capital of Mary-
land. Reports of these archaeological excursions, written
by members of the seminary connected with the Baltimore
press, found their way into the pul)lic prints, and were read
by many people in town and country, who thus became more
deeply interested in the history of Maryland.

The scientific sessions of the seminary, two hours each
week, are probably the least of its work, for every member

HISTORICAL STUDY. 145

is engaged upon some branch of special research, which
occupies a vast amount of time. Researches are prosecuted
upon the economic principles of division of labor and co-
operation. This co-operation appears not merely in the
inter-depeudence of student-monographs, but in everj^-day
student-life. A word is passed here, a hint is given there ;
a new fact or reference, casually discovered by one man, is
communicated to another to whom it is of more special
interest ; a valuable book, found in some Baltimore library
or antiquarian bookstore, is recommended, or purchased for
a friend. These things, however, are only indications of
that kindly spirit of co-operation which flows steadily on
beneath the surface of student-life.

One of the most interesting, if not the most valuable
features of the seminary Ubrary, is the so-called newspaper
bureau. This consists primarily of an office wherein the
newspapers of the day are reduced to their lowest terms for
purposes of historical and political science. Certain files
are preserved for future reference ; but the great majority' of
papers are cut to pieces for scientific purposes. A compe-
tent force of graduate students work an hour or two each
day, under direction, and mark superior articles upon eco-
nomic, political, social, educational, legal, and historical
subjects. These marked papers are excerpted during the
succeeding week bj^ an office-boy, pasted upon thick sheets
of brown paper, octave-size, indexed at the top, and
arranged alphabetically in the so-called Woodruff File-
holders, which are also used for the pamphlet collections of
the seminary. The choicest extracts from a few leading
papers, which are clipped almost as soon ns they come, are
placed upon special bulletin-boards devoted each to some

146 RPECTAL METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY.

one dei)ni'linent. The sub-hoadings under wliieli the various
clippings are grouped are changed from week to week, when
the old material is cleared off and a new lot tacked up. The
idea is to exhibit the current topics for a week's time, in so
far as they relate to the interests of the seminar}'. The
young men who attend to these bulletin-lioards for their
fellow-students are learning not only critical and orderly
methods, but also the potential process of making up a jour-
nal of historical and [jolitical science. They are learning to
be journalists and editors. "Without professing to be a
school of journalism, the seminary has furnished writers for
each of the prominent papers in the city of l')altimore, and
for some journals at a distance, while several of its members
have secured editorial positions.

In adilition to its newspaper bureau, wliich is a valuable
auxiliary in the study of contemporary- politics, economics,
socialism, etc., the seminary has devoted especial attention
to the collection of statistical materials, documents illustrat-
ing local, municipal, state, and national institutions ; also
to the collection of maps, works of historical and political
geography. The beginnings of an historical museum have
also been made, so that students of history find themselves
surrounded b}' evidences of human progress from the stone
age to the newspaper.

SEMlNAllY OF HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. 147

I I

""C

A. Seminary Table with new books and current periodicals.
— B. Lecture Rooms. — C. History Office. —D. Newspaper
Bureau. — E. Economy Office.— F. Map Bureau, Historical
and Physical Geography. — G, Statistics, Lavatory, Lift,
Btairway to Library. — H. Bluntschli MSS. and Portrait;
LieberMSS.- 1. Stairway to Library and Hopkins Hall.—
J. Alcove of Ancient History. — K. Alcove of General His-
tory.—L. Alcove of Economics. —M. Alcove of Adminis-
tration. — N. Alcove of Political Science. — O. Alcove of
International Law. — P. Alcove of State Laws and State His-
tory.—Q. Alcove of English, German, Swiss, French, and
Roman Law. — R. Librarian's Desk. — S. Desks of Fellows
and Graduate Scholars. — T. Revolving Cases. — U. Library
Bureau, Journals, bound vols. — V. Church History. — W.
Hat and Cloak Room. — X. Public Documents, U.S. — Y. His-
torical Museum. — Z. Pamphlets, Miscellany and five Bulletin
Boards. — a. Bulletin Board for Clippings. — 6. Card Cata-
logue (Subjects and Authors).

The Philosophy of the State and of Histoey.

George S. Moreis.

THE ancient philosopher Heraclitus, in the fragmentary
expressions of whose opinions, which alone are pre-
served for us, the modern speculative philosopher and the
physical evolutionist alike find so many germs of the com-
monly received wisdom and of the scientific opinion of to-
day, has left behind hira one aphorism, the perception of the
truth of which is the beginnina; of all wisdom for the student
of history : TroXv^aOir] v6ov ov 8i8ao-K€t. " Multifarious learning
does not instruct the mind." Naj^, more, " much learning,"
taken merely by itself, is not only without educational or
truly didactic value ; it not only fails to endow the learner
with real understanding ; but, as was rightly implied in the
address of the Roman governor to St. Paul, its tendency is
to make one trul}^ " mad."

The first impression that the world of history px'oduces in
the mind of the learner is that of an indefinite multitude
of different events. One event is not another. Each is a
separate fact. Each has its separate place in space or time,
or both. Each is what the others are not. To be cognizant
of some or all of these facts, each in its own peculiar place
in space and time, and with its own peculiar individuality,
is unquestionably the first mechanical condition of the ac-
quisition of historical knowledge or science. Moreover, the
circumstance that the facts in question ai'e indeed different,
that each new fact to be learned is indeed a novel fact, or,
in some respect, sui generis, contains in part the secret of

150 THE PHILOSOPHY

that 11000881117 charm by which the mind of the student is
led on from fact to fact, like the bee from flower to flower,
and so is armed with endurance to continue till the end of
tlic tale of "facts" is reached. But, to stop short with
tills cognizance of the multitude of facts in their separation
and difference, not to see them in the unity of their relations,
is not to learn the lesson of history. The mind thus simply
filled, or crammed, is not instructed. Its sight is super-
ficial ; it is not insight. And the world of history, thus
viewed, is not comprehended as an orderly world. It is
not a "rounded world" and "fair to see." It puts intel-
ligence to confusion. It is, indeed, my masters, "a mad
world " !

Histoiy is not simply (multifarious) events. It is the
logic of events. Historic intelligence is not merelv informa-
tion respecting events. It is the comprehension of their
logic.

Philosophy may be fitly described as the science of wholes.
In the last resort it is the science of the whole, as such, or
of the one universal drama of existence in the midst of which
man is placed, and in wdiich he actively participates. Now,
history, according to the familiar aphorism, is " philosopliy
teaching l)y example." Not the " example," taken by itself
as an isolated fact, is history. Thus taken, it is onl}- a
brute fact divested of relations, and offering neither attrac-
tion nor support to intelligence. History is the example,
plus that which it exemplifies. It is the example, plus its
teachino:. It is the " fact" seen in the relations which alone
render it comprehensible. It is the fact seen as part or mem-
ber of an organic whole, and, consequently, as exemplifying
in its place £fnd measure tlie law, idea, or life of the whole.
It is, in short, the fact seen as the illustration and phenom-
enal incarnation of a universal and liviugly operative reason,

OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 151

Logos, or logic, which, interior to the fact, is the ground of
its realit}', and, transcending the particular fact, connects
it with all other facts, and so is the ground of its intelligi-
bility. History-, taken in its broadest sense, is the object-
lesson of philosophy. It is the subject-matter of philosophy's
demonstrations. It is the test of the correctness of her con-
clusions. And true " history," in the narrower or more com-
mon sense of this word, is nothing if not philosophical.

Every successful teacher of history, even with the youngest
jDupils, teaches in something of the philosophical spirit, and
with a method more or less philosophical. He does not,
indeed, neglect to insist on the acquisition, by patient
mnemonic exercise, of exact information regarding parti-
cular facts ; but he manages, at the same time, to engage
the learner's imagination for the perception of groups of
facts viewed as wholes, and having, as such wlioles, to some
degree, a specific character, coloring, or significance. He
makes the pupil exercise, with himself, the artistic faculty
of inward picturing. With immature students this is all that
is possible, and it is enough. (I place under the safeguard
of a parenthesis the ominous and perhaps irritating question.
How many really " successful teachers of history, even with
the youngest pupils," have we?) Ordinary college students,
or undergraduates, who, in our commonly recognized dis-
tinction of educational grades, are treated as not yet wholly
mature and independent, but as on the highway and in the
doorway to such maturity, may justly claim sojnething more.
In addition to the faculty of abstract understanding, exer-
cised in the exact and reflective discrimination and memor-
izing of facts, and the faculty of picturing imagination, which
groups facts before the eye of the mind, as it were in larger
visible wholes, that higher potency of imagination, which
may be most exactly described as the synthetic reason, and

152 THE pitiLosornY

for whifli tho pk'turcs of liistory possess not merely the ex-
ternal unity of visil)lc wholes, but also the inward, dynamic
unity of self-realizing law, idea, purpose, should l)c ap-
pealed to, and so, at least in some measure, trained in the
appreciation of what we will here call historic truths (note
the plural). Just how, and in what measure, this should be
done, I will not and need not now attempt to determine.
But I do not in the slightest hesitate to declare my conviction,
that the university student — the graduate student, or he
who, if not technically a graduate, is held to be sufficiently
advanced to be permitted to pursue his studies under the
specifically university regime — should, on the one hand, be
privileged and assisted, and, on the other, required to exer-
cise his faculty of " synthetic reason " in the fullest possible
degree. In other words, in whatever department the special
subject of his studies may lie, whether history, language,
literature, mathematics, or the physical and natural sciences,
be should be expected to accompany his study of and search
for particular truths and orders of truths (the truths belong-
ing to his " special subject ") with the study of and search
for the truth, the universal truth, to which all special orders
of truths or " sciences," and orders of " science," are organ-
ically related ; in which, as in an universal organism, they
are all concretely one, "members one of another," and in
the light of which alone the science of each becomes com-
plete. Otherwise expressed, the university student should
pursue, and should be taught and aided to pui'sue, his sub-
ject, however "special" and, at first sight, remote from
philosopliy it may seem to l)e, philosophically. And by this
I mean that he should pa\-, and be directed and aided to
pay, express and prolonged attention to the specific and
universal problems of philoso[)hy, considered both in them-
selves and in their relation and application to the subject of

OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 153

his special studies. He should, in the broadest and strictest
sense, comprehend the philosophy of his subject. He who
does less than this is a "university student" only in name
and outward appearance, no matter where or how long lie
may have been enrolled as such a student, or amid what
plaudits he may have been crowned with the (in this case
deceptive) degree of "Doctor of Philosophy" ... I do
not, of course, stop to point out in detail how the require-
ment just insisted on is involved in the very conception of a
university, as indicated among other things by the name
' ' University " itself.

The justice of the requirement above mentioned is a thing
which it should be easy enough to demonstrate in its relation
to any of the departments of university work. It is particu-
larly obvious in its relation to the department of history.

What is the universal truth ; the truth of all truths ; the
truth in which all truths are united, and which reveals and
realizes itself in them all ; the truth of which all other truths
are, in their place and kind, the concrete manifestation and
evidence, and of which philosophy is the universal science?
The answer that philosophy, in its most substantial and com-
plete forms, whether ancient or modern, gives to this ques-
tion, is perfectl}' expressed in the words of one of those
writers whom the Christian world has termed sacred, "The
Spirit is truth." All truth is truth of spirit. All reality is
spiritually conditioned. All being has its roots in a spiritual
life by which its form and nature and substance are de-
termined. Spirit is universal, self-conscious reason. " What-
ever," therefore, "is real is rational." Spirit is dynamic,
living, concrete, and is the source and soul of law. What-
ever is real, the I'e fore, bears the same marks and illusti'ates
the " reign of law" or of reason.

The spirit, or living self-conscious reason, which is the

154 THK PHILOSOPHY

universal truth, is not the liuuuiu s[)irit, ])ut it is, if this ex-
pression may here be allowed, the truth of the human spirit.
The latter " lives, moves, and has its being" in the former.
The spirit of man realizes its own essential nature only so
far as it realizes in itself the " image" of the absolute spirit.
The reasou of man accomplishes its normal function in tlie
knowledge of the truth only so far as, to use Kepler's grand
expression, it " thinks the thoughts of God," and that by a
process whereby it illustrates and actualizes its organic de--
pendence upon, and so far its organic unity with, the uni-
versal spirit. The sufficiency of the individual to lliink, to
think truly, to think niid know the truth, is of God, of that
absolute and concretely universal or omnipresent " spirit,"
svhich of all things is " the truth." This relation is, of
•course, not one in which the activity of the individual reason
is suspended or rendered useless. It is the rather condi-
tioned on the fullest and freest activity of the individual.

It will now be seen how [)hilosophy, which is defined as
the science of the universal truth, can also be called the
science of self-conscious reason. It may well be considered
as a common-place of philosophic science, that the fund-
amental, or "ground-laying" part of philosophy, is the
science of intelligence or knowledge. Philosophy demon-
strates tliat the essential and all-determining nature of
intelligence is to be self-conscious reason. And it also
demonstrates that true self-consciousness is something that
transcends the individual, being realized only through the
"objective" consciousness and progressive knowledge of
the whole universe of dependent existence, and in organic
dependence on an universal and absolute self-consciousness.

The universal self-consciousness, or reason, of man, which
is the characteristically spiritual side of man's being, is also
the essential side. It is by this and in this that man is

OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 155

truly man. Viewed on this side of his being, man is not a
wholly completed actuality. He is not fully himself. He
has not realized in full all the potentialities of his nature.
He is to himself an ideal, a problem. In the progressive,
active approximation to the ideal in question, or solution of
the problem, man first comes to himself, and, in a measure,
truly is himself. The activity by which he accomplishes
this end is two-fold, theoretical and practical ; theoretical,
consisting, through the development of universal science, in
the auo^mentation of his knowledge of himself and of his
own possibilities ; and practical, consisting in activities con-
ditioned by this, knowledge, and directed toward the use of
the powers of nature and the ordering of human relations,
in mar/no and m parvo^ so that the possibilities mentioned
may be more fully actualized.

These activities now are the immediate substance or the
present active factors of history. The growingly self-con-
scious intelligence, which conditions and directs them, is the
soul of history. Their end is the erection on earth of a
realm of the spirit, which is a true "kingdom of heaven"
or of God, and in which man gradually comes into the in-
dependent possession of his true and substantial freedom
tlu-ough the theoretic apprehension and practical realization
of " the truth." History is the realm of man, and the realm
of man is the realm of the spirit. How, then, shall not
history be philosophical ? How shall it not be ' ' philosophy
teaching by example " ? And how shall he be pronounced a
"Doctor" of history who has not comprehended history as
philosophy thus teaching?

In the college, let the student, by all means, study and
learn "histories"; and in the university, let not these be
forgotten or neglected. But, above all thiugs, and as the
one thing indispensably needful, let the student here study

150 TTTK rTTTLOSOriTY

niul lenrn history. Let him see ami know man in history,
and through this knowledge let him see the absolute spirit in
history.

But, it may be said, there are many well-known and not
uninlUionlial pliilosoi)hizers who contend that a true science
of knowK'dgc reveals man as possessing no other and higher
categories with which to proceed to the comprehension of
the whole world of reality, whether natural or moral, than
the purel}- mechanical and sensibly conditioned ones of ab-
sti'act mathematical and physical science, and that he is
incai)able of possessing any others. The interpretation of
history then becomes for them simi)ly equivalent to the solu-
tion of a i)roblem in "moral" mechanics. History is, indeed,
held to be one whole and a moving whole ; but it is a whole,
all of whose strictly knowable and scientifically determinable
attributes really belong to the physical order of things alone ;
and it is a whole which, both as a whole and in all its parts,
moves on automatioall}' and without freedom according to
simple mechanical laws, following everywhere the line of
least resistance and greatest traction, and exemplifying
some sucli general law as (say) that of universal evolution
and dissolution ... In reply, I say that I am unable to
perceive that the champions of the foregoing theory are
acquainted with the whole science of knowledge, or that
they have once profoundly and faithfully studied the chief
works which now belong to the history of philosophic science,
and comprehended the lesson they contain. In so far, if my
perception is correct, their opinions are deficient in value.
But, supposing them to be wholly in the right, it must be
allowed that they are but fulfilling an intrinsic and inde-
feasible requirement of historic science in seeking to found,
on the basis of their mechanical conceptions, a philosophic
interpretation of universal history. And, on the same

OF THE STATE AISTD OF HISTORY. 157

supposition, it would be the duty of the university student
of history to follow in their steps. The undergraduate
student of history, for example, might conceivably be one
of those accumulators who bring statistical gi'ist to Mr.
Spencer's mill. But it would be the dut^' and privilege of
the university student to raise himself to the intellectual
plane of the gi'eat miller himself ; he should, in spirit, be
a Spencer or a Buckle. Philosophy of some land there must
be ; for philosoph}- is, in conception, nothing but the science
of the whole, and, without such science, all other science —
the science or knowledge of parts — remains incomplete, lack-
ing connection, and confused. And if the philosophy that
one have, or that one find cm'rent, be unfortunately one-
sided, abstract, and inhospitable toward certain sides of
that whole world of actuality, which it is the sole business
of philosophy to comprehend, yet one must accept it, and.
apply it as far as it will go, and so make the best of it. Of
course, it is the business of a university to see to it that
philosophy is, within its precincts, comprehended, prose-
cuted, and taught without such defects as those just named.
I hasten to add that, when this is done, the relative truth,
and, within its peculiar bounds, the important truth of the
mechanical philosophy in its application to the moral world,
which includes the world of history, will be fully recognized.
No one can shut his eyes to the mechanical aspect which be-
longs to all events, whatsoever, that occur within the bounds
and under the forms of space and time, including, there-
fore, the events of history. But the eye of really concrete,
catholic, and all-embracing philosophic science, sees that
the mechanical aspect of events is only an aspect ; that the
whole event, in any case under consideration, includes more
than this aspect; and that the science, or "philosophy,"
which regards only this aspect, is abstract ; that it abstracts

158 THE PHILOSOPHY

from something else in the event which is essential ; and that
it is, therefore, from the point of view of complete philosophy,
fragmentary, partial, " one-sided." True philosophy per-
ceives that, throughout the universe of living existence — and
this, subject to exact definitions, must be conceived as equi-
valent to the whole actual universe — the mechanical is con-
ditioned by and logically posterior to the organic ; the dead
is the product of the living, the phenomenal of the noumenal.
I trust I have made it sulhciently evident that the ex-
pression " philosoph}' of history" points to a real problem
of essential importance for the student of history', and that I
have sufficiently indicated what the true scope of the problem
in general is. I have said nothing of the great advance made
by historians during the last century in the philosophic treat-
ment of their subjects, nor of tlie pains which great his-
torians have thought it not unimportant to take to equip
themselves for their work by careful training in specifically
philosophic studies. There are many signs that the times
are ripe, or ripening, for a more extensive introduction of
the philosophic element into the treatment of history in this
country. The most obvious of these is perhaps to be found
in the rapid development and adoption of university methods
at a number of our educational centres durinsf the last ten or
a dozen years. Tlie true " university conception," if I may
so express it, has but recently made its appearance among us ;
and it has evidently come to stay. And this phenomenon, by
what cannot be considered as an accidental coincidence, is
accompanied by (or shall I rather say accompanies?) a new
and growing sense of the nature of the problems which are
strictly peculiar to philosophy, and of their essential connec-
tion witli that true and complete ideal of a scientifically cul-
tured intelligence, which must sei-ve as lodestone and guid-
ing-star to all "higher education." Further, we have now

OF THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 159

passed the boundary of the first century of our existence as
an independent nation. We are, as a people, now engaged
in a confused struggle with the problem of our own national
self-consciousness. We want to know what is the spirit that
is in us as a nation. We must know this, in order to be
properly master of ourselves and of our destiny. We must
know this, in order to know our place in universal history,
in order to appreciate the special task that falls to us in the
solution of that universal problem of the full realization of
man, of humanity " standing complete and wanting nothing,"
at which, whether blindly or consciouslj', all nations and
peoples are at work, and their work upon which constitutes
the living and essential substance of history. Our politicians
need this, that the}" may become statesmen. And both states-
men and people need this, the former, in order that their
labor may be truly constructive and enduring ; and the lat-
ter, in order that they may willingly cooperate in the pursuit
and realization of true political ideals. Here, then, is a
a place where theory, in the broadest sense of this term, or
the best work of intelligence, comes in contact Avith actuality.
Here is a "living question" imperatively demanding prac-
tical solution, and where none but the best and broadest and
deepest intelligence can safely serve. And it does seem as
if the time had come when the university, conceived in the
most liberal sense as the home and the seat of the activity of
the highest intelligence, should become the radiating source
and centre of ideal, and so of most truly practical, influences,
by which the constructive work of the nation shall be posi-
tively furthered, and the ideal substance of the national life
enriched. That our university workers in political science
and history, applying themselves to their task with philo-
sophic spirit and method, will contribute to the realization

160 THE PHILOSOPHY

of fi stntc of things, so much to be desired, no one should have
any doubt.

And now for a few practical suggestions. For how, an
interested part}"* will naturally ask, shall I go about to study
and teach the philosophy of history ? I confess freely that
the bauk-account of my own experience in this matter is not
plethoric, and that of my observation of others' work is still
less so. Such as I have, with some diffidence, I will attempt
to give.

It will be noticed that I have placed at the head of this
article, as its title, "The Philosoph}' of the State and of
History." Every one will readily perceive the reason for
this. For though, as Droysen says, and as I have otherwise
substantially expressed it in the foregoing essay, "the sub-
ject of history is the universal Ego of humanity," or " his-
tory is the yvoi^i o-avTov of humanity, its moral self-conscious-
ness " ; 3'et the concrete form in which this subject lies ])efore
the historian and student of history is that of social organ-
izations or of states.

Of course, nothing can take the place, in the outfit of the
student of the philosophy of the state and of history, of a
previous course of careful training in the several "disci-
plines," or " subjects " (logic, both " formal " and " real,"
psychology, ethics, etc.), which belong to philosophy proper,
and in the history of philosophy ; and, in agreement with the
views above expressed, such training, in an university com-
pletely organized and educationally equipped, would have to
be insisted on. But now we will not, for we cannot, presup-
pose that this requirement has been fulfilled. As a substi-
tute, I would propose to a student that he read carefully
(say) the little book by Edwin Wallace, entitled "Outlines
of the Philosophy of Aristotle " (Cambridge and London,
thu:d ed., 1883 ; pp. xi., 130). This work gives an epitome,

OF THE STATE AND OF HISTOKY. 161

with proof-texts in Greek, of logic, metaphj-sic, philosophy
of nature, psycholog}-, moral philosophy, political philosophy,
and philosophy of art, in as many different chapters, and ac-
cording to the best and ripest conceptions of ancient thought.
Of all of these conceptions, that is true which is commonly
said of Aristotle's logic in particular, viz., tiiat, though an-
tique, they can never become antiquated. The student gets,
from the perusal of this epitome, a correct notion, as far as
it goes, of the relation of political philosophy to philosophy in
general, or of its place in the organism of philosophic science.
I sa}' " as far as it goes," for, as will be observed, no place
is given in Aristotle's scheme to the philosophy of history, a
subject to which the philosophy of the state is most inti-
mately allied, but which, for obvious reasons, could scarcely
be developed as a distinct discipline before modern times.

In the same spu-it, I would heartily recommend the "Essays
in Philosophical Criticism," edited by Seth & Ilaldane (Lon-
don, 1883). This book, in my judgment, must be a great
help to those who would get their bearings with reference to
most of the leading subjects of philosophy, in the light of
the best modern discussion. The student of the philosophy
of the State and of history will be specially helped by the
essays on "The Historical Method," by W. R. Sorley ; "The
Rationality of History," by D. G. Ritchie ; and " The Social
Organism," by Henry Jones.

Commendation no less heartv is to be eiven to the " Grun-
driss der Historik," von Joh. Gust. Droysen (Leipzig, third
ed., 1882 ; pp. vi., 44). To this are added, as an appendix,
two essays on the "Elevation of History to the Rank of a
Science," reviewing Buckle's "History of Civilization in
England," and on "Art and Method," by which the num-
ber of pages is increased to 90. A good translation of the
" Grundriss" into English would, I should think, be one of

1G2 THE PHILOSOPHY

the best semces that could be rendered for the promotion of
the philosophical stud\- of history.

In teaching, now, the subjects we are considering, I would
begin with the philosoph}- of the state. And in treating this
topic, m}' method is to begin with the consideration of that
order of theories which is apparently simplest, and which
also, in the order of development of theories in modern times,
stands conspicuous^ first in time.

All theories of the state may be philosophically classed in
two groups. The one of these contains those theories which
contemplate tlie state, either exclusively or prevailingly, from
a physical or " natural" point of view, in accordance with a
purely mechanical conception of the universe, or of omne
scibile. The other will include theories which regard the
state primarily and fundamentally from a spiritualistic and
ethical point of view. Or, briefly, in the theories of the one
group a mechanical and physical conception of the state
is represented ; and in those of the other, an organic and
idealistic. The former conception has, at first sight, the
apparent advantage in respect of simplicity and intelli-
gibility.

From the first group, then, and for the purpose of first
studying and illustrating the mechanical conception, or
" philosophy," of the state, I select the " Civil Philo-
sophy" of Thomas Ilobbes ("De Give" and "Leviathan")
and the politico-philosophical writings of Mr. Herbert Spen-
cer (chiefly his " Social Statics" and "Principles of Socio-
logy ") . In what respects the work of Ilobbes is cruder and
ruder than that of Spencer, how abhorrent to the latter are
some of the positions of the former, and what concession
Mr. Spencer himself makes in his own works, at least in
appearance, to the demands of the organic conception of the
state, is well known, or may be easily learned, and has,

or THE STATE AND OF HISTORY. 163

of course, in the progress of our study or teaching, to be
duh" recognized. It still remains that the lines of fun-
damental, or of quasi-philosophical agreement, are such as
are implied in the classification of these two theorizers in
the same group. From the works named I select such prin-
ciples, or statements of principles, as are fundamental, and
then seek to exhibit them, and to engage my students to
study and comprehend them, both in themselves and in their
collective relation to the subject-matter — the state — which
they are invoked to explain. If it then appears, as I think
it must, that these principles are essentially inadequate, we
are prepared to go forward and trj' whether the theories of
the other group are any more complete, and so nearer to the
whole truth.

For those who ai"e inclined to go further in the direction
previously considered, and study the mechanical conception
of the state in the light of modern socialistic theories founded;
upon it, the literature at command is abundant. The press,
in certain quarters, teems with it. And one will be sure to-
find appropriate material among the books and pamphlets-
included in the " Biblioth^que Socialiste," published at Paris,
b}' Henry Oriol.

From works belonging to the second group, I am accus-
tomed to select for consideration and study Aristotle's
" Politics " and Hegel's "Philosophic des Rechts." These
two works mav, I think, justly be regarded as representing
the high-water mark — the one in ancient times, and the
other in modern — in the treatment of the philosophical
conception of the state. Ai'istotle, certainly, cannot be
wholly antiquated, for so true a child of the modern en-
lightenment as Mr. Frederick Pollock, has recently, in rela-
tion to this A^ery matter of political philosophy, raised the
very sane cry, " back to Aristotle." And of Hegel's work,

1G4 THE PHILOSOPHY

that remains true, in spite of all its unquestionable infirmities,
which is said of it by Adolf Lasson in liis own rcecntly-
puI)lishod *' System der Rochtsphilosophie " (Berlin, 1882,
p. 104), that its place is in " the foremost rank of the class-
ical productions of the science of all times." Of the several
translations of Aristotle's " Politics," the latest one, by J. E.
C. Welldon (London : ]Macmillan & Co., 1883), is most at-
tractive. INIr. A. C. Bradley has an essay on "Aristotle's
Conception of the State," in " Hellenica," edited by E. Ab-
bott (London, 1880) . Hegel's "Philosophic des Rechts" has
not been translated into Eno;lish. An essav entitled "Hesrel's
Philosophy of Right" was published in the volume of " Ox-
ford Essays" (1855). In vol. VL of the "Journal of Specu-
lative Philosophy," edited liy W. T. Harris, will l)e found a
translation of the brief summary of the Philosophy of Right,
as contained in Hegel's " Philosophic des Geistes." A criti-
cal exposition of Hegel's " Philosophy of the State and of
History" will be ))ublished in the series of " German Philo-
sophical Classics for English Readers and Students," pub-
lished by S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago. The dynamic con-
ceptions of Aristotle and Hegel, being much less abstract
and, in this respect, simple than those of Hobbes and
Spencer, requiie, for their adequate appreciation, longer
study and a greater amount of time devoted to the detail
of didactic exposition. In cases where German cannot be
used, the work entitled "The Nation," by Elisha Mulford,
LL.D. (New York, 1877), may be em^Dloyed as a substitute
for Hegel's " Pliilosophie des Rechts." In any case, the
study of Dr. IVIulford's book is to be most strongly urged.

On the history of political pliilosophy I name the following
works : —

Paul Janet, " Histoire de la Philosophic morale et poli-
tique dans I'antiqnit^ et les temps raodernes " (Paris, 18G0;

OF THE STATE AND OF HISTOEY. 165

second edition, revised and enlarged, under the title " His-
toire de la science politique dans ses rapports avec la mo-
rale," 1872) . This book is clearly written, with an abundance
of French bo7i sens, and from the point of view of the best
French type of philosophical spiritnaUsme. The author con-
siders no writer after the time of Kant.

Frederick Pollock, "The History of the Science of Poli-
tics " (New York, 1883 ; No. 42 of the " Humboldt Library" ;
reprinted from the "Fortnightly Eeview," Aug., 1882. to
Jan., 1883). This little work will be of value in enabling
the student to familiarize himself with a considerable num-
ber of names prominently connected with the development
of political philosophy in ancient and modern times. It is
most valuable for its very sympathetic exposition of the
doctrine of Aristotle and its account of the gist of Eng-
lish discussions. Spencer is excluded from the survey, and
so are all Continental writers of the last hundred years.

J. C. Bluntschli, " Geschichte der neueren Staatswissen-
schaft. Allgemeines Staatsrecht und Politik seit dem 16.
Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart " (Leipzig & Miinchen,
third ed., 1881). This book, as the title indicates, deals
only with the political philosophy of modern times. In
treating of Hegel's " Philosophic des Rechts," the author is
so stern to point out its confessed limitations, that the reader
is in danger of being blinded to the fact of the far-reach-
ing identity, in point of substantial content, which subsists
between the fundamental conceptions of the critic himself
and of him who is tlie object of his criticism.

Passing now to the philosophy of history, I am unable to
give any counsel founded on personal experience or observa-
tion. If one were disposed to repeat or imitate the method
suggested above, one might, I should suppose, well begin
with Buckle's "History of Civilization in England." Though

IGG THE PHILOSOPHY OF STATE AND HISTORY.

the field chosen for consideration in this work is restricted to
Eugh^nd, yet this need not be a drawback. It may the rather
be even an advantage, since it enables the stud^'nt to judge
the value and adequacy of the purely " mechanical concep-
tion" for the philosophic comprehension of histor}', applied
in a field with which he is likely to be more familiar than
with any other outside his own country.

I name as a work, in which the whole course of human
history is treated from the matei'ialistic point of view, F. Aon
Hellwald's " Culturgeschichte in ihrer natiirlichen Entwicke-
lung l)is zur Gcgenwart."

Advancing now to the other, and, as 1 call it, larger point
of \ iew, to that of the organic conception of human history,
I should take up the " Philosophic der Geschichte " of Hegel.
Of this work a fairly good translation has been furnished by
J. Sibree, A.M. (" Lectures on the Philosophy of History,"
in Bohn's "Philosophical Library," London, 1801). The
most considerable systematic elaboi'ation that the subject,
so far as I have noticed, has received since the time of
Hegel, is contained in Conrad Hermann's " Philosophie der
Geschichte " (Leipzig, 1870). A work of still broader scope
and treatment is M. Carri6re's " Die Kunst im Zusammer-
hang der Culturentwickelung " (Leipzig, 1863-1871).

Robert Flint, in "The Philosophy of Histor}'^ in France
and Germany" (London, 1874), gives a critical review of
French and German works relating to our subject. He is,
in my judgment, most successful in his appreciation of the
efforts of the French and of some of the earlier Germans.
The best German philosoph}' is beyond him.

THE COUESES OF STUDY IN HISTORY, EOMN

LAW, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY, AT

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.^

By Henry E. Scott, Harvard University.

A DESCRIPTION of the ground covered and of the
methods used iu the various courses in History and
Political Science at Harvard must necessarily be preceded by
a brief statement of the circumstances under which these
studies are pursued there.

In the first place, all the courses offered in these branches
— and in ahnost all other branches as well — are purely elec-
tive. The University requires each year a certain amount
of work from every undero-raduate who is a candidate for the
degree of Bachelor of Arts ; but, with the exception of about
two-fifths of the work of the Freshman year, and certain
prescribed written exercises iu English iu the Sophomore,
Junior and Senior years, the undei'graduate has full liberty
to select any course in an}' subject which his previous train-
ing qualifies him to pursue. The courses in History and iu
Political Science may therefore be elected by any under-
graduate, by the Freshman as well as by the Senior ; and
they are also, it may be added, open to the students of the
various professional schools embraced in the University, to
resident graduates, and to special students whether graduates
or not.

1 la the preparation of the following article, the writer has heen greatly-
assisted hy the instructors in the several courses described, and their state-
ments have been incorporated in the text with but little change.

168 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY

In order to provide suitable recognition for those students
who have confined their college work to one or two special
fields, Honors of two grades — Honors and Highest Honors
— are awarded at graduation in almost all branches in which
instruction is offered. The candidate for Honors in Histor\-
or in Political Science must have taken in the department
selected six full courses or their equivalent, i.e., he must
have devoted to it about one-half of his last three years as
an undergraduate, four full courses or their equivalent being
the amount of elective work required each year of Sopho-
mores, Juniors, and Seniors ; and he must have passed with
great credit the regular examinations in those courses, and
also, shortly before Commencement, a special examination
covering all the six courses in questiou. Students who do
not care to specialize to the extent necessary to obtain
Honors can yet, by doing creditably about one-half as much
work (i.e., by taking three full courses) in any one subject,
receive at graduation Honorable Mention in that subject.

To pursue with advantage studies in History or in Political
Science, the student must have easy access to books ; and,
in order to place within his reach the principal sources, au-
thorities, and other helps necessary for the study of a given
course, the system of "reserved books" was established
some years ago in the Harvard College Library. The in-
structors in the various departments request the Library
authorities to place upon the shelves of certain alcoves, as-
signed for this purpose in the reading-room of the Li])rary,
the books used by their classes for collateral reading and
i-eference. The books thus reserved can be taken from the
shelves by the students themselves without the formality of
oral or written orders, and can be consulted in the Library
dining the day. At the close of library hours, they may,
if properly charged, be taken out for the ensuing night only,

AT HAEVAED UNIVERSITY. 169

the borrowers promising to return them at 9 a.m. the next
day. The right to use the reserved books is not limited to
those students who take the particular course for which cer-
tain books have been reserved, but all persons entitled to the
privileges of the Library are likewise entitled to use all the
reserved books, the purpose of the system being not to with-
draw the works from general use for the benefit of a narrow
circle, but rather so to regulate their use that the greatest
possible number of students may be able to consult them.
Persons engaged in special investigations can, if necessary,
obtain cards of admission to the shelves where the material
they wish to use is stored ; but, for the ordinary student,
the reserved books, together with those ordered from the
Library in the usual way, ai'e sufficient.

The courses of instruction which are now to be described
are classified — as are all courses offered in the College — as
courses or half -courses, according to the amount of work re-
quired of the student and the number of exercises a week, a
course having either three or two exercises a week, a half-
course either two or one.* Some of the courses are given
every year, others every two years, others twice in three
years. The more advanced courses can be taken only by
special permission of the instructors, to obtain which stu-
dents must give evidence of their ability to do the work
expected of them. There are announced this year (1884-
85) in the official pamphlet sixteen courses and two half-
courses in History, one course and two half -courses in Roman
Law, and four courses and four half-courses in Political
Economy. There are actuallj- given this year eleven courses
and two half-courses in History, one course in Roman Law,
and four courses and three half-courses in Political Economy,

1 In the following description the half-courses are especially designated
as such.

170 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY

the remaiuiug courses being omitted in accordauee with the
arraiiijemeuts meutioued above or for special reasons. The
average number of hours of instruction per week devoted
tliis year to II is tor}' is thii'ty ; to liomau Law, tlii-ee ; to Politi-
cal Economy, fifteen.

THE COURSES IN HISTORY.

The courses in History arc not laid out on the assumption
that any one student will elect all or even the greater part of
them. They are themselves an historical growth rather than
the result of a scheme. New courses have been added from
time to time as the needs of the students and the means of
the College warranted, each course as a rule covering a
field which some unity of interest or some series of related
movements seemed to mark out as suitable ground for con-
nected study. Courses so built up must inevitably cross
each other at various points, with an appearance of more or
less confusion ; nevertheless it is believed the}' are better
adapted to the needs of the students than a more sj'stemati-
cally arranged list would be.

History 1 (Mediiieval and Modern European History, two
hours a week, Assistant-Professor Macvane) is an elemen-
tary course serving as an introduction to Courses 7, 8, 9, 10,
and 1 1 , and covering the history of Europe from the fall of the
Roman I2mpire. In so wide a field, the work is necessarily
of a very general character, the principal aim being to trace
as clearly as possible the changes and stages through which
Europe has passed in reaching its modern condition. The
only countries for which a connected outline of political his-
tory is attempted are England, France, and Germany.

The course is designed for two classes of students : first,
for those who intend to give a considerable amount of atten-
tion to history while in college ; for these it serves as an

AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 171

introduction, as a general view of the whole field of mediae-
val and modern history ; they are enabled to enter later on
the study of selected portions or periods with some feel-
ing of acquaintance with the surroundings. They also get
some practice in using historical books and in dealing with
historical terms and ideas. Secondly, the course is designed
for students whose serious college work lies in other depart-
ments, who yet wish to acquire some general knowledge of
history. There is, for the most part, no text-book, nor is
there any attempt at recitations. Several books are usually
designated for each country or period ; and each student is
allowed to choose from these the one best suited to his aims
or to the amount of time at his dis[)osal for the work. A
certain portion of ground is laid out in advance for each ex-
ercise ; and the instructor goes over this in a general way
with the class, answering questions, pointing out relations
and connections, explaining terms, and bringing into promi-
nence the more important points of the narrative. A good
deal of attention is given to historical geography.

History 2 (Constitutional Government in England and
the United States, thi-ee hours a week for the first half-year,
counting as a half -course, Assistant-Professor Macvane) is
designed as an introduction to Courses 12, 13, and 14, i.e.,
to the study of modern constitutional government. Atten-
tion is chiefly directed to the present condition and prac-
tical working of English and American institutions ; but the
more prominent features of the French and German constitu-
tions are also noted. The comparative method is followed
wherever possible. The work done in the class-room is
a combination of lecture and conference. Each member of
the class is expected to procure either Amos's " Primer of
tlie English Constitution" or Fonblanqne's "How we are
Governed " ; and a pamphlet is printed for the use of the

172 COrRSES OF STUDY IN HiSTOUY

class, containing a syllabus of the course, together with the
Articles of Confederation, the Constitution, and a number
of selections from books, magazine articles, etc. The main
ol)jects in view are to prepare students for the profitable
study of American and of modern pjuropean history, and to
awaken an intelligent interest in the problems of constitu-
tional government, both here and in other countries.

History 3. Roman History to the Fall of the Republic,
with especial reference to the Development of Political In-
stitutions in Greece and Rome, two hours a week.

History 4. Later Roman and Early Mediseval History
(from Augustus to Charlemagne), with especial reference to
institutions, two or three hours a week (at the pleasure of
the instructor).

History 8. Constitutional and Legal History of France
to the Sixteenth Century, two or three hours a week (at the
pleasure of the instructor) .

These courses (all of them given by Professor Gurney),
while covering each a period having a distinct and independ-
ent interest of its own, are designed to furnish in their se-
quence a study of the development of society, of political,
legal, and economic institutions, and in outline, too, of moral
and intellectual conditions as manifested in religious beliefs,
philosophy, and literature, from the cradle of patriarchal
existence among the ancestors of the Greeks and Italians
to the old age of a Byzantine civilization ; and, again, to the
repetition of this development under the greatly changed con-
ditions produced by the legacies of Mediterranean civiliza-
tion, from the primitive German society described by Caesar
and Tacitus to the reflection of imperial Rome which may
be traced in the administration, law, literature, and art of
France in the time of the early Renaissance.

In Course 3 this development is followed for the Roman

AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 173

state from the first glimpses ■svliieh we obtain, by the aid of
philology, of its Indo-European ancestors to the point at
which, after the conquest of the ancient world, the overtaxed
energies of municipal government succumb, and the repub-
lican type of rule begins to merge in the imperial. Though
the history proper of Greece forms no part of this course,
the political and legal institutions of the Greeks, especially
the Spartan and Athenian constitutions, and, at a later day,
the first serious efforts of men at federation in the Achasau
League, are all treated in detail for the light they throw upon
the parallel Roman development. A secondary object of
Course 3 is to qualify a student of the classics to read a
book of Livy, or a public oration of Demosthenes, with
somewhat the same background of information with which
he would take up Bancroft or Burke.

Course 4, which deals Avith the whole period from Au-
gustus to Charlemagne, falls naturallj' into two parts ; in
one of which, ending perhaps as well at the death of Theo-
dosius the Great as at an^' other point, the interest continues
predominately Roman, and the development of society is in
every sense the sequel of Course 3 ; in the other the interest
is predominately German ; the subject of stud}' is German
institutions, and the processes and results of the combina-
tions of these with existent Roman institutions and tenden-
cies within the territories of the Empire, and especially in
Gaul. Either half of this course may easily be pursued
separatelj'.

In Course 8, an investigation is made of the centrifugal
forces which led to the disruption of the Carolingian Empire,
and to the dispersion of authority which we know as the
Feudal System. Upon a study of the institutions and work-
ing of that system in France, follows naturally the main
subject of the course, the gradual reassertiou of the royal

174 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY

authority over ever wider territoi-y, and to ever more complete
exclusion of all other authority, until tlie irresistililc control
of Louis XI. and his successors is reached, and, in large
lueasuri" on the lines of Roman models, the framework is
erected for the still more perfect structure of absolutism of
the seventeenth century.

As these courses cover long periods of time — some seven
hundred years each — the student is not expected to acquire
a detailed knowledge of events. An account is given him
of the best books accessible, great and small, upon the whole
period and parts of it ; but the scale on which he conducts
his reading is left to his taste and discretion. The instructor,
from time to time, tries to aid the student in acquiring a just
historical perspective by remarks upon the relative import-
ance of events, and upon such connections between them as
might easily be missed ; but, otherwise, he does not concern
himself with the narrative history, except when consulted.
The chief original authorities are mentioned and character-
ized, but no investigations in them are demanded. The
history of institutions, on the other hand, is given by the
instructor in informal lectures, with constant opportunity
and encouragement for interruption on the part of the stu-
dent for questions and discussion. The best works on the
sidtject are described and reserved in the Library for the
student's use ; but for tliis part of the course he may, if he
chooses, rely on the lectures alone. As these courses are
conducted for the general student of history, no work upon
the sources, Greek, Latin, or old French, could wisely be
exacted. It is hoped, however, that subsidiary half-courses
may be connected with them, so that properly qualified
students may have opportunity and encouragement to be-
come themselves investigators.

In IIisTOKY 7 (The General History of Europe from the

AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 175

beginning of the Ninth to the end of the Thirteenth Centnry,
two hours a week, Mr. Scott) the title does not state cor-
rectly the chronological limits of the course, or the ground
covered by it. It really deals with the political and consti-
tutional history of Continental Europe from the rise of the
Carolingian line of Prankish kings to the fall of the emperors
of the House of Staufen, England being omitted entirely,
and France, too, receiving but little attention in comparison
with Germany and Italy, since both England and France are
provided for in special courses. As a necessary introduction,
a rapid survey is taken of the institutions of the primitive
Germans ; and this is followed by a more detailed account
of the constitutional and legal system that arose from the
mixture of German and Roman elements in the kingdom of
the Merovingians. With the Carolingian period the real
work of the course begins, the Frankish Monarchy and the
Mediaeval Empire forming naturally the centres of interest
around which the remaining historical phenomena are grouped.
In the class-room, the instructor endeavors to call attention
to the points of view from which the events under considera-
tion may be most advantageously studied, and to the relation
in which these events stand to those that have gone before
and to those that are to follow ; but the details of political
history are usually left to be worked out by the students tliem-
selves, while, on the other hand, the development of institu-
tions is treated at length by means of lectures. An account
of the principal sources for the history of each period is
given, the most valuable modern works are mentioned, and
specific references are made, from time to time, to these
works and to important historical articles in periodicals.
The students are questioned frequently and encouraged to
ask questions, in order that the instructor may satisfy him-
self of the nature of their work, and that any special diffi-
culties which they meet may be, if possible, removed.

170 COURSES OF STUDY IN IlISTOPA'-

History 0 (three hours a -week, Assistaut-Prof cssor Young)
takes up the Coustitutional and Legal History of Engkaud
to the Sixteenth Century. The work in the class-room con-
sists of lectures by the instructor, and of trauslations and
explanations of extracts from Stubbs' " Select Charters,"
which, together with Stubbs' "Coustitutional History-, " may
be said to serve as a text-book. Students are also encouraged,
but not required, to write theses on special topics.

The lecturer treats the whole subject by periods (Primitive
Germany ; the Anglo-Saxon, Frankish, Norman, and Anglo-
Norman periods ; Henry II. to John ; Magna Carta; Henry
III. and Edward I. ; Edward I. to Henry VII.) and by topics
within each period, the study of each period being preceded
by a general bibliography of that period, and of each topic
by a special bibliography' of that topic. The references for
collateral reading arc of two sorts, those which every student
is expected to read as a preparation for examination, and
those designed for students who take a special interest in any
topic, and wish to make it the subject of special study.

The object of the lectm-es is (1) to give a more detailed
account of some subjects than is to be found in the ordinary
text-books (for example, of the institutions of the primitive
Germans ; the classes of society and influence of the land-
system on the social development in the Anglo-Saxon period ;
the Frankish and Norman development; the legal reforms of
Henr}- II. ; the reception of the Koman law in England, etc.) ;
(2) to give a different view of some sul)jects from that taken
by the English writers (for example, of the effect of the Nor-
man Conquest on English constitutional development) ; (3) to
aiTangc the subject-matter in a more convenient form.

Of the documents contained in Stubbs' " Charters," sub-
stantially all to the close of the reign of Henry II. are read
(some of the special customs, some of the historical extracts
and the Dialocjus de Scaccario are omitted), together with

AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 177

selections from the documents of the reigns of Richard I.,
John, Henry III., and Edward I.

History 6 (The Legal Institutions of the Franks and the
Anglo-Saxons, two hours a week, Assistant-Prof essorYouxo) ,
an advanced course in mediaeval institutions, is designed (1)
to teach the student the methods, and to acquaint him with
the results so far attained of the new science of " Early
Comparative Jurisprudence " ; and for this pur[)Ose the fol-
lowing topics are studied : Origin of the family, of the state,
of law, of courts, of judicial procedure, of criminal law, of
property, and of contract ; (2) to show the results so far
attained by students of early German and Frankish law, and
the methods used to attain them. In this connection, a study
is made of legal sources, courts, procedure, criminal law,
family law and law of inheritance, law of property, and law
of contract; the Frankish legal sources, and especially the
Lex Salica and the Capitula legi Salicae addita being critically
examined in the class ; (3) to apply the knowledge thus ob-
tained of methods and results to the study of the Anglo-
Saxon law. As this is a course for advanced and special
study, every student is required to write a thesis on some
topic of Anglo-Saxon law, a thesis based upon an inde-
pendent examination of Anglo-Saxon legal sources.

It is hoped that the course may some time be extended to
include the Norman and the Anolo-Norman institutions. It
is given from a conviction that English legal history is yet
to be written, that this cannot be done until many special
investigations have been made, and that these can profitably
be made only by those familiar with the methods and results
of the Germanists.

History 5 [Church History 1]. The Conflict of Chris-
tianity with Paganism to the Eighth Century, two hours a
week.

History 10 [Church History 2], History of the Pro-

178 COURSES OF STUDY IX HISTORY

tostant Reformation and tlie Roman Catholic Reaction, t-wo
hours a week.

Cnmcii History 3. History of Christian Doctrines, two
hours a week.

HisTouv 17 [Cni'Rcn ITistouy 4]. Practice in the Study
and Use of Historical Sources, once a week (two hours).

These four courses, given by Professor Emkrtox, are, in
so far as they deal with ecclesiastical history, arranged with
a view (1) to separate as far as possible the History of
Doctrines from that of the outward life of the Church, and
(2) to bring out into prominence the critical moments in this
outward life rather than to attempt an}' comprehensive review
of the whole subject. Course 5 deals with the formative
period of Christianity. The purpose here is to show how
the church organization grew up with the empire until the
two became co-extensive, then to connect the Germanic in-
fluence in the empire with the form taken by the Church in
the life of the Middle Ages. The reign of Charlemagne,
in which these various tendencies reach the form the}' were
to maintain during the whole following mediaeval period,
properly closes this course.

Course 10 treats of the second great critical period, when
the forms of mediaeval are changing to those of modern
society. Beginning with the awakening energy of the indi-
vidual mind in the fourteenth century, the various phases of
this revival in literature, art, law, commerce, politics, and
religion are treated as preparing the way for the protest of
Luther. The religious revolt is traced from its earliest signs
in the Italian Humanists, through Wiclif, Hus, Savonarola,
and the Mystics, to Luther and Calvin. Finally, the reac-
tion of Rome against the Reform, as shown in the Order of
Jesuits, the Inquisition, and the Council of Trent, is followed
to the point where the conditions of modern Church History
appear firmly established.

AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 179

Church History 3 is coufiued strictly to the history of doc-
trines, presupposing a general knowledge of the progi-ess cf
the Church as an organization. But as in the earlier courses
frequent reference to the doctrinal development was neces-
sary, so here the student is constantly reminded of the reac-
tion of politics upon the doctrine. It is believed that in this
way a more tliorough understanding of the essential connec-
tion between these two phases of church life can be gained
than by attempting to treat them both at once, with the risk
of continual confusion. The system of doctrines is con-
sidered as a development through the efforts of men to reach,
a solution of the problems suggested or revived by the teach-
ing of Jesus.

All of these courses are conducted by means of lectures
with occasional oral reviews, and, in Courses 10 and Church
History 3, with the writing of theses upon topics counected
with the course, selected by the student and approved by the-
instructor.

History 17 is a practice-course on the principle of the
German Seminarium. Its purpose is to introduce the stu-
dent into the methods of historical investigation and com-
position. The work consists mainly of inquiry into points-
of historical detail from original sources, together with the
interpretation of some original document before the class.

In HisTOKT 11 (European History* during the Seventeenth
Century and the first half of the Eighteenth, three hours a
week. Assistant Professor Macvane) attention is mainly
confined to England, France, and Germany. English affairs
occupy about half of the time. No uniform method of in-
struction is followed in all parts of the course, the instructor
holding that, in teaching history, method must depend partly
on the nature of the period and topic under treatment, partly
on the quality of the books and other helps available for
the students, partly on the size and character of the class..

180 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY

In the main, the class-room exercises in this com'se are
designed to open up the field, to bring into relief the more
important features of it, and to aid the members of the class
with suggestions as to their reading. An effort is made to
show the significance of the great social, political, and relig-
ious movements of each period, to bring historical events as
far as possible into living connection with their causes, and
to point out from time to time the manner in which the move-
ments of one country have reacted on the affairs of other
counti'ies. Special study is given to the gi-owth and working
of institutions, especially in England, Ilallam's "Constitu-
tional History" (beginning with Chapter VI.) forming an
integral part of the coui'sc. References are given from time
to time to the most notable passages in the works reserved
in the Library for the use of the class, the aim liere being as
much to beget an acquaintance with historical literature and
a taste for the study of it, as to aid in the present acquisition
of historical knowledge.

History 12 (European History from the Middle of the
Eighteenth Century, three hours a week. Assistant Profes-
sor Macvaxe) is, in all essential respects, a continuation of
Course 11, and is conducted on the same general plan. The
proportions are diflfereut, however, considerably more time
being devoted to Continental history than is the case in 11.
The institutions of the Old Regime in France ; the causes
and course of the French Revolution, and of the later changes
in France ; the effects of the French Revolution upon the
other countries of Europe; the German Federation, and the
recent reorganization of Germany under Prussia's leader-
ship ; the consolidation of Italy into one kingdom, and the
changed position of the Papacy ; the growth of Russia, and
the varying phases of the "Eastern Question"; — these.
and many other topics, claim attention in the attempt to
treat the recent history of the Continent. Time, however.

AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 181

is found to deal with the chief iucideuts of Euollsli history
since the accession of George III. The attempt by George
III. to revive personal government, the character and histor}-
of the various ministries, the full development of cabinet
government, the reform of Parliament, the reform of the
criminal laws and of the judicial system. Catholic Emanci-
pation, the Ii'ish land question, and other similar topics, are
studied with more or less thoroughness.

In History 14 (Forms of Government and Political Con-
stitutions, particularly- in Continental Europe, since 1789, two
hours a week, Assistant-Professor Macvane i) the various
constitutions are studied in connection with the circum-
stances under which they were adopted. Attention is given
to the composition of the representative bodies ; the relations
between the legislative bodies and the executive ; the methods
and extent of popular control over the government ; the posi-
tion of the ministers ; the progress of cabinet government ;
parliamentary procedure ; the relations between local and
central authorities ; the federal systems of Europe ; the
composition and jurisdiction of the chief courts, etc. The
method of comparative study is followed ; the institutions of
each country being brought into comparison, or contrast, with
the corresponding institutions of other countries.

[For the^ courses in American History, numbered 18 and 13, see the
separate article by the instructor on pp. 1-31.]

History 15 (Elements of Public International Law, two
hours a week, Professor Torrey ; Periods and Leading Events
in Diplomatic History, one hour a week. Dr. Channing) con-
sists of two distinct parts, — neither of which can be taken
without the other, — and is designed for those students
only who have shown creditable progress in their previous

1 For the year 1884-85 only. The course is regularly given by Professor
Torrey.

182 COURSES OF STUDY IN HISTORY

studies. As the classes arc small, a close perscual relation
is established between teachers and students.

In the former part of the course, the lectures take largely
the shape of a free commentary on Woolsey's *' Intei'national
Law " ; but the bibliography of the sul)3ect is treated at
length ; and, in dealing with the principles, the important
points are iUustrated by references to leading writers, —
such as Wheaton, Twiss, Hall, and Bluntschli, — and by
extracts from their works. Particular attention is paid to
weighty decisions (especially of P^nglish and American
courts) ; questions in which the United States have been
involved are discussed, the manner of dealing with concrete
cases under the Constitution and laws is explained, and the
bearing of the rules of International Law on questions of
present interest is pointed out.

The second part of tlu; course deals witli the leading events
iu the diplomatic history of the last two hundred and fifty
years. An analysis of each period, with a limited number of
specific references, is w-ritten on the board as a foundation
for the student's reading. The lecturer narrates the events
leading to each important treaty, gives a bibliography of the
treaty itself, together with some biographical account of the
negotiators, and takes up in detail its chief provisions ; con-
siderable use ])eing made of Woolsey's valuable synopsis of
political treaties. From the beginning of the course geo-
graphy receives especial attention, and a thorough knowl-
edge of the physical conformation of Europe is insisted upon.
The last four lectures are devoted to the territorial develop-
ment of the United States, and are given in the College
Library, where contemporar}- maps and other material can
be used for purposes of illustration.

IIisTOUY IG (Studies in the Comparative History of Reli-
gions,— particularly the Vedic, the later Brahmanic, the
Buddhist, the Mazdean, and the Chinese ; two hours a

AT HAEVARD UNIVERSITY. 183

week, counting as a half -course, Professor Everett), al-
though properl}' classified as an historical course, might as
properly be called philosophical ; for it is really a study
of the philosophy of religion. It begins with a brief study
of the religion of savages ; then certain religions are treated
that have in a marked degree a philosophical basis, and these
are grouped according to psychological relations. The at-
tempt is made to bring out the philosophical significance of
each religion, special attention being given to Hindu philos-
ophy. On the other hand, the outward form, and, to some
extent, the history- of the different religions, must be pre-
sented ; and this involves historical detail.

The instruction is given by means of lectures, supported
at every point by reference to translations and other author-
ities ; the most important of the works referred to being
placed in the reference-room of the Divinity-School Library.

THE COURSES IN ROMAN LAW.

Roman Law 1 (History and Institutes of Roman Law ;
Institutes of Gains and Justinian, omitting the Law of In-
heritance ; three hours a week, Assistant-Professor Young)
is an elemeutarv course, covering the whole bodv of Roman
private law, with the exception of the Law of Inheritance
(see Roman Law 3), and mainly designed to give to the
historical student some familiarity with fundamental legal
notions (a familiarity, the need and value of which will be
* recognized by every teacher of histoi-y) . After a brief ac-
count of the history of the legal sources, and of the general
course of Roman legal development, the instructor, follow-
ing the arrangement of topics adopted by Gains and Justin-
ian, describes the historical development of each legal
institution, and states the principal rules of law relating to
it. The passages in the Institutes of Gains and Justinian
which bear on the subject are then translated and discussed

184 COURSES OF STUDY IN ROMAN LAW

in the class (Gneist's " Institutiouum et regularum juris
Roniani syntagma " being used as a text-book) , and refer-
cuces, which every student is expected to read, are occasion-
ally made to the Digest. Every student is expected to follow
the course in some elementary treatise on the subject, and
for this purpose the following books are recommended : — in
English, Movie's "Institutes" (much the best), Poste's
'' Gains," or Hunter's " Roman Law" ; in French, the trea-
tises of ]Maynz (the best) , Van Wetter, or Demangeat ; in
German, Puchta or Marezoll.

Roman Law 2 (The Law of Property ; selections from
the Digest ; one hour a week counting as a half-course,
Assistant-Professor Young) is intended for advanced study
in some special department of the law. The subject of the
course may be varied from year to year, so that a student
may elect it in successive years, studying, for example, in
one year the Law of Obligations, and in another the Law of
Proiierty.

In Roman Law 3 (The Law of Inheritance ; Institutes of
Gains and Justinian ; selections from the Digest ; three
hours every two weeks, counting as a half-course. Professor
Guuney) the principal features of the Law of Inheritance are
studied, especial attention being given to the Roman Law of
Wills. The portions of the Institutes of Gains and Justinian
bearing on the subject are first gone over in the class-room,
and after the outlines of the subject are thus fixed, select
passages from the Digest are assigned to be read by the
class for the purpose of filling uj) the outline to the extent
that time permits, the more difficult passages being inter-
preted by the instructor, and the hours of meeting being
devoted to informal lectures on the part of the teacher, and
to questions and discussions on the part of the students.

AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 185

THE COURSES IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.

Political Econojuy 1 (Mill's " Principles of Political
Economy " ; Lectures on Banking and the Financial Legis-
lation of the United States ; three hours a week, Professor
Dunbar and Assistant-Professor Laughlin) is designed (1)
to provide for those students who intend to continue their
economic studies for more than one year a suitable introduc-
tion to the elementary principles of the science, and their
application to questions of practical interest; and (2) to
furnish students whose time is chiefly devoted to other
departments of stud}' with that general knowledge of and
trainino; in Political Economy which all men of liberal educa-
tion should desire. It has, therefore, its theoretical and its
practical side. In the present year (1884-85) the new edi-
tion of Mill, prepared by Professor Laughlin, serves as a
text-book for the main part of the course, and the remaining
time is occupied by lectures on the elements of banking and
the public finance of the United States (especially in the last
quarter of a century) . The instructor holds that for a course
in the elements of Political Economy, where it is eminently
desirable that the student should assimilate principles rather
than memorize explanations of each subject, neither the reci-
tation system nor the lecture system is best fitted, but that a
judicious mixture of both is necessary ; for the object of the
instruction is in general not merely to give men facts, but to
lead them to think. The text-book is supposed to furnish to
the student a clear statement of the principles that are to be
taken up at a given exercise. Then in the class-room the
instructor, by questions, and by drawing the men into dis-
cussion and the free expression of difficulties, endeavors as
much as possible to fix the knowledge of principles in the
mind of the students, and to direct their attention to the
worldngs of these principles in concrete cases. Graphic

186 COURSES OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOIY

rcprescntatious of facts (such, for example, as arc given by
the cliarts in the text-book referred to) arc often nsed to
make the relation between theory and practice still clearer ;
and statements from the newspapers in regard to economic
matters are sometiraos read in the class-room, in order to test
the student's ability in applying abstract principles to the
affairs of every-day life. To give the studeuts practice in
making accurate statements, questions are now and then
written on the blackboard and answered in writing within
fifteen minutes, and at the next hour these answers are criti-
cised and discussed.

In the lectures on the elements of banking and finance in
the latter part of the year, the three functions of banking —
deposit, issue, and discount — are illustrated by references
to the system of National Banks, of the old United States
Banks, and of the Bank of Eutjland ; and the sub-treasurv
system, the national debt, the methods of raising revenue
during the war, the issue of legal tender paper, the resump-
tion of specie payments, etc., are some of the topics dis-
cussed. Professor Dunbar's pamphlet entitled " Extracts
from the Laws of the United States relating to Currency and
Finance " serving as a basis for the lectures on finance.

Political Economy 2 (History of Economic Theory —
Examination of Selections from Leading Writers, three
hours a week, Professor Dunbak) was in former years con-
ducted by taking up, in the earlier part of the year, Cairnes's
" Leading Principles," and, in the later part, some book of
which the discussion and criticism would bring out more
clearly the meaning of the generally accepted doctrines.
Carey's "Social Science," George's "Progress and Pov-
erty," Shadwell's " Principles " — books which put the
"orthodox" student in a defensive attitude — were used
for this purpose. In additioii, lectures were given on the
history of political economy, and on examples of the work-

AT HAHVAED UNIVERSITY. 187

ing in practice of its principles, sucli as the working of
the principles of international trade in the payment of
the Franco-German indemnity in 1871-73, the commercial
crisis of 1857, etc.

For the present year (1884-85) the course is remodelled.
Nothing in the nature of a text-book is used. The subject
is treated by topics. Such questions as the wages-fund con-
trovers}', the theory of international trade, the method of
political economy, the theory of value, are to be taken up ]§.
succession. On each topic references to leading writers wiU
be submitted to the students for examination and discussion.
On the wages-fund question, for example, Mill's retractation
in the '' Fortnightly Review" of his original views, Cairnes's
restatement of the theory, F. A. AValker's position as found
in his ''Wages Question" and his ''Political Economy,"
George's criticism of current views in "Progress and Pov-
erty " will be read and discussed. The history' of political
economy is to be taken up in a similar way, by reference to
characteristic extracts from the writings of the Physiocrats,
Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, Senior, Say, Bastidt, and
their successors and critics in Ens-land and on the Con-
tinent. These extracts, read beforehand by the students
and discussed in the class-room, will be supplemented by the
comments and explanations of the instructor. By this method
it is hoped that some familiarity with the literature of the
subject will be obtained, as weU as a more exact comprehen-
sion of its doctrines than can come from an elementary study
like that of Course 1.

In Political Economy 3 (Discuosion of Practical Eco-
nomic Questions — Lectures and Theses, three hours a week,
Assistant-Professor Laughlin) it is expected that tlie stu-
dent, who is supposed now to have grasped firmly the general
principles of political economy by at least one year's previous
study, will apply these principles to the work of examining

188 COURSES OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOIVIY

soiiio of the prominent qnestions of the day, such as the
navigation hwvs and American shipping, bimetallism, reci-
procity with Canada, government and national bank issues,
etc. At the beginning of each topic a general outline of the
subject and its principal divisions is given by the instructor,
together with more or less particular references to the most
important authorities ; but a coiiqylele list of books is not
always furnished, the student being rather encouraged to
hunt for material himself. The exercise in the class-room
takes the form rather of a discussion than a formal lecture,
references to authorities being given previous to each meet-
ing, as the following examples will show : —

Standards of Value, see Jevons, " Money and the Mechanism of
Exchange," chaps, iii, xxv; S. Dana Ilorton, "Gold and Silver,"
chap, iv, p. 80; F. A. Walker, "Political Economy," pp. 8G3-368,
" Money, Trade, and Industry," pp. 5G-77 ; Wolowski, " L'Or et
I'Argeut," pp. 7, 22, 207; Mill, "Principles of Political Economy,"
book iii, chap, xv ; Walras, "Journal des Economistes," October,
1882, pp. 5-l:i.

The third hour of the week (and also the mid-year ex-
amination) can be omitted by men who promise to prepare
one considerable thesis (due in April) on a subject connected
with some practical question of the day which has not been
discussed in the clas.s-room. Examples of such subjects are :
the warehousing s^'stem ; a commercial treaty with Mexico ;
the public land system ; the remedy for our surplus of reve-
nue ; municipal taxation ; characteristics of socialism in the
United States ; co-operation in the United States (productive
and distributive co-operation, industrial partnerships, and co-
operative banks) ; advantages and disadvantages of small

holdings.

Political Economy 4 (Economic History of Europe and

America since the Seven Years' War, three hours a week,

Professor Dunbar) serves to connect Political Economy with

AT HAKVAED UNIVERSITY. 189

Histon*. It requires no previous study of Political Economy,
althougla some historical knowledge of the period is presup-
posed. Among the more prominent subjects taken up are :
the rise of the modern manufacturing system, more particu-
larly in cottons, woolens, iron ; the steam engine ; the eco-
nomic effects of American Independence and of the French
Revolution ; the factory system ; the migration of labor ;
improved transportation by railroads and steamships ; the
apphcation of liberal ideas to international trade ; the new
gold of California and Australia ; the economic effects of the
Civil War in the United States ; American grain in Europe ;
the Suez Canal; the crisis of 1873, and commercial crises in
general ; the development of banking ; and the resumption
of specie payments in the United States.

The course is chiefly narrative, and is carried on by lec-
tures, supplemented by references for collateral reading. A
printed list of topics is distributed to the students, containing
a sunmiary of the lectm'cs and references to books reserved
in the Library. An extract from this list will most clearly
indicate its character and purpose. It gives the topics and
references for the first lecture on the new gold supply : —

Lecture XLYII. — The discoverj- of gold in California :
" Robinson's California " (see Larkin's and Mason's Reports, pp.
17, 33); also Exec. Doc. of U. S., 1848, i, 1. — The discovery in Aus-
tralia : Westgarth, " Colony of Victoria," 122, 315. — Establishment
of miners' customs : Wood, " Sixteen Months in the Gold Diggings,"
125 ; Lalor's " Cyclopaedia," ii, 851. — Increased supply of precious
metals in sixteenth and seventeentli centm-ies small in proportion
to that in nineteenth centm*y : Soetbeer, " Edehnetall-Production "
(in Petermanu's " Mittheilxmgen "), Plate 3 ; "Walker on ]\Ioney,"
Part I, chaps, vii, viii. — The discoveries of 1818 and 1851 needed to
give effect to influences already stimulatmg trade and commerce.

Similar topics and references are given for each of the
eighty or ninet}- lectures.

100 COURSES OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY

In rt>LiTiCAi. Economy 5 (Economic Effects of Land Ten-
ures in Engltind, Ireland, France, and Germany — Lectures
and Theses, one lK)ur a week, counting as a half-course,
Assistant-Professor Laugiilin) a branch of the science that
has been but slightly considered in Course 1 is taken up,
and, as in the other practical courses, an attempt is made to
apply principles to facts. The following extract from the
official pamphlet, describing the courses of study in Political
Economy, will indicate the ground covered : —

" This course covers the questions now of political importance in
England, Ireland, Fi'auce, and Germany in their economic aspects,
and embraces the following subjects : — In England : the land laws ;
relative position of landlord, tenant, and laborer in the last one
hundred years ; tenant-right ; leases ; prices and importation of
gi-ain ; repeal of the corn-laws ; American competition ; peasant
proprietorship. In Ireland : the ancient tribal customs ; English
conquests ; relations of landlord and tenant ; security of tenui'e ;
Ulster tenant-right ; absenteeism ; parliamentary legislation ; acts
of 1869, 1870, ISSl, 1882 ; population ; prices of food and labor.
In France : feudal burdens on land ; relation of classes, and con-
dition of peasantry and agriculture before the Revolution ; small
holdings and the law of equal division ; present condition of peas-
antry and agriculture ; growth of population ; statistics of produc-
tion, wages, prices ; peasant proprietorship. In Germany : reforms
of Stein and Ilardenberg ; condition of agriculture ; peasant pro-
prietors ; statistics of wages and pi'ices."

A subject taken up (for example, English land tenures) is
divided into topics, some of which are treated by the instruc-
tor by means of lectures, others are assigned to the indi-
vidual members of the class, who are expected to present the
results of their study in writing. These short theses are
criticised and discussed by the instructor and the class,
authorities that have been overlooked are pointed out, and
suggestions are made as to the way in which the question
can be better handled. Perhaps five or six of these papers

AT HAEVAED UNIVEESITY. 191

are required from each student during the year, the intention
being that at least one shall be handed in each week. As
the natural tendency of such work is to " compile," much
more consideration is given to the quality than to the quau-
tit}' of the thesis.

In Political Economy 6 (Histoiy of Tariff Legislation in
the United States, one hour a week, counting as a half-
course, Dr. Taussig) the histoiy of tariff legislation from
1789 to the present day is studied. The method of instruc-
tion is by lectures and collateral reading, specific references
being given beforehand on the subjects to be taken up ; for
example, the references on the tariff act of 1789 are as fol-
lows : Hamilton's '"Life of Hamilton," iv, 2-7; Adams,
'• Taxation in United States," 1-30, especially 27-30 ; Sum-
ner, " Histoiy of Protection," 21-25 ; Young's " Report on
Tariff Legislation," pp. iv-xvi. Similar references are
given when the economic effects of the tariff, more particu-
larly in recent years, are discussed. The class-room work is
based on the assumption that the passages referred to have
been read by the students, and, though mainly carried on by
lectures, includes questioning and discussion on the refer-
ences. The economic principles bearing on tariff legislation
arc taken up in connection with the more important public
utterances on the subject, such as Hamilton's "Report on
Manufactures," Gallatin's " Memorial of 1832," Walker's
" Treasury Report of 1845," and the speeches of Webster,
Clay, and others. These are read by the students, and dis-
cussed in the class ; and at the same time with them are
considered the views of writers on the theory of economic
science. In tlie course of the year the various arguments
pro and con in the protection controversy are, in one shape
or another, encountered and discussed. Towards the close
of the year lectures are given on the tariff history of Eng-
land, France, and Germany.

192 COURSE OF STUDY IN POLITICAL ECONOMY.

Political Economy 7 (Comparison of the Financial Sys-
tems of France, England, Germany, and the United States,
one hour a week, counting as a half-course, Professor Dun-
bar) deals with the principles of finance, and with the
financial systems of the more important civilized countries.
Tlie budgets of France, Germany, and England arc exam-
ined and comi)ared, the financial methods of the United
States arc noted, luid the principles of finance and the
advantages and disadvantages of different taxes are dis-
cussed. The instruction is mainly by lectures. The course
is not given in the present year (1884-85), and may be
omitted in future years, though it will be retained on the
elective list.

In Political Economy 8 (History of Financial Legislation
in the United States, one hour a week, counting as a half-
course, Professor Dunbar) the funding of the Revolutionary
debt, the establishment and working of the first Bank of the
United States, the financial i)olicy of Hamilton and Gallatin,
the effect of the AVar of 1812 on the finances and the cur-
rency, the esta})lishment of the second Bank of the United
States, the fall of the ])ank in Jackson's time, and the years
183G-40, the independent treasury, the State banking sys-
tem, the growth of the public debt during the Civil War, and
its reduction and conversion since, the establishment and
working of the National Bank system, — are the topics succes-
sively considered. The method of instruction is by lectures
and by reference to the public documents and other writings
bearing on the subject. It is advised by the instructors that
Courses 6 and 8 in Political Economy be taken together ; and
this advice has been followed, most students who take one
of these courses being also members of the other.

The Teaching of Histoey.

By Professor J. R. Seelet.

I MUST ask you to be content with a few large affii'raa-
tions, which may be sufficient to provoke discussion, but
which, in the paper itself, can be but very inadequately^ sup-
ported. Perhaps you will agree with me that histor}', as an
educational subject, is not yet past the stage at which large
affirmations are necessar}^, that conscientious and exact
research ought to prevail in historj', as in other serious de-
partments of study, that we can no longer be content with the
showy, semi-fictitious narratives that satisfied a former gen-
eration, is a proposition upon which a great reform in the
teaching of history has been based. We all know what has
been done in this direction among ourselves ; in Germany the
reform was made long ago ; in Paris it has, in recent years,
proceeded rapidly, thanks to the exertions of the Minister
Duruy and such professors as Monod, Sorel, and Lavisse. On
the principle itself I shall have nothing to say, because I do
not suppose that among serious men there is any difference of
opinion about it. If we set out in pursuit of truth, evidently
we cannot be content with anything short of truth ; and we '
all of us by this time have enough familiarity with the rigor
of scientific methods to be convinced that the discovery of I
truth is no child's play, no mere amusement. But, though
the principle seems indisputable, I find that the application
of it in education arouses much opposition, more opposition

194 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY.

than I for a long time understood. It is allowed that such
vigor of research is indispensalile in the best kind of historical
stud}', that those who intend to devote their lives to history
should study it in this s[)irit. But the principle is of wider
application. It affects also the historical studies of those
who give loss exclusive attention to history ; in short, of the
mass of students ; and, further still, it affects popular views
of history and our notions of the manner in which history
should be written. These more indirect results of the prin-
ciple of thoroughness arouse, I find, much opposition, and,
when such opposition seems likelj'^ to be vain, a ver}' sincere
feeling of dismay. For this principle makes havoc of more
cherished opinions than we might at first have expected, and,
as it proceeds, seems to take all the poetry and all the charm
out of history in such a way that we find ourselves at last asking
for what purpose history so studied can serve. The admiration
of great men, tlie elevating contemplation of noble examples,
is the reward most of us expect to receive for the trouble we
bestow upon liistory ; but the principle of thoroughness soon
sets us doul)ting whether any great men will come safe out
of the critical crucible ; whether the historical record is com-
plete enough to have preserved any trustworthy memory of
great men ; nay, whether public affairs are not for the most
part under tlie empire of routine, and seldom much affected
b}' the especial qualities of an individual. Scepticism invades
this department of Icnowledge too, and we begin after a time
to perceive that another class of opinions, viz., our opinions
on politics, were far more involved than we at first imagined
with those opinions on historical events and historical char-
acters about the soundness of which we have begun to feel
a misgiving. Hitherto, those who have sought to elevate
the minds of students and give them a noble enthusiasm by
means of books, have looked mainly to historical books. It

THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 195

is a result of the reform in historical method, which has made
it so much more rigorous, that historical books henceforth
will be less available for this purpose. But, if so, it will
begin to be asked what is the use of them to the majority of
students. I do not myself think that such extreme scepti-
cism with respect to history, as that which Mr. Herbert
Spencer professes, is likely to prevail. I am. not afraid but
that history will continue to be thought important, and I be-
lieve that in the form of serious research it will flourish more
and more for a long time to come. But in this form will it
not be a stud}- only adapted for the few? Ought we not,
therefore, to lay it down as a fundamental rule of the teach-
ing of history that the subject is to be struck off the general
educational list of subjects ?

I have remarked with anxietj' of late years that some
distinguished teachers appear inclined to hold this opinion...
History was the favorite subject of Arnold and Temple, but
some at least of those who now hold the same sort of dis-
tinguished position in the educational world, profess that,
they do not know how to teach histor}', and that there is no
subject which baffles them so much. The solution of this
difficulty I seem to myself to see very distinctly, and, if I
seem to any to state it here indistinctly, I must ask them to.
impute it to the hurry in which I write, and at the same time
refer them to several essays printed at different times in
" Macmillan's Magazine," in which I have stated it moi-e
fully.

That historical investigations ought to be thorough is of
course true, but by itself the proposition can hardly be called
a truth ; it is at best a half-truth. If we borrow from science
its rigorous method, let us borrow at the same time what
science has else to offer. History which is scientific in its
exactness, but in nothing else, is a middle thing between

106 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY.

seioucc and litoratuiv, and will attain the ends of neither ; it
will be only dull literature and abortive science.

Science, when it has with such exemplary care collected
and verified its facts, proceeds to generalize upon them, and
thus to establish principles. It is only for the sake of such
principles that science considers facts worthy of collection
aud exact verification. Bnt history, when it has made its
investigations, contents itself with arranging and recording
the results in stately narrative composed with litcrarj- art.
The historian usually asserts that the resnlts thus recorded
are of great value ; he seems to assume that general princi-
ples might be deduced from them, ])ut he professes at the
same time that his business is only with the facts, and that
his work is done when a narrative has been composed exactly
true, and at the same time well written. The reform of which
I have spoken has scarcely touched this curious division of
labor. It leaves the historian in the condition of a mere
investigator and narrator of facts, asserting only tliat of
these two functions the former is far more important and
more difficult than the latter.

To whom, then, does it fall to deduce conclusions from the
materials furnished by the historian? To a wholly different
class of persons, who at present liave scarcely a name or
recognized position among us, — those philosophers who are
attempting to build up a system of sociology. But their
speculations, being kept wholly separate from history, do
not enter into the teaching of history. In education, there-
fore, this subject is left as a mass of building materials, out
of which no edifice is ever constructed. So long as the mere
literary view of the subject prevailed, tliis did not seem
absurd ; political truth was supposed to have been discovered
independently by some a priori method, and historical exam-
ples were adducefl chiefly by way of illustration ; but the ab-

THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 197

surdity springs to light as soon as histor}- begins to be classed
under science rather than under literature, so soon as politi-
cal truth is understood to be discovered through history, and
not merely to be illustrated by it.

I should like to argue at length that it is in itself an
unsound method to assign the investigation of facts to one
set of -workers, and the reasoning upon the facts so discov-
ered to another class. I should like to show that if the
historian is not himself a sociologist, he will not know what
facts are worth investigating, and still less in what degree
facts are worth investigating. I should like to call attention
to the vast waste of labor on the one side, and the vast defi-
ciency of labor on the other side, whicR actually arise from
the fact that historians under the present system are scarcely
sociologists, and therefore do not altogether know for what
purpose they investigate. But I must be content to point
out the bad effects which the system has in education.

Under this system facts are grouped, not according to
resemblance in kind, but simply in a chronological series.
What may be called a biography of some famous state is
written. Such a state biography may be made very impres-
sive by a writer of imagination, especially if he does not
hamper himself with too minute research. But what can the
student do with it? He can scarcely treat it as a poem, and
learn it by heart. Under the reformed system he analyzes
it, criticises it, traces it back to its source ; a process under
which most of its poetical impressiveness is likely to disap-
pear. In return, he gets exact knowledge of important
occurrences, but he does not get this in the form in which he
can use it for the purpose of establishing general conclu-
sions, for the facts of which he thus gets exact knowledge
are heterogeneous. They do not belong together by their
nature, but only happen to be connected chronologically.

198 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY.

A sinp;le example will put before you the very obvious, yet,
as I think, all-important fact to which I draw your attention.
Let us think of the agrarian legislation of Tiberius Gracchus,
which occupies the first striking chapter in the history of the
fall of Konie. ^Vhat subject can be more instructive to a
student, both from its own iini)ortance and from the admira-
ble manner in which it has been treated by modern scholar-
ship? True, but educationally it is out of its place when it
comes before the student as a mere occurrence of the second
century before Christ. For thus presented it stands among
facts with which it has no resemblance, and which throw no
light upon it, — military facts concerning the conquest of
Carthage, Spain, and 'Greece by the Romans, facts of culture
history concerning the influence of Greek literature and Greek
phiUxsophy u[)on the conquerors of Greece. To study it prop-
erly, we must take it out of its chronological connection and
put it among facts of its own kind. It is a land question ;
it has nothing to do with war or with literature. It must be
studied first in connection with the land system of Rome in
earlier and later times ; secondly, by comparison with the
land systems and land revolutions of other states, both
ancient and modern.

In short, science brings together plicnomena of the same
kind, but history brings together phenomena of different
kinds, which have chanced to appear at the same time. We
have given to histor}- the conscientiousness of science, but
we have not 3'et given it the arrangement of science. We
still arrange historic phenomena under periods, centuries,
reigns, dynasties, but what is wanted is a real rather than a
temporal classification. The piienomena should be classed
under such headings as Constitutional, International, Eco-
nomical, Industrial, etc. Nor should each state be studied
by itself, but all states together, the comparative method

THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 199

being constantly employed, and much attention being given
to the classification of states.

It will be seen that this principle wonld be almost revolu-
tionary, if it were at once and without reserve applied to the
teachino; of historv. I am sensible that it needs to be ex-
plained at great length, and I am quite aware how many
objections might be urged against it. But I have not time
either for fuller exposition or for dealing with objections,
and therefore in the remainder of this paper I shall deal
with an intermediate system which might, without too great
difficulty, be adopted at once.

The essential point is this, that we should recognize that
to study history is to study not merelv a narrative, but at the
same time certain theoretical subjects. Thus, industrial facts
cannot be imderstood without political economy, nor military
facts without military science, nor legal facts without legal
science, nor constitutional and legislative developments with-
out political science. I have gone further, and laid it down
that these theoretical subjects are the real object for which
historical facts are collected and authenticated. But for the
present it is enough that they should be recognized as insep-
arably connected with historical study. It has always been
tacitly assumed that the historian is also an economist, an
authority on constitutional law, on legislation, on finance,
on strategy. Let us, then, go a single step further, and
recognize that, as the historian is all this, the student of his-
tory must prepare himself to be all this — in other words,
must master all these subjects. These are the great subjects
of public life ; these are the studies which make the citizen
and ti'ain the statesman. All the poetic charm which history
is losing would be amply compensated if it should acquire in
exchange the practical interest that is associated with these
studies.

200 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY.

First, then, let the most important of these subjects be
taught theoretically along with history, and for the benefit of
historical students. Some of them, of course, are much more
important than others. I place in the foreground what we
may call political philosophy {Allgemcine Staatslehre) . After
this may come that comparative study of legal institutions
of which we have such cxfcllent specimens in the works of
Sir II. Maine. Next will come political economy, which in
the hands of an able teacher will probably assume a some-
what new shape when it is treated from the historical point
of view. International law should be added, in order to
accustom the student to contemplate the mutual relations of
states.

It may be said that enough would Ijc done if the teacher
or lecturer, in treating a historical period, entered fully into
the economical, or juridical, or political principles suggested
by the narrative. This is precisely what I wish to deny. It
seems to me that in history, as hitherto written and taught,
a quantity of theory has been, as it were, held in solution ;
I wish to see it precipitated. Whereas the investigation of
historical facts has lately been made honest and careful, the
reasoning about historical facts is still, it seems to me, oracu-
lar and unsatisfactory ; I wish to make this, too, honest,
methodical, explicit. For this end it seems to me necessary
that what really is theory should be called theory and studied
as such.

If it be asked by what practical measures such a change
could be introduced ; if it be urged, for instance, by a school-
master, that there is no room in the school-day for lessons
on three or four new subjects, and that masters to teach
them arc not to be found in sufficient number, I should
reply, that I have been discussing the teaching of history in
general, not the teaching of history in schools. "What I my-

THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 201

self know practically is the teachiug of history in universi-
ties, and I suppose it may be laid down as a general principle
that reforms in education must begin at the university. The
school is fettered to the university, since to the university
the boys go, and from the university the masters come.
Now, in the universities it is not very difficult to an-anse
the teaching of history- on this principle. Since in a univer-
sity' the theoretical subjects I have mentioned are already
taught, all that is required is to bring them into more direct,
more formal connection with history, and to abolish that
vicious division of labor under which the historian imagines
that he has nothing to do with sociology, and the sociologist
that he can dispense with history.

When this has once been done, each university will create
a school of historians who will be as strong on the theoretical
side as on the side of mere research. The}' will be sociolo-
gists, economists, jurists, as well as chroniclers and antiqua-
rians, and, as at both our universities the historical school is
already large, a good many of such historians will be formed.
These will carry the method from the universities to the
schools. They will be the masters of the future historical
classes at Harrow and Rugb}'. From them will proceed the
text-books which will, as it were, fix the method and bring it
within the reach of less able teachers. They, too, will decide
whether history- taught in this way is to be considered as an
advanced subject, fit only for the highest classes in schools,
or whether it may be possible to introduce even younger boys
to it.

Lastl}', they will help to clear up the confusion as to the
nature and objects of history which now exists in the public
mind. They will separate it from biography and from mere
curious information about past times. They will separate it
from romance, and they will explain in what sense and in

202 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY.

what degree it ma\' properly be made iutercstiug, aod in
what seuse also it cauuot be interesting without ceasing to
be true. They will assert the seriousness of history, and
make it the lesson-book of politics ; no longer a record
which partisans may garble at their pleasure, but a record
of truth, not to be altered and not to be evaded, written to
correct our prejudices and rebuke our party rancor. — Lon-
don Journal of Education.

On Methods of Teaching History.

By Professor C. K. Adams, Michigan University.

THE teaching of history, in common with instruction in
all other sj' stems of organized knowledge, should be
carried on with three more or less distinct objects in view :
the nature of the facts involved, the relations of those facts,
and the proper methods of investigation. Though it is not
possible in practice to separate these three objects completely
one from another, yet each should receive its due proportion
of attention, and should receive that attention in its appro-
priate place. First of all, therefore, the teacher of history
is called upon to decide which of these three objects he ought
with any given class to keep most prominently in view. The
answer of this question involves nothing less than a deter-
mination of the proper succession of historical studies.

This order of succession would seem to be fixed by nature.
It is certain that we must know something of the existence,
if not, indeed, of the nature, of any given order of events
before we can apprehend very clearly the relations of those
events to one another. Indeed, it may be said that the begin-
ning of all organized knowledge is the acquisition of a certain
number of facts and truths. These facts, moreover, must
not be limited in range to a single portion of the subject we
are to study. They must be comprehensive in their scope.
We must know something of the heavens as a whole before
we can well understand the double stars or even the moon.
We cannot appreciate the significance of a missing link until
we have learned something of the chain of which that link is

204 ON METHODS OF

supposed to form a part. We shall be unable to explain the
jiil)ilanl prosperity of a great aud growing city unless we
have acquired considerable knowledge of the region of which
that city is the political and commercial centre. Thus we see
that there is a certain necessary order of succession, an order
which seems to be founded in the law, so well formulated by
Herbert Spencer, "there can bo no correct idea of a part
without a correct idea of the correlative whole."

It is of course true that we learn something of individual
facts before we can advance to a comprehension of a series.
In a certain sense, therefore, we must proceed from the indi-
vidual to the general. But it is also true that before our
knowledge of the individual can be complete, we must have
acquired some knowledge of the series of which the individ-
ual forms a part. Tlie proper order of study, therefore,
would seem to I)e definitely fixed at our hand. We should
begin with such individual facts as form the strategic points
of historical progress, and should dwell upon them only so
far as to fix their general character and importance in the
attention of the pupil. We should then proceed to a study
of the relations of those facts in the development of society.
This done, we are read}' to advance to the third stage of
our study, — a more careful investigation of the individual
elements of social and political life, with a view to revealing
the sources of their influence aud power.

Having determined so much in regard to the proper order
of studies, we are read}- to address ourselves to the question
of methods. But at the very outset we are confronted with
a somewhat formidable difficulty. In the present condition
of schools in the United States, there is actually, and per-
haps necessarily-, a broad distinction between what is desir-
able and what is practicable. It is probably not too much
to say that the introduction of methods of ideal excellence

TEACHING HISTORY. 205

in the teaching of history would involve a revolution in our
schools which the public at present is scarcely ready even to
consider. But however much we ma}' be obliged to fall short
of what we could desire, we shall always find it profitable to
keep our eyes fixed upon the highest ideals. First of all,
then, let us provide a standard of measurement by inquiring
what is desirable.

In a school where all branches of instruction are properly
distributed and organized, the pupil may profitablj' receive
his first lessons in history when he is nine or ten years of
as:e. But a careful distinction must be made between re-
ceiving the first instruction in history and beginning the
study of it. At this age the pupil acquires information, not
through his own unaided effort, but almost exclusively through
the effort of the teacher. A mother has no difficulty in teach-
ing her child the story of Joseph or Samuel, and a teacher
properly qualified for his vocation ought to have no more
difficulty in teaching the story of Pyrrhus or Martin Luther.
Indeed, it may be said that there are only two requisites of
success. The teacher must know the stor}-, and he must
understand the art of telling it in such a way as to make an
impression by it. That such methods, under favorable cir-
cumstances, are entirel}' practicable has been clearly demon-
strated in the German gymnasia. In these schools, where
history has been taught with greater success than anywhere
elsy in the world, a teacher who has been especially trained
for his work takes the lowest grade of pupils over the whole
range of general historj' in this way. The course is almost
exclusively biographical. Indeed, it is little more than a
succession of stories told with the especial aim of making a
deep impression upon the mind of the child concerning some
of the most important of the great characters of history.
Such a course, continuing for two years at the rate of two

200 ON ]SrETIIODS OF

lessons a week, will be found to have given the pupil consid-
erable knowledge of a vast number of valuable facts. And,
best of all, the method by which this information has been
acquired, so far from taxing the strengtli or wearj-ing the
attention of the scholar, has been to him a positive source of
recreation and pleasure.

At the age of about twelve the pupil is read}' for a more
cubstantial diet. The teacher now takes him once more over
the same ground, but with a somewhat different object in
view. The scholar can now put facts together, and can
understand something of the relations of cause and effect.
In the former course he listened to the story of Hannibal :
now he is ready for the story of the Second Punic "War. A
little pamphlet, usually prepared by the teacher and made up
almost exclusively of names and dates, is put into the hand
of the pupil merel}' to assist him in recalling what the teacher
has said. Here, as in the former course, the knowledge
acquired comes chiefly' from the teacher. The system keeps
clearly in view the fact that the pupil is not yet ready for that
development which results from hard study. It never ceases
to reraeml)er that at least three-fourths of all the time spent
by a boy of twelve in tr^-ing to learn a hard lesson out of
a book is time thrown away. Perhaps one-fourth of the
time is devoted to more or less desperate and conscientious
effort ; but the large remaining portion is dawdled awaj' in
thinking of the last game of ball and longing for the next
game of tag. A true system must make a constant endeavor
to turn these demoralizing moments to profitable account.
In this effort the German system is the most successful for
the reason that instead of leaWng the pupil to the meagre
resources of his own thoughts, it occupies his attention with
direct instruction in the form of attractive and profitable nar-
ration. The result is that, through a judicious exercise of this

TEACHING HISTORY. 207

kind of econom}', the German pupil at the age of fifteen or
sixteen has been able to complete two distinct surveys of uni-
versal histor}-. In the two or three 3-cars following, he i;3
able to supplement the knowledge already obtained in a
variety of wa3-s. He may be directed in a careful study of
the histor}' of his own countrj', an outline of which he has
already' obtained ; or ma}' make an elaborate examination of
some important period like that of the Reformation or the
French Revolution.

Such, stated in general terms, is the pi'eparation in history
which the German student receives before going to the uni-
versity. It is founded in a philosophical appreciation of the
needs and the capabilities of the pupil, and is undoubtedly
the best that has ever been devised. It is equally adapted
to the wants of those two classes of pupils into which every
secondary- school is divided. It is the best preparation for
those whose scholastic studies are to terminate with the pre-
paratory school ; and the best for those who are to carry for-
ward their studies in a university course.

The student who has received this preparation goes to the
university at about the age of nineteen. He is now ready for
the more careful and philosophical study of individual nations
and of iudividual periods. In his future studies he will
devote himself chiefl}' to the relations and significance of facts
rather than to the mere existence of facts themselves. Two
wa3-s are open to him : he can attend courses of lectures,
and he can become a member of an historical seminary.
But, wherever he goes, he will usually find that the object
is to make a very careful study of some limited period, or of
some lunited phase of historical development. In the lec-
ture-room he will find that the work done by the professor
has for its highest object the opening of avenues of research
and the guiding of the student in certain methods of thought

208 ON METHODS OF

au(.l investigation. In the scminaiy, the student will be di-
rected here and there bj' the professor, with a view to avoid-
ing gross errcrs, but the investigator will be left to work out
his results mainly in his own wa}-. Before he has advanced
very far in carrying on his investigations, he will almost in-
evitably arrive at the conclusion that the historical seminary
is to the stud}" of history, what the laboratoiy is to the study
of the natural sciences.

But as soon as we attempt to compare this ideal with the
methods that now generally prevail in the United States, we
find more points of di (Terence than points of similarif}-. In
the preparatory schools of Germany, every teacher of history
is required to have received especial training bj' thorough
courses of historical study, such as those given in the gym-
nasium and in the university. In the best of the pi'eparatory
schools in America, on the other hand, history is often taught
by persons that have I'cceived no especial training for the
work whatever. Not onl}' have the teachers, as a rule, re-
ceived inadequate outfit, but they are generallj" so burdened
with other work, and so wearied b}- it, that thej' are quite
incapable of repairing an}' defects that under more favorable
circumstances might be removed. In Germany, moreover,
history is made a Gonstituent pait of the regular intellectual
nourishment of the pupil daring the whole of the time of his
prepai-atory work. In America, on the contrary, it is gener-
ally crowded into one or two terms, or, at most^ into a single
year. There is a strong analog}' between the proper methods
of feeding the bod}' and the proper methods of feeding the
mind. The aiTangement of the studies in many of our
schools suggests the propriety of eating roast beef and plum
pudding five days in a week for six months, and then ab-
staining from it altogether for five or six years. The effect
of such a system upon the appetite and the digestion would

TEACHING HISTOEY. 209

doubtless be very much like the effects of a similar policy in
matters of education. Moreover, the teacher in America is
often expected to teach not less than twenty-five or thirty
hours a week, while, of the teachers in Germany, scarcely
more than half of that number is required. But, if we de-
mand twice as many hours of the teacher, we strike the bal-
ance by requiring only half as many hours of the pupil. In
America, tlie number of lessons per week for each pupil is
about fifteen ; while in Germany the number regularl}- re-
quired is from thirty to thirty-five. Thus, in the fashion of
Charles Lamb, we preserve the equation b}- multiplying the
lessons of the teacher and dividing the lessons of the scholar
b}' two.

These comparisons are enough to show that nothing less
than a revolution will make our teaching of history equal to
that which we find in Germany. Such a revolutiou we ma}'
not look for at present. But we can at least inquire what
improvements are practicable without interference with the
general organization of our schools.

In the first place, some amelioration is possible in the use
of the ordinary text-book. In many schools the so-called
teaching of history is literally a mere hearing of recitations.
I have heard of a person, by courtesy called a teacher, who
habitually kept his finger upon the line in the text-book before
him, and limited his instruction to the work of correctiuo; the
trifling variations of the pupil from the phraseology of the
text. Here, the function of the teacher was merely that of a
watchman ; though this method prevailed in a school that
called itself a university. I have no hesitation in expressing
the opinion that the total result of such an exercise on the
mind of the pupil is more injurious than beneficial. The
mere memorizing of dry facts and assertions affords no intel-
lectual nourishment, while it is almost sure to create a dis-

210 ON ]SIJET1I0DS OF

toste for historical study, and, perhaps, will oven alienate
the taste of tlic scholar forever. The first of all endeavors,
therefore, should be to put life and action into what, as it
stands, is a more bundle of dry bones.

This can be done in two w\ays. The information of the
teacher may be used to illustrate what is set before the class
as a lesson. Questions hinted at in the lesson ma}' also be
assigned the class for personal investigation. The first
method will alwa3"s be used to some extent b}' every efficient
teacher ; but it will not ordinaril}' be found sufficient. A far
more helpful reliance is the method of personal research.
The nature of the questions assigned must, of course, depend
on the intelligence and advancement of the class. But even
with a class of beginners, more is likely to be accomplished
by assigning certain topics than by assigning certain lessons.
Questions selected with due reference to the resources of the
school library are likelj* to prove a far more profitable means
of real advancement than any slavish dependence on even the
best of text-books. The most successful instruction I have
ever known in any preparatory school was carried on without
an}- text-book whatever.

But if these methods are the most efllcient in the prepara-
tory schools, they are even more emphatically to be recom-
mended in our colleges and universities. Perhaps in neither
grade of instruction would it ordinarily be quite safe to aban-
don the text-book altogether. But the text-book should be
looked upon as an assistance, rather than as a means of sup-
port. The student ought not to be encouraged to rely on
any one book as an unquestionable authority. The habit of
consulting different authors on every question of importance
should be early acquired and should be constantly stimulated.
For the accomplishment of these ends it will ordinarily be
found, I think, that the most successful instruction is made

TEACHING HISTORY. 211

up of a judicious combination of the text-book, tlie lecture,
and the method of personal research.

When the college student is read}* to begin his studies in

history-, he is not yet prepared for the most advanced work.

He is deficient in two very important qualifications. In the

first place, he is not in possession of a suflficient number of

important historical facts ; and, in the second, he is not j-et

f sufficiently familiar with what may be called the methods and

'laws of historical development. To supply these deficiences

should be the object of the earlier historical studies during.

'the undero-raduate course.

At the outset the student may be presumed to have sorae^
knowledge of general history, and of the history of his own.
country. This may be a somewhat violent presumption::
but it is probably not wise to occupy the time of the under-
graduate with such elementary studies as are taught in all the:
best of our high schools and academies. Better results are^
likely to follow from devoting our energies to an examina-
tion of such selected periods and nationalities as holdout the;
most credible assurances of profit.

But what periods shall be selected, and how shall the^
instruction be given?

Studies in the history of our own country and in the his-
tory of England should doubtless occupy the foremost place ; .
but they should not crowd out studies of a more general na-
ture. I cannot better point out what I think these studies,
should be than by indicating what is done at the present time
in the University of Michigan. Some years ago a course was.
provided for, by means of which two lessons a week for ouc
year are devoted to a study of the Political and Social History
of England before the close of the Napoleonic Wars. Another
course of two lessons a week, for half a year, is devoted to a
study of the Reforms in the English Government during the

212 ON METHODS OF

present centurj\ This is supplemented b}' a course of two
lectures a week, for half a year, on The Theories and Meth-
ods of the English Governnieut. In American Ilistor}^ a
course on The Political and Social Development of the Colo-
nies is followed by two courses on The Constitutional History
of the United States since the close of the Revolutionar}'
War. These courses in American History- occupy the stu-
dent once a week during half a 3'ear, and twice a week dur-
ing a whole year. Of a more general nature, and for the
purpose of giving broader views of tlio laws of historic devel-
opment, one course is given on The History of Political and
Social Institutions, one on The General Histor}' of Europe
from the Reformation to the French Revolution, one on The
History of Civilization in the Middle Ages, and one on
The Rise and Development of Prussia. Not all of these
courses are absolutely prerequisite for admission to the more
advanced work of the historical and political seminaries,
but they may all be regarded as preliminar}^ to it. Crown-
ing the work of the whole are three seminaries, one being
devoted to a study of the Political Institutions of England,
one to those of America, and one to Comparative Methods
■of Local Administration.

AVhat has already boen said will alTord sufUcient answer,
perhaps, to the question of method. But a single illustra-
tion will probably give a more defuiite idea. The lecture of
to-day, in the course on the History of Institutions, happens
to be devoted to a study of Roman Provincial Administra-
tion. The following topics were assigned to the several
groups of the class ;for the lessons of next week: "What
light is thrown on Roman Provincial methods by Plutarch's
Life of Lucullns?" " Wiiat b}' Cicero's oration against
Verres?" "What by Guizot's essa}' on the R^'gime Munici-
pal?" "What by Arnold's chapter on ' TJie System of

TEACHING HISTOEY. 213

Taxation ? ' " In this manner a class ma}' easily be led
through theii' own researches to see how completely the sys-
tematic practice of injustice finally dissolved all the bonds
that bound the Roman provinces to the general government.
This accomplished, the downfall of the Empire is no longer a
question that will give any difficult}' to the student.

The work of the historical seminary is of a higher order.
Each class consists of not more than about ten members, and
each meeting is not less than about two hours in length.
Each of the questions given out for investigation is such as to
occup}- the attention of the student during at least half a 3'ear;
and all of the questions are designed to be of such cognate
significance as to be of interest to all the members of the class.
At the weekly meetings each member gives an account of his
own investigations, and listens to such inquiries and sugges-
tions as ma}' be made by the teacher and the other members
of the class. The titles of two or three papers prepared dur-
ing the present semester will be enough to indicate the nature
of the work done. Among others, essays founded on oi"igi-
ual research have being written on "A History of the
Appointing Power of the President"; "A History of the
Land Grants for Education in the North-west" ; and "Crim-
inal Legislation in New England during the Colonial Period."

It need not be added that this is true university work of a
high order. Of course such studies are impracticable,
except in an institution where large liberties in the way of
elective courses are given, and where preliminary historical
studies are begun early in the student's collegiate career.
But my own experience leads to the belief that if the student
enters upon the proper antecedent studies in the second year
of his course, he may be brought in the fourth year to a grade
of work which need not shrink from comparison with that
carried on in the universities of the old world.

The Methods of Historical
Study and Research in Columbia College.

By Professor John W. Burgess, Columbia University.

IN order to a clear presentation of this subject, one which
shall escape the possibilities of a misunderstanding, it
will be necessary to describe briefly the general peculiarities
of the educational system of that complex of institutions to
which the name Columbia College is now attached. The
most general principle of that system distinguishes the Col-
lege into two parts ; viz. : the Gymnasium, the College accord-
ing to the old signification of that name in the United States,

— as we term it here, the School of Arts, and the graduate
and professional courses, the University. This distinction,
however, is, without further explanation, liable to a miscon-
ception ; for the last year of the School of Arts, what is gen-
erally known as the College senior year, is counted to the
University in the non-professional courses of the University,

— those courses which, in a German University, would be
placed under the Faculty of Piiilosophy. It is at this point,
viz., the beginning of the senior year in the School of Arts,
that the courses of study become purely and wholly elective,
and the methods of instruction purely and distinctively those
of the University. This year, with two graduate years,
forms the University period for the students who pass from
the School of Arts into the University, or who come from
other Colleges at the end of their junior year. If, however,
they be graduates of other Colleges, in which the courses
of the senior year correspond to, or are an equivalent for.

216 METHODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY

the courses iu the School of Arts, they are admitted to the
second year of the Uuivorsity.

If. now. tlie reader will keep this distinction and these
explanations clear!}- in mind, a fall comprehension of the
methods of historic study and research at present followed
in Columl)ia College will be easily and rapidly attained.

In the Gymnasium, — the first three years of the School of
Arts, — the method is, of course, the gymnastic method,
and the purpose sought the gymnastic purpose : that is, the
daily drill ui)on text-books and hand-books of history by
recitation, question and answer, as required studies, for the
jjurpose of fixing and classifying in the miud of the student
the elements of historical geography, the chronology and
outward frame of historic events, the biographies of his-
toric characters, and the definitions of historical terms and
expressions. This is, of course, the indispensably neces-
sary' preparation for every student who would come with a
properly disciplined historical memory, stored with a suffi-
cient amount of elementary historical data, to the work of
the University in this Ijranch. If this be not properly ac-
complished, the foundation for ever3thing furtiicr is want-
ing, and the instruction received in the Universit)' will be
to a large degree unappreciated, to say the least. I would
venture to assert that to all persons who have taken any
part iu the attempt to develo]) a University in the United
States the want of a true g3mnastic training in the elements
of knowledge has appeared a most crying one. And if,
while so many of our Colleges, both great and small, are
affecting to despise their g3-mnastic calling, and seeking to
become Universities through the fallacious process of simply
making their gymnastic studies elective and optional, some
Apostle of the Gymnasium would arise and found Academies
which would stand true to the gymnastic method and pur-

IN COLUIMBIA COLLEGE. 217

pose, such an one would do for the development of the true
University a far greater work than the College which ceases
to be the one thing without becoming the other.

On the other hand, the methods pursued and the purposes
aimed at in the University courses of history are more com-
plex, as well as different, and therefore require a more mi-
nute presentation. In the first place, attendance upon these
courses is purely optional with the student. There would be
a great loss both in the quantity and quality of the instruc-
tion were the professor obliged to accommodate himself to
the level of hearers whose tastes and talents were not in the
line pursued ; and, on the other hand, it would be an unnat-
ural limitation upon, if not a total destruction of, individual
genius, were the student of the University not permitted to
construct the combination of his studies for himself. The
discipline and general elementar}- instruction of the Gymna-
sium ought to have developed in his own consciousness a
better knowledge of his own intellectual peculiarities than
any other person or body of persons can have. If it has
not, then it will not matter much, as a general rule, where
he may fall. Consideration for him who has no genius at all
must never lead us to abandon the method in the University
for the cultivation of a true intellectual peculiarity ; for
without such a development there can be no advance in the
discovery of new truth or in a fuller comprehension of old
truth. It is this consideration which has led the authorities
in Columbia College to permit the University students of
histor}' not onl}' to select what courses they ma}' choose in
histor}', but also to combine therewith such courses in phi-
lolog}', literatui'e, philosoph}', natural science and law as they
may desire. Our expei'ience in the working of the method
has hardly 3"et been long enough to pronounce with confi-
dence upon results. So far as my own observation reaches,

218 ]StETIIODS OF HISTORICAL STUDY

however, I feel entirely satisfied tliat the comprehension of
history has been greatly broadened and deepened by the
variety of combinations into which it has thus been brought,
and I cannot but believe that the other elements of the com-
binations have experienced a like advantage.

In the second place. The method of instruction in the
University branches of history is chiefly by original lecture.
And this for two reasons : the one relating to the professor,
the other to the student. The University professor must be
a worker among original material. He must present to his
student his oiun view derived from the most original sources
attainable. He must construct history out of the chaos of
original historic atoms. If he does not do this, but contents
himself with simply repeating the views of others, it is
probably because he is not capable of it ; in which case he is
no University professor at all, but at best only a drill master
for the Gymnasium. "While the University student must
learn among his first lessons that truth, as man knows it, is
no ready-made article of certain and objective character,
that it is a human interpretation, and subject therefore to
the fallibilit}' of human insight and reasoning, — one-sided,
colored, incomplete. Unless this thought be continually im-
pressed upon him bj' the method of the instruction which he
receives, he will, to a greater or less degree, make dogma of
his learning, and this is the negation of progress in the wider
and more perfect comprehension of truth. Now instruction
by means of the text-book in the University has always the
tendency to the production of this result, — unless, per-
chance, the professor uses the text more for the purpose of
confuting than teaching, in which case he is reallj- lecturing
and not hearing recitations. What is contained in a book
which has been studied by classes gone before has, in the
mind of a student not yet accustomed to sharp criticism, too

IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE. 219

large a presumption in its favor. He is too ready to acqui-
esce in its propositions, and let memory act where the more
difficult processes of criticism and judgment should be called
into pla}'. On the other hand, when he has the person of
his author always before his e^es, observes his weaknesses
as well as his strength, then the true scholastic skepticism
and belligerency will be aroused, and criticism, judgment,
reasoning, insight, be developed.

Third. But this is only what might be termed the outward
form of method generally. As to the internal principles or
purposes of our method of historical instruction in particular,
we seek to teach the student, first, how to get hold of a his-
toric fact, how to distinguish fact from fiction, how to divest*
it as far as possible of coloring or exaggeration. We send
him, therefore, to the most original sources attainable for his
priraar}- information. If there be more than one original
source upon the same fact, we teach him to set these in com-
parison or contrast, to observe their agreements and discrep-
ancies, and to attain a point of view from which all, or if this
is not possible, the most of the evidence may appear recon-
cilable. And we warn him not to accept a statement not
well authenticated for a fact, upon the principle that it is far
better for the historical investigator to think that he does not
know what he may know than to think he knows what he ma}'
not know. We undertake, in the second place, to teach the
student to set the facts which he has thus attained in their
chronological order, to the further end of setting them in
their order as cause and effect. And we seek to make him
clearly comprehend and continually feel that the latter pro-
cess is the one most delicate and critical which the historical
student is called upon to undertake, in that he is continually
tempted to account that which is mere antecedent and conse-
quent as being cause and effect. It is just in this process.

220 l^rETHODR OF ITTRTORICAL STUDY

of course, that the true historical genius most clearl}' reveals
itself. It is just iu this process that genius is most neces-
sary to accomplish anything valuable. It is therefore most
(lirticult to fornnilate rules upon tJie point for the direction of
the historical student who may have no genius for his work.
What we most insist upon, however, is a critical comparison
of the sequence of facts in the history of different states or
peoples at a like period in the development of their civiliza-
tions. If this be done with patience, care, and judgment,
the student who i)()ssesses a moderate degree of true logic
will soon learn to distinguish, to some extent at least, ante-
cedent and consequent mcrel}' from cause and effect.

Fourth. After the facts have been determined and the
causal nexus established we endeavor to teach the student to
look for the institutions and ideas which have been developed
tlnough the sequence of events in the civilization of an age
or people. This I miglit term the ultimate object of our
entire method of historical instruction. With us history is the
chief preparation for the study of the legal and political sci-
ences. Through it we seek to find the origin, follow the
growth and learn the meaning of our legal, political, and
economic principles and institutions. We class it therefore
no longer with fiction or rhetoric or belles-lettres, but with
logic, philosophy, ethics. We value it, therefore, not by its
brilliancy, but by its productiveness.

Lastly. We would not consider tlie circle of our method as
complete, did it make no provision for the public practice of
the students. To tliis end we have established an Academy
of the historic, jural, and political sciences, composed of the
graduates of the University in these branches. Before this
body, in its regular weekly meetings, each member has the
opportunity* and assumes the duty of presenting one original
work each year. The work is then the property of the Acad-

IN COLIHMBIA COLLEGE, 221

emy to publish or presei"\'e in its archives as it will. The
best production of the year in the Academy, as adjudged by
the Universit}' Faculty in these departments, is rewarded by
a prize lectureship in the University. In this manner we seek
to make our students not simply pupils but co-workers,
not simpl}' recipients but givers with interest upon what they
have received and to open the way for genius, talent, and
industry in these branches to positions from which they may
be employed in the further development and expansion of
these departments.

As I indicated above, we have hardlj' yet had sufficient
experience with our method and system to pronounce defi-
nitely and finally upon results. They have not 3-et made
their cycle. But we are satisfied with the progress, and
encouraged by the prospects.

Columbia College,
AprU 27, 1883.

Physical Geogeaphy and History.

A KNOWLEDGE of the structure of the earth on which
we dwell should underlie and precede all our studies
of histor}' and political science. "We have been accustomed
to study mind ps_vchologically, without studying the body in
which the mind dwells. So we have considered the historical
movements of man without considering the theatre on which
he moves. Edition after edition of the historical atlases of
the learned German, Von Spruner, was published, with most
elaborate and exact maps of Greece, of the Roman Empire,
of mediaeval Europe, German}', Ital}^, etc., but not a single
map showing geological formations. A clearer understand-
ing of the importance of the phj'sical structure of the earth
would have made his maps much better than the}' ai*e.

It is needless to say that in any exposition of these rela-
tions, constant use must be made of maps ; in fact, the work
cannot be carried on without them. The difficulties in the
way of preparing such I'epresentatious are great, for we need
to exhibit each portion of the earth's surface as something
cut out by the hands of a sculptor, which has a distinct phy-
siognomy, to be recognized and known as definitely as our
own physiognomies are known. The most direct method
is by the relief map or atlas. But the difficult}' of repre-
senting a solid upon a plane surface has been to some extent
overcome, different elevations being represented by different
colors.

224 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY.

Observe some of the things which a good physical map of
the United States tells us. You see a long extent of sea-
board, with mountains receding from the coast. When the
first settlors landed, they found a wall, from 3.500 to 7000
feet hiiih, hemming them in. "We see here the door through
which the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad goes west; also
the path of the Erie Canal. "We see where the Pennsyl-
vania people found a path over the mountains, and others
after them. "Without a ph3-sical map of North America, the
unity of the French dominions, Canada and Louisiana, would
hardly be discerned ; with such a map, this unity is made
strikingly evident, and the process of acquisition becomes
clear. A glance at the broad basin of the Mississippi, as rep-
resented upon such a map. will show that it was predestined
to l)ecome one of the greatest granaries of the world. The
history of the peculiar attitude of California during the civil
war can be studied only in the light of its ph^-sical relations
to the rest of the Union. Thus, the history of this country
was largely written before man came here. It is written on
the map, and every citizen ought to have it written on his
mind. Every student of political history or political economy
should understand these great ph^sieal features of his coun-
try, not only in broad outline, but in detail.

As examples of exposition of our physical geography, one
may mention Professor Shaler's chapter in "Winsor's forth-
coming Narrative and Critical History of America, the
prefatory chapter in Palfrey's New EnrjJand, and Professor
"Whitney's chapter in the Guide-Boo'k to the Yoseviite, and in
Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States, whose maps
also arc highly useful.

If we turn to Europe, the connection between phj-sical
geography and history is presented in the same striking waj',
and in even greater A'ariety. Observe on any relief map how

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 225

manifestly the plain of Lombardy and Yeuetia, carved out
at the base of the enormous wall of the Alps, seems formed
to be the garden of Europe and the theatre of wars. As for
Greece, it is no exaggeration to say that he who does not
understand its phj'sical conformation can have no proper
conception of its political histor}-. The connection between
the two is admirably displayed in the opening pages of
Curtius' History of Greece, and in a delightful chapter
in Taine's Lectures on Art, in which book a similar service
is also done for Flanders. Also of note is Professor
Conrad Bursian's essay, Ueher den Einjiuss der JVatur des
Griechischen Landes cmf den Cliarakter seiner BeivoJmer, in
the Jahresberichte of the Geograpliische Gesellsclwfl in 3Iiln-
chen, 1877. Further west, notice the remarkable cut from
the Mediterranean to the North Sea (the valleys of the
Rhone and Rhine) , which made a Lotharingia possible. A
relief map of France makes clear the reasons for the direc-
tions taken by the several invading tribes in 406 a.d. The
position of Belfort, commanding the upper Rhine valley,
explains the vigor with which it was defended in 1870 ; we
see, too, why Germany fixed her bouudiirv where she did.
Again, in England, who does not know, to mention one
illustration only, how decisive was the influence of such
geographical features as the great forests upon the course of
the English conquest of Britain? (See Guest's Origines
Celticae, 1882, Green's MaK-inrj of England, and Professor
Pearson's valuable Historical Maps.) For similar illustra-
tions, one may consult with profit Professor Archibald
Geikie's paper on Tlie Geological Ivfluences icJiicJi have
affected English History, in Macmillan, March, 1882. If
we turn to Asia, the connection between its great plains
and the careers of its great conquerors could scarcely be
more evident than it is.

226 rriYsiCAL geography and history.

All these are isolated and random illustrations. Indefi-
nitely niultipliod, as they might easily be, they wonld irresist-
ibly force the conviction that the influence of physical geog-
vai^hy upon history is a matter which no one can afford to
neglect, and that a teacher of history- who does not make fre-
quent use of physical maps commits a grave error.

It may not be amiss to mention that prominent among the
standard works of general scope which may be used in such
studies are. beside the books of Ritter and Peschel, Professor
Guyot's Earth and Mail, G. P. Marsh's The Earth as Modi-
fied by Human Action, and Frederick von Hellwald's Die
Erde tind ihre Volker. Into the minor literature it is impos-
sible here to enter (an important specimen is Wilhelm Ros-
cher's Betrachtungen iiber die geographische Lage der grofisen
Stddte, in his Ansichten, I., pp. 317-3G3), but it can be
found, clearly arranged, in the bibliographical lists iu suc-
cessive volumes of Petermann's Mitfheilungen, the best of
geographical journals. An index to the maps in Petermann
is now appearing in the Harvard University Bulletin. As to
wall-maps, the most useful are perhaps the new Kiepert
series and Professor Guyot's.

Why do Childeen Dislike Histoey?

Bt Thomas Wextworth Higginson.

IT has alwaj's seemed to me creditable to the brains of
children that the}* dishke what we call the study of
history. It is surely unfair to blame them, when they cer-
tainly like it quite as well as do their parents. The father
brings home to his little son, from the public library, the
first volume of Hildreth's United States, and says to him,
"There, my son, is a book for j^ou, and there are five more
volumes just like it." Then he goes back to his Sunday
Herald, and his wife reverts to But Yet a Womaii, or Mr.
Isaacs; both feeling that they have done their duty to the
child's mind. Would they ever read through the six volumes,
of Hildreth consecutively for themselves ?

Yet it needs but little reflection to see that no study is in
itself — apart from the treatment — so interesting as history.
For what is it that most interests every child? Human
beings. What is history ? The record of human beings,
that is all.

We are accustomed to say, and truly, that every child is a-
born naturalist. But where is the child who would not at any
time leave the society of animals for that of human beings ?
Even the bear and the raccoon ai'e not personally more inter-
esting to the country boy than to hear the endless tales of the
men who have trapped the one and shot the other. The boy
by the seaside would rather listen to the sailors' yarns than
go fishing. Even stories about animals must have the hmnan

228 WHY DO CTTTLDREN DISLIKE HISTORY?

clement thrown in, to make tliem fully fascinating; children
must hear, not onlj' about the wolf and his den, but about
General Putnam, who went into it; and they would rather
hear about Indian wars than either, because there all the par-
ticipants are men. The gentlest girl likes to read the Swiss
Famihj liobinson, or to dress up for a " centennial tea-party."
But early Puritan history is all Swiss Family Robivson with
man}' added excitements thrown in ; and the colonial and
revolutionaiy periods are all a centeiniial tea-part}'. If we
could only make the characters live and move, with their own
costume and their own looks, in our instruction, they would
absorb the attention of every child.

It is idle to sa}-, " But children prefer fiction to fact."
Not at all ; they prefer fact to fiction, if it is only made
equally interesting. The test is this. Tell a bo}^ a story,
which he supposes to be true, and then disclose that it is all
an invention. If llie Ixn' preferred fiction to fact, he would
be pleased. Not at all ; he is disappointed. On the other
hand, if, after telling some absorbing and marvellous tale,
you can honestly add, " M3" dear child, all this really hap-
pened to your father when he was little, or to your respected
great-grandmother," the child is delighted.

In truth, the whole situation, in respect to histor}', is
described in that well-known conversation between the Eng-
lish clergyman and the play-actor. "AVhy is it," asked the
clergyman, '^' that you, who represent what everybody" knows
to be false, obtain more attention than we who deal in the
most momentous realities ! " "It is," said the actor, "because
you represent the truth so that it seems like fiction, while we
depict fiction in such a manner that it has the effect of
truth."

The moral of it all is, that the fault is not in the child, bnt
in us who write the books and teach the lessons. History

"WHY DO CHILDREN DISLIKE HISTOEY? 229

is but a series of tales of human beings. Huraau beings
form the theme which is of all things most congenial to the
child's mind. If the subject loses all its charms by our
handling, the fault is ours, and we should not blame the
child.

Geadation and the Topical Method of
HiSTOEicAL Study.

Bt Professor W. F. Allen, Wisconsin University.

FOR instruction in histoiy, as in other branches, there
are three distinct periods to be considered : childhood,
school-life, and college-lile. For the first of these I have
nothing to offer beyond the excellent remarks made by our
author on page 139. What the child needs is to have the
imagination quickened, and the memory stored with incidents
and associations. It is not so necessary that there should
be any definite plan or order in the acquisition of these
interesting stories, great names, and important events. The
mind merely needs to have associations and memories of
these ; their arrangement will come later.

Formal instruction in history, he goes on to say, may
begin at about the age of ten ; but the length of time that it
is to be kept up differs ver}' greatly with different pupils, and
it is obvious that we cannot advantageously lay out the same
course for those who are to go to college, those who are to
pass through the high school merely, and those who have to
be satisfied with a grammai'-school education. The begin-
ning, however, must be nearly the same with all, and it will
be found that the longest course will, in the main, coincide
with the shorter ones, so far as they go.

All alike must begin with the history of their own country,
and with this a considerable proportion of the pupils must
be content. So far there is no difference of opinion. "When,
however, we pass to the next stage, and ask what branch of
history should follow that of the United States, the answers

232 GRADES AND TOriCS IN

would be various. The usual practice is to take up General
History at this point ; but I think the practice is not a wise
one. Very fvw pupils at this age have a sufliciently devel-
oped historical sense to follow intelligently the fortunes of
several nations side by side, now studying the separate his-
tory of each country indcpeudcntly, then passing to the com-
plicated international relations, which make up the current
of modern history. In antiquity there was but one empire
at a time. General history is, therefore, the separate histo-
ries of Egypt, Ass3Tia, Persia, etc., taken up successively.
In modern times these separate histories have to be taken up
contemjJOi'aneonslT/. There is no one thread to be followed,
but a multitude of threads to be woven into a connected whole ;
and my experience is, that an attempt to do this, with only
the preparation that the study of United States history gives,
results, for most scholars, in a bewildering confusion.

Our author la^-s down the correct principle on page 14G :
" The way to that which is general is through that which is
special." General histor}- cannot be profitably studied until,
first, the historical imagination has been trained and the his-
torical sense developed by abundance of stories, and by
instruction in national histor}- ; and, secondly, at least one
of the separate threads has been traced by itself, and a cer-
tain degi'ee of familiarity thus gained with the leading events
which are to come under consideration. The separate annals
of at least one country should be studied before general his-
tory is begun. "Which country should be selected for this
purpose for American schools can, of course, be no question.
American citizens need to know the history of England next
to that of their own country. I should even desire that a
second thread should be taken up by itself — in the history
of France or Germany — before general history is studied;
but this is not essential.

HISTOKICAL STUDY. 233

Further details must depend upon the extent of the course
and its object. If there cau be but one term's work, besides
United States history, I would have the history- of P^ngland.
If there is plenty of time, I would have ancient history,
English history, and French history all precede general his-
torj', or, if need be, take its place.

But I can conceive of something better even than this.
To go back to our first question : What does the American
bo}' really need, who is to have onlj' one term of history
before he goes out into the world, and becomes an American
citizen ? Would not ever^-body admit that, while the Plan-
tagenets are of more importance for him than the Hohen-
staufen, and Oliver Cromwell thau Gustavus Adolphus, the
events and personages of the last hundred years are of more
importance than either?

Let us pass now to the college course. Onl}- a very small
proportion of our people go through a college course, and of
these only a small proportion — under our present system
of elective studies — take an}' extended course in history.
Here, too, I have tried a good many experiments, and have
arrived at a scheme which appears to answer my require-
ments very well.

The field of history is so vast and varied that it is impos-
sible, in any college course, to treat all the subjects that
deserve to be taken up. All that we can do is to lay out a
course, or a number of courses, which appear to meet, as a
whole, the needs of the largest number, and which will allow
selection, in accordance with tastes, to those who do not care
to take it as a whole.

We require for admission, in the classical courses of this
University, ancient historj-, the histor}' of the United States,
and the history of England. We are able, therefore, to take
for granted something of an acquaintance with the leading

23-i GRADES AND TOPICS IN

events and characters of ancient and modern times. The
only history- which is required in our curriculum is a term of
United States history for the juniors of the classical depart-
ment. Besides this, there are three elective courses, each
carried through the ^ear : one as a full course, the others as
half courses.

In laying out this work, we are not limited, as in the
conunon schools, by the necessity of considering what is
most essential for those who are soon to leave school. We
are not to lay out a single course which all must follow, but
a series of courses, which may be taken either in whole or in
part, according to individual tastes. Even here, however,
there is a natural order which should be insisted on, so far
as possible, for those who take the whole course. We must
begin with what is most indispensable. It is all very well
to sa}- that dates and dynasties are of only secondary
importance, and that it is the history of ideas and of
social progress that we want. There can be no history with-
out dates and dynasties. They are to the nobler parts of
historj' what the skeleton is to the bod^-. All the beaut}' of
the body and all its seeming energ}- are in the external parts ;
but what would they be without the framework of bones ? So,
in history, we can have no sure and adequate comprehension
of the movement of the great forces of societ}', without the
skeleton of the history of events. Now, all events take
place in two relations, — time and place. The indispensable
foundation of history is, therefore, a knowledge of chronol-
OJ3', — of historical distances, — and of historical geography,
in connection with the changes of empire. Territorial and
dynastic history — the study of the successive empires and
dynastic powers of the world — forms the first course,
which should precede the others.

Xcxt to the knowledge of empires, the most necessary.

HISTORICAL STUDY. 235

if the least important braucli of history, comes the stud}'
of the organized action of mankind. The stndy of institu-
tions, of their organic relation to one another in constitu-
tions of government, and of the political conflicts that have
gTown out of these, forms naturally the second course.
After this, and not till then, the history of thought, of soci-
ety, of ideas, can be profitably taken up. We have thus
three independent courses, affoixling au approximately com-
plete survey of the field of history, or at least preparation
for further independent study. But although this is the nat-
ural order of study, it is not necessary to adhere to it over-
scrupulously. The student has already, in a general way,
studied the dynastic history of Greece, Rome, and England ;
has thus acquired a consecutive, if partial, view of ancient
and modern times. He is, therefore, prepared to take up
the special study of the institutions of Greece and Rome,
with which, moreover, he is already somewhat familiar from
his classical studies, without waiting for the extended course •
in dynastic history. He ma}' even, without great disadvan-
tage, pass at once to the study of mediiBval and modern
institutions.

As to method, I have also experimented a great deal. For
college classes — elective classes especially — nothing seems
to me a greater waste of force than to spend the hour with
a text-book in my hand, hearing the students repeat what is
in the book. Lecturing, however satisfactory in the German
universities, I do not find suited to the wants of my students
lis a regular mode of instruction. For suggestion and for
review it may be employed with great advantage ; and for
regular instruction in fields in which there Ls no suitable text-
book, I am often obliged to have recourse to it. But it
requires, to be efficacious, constant questioning, thorough
examinations, and occasional inspection of note-books.

23G GRADES AXD TOnCS IN

In the method which I have at hist settled njion, my aim
has been to get some of the benefits which students in the
natural sciences acquire from work in laboratories. Stu-
dents of the age and maturity of juniors and seniors can get
the greatest advantage from historical study by doing some
independent work akin to laboratory work. I would not be
understood as claiming that this is original investigation, in
any true sense of the term. Laboratory worl< in chemistry
or physics is not original investigation, neither is the study
of topics in history. The object, it must be remembered, is
education, not historical investigation ; and the object of the
educational process is not merely to ascertain facts, but even
more : to learn how to ascertain facts. For the student, as
a piece of training, historians like Prescott and Bancroft
may stand in the place of original autliorities. To gather
facts from them, really at second hand, has for the student
much of the educational value of first-iiand work. Of course,
there is a dilierence in students, and the work done by some
is of a much higher grade than that of others. For the best
students it easily and frequently passes into the actual stud}"
of authorities at first hand.

In studying ])v topics I alwaj'S desire that the class should
have a text-book — a brief compendium — upon which they
are liable to be questioned and examined, and which will
serve at anj' rate as a basis and guide of work. M3' method
is then to assign for every da}' — as long beforeliand as pos-
sible— special topics to two or three students, which they
are to study with as great thoroughness as possible in all the
works to which the}' have access, and present orally in the
class, writing out a syllabus beforehand upon the blackboard.
If they write out the topic, and depend upon a written paper,
they are much less likely to be certain of their ground and
independent in their treatment.

HISTORICAL STUDY. 237

The topical method here described is successful in propor-
tion to the abundance and accessibility of books of refer-
ence. In American history it works best, and here I employ
no other. In the dynastic histor}- of ancient and modern
times, it is satisfactor}- in most cases. I combine with it
constant map-drawing, and the preparation of a synchron-
istic chart. In the more advanced courses, owing to the
deficienc}- of good books of reference, it is necessary to
abandon the method, or combine it with lectures, recitations,
and written essays. It is, of course, impossible to assign
topics which cover the whole ground. It is possible, how-
ever, to select for this purpose all the names and events of
first importance, and it is one of the advantages of the topi-
cal method that it thus affords an opportunity to emphasize
those facts of histor}' which most need emphasis. It is the
special function of the teacher to supplement the topics, to
point out their relative importance and their connection with
one another, and to help the students in acquiiing a com-
plete and accurate general view.

PART I.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

1. Primitive Society.

C. F. Keary. The Dawn of History : An Introduction to Pre-
historic Study. L.* Mozley & Smith. $1.50.

IE. G. Tylor. Early History of Mankind. N.Y. Holt. $3.50.

%Id. Primitive Culture. 2 v. N.Y. Holt. !g7.00.

Xld. Anthropology. N.Y. App. Sg2.00.

Mr. Tylor's books present the best picture of priraitive society,
and summary of the present condition of the inquiry.

XSir John Luhhock. Pre-historic Times. N.Y. App. $5.00.
Chiefly devoted to archseology.

Id. Origin of Civilization. N.Y. App. $2.00.

XH. Spencer. Ceremonial Institutions. App. $1.25.

Xld. Political Institutions. App. $1.50.

These works describe the evolution of governmental institutions.

* In this list only books in the English language are given, with the
exception of a few of prime importance. Works written in a foreign lan-
guage, whetlier in the original or translated, are indicated by a dagger (I).
Books of especial importance are indicated by the double dagger {%).
Abbreviated titles are given, except where the full title contains a descrip-
tion of the book. In the abbreviations, App. stands for Appleton; B., for
Boston; Ber., for Berlin ; C, for Cassell ; C. & H., for Chapman & Hall ;
Ch., for Chicago; E. & L., for Estes & Lauriat; Ed., for Edinburgh; H., for
Harper; L., for London; Lip., for Lippincott; Longin., for Longmans; Lp.,
for Leipsic; L. & B., for Little, Brown, & Co.; L. & S., for Lee & Shepard;
M., for Murray; Macm., for Macmillan; O., for Osgood; P., for Paris; Ph.,
for Philadeli^hia ; Put., for Putnaras ; R., for Roberts ; Scr., for Scribner ;
S. & E., for Smith, Elder, & Co.; W. & N., for Williams & Norgate. E.S.
stands for Epochs Series (Scribner) ; and Soc, for Society for the Diffusion
of Christian Knowledge (Young) ,

240 HISTORICAL LTTERATTTRE AND AUTHORITIES.

XL. JJ. Morgan. Ancient Society. N.Y. Holt. $4.00.

The best analysis of the structure of primitive society, based
upon an intimate knowledge of the institutions of the North
American Indians. The later portions less reliable.

J. F. McLennan. Studies in Ancient History. L. Qttaritch.

Controverts Mr. Morgan's theories, and finds the origin of the
family in marriage by capture.

W. E. Hcarn. The Aryan Household. L. Longra. 86.40.

The most complete treatise upon the structure and development
of primitive society.

XFuslel de Coulanges. The Ancient City.f B. 1.. & S. §2.00.

A remarkable book, affording the best key to the origin and
much of the history of the Greek and Roman institutions.

XSir II. S. Maine. Ancient Law : its Connection with the Early
History of Society, and its Relation to Modem Ideas. N.Y.
Holt. !?3.50.

Invaluable as an introduction to the history of institutions.

Id. Village Communities. N.Y. Holt. ^Z.oQ.

This work introduced the theory of village communities to the
English public.

Xld. Early History of Institutions. N.Y. Holt. 83.-50.
Devoted especially to the early institutions of Ireland.

Id. Dissertations upon Early Custom and Law. N.Y. Holt.
A collection of essays and lectures.

XE. de Laveleye. Primitive Property. f L. ]\Iacm. 83..50.

The most complete elaboration of the theory of primitive com-
munity of property.

Sir A. C. Lyall. Asiatic Studies. M.

Papers full of valuable observation and study.

E. Nasse. Agricultural Community of the Middle Ages.f W. & N.
The theory of village communities applied to England.

D. W. lioxs. Early History of Land-holding among the Germans.
B. Soule & Bugbee.

Controverts the theory of village communities.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 241

John Fenton. Early Hebrew Life. L. Triibner.

A . F. Bandelier. On the Art of War and JNIode of Warfare among
the Ancient Mexicans. — On the Distribution and Tenure of
Land, etc. — On the Social Organization and Mode of Govern-
ment, etc.

Three papers of great value, reprinted from the reports of the

Peabody Museum of Ethnolo^ for 1877-8-9.

/. /. Bachofen. Das Mutterrecht.f Stuttgart. 1861.

A pioneer work ; treats of inheritance in the female line, as an
institution of primitive society.

See also the following articles : by E. Naxse, in Cont. Rev., May,
1872, upon Village Communities ; by /. F. McLennan, in Fortn.
Rev., 1866, upon Kinship in Ancient Greece, and in 1869-70,
upon AVorship of Animals and Plants [theory of totems] ; by
F. H. Cushing, in the Atl. Monthly, Sept. and Oct., 1882, upon
the Nation of the Willows [the Zuiiis of New Mexico] ; by W.
F. Allen, in Penn Monthly, June, 1880, upon the points at issue
between Mr. Morgan and Mr. McLennan.

Authorities.

Books of travel, etc., containing graphic and accurate accounts of savage

and barbarous society.

Herbert Spencer. Descriptive Sociology. — Div. 1 : Uncivilized
Societies ; Div. 2 : Ancient Mexicans, etc. 8 parts, each $4.00.
A classified collection of facts.

L. H. Morgan. Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family. Vol. XVIT. (1870) of the Smithsonian Contributions.
A very extensive and remarkable collection of facts.

Id. League of the Iroquois. Rochester. 1851.

IF. Parkman. The Oregon Trail. B. L. & B. !§2.50.
Perhaps the most vivid picture of Indian life.

XDavid Livingstone. Missionary Travels and Researches in South
Africa. H. $4.50.

•242 HTSTOKTCAL LlIKi: ATriJE AND AFTHOraTIES.

//. ^^. Stanlcj/. Tlirough the Dark Continent. 2 v. II. ^10.00.

G. Schweinfurtli. The Heart of Africa. 2 v. II. i§8.00.

+ ir. G. Palgrave. A Year's Travel in Arabia. Macm. §2.00.

./. .4. McGahan. Campaigning on the Oxus. II. -P.SO.
Contains an excellent account of nomadic life.

XLord Pembroke. Old New Zealand. L. Bentley.

Contains a forcible picture of the evils worked by contact with
civilization.

//. Rink. Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo. Ed. Blackwood.

XG.W.Dasent. Story of Burnt Xjal. Ed. Edmonston. S7.50.
Presents a vivid picture of early German society.

t Homer's Iliad, translated in prose by Lang, etc. ; and Odyssey, by
Butcher and Lang. Each, !i?1..50.

A portrayal of early Greek society and institutions.

D. ^f. Wallace. Russia. Holt. 82.00.

Contains the best account of the Mir, or Russian village com-
munity.

.1 . /. EvanR. Through Bosnia and Herzegovina. Longm.

Contains a description of the Slavonian family communities.

./. W. Probyn. Systems of Land Tenure in Various Comitries. C.
eL75.

The essays upon India, Germany, and Russia, describe systems
of land community.

Sir J. B. Phear. The Arj-an Village in India and Ceylon. Macm
82.25.

See also the publications of the American Bureau of Ethnology, the
I'eabody ]\Iu.seum, the American Archseological Institute, and
kindred institutions; and the list of books upon the Indians
of America.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 243

2. Mythology.

l^ tx Miiller. Chips from a German Workshop. .5 v. N.Y. Scr.
$10.00.

These essays laid the foundation for the study of comparative
mythology and folk-lore.

XC. F. Keary. Outlmes of Primitive Belief. N.Y. Scr. $2.50.
Especially of the Greeks, Hindoos, and Scandinavians.

J.A.Hartung. Die Religion und Mythologie der Griechen.f 4 v.
Lp. Engelmann.

The first volume contains perhaps the best introduction to the
study of mythology.

Sir G. W. Cox. Introduction to Science of Comparative Mythology
and Folk4ore. Holt. $2..o0.

XTd. M}-thology of the Aryan Nations. Longm. $4.i50.

A comparative view of the Indian, Greek, and German systems
of mythology.

John Fiske. Myths and Myth-Makers. Houghton. $2.00.

A popular account of the way in which myths are formed.

A. S. Murray. Manual of Mythology. N.Y. Scr. $2.2.5.
Chiefly devoted to that of Greece : with illustrations.

XL. Preller. Griechische M^ihologie-f Ber. Weidmann.

Xld. Rbmische Mythologie.f Ber. Weidmann.

Preller's are the best and most compendious treatises.

XJ. Grinun. Teutonic Mj^hology-t - v. L. Bell.
An exhaustive and invaluable treatise.

R. B. Anderson. Norse Mythology. Ch. Griggs. $2.50.

D. G. Brinton. Myths of the New World. Ph. Watts. $2.00.

Ethnic Religions.

C. P. Tiele. History of Religion. Houghton. $3.00.
The best work of a general character.

J. F. Clarke. Ten Great Religions. Houghton. $.3.00.

A popular comparative view of the principal ethnic religions^

244 HisTomcAL literature axd authorities.

IHibbort T>cotiiios: —

1578. Max Mailer. The Origin and Growth of Religion, as

illustrated by the Religions of India. Scr.

1579. P. Le Page Renouf. Id., Ancient Egypt. Scr.

1881. T.W.Rhya-Dacids. Id., Buddhism. " Put.

1882. A. Kuencn. National Religions and Universal Religions.

f Non-Christian Religions Systems. Soc.
Monier Williams. Hinduism.
T. W. Rhyf-Davids. Buddhism.
R. K. Douglas. Confucianism and Taouism.
/. //. W. Stohart. Islam and its Founders.
Sir William Muir. The Coran.

XS. .ToJnisou. Oriental Religions: I.India; II. China; Til. Persia.
Houghton. 8-').00.

A. Barth. Religions of India. Houghton.

O. Keitner. Buddha and his Doctrines. L. Triibner.

J. Edkins. Chinese Buddhism. Houghton.

J. Legge. Life and Teaching of Confucius.

M. Haug. The Religion of the Parsis. Houghton. $4.50.

XC. P. Tide. Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopo-
tamian Religions. Part I. : Egj-pt. L.

See also articles by Monier William.% on Indian Religious Thought,
Cont, Rev., 1878, and on Religion of Zoroaster, IDth Cent., Jan.,
1881; by W. F. Allen, on the Religion of the Ancient Greeks,
N. Am. Rev., July, 1869 ; and the Ancient Romans, July, 1871 ;
by Jas. Darmesteter, in Cont. Rev., Oct., 1879, on Supreme God
in Indo-European Mjrthology; by /. N. Hoare, in 19th Cent.,
Dec, 1878, on Religion of Ancient Eg}T)tians ; in Edin. Rev.,
Oct., 1881, on the Koran ; by K. Blind, in N. Am. Rev., Oct.,
1872, on the German World of Gods ; by F. Lenormant, in Cont.
Rev., 1880, on the Eleusinian Mysteries; by C. T. Newton, m

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 245

19th Cent., June, 1878, on the Religion of the Greeks as Hlus-
trated by Inscriptions. For the truest conception of Greek
mythology: Riiskin's Modern Painters, Part IV., Chap. 13.

Authorities.

Sacred Books of the East. 11 vols. Macm.
The Elder Edda. L. Tnibner.
The Younger Edda. Ch. Griggs.

3. History of Society.
tH. Spencer. The Study of Sociology. App. |1.50.

W. Bagehot. Physics and Politics. $1.50.
Analyzes the causes of progress.

XA. Comte. The Positive Philosophy. f 2 v. App.

The second vohime contains an application of the positive philos-
ophy to historical phenomena.

F. ScMegel. The Philosophy of Histoiy.f

Id. Lectures on the History of Literature, Ancient and Modern. f

These old works are still unsurpassed in their field.
R. Flint. The Philosophy of History in France and Germany.

Baron de Montesquieu. The Spirit of Laws.f Cincinnati.

A work of great insight, first puhlished in 1748.
tJ. W. Draper. The Intellectual Development of Eiu-ope. 2 v.

H. $3.00.
tH. T. Buckle. Introduction to History of Civilization in England.
2 V. App. $4.00.

Draper and Buckle write from the point of view of the control-
ling influence of physical causes.

G. P. Marsh. Man and Nature. Scr. $2.00.

Treats of the influence of man and the earth upon each other.
A. Blanqui. History of Political Economy in Europe.f $3.00.

Sir T. E. May. Democracy in Europe. 2 v. Longm.

E. Viollet-le-duc. The Habitations of Man in all Ages.f L. Low.

240 IIISTOKICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

4. Gexekal History.

1]'. Onclcn. Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen.f Ber.
G. Grote. 300 marks.

A series of woi'ks by \vi-iters of high authority. Tlie following are
already published : G. F. Heiizberg, Hellas und Rom ; Das
Romische Kaiserreicli. F. Dahrt, Urgeschichte der Gennani-
schen und Romanischen Volker. il/. PJiilippxon, Zeitalter Lud-
wigs XIV. A. Ste7~n, Revolution in England. A. Bruckner,
Peter der Grosse. W. Oncken, Zoitalter Friedrichs des Grossen.

E. A. Freeman. General Sketch [in Freeman's Hist. Series]. Holt.
81.00.

The best brief outline of general history.

Xld. Historical Geography of Europe. 2 v. [vol. ii., maps]. 312.00.
An elaborate and accurate work ; the best there is.

XLeopold von Ranke. Weltgeschichte.f 3 vols, already published.
A summary of the best results of scholarship by the greatest
living master. Translation of Vol. I. II.

K. von Spruner. Handatlas der Geschichte.f In three parts.

1. Atlas Antiquus.

2. Europa. Revised by Th. Menke. [English edition by W. &

N., £4 14s. 6r/.]

3. Asia, Africa, America, and Australia.

Altogether the best and complctcst historical atlas.

XN. BouiUet. Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire et de Geogi'aphie.
P. Hachette.

Xld. Atlas Universel d'Histoire et de Gdographie.

These works of BouiUet are the best books of reference.

/. Ilaydn. Dictionary of Dates. App. $6.00.

The best brief compendium of chronology, revised to 1883.

H. B. George. Genealogical Tables. Macm. §3.00.
The best in English.

XS. Willard. Synopsis of History. App.

Chronological and genealogical tables of the highest merit.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 247

C.K.Adams. Manual of Historical Literature. H. $2.50.
The best guide to historical reading.

W.F.Allen. Reader's Guide to English History. B. Ginn, Heath,

&Co.

With a supplement giving brief references to the history of
other countries and periods.

See also articles by E. A. Freeman, in Fortn. Rev., May, 1881, on
the Study of History ; by /. Gairdner, in Cent. Rev., Oct., 1880,
on Sources of History.

Periodicals.

JHistorische Zeitschrift. By H. von Sybel. JNIiinchen (bi-monthly).
The oldest and leading historical periodical.

JRevue Historique. By G. Monod and G. Fagniez.-f P. (bi-monthly).
Especially valuable for its survey of current historical literature.

Mittheilungen aus der Historischen Literatur.f By F. Hirsch.
Bar. (quarterly).

Consists exclusively of book reviews.

Jahresberichte der Geschichtswis.senschaft. Ber.
Aa annual review of historical literature.

Das Historische Taschenbuch. Lp.

An annual collection of historical essays.

The Antiquary. Published by Elliot Stock. L. (monthly).
Devoted to antiquities rather than history.

JThe Magazine of American History. (Monthly.) N.Y. Barnes.

A periodical of high excellence.
The American Antiquarian. By S. D. Peet. Ch. (quarterly).

Devoted to the entire field of antiquities.

Besides these, several of the State Historical Societies publish
periodicals or regular volumes of Transactions.

248 msTOEiCAL literature and authorities.

5. Ancient IIisTonY.

tPJi Hip Smith. A History of the World. Ancient History. 3 v. App.
86.00.

The best English history of antiquity.

A . II. L. Heeren. Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse,
and Trade of the Principal Nations of Antiquity.f 6 v. Ox.
An old but valuable book.

XG. Rawlinson. A IManual of Ancient History. II. !51.2.5.

A careful and accurate compendium, with abundant references
to authorities and special treatises.

P. V. N. Mi/ers. Outlines of Ancient History. H. 1882. !gl.7.5.

A fjood compendium for non-classical readers.
E. A. Freeman. Historical Essays. Second Series. Macm. !g3.,50.

This series is devoted to ancient history.

J. J. Winckelmann. History of Ancient Art. 2 v.f O. i$9.00.

The starting-point of study in the history of ancient art.
%F. von Reher. History of Ancient Artf H. 12.50.

An excellent compendium, well illustrated.

G. G. Zerffi. IManual of the Historical Development of Art. L.
Hardwicke.

XS. R. Koehler. Tllustration.s of the History of Art. Series 1 :
Ancient Architecture, Sculpture, etc. B. Prang. 1879.
Series .5 contains the History of Painting.

K. O. Mailer. Ancient Art and its Remains. L. Quaritch.

The Germau edition is accompanied by two vols, of illustrations.

W. C. Perry. Popular Introduction to the History of Greek and
Roman Sculpture. Longni. •'512.00.

A. S. Afurray. History of Ancient Sculpture. M.

Jam£s Fergusson. History of Architecture. 2 v. M. $24.00.

HISTOPtlCAL LTTERATUE,*: AND AUTHORITIES. 249

Ancient Classics for Modern Readers. Lipp. ^1.00.

Twenty-eight small volumes, containing excellent short accounts
of the principal authors.

Classical Writers. Edited by /. R. Green. App. 60 cts.

A similar series, containing fewer treatises, but of the highest
excellence.

W. C. Wilkinson. Preparatory Greek Course in English. N.Y.
Phillips & Hunt.

Especially adapted to non-classical readers.

W. Smith. Dictionary of Antiquities. M. $6.00.

Id. Dictionary of Classical Biography and Mythology. 3 v. M.
SflS.OO.

Id. Dictionary of Classical Geography. 2 v. M. i$12.00.

/(/. Classical Atlas. M. !§40.00.

The most complete works of reference. Smaller works are : —

A. Rich. Dictionary of Antiquities.

W. Smith. Classical Dictionary. H.

E. Guhl and W. Koner. The Life of the Cxreeks and Romans. L.
Chatto & Wiudus. §4.00.

6. Oriental History.

XM. Duncker. History of Antiquity. 6 v.f L. Bentley. !$50.0().

Covers only the oriental period, but is the best compendium for
this period.

F. Lenormant and E. Chevallier. Manual of the Ancient History
of the East.f 2 v. L. Asher. 1869. $5.50.

F. Lenormant. The Beginnings of History. f Scr. $2.50.

250 HISTOIIICAT. LITElIATrKE AND AUTHORITIES.

G. Rau'linsori. The Origin of Nations. Scr. §1.50.

XTd. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World
[Chakla^a, Assyria, Babylon, Media, and Persia]. Dodd, Mead,
& Co. §G.OO.

Td. The Sixth Great Monarchy [Parthia]. Dodd, Mead, & Co. !f2.00.

Id. The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy [Sassanidse]. ^4.00.

Id. History of Ancient Egypt. 2 v. IJ. Cassino. .f4.00.

All Cauou Rawlinson's works are marked by learning and ability.
They are writteu from the poiut of view of the absolute authority
of the Hebrew scriptures.

til. Brugsch Bey. Egypt under the Pharaohs. '2 v. M. ^12.00.

The best history of Egypt, by one of the most distinguished
Egyptologists.

XSir J. G. Wilkinson. The Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians. 3 v. M. if33.00.

The standard work upon the subject.
J//. Eber.'<. Egypt. C.

An illustrated work of the highest excellence.

\II. Eivald. History of Israel. 5 v. Longm. !$26.00.
By the greatest authority upon Hebrew history.

H. 11. Mibnan. History of the Jews. 3 v. X.Y. Widdleton. $5.25.
A popular work.

J. II. Allen. Hebrew Men and Times. R. .fl.50.

E, H. Palmer. History of the Jewish Nation ; from the earliest
times to the present day. Soc. $1.50.

C.R.Conder. Lifeof Judas Maccabeus [New Plutarch]. Put, $1.00.

t A. P. Stanley. History of the Jewish Church. 3 v. Scr. $7.50.

J. Kenrick. Phoenicia. L. Fellowes.

See also series of articles by R. Sluart-Poole in Cont. Rev., 1878-79,
on Ancient Egypt.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 251

* A uthorities.

Records of the Past. 6 v. L. Bagster. ^18.00.

Ancient History from the Monuments. 6 v. Soc. Each, 75 cts.

/. P. Cory. Ancient Fragments. L. Reeves.

7. History of Greece.

tGeo. Grote. History of Greece. 12 v. H. §18.00.

The most complete history ; from a liberal point of view.
Connop Thirlwall. History of Greece. 2 v. H.

An excellent and scholarly work.
XErnst Curtius. History of Greece. 5 v.f Scr. f 10.00.

The best German history ; a book of eloquence as well as
scholarship.

Sir G. W. Cox. General History of Greece. H. $1.25.

The best short history.

Wm. Smith. History of Greece. B. Ware. §2.00.

The American edition, edited by Pres. Felton, contains important
additions, bringing it down to the present century.

Id. Smaller History of Greece. H. 60 cts.

T. T. Timayenis. A History of Greece from the Earliest Times to
the Present. 2 v. App. §3.50.

Interesting as the work of a native Greek, and covering the
period of modern history.

C. C. Felton. Greece, Ancient and Modern. 2 v. Houghton. §5.00.
The best popular work on the history, literature, etc., of Greece.

E. A. Freeman. History of Federal Government. Vol. I. INIacm.

§7.00.

This, the only volume published, is chiefly devoted to the
Achfean League.

W. W. Lloyd. The Age of Pericles. 2 v. M. §6.00.
Id. History of Sicily to the Athenian War. M.

252 HISTORICAL literature and authorities.

The following belong to the series of Epochs of ancient history :

S. G. W. Benjamin. Troy. $L00.

Sir G. W. Cox. The Greeks and the Persians. $L00.

/(/. The Athenian Empii'e. §L00.

C. Sankey. The Spartan and Theban Supremacies. $1.00.

.1. M. Curteis. Rise of the Macedonian Empire. $1.00.

C. Peter. Chronological Tables of Greek History. Macm. $3.00.

/. P. Mahaffy. Social Life in Greece. Macm.

W. A. Becker. Charicles. L. 83.00.

A tale illustrating manners and customs.

ir. Mure. Critical History of the Language and Literature of
Ancient Greece. 5 v. Longm. $35.00.

This is the principal work ; a good short one is —

J. P. Mahaffy. Plistory of Classical Greek Literature. IL $4.00.

8. Roman History.

XTh. Mommsen. History of Rome. 4 v.f Scr. $8.00.
The best history of Rome ; reaches B.C. 40.

W. Ihne. History of Rome. 5 v.f Longm. $30.00.

Gives less attention than Mommsen to legal and economical
causes; is also more favorable to tlie Carthaginians. Reaches
B.C. 78.

Tho.^. Arnold. History of Rome. App. $3.00.

Of high literary merit, but based upon Niebuhr in its view of
Roman institutions, and therefore largely superseded by later
researches. Reaches B.C. 202.

Clios. Merivale. General History of Rome. App. $1.25.

The best short history of Rome, reaching to the fall of the
western empire, a.d. 476.

HISTORICAL LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 253

H. G. Liddell. History of Rome. H. $1.25.

Of a good deal of literary merit, founded chiefly upon Niebulir.
Reaches b.c. 30.

W. Smith and E. Lawrence. Smaller History of Rome. H. GO cts.
An excellent sketch, reaching a.d. 476.

A, Schwegler. Romische Geschichte. 2 v.f Tubingen. 1853-58.

An exhaustive cyclopaedia of Roman history, indispensable for
the student ; reaches B.C. 3D0. A fouilh voliune, by O. Clason
(Bar., Calvary), reaches b.c. 328.

T. H. Dyer. The History of the Kings of Rome. Lip. !$5.00.

Maintains the traditionary view, against Niebuhr. The same
view is presented with great learning and brilliancy by

Fr. Dor. Gerlach and /. /. Bachofen. Geschichte der Romer.f
Basel. 1851. Vol. I., $2.60.

The first volume, containing the history of the kings, is the only
one ever ijublished.

V. Duruy. History of Rome. 0 v.f L. Kelly [now publishing].
Magnificently illustrated ; a work of high merit.

%Geo. Long. The Decline of the Roman Republic. 5 v. L. Bell.
$28.00.

An exhaustive collection of facts from B.c. 154 to 44, accom-
panied with acute criticism.

XChas. Meriimle. History of the Romans under the Empire. 7 v.
App. $14.00. New edition, 4 v., $7.00.

From B.C. 60 to a.d. 180. The best account of the period between
Mommsen and Gibbon.

R. Congreve. The Roman Empb'e of the West. L. Parker. $1.75.
By an eminent positivist.

JJ. R, Seeley. Roman Imperialism. R. $1.50.

Three lectures on the establishment and decline of the empire.

XEdw. Gibbon. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire. 6 v. Lip. $12.00.

The Students' Gibbon. H. $1.25.

Gibbon is an indispensable guide for the twelve centuries from
the accession of Commodus to the fall of Constantinople.

254 IIISTORICAI. LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

A. J. ^fason. The Persecutions of Diocletian. L. Bell. 83.50.
An attempt to vindicate Diocletian.

%Thos. Hodglin. Italy and her Invaders. 2 v. Macm. §8.00.
A history of tlie Visigotlis, Vandals, and Huns.

C. Kingslcy. The Roman and the Teuton. Macni. §1.75.

ir. E. II. Lecky. History of European Morals, from Augustus to
Charlemagne. 2 v. App. 63.00.

JThe following belong to the series of Epochs of Ancient History : —

William Ihne. Early Rome. 81.00.

R. Bosicorth Smith. Rome and Carthage. $1.00.

A. II. Beesly. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla. $1.00.

Chcu!. Merivale. The Roman Triumvirates. $1.00.

W. W. Capes. The Early Empire. §1.00.

///. The Age of the Antonines. $1.00.

% W. S. Teuffel. History of Roman Literature.f $7.50.

The best German work. The best English works are: —
%G. A. Simcox. History of Latin Literature. 2 v. II. $4.00.

XC. T. Crutwell. History of Roman Literature. Scr. $2.50.

An excellent short manual is
L. Schmitz. History of Roman Literature. $1.25.

XTh. Mommsen and J. Marquardt. Ilandbuch der Romischen
Alterthumer. 7 v.f Lp. Ilirzel. Vol. L, $4.40; Vol. II.,
Aleth. 1, .$4.80, Aleth. 2, .$3..30; Vol. IIL, not out yet; Vol. IV.,
$3.30 ; Vol. v., .$4.05 ; Vol. VI., .$4.05 ; Vol. VII., $G.G0.

Mommsen's partis Staatsrecht; Marquardt's, Staatsverwaltung.
Neither is yet complete. This is the greatest work on Roman
antiquities, superseding the earlier work by Becker and Mar-
quardt (5 V. Lp.).

W. A. Becker. Gallus. .$3.00.

A treatise on antiquities in the form of a tale.

HISTOEICAL LITER ATUEE AND AUTHOEITIES. 255

L. Lange. Romische Alterthumer. 3 v.f Ber. Weidmann. <'^8.45-
This work, which is rather historical than systematic, reaches
B.C. 30.

W. Ravisay. Manual of Roman Antiquities. L. Griffin. $3.00.
Excellent when written, bi;t now antiquated in many parts.

/. R. Seeley. First Book of lA\j. Macm. 81-50.

The introduction to this worli contains the best discussion in
English of the institutions of the period of the kings.

F. W. Neicman. Regal Rome. N.Y. Redfield. 1852. 63 cents.
Contains much interesting matter.

R. F. Leighton. History of Rome. N.Y. Clark & Maynard. $1.44.
A school history, but contains the most complete statement in
English of the latest results of scholarship.

W. T. Arnold. The Roman System of Provincial Administration.
Macm, 11.75.

V. Rydherg. Roman Days. 62.00.
Art and life under the empire.

Wm. Forsyth. Life of Cicero. Scr. $2.50.

A good work; even better is that by
t Anthony Trollope. 2 v. H. $3.50.

It is distinguished for vivid and correct portraiture. Its view is

favorable to Cicero.

/. A. Froude. Caesar. Scr. $2.50.

Brilliant, but not always accurate. It presents the most eulo-
gistic view of Caesar's character and career. The same view is
presented in the Life of Julius Csesar ascribed to the Emperor
Napoleon in. [2 v. Scr.]

E. S. Beesly. Catiline, Clodiiis, and Tiberius. L. C. & II. $2.00.

Able and interesting, by a distinguished positivist, in defence of
these three characters. Tiberius also finds a defender in

F. Huidekoper. Judaism in Rome. [Note G.] N.Y. Francis.

$2.25.

Thos. De Quinccy. The Cfesars. Houghton. $1.50.
An entertaining sketch.

Earl Stanhope. Life of Belisarius. L. $3.50.

25o HlSTOPvTf'AL T.ITERATURE AND AFTIIOIIITIES.

Montesquieu's Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans, translated
by Jehu Baker. Ai>p. 82.00.
An old work of much value.

See article by Goldwin Smith in Cont. Rev., May, 1878, on the
Greatness of the Romans.

Authorities.

Translations of the classic authors may be fomid in Bohn's Classical
Library, republislied by Harper ; besides these, we will mention

Herodotus, — Oriental history, and the Persian wars, — translated
by Geo. Rawlinson. 4 v. 610.00.

Thucydides, — Peloponnesian War, — translated by B. Jowett.
Macm. 88.00.

Xenophon, — continuation of Thucydides, and expedition of Cyrus
the Younger. 82.00.

Livij, — Roman histoiy, — [to 390] translated by Geo. Baker. N.Y.
AVorthiugton. 87.50.
Finely illustrated.

Polyhius, — the chief authority for the Second Punic War, — trans-
lated by Hampton.

Sallust, — Jugurthine War and Conspiracy of Catiline, — translated
by A. W. Pollard. Macm. $1.60.

Ccesar, — civil and foreign wars, from B.C. 58 to 45. $2.00.

Tacitus, — the Roman empire, a.d. 14 to 70, with some interrup-
tions,— translated by Church and Brodribb. Macm. $2.00.

Suetonius, — lives of the Csesars, — translated by Thomson. 81-75.

Plutarch, — biographies, — translated by A. H. Clough. L. & B.
83.00.

Josephus, — Jewish wars. 82.00.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 257

9. Medieval and Modern History.

tH. Hallam. Middle Ages. 3 v. X.Y. ^5.25.

A sound and scholarly work, incomi^lete in certain parts {e.g.,
the north of Euroi^e), and superseded in others by recent in-
vestigations, but still indispensable.

XF. Guizot. Lectures on the History of Civilization in France and
in p]urope. 4 v. App. .55.60.

Likewise indispensable, and still containing the best view in
English of feudal society.

/. Balmes. European Civilization. f Baltimore. Murphy. 83.00.
A comparison of Protestantism and Catholicism in their rela-
tion to civilization, by a Catholic writer.

F. Ozanam. History of Civilization in the Fifth Century.f Lip.
$3.50.

A work of eloquence and spiritual power.

C. J. Stille. Studies in Mediaeval History. Lip. ^S.OO.

An excellent course of lectures ; especially good in the history
of civilization, less satisfactory in that of institutions.

XA. M. Curteis. History of the Roman Empire. Lip. 8L50.

From A.D. 395 to 800; with good maps. The best brief sketch
of this period.

%R. W. ChurcTi. The Beginnings of the Middle Ages. [E.S.] $1.00.
Covers a somewhat later period; from a.d. 500 to 1000.

P. Lacroix. Manners, Customs, and Dress in the ]\Iiddle Ages.f App.

$12.00.
Id. The Arts in the Middle Ages.f App. $12.00.

Id. Science and Literature in the Middle Ages.f L. Bickers. $12.00.

Finely illustrated works, of the highest value.

E. L. Crilts. Scenes and Characters in the Middle Ages. L. Virtue.

$5.00.

With good illustrations of manners, customs, etc.

/. /. Sheppard. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the New
Xationalities. IST.Y. $2.50.

A good manual for students.
XE. A. Freeman. Historical Essays. Series 1 and 3. Macm. $3.00.

Series 1 treats of mediaeval history; Series 3, of Eastern Europe.

258 HiSToiacAL i.itekatuee and authorities.

V. lli/dherg. ISIa^nc of the Middle Ages.f Holt. $1.75.

XH. von St/bel. History and Literature of the Crusades.f C. & H.

lO.v. Gci.
J. F. Mlchaud. History of the Crusades. 4 v.f N.Y. Redfield.

63.75.

Sir G. W. Cox. The Crusades. [E.S.] 81.00.

a. Z. Gray. The Children's Crusade. Ilougliton. 11.50.

Michaud's is the standard history of the crusades ; Cox's, the
best short sketch ; Sybel's work presents the best results of
scholarship.

C. Milh. History of Chivalry. 2 v. Ph. Carey & Lea. $1.25.

The standard work upon the subject.
E. VioUet-le-fluc. Annals of a Fortress.f B. $5.00.

By a distinj^ished architect and historian.

E. L. Cutts. Constantine. Soc. $1.05.
Id. Charlemagne. Soc. $1.05.

F. C. WoodJiouse. ]\Iilitai-y Religious Orders of the Middle Ages.
Soc. $1.05.

Excellent books of a popular character.

A. L. Koeppen. The World in the Middle Ages. 2 v. App. $3.00.

A thorough and accurate geography of the middle ages, with an

atlas.
F. de Coulanges. Listitutions Politiques de I'Ancienne France. f
2 V. r. Ilachette. $5.25.

A brilliant but not .ilways trustworthy description of political

society in the beginning of the middle ages.

W. Smyth. Lectures upon Modern History. B. Mussey.

XT. Arnold. Lectures on Modern History. App. $1..50.
These courses of lectures are old, but valuable.

T. II. Dyer. History of Modem Europe. 5 v. Bell. $22.50.
The best work, extending from 14.5.3 to 1871.

C. D. Yomje. Three Centuries of Modern History. App. $2.00.
A popular and interesting sketch.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 259

James White. Eighteen Christian Centuries. App. $2.00.

An entertaining popular outline of history from the Christian era.

%A . H. L. Heeren. Manual of the History of the Political System
of Europe and its Colonies.f ^1.50.

Id. Historical Treatises.f $5.00.

Heeren's ^yritings are of the highest excellence.

E. J. Payne. History of European Colonies. [Freeman's Hist.
Series.] Holt. Sgi.lO.

F. C. Schlosser. History of the Eighteenth Century.f 8 v. C. & H.

10. Ecclesiastical History.

XH. H. Milman. The History of Christianity from the Birth of
Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire..
3 V. N.Y. Armstrong. 85.25.

Xld. History of Latin Christianity. 8 v. K'.Y. Armstrong. §14.00..
The best general history of the church in the middle ages ;,
reaching the end of the pontiiicate of Nicholas V., 1455.

/. C. L. Gieseler. A Text-book of Church History.f 5 v. H. $5.25.
The standard complete history of the church.

/. Alzog. Manual of Universal Church History.f 3 v. Cincinnati..
Clarke. $15.00.

From a Catholic point of view; fair and learned.

/. J. Dollinger. The First Age of Christianity. 2 v. SG.OO.
Also by a Catholic of great learning and reputation.

E. Renan. [Hibbert Lect., 1880.] The Influence of the Institu-
tions, etc., of Rome upon Christianity. W. & X. §3.50.

F. D. Maurice. Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the Fu'st.
and Second Centuries. Macm. §3.50.

/. H. Newman. Historical Sketches. 3 v. L. Pickering. $6.00,
Chiefly connected with church history.

R. C. Trench. Lectures on Mediaeval Chm-ch History. Scr. $3.00.
A good popular sketch.

200 HTSTOraCAL literature AKD AUTHORITrES.

C. Ilardwick. A History of the Cliristian Church. Middle Ages.
Macm. 62.25.

Id. The Reformation. :\racin. 82.25.

Excellent compendiums of handy reference.

A.R.Pennington. Epochs of tho Papacy. L. Bell. lO.s, GrZ.

A book of much merit; from tho point of view of the Church of
England.

J. F. Clarke. Events and Epochs of Religious History. Osgood.

83.00.

J. IT. Allen. Christian History in its Three Great Periods. 3 v. R.

§3.75.

Academic lectures. Early Christianity ; tho Middle Ages ;
Modern Phases.

II. C. Lea. A History of Sacerdotal Celibacy. Houghton. 83.75.
Id. Studies in Church History [Temporal Power ; Benefit of Clergy ;
Excommunication]. Ph. Lea. 82.75.

Id. Suj^erstition and Force [Wager of Law and Battle ; Ordeal ;
Torture]. Ph. Lea. 82.50.

Books of sound and independent scholarship.

T. Grcemvood. Cathedra Petri. G v. L. Dickinson & Higham.

83.00.

A political history of the Papacy, ending 1420.

M. Creighton. The Papacy during the Reformation. 2 v. Houghton.
810.00.

The two volumes published extend from 1.378 to 14G4.

Sir J. Stephen. Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. Longm. 75. Qd.

A. F. Villemain. Life of Gregory Vll.f 3 v. Bentley. 2Gs.

J. C. Morison. Life and Times of St. Bernard. Macm. 82.00.

Baron Hiibner. Life and Times of Sixtus V.f Longm. 24s.

The Fathers for English Readers. Soc. 10 v. Each, 75 cents.
The Conversion of the "West. Soc. 5 v. Each, 60 cents.
Two series of small works of merit.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AXD AUTHORITIES. 261

The Reformation Period.

G, P. Fisher. History of the Reformation. Scr. $3.00.
An excellent work.

XL. Hdusser. Period of the Reformation. f N.Y. §2.50.

A course of lectures of high scholarship and historic insight.

M. J, Spalding. History of the Protestant Reformation. Baltimore.
Mui-phy. §3.50.

By the Catholic archhishop of Baltimore. See also his Miscel-
lanies. 2 V.

XF. Seebohm. History of the Protestant Revolution. [E.S.] 81.00.

A compendium of great accuracy and value.
J. H. Merle D'Auhigne. History of the Reformation.! 5 v. N.Y.
Carter. §4.50.

Ultra-Protestant in tone.

XL. von Ranke. Historj^ of the Popes.f 3 v. L. Bell. §3.75.

The hest history of the period of the Reformation, from a politi-
cal point of view.

C. Beard. [Hibbert Lect., 1883.] The Reformation of the 16th
Century in its Relation to IModern Thought. W. & N. lOs. Qd.

J. H. Treadwell. Martin Luther and his Work. [Xew Plutarch.]

Put. 81.00.

R. B. Drummond. Erasmus, his Life and Character. 2 v. S. & E.

D. Strauss. Ulrich von Hutten.f L. Daldy. 10s. 6d.
H. Morley. Clement Marot. 2 v. C. & H. 18s.

K. Benrath. Bernardino Ochino of Siena.f L. Nisbet. 9s.

R. C. Christie. Etienne Dolet. Macro. $5.00.

These are persons whose lives illustrate some special phase of
the Reformation.

P. Sarpi. History of the Council of Trent.

Ranked hy Macaulay with Thucydides.
/. A. Wylie. History of Protestantism. 3 v. C. §15.00.

See essays on Luther by Stephen, Carhjle, Froude, and Mozley ; also
his Table Talk, and Erasmus" Colloquies. A life of Luther, by
Peter Bayne, is in preparation ; also a translation of Kostlin's
popular work, to be published by Scribner.

202 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AJ^D AUTHORITIES.

^ For Reference.

W. Smith. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 2 v. M. $7.00.

hi. Dictionary of Christian Biography. 2 v. M. 811-00.

7\ Schajf. Religious Encj'clopscdia [based on that of Herzog].
3v. K.Y. Funk & Wagualls. 8G.00.

11. History of Engi.axd, Ireland, and Scotland.

David Hume. History of England. G v. Lip. $0.00.

In elegant style, with strong Tory bias ; is excellent in social
history, but lacks accurate scholiirship.

./. Lincjnrd. History of England. 13 v. 820.00.

A Catholic work, able and scholarly. This, like Hume, comes
down only to IGSS.

<:. Knifjld. Tlie Popular History of England. 8 v. Ph. 810.00.

Liberal in tone, with abundant illustrations.
+./. n. Green. History of the English People. 4 v. II. 810.00.

The best history of England ; its fault is in disregarding too

much the chronological order.

Id. A Short History of the English People. II. 81.75.
An earlier work of similar character.

XJ. F. Bright. English History for the Use of Public Schools. 3 v.
N.Y. Dutton. 17s.

An excellent work; especially good for reference. Both Bright
and Green have numerous maps and genealogical tables.

.T. S. Brewer. The Student's Hujue. II. 81.25.

More than an abiidgment. The editor has added accuracy and
liberality of tone.

The Pictorial History of' England. 8 v. £5.

A work of solid merit, with numerous illastrations.
Sir James Mackintosh. History of England.

In Lardner's Cyclopaedia.
Miss E. Thompson. History of England. Holt. [Freeman's
Historical Series.] 80 cents.

HISTORICAL LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 263

XJ. H. Burton. History of Scotland. 8 v. and index. Ed. Blackwood.
Each, 7s. Qd.

The best history of Scotland.

Miss M. Macarikur. History of Scotland. Holt. [Freeman's
Historical Series.] 80 cents.

E. M. Rohertson. Scotland under her Early Kings. 2 v. Ed.
Edmonston. 36s.

Reaches the end of the thirteenth century. Able and scholarly,
but confused in arrangement.

W. F. Skene. Celtic Scotland. 3 v. Ed. Edmonston. Each, 15s.
The most complete work upon Scottish antiquities.

XC. G. Walpole. The Kingdom of Ireland. H. §1.75

An excellent history of Ireland, with very good maps ; reaches
1800.

W. Dolby. History of Ii-eland. X.Y. Virtue. §10.00.

/. H. McCarthy. Outline of Irish History. Baltimore. Murphy.
75 cents.

XMrs. E. S. Armitage. The Childhood of the English Nation. Put.

81.25.

An admirable sketch; reaches 1199.

XE. A. Freeman. Old English History. Macm. 81..50.

The Anglo-Saxon j^eriod ; originally written for the young.
Id. Short History of the Xorman Conquest. Macm. 60 cents.
Xld. History of the Norman Conquest. 5 v. and index. Macm.

§20.00.

Mr. Freeman's greatest work, and the best history of the period.

Id. History of William Riifus. Macm. §8.00.
A continuation of the above.

A. Tliierry. History of the Norman Conquest.f 2 v. L. BeU.
Each, 3s. M.

Brilliant, but resting upon unsound theories.

C. Elton. Origins of English History. L. Quaritch. §8.00.

A work of great learning and research ; embracing the Celtic
period and the Anglo-Saxon conquest.

264 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

tJ. Hhys. Celtic Britain. Soc. 75 cents.

By au emiueut Celtic scholar. It gives a history of the Celtic
nationalities of Britain through the eleventh century.

XGraiit Allen. Anglo-Saxou Britain. Soc. 75 cents.

The author opposes Freeman's view of an exclusively Teutonic
character of the English nationality.

XJ. n. Green. Tlie ^laliing of England. II. 82.50.

Describes graphically and in detail the events of the Anglo-Saxon
conquest and the Heptarchy.

J. M. Kemhle. The Saxons in England. 2 v. L. Quaritch. 24s.
Old, but full of valuable material.

7*^05. Nicholas. Pedigree of the English People. Longm. 16s.
Argues for a large Celtic element in the English people.

E. Guest. Origines Celticae. 2 v. Macni. !$9.()0.

An unfinished work containing papers of remarkable merit,
especially in relation to the Anglo-Saxon conquest.

J. M. Lappenherfj. History of England nnder the Anglo-Saxon
Kings. 2 v. L. Bell. Each, 'is. Gd.

Id. History of England under the Xorman Kings. 15s.

Scholarly works, but partly superseded by later writers.

W. Longman. Lectures on the Early History of England. Longm.

1.5s.
C. II. Pearson. England during the Early and Middle Ages. 2 v.
L. Bell. H.'^.

Reaches death of Edward I.; of great value in political and
constitutional history.
Id. Historical Maps of England. L. Bell. £llls. 6^/.

Illustrates especially the social and political condition of the
middle ages. Contains material not to be found elsewhere.

W. II. Blaauw. Tlie Barons' War. L. Bell. 10s. Qd.

An excellent monograph on the times of Montfort.
Greatest of all the Plantagenets. L. Bentley. 12s.

A history of Edward I.; very eulogistic, but on the whole sound.

X W. Longman. History of the Life and Times of Edward III. 2 v.
Longm. 28s.

The most important work for the history of England in the
fourteenth century.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE A2sT> AUTHORITIES. 2G5

XC. H. Pearson. English History in the Foiu'teenth Century. L.
Kiviugtous. 3s. 6d.

An excellent short history.

G. M. Toide. History of Henry V. App. $2.50.

Miss C. A. Halsted. Richard HI. Ph. Carey.
An attempt to vindicate his character.

Jas. Gairdner. Life and Reign of Richard the Third. Longm.
10s. M.

Sustains the traditionary view.

XJ- A. Froude. History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the
Death of Elizabeth. 12 v. Scr. $18.00.

Reaches only 1688. A fascinating narration, friendly to Henry
YIII.; deficient iu judicial qualities.

Miss Lucy Aikin. IMemoirs of the Coiirt of Queen Elizabeth.
Longm. 3s. Qd.

Aq old but valuable book.

XL. von Ranke. History of England.f 6 v. Macm. $16.00.

A work of the highest value and importance ; embraces the
sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries.

XS. R. Gardiner. History of England : 1. From the accession of
James I. to the disgrace of Coke, 2 vols. ; 2. The Spanish
marriage ; 3. Under the Duke of Buckingham and Charles I.,
2 vols. ; 4. Personal government of Charles I., 2 vols. ; 5. Fall
of the Monarchy of Charles I., 2 vols. Longm. Each, 12s.

Mr. Gardiner is the highest authority upon this period. A new
and cheaper edition of the combined work is now publishing.

Earl of Clarendon. History of the Rebellion. 6 v. Ox. £1 2.'{.
The author, as Sir Edward Hyde, was a leading actor in tho
events.

XB. M. Cordery and J. S. PMllpotls. King and Commonwealth.
Ph. Porter & Coates. $1.75.

An excellent sketch ; from 1603 to 1660.

F, Guizot. 1. History of the English Revolution of 1640;
2. England imder Oliver Cromwell, 2 v. ; 3. Under Richard
Cromwell, 2 v. ; 4. History of Monk.f L. Per vol., 3s. Gd.

260 HISTOKICAL IJTERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

A. Biiset. History of the Struggle for Parliamentary Government
in England. 2 v. '24s.

Id. History of the Commonwealth of England from the Death of
Charles I. to the Expulsion of the Long Parliament by Crom-
well. 2 V. ms.

An able exposition of the parliamentary side.

J. Forsler. The Ai-rest of the Five Members by Charles I. M. \'2s.
Id. The Grand Remonstrance. M. 12s.

XF. von Raumer. The Political History of England during the 16th,
17th, and 18th Centuries. 2 v.f £1 10s.
By a distinguished German historian.

XT. B. Macaulay. History of England. 5 v. H. 82.50.

Strongly Whig; a brilliant work; unfinished; covers the reigns

of James II. and William III., with a general sketch of that of

Charles II.
%Sir James Mackintosh. Histoiy of the Revolution of 1688.

An able work ; also Whig. Unfinished.

C. J. Fox. History of James II. Scr. §1.25.

/. //. Burton. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 3 v. Scr.
ei3..50.

Whig ; by the author of the history of Scotland.

Earl Stanhope. History of the Reign of Queen Anne. 2 v. M. 10s.
Id. History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of
Versailles [1713 to 1783]. 7 v. M.

These two works give the history of the eighteenth centurj' from

a Tory point of view.

X W. E. H. Lechj. History of England in the 18th Century. 4 v.
App. 80.00.

Not yet finished; from a Whig point of view.

J. Ashton. Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne. Scr. §9.00.

Graphic and accurate.

J.A.Froude. The English in Ireland in the 18th Century. 3 v. Scr.

§3.00.

Written with a strong English bias.

J. Adolphus. A Historj' of England from the Accession of George

m. to 1803. 7 v. Each, 14s.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 267

W. Massey. A Historj' of England during the Reign of George the
Third. 4 v. Each, Qs.

Massey is Whig ; Adolphus, Tory.

Miss H. Martineau. History of the Peace [to 1854].* 4 v. B.
Wallier. $10.00.

S. Walpole. History of England from the Conclusion of the Great
War in 1815 to 1841. 3 v. Longm. £2 14s.

W. N. Molesworth. History of England from 1830 to 1874. 3 v.
C. & H. ^6.00.

%J. McCarthy. History of Om- Own Times. 2 v. H. $2.50.

H. M. Hozier, Invasions of England, 2 v. Macm. $8.00.

J.S\ R. Gardiner. Introduction to English History. [In English
History for Students.] N.Y. Holt. 80 cents.

R. Pauli. Pictures of Old England.f Macm. 65.
Belonging to mediaeval history.

Miss C. M. Yonge. Cameos from English History. Macm. $5.00.
Four series, covering mediajval history.

/. Gairdner and J. Spcdding. Studies in English History. Ed.
Douglas. 12s.

Belonging to the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.

A. C. Eirald. Stories from the State Papers. Houghton. $3.00.
Belonging to the same period.

T. B. Macaulay. Essays. 4 v. Houghton. $5.00.
Devoted chietly to modern English history.

/. S. Brewer. English Studies. M. 14s.

{/. E. T. Roger.H. History of Agriculture and Prices. 4 v. Macm.
$23.00.

Covers the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries.

F. Seebokm. The English Village Community. Longm.

W. Cunningham. Growth of English Industry and Commerce. C.
$3.00.

C. Hole. Genealogical Stenmia of the Kings of England and
France. Macm. Is.

268 iusToi:ic^u. literature ,vsb authorities.

XEpoclis of Modern History. Scr.
W. Stubbs. The Early Tlantagenets. §1.00.
W. Warburton. Ed\Yard III. 81.00.
./. Gairdner. Tlie Houses of Lancaster and York. $1.00.
M. Crelghton. The Age of Elizabeth. 81.00.
S. R. Gardiner. The Puiitan Revolution. 81.00.
E. Hale. The Fall of the Stuarts. 81.00.
E. E. Morris. The Age of Anne. 81.00.
J. McCarthy. Epoch of Reform. 1830-1850. 81.00.

Epochs of English History. E. & L. 50 cents each.

E. York-Powell. Early England [to lOGG].

L. Creighton. England a Continental Power [to 10G6].

J. Rowley. The Rise of the People and the Growth of Parliament

[to 1485].
M. Creighton. The Tudors and the Reformation [to 1603].
B. M. Gardiner. The Struggle against Absolute Monarchy [to

1688].
J. Rowley. The Settlement of the Constitution [to 1778].
0. W. Tancock. England during the American and European

Wars [to 1820].
T. Arnold. ISIodern England [to 1875].

Biographies.

t Alfred the Great. By R. Pauli.-\ Scr. §2.00.

Id. By Thomas Hughes. [Sunday Library.] Macm. 81-75.

St. Anselm. By /i. W. Church. [Sunday Library.] Macm. 81-75.

Id. By M. Rule. [Catholic] 2 v. L. Paul. 32s.

Becket. Articles by /. A. Froude, Nineteenth Century, 1877.

Id. By E. A. Freeman [in reply; more favorable], Cont. Rev.,

1878.
Richard Cceur de Lion. By G. P. R. James. 2 v. Scr. 82.80.

HISTOEICAL LITEEATURE AND AUTHOEITIES. 209

JSimon de Montfort. By R. Paull] L. Triibner. 6s.

Id. By G. W. Prothero. [More a history than biography.] Longm.

9s.
tWyclLf. By G. LecUer.\ 2 v. L. Paul. 21s.

Lives of English Popular Leaders. By C.E. Maurice. 1. Stephen
Langton ; 2. Tyler, Ball, Oldcastle. L. King. Each, 7s. Or/.

Historical Gleanings. By J. E. T. Rogers. 1. Walpole, Adam
Smith ; 2. Wyclif, Laud, Wilkes, Home Tooke. Macm. 1st,
^1.50; 2d, 11.75.

Whittington. By W. Besant and J. Rice. [New Plutarch.] Put.
$1.00.

Sir Walter Raleigh. By E. Edwards. 2 v. Macm. $9.00

JBacon. Py /. Spedding. 2 v. Houghton. $5.00.

For the Period of the English Revolution.
Strafford. By Miss E. Cooper. 2 v. L. Tmsley. 30s.
Eliot. By /. Forster. 2 v. C. & H. 14s.

JCromwell. By Thos. Cai-lyle. [Letters and Speeches.] 5 v. Scr.
$18.00.

tid. Bj J. A.Picton. C. $2.50.

Id. By Paxton Hood. N.Y. Funk & Wagiialls. $1.00.

/. B. Mozley. Essays. [Strafford, Laud, Cromwell.] 2 v. L. 24s.

Three English Statesmen. By G. Smith. [Pym, Cromwell.] H.
$1.50.

Statesmen of the Conunonwealth. By /. Forster. $2.25.

Chief Actors in the Puritan Revolution By P. Bayne. L. Clarke.
12s.

JMilton. By D. Masson. 6 v. Macm. $34.00.
Contains a minute history of the times.

W. Carstares. By R. H. Story. Macm. $3.00.

A prominent actor in the Scotch union.
Marlborough. By W. Coxe. 3 v. L. BeU. Each, 3s. Qd.

•270 lllSTOKICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

Sir R. Walpole. By A. C. Ewahl. C. & II. 18s.

C. E. Stuart. By A. C. Ewald. 2 v. C. & II. £1 18s.

Lord Slielburue. By Lord E. Fitzmawice. 3 v. Macm. 16s.

JC. J. Fox. By G. O. Trevdyan. II. §2.50.

tWilliam Pitt. By Earl Stanhope. II. §2.50.

III. By Goldicin Smith. [Throe English Statesmen.] H. §1.50.

Lord Campbell. Lives of the Chief Justices. 4 v. L. & B. §7.00.
/(/. Lives of the Chancellors. 10 v. L. & B. §17.50.

Mrs. A . Strickland. Lives of the Queens of England. 6 v. Lip.
§12.00.

A. C. Ewald. Representative Statesmen. [Strafford to Palmerston.]
2 v. C. & H. £1 4s.

C. A. Sainte-Beuve. English Portraits. f Holt. §2.00.

D. O. Maddyn. Chiefs of Parties. [Fox, Pitt, etc.] 21s.

History of Religion.

Xlt. W. Dixon. History of the Church of England. 2 v. Rout-
ledge. Each, lO.s'.

The most thorough and important work ; not yet completed.
XJ. H. Blunt. The Reformation of the Church of England. 2 v.
X.Y. Young. §8.r)0.

The best complete history ; extends from 1514 to 16G2. From the
point of view of the Church of England.

./. J. Blunt. Sketch of the Reformation ua England. Young. §1.50.

An excellent short sketch.
Cunningham Geikie. The English Reformation : How it came
about, and why we should uphold it. App. §2.00.

A popular and rather one-sided work.

W. Cobhett. History of the Protestant Reformation in England
and Ireland. N.Y. Sadlier. 75 cents.

A violent attack upon the English Reformation, by a nominal
Protestant. For the Catholic view, see Lingard and Spalding.

F. Seebohm. The Oxford Reformers. Longm. 14s.
Diocesan Histories [Cauterbuiy, Duiham, etc.]. Soc.

HISTOE.ICAX, LITERATURE AJS'D AUTHORITIES. 271

Constitutional History.

tW. Stubis. Constitutional History of England. 3 v. Macm. 87.80.

XH. Hallam. Constitutional History of England. 3 v. N. Y. Arm-
strong. §5.25.

X T. E. May. Constitutional History of England. 2 v. N. Y, Arm-
strong. 82.50.

These three works form a connected series, Hallam beginning
1485, where Stubbs ends, and ending 17G0, where May begins.

Sheldon Amos. Fifty Years of the English Constitution. L. & B.

T. P. Tastvell-Lan gmead. Constitutional History of England. 87.50.

The best compendium of the subject.
P. V. Smith. History of English Institutions. Lip. ^1.50.

A good short work, with a peculiar arrangement.

E. A. Freeman. Growth of the English Constitution. Macm. 82.00.

H. Adams [and others]. Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law. L. & B.

8L00.
M. M. Bigelow. History of Anglo-Norman Procedure. L. & B.

85.00.
Sir Jas. Stephen. History of the Criminal Law of England. 3 v.

Macm.

See also the following articles : by /. E. T. Rogers, on The Black
Death, Fortn. Rev., 1866 ; the Peasants' War, id. ; History of
Rent in England, Cont. Rev., April, 1880 ; by F. Seebohin, on
The Black Death, Fortn. Rev., 1865-66 ; by Ch-ant Allen, Are we
English? in Fortn. Rev., Oct., 1880 [presenting Celtic argu-
ment] ; by F. Harrison, on Law of Treason, in Fortn. Rev.,
Sept., 1882 ; by Goldwin Smith, on the Greatness of England, in
Cont. Rev., Dec, 1878; by F. Seehohm, HistoricaL Claims of
Tenant Rights, in 19th Cent., Jan., 1881 ; also on Land Tenures
in England and in Ireland, in Fort. Rev., 1870 ; hj R. D. Osborn,
Another Side of a Popular Story [India], iu Fort. Rev., Aug.,
1882.

272 insTouicAL liter atuhe and authorities.

Authorities.
XJ. Bass Mullinger. Authorities [in English History for Students].

N.y. Holt. $1.80.

A compendions view of the principal authorities.

JC A'. Ada7}u<t. Questions and Notes on English Constitutional
History. Ann Arbor. Sheehan.

A complete and accurate guide to the authorities. A less lull
guide will be found in Prof. Short's Reference Lists, referred to
elsewhere.

Jas. Gairdncr. Early Chroniclers of Europe. England. Soc. 81.20.

An interesting account of the English chronicles. Translations
of most of the chronicles will be found in Bohn's Library. Bell.

Froissart's Chronicles [fourteenth century] . N.Y. Leavitt & Allen.
§12.00.

/. E. T. Rogers. Loci e libro veritatis. ]\Iacm. §2.75.

Belongs to the fifteenth century.
Id. The Paston Letters. 4 v. L. Arber.

A collection of family letters, of the time of the War of the

Roses.
D'Ewes' Autobiography and Correspondence. 2 v. L. Bentley.

£1 85.
The Fairfax Correspondence. 4 v. L. Bentley. £3.

S. Pepys. Diary and Correspondence. Scr. §2.00.

/. Evelyn. Diary and Correspondence. Scr. §1.75.

These two works present a vivid picture of society in the last
half of the seventeenth century.

//. Walpole. Letters. 9 v. Scr. §3.3.75.

Full of information for the middle of the eighteenth century.

Cobhett's Parliamentary History, continued in Hansard's Parliar

mentary Debates.
Rijmer's Foedera [collection of treaties].
The publications of the Master of the Rolls.
The publications of the Camden Society, and similar societies.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 273

12. History of France.

tF. Guizot. History of France.f 8 v. SiJ40.00.

Handsomely illustrated. The best large history of France in
English.

XG. W. Kitchin. History of France. 3 v. Macm. ^7.80.
The best English work.

H. W. Jervis. Student's History of France. H. S1.25.

An excellent small work, with instructive illustrations.
/. Michelet. History of France. 2 v.f App. 84.00.

Very learned, and very brilliant, but too abounding in theory.
F. Guizot and G. Masson. Concise History of France.f E. & L.
^3.00.

tP. Lacomhe. The Growth of a People.f Holt. i^l.OO.

An admirable work, descriptive of the development of the nation.
Parke Godwin. History of France. Vol. I. H. .f3.00.

An excellent history of the period before Charlemagne. No

other volumes were published.

//. Martin. History of France (during the reigns of Louis XTV.
and Louis XV.). 3 v.f B. E. & L. .S16.50.

Martin's is considered the best history of France.

Sir Jas. Stephen. Lectures on the History of France. H. $3.00.

An admirable commentary upon French history.
Miss C, M. Yonge. History of France. [Freeman's Hist. Series.]
Holt. 80 cents.

F. Guizot. St. Louis and Calvin. [Sunday Library.] Macm.

D. F. Jamison. Life and Times of Bertrand du Guesclin. 2 v.
Lip. .314.00.

Janet Tuckey. Joan of Arc. Put. [New Plutarch.] $L00.

Harriet Parr. Life and Death of Jeanne d'Arc. 2 v. S. & E. 6s.

T.Willert. TheReignof Louis the Eleventh. Put. i?1.50.

%II. M. Baird. History of the Rise of the Huguenots. 2 v. Scr.

§5.00.

The best history of the subject.

W. Besant. Coligny and the Failure of the French Reformation.

[New Plutarch.] Put.

274 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

Due <rAitmaIc. History of the Princes of the House of Conde.f 2 v.

L. Bentley. Ws.
L. lianke. Civil Wars and jSIonarchy in France.f II- 81. -W,

Lad >i Jack-sou. The Old Regime. Holt. 32.25.

A vivid picture of society luider Louis XV.
Due de Broglie. The King's Secret (Louis XV.).t 2 v. C. $5.00.

Has special reference to Polish affairs.
G. Masson. Early Chroniclers of Europe. France. Soc. $1.20.

Memoirs of Commines (Louis XL), Sully (Henry IV.), and others.

Revolutionary Period, etc.

A. Young. Travels in France during the Years 1787-89. 2 v.

The best contemporary picture of the condition of France before
the Revolution.

A. de Tocquerille. The Ancient Rdgime.f II. §1.50.

An analysis of the political condition of France at the same time.

C. D. Yonge. Life of ^Nlarie Aiitoiiiette. II. $2.50.

A popular work.
H. Vizetelly. Story of the Diamond Necklace. Scr. $2.25.

A vivid picture of society under the Old Regime. See also

Carlyle's essay upon the same subject.

C. K. Adams. Democracy and ^Monarchy in France. Ilolt. 82.50.
An excellent sketch of recent French history.

//. ,1. Taine. The Ancient Regune.f Holt. 82..50.

Id. The French Revolution. 2 v.f Holt. 85.00.

Not so much history as commentary ; very unfavorable to the
revolutionists.

%H. V. Syhel. History of the French Revolution. 4 v.f M. 48s.

The best and most important history.
T. Carlyle. History of the French Revolution. 3 v. Scr. 82.40.

Remarkable for graphic power.

Edmund Burke. Reflections on the French Revolution.

A bitter attack upon the revolution while still in progress ;

replied to by —
Sir Jos. Mackintosh. Vindiciae Gallicae.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 275

A. Thiers. The French Revohition.f 4 v. App. $8.00.

Id. The Consulate and Empire. f 5 v. Claxton. $12.50.

Thiers' works are written from an intensely French point of
view. His excessive laudation may be balanced by —

Sir A. Alison. History of Europe from 1789 to 1815. 8 v. H.

$16.00.

Strongly Tory.

XP. Lanfrey. History of Napoleon I. 4 v.f Macm. $12.50.

An incomplete work. Impartial in tone, but severe in judgment.
See also Channing's article on Napoleon Bonaparte.

W. Hazlitt. Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 3 v. Lip. $4.50.

Perhaps the best English work favorable to Napoleon.
H. Van Laun. The French Revolutionary Epoch. 2 v. App. $.3.50.

Comes down to 1870, but is much fullest in the earlier parts.
C. A. Fyffe. History of Europe (beginning 1879). 2 v. Holt.
Vol. I., $2.50.

XMrs. B. M. Gardiner. French Revolution. [E.S.] E. & L. $1.00.

Presents the results of the latest scholarship.
W. 0. Morris. The French Revolution and First Empire. [E.S.];
Scr. $1.00.

Valuable for an admirable bibliography by Hon. A. D. White..

J. Wilson. Studies of IModem Mind and Character. Longm. 20s..
Contains some excellent essays on French revolutionary history. .
W. F. P. Napier. History of the War in the Peninsula. 5 v. N.Y..
Armstrong. $7.50.

Earl Stanhope. The French Retreat from Moscow\ M. 7s. M..

This volume contains other valuable historical essays.
C.Adams. Great Campaigns [1796-1820]. Ed. Blackwood. 6s..
C. C. Chesney. Waterloo Lectures. Longm. 10s. M.
Dorsey Gardner. Quatre-Bras, Ligny, and Waterloo. Houghton. .

$5.00.

The best popular history of this campaign.

Louis Blanc. History of Ten Years. 1830-40. L. £1 6s.

By a radical republican.
A. de Lamartine. History of the Revolution of 1848. Scr. $r.40'..

Lamartine was at the head of the provisional government.

276 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

Memoirs of Mad. de Remusat-t (1802-8.) App. $2.00.

A graphic picture of the court of Napoleon, by one of Josephine's
maids of honor.

Correspondence of Prince Talleyrand and Louis XVIII. (1814-15.)
Scr. 81.00.

Especially in relation to the Congress of Vienna.

13. Special Histories.

J The following series of -works (Lip.) form a connecting link
between mediaeval and modern history : —

J. F. Kirk. History of Charles the Bold. 3 v. Lip. $9.00.

W. H. Prescott. Histoiy of Ferdinand and Isabella. 3 v. Lip. $4.50.

ir. Robertson. History of Charles V. 3 v. [Edited by Prescott.]

84.50.
W. II. Prescott. History of Philip II. 3 v. [Unfinished.] $4.50.

X The following works (H.) form a good continuation : —

J. L. Motley. Rise of the Dutch Republic. 3 v. H. $0.00.
Id. History of the United Xetherlands. 4 v. II. $8.00.
Id. John of Olden-Barneveldt. 2 v. H. $4.00.

/. Van Praet. Essays on the Political History of the 15th, 16th,
and 17th Centuries. L. Bentley.

W. Menzel. History- of Germany.f 3 v. L. Bell. $4.20.
The best large work in English.

.J, Sime. HLstory of Germany. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] 80 cents.

■Bayard Taylor. History of Germany. II. $1.75.

C. T. Lewis. History of Germany. H. $1.50.

Both these short histories are based upon that of Miiller.
XW. Coxe. History of House of Austria. 3 v. Bohn.

A book of great accuracy and value.
T. L. Kington-Oliphant. History of Frederic H. 2 v. Macm.

A valuable contribution to the history of the thirteenth century.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 277

T. Carlyle. History of Frederick the Great. 6 v. H. $7.50.

A work of great industry, but in Carlyle's worst style, and
unduly laudatory.

Due de Broglie. Frederic the Great and Maria Theresa.f L. Low.

30s.

In the time of the First Silesian War, 1740-42.

W.Spalding. Hist, of Italy and the Italian Islands. 3 v. H. $2.25.
A good compendium; more recent is —

W. Hunt. History of Italy. [Freeman's Hist. Series.] Holt. 80 cts.

/. C. L. de Sismondi. History of the Italian Republics. H. 75 cts.
An abridgment of the author's large work.

{/. A. Symonds. Age of tlie Despots. Holt. $3.50.

The best history of Italy in the last century of the middle ages.
With " The Revival of Learning " and " The Fine Arts " it forms
a series entitled " The Renaissance in Italy."

T. A. Trollope. History of the Commonwealth of Florence. 4 v.
Macm. 110.00.

Mrs. Oliphant. The Makers of Florence. Macm. $3.00.

Sketches of Florentine history in the close of the middle ages.
Id. Francis of Assisi. [Smiday Library.] Macm. $1.75.

R. W. Church. Dante. Macm. $1.75.

Contains a translation of the treatise " De Monarchia."

A. V. Reumont. Lorenzo de' Medici.-f 2 v. S. & E. 30s.
A scholarly work, superseding that of Roscoe.

P.Villari. Niccolo Machiavelli and his Times. 2 v.f L- Paul. 24s.

An important contribution to the history of the loth century.
W. R. Clark. Savonarola. Soc. 3s. 6d.

J. Burckhardt. The Civilization of the Period of the Renaissance
inltaly.f 2 v. Dodd. $7.50.

P. Colletta. History of Naples. 2 v. Ed. Edmonston. 24s.

W. C. Hazlitt. History of the Venetian Republic. 2 v. L. 28s.

/. T. Bent. Genoa. L. Paul. 18s.

An interesting work, but badly arranged.

278 HISTORICAL LITEKATUllE AND AUTHORITIES.

J. A. Wylie. History of the Waldenses, C. S1.25.

A good popular work.
J. Bigelow. ]\Iolinos the Quietist. Scr. 81-25.

Episode of religious history in the seventeenth century.
Count Balzani. Early Cluoniclers of Europe. Italy. Soc. ^1.20.

S.A.Dunham. Hist 017 of Spain and Portugal. 5 v. H. $3.75.

An old but good work.
J. A. Harrison. Spain. B. Lothrop. .SI. 50.

Excellent in parts, but of unequal merit.
in. Coppee. History of the Conquest of Spain by the Aral)-:Moors.
2 V. L. & 13. 65.00.

An excellent history of Spain during the middle ages.
Miss C. M. Yonge. Christians and Moors in Spain. Macm. $1.25.

A sketch of a popular character.
J. A. Conde. History of the Arabs in Spain. 3 v. Bohu. $4.20.

An old standard work, but of little value.
Life of Saint Teresa. Macm. $2.00.

E. C, Olte. Scandinavian History. Macm. $1.50.

The best work ; another is — *

P. C. Binding. History of Scandinavia. Pittsburgh. Haven. $3.50.
XE. G. Geijer. History of Sweden. L. Whittaker. Vol. I., 8s. M.
T. Carbjle. Early Kings of Norway. H. $1.25.

Voltaire. History of Charles XILf Houghton. $2.25.

With many inaccuracies in detail, a book of positive historical
merit.

XA. Ramhawl. History of Ptussia.f 2 v. E. & L. $11.00.

A work of the highest merit.
W. R. S. Ralston. ICarly Pvussian History. L. 5s.

Four lectures of great value.
Frances A. Shaio. Brief History of Ptussia. O. 50 cents.
S. A. Dunham. History of Poland. L. 3s. Gd.

HISTORICAL LITEEATTTRB AND AUTHORITIES. 279

Jas. Fletcher. History of Poland. H. 75 cents.

Hungary and its Revolutions [with life of Kossuth]. Bohn. $1.40.

H. Zschokke. History of Switzerland.! Armstrong. 81.50.

Harriet D. S. Mackenzie. History of Switzerland. B. Lothrop.

81.50.
T. C. Grattan. History of the Netherlands. H. 81.00.

C. M. Davies. History of Holland. 3 v. L. Willis. 36s.

/. Geddes. Administration of John De Witt. Vol. I. H. 82.50.
The period of the iuvasion of Holland by Louis XTV.

%G. Finlay. History of Greece, from its Conquest by the Romans
(B.C. 146) to the Present Time (1864). 7 v. Macm. 817.50.
A Avork of the highest merit and authority.
L. Sergeant. New Greece. C. 83.50.
Sir E. Creasy. History of the Ottoman Turks. Holt. 82.50.

E. A. Freeman. The Ottoman Power in Europe. Macm. 82.00.

Freeman's view is less friendly than that of Creasy.
/. Blochwitz. Brief History of Tnrkey. O. 50 cents.
There is a history of the Turks in Vol. II. of /. H. Newman's
Historical Sketches.

%Sir W. Muir. Life of Mahomet. S. & E. 14s.

Id. Annals of the Early Caliphate. S. & E. 16s.

W. Irving. Mahomet and his Successors. 2 v. Put. 82.00.

XR. Bosworth Smith. Mohammed and Mohammedism.

E. A. Freeman. History of the Saracens. Macm. 81.50.

A book of merit, but old.
S. Ockley. History of the Saracens. Bohn. 81.40.

A fascinating narrative.
R. D. Oshorn. Islam under the Arabs. Longm. 12s.
Id. Islam under the Caliphs of Bagdad. Seeley. 10s. 6c?.

280 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

E. II. Palmer. Haroun al Raschid. [New Tlutarch.] Put fl.OO.
A. Crighton. History of Arabia. 2 v. II. $1.50.

James Mill. History of British India. 9 v. £2 16s.
The standard work. Excellent short ones are —
t W. W. Hunter. Short liistoi7 of India. $0.40.
XJ. T. Wheeler. Short History of India. Macni. $3.50.
L. .T. Trotter. History of India. Soc. 10s. 6c?.
li. G. Watson. History of Persia. S. & E. 15s.
//. //. Howorth. History of the Mongols from the Ninth to the

Nineteenth Century. 3 v. |28.00.
D. C. Boulger. History of China. 2 v. L. Allen. $14.40.

14. Nineteenth Century.

R. Mackenzie. The Nineteenth Century. L. Nelson. $1.00.

An excellent general sketch.
Memoirs of Prince Metternich. (1773-1815.)t 2 v. Scr. $5.00.

Valuable in the diplomatic history of the time.
Sir A. Alison. History of Europe from 1815. 4 v. II. !^8.00.

A work of great literary merit, written with a strong Tory bias.

Memoirs of Baron Stockmar. 2 v. L. & S. $5.00.

Baron Stockmar was a leading adviser of Prince Albert.

Cardinal Wiseman. The Last Four Popes. [Pius VII., Leo XIL,
Pius YIII., Gregory XVI.] L. Hurst & Blackett. .5s.

G. S. Godkin. Life of Victor Emmanuel II., First King of Italy.
$2.00.

N. W. Senior. Journals Kept in France and Italy. 2 v. L. Paul.

24s.

Mr. Senior's journals and letters are full of intelligent and in-
structive observations upon current history.

HISTOEICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHOlilTlES. 281

L. V. Kossuth. Memoirs of My Exile. A pp. $2.00.

Francis Deak : an Hungarian Statesman. Macm. $3.00.

Chas. <le Mazade. Cavour. Put. $3.00.

tJ. li. Seeley. Life of Stein. 2 v. K. $7.50.

Id. Life of E. M. Arndt. R. $2.25.

Id. Lectures and Essays. Macm. 10s. Qd.

Jos. Mazzini : His Life and Writings. Houghton. $1.75.

/. G. L. Hezekiel. Prince Bismarck. Fords. $3.50.

/. Klaczko. Two Chancellors. [Bismarck and Gortschakoff.]
Houghton. $2.00.

W. Bagehot. Biographical Studies. Longm. 12s.

Lord Stratford de RedcUffe. The Eastern Question. M. 9s.

A. W. Kinglake. The Invasion of the Crimea [1854]. 4 v. H.

$8.00.
H. M. Hozier. The Seven Weeks' War. [1866.] Macm. $2.00.

A. Borhstaedt and F. Dwyer. The Franco-German War [1870].
L. Asher. 21s.

A military history; popular illustrated works are —

Edmund Oilier. The Franco-Gemian War. 2 v. C. $7.50.

Id. The Pvusso-Turkish War. 2 v. C. $8.00.

F. V. Greene. The Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey
in 1877-78. App. $6.00.
With atlas of maps.
T. W. Higginson. Brief Biographies. Put. $1 .50 a vol.

1. English Statesmen. By T. W. Higginson.

2. English Radical Leaders. By R. J. Hinton.

3. French Political Leaders. By Edw. King.

4. German Political Leaders. By Herbert Tuttle.

See also lists 11 and 12, England and France.

282 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

15. History of the United States.

XGeo. Bancroft. History of the United States. 10 v. (to 1783),
825.00; two additional vols, to 1789, $5.00.

The standard work; democratic in tone. Centenary edition (to
1783) in G v., S13.50; complete edition now publishing in 6 v.,
S 15.00.
XR. Ilildreth. History of the United States. 6 v. (to 1820). H.
§12.00.

Sound and generally accurate ; Federalist in proclivities.

Geo. Tucker. History of the United States. 4 v. (to 1841). Lip.
§10.00.

A Southern view; begins with the Revolution

Wm. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay. Popular History of the United
States. 4 v. Scr. $24.00.

Handsomely illustrated. The early parts are the best.

B. J. Lossing. Cyclopaedia of United States History. 2 v. H.
$12.00.

A valuable book of reference, but badly arranged.

S. G. Drake. Dictionary of American Biography. Houghton.

J. J. Lalor. Cyclopaidia of Political Science. 2 v. Ch. Gary.
Each, 86.00.

J. Winsor. Memorial History of Boston. 4 v. O. $25.00.
A collection of monographs by various writers.

Mrs. Martha J. Lamb. History of New York. 2 v. Barnes. $20.00.
A work of very great merit.

J J. C. Ridpath. Popular History of the United States. Cincinnati.
Jones. $:3.00.

The best history of an intermediate size.

S. Eliot. History of the United States (to 1850). B. Ware. $1.35.
Very judicious and accurate, but dry.

J. A. Doyle. History of the United States. [Freeman's Historical
Series.] Holt. $1.00.

An excellent English work.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 283

R. Mackenzie. America. L. Nelson. $1.00.

Another good English work, embracing all America.

/. T. Short. Historical Reference Lists. Columbus. Smythe. 40 cts.
Chiefly having reference to American history.

J. T. Short. North Americans of Antiquity. H. $3.00.

The best book upon the ethnology, etc., of the Indians.
V^ J. W. Foster. Prehistoric Races of the United States. Ch. Griggs.

$3.00.

The best work upon American archaeology.

G. E. Ellis. The Red Man and the White Man. L. & B. $3.50-

F. A. Walker. The Indian Question. $1.50.

G. W. Manypenny. Our Indian Wards. Cincinnati. Clarke. $3.00.

Mrs. Jackson (//. H.) . A Century of Dishonor. H. $1.50.

XH. H. Bancroft. Native Races of the Pacific States. 5 v. San
Francisco. Each, $i.50.

A cyclopredia of information.

H. R. Schoolcraft. Indian Tribes of the United States. 6 v. Lip.
$75.00.

Contains much information, with much useless matter.

G. W. Williams. History of the Negro Race in America. 2 v.
Put. $7.00.

Colonial Period. 1607 to 1763.

Jas. Grahame. History of the United States of North America.
4 V. L. £2 10s.

A fair and friendly English account, reaching 1776.

E. D. Neill. The English Colonization of America. L. 14s.

Of especial value for the Middle States.
XH. C. Lodge. Short History of the English Colonies. H. $3.00.

An excellent compendium, arranged by colonies.
XJ. A. Doyle. English Colonies in America. Vol. I. Holt. $3.50.

Vol. I. contains the Southern colonies. It is a very good work.

F. F. Charlevoix. History of New Frauce.f 6 v. N.Y. $45.00.

284 HISTORICAL LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES.

XF. Park-man. France and England in North America. 7 v. L. & B,
Each, a-^J'K).

1. The Pioneers of France in the New World.

2. The Jesuits in North America.

3. The Discovery of the Great West.

4. The Old Regime in Canada.

5. Count Frontenac and New PVance.
The Conspiracy of Pontiac. 2 v.

A series of the highest excellence.

T. Mante. History of the Late War in North America. L. 1772.
An authentic accouut of the French and Indian war.

XJ- G. Palfrey. History of New England. 4 v. L. & B. $14.50.
The best history of New England.

Massachusetts and her Early History. L. & B.

An instructive series of lectures by different persons.

Peter Oliver. The Puritan Commonwealth. L. & B. $2.50.
Hostile to the Puritans.

J. II. Trumhull. The True Blue Laws of Connecticut and New
Haven, and the False Blue Laws, invented by the Rev. Samuel
Peters. Hartford. Am. Pub. Co.

XR. FrotJiinf/ham. Rise of the Republic. L. & B. $3.50.
A history of the growth of the sentiment of union.

E. G. Scott. The Development of Constitutional Liberty in the
English Colonies of America. Put. $2.50.

XJ- G. Shea. Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley.
80.00.

Indispensable to the student of western history.

R. Blanchard. Discovery and Conquests of the Northwest. Ch.
MacCoun. 83.00.

Mrs. Anne Grant. Memoirs of an American Lady. Albany. Munsell.
83.00.

A graphic picture of life in Albany before the revolution.

See also articles by T. W. Iligginson, John Fiske, and Edw. Eggleston
in Harper's Monthly and the Century for 1882 and 1883.

HISTORICAL LITEEATUKE AND AUTHORITIES. 285

Revolutionary Period. 1763 to 1789.

\.J. Winsor. Handbook of the American Revolution. Houghton.

11.25.

An exhaustive list of authorities.

/. M. Ludlow. The War of American Independence. E. & L. $1.00.
An English work belonging to the Epochs Series.

XO. W. Greene. Historical View of the American Revolution.
Houghton. $1.50.

An instructive series of lectures.

Id. The German Element in the War of Independence. Houghton.
$1.50.

XB. J. Lossing. Field-book of the Revolution. 2 v. H. $14.00.
A description of the battle-fields, etc.

H. B. Carrington. Battles of the Revolution. Barnes. $6.00.

By an army officer; with plans of battle-fields, etc.
Thos. Jones. New York dm'ing the Revolutionary War. 2 v. App.
$15.00.

By a Tory; its unfairness shown by H. P. Johnston.

L. C. Draper. King's Mountain and its Heroes. Cincinnati.

Thomson. $4.00.

A valuable monograph.
W. L. Stone. Border Wars of the American Revolution. 2 v. H.

$1.50.

C. W. Butterjield. The Washington-Irvine Correspondence. Madi-
son (Wis.). Atwood.

An important work for the history of the North-west.

W. H. Trescot. Diplomacy of the Revolution. App. 75 cents.

A. S. Bolles. Financial History of the United States. (1774-1860.)
2v. App. $6.00.

XG. T. Curtis. History of the Constitution. 2 v. H. $6.00.

L. Sabine. History of the American Loyalists. 2 v. L. & B. $7.00.
A work of great merit and value.

Familiar Letters of John and Abigail Adams. Houghton. $2.00.

286 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

Period of the Republic.

tJ. B. McMaster. History of the People of the United States. App.

§2.50.

Only one vol. published; gives special attention to social history.

Jos. Schouler. History of the American Republic. Washington.
Morrison. $5.00.

Two volumes published, reaching 1817.

W. R. Houghton. Hist, of American Politics. Indianapolis. Neely.
AVith numerous illustrative diagrams.

A. W. Young. The American Statesman. N.Y. Goodspeed. ^5.00.

Contains a good summary of congressional debates, etc.
E. Williams. Statesman's Manual. N.Y.

tAlex. Johnston. History of American Politics. Holt. $1.00.
A brief compendium of high merit.
J. Marshall. Life of Washington. 2 v. Ph. Claxton. $G.OO.
Contains the best political history of Washington's administra-
tion.

W. II. Trescot. Diplomatic History of the Administrations of
Washington and Adams. L. & B. $1.25.

XH. von Hoist. Constitutional History of the United States. Ch.

Callaghan. $11.50.

The three volumes published reach 1850.

H. Adams. Documents Relating to New England Federalism.

§4.00.

Throws much light upon the history of the party.

B. J. Lossing. Field-book of the War of 1812. H. $7.00.

G. W. Cullum. Campaigns of the War of 1812-15. N.Y. Miller.

$5.00.

By an army oflScer.

R.Johnson. History of the War of 1812. Dodd,Mead,&Co. $1.25.
A shorter and popular work.

XTheodore Roosevelt. The Naval War of 1812. Put. $2.50.

An accurate and impartial account.
R. S. Ripley. The War with Mexico. 2 v.
TT'''. G. Sumner. History of American Currency. Holt. $3.00.

HISTORICAL LITEEATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 287

The First Century of the Republic. 1876. II. $5.00.
A valuable collection of essays surveying the period.

T. H. Benton. Thirty Years in the United States Senate. 2 v.
App. f$6.00.

Covering the period from 1821 to 1851.
Nathan Sargent. Public Men and Events. 2 v. Lip.

Reminiscences from 1817 to 1883 ; Whig in tone.
H. Wilson. History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power. 3 v.
Houghton. Each, $3.00.

W. H. Prescott. History of the Conquest of Mexico. 3 v. Lip.

$11.50.
Id. History of the Conquest of Peru. 2 v. Lip. |3.00.
A. Helps. The Spanish Conquest of America. 4 v. H. $6.00.
C. A. Washburn. History of Paraguay. 2 v. L. & S. $7.50.
See also Carlyle's article on Dr. Francia.

C. R. Markham. The War Between Peru and Chili, 1879-82.
N.Y. Worthingtou.

The Civil War.

XComfe de Paris. History of the Civil War. 3 v. published. Ph.
Porter & Coates. $3.50 a vol.

The best history of the war, so far as completed.

^Campaigns of the Civil War. Scr. $1.00 per vol.

1. /. G. Nicolay. The Outbreak of Rebellion.

2. M. F. Force. From Fort Henry to Corinth.

3. A. S. Webb. The Peninsula.

4. /. C. Ropes. The Army under Pope.

5. F. W. Pal/ret/. The Antietam and Fredericksburg.

6. A. DouUeday. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg.

7. H. M. Cist. The Army of the Cumberland.

8. F. V. Greene. The Mississippi.

9. /. D. Cox. The Campaign of Atlanta.

10. Id. The March to the Sea.

11. G. E. Pond. The Shenandoah Valley in 1864.

12. A. A. Humphreys. The Campaigns of Grant in Virginia.

288 HISTORICAL LITETlATimE AND AUTHOUITIES.

The Navy in the Civil War. Scr. 81.00 per vol.

1. J. R. Solc7j. The Blockade and the Cruisers.

2. Daniel Ammen. The Atlantic Coast.

3. A. T. Mahan. The Gulf and Inland Waters.

These fourteen small vols, are all by persons specially qualified
to write upon their subjects, and form an admirable condensed
history of the war.

Supplementary volumes : —

F. PMslerer. Statistical Record of the Armies of the United

States.
A. A. Humphreys. Gettysburg to the Rapidan.

J. W. Draper. History of the American Civil War. 3 v. II. $10.50.

With an introduction upon the influence of physical causes upon
American history.

II. Greeley. The American Conflict. 2 v. Hartford. Case. $10.00.

Jejf. Davit. Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. 2 v.
App. 610.00.

A. II. Stephens. Constitutional View of the Late War between the
States. Nat. Tub. Co. 85..50.

These two volumes, by the president and vice-president of the
Confederacy, present the Southern view. See also —

E. A. Pollard. The Lost Cause. N.Y. Treat. $5.00. and

J. E. Johnston. NaiTative of Military Operations. App. $5.00.

A. Badeau. ^^lilitary History of U. S. Grant. 3 v. App. $12.00.

ir. T. Sherman. Memoirs. 2 v. App. $5.50.

IF. Swinton. Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. N.Y.
Richardson. $4.00.

For original documents : —
The War of the Rebellion. Published by Congress.
Frank Moore. The Rebellion Record. 12 v. Put.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 289

Histories of the States.*

Maine. By W. D. Williamson. 2 v. Hallowell. |9.00.

New Hampshire. By Jeremy Belknap. 3 v. B. $7.50.

Vermont. By Zaclock Thompson. Burlington. $4.50.

Massachusetts. By J. S. Barry. 3 v. B. $8.50.

Rhode Island. By S. G. Arnold. 2 v. App. $6.00.

Connecticut. By B. Trumbull. 2 v. New Haven. $9.00.

Id. By G. H. Hollister. 2 v. New Haven. $5.00.

New York. By /. R. Brodhead. 2 v. H. $6.00.

New Jersey. By /. 0. Raum. 2 v. Ph. Potter. $6.00.

Pennsylvania. By Robert Proud. 2 v. Ph. $12.00.

Id. By W. H. Egle. Harrisburg. $5.50.

Maryland. By /. L. Bozman. 2 v. Baltimore. $5.00.

Virginia. By R. R. Hoioisun. 2 v. Richmond. $6.00.

North Carolina. By J. W. Moore. 2 v. Raleigh. $5.00.

South Carolina. By D. Ramsay. 2 v. Charleston. $4.00.

Id. By W. G. Simms. N.Y. Redfield. $2.25.

Georgia. By W. B. Stevens. 2 v. Ph. $5.00.

Florida. By G. R. Fairbanks. Lip. $2.50.

Alabama. By ^. /. Picket. 2 v, Charleston. $7.50.

Mississippi. By J. F. H. Claiborne. Jackson. 2 v. $7.00-

Louisiana. By C. Gayarre. 3 v. N.Y. $12.00.

Texas. By H. Yoakum. 2 v. N.Y. Redfield. $8.00.

Tennessee. By /. G. M. Ramsey. Lip. $2.50.

Kentucky. By Humphrey Marshall. 2 v. Frankfort. $14.50.

Ohio. By /as. W. Taylor. [Unfinished; ends 1787.] Cincinnati.
$6.00.

Id. By /. S. C. Abbott. Detroit. $4.00.

Indiana. By John B. Dillon. Indianapolis. $3.00.

* For this selected list I am principally indebted to Mr. D. S. Durrie,
Librarian of the Wisconsin Historical Society.

290 HISTORICAL LITERATURE iSJ<iD AUTHORITIES.

Illinois. By A. Davidson and B. Stuve. Springfield. |5.00.

Michigan. By Jas. V. Campbell. Detroit. §4.50.

Id. By /. //. Lanman. II. 75 cents.

Minnesota. By E. D. Neill. Minneapolis. ^2.50.

Wisconsin. By W. R. Smith. [Unfinished.] Madison.

Kansas. By D. W. Wilder. Topeka. §5.00.

Missouri. By Tl'. F. Switzler. St. Louis. Barns. $2. .50.

California. By Franklin Tuthill. San Francisco. Bancroft.

Oregon. By tV. //. Gray. Portland. §4.00.

tAmerican Commonwealths. Houghton.

Virginia. By John Esten Cooke.
History cf the Pacific States. By //. //. Bancroft [now publishing].

San Francisco. Bancroft.

- • Biographies.

George "Washington. By W. Irving. 5 v. Put. $5.00.

Alexander Hamilton. By /. T. Morse. 2 v. L. & B. $4.50.

John Adams. By /. Q. and C. F. Adams. Lip. $2.00.

Thomas Jefferson. By H. S. Randall. 3 v. Lip. $9.00.

Id. By /a-s. Parton. Houghton. §2.00.

Benjamin Franklin (autobiography). By /. Bigelow. 3 v. Lip.

§7.50.
Id. By Jas. Parton. 2 v. Houghton. .§4.00.
General X. Greene. By G. W. Greene. 3 v. Put. §12.00.
Israel Putnam. By /. N. Tarbox. Lockwood, Brooks, & Co. §2.50.
F. W. Steuben. By Fred Kapp. H.
Patrick Ilenrj-. By W. Wirt. Ph. Claxton. §1.50.
Timothy Pickering. By 0. Pickering and C. W. Upham. 4 v.

L. & B. §14.00.
James Madison. By W. C. Rives. 3 v. L. & B. §10.50.
John Jay. By Wm. Jay. H.
Gouverneur Morris. By Jared Sparks. L. & B.
William Pinkney. By Henry Wheaton. §1.25.

HISTORICAL LITEEATUEE A^^) AUTHOEITEES. 291

Albert Gallatin. By H. Adams. Lip. $5.00.

George Cabot. By H. C. Lodge. L. & B. §3.50.

Aaron Burr. By Jas. Parton. 2 v. Houghton. .$4.00.

Andrew Jackson. By Jas. Parton. 3 v. Houghton. $6.00.

Daniel Webster. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. App. S4.00.

Josiah Quincy. By Edmund Quincy. O. $3.00.

W. L. Garrison. By O. Johnson. B. Russell.

W. H. Seward. By F. W. Seward. App. §4.25.

Charles Sumner. By E. L. Pierce. 2 v. R. $6.00.

James Buchanan. By G. T. Curtis. 2 v. H.

Abraham Lincoln. By H. J. Raymond. N.Y. Derby. $1.50.

Id. By C. G. Leland. [New Plutarch.] Put. $1.00.

Library of American Biography. Edited by Jared Sparks. 10 v.

H. S12..50.
Theodore Parker. Historic Americans. [Washington, Jefferson,.

Franklin, Adams.] B. Fuller. $1.50.
{American Statesmen. Houghton. Per vol., $1.25. Contains : —

Alexander Hamilton. By H. C. Lodge.

J. Q. Adams. By /. T. Morse.

J. C. Calhoun. By H. von Hoist.

Andrew Jackson. By W. G. Sumner.

John Randolph. By H. Adams.

James Monroe. By D. C. Gilman.

Thomas Jefferson. By /. T. Morse.

Daniel Webster. By H. C. Lodge.

See also the next list.

Authorities.
W. Bradford. History of the Plymouth Plantation. $2.25.
Alex. Young. Chronicles of Plymouth.
Id. Chronicles of Massachusetts. 2 v. $5.00.
Records of the Governor and Company of Massachvisetts Bay;
Edited by /. W. Thornton.

292 HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

John Wiuthrop. History of New England. 1G30-49. 2 v. $5.00.
Bj- the first govcruor of Massachusetts.

Thos. Hutchitison. History of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
§4.00.

The author was lieutenant-governor of the colony, and a strong
Tory.

Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New
York. 11 V. Albany. Published by the State.

American Archives. Edited bv Peter Force.

American State Papers.

Congressional Documents, etc.

Elliot's Debates [of the Constitution]. 5 v. Lip. §12.50.

Annals of Congress.

Archaeologia Americana.

T. H. Benton. Abridgment of Debates of Congress. 1789-1856.
16 V. App.

The Federal and State Constitutions, etc. Compiled by B. P. Poore.
Wasliington. 1878.

Treaties and Conventions, etc. Washington. 1871.

Life and Writings of George "Washington. 12 v. H. $18.00.

Life and Works of John Adams. 10 v. L. & B. $30.00.

Works of Alexander Hamilton. 7 v. N.Y. Trow. $21.00.

Letters and Other Writings of James Madison. 4 v. Lip. $16.00.

Writings of Thomas Jefferson. 9 v. Lip. $23.50.

'Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklm. 10 v. Ch. $20.00.

Papers of James Madison. 4 v. Ph. $16.00.

W£.rks of Daniel Webster. 0 v. L. & B. $18.00.

Life and Works of John C. Calhoun. 6 v. App. $15.00.

Works of Henry Clay. 6 v. $1^.00.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 293

16. Selected List of Historical Novels, Poems, and Plays,
Arranged Chronologically.

A . Lang. Helen of Troy. (Poem.)

W. Morris. Jason. (Poem.)

Id. The Earthly Paradise.

A collection of poems narrating Greek and German legends.

C. Kingsley. Andromeda. (Poem.)

A.C.Swinburne. Atalanta in Calydon. (Poem.)

B.C.

loth century. — Ebers. Uarda [Rameses II.].
6th century. — Id. Daughter of an Egyptian King.
5th century. — Landor. Pericles and Aspasia.
2d century. — Ebers. The Sisters.
1st century. — Shakespeare. Julius Csesar (Drama).

a.d.
1st century. — /. F. Clarke. Thomas Didymus.
Philochristus. Onesimus.
Bultoer. The Last Days of Pompeii.
2d century. — Ebers. The Emperor [Hadrian].
3d century. — Cardinal Neivman. Callista.

Cardinal Wiseman. Fabiola [The Catacombs}.
Mrs. Hunt. The Wards of Plotinus.
W. Ware. Zenobia. Aurelian.
4th century. — Ebers. Homo Sum [330, Sinai].

V. Rydberg. The Last Athenian [361].
5th century. — C. Kingsley. Hj^patia [Alexandria].

Wilkie Collins. Antonina, or the Fall of Rome.
8th century. — G. Freytag. Our Forefathers : Ingraban.
10th centm J.— Scheffel. Ekkehart [The Monks of St. Gallen].

Taylor. Edwin the Fair (Drama) .
11th century. — Buhcer. Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings.
Kingsley. Hereward, the Last of the English.
12th century. — Scott. The Betrothed. The Talisman. Ivanhoe.
Lessing. Nathan the WLse (Drama).

294 niSTOETCAi^ literature and authorities.

r2th century. — The Luck of Ladysmede.

E. E. Hale. In his Name [Waldenses].
13th century. — Shakespeare. King John (Drama).

C. Kingsley. The Saints' Tragedy.

G. P. 11. James. Forest Days [Simon de Montfort].

Mrs. Ilenians. The Vespers of Palermo (Drama).
14th century. — Schiller. Wilhebn Tell (Drama).

Bulwer. Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes.

Taylor, riiilip van Artevelde (Drama).

Shakespeare. l\ichard IL (Drama).
15th century. — Id. Henry IV., Y., VI. Richard III. (Dramas).

Schiller. Die Jungfrau Ton Orleans (Drama).

Scott- Fair INIaid of Perth. Quentin Durward.
Anne of Geierstein.

Buhrer. The Last of the Barons [Warwick].

C. Reade. The Cloister and the Hearth.

Geo. Eliot. Romola [Savonarola].
IGth century. — Shakespeare. Henry VIIT. (Drama).

Scott. Marmion. Lady of the Lake. Lay of the Last
^Minstrel (Poems) . — The Monastery. The Ab-
bot. Kenilworth.

Kinrjsley. Amyas I>eigh, or Westward Ho !

Schiller. I^Iaria Stuart (Drama).

Goethe. Egmont (Drama).
17th century. — Scott. Fortunes of Nigel. Legend of Montrose.
"Woodstock. Peveril of the Peak. Old Mortality.
— Rokeby (Poem).

Manzoni. The Betrothed [Milan, 1G28].

Schiller. Wallenstein (Drama).

Shorthouse. John Inglesant.

Broicning. Strafford (Drama). The Ring and the
Book (Poem).

Ainsworth. Old Saint Paul's.

Anerhach. Spinoza.

Blackmore. Lorna Doone.
18th century. — Thackeray. Henry Esmond. The Virginians.

Scott. Rob Roy. The Heart of Midlothian. Waverly.
Redgauntlet.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 295

18th century. — Broioning. King Victor and King Charles (Drama).
Dickens. Barnaby Kudge (1780).
Miss Burney (Mad. D'Arblay). Evelina.
Revolutionary epoch : —

Victor Hugo. Ninety-three. Les Miserables.

Mrs. Gaskell. Sylvia's Lovers.

Geo. Eliot. Adam Bede.

Blackmore. The Maid of Sker. Alice Lorraine.

Dickens. Tale of Two Cities.

Erckmann-Chatrian. The States General. The

Country in Danger. Madame Therese. Year

One. Citizen Bonaparte.
Miss Roberts. On the Edge of the Storm. Noblesse

Oblige.
Fritz Renter. In the Year Thirteen.
Erckmann-Chatrian. The Conscript. The Invasion

of France. The Siege of Phalsburg. Waterloo.

American History.

17th century. — Longfellotc. The Courtship of Miles Standish.

Hawthorne. The Scarlet Letter.

Paulding. The Dutchman's Fu'eside.

Miss Sedgwick. Hope Leslie.
* Whittier. Mogg Megone.

18th century. — Simms. The Yemassee (S.C, 1715).

Longfellow. Evangeline (Poem).

Mrs. Stowe. The Minister's AVooins;.

/. E. Cooke. The Virginia Comedians.

Cooper. Leather-Stocking Tales.
Revolution. — Cooper. The Spy. The PUot.

Kennedy. Horseshoe Robinson.

Winthrop. Edwin Brothertoft.

Simms. The Partisan, etc.

PART IT.

BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READTXG IN CONNECTION
WITH CLASS WORK.*

1. General History.

E. Clodd. The Childhood of the World. App. 75 cents.

Id. The Childhood of Religions. App. ^1.25.

Designed to give children correct notions of primeval times.
/. Bonner. Child's History of Greece. 2 v. H. $2.50.
Id. Child's Ilistoiy of Rome. 2 v. H. $2.50.
Mrs. C. H. B. Laing. The Seven Kings of the Seven Kills. Ph.
Porter & Coates. $L00.

Id. The Heroes of the Seven Hills. Ph. Porter & Coates. $1.25.

These two books contain the legends of early Roman history.
Chas. Dickens. Child's History of England. $1.00.
J. Bonner. Child's History of England. II.

5. R. Gardiner. English History for Young Folks. Holt. $1.00.

A work of the greatest soundness and accuracy.
L. Creighlon. Stories from English History. N.Y. Whittaker.
J. R. Green. Readings in English History. Macm. $1.50.

Sir W. Scott. Tales of a Grandfather.

Stories from Scotch and French history.

Sarah Brook. French History for English Children. Macm. $2.00.
An admirable book with good maps.

Miss C. S. Kirkland. Short History of France. Ch. Jansen. $1.50.

S. Lanier. The Boys' Froissart. Scr. $3.00.

A selection of the best stories from the prince of chroniclers.
Belt and Spur. Scr. $2.00.

Stories from the mediaeval chronicles; excellently illustrated.

* In this list I have derived much assistance from "Books for the
Young," by Miss C. M. Hewins of the Hartford Library.

BOOKS FOE, COLLATERAL READING. 297

G. M. Towle. Heroes of History. [Marco Polo, Vasco da Gama,
Magellan, Pizarro, Drake, Raleigh.] L. & S.

An excellent series of biographies. Each, S1.25.

Historical Biographies. Rivington. Each, $1.00: —
Simon de ]SIonti'ort. By M. Creighton.
The Black Prince. By L. Creighton.
Sir Walter Raleigh. By L. Creighton.
Marlborough. By L. Creighton.

M. J. Gueat. Lectures on English History. Macm. $1.50.
Good for young people above the age of children.

Mrs. M. E. Green. The Princesses of England. 6 v. Each, 10s. 6c?.

The Young Folks' History. E. & L. Each, $1.50. Includes: —
America. By H. Butterworth.
Russia. By N. H. Dole.
Queens of England. By Rosalie Kaufman.
Mexico. Bj F. A. Ober.

England, Germany, France, Greece, Rome, and Bible History.
By Miss Yonge.

A. J. Church. The Last Days of Jerusalem. L. Seeley. $2.00.

/. Abbott. Biographies of Famous Persons (about thirty in all). H.
Each, $1.00.

Brooke Herford. The Story of Religion in England. Ch. Jansen.
$1.50.

Thos. Archer. Decisive Events in History. C. $1.75.
Handsomely illustrated.

Mrs. H. R. Haweis. Chaucer for Children. L. Chatto & Windus.
$2.25.

Id. Spenser for Children. $3.75.

Beautifully illustrated ; instructive for manners, costumes, etc.

21)8 BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING

2. American Histort.

N. Haii'thome. True Stories. [Grandfather's Chair, etc.] Hough-
ton. §1.00.

The early history of New England.
(\ C. Coffin. Old Times in the Colonies. H. $3.00.
Id. The Boys of 76. H. $3.00.
Id. The Building of the Nation. II. $3.00.
Id. The Boys of 'Gl. II. $3.00.

A handsomely illustrated series of works.

E. Eggleston. Famous American Indians. [Montezuma, Pocar
hontas, etc.] N.Y. Dodd, Mead, & Co. Each, $1.25.

M.Scheie de Vere. Romance of American History. Put. $1.25.

/. D. Champlin. Young Folks' History of the War for the Union.
Holt. $2.75.

An excellent book, well illustrated.

J. Bonner. Child's History of the United States. 3 v. H. $3.75.

Mrs. A . S. Richardson. History of Our Country. Houghton. $4.50.

T. W. Higginson. Young Folks' History of America. L. & S. $1.50.

Bonner's is designed for younger children than the others;
Mrs. Richardson is superior in narration ; Higginson in com-
pleteness of view.

Id. Young Folks' History of Explorers. L. & S. $1..50.

C. H. Woodman. Boys and Girls of the Revolution. Lip. $1.25.

/. K. Hosmer. The Color Guard. B. Fuller. $1.50.

Id. The Thinking Bayonet. B. Fuller. $1.75.
Belong to the war of the rebellion.

C. K. True. Life of Captain John Smith. N.Y. Phillips & Hunt.
$1.00.

Centenary History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. $5.00.
An excellent family history.

rN CONNECTIOK WITH CLASS WOEK. 299

3. Myths and Legends.

N. Hawthorne. Wonder-book. Houghton. $1.00.

Id. Tanglewood Tales. Houghton. i|1.00.

Tell the story of several Greek myths in a charming manner.

Chas. Kingsley. The Heroes. Macm. $1.50.

The Greek heroic legends.
Thos. BuJfinch. The Age of Fable. L. & S. 12.50.

A new edition, well illustrated, edited by Rev. E. E. Hale.
C. Witt. Classical Mythology. Holt. $1.25.

Not a complete mythology, but a collection of legends, with

their explanation.

A. J. Church. Stories from Homer. L. Seeley. $2.00.

Id. Stories from Virgil. $2.00.

Id. Stories from the Greek Tragedies. $2.00.

Id. Stories [of the East] from Herodotus. $2.00.

Id. Stories from Livy. $2.00.

Id. Stories of the Persian War. $2.00.

Id. Travellers' True Tales from Lucian. $2.00.

Id. Heroes and Kings. $2.00.

M.Frere. Eastern Fairy Legends. (Old Deccan Days.) Lip. $1.25.

A. B. Mitford. Tales of Old Japan. Macm. $2.00.

W. E. Griffis. Japanese Fairy World. $1.50.

P. W. Joyce. Old Celtic Romances. $3.00.

J. F. Campbell. Popular Tales of the West Highlands. 4 v. Ed.
Edmonston. 32s.

W. R. S. Ralston. Russian Folk-tales. N.Y. Worthington. $1.50.

W. H. J. Bleek. Hottentot Fables. L. Triibner. 3s. Qd.

J. C. Harris. Uncle Remus. [Negro stories.] App. $1.50.

H. W. Longfellow. Hiawatha. (Poem.) $1.00.

300 BOOKS FOR COLLATEKAL HEADING

Thox. Bulfinch. Legends of Charlemagne. L, & S. $3.00.
Id. The Age of Cliivahy. [King Arthur.] $2.50.

C. II. Ilmison. Stories of the Days of King Arthur, L. Nelson.
SI .50.

S. Lanier. The Boys' King Arthur. Scr. $3.00.
LI. The Boys' Mabinogion. Scr. $3.00.
Admirable collections of old legends.

J. Sr W. Grimm. German Popular Tales. Macm. $2.00.

G. W. Dasent. Popular Tales from the Norse. Ed. Edmonston.
$2.50.

A. Sf E. Keanj. Heroes of Asgard. Macm. $1.00.

IK. Wiigner. Asgard and the Gods. Lip. $2.50.

Id. Epics and Romances of the ]\Iiddle Ages. Lip. $2.50.
Interesting and handsomely illustrated works.

II. W. Mabie. Norse Stories retold from the Edda. R. $1.00.

It. n. Anderson. Viking Tales of the North. Ch. Griggs. $2.00.

Miss A. A. Woodtoard \_Auber Forestier']. Echoes from Mist-land.
Ch. Griggs. $1.50.

A pleasing presentation of the story of the Nibelungs.

Jas. Baldwin. The Story of Siegfried. Scr. $3.00.
Id. The Story of Roland. Scr. $2.00.
F. Mallet. Northern Antiquities. Bell. $2.00.
An old but valuable work.

Sir G. W. Cox and E. H. Jones. Popular Romances of the Middle
Ages. Holt. $2.25.

A valuable collection of legends.

S. Baring Gould. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. Lip. $2.50.

IN CONNECTIOX WITH CLASS WOKK. 301

4. Tales Illustrating History.

Miss Yonge. Historical Dramas [at several epochs].

Is.
Mrs. Charles. Early Dawn. [A series, covering
several centuries.] §1.00.
10th century. — Miss Yonge. The Little Duke [Richard the Fearless].
^1.25.
Crake. Edwy the Fair. Soc. $1.00.
11th century, — Id. Alf gar the Dane. Soc. |1.00.
Id. Tlie Rival Heirs. Soc. $1.00.
Id. The Andreds-weald. [Norman conquest.] $1.00.
Edgar. Danes, Saxons, and Normans. $3.00.
I2i\\ cQniwcj. — Ballantyne. Erling the Bold. [Iceland.] $1.25.
1.3th century. — Edgar. How I AVon my Spurs. $3.00.

Miss Yonge. Prince and Page. [Edward I.] $1.25.
14th century. — Miss Aguilar. Days of Bruce. $1.00.

Miss Yonge. Lances of Liu wood. [Edward III.]
75 cents.
15th century. — Miss Yonge. Caged Lion. [James I. of Scotland.]
$1.25.
Howitt. Jack of the Mill. [Henry V.] $1.75.
Edgar. War of the Roses. $1.20.
Miss Yonge. Dove in the Eagle's Nest. [Maximilian.]

$1.00.
Miss Aguilar. Vale of Cedars. $1.00.
16th century. — Mrs. Charles. Schonberg-Cotta Family. [Luther.]
$1.00.
Miss Manning. Household of Sir Thomas Moore.

$1.00.
Id. The Faire Gospeller. $1.00.
Id. Colloquies of Edward Osborne. [Edward VI.]
75 cents.

30-2 BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING.

16th century. — Miss Manning. Good Old Times. [Auvergne,
1549.] 7s. Gd.
Mrs. Charles. The Martyrs of Spain. [1561.]

'|f$l.i

. „- 25.
/(/. The Liberators of Holland.

MUsYonye. Chaplet of Pearls. [Charles IX.] ijl.50.

Id. Unknown to History. [Mary Queen of Scots.]

81.50.
17th century. — Marnjat. Children of the New Forest. §1.25.

Mrs. Davis. Diary of Lady Willoughby. §3.00.
Miss Manning. Married and Maideit Life of Mary

Powell [wife of John Milton]. 81-00.
Macdonald. St. George and St. l^Iichael. 81.50.
Mrs. Charles. The Dra}i;ons and Davenants. 81.00.
Id. On Both Sides of the Sea [continuation]. 81.00.
Miss Manning. Cherry and Violet. 81-00.
Id. Deborah's Diary. Is.

Id. Jacques Bonneval. [The Dragonnades.] 75cts.
Henty. The Cornet of Horse. 81-50.
18th century. — Mrs. Charles. Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevylyan. 81-00.
Miss Manning. Old Chelsea Bun-house- Is.
MissMartineau. Peasant and Prince. [Louis XVII.]

50 cents.
Miss Tyder. Citoyenne Jacqueline. 82.00.
Mrs. Charles. Against the Stream. [Wilberforce.]

81.00.
19th century. — Miss Yonge. Kenneth. 81.00.

Henly. The Young Buglers. [Peninsular war.]

82.25.
Miss Manning. The Year Nine. [Andreas Hofer.]

7s. OJ.

PART III.

SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.
1. General History.

A Brief History of Ancient (^1.17), Medireval, and Modern Peoples
(11.17). N.Y. Barnes.

Especially good in the history of civilization.

/. /. Anderson. New General History: 1. Ancient, .^1.20 ; 2. Medi-
aeval and Modern, !51.38. N.Y. Clark & Maynard. In 1 v., $1.92.
Distinguished for clearness and accuracy.
Miss M. E. Thalheimer. An Outline of General History. Cincin-
nati. Van Antwerp. $1.40.

Illustrated with excellent maps.
W. Swinton. Outlines of History. N.Y. Ivison. $1.66.
A book of much practical merit.

Marcius Willson. Outlines of History. N.Y. Ivison. $1.66 and

$2.49.

A work of solid merit, but rather heavy.

Miss Emma WUlard. Universal History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.87.
Entertaining in style, but diffuse.

S. G. Goodrich \_Peter Parley']. Pictorial History of the World.
Ph. Butler. $1.46.

Particularly suited to young children.

M. J. Kerney. Compendium of Ancient and Modern History.
Baltimore. Murphy. $1.25.

A Catholic work of merit; in too fine type.
George Weber. Outlines of Universal History. B. Ware. $2.00.
A full and valuable compendium, but dry and badly translated.
R. H. Lahberton. Outlines of History, $2.00. — Questions on His-
tory, $1.75. —Historical Atlas. N.Y. MacCoun. $1..50.

An original and admirable method of instruction, but too exten-
sive for most schools.

304 SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.

1,1. Historical Chart ; or, History Taught by the Eye.

A wall-chart ; very useful for instruction in dynastic history.

A.S.Lyman. Historical Chart. A'an Antwerp & Co. $3.50.
A useful cliart for reference; not accurate in all details.

W. F. Collier. Great Events of History. N.Y. Barnes. $1.40.
An excellent outline, but in too fine type.

A. Oilman. First Steps in General History. Barnes. $1.25.
A short and agreeable outline.

E. A. Freeman. History Trimer of Europe. App. 45 cents.

Carl Ploetz. Epitome of Ancient, MeditBval, and Modern History.
Houghton. $3.00.

A very full and accurate book of reference, excellently trans-
lated, and with valuable additions.

2. Ancient History.

Miss M. E. Thalheimer. Ancient History. Cincinnati. Van
Antwerp & Co. §1.87.

An excellent work, but too large for most schools.

R. F. Pennell. Ancient Greece. B. AUyn. GO cents.
Id. Rome. B. AUyn. GO cents.

Good and accurate compendiums.
History Primers. Edited by .7. R. Green. App. Each, 45 cents.
Greece. By C. yl. Fifffe.
Rome. By M. Creighton.
Classical Geography. By H. F. Tozer.
Old Greek Life. By /. P. Mahaffij.
Roman Antiquities. By A . S. Wilkins.
E. Abbott. Skeleton Outline of Greek History. Rivingtons.
P. E. Matheson. Skeleton Outline of Roman History. Rivingtons.

Contain very useful chronological and other tables.
O. Seeman. Mythology of Greece and Rome. H. 00 cents.
E. M. Berens. Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece. N.Y.
Clark & IMaynard. 81 .08.

Seeman 's is best in connecti9n with the history of art; Berens',
for interest of narrative.

SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 305

Classical Atlas. B. Ginn, Heath, & Co. ^2M.

Student's Atlas of Classical Geography. Put. 81.50.

Johnston's Wall-maps of Classical and Scriptural Geography. B.

Ginn, Heath, & Co. 10 maps, 64.00 each.
Guyot's Classical "Wall-maps. Scr. 3 maps, 835.00.

3. Modern History.
Miss M. E. Thalheimer. Mediaeval and Modern History. 81-87.

Id. History of England. 81-17.

The best history of England for common schools.

/. J. Anderson. A Short Coui'se in English History. N.Y. Clark
& Maynard. 81-08.

A good and accurate compendium.

David Morris. Class-book Histoiy of England. App. 81.25.

A larger work, also excellent; well illustrated.
Miss Annie Wall. History of England. St. Louis. Jones. 81-00.

A good short work.
E. M. Lancaster. Manual of English History. N.Y. Barnes. 81.17.

Well written, and provided with good apparatus.
W. M. Lupton. Concise English History. R. 81-50.

Crowded with names and dates ; very useful for reference.
Mrs. Markham. History of England. App. 81-30.

A well-known English school-book.

Brief History of France. X.Y. Barnes. 81-17.

A book of great merit.
/. Michelet. Modern Historj'. Macm. 81.10.

Excellent, but too crowded with names and dates.
Students' Atlas of Historical Geography. Put. 81-50.
C. S. Halsey. Chronological and Genealogical Chart of the Rulers
of England, Scotland, France, and Germany. B. Ginn, Heath,
& Co. 25 cents.

There are no wall-maps of Modern History, except the German
ones of Bretschneider.

306 SCHOOL TEXT-T500KS.

4. Amekican History.

Marcius Wilhoti. History of tlie United States. N.Y. Ivison.

$V2o.
Emma Willard. History of tlie United States. N.Y. Barnes.

88 cents.

These two books have the same qualities as the general histories
of the same authors.
D. B. Scott. School History of the United States. H. 80 cents.
Excellent, especially for arrangement.

/. C. Ridpath. History of the United St9,tes. Cincinnati. Jones.
81.00, 61.50, 63.00.

Illustrated with serviceable diagrams.

/. /. Anderson. Popular School History of the United States.
N.Y. Clark & ^Nlaynard. 81-41.

Containing a large number of illustrative extracts from differ-
ent authors.
C. A. Goodrich. History of the United States of America. B.
Ware. 81.30.

Well adapted to memoriter recitations.

B. J. Loss'mg. Outline History of the United States. N.Y. Shel-
don. 81.11.

Entertaining and well illustrated ; too crowded with detail.
G. P. Quackenbos. Illustrated School History of the United States.
App. 81.25.

Very well written, but poorly arranged.

Miss M. E. Thalheimer. Eclectic History of the United States.
. Cincinnati. Van Antwerp. 81.17.

With very good maps and illustrations.
Excelsior Stitdies in the Historj' of the United States. N.Y.
Sadlier. 81 .2.'^.

A Catholic work; also has excellent maps.

A. H. Stephens. Compendium of the History of the United States.
N.Y. Hale. 81.50.

From a Southern point of view.
.7. W. Leeds. History of the United States of America. Lip. 81.54.

SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 307

H. E. Scudder. History of the United States of America. Ph.
Butler.

These two books are especially valuable in the history of civili-
zation. Leeds is from a Quaker point of view; Scudder is
beautifully illustrated.

L. J, Campbell. Concise School History of the United States. B.
Ware. 87 cents.

Based upon the work of C. A. Goodrich.

W. Swinton. Condensed School History of the United States.
N.Y. Ivison. ^1.04.

A brief skeleton of events.

/. C. Martindale. History of the United States. Ph. Eldredge.
^1.17.

Of the same general character.

Primer of United States History. N.Y. Armstrong. 50 cents.

With very good historical maps.
E. Abbott. Paragraph History of the United States. R. 50 cents.
Id. Paragraph History of the American Revolution. R. 50 cents.

See also Doyle (p. 282), Higgmson, and others (p. 298).

The following are for younger scholars : —

Brief History of the United States. N.Y. Barnes. $1.17.
Well arranged and written.

W. H. Vendble. History of the United States. Cincinnati. Van

Antwei-p & Co. 81.00.

A good book, with excellent maps.

A. B. Berard. School History of the United States. Ph. Cow-
perthwait. $1.10,

A book of great merit, written in an interesting style.
S. G. Goodrich. Pictorial History of the United States. Ph.
Butler. 81.46.

Entertaining, but badly arranged.

308 SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS.

One Thousand Questions in American History. SjTacuse. Bardeen.

A useful aid to teachers.
R. Blanchard. Historical map of the United States. Ch.
W. R. Houghton. "NVall-chart of United States History.

Id. Conspectus of the History of Political Parties.

An ingenious diagram, containing much information.
J. J. Anderson. United States Reader. N.Y. Clark & INIaynard.

ei.30.

Well selected extracts from historians, poets, and orators, illus-
trating the history of the United States.

L. H. Porter. Outlines of the Constitutional History of the United
States. Holt. $1.50.

Contains many valuable and interesting documents.

SUPPLEMEI^T.

CONTAINING ADDITIONAL BOOKS, CHIEFLY FRENCH AND GER5IAN, OR WORKS PUB-
LISHED SINCE THE EARLIER LIST, ARRANGED UNDER THE SAilE HEADS.

PART I.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES.

1. Primitive Society.

D. G. Brinton. Library of Aboriginal American Literature. Ph.
[Published by the editor.]

Invaluable for the study of native institutions and religion ;
three volumes already published : 1. Chronicles of the Mayas;
2. Iroquois Book of Rites ; 3. The Comedy-ballet of Guegence.

Capt. J. C. Bourke. The Snake Dance of the Moquis of Arizona.
Scr. $5.00.

An important contribution to the study of native Indian insti-
tutions.

/. G. Wood. The Uncivilized Races of Men in all Countries of the
World. Hartford. Burr. $3.50.

A very valuable collection of facts.

See also article upon the Zuiiis, by F. H. Cushing, in the Century
for 1883.

2. Mythology.

W. H. Roscher. AusfUhrliches Lexicon der griechischen und rom-
ischen Mji:hologie. Lp. Teubuer.
Appearing in parts.
C. G. Leland. The Algonquin Legends of New England. Houghton.

310 SUPPLEMENT.

Ethnic Religions.

Albert Re'ville. The Native Religious of Mexico and Peru. [Ilibbert
Lecture. 1884.] Scr. 81.00.

James Free/nan Clarke. Ten Great Religions. Part II. : A com-
parisou of all religious. Houghton.

3. History of Society.

W. E. H. Leckij. History of European Morals from Augustus to
Charlemagne. 2 v. App.

K. T. V. Inama-Sternegg. Deutsche Wirthschaftsgeschichte. Vol.1.:

Zum Schluss der Karolingerperiode. Lp. Duncker & Humblot.

The first complete study of economic phenomena for this period.

E. Bonnemere. Histoire des Paysans. 2 v. P. Sandon et Fisch-
bacher.

Extends from the earliest times to the Revolution.

C. Dareste de la Chavanne. Histoire des classes agricoles en France.
P. Guillaumin.

Henri Doniol. Histoire des classes rurales en France. P. Guillaumin.
La Chavanne is most complete for the middle ages, Doniol for
the modern period.

Samuel Sugenheim. Geschichte der Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft
und Horigkeit in Europa. Lp. Voss.

The best work upon serfdom and its abolition.

J. E. T. Rogers. Six Centuries of Work and ^Vages. Put.

A history of the English laboring classes, based upon an exhaus-
tive study of economic facts.

Toulmin Smith. English Gilds : with Introduction upon the History,
etc., of Gilds, by Lujo Brentano [which can be had separate].
Early English Text Society. L.

G. Fagniez. Etudes sur I'industrie et la classe industrielle k Paris

au xiii* et au xiv' siecle. P. Viewig.
W. Stieda. Zur Entstehung des deutschen Zunftwesens. Jena.

Dufft.

HISTOEICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 311

G. Schanz. Zur Geschichte der deutschen Gesellenverbiiiide im
Mittelalter. Lp. Duncker & Humblot.

These ten works, selected from a large literature, give a toler-
ably complete view of the industrial classes iu the middle ages.

4. General History.

W. Assmann. Handbuch der allgemeinen Geschichte. 5 v.
Braunschweig. Vieweg.

Valuable for its references to authorities ; especially full for the
middle ages.

Georg Weber. Allgemeine Geschichte fiir die gebildeten Stande.

14 V.

The best complete universal history. The "Lehrbuch," by the
same author, is regarded as the best German text-book.

W. Oncken. Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen.

The following works have been added : F. Justi, Geschichte des
alten Persiens. B. Kugler, Geschichte der Kreuzziige. S. R%ige,
Zeitalter der Entdeckungen. L. Geiger, Renaissance und IIu-
manismus. A. Bruckner, Katharina die Zweite.

F. Laurent. Etudes sui- I'Histoire de I'Humanite. 18 v. Bruxelles.
A series of monographs. Probably the most suggestive general
history.

C. G. Wheeler. The Course of Empire. O.

A brief summary of history by centuries, with abimdant selec-
tions ; an outline map for each centuiy.

L. Weisser. Bilderatlas zur Weltgeschichte. Stuttgart. Neff.
50 numbers at 50 pf. = |6.50.

A very large and useful collection of historical illustrations ; of
unequal value.

5. Ancient History.

A. Baumeister. Deukmaler des Klassischen Alterthums zur Erlau-
terung des Lebens der Griechen und Eomer in Religion, Kunst
und Sitte : lexikalisch bearbeitet. R. Oldenbom-g. Miinchen.
40 numbers at 1 mark = $10.00.

H. A. Wallon. Histoire de I'Esclavage dans I'Antiquite. 3 v. P.
The only complete treatise upon the subject.

312 STJPPLE>rENT.

W. C. Wilkinson. Preparatory Latin Course in English ; College
Greek Course ; College Latin Course. Phillips & Hunt.

Quellenbuch zur alten Geschichte. Lp. Teubner. 2 v. L Grie-
chische Geschichte. 2. Roniische Geschichte.

Contains all the important authorities on classical history, in
selections, ckrouologically arranged.

6. Oriental History.

A. II. Sayce. The Ancient Empires of the East. Scr.

A compendious statement of the present condition of knowledge.
G. Rawlin.wn. Ancient Empires of the East. Student's edition.
5 V. Dodd, Mead, & Co. ^6.25.

7. History of Greece.

G. Gilbert. Ilandbuch der griechischen StaatsalterthUmer. Lp.
Teubner.

The best compendium of the subject.
K. Fr. Hermann. Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten. 4 vol.
Staats-, Gottesdienstliche- und Privatalterthiinier. Freiburg.
Mohr.

The standard work ; a revised edition has been published.

E. Kuhn. Ueber die Entstehung der Stadte der Alten. Komen-
verfassung und Synoikismos. Lp. Teubner.

The best treatise upon the formation of political communities
among the Greeks.

8. Roman History.

G. Boissier. Cicdron et ses Amis. P.

Id. La Religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins. 2 v. P.

P. D. Watson. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. H.
An able and scholarly production.

L. Friedldncler. Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms. 3 v.
Lp. Hirzel.

H. Schiller. Geschichte des romischen Kaisserreichs uuter der
Regierung des Nero. Ber. Weidmann.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 313

/. N. Madvig. Verfassung mid Verwaltung des romischen Staates.
2 V. Lp. Teubner.

P. Willems. Le Droit public remain. Louvain.

These are the two best compendiums of Roman antiquities.

E. Kiihn. Die stadtisclie und biii-gerliche Verfassung des romis-
chen Eeichs bis auf die Zeiten Justinians. 2 v. Lp. Teubner.

R. J. A. Houdoy. Le Droit Municipal. P. 1876.

These two works treat of the municipal constitution : Kuhn
from an historical, Houdoy from a legal point of view.

/. Beloch. Der italische Bund. Lp. Teubner.

Treats of the relation of Rome to the other Italian communities.
B. Heisterbergk. Die Entstehung des Colonats. Lp. Teubner.

Discusses the subject from an economical point of view.
E. C. Clark. Early Roman Law. The Regal Period. Macm.
James Hadley. Lectures on Roman Law.

R. von Jhering. Der Geist des romischen Rechts. 3 v. Lp.
Breitkopf and Hartel.

jF. C. Savigny. Geschichte des romischen Rechts im Mittelalter.
7 V. Heidelberg.

Orelli and Henzen. Inscriptionum Latinarum selectarum ampli-
sima collectio. 3 v. Turici [Zurich].

9. MEDiiEVAL History.

M. A. Geffroy. Rome et les barbares. P. Didier.
A study upon the Germania of Tacitus.

Charles Kingsley. The Roman and the Teuton. Macm.
An interesting and suggestive course of lectures.

G. Waitz. Deutsche Verfassungs Geschichte. 8 v. Kiel. Homann..
The great standard work upon German constitutional history,
reaching the twelfth century.

P. Roth. Geschichte des Beneficialwesens. Erlangen. Palm..

The most important work for the beginnings of Feudalism.
R. Sohm. Altdeutsche Reichs und Gerichtsverfassung. Weimari-.
Bdhlau.

Treats of the constitution of the Frank Empire.

314 SUPPLEMENT.

P. E. Fahlbeck. La royautd et le droit royal francs. Lund.

The best sketch of the constitutional history of the early Mero-
vingian period ; agrees essentially with Sohm.

E. Secretan. Essai sur la Fdodalitd. Lausanne.

The most complete description of the Feudal System.
//. G. Gengler. G«rmanische Rechtsdenkmiiler. Erlangen. Dei-
chert.

A collection of illustrative extracts from documents, with a

good introduction.

Id. Deutsche Stadtrechts Alterthiimer. Erlangen. Deichert.

A. Ileusler. Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung. Wei-
mar. Bbhlau.

The best single treatise of a general nature. The best special
work is perhaps:

C. Hegel. Verfassungsgeschichte von Coin im Mittelalter. Lp.
Ilirzel.

A. Wauters. Les libertds communales. Bruxelles. Lebegue.

Treats of municipal institutions in northern France and Belgium.
A. Kremer. Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen. 2 v.
Vienna.

The best history of Mohammedan civilization.

10. Ecclesiastical History.

Count de Montalembert. The Monks of the ^Vest : from St. Bene-
dict to St. Bernard. 7 v. Ed. Blackwood.
The best history of monasticism.
.A. II. Wratislaw. John Hus. Soc.
Julius Kostlin. Life of Martin Luther. Scr.

The best popular life of Luther; with contemporary illustrations.
E. D. Mead. Martin Luther : A Study of Reformation. B. Ellis.
W. Smith. Dictionary of Christian Biography. 3 v. Murray.

Id. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 2 v. Murray [also
Hartford. Burr. .?7.00].

S. E. Ilerrick. Some Heretics of Yesterday. Houghton.
Popular lectures ; extend from Tanler to Wesley.

HISTORICAL LITEE ATTIRE AND AUTHORITIES. 315

11. History of England, Etc.

/. R. Green. The Conquest of England. H.

Properly a continuation of "the Making of England," com-
pleting the history of the Anglo-Saxon period.

/. R. Seeley. The Expansion of England. R.

Two courses of lectures of remarkable suggestiveness.
Coote. The Romans in Britain.

Devoted to establishing the survival of Roman institutions, etc.
H. M. Scarth. Roman Britain. Soc.

William Hunt. Norman Britain. Soc.
Two valuable short treatises.

/. S. Brewer. The Reign of Henry YIH. 2 v. 812.00.

Papers written during the work of editing the documents be-
longing to this reign.

P. Friedmann. Anne Boleyn : A Chapter of English History.
1527-153G. 2 v. Macm.

S. R. Gardiner. History of England. 1603-164:2. 10 v. Longm.
A revised and cheaper edition of his great work.

J. McCarthy. A History of the Four Georges. Vol. I. H. $1.25.
Reaches the year 1729.

Id. Short History of Om- Own Times. H.
An abridgment of his larger work.

J. H. McCarthy. Outline of Irish History. Baltimore. Murphy.
Particularly good for the nineteenth century.

Edw. Smith. Story of the English Jacobins. C.

A popular account of the treason trials, etc., at the close of the
eighteenth century.

R. B. Smith. Life of Lord Lawrence. 2 v. Scr.

it. Schmidt. Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. Lp. Brockhaus.
The best edition of these laws, with a glossary.

A. S. Cook. Extracts from the Anglo-Saxon Laws. Holt.

The most important passages, in the original.
W. Stubbs. Select Charters : Docmuents Illustrative of English
History. Macm.

A valuable selection of documents, with introduction; extends

to Edward I.

316 SUPrLEMENT.

A". E. Dighy. Introduction to the History of the Law of Real
Property.

An excellent treatise, with illustrative documents.

F. Pollock. The Land Laws. Macni.

A good short history of these laws.

\2. History of France.

L. Iliiusser. Geschichte dor franzosischen Revolution. Bar.
A course of lectures reiwrted stenographically.

A. Schmidt. Tableaux de la Revolution Fran9aise.

A valuahle collection of documents, presenting a vivid picture
of society during the revolution.

/. F. Crane and S. J. Brun. Tableaux de la Revolution Francjaise.
Put.

An historical French reader. With an introduction by Pres.
A. D. White.

Sarah Tyder. Life of Marie Antoinette. [New Plutarch.] Put.

K. Hdlehrand. Geschichte Frankreichs von der Thronbesteigung
Louis Philippes bis zuin Falle Najioleons III. Gotha.
The second volume reaches the year 1840.

13. Special Histories.

Greschichte der europaischen Staaten, edited by Heeren, Ukerl, and
Giesehrecht : Geschichte der Teutschen, by PJister, 5 v, ; der
italienischen Staaten, by Leo, 5 v. ; des preussischen Staates, by
Stenzel, 5 v. ; von Sachsen, by Botliger, 2 v. ; von Spanien, by
Lemhke and Schd/cr, 3 v. ; der Niederlande, by van Kampen, 2 v. ;
Russland, by Strahl and Herrmann, 7 v. ; Schwedens, by Geijer
and Carlson, 4 v. ; Englands, by Lappenherg and Pauli, 5 v. ;
des osterreichischen Kaiserstaats, by Mailalh, 5 v. ; Portugals,
by Schufer, 5 v. ; Frankreichs, by Schmidt, 4 v. ; von Danemark,
by Dahlmann, 3 v. ; Frankreichs, by Wachsmuth, 4 v. ; des
osmanischen Reichs, by Zinkeisen, 8 v. ; Polens, by Ropell and
Caro, 3 v. ; Deutschlands (180G-30), by BUlau.

HISTORICAL LITERATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 317

W. Arnold. Deutche Urzeit. Gotha, Perthes.

A later volume brings the history down to the time of Charles
the Great. A work of great value.

G. Kaufmann. Deutsche Geschichte bis aiif Karl den Grossen.
2 V. Lp. Duncker & Humblot.

An excellent compendium of the present condition of knowledge.

W. von Giesehrecht. Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit. 5 v.
Braunschweig. Schwetschke.

The best history of the empire ; reaches the twelfth century.

F. von Raumer. Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ilirer Zeit. 6 v.

A standard work of great literary merit.
Konrad Maurer. Island von seiner ersten Entdeckung bis zum
Untergange des Freistaates. IMiinchen.

By far the most valuable work upon the history of Iceland.
0. Lorenz. Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter. 2 v.

Ber. Hertz.
C Miiller. Der Kampf Ludwig des Baiern mit der romischen
Curie. 2 v. Tiibingen.

E. Werunsky. Geschichte Kaiser Karls IV. und seiner Zeit.
Innsbruck.

T. Lindner. Geschichte des deutschen Keiches unter Konig Wen-
zel. 3 V. Braunschweig.

F. Krones. Handbuch der Geschichte Oesterreichs. 3 v. Ber.
Grieben.

F. Palacky. Geschichte v. Bbhmen. 4 v. (in several parts). Prag.

By the great Bohemian historian; the German view is given by
L. Schlesinger. Geschichte Bohmens. Lp. Brockhaus.
L. von Szalay. Geschiclite Ungarns. 3 v. Pest. Lauffer.

Reaches the close of the middle ages ; a brief complete history is
M. Horvath. Kurzgefasste Geschiclate Ungariis. Buda-Pest.

Both of these are Hungarian works. The German view wiU be

found in
/. A. Fessler. Geschichte von Ungarn. 5 v.

B. von Kdllay. Geschichte der Serben. 2 v. Buda-Pest. Lauffer.
A good history of this important Slavonic people.

318 SUrPLEMENT.

Jos. von Hammer. Geschichte des osinanischen Reiches. 8 v. Pesth.

The highest authority upou this history.
Vulliemin. Ilistoire de la Suisse.

The best history of Switzerland.
F. Gregoroviiis. Gescliiclite der Stadt Roiu iiu Mittelalter. 8 v.
Stuttgart. Cotta. !J20.00.

F. T. Perrcns. Ilistoire de Florence. 0 v. Paris.

The most important recent contribution to Italian history.

G. Sartorhis. Geschiclite des hanseatisclieii Bundes. 2 v. Gtittingen.

An old work, but still the best on the subject.

E. Worms. Histoire comnierciale de la ligue haiiseatique. P.
Guillaumin.

//. Tut lie. History of Prussia to the Accession of Frederick the
Great. 11:51-1740. Houghton.

An interesting and scholarly work.

F. Eherty. Geschichte des preussischen Staates. 7 v. Breslau.
[to 1871].

/. G. Droysen. Goschichte der preussischen Politik. 2 v. Lp.
Of the highest historical merit, but strongly absolutist.

L. von Ranke. Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg. 3 v. L.
Chiefly devoted to the history of the eighteenth century. The
original work has been completely revised and re-written under
the title " Zwolf Biicher preussischen Geschichte."

C. F. V. Stalin. Wirtenibergische Geschichte. 4 v. Stuttgart.

Cotta.

Regarded as one of the very best histories of a single state.

A. Young. History of the Netherlands. E. & L.

A good short history ; chiefly of the IGth and 17th centuries.

L. Vander kinder e. Le siecle des Artevelde. Bruxelles. Lebegue.

P. Fredericq. Le Role politique et social des dues de Bourgogne.

Gand. Hoste.
A. Gindehj. History of the Thirty Years' War. .3 v.

A popular work by the highest living authority.
John L. Stevens. History of Gustavus Adoli)hus. Put.
Carl van Noorden. Europiiische Geschichte in achtzchuten Jahr-
hundert : I. Der spanische Erbfolgekrieg. .3 v. Diisseldorf .
The most important work upon the subject.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE AND AUTHORITIES. 319

A. Scha/er. Geschichte des siebenjahrigen Kriegs. 2 v. B.

Especially valuable in diplomatic history.
C. B. Brackenlury. Frederick the Great. [Xe\Y Plutarch.] Put.
F. W. Longman. Frederick the Great. [E.S.] Scr.
L. Hdusser. Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen
bis zur Griindung des deutschen Bundes. 4 v.
Learned, impartial, and graphic.
Eugene Schuyler. Peter the Great. Scr,

An excellent work ; handsomely illustrated.
F. W. Horn. History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North.

Ch. Griggs.
W. E. Griffin. Corea, the Hermit Nation. Scr.

14. Nineteenth Century.

Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zeit, ed. by Baumgarten : France
(1814-52), by Rochau, 2 v.; England (since 1814), by Pauli, 3
v.; Germany (19th. century), by Treitschke ; Italy (modern
period), by Reuchlin, 2 v.; Spain (since French Revolution),
by Baumgarten, 3 v.; Austria (since 1809), by Springer, 2v. ;
Greece (since 1453), by Mendelssohn, 2v. ; Turkey (1826-.52),
by Rosen, 2 v. ; Russia (1814-31), by Bernhardi, 3 v.

Baron Henry Worms. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (since 1866).
L.

C. Bulle. Geschichte der neuesten Zeit. 1815-71. 2 v. Lp.

A work of great merit.

Cesare Cantu. Les trente dernieres annees. (1848-78). P.
The work of a Republican and Catholic.

Th. Juste. La Revolution beige de 1830. 2 v. Bruxelles.

W. Mailer. Political History of Recent Times, 1816-75 (with
appendix, 1876-81). H.

Id. Politische Geschichte der Gegenwart. B.

An annual publication of great merit.
Count de Maupas. Story of the Coup d'Etat. App.

D. M, Wallace. Egypt and the Egyptian Question. Macm.

320 SUPPLElNrENT.

15. History of the United States.

Arthur Oilman. History of the American People. Lothrop. $1.50.

C. C. Jones. History of Georgia. Houqliton.

Gives special attention to the social history of the colony.

American Commonwealths. Houghton.
Oregon, by W. Barrows.
Mainland, by William Hand Browne.

W. E. Foster. Stephen Hopkins, a Rhode Island Statesman ; a

study in the political history of the eighteenth century. Provi-
dence. Rider,
Richard Markham. King Philip's War [Lesser Wars]. Dodd,

Mead, & Co.
C. W. Baird. History of the Huguenot Emigration to America.

Dodd, Mead, & Co. $5.00.
Works of John Smith. Birmingham. Edward Arber.
Francis Parkman. Montcalm and Wolfe. 2 v. L. & B.
Frederick Kapp. Life of John Kalb. Holt.
E. J. Lowell. The Hessians and the other German Auxiliaries of

Great Britain in the Revolutionaiy War. H.
American Statesmen. Houghton.

James Madison, by S. H. Gay.
L. G. Tyler. Letters and Times of the Tylers. Richmond. ^Tiittet.

A series of pictures, from the Revolution to 18G1.
H. 0. Ladd. History of the JNIexican War [Lesser Wars]. Dodd,

Mead, & Co.
Mrs. C. E. Cheney. Young Folks' History of the Civil War. E. & L.
W. II. Seward. Diplomatic History of the Civil War in America.

Houghton. S?3.00.

Vol. in. of .Seward's Works.
J. G. Blaine. Twenty Years of Congress, from Lincoln to Garfield.

2 V. Norwich.
Gen. E. D. Keyes. Fifty Years' Observations of Men and Events,

Civil and Military. Scr.

HISTORICAL LITEEATUEE AND AUTHORITIES. 321

T. V. Cooper. American Politics. Ch. Brodix.
A valuable collection of facts and documents.

H. C. Adams. Taxation in the United States. (1789-1816.)
Baltimore.

Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political
Science, Edited by H. B. Adams. Baltimore.

Chiefly devoted to the history of American institutions.

See also Battles and Leaders of the Civil "War, in the Century,
1883-84.

PART II.
BOOKS FOR COLLATERAL READING.

Sir G. W. Cox. Tales of Ancient Greece. Ch. Jansen.
Miss Beesly. Stories from tlie History of Rome. Macm.

A. ./. Church. Stories of the Old World. Ginii, Heath, & Co.

A selection from the several collections of classical tales.
Id. Stories of the Persian War. Dodd, Mead, & Co.
Id. Roman Life in Days of Cicero. Dodd, Mead, & Co.
./. .S'. White. Herodotus for Boys and Girls. Put.
/(/. Plutarch for Boys and Girls. Put.
Rosalie Kaufinann. Our Young Folks' Plutarch. Lip.
W. Shepard. Oui* Young Folks' Josephus. Lip. $2.50.
R. Markham. Chronicle of the Cid. Dodd, Mead, & Co.

E. C. Kindersley. History of the Good Knight, the Lord de Bayard.
Dodd, Mead, & Co.

These six books are large and handsomely illustrated.
//. C. H. Calthrop. Paladin and Saracen [Tales from Ariosto].
Helen Zimmern. Tales from the Eddas. L. Swan.
Lady Calcott. Little Arthur's History of England. N.Y. Crowell.

Philijis' Historical Readers. 1. Stories from English History;
2. Early England; 3. Middle England; 4. Modern England.
B. School Supply Co.

W. H. Rideinrj. Young Folks' History of London. E. & L.

Miss C. M. Yonge. Aunt Charlotte's Stories of American History.
App.

E. E. Hale. Stories of Discover}', told by Discoverers. R. $1.00.

F. S. Drake. Indian History for Young Folks. H. ^3.00.

Capt. Charles King. Famous and Decisive Battles of the World.
Ph. McCurdy.

HISTORY TOPICS.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

I. Oriental Period, to B.C. 500.

1. Egypt and Palestine. — a. The Mediten-auean system of
lands, b. The valley of the Nile (with map), c. The early empire ;
the 4th and 12th dynasties, d. The Hyksos. e. The 18th and
19th dynasties. /. The 26th dynasty, g. The Hebrew monarchy.
Solomon, B.C. 1000. h. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah. — i. The
exodus of the Israelites, k. Ethiopia. — Map : The Mediterranean
sea; the Orient; B.C. 1500.

2. The Orient. — a. The Chaldean empire, b. The Assyrian
empire, c. Babylon, d. j\Iedia. e. Asia Minor ; the kingdom of
Lydia. f. Cyrus; the Persian empu-e. g. Darius Hystaspes ;
B.C. 500. h. Phoenicia ; TjTe and Sidon. — i. Cj^prus. k. Armenia.
I. Cambyses in Egj-pt. — Map: B.C. 650 and 600.

II. Grecian Period. B.C. 500-300.

3. Greece. — a. The geography and races of Greece, b. The
Greek colonies. c. The Spartan hegemony. d. The Persian
invasion, e. The Athenian empire ; the age of Pericles. /. The
Peloponnesian war. g. Epaminondas; the hegemony of Thebes.
h. Philip of Macedon. — i. The return of the Heraclidse. k. The-
mistocles. I. The battle of Marathon ; of Salamis ; of Leuctra.
m. The peace of Antalcidas, B.C. 387. — Map: Greece; the Orient;
B.C. 500.

4. The Macedonian Empire. — a. Alexander ; the conquest of
Persia, b. The expedition to India, c. Greece after Alexander.
d. The Achsean league, e. The kingdom of Pergamus. /. The
Seleucidse; the kingdom of Syria, g. The Ptolemies in Egypt;
Lagidse. h. The Parthian empire; Arsacidae. — i. The battle of
Ipsus, B.C. 301. k. The ^tolian league. I. Agis and Cleoraenes.
— Map : B.C. 275,

32-i HISTORY TOPICS.

IIT. Roman Period. B.C. 300 to Christian Era.

5. Italy. — a. The geography and races of Italy. b. The
Etruscans, c. Magna Graecia. d. Rome under tlie kings, e. The
hegeniouy of Home in Latium. /. The capture of Rome by the
Gauls, H.c. 390. g. The Latin war, B.C. 340. h. The Saiimite
wars, t . The war with Pyrrhus. — k. The ^quians and Volscians.
/. The conquest of Yeii. vi. The Caudine Forks ; B.C. 321. —
Afap: Italy; B.C. 500 and 27.").

6. The Conquest of the "World. — a. Carthage and the First
Punic war. b. The Second Punic war ; Hannibal, c. The Mace-
donian wars. d. The war with Antiochus. e. The conquest of
Spain. / The wars of Pompey in the East. g. The conquest of
Gaul. h. The Social war, b.c. 90. — i. The battle of Cannae ;
of Cynoscephalae. k. The Ligurians. I. The Illyrians. in. The
Numidians. n. The Maccabees. — Maj) : b.c. 200 and 100. List
of the provinces in the order of their acquisition.

IV. Roman Empire. The Christian Era to A.D. 500.

7. The Early Empire. — a. The civil war of Caesar and Pompey.
b. The Second Triumvirate, c. Augustus; the Empire; B.C. 27.
d. The wars with the Germans, e. The conquest of Britain, f. The
destruction of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. g. Trajan; a.d. 100. h. Mar-
cus Aurelius, d. 180. — i. Relations with Parthia. k. Mauretania.
Z. The defeat of Varus by Arminius, a.d. 9. — Map: B.C. 27;
A.D. 14 and 100. Genealogy of the family of Augustus.

8. The Later Empire. — a. Septimius Severus ; a.d. 200.

b. Diocletian; a.d. 300. c. Constantine the Great, d. 337. d.
Honorius ; a.d. 400. e. The new Persian empire; Sassanidae.
/. Palymra ; Zenobia. g. The battle of Iladrianople, 378. h. The
Alemanni. — i. Aurelian, d. 275. k. Julian the Apostate, d. 363.
I. Theodosius the Great, d. 395. m. Constantinople. — Map :
A.D. 350 and 400.

9. The Migrations of the Barbarians. — a. The Visigoths
(West Gfiths); Alaric, d. 412. b. The Vandals ; Genseric, d. 477.

c. The Burgundians. d. The Angles and Saxons, e. Attila and

MEDIEVAL HISTOEY. 825

the Huns. /. Odoacer ; the fall of the Empire, 476. g. Theodoric
the Ostrogoth {East Goth), d. 526. h. The Lombards ; Alboin, 568.
— i. Stilicho, d. 408. k. The battle of the Peoples {Chalons), 451.
I. The Gepidse. — Map : 420 and 476. List of the barbarian king-
doms in the order of their settlement.

MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. A.D. 500-1500.
L The Frank Period. A.D. 500-900.

10. The Merovingian House. — a. Clovis ; a.d. 500. b. Jus-
tinian and his conquests, c. The Slavs and Avars, d. Pope
Gregory the Great ; a.d. 600. e. Heraclius, d. 641. /. Mohammed
and his successors, g. The Ommeyades, 661. h. Austrasia and
Neustria. {. The hegemony of Xorthumbria. — k. Belisarius, d. 565.
I. Penda of Mercia, d. 65-5. m. The Scots and Picts. — Map : 510
and 565.

11. The Carolingian House ; A.D. 752. — a. Pipin of Heristal;
A.D. 700. b. Leo the Isaurian, d. 741. c. The battle of Tours, 732.
d. The kmgdom of the Asturias. e. The Abassides, 750. /. Charles
the Great; a.d. 800. g. The treaty of Verdun, 843. h. The Nor-
mans, i. Alfred the Great ; a.d. 900. — k. The hegemony of Mercia.
L Egbert of Wessex, d. 836. m. Harold Haarfager, d. 936. n. The
kingdom of Scotland. — Map : a.d. 750 and 843. Genealogy of the
Carolingian house.

IL Period of German Ascendency. A.D. 900-1250.

12. The Saxon House; A.D. 919. — a. Otto the Great; em-
peror, 962. b. The kingdom of Burgundy, c. The Capetian house,
987. d. St. Stephen of Hungary ; a.d. 1000. e. The Macedonian
dynasty, f. The Russian monarchy, g. The Fatimites in Egypt.
h. The Danish conquest of England, 1016. — i. Gorm the Old of
Denmark, d. 936. k. St. Olaf of Norway. /. The kingdom of Bul-
garia, m. The Saracens in Sicily. — Map : a.d. 1000. Genealogy
of the Saxon house.

32G HISTORY Toncs.

13. The Fraiiconiau House ; A.D. 1024. — a. Henry IV. of Ger-
many; A.n. 1100. b. Pope Gregory VII., d. 108G. c. The Norman
conquest of England, 1066. d. The Norman conquests in Italy.
e. Alfonso VI. of Castile, and the Cid. /. The Almoravidos in Spain.
g. The Seljukian Turks, h. The first crusade, 1096. — i. Sancho
III., the Great, of Navarre, d. 1035. k. The States of North Africa.
/. The Concordat of Worms, 1122. — Map: The countries about the
Mediterranean; A.n. 1100. Genealogy of the Franconian house.

11. The Swabiau House (Hoheustaufen) ; A.D. 1138. —
a. A contest with the Welfs. b. The Lombard league, c. The
kingdom of Sicily ; 1130. d. The third crusade, 1189. e. The fourth
crusade, 1204. /. Pope Innocent III.; a.d. 1200. g. The house
of Plantagenet; 115-4. h. The kingdom of Portugal; 1139. — i. The
Almohades in Spain. k\ The second crusade, 1147. I. The mark
of Brandenburg, m. The duchy of Austria, n. Henry the Lion.
— Map: Germany; a.d. 1138; Europe; a.d. 1200. Genealogy of
the AV elfs.

15. The Great Interregnum; A.D. 1250. — a. Frederic IT.,
d. 12.50. b. Rudolf of Ilapsburg, d. 1291. c. Ottocar II. of Bo-
hemia, d. 1278. d. St. Louis of France, d. 1270. e. Ferdinand III.
of Castile, d. 1252. /. The Teutonic knights, g. The Allngensian
crusade, h. Genghis Khan, d. 1227. — i. The seventh crusade, 1270.
k. Iceland. — Map : Spain in 1050 and 1250. Genealogy of the
Hohenstaufen.

III. Pehiod of French Ascendency. A.D. 1250-1500.

16. The Fourteenth Century, to 1328. — a. Philip IV., the
Fair; a.d. 1300. b. The house of Anjou in Naples, c. Venice.
d. Genoa, e. The Popes at Avignon. /. The independence of
Scotland, g. The Swiss confederacy, h. Casimir the Great of
Poland, d. 1370. i. Louis the Great of Hungary, d. 1382. — k. Tlie
conquest of "Wales. I. Henry VII. in Italy, m. Louis IV. and
John XXII. ^ilfa/j; Germany ; a.d. 1300. Genealogj' of the house
of Anjou.

17. The Hundred Years' "War, to 1360. — a. The house of
Valois. b. The treaty of iJretigny, 1360. c. The Jacquerie.
d. The house of Luxemburg in Germany, e. The house of Palse-

IVIEDIiEVAL HISTORY. 327

ologiis ill Constantinople. /. The Ottoman Turks, g. Tamerlane,
d. 1405. h. The duchy of Milan. — i. Rienzi, the last of the tri-
bvmes, d. 1354:. k. Stephen Dushan of Servia, d. 1356. — Map:
France in the 14th century. Genealogy of the house of Yalois.

18. The Great Schism ; A.D. 1378. — a. The rival " obedi-
ences," Rome and Avignon, h. The council of Constance, 1414.

c. The Hussite wars. d. The civil wars of Armagnac and Bm-
gundy. e. Henry IV. of England ; a.d. 1400. / Joan of Arc, d.
1431. g. The Ilanseatic league, 1360. h. The union of Calmar,
1397. _t. Philip van Artevelde, d. 1382. k. The battle of Agin-
court, 1415. I. Pedro the Cruel of Castile, d. 1369. m. The battle
of Nicopolis, 1396. — Map : 1400. Genealogy of descendants of
John II. of France.

19. The Fifteenth Century, to 1483. — a. Louis XL, d. 1483.

b. The duchy of Burgundy, c. Charles the Bold, d. 1477. d. The
wars of the Roses, e. The capture of Constantinople, 1453.
/. The revival of learning, g. The discovery of the East Indies.
h. The invention of printing. — i. John Hunyady of Hungary,

d. 1456. k. Scanderbeg, d, 1467. L The kingmaker Earl of
Warwick, d. 1471. — Map: The east of Europe. Genealogy of
descendants of Edward III.

20. The End of the Middle Ages, to 1517.— a. Ferdinand
and Isabella: a.d. 1500. b. The house of Aragon in Xaples.

c. The Italian expedition of Charles VIII. , 1494. d. Florence.

e. The house of Tudor, 1485. /. The league of Cambrai, 1508.
g. Ivan the Great of Russia, d. 1505. h. The discovery of Amer-
ica, 1492. — {. Pope Alexander VI., d. 1503. k. Francesco Sforza,

d. 1466. I. Gonsalvo di Cordova, d. 1515. ?n. The Holy League,
1512. — Map : Italy in the 15th century. Genealogy of Charles V.
(his parents and grandparents).

MODERN HISTORY. From 1500.

I. Period of Religious Wars. 1.500-1650.

21. The Reformation Period, 1517-55. — a. The Ladies' peace
[of Cambrai], 1.529. b. The peace of Cateau-Cambresis, 1559.
c. The Schmalkaldic league, d. The peace of Augsburg, 1555.

328 HISTORY Tones.

e. The duchy of Prussia. /. The house of Austria, g. The knights
of St. John. h. Gustavus Wasa; king, 152-3. — ?". The battles of
Maricfnano and Pavia. k. The field of the cloth of gold, 1520.
/. The sack of Rome, 1527. m. Andrea Doria, d. 15G0. n. The
seizure of the three V)ishoprics, 1552. o. The battle of Mohacs,
152G. ;). The duchy of Florence, loZl. — Map: 1500,

22. The Spanish Supremacy ; to 1598. — a. The revolt of
the Netherlands, 1572. h. The Invincible Armada, 1588. c. The
Huguenot ^vars, 1502-72. d. The war of the Henries, 1585.
e. The annexation of Portugal, 1580. /. Pope Sixtus V., d. 1590.
g. jNIary Queen of Scots, d. 1586. h. Hennj IV. of France ; a.d.
ICOO. — i. The battle of Lepanto, 1571. k. Sir Philip Sidney, d.
15SG. /. Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, d. 1592. m. Ivan
the Terrible, d. 1584. n. The edict of Nantes, 1598. — Map of the
Spanish possessions. Genealogy of the house of Tudor.

23. The Thirty Years' "War; to 1648. — a. The Cleve suc-
cession, h. The war in Bohemia, c. Gu.stavus Adolphas, d. 16-32.
(1. "Wallenstein, d. 1034. e. The peace of Westphalia, 1648. /. Car-
dinal Richelieu, d. 1642. g. The English revolution, h. The house
of Romanof. — i. The Donauwbrth affair, 1607. k. The indepen-
dence of the Netherlands, 1009. I. The war with La Rochelle.
m. The independence of Portugal, 1640. n. The colonization of
America, o. Transylvania. — Map : 1648.

TI. Period of Dynastic Wars.

24. The Age of Louis XIV.; to 1697. — a. Louis XIV.;
A.D. 1700. h. The peace of the Pyrenees, 1659. c. The treaty of
Npnwegen, 1678. d. The treaty of Ryswick, 1607. e. The Eng-
lish revolution of 1688. / Frederick William, the Great Elector,
d. 1688. g. The treaty of Oliva, 1660. h. The treaty of Carlo-
witz, 1699. — i. The invasion of the Netherlands, 1672. k. The
devastation of the Palatinate, 1688. I. The triple alliance; Sir
William Temple, 1668. m. John Sobieski, d. 1696. n. The war
of the Fronde. — My); The countries about the Baltic, 1660.
Genealogy of the house of Stuart.

25. The Eighteenth Century; to 1763. — «. The treaty of
Utrecht, 1713. h. The pragmatic sanction, c. The treaty of Aii-

MODEEX HISTOEY. 329

larChapelle, 1748. d. The treaties of Paris and Hubertsburg, 1703.
e. Charles XII. of Sweden, d. 1718. /. Peter the Great of Russia,

d. 1725. g. Frederick the Great of Prussia, d. 178G. h. The
English empire in India. — i. Cardinal Alberoni, d. 1752. k. The
quadruple alliance. I. The family compact, m. The treaty of
Vienna, 1738. n. The treaty of Xystadt, 1721. o. The kingdom
of Prussia, 1701. p. The kingdom of Sardinia, 1720. — Map : The
east of Europe, 1750. Genealogy of the Spanish succession.

III. Revolutionary Period.

26. The French Revolution; to 1799. — a. The first parti-
tion of Poland, 1772. h. The national assembly, 1789. c. The
declaration of Pilnitz, 1791. d. The legislative assembly, 1791.

e. The national convention, 1792. /. The first coalition, 1793.
g. The second and third partitions of Poland, 1793 and 1795..
h. The peace of Basle, 1795. — i. Count Mirabeau, d. 1791. k. The-
battle of Valmy, 1792. I. The American revolution, m. Cather-
ine n. of Russia, d. 1796. — Map: Europe in 1789. Genealogy of
the house of Romanof .

27. The Wars of Napoleon; to 1815. — a. Napoleon Bona--
parte; a.d. 1800. h. The armed neutrality, 1800. c. The treaty
of Luneville, 1801. d. The peace of Presbarg, 1805. e. The con-
federation of the Rhine, 1806. /. The peace of Tilsit, 1807.
g. The peace of Schbnbrunn, 1809. h. The peace of Vienna, 1815.

— i. The duchy of Warsaw and kingdom of Poland, k. Xapoleon's-
continental system. I, The French annexations in their order-

— Map: 1800; 1810.

28. The Period of Peace, 1815-1848. — a. The holy alliance,,
1815. h. The French revolution of 1830. c. The kingdom of
Belgium, 1831. d. The kingdom of Greece, 1831. e. The extin-
guishment of Poland, 1831. /. Mehemet AU, d. 1849. g. The
war of the Sonderbund, 1846. — h. The opium war, 1840. i. The
Afghan war, 1839-41. k. The French occupation of Algiers, 1830..
I. Prince Metternich, d. 1859. — Map: Europe in 1820. Geneal-
ogy of the Bourbons.

29. The Second Empire; to 1870. — a. The French revolu-
tion of 1848. h. The Hungarian revolution, c. The Crimean;

330 HISTORY Toncs.

war, 1854. d. The Sepoy revolt, 1857. e. The Italian war, 1859.
f. The Schleswig-IIolstein war, 1804. g. The seven weeks' war,
18GG. h. Count Cavour, d. 18G1. i. The revolution in Rome.
k. Tlio revolution in Venice. /. The Greek revolution, 18G2.
m. Tho ^Moxican empire, 1803. — Map: Italy in 1850 and 1870.

30. The German Empire. — a. The Franco-Prussian war, 1870.
b. Prince Bismarck, c. The Turko-Russian war, 187G. d. The
Afghan war, 1878. e. The Greek question. /. The Spanish
republic, 1873. g. The Egyjitian troubles, 1882. — h. The Abys-
sinian war, 18G7. i. The Zulu war, 1878. k. The French in
Tunis, 1881. I. The Dalmatian revolt, 1882. — Map: Germany in
1860, 18G6, and 1871.

AMERICAN HISTORY

Introduction.

1. The Discovery of America. — a. The fifteenth century;
formation of States, h. The renaissance, c. The great discover-
ies and inventions, d. Commerce with the East in the middle acres.
e. The Portuguese navigators. /. The voyages of Columbus.
g. The Cabots.

2. Relation of American to European History. — a. 16th
cent. ; rivalry between Spain, France, and England, h. 17th
cent.; ascendency of France and Holland, c. Thirty years' war ;
■rise of Sweden, d. The Puritan revolution in England, e. The
revolution of 1G88. /. 18th cent. ; rivalry of France and England.
g. The French encyclopaedists. h. Reaction of America upon
Europe. I. Federalist and republican sjTnpathies.

3. Spanish Explorations and Colonies within the Limits of
the United States. — a. De Soto's expedition, 1539. h. Coro-
nado's expedition, 1540. c. CaVjrillo's expedition, 1542. d. ex-
plorations and .settlements in Florida.

4. French Settlements in North America. — a. Cartier's
discoveries, h. The Huguenots in Carolina, c. The settlement
of Acadia, 1004. d. Champlain's discoveries and settlements.
e. The discovery of the Mississippi, 1G73.

AMEMCAX HISTOKY. 331

Period of Colonization. 1607-1688.

5. Virginia and Maryland. — a. The London company and
the Virginia charter, b. The Maiyland grant, c. The govern-
ment of Virginia, d. Bacon's rebellion, 1676. e. The controversy
withClayborne. /. The nature of proprietary government, g. The
Puritan revolution in Maryland.

6. The Dutch Colonies. — a. The Dutch land grants, b. The
Jerseys. c. The Pennsylvania boundary. d. New Sweden.
e. The controversy with Connecticut. /. The nature of the
royal province.

7. New England. — a. Patents and charters in New England.
b. The settlement of Massachusetts bay. c. The natm-e of charter
government, d. Territorial history of ISIaine and Xew Hampshire.
e. The Xew England confederacy. /. The Indian wars. g. The
Quakers in IMassachusetts. h. The blue laws of Connecticut.

8. The Southern Colonies. — a. Locke's plan of government.
b. The colonization of Georgia, c. The Huguenot refugees.

9. Chronological Review of the Period. — a. Order of settle-
ment of the colonies, b. Map of the colonies in 1688. c. History
of religious toleration.

Period of Colonial Life. 1688-176-3.

10. New France and Florida. — a. Extent of French and
Spanish occupation, b. Wars of Count Frontenac. c. The Xorth
American Indians.

11. The Revolution of 1688. — a. The new charter of Massa-
chusetts, b. Leisler's rebellion, c. Salem witchcraft, d. Sir
Edmimd Andros.

12. King "William's and Queen Anne's "Wars. — a. The war
of the Spanish succession, b. The treaty of Utrecht, 1713. c. Sir
William Phips, d. 1695. d. The changes in colonial government.

13. "Wars of George II. — a. The seven years' war. b. The
treaty of Paris, 1763. c. Hostilities in 1754 and 1755. d. The
campaign of 1758. e. The conquest of Canada. /. Franklin's
plan of union, 1754. g. The conspiracy of Pontiac, 1763.

332 HISTORY TOPICS.

14. Review of the Period. — a. Map of the colonies in 1763.
A. Nationalities in the colonies, c. Education, d. Industry.
e. Slavery, f. Literature, g. Church organizations.

Revolutionary Period. 1763-1789.

15. 1763 to 1770. — a. The navigation acts and writs of assist-
ance, h. The stamp act, 1765. c. The congress of 1765. d. Acts
of Grafton's administration, in relation to America, e. Troubles
in New York. /. Affairs in the South, g. The British adminis-
trations, h. James Otis, d. 1783.

16. 1770 to 1774. — a. Lord North's financial acts and the
Boston tea-party. /'■ The acts of parliament of 1774. c. The
Continental congress of 1774. d. The Boston massacre, March 5,
1770. e. The burning of the Gaspe, June 10, 1772. /. Patrick
Henry, d. 1799. g. Samuel Adams, d. 1803.

17. 1775. — a. The acts of congress, b. Hostilities down to
June. c. The battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. d. The expedition
to Canada, e. George Washington, d. 1799.

18. 1776. — a. Acts of independence and union, b. The siege
of Boston, c. Military operations about New York. fi. Washing-
ton in New Jersey, e. The military organization.

19. 1777. — a. BurgojTie's expedition, b. The occupation of
Philadelphia, c. The operations in the South, 1771-77. d. The
Conway cabal, e. The finances of the war. /. The treaty with
France, Feb. 6, 1778. g. Benjamin Franklin, d. 1790.

20. 1778 and 1779. — a. The battle of Monmouth, June 28,
1778. b. Sullivan's expedition against the Six Nations, 1778. c. The
expedition of George Rogers Clark, 1779. d. The capture of Stony
Hook, July 15, 1779. e. The operations about Savannah. /. John
Paul Jones, d. 1792.

21 . 1780. — a. The battle of Camden, August 16. h. The battle
of King's Mountain, October 7. c. The capture of Charleston,
May 12. d. Arnold's treason.

22. 1781. — a. The battle of Co\7X)ens, January 17. b. Greene's
retreat, and the Vjattle of Guilford, March 25. c. Campaign of
Gren. Greene after Guilford, d. Campaign of Lord Cornwallis.
e. The siege of Yorktown. /. Marquis Lafayette, d. 1834.

AIMEKICAN HISTORY. 333

23. Close of the War. — a. The armed neutrality, b. The
treaty of peace, c. The Xe\\burgh addresses, d. The formation
of state governments, e. The cession of the public lands.

24. The Confederacy, 1781-89. — a. The articles of confeder-
ation, b. The financial troubles, c. Shay's rebellion, d. The
ordinance of 17S7. e. The formation of the constitution.

25. The Constitution. — a. The distinctive features of the
constitution. b. The establishment of the new government.
c. Settlement and early history of Kentucky, d. The Vermont
controversy, e. Formation of state government in Tennessee.

26. Review of the Period. — a. Hamilton's theory of govern-
ment, b. Madison's theory of government, c. Luther Martin's
theory of government, d. Party divisions at the close of the
period.

Period of the Republic. 1789-1876.
I. Foreign Relations, to 1820.

27. Washington's First Administration, 1789-93. — a. The
amendments to the constitution, b. The legislation of the first
congress, c. Hamilton's financial policy, d. The Indian troubles.
e. A permanent seat of government.

28. Washington's Second Administration, 1793-97. —
a. Jay's treaty, 1795. b. The French complications, c. The
whiskey insurrection, 1794. d. Washington's farewell address.
e. Alexander Hamilton, d. 1804.

29. John Adams' Administration, 1797-1801. — a. The war
with France, b. The alien and sedition acts. c. The Virginia
and Kentucky resolutions, d. The presidential election of 1800-1.
e. The schism in the Federalist party; the Essex junto.

30. Jefferson's First Administration, 1801-5. — a. The pur-
chase of Louisiana, 1803. b. The war with Tripoli, 1801. c. The
north-western territory, d. The amendment to the constitution.

31. Jefferson's Second Administration, 1805-9. — a. Burr's
conspiracy, 1806. b. Relations with France and England, c. The
embargo, 1807.

82. Madison's First Administration, 1809-13. — a. Causes

334 HISTORY TOPICS.

of the war of 1812. b. The Indian hostilities; Tecumseh.
c. Naval operations in 1812. d. Hull's surrender, August 16.

33. Madison's Second Administration, 1813-17. — a. Cam-
paigns on the nortliorn frontier. /;. Military operations in 1814.

c. Jackson's campaigns in the Soutli. d. Naval operations.
e. The attack upon "Washington and Baltimore. /. The Hart-
ford convention, 1814. g. The treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814.
k. The war with Algiers, l.Slf).

34. Monroe's Administration, 1817-25. — a. The Missouri
compromise, b. Tlie purchase of Florida, 1819. c. The Semi-
nole war. d. The settlement of the northern boundary.

35. Review of the Period. — a. The era of good feeling.
b. The bank of the United States, c. Tariff legislation until 1815.

d. Foreign relations, e. Slavery and the slave-trade.

II. Economic Questions, to 1845.

36. John Quincy Adams' Administration, 1825-29. — a. The
Panama congress and the ^lonroe doctrine, b. Georgia and the
Creek Indians, c. The tariff of 1828.

37. Jackson's First Administration, 1829-33. — a. Nulli-
fication, b. The anti-Mason party, c. Black-hawk's war, 1832.
d. The "kitchen cal)inet." e. John C. Calhoun, d. 18.50.

38. Jackson's Second Administration, 1833-37. — a. The
removal of the deposits, b. the anti-slavery movement, c. The
farewell address, d. The Seminole war. e. The French spolia-
tion claims.

39. Van Buren's Administration, 1837-41. — a. The sub-
treasur}'. b. The crisis of 1837. c. The repudiation movement.
d. The affair of the Caroline.

40. Harrison and Tyler's Administrations, 1841^5. — a. The
Webster-Ashburton treaty, lb42. b. The tariff of 1842. c. The
annexation of Texas, 1845. d. Dorr's rebellion, 1842. e. The
Mormon troubles in Illinois, 1844. /. Daniel Webster, d. 1852.

III. The Slavery Controversy, to 1870.

41. Polk's Administration, 1845-49. — n. The campaigns of
the Mexican war. b. The occupation of the Pacific coast, c. The

AMERICAN HISTORY. 335

treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1848. d. The north-western bound-
ary, e. The tariff of 1846. /. The Wilmot proviso.

42. Taylor and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849-53. —
a. The omnibus bill, 1850. h. The free-soil party, c. The fugi-
tive-slave law. d. The Japan expedition, e. The correspond-
ence of Webster and IlUlsemann. /. Henry Clay, d. 1852. g. The
Cuban filibusters.

43. Pierce's Administration, 1853-57. — a. The Nebraska
bill, 1854. b. The know-nothing party, c. The Gadsden pur-
chase, d. Diplomatic relations with Great Britain, e. The Ostend
manifesto.

44. Buchanan's Administration, 1857-61. — a. The Kansas
question, h. The Dred Scott decision, 1857. c. The personal-
liberty bills, d. The Mormons in Utah. e. The acts of secession.
/. John Brown, d. 1859.

45. Lincoln's Administration; to July, 1862. — a. The jjen-
insular campaign, h. Operations in the West until Shiloh. c. The
capture of New Orleans, d. The Merrimac and Monitor, e. The
arrest of Mason and Slidell. / The national bank system.
g. The policy towards slavery. Ji. The constitution of the Con-
federacy, i. Operations on the seaboard.

46. Lincoln's Administration; July 1862, to Jan. 1864.—
a. Pope's campaign. J. McClellau's Antietam camjiaigu. c. Fred-
ericksburg and Chancellorsville. d. Murfreesboro'. e. Gettys-
burg. /. The opening of the Mississippi, g. Chickamauga and
Chattanooga, li. The emancipation proclamation.

47. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-65. — a. Grant's cam-
paign in Virginia. I. Sherman's campaign in the South, c. Hood's
advance into Tennessee, d. The Shenandoah campaign, e. The
Confederate cruisers. /. The policy towards the seceded states.
g. The sanitary commission, h. The Freedmen's Bureau.

48. Johnson's Administration, 1865-69. — a. Reconstruction.
h. The impeachment of the president, 1868. c. The purchase of
Alaska, 1867. d. The constitutional amendments.

49. Grant's Administration, 1869-77. — a. The Santo Do-
mingo treaty, 1870. h. The resumption of specie payments, c. The
Geneva congress, 1872. d. The Credit Mobilier.

336 IIISTOKY TOPICS.

50. Review of the Period. — a. The tariff question, h. The
slavery controversy, c. The public lands, d. The Indian policy.
c. The civil service. /. The Pacific railroad, g. The fisheries. —
.\[aps: 1G88, 1763, 1783, 1803, 1820, 1850, 1870. List of the states
admitted to the union, with dates. List of the vice-presidents,
with state, full name, and date. List of the secretaries of state,
with same.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CHURCH HISTORY.

COIS'TEI^TS.

PAGE.

I. Introductory 343

n. General Church History 344

A, Eastern.

1. Armenian 344

2. Coptic 344

3. Georgian 344

4. Graeco-Russian 344

5. Nestorian 346

6. Syrian 345

B. Western.

1. North African 345

2. European 345

III. Early Christianity 350

1. General 350

2. Catacombs 354

3. Charity 355

4. Controversies and Heresies 355

5. Patristics 355

6. Persecutions 355

rV. Medleval Christianity 356

1. General 356

2. Celibacy of the Clergy 357

3. Crusades 357

4. Ix)llards 357

5. Myths 358

6. Waldenses - 358

340 CONTENTS.

PAGX.

V. MOPERN ClIRISTIAKITT 358

1. General Histories of the Reformation Period 368

2. The Roman Catliolic Church 360

I. General 360

II. The Inquisition 361

III. Jansenists 361

IV. Jesuits 361

V. Port Royalists 361

VI. Ultramontanism and Vaticanism 362

3. Old Catholics 362

4. Modern Ecclesiastical History, by Countries 362

I. Bohemia 362

II. England 362

A. The Church of England established by Law 362

B. Dissenters 363

III. France 364

IV. Germany 365

V. Holland 366

VI. Hungary ... 365

VII. Ireland 365

VIII. Italy 366

IX. Poland 365

X. Scandinavia 366

XI. Scotland 366

XII. Spain 366

Xni. Switzerland 366

XIV. United States of America 366

A. General 366

B. Denominational 367

VI. Special Topics 371

1. Art 371

2. Biography 372

A. Biblical 372

I. Lives of Christ 372

II. Lives of Apostles 373

B. General 374

I. Collections 374

II. Individual 376

CONTENTS. 341

VI. Special Topics — Continued. page.

3. Church and State 377

4. Councils 377

6. Creeds 378

6. Doctrines 378

7. Fiction 379

8. Liturgies 381

9. Martyrs 382

10. Miracle Plays and Mysteries 382

11. Missions 382

12. Monastic Orders 383

13. Eationalism 383

14. Keference Books 383

15. Sacred Seasons 385

16. Symbolism 385

A Select Bibliography of Ecclesiastical

History.'

Bt JOHN ALONZO FISHER,

Graduate Student op Church Histobt and Philosopht at
Johns Hopkins Univebsitt.

I. INTRODUCTORY.

Crooks, G. R., and Hurst, J. F. Theological Encyclopaedia and
Methodology. Based on Hagenbach. 8vo. pp. 596. N.Y.
Phillips & Hunt. 1884. $4.00.

An admirable introduction to all departments of theological study.
It contains valuable bibliographies, German and English,

Dowling, John G. An Introduction to the Critical Study of Ecclesi-
astical History, attempted in an account of the progress, and a
short notice of the sources of the history of the church. L.
1838.

Hitchcock, R. D. The True Idea and Uses of Church History.
N.Y. 1856.

Newton, J. Review of Ecclesiastical History, etc. Works, p. 369
(pp. 88).

Schaff, Philip. General Introduction to Church History, Bibli-
otheca Sacra, v. 6, 1849, p. 409 (pp. 33) ; and Progress of Church
History as a Science, Bib. Sac, v. 7, 1850, p. 54 (pp. 37).

Id. What is Church Histoiy ? A vindication of the idea of histori-
cal development. 12mo. pp. 128. Ph. Lip. 1846.

Smith, H. B. Nature and Worth of the Science of Church History.
Andover. 1851. In Bib. Sac., v. 8, 1851, p. 412 (pp. SO).

1 For abbreviations, see page 239, foot-note.

34-4 A SELECT BlBLlOGliArnY OF

Smi/th, Egbert C. Value of the Study of Church History in Minis-
terial Education. A lecture delivered to the senior class of
Andover Theological Seminary, pp. 31. Andover. Draper.
1874. Paper, 2') cents.

Of practical value to pastors.

Stanley, A . P. Three Introductory Lectui-es on the Study of Eccle-
siastical History. 8vo. Oxford. J. H. & J. Parker. 1857.
Republished as an introduction to the American edition of the
author's History of the Eastern Church. 18G1. N.Y. : Scr.,
18G7. Scribner, Armstrong, & Co., 1873, 82.i50.

Compare the introductory pages of the church histories by the
Roman Catholic writers Fleurtj, MOliler, Alzo<j, Dvllimjer, and
nerc/enriither, and the Protestant writers Mosheim, Schroeckh,
Gieseler, Hase, Niedner, Kurtz, and Schaff.

II. GENERAL CHURCH HISTORY.

A. Eastern. — 1. Armenian.

Davis, (Mrs.) Tamar. A General History of the Sabbatarian
Churches. Embracing accounts of the Armenian, East Indian,
and Abyssinian Episcopacies. 8vo. pp. 255. Ph. Lindsay &
Blakiston. 1851.

2. Coptic.

Malan, S. C. A Short History of the Copts and of their Church.
12 mo. pp. 115. L. Xutt. 1873. 2s. Qd.

3. Georgian.

Joselan, P. A Short History' of the Georgian Church. Translated
from the Russian, and edited with additional notes by S. C.
Malan. 8vo. L. Saunders. 1865. ^1.50.

4. Grceco-Russian.

Neale, J. M. A History of the Holy Eastern Church, the Patri-
archate of Antioch, etc. Edited, with an introduction, by
George Williams. 8vo. L. 1873. §5.00.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOEY. 345

Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church.
L. &N.Y., 1862. jST.Y. : Scribner, Armstrong & Co., 1873. $2.50.
Contains three introductory lectures on Church history. These
lectures were delivered at Oxford. Not a continuous and exhaustive
history, but, like all of Dean Stanley's writings, fascinating and
scholarly. The sections on the Arian controversy are, according
to Dr. Schaff, who also criticizes Stanley's omission to discuss the
Nestorian and the other Christological controversies of the Eastern
Church, " more brilliant than solid."

5. Nestorian.

Badger, Geo. Percy. The Nestorians and their Rituals. Illustrated
(with colored plates). 2 v. L. 1852.

6. Syrian.

Wortabet, John. Researches into the Religions of Syria ; or, Sketches,
Historical and Doctrinal, of its Religious Sects. 8vo. L. Nis-
bet. 1860.

Of. paper by H. H. Jessvp in Proceedings of the Sixth Session of the

Evangelical Alliance. N.Y. H. 1874.

B. Western. — 1. North African.

Lloyd, Julius. The North African Church. 8vo. With map. L..
Soc. 1880. 3s. 6d.

2. European.

Allen, Joseph Henry. Christian History in its Three Great Periods..
16mo. 3v. B. R. $1.25 each.

Convenient; liberal; readable.
Alzog, John. A Manual of Universal Church History. Translated
from the ninth enlarged and improved German edition, and
edited and brought down to the present time, by F. J. Pabisch
and Thomas S. Byrne. 3 v. I. Early Chiu'ch History ; II. The-
Middle Ages; III. To the Present Time. 8vo. Cincinnati-
Clarke & Co. $15.00.

At once the latest and the highest Roman Catholic authority;.

"Alzog aims to be the Roman Catholic Hase as to brevity and

346 A SELECT BIBLIOGRArHY OF

condensation. . . . The American translators censure the French
translators for the liberties they have taken with Alzog, but they
have taken similar liberties, and, by sundry additions, made the
author more Romish than he was." — P. Schaff.

Arnold, Mattheio. St. Paul and Protestantism; -with an Introduc-
tion on Puritanism and the Church of England. 12mo. N.Y.
1875. §1.75. L. Smith, Elder, & Co. 4s. G(/.

Blackburn, W. M. History of the Christian Church, from its
Origin to the Present Time. 8vo. pp. 719. Cincinnati.
Hitchcock & Walden. 1879. 82.50.

Comprehensive and convenient. By a Presbyterian.
Bollinger, John Joseph lynatius. Manual of Church History.
Translated from Dr. Dbllinger's unfinished Handbook of Chris-
tian Church History, 1833, and Manual of Church History, 1836,
by Edw. Cox. 4 v. 8vo. pp. 287, 375, 351, 245. L. Dolman.
1840-42.

This work extends to the Reformation. Dr. DclUinger, since 1870

the leader of the Old Catholic movement, is the most learned Roman

Catholic historian of the nineteenth century.

Gieseler, John C. L. Text-Book of Church History. 5 v. Bonn.
1824-56. Fourth edition, 1844 sg^. "Translated into English
first by Cunningham, Ph., 1846 ; then by Davidson and Hall in
England ; and last and best, on the basis of the former, by
Henry B. Smith. 5 v. N.Y. H. 1857-80. The fifth and last
volume of this edition was completed after Dr. Smith's death
(1877) by Prof. Stearns and Miss Mary A. Robinson, with an
introductory notice by Philip Schaff. " Vols. 1, 2, 3, and 4,
^2.25 each ; vol. 5, .?3.00.

"Profoundly learned, acute, calm, impartial, conscientious, but
cold and dry." — P. Schaff. " The standard complete history of
the church." — W. F. Allen. The great merit of this work is its
wealth of choice extracts from the original authorities. It is gener-
ally considered the best of all the text>books on church history.

Ouericke, H. E. F. Handbook, etc. Translated, in part, by W. G.
T. Skedd. 8vo. 2 v. pp. xvi, 433; pp. viii, 160. Andover.
Draper. 1857 and 1870. Vol. I. (to a.d. 590), 82.75; Vol. H.
(to A.D. 1073), 81.25.

The tone-ofthe book la that of a Lutheran polemic.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 347

Hardwick, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. 2 v. 12mo.
Vol. I. : Middle Ages, with maps constructed for the work by
A. Keith Johnson. Vol. II. : The Reformation. 12mo. Cam-
bridge and London. 1861-65. §3.00 per vol.

Written for students by a representative of the Church of England.

Hase, Charles. A History of the Christian Church. Translated
from the seventh and much improved German edition, by C. E.
Blumenthal and C. P. Wing. 8vo. N.Y. 1855; 1870. §3.50.

Since the publication of the translation, the German work has been
revised. Condensed, skilfully arranged, and well written.

Hurst, J. F. Outlines of Church History. N.Y. Philips & Hunt.
1884. 50 cents.

Kurtz, John Henry. Text-Book of Church History. Translated
from the German by Schaeffer, 2 v., Ph., 1860 ; revised edition,
1875; eighth edition, 1880. (Translated by Edersheim, and
completed by Bamberger, Ed. and Ph., 1861.) $3.00.
Evangelical Lutheran. Concise.

Lawrence, Eugene. Historical Studies. 8vo. pp. 508. N.Y. H.
1876. Contents : The Bishops of Rome ; Leo and Luther ;
Loyola and the Jesuits ; Ecumenical Councils ; The Vaudois ;
The Huguenots ; The Church of Jerusalem ; Dominic and the
Inquisition ; The Conquest of Ireland ; The Greek Chmch.
Protestant. Clear, strong, and accurate.

Lea, Henry C. Studies in Church History: The Rise of the
Temporal Power; Benefit of Clergy; Excommunication. 8vo.
pp. xiii, 518. Ph. H. C. Lea. 1869. §2.50.

Milman, H. H. History of Latin Christianity ; including that of
the Popes to the Pontificate of Xicholas V. 8 v. 12mo. pp.
554, 551, 525, 555, 530, 539, 570, 561. N.Y, Armstrong & Son.
1881. §14.00.

Of great value alike to students and to general readers. See under

Mediaeval Christianity.

Milner, Joseph. History of the Church of Christ. L. 1794-1812.
New corrected edition, 4 v., 1847, 1860, etc. L. 1875. 18s.
Pietistic; neither scholarly nor polemic.

3-48 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Moshelm, John Lawrence. Institutes of Ecclesiastical History,
Ancient and Modern. A new and literal translation from the
original Latin, with copious additional notes, original and
selected, by James Murdoch. 3 v., fifth edition, N.Y., 1854 ;
3 V. in one," 8vo, pp. 470, 485, 506. N.Y. Carter & Bros. 1881.
§5.00. (There is a translation by A. Maclaine. N.Y. H.
§4.00.)

The distinguished author, a moderate Lutheran, is "the father of

church historiography as an art, unless we prefer to concede this

merit to Bossuet." Skilful, clear, impartial. Mosheim wrote in

unrivalled Latin. He died in 1755.

Neander, J. A ugustus W. General History of the Christian Religion

and Church. Translated from the second improved German

edition by Joseph Tarry. 5 v., 8vo, Boston, 1854 ; also, 8 v.,

12mo, L. & N.Y., 1801. Twelfth edition : B. Houghton. 1881.

§18.00.

This well-known history is " distinguished for thorough and con-
scientious use of the sources, critical research, ingenious combina-
tion, tender love of truth and justice, evangelical catholicity, hearty
piety, and by masterly analysis of tLe doctrinal systems and the
subjective Christian life of men of God in past ages. . . . The poli-
tical and artistic sections, and the outward machinery of history,
were not congenial to the humble, guileless simplicity of Neander.
His style is monotonous, involved, and diffuse, but unpretending,
natural, and warmed by a genial glow of sympathy and enthusi-
asm."— P. ScHAFF, his pupil.
Newman, John Henry. Essays Critical and Historical. 2 v., with
notes. Poetry ; Rationalism ; De la IVIennais ; Palmer on Faith
and Unity ; St. Ignatius ; Prospectus of the Anglican Church ;
The Anglo- American Church ; Countess of Huntingdon ; Catho-
licity of the Anglican Church ; The Antichrist of Protestants ;
Milman's Christianity; Reformation of the Eleventh Century';
Private Judgment ; Davison ; Kemble. L. Pickering. 1872-77.

12s.

By the able Roman Catholic prelate, formerly of the Church of
England.
Id. Historical Sketches. 3 v. Primitive Christianity ; Church of
the Fathers; St. Chrysostom ; Theodoret; St. Benedict, etc.
L. Pickering. 1873 5 jr/. 18s.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOEY. 349

Robinson, James E. History of the Christian Church (a.d. 64-1517).
4 v., 1854 sqq. ; 8 v., 12mo, L., 1874.

The best general history yet written from the Anglican point of view.

Schajf, Philip. History of the Apostolic Chui'ch. 8vo. N.Y.
1853, etc. 83.75.

Excellent, but superseded by his magnum opus, History of the
Christian Church.

Id. History of tlae Christian Church. 3 v. 8vo. 1859-67. Revised
and enlarged, with maps : Vol. I., Apostolic Christianity (a.d.
1-100), pp. 863 ; Vol. 11. , Ante-Xicene Christianity (a.d. 100-
325), pp. 866; Vol. III., Xicene and Post-Xicene Christianity
(a.d. 311-600), pp. 1039. N.Y. Scr. 1882-84. (Other volumes
are promised.) $4.00 per volmne.

The greatest monument of American scholarship in the field of
church history. Orthodox, liberal, readable. Though designed
especially for students, it meets the wants of studious men in all
the walks of life. It is peculiarly rich iu bibliographies.

Smith, Philip. The Student's Manual of Ecclesiastical History. A
history of the Christian church from the time of the Apostles to
the full establishment of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papal
power. Illustrated. 12mo. X.Y. H. 1879. 81.50.

An excellent manual. It contains chronological tables, and has an

index.

Stanley, A. P. Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects : Baptism and the
Eucharist, Absolution, Ecclesiastical Vestments, the Basilica,
the Clergy, the Pope, the Litany, the Roman Catacombs, the
Creed of the Early Christians, the Lord's prayer, the Council
and Creed of Constantinople, and the Ten Commandments.
12mo. N.Y. H. 50 cents.
By a scholarly genius.

Waddington, George. History of the Church, from the Earliest
Ages to the Reformation. 8vo. X.Y. H. $2.00.

Washburn, E. A. Lectures on the Apostolic Age, the Nicene Age,
the Latm Age, the Reformation, the English Chui'ch, the Church
of America, the Church of the Future, Richard Hooker, etc.
12mo. pp.400. N.Y. Button & Co. $1.75.

850 A SELECT BIBLIOGRArHY OF

Wliatcly, Richard. A General View of the Rise, Progress, and
Corruption of Christianity. 12mo. pp. 288. N.Y. W. Gow-
ans, 1860. N. Tibbals & Sons, 1876. §1.50.
White. Jaines. The Eigliteen Cliristian Centuries. 12mo. L. &
X.Y. Second edition. 1802. App. $2.00.

" Its merit is in the fact that the spirit of each age is generally well
apprehended and correctly represented; while its weakness shows
itself in what must be considered an altogether artificial division
of history into exact periods of a hundred years each. The author's
style is at all times bright and vigorous." — C. K. Adams.

III. EARLY CHRISTIANITY.

{See Lives of Christ, under Biography.')

1. General.

Baumgarten, M. Apostolic History. The Acts of the Apostles;
or, the History of the Church in the Apostolic Age. Translated
hy A.J. W. Morrison. ;J v. 8vo. Ed. 1854. $9.00.

Baur, Ferd. Christ. The Christians and the Christian Church of

the First Three Centuries. Tubingen, 1853. 2d rev. ed., 1860

(pp. .536). The 3d ed. is a reprint of the second, forming Vol. I.

of Baur's General Church Historj', edited by his son, in 5 v., 1863.

Hr.hy A.Menzies. 8vo. 2 v. L. W. & N. 1878,1879. \Os.M.

"The last and ablest exposition of the Tubingen reconstruction of

the Apostolic History from the pen of the master of that school. . . .

Baur's critical researches have compelled a thorough revision of

the traditional views on the apostolic age, and have so far been

useful, notwithstanding their fundamental errors." — P. Schaff.

Blunt, J. H. A Christian View of Christian History, from Apos-
tolic to Mediaeval Times. 12mo. L. Riviugtous. 1866. New-
edition, 1872. Is. M.
Delitzsch, Franz. Jewish Artizan Life in the Time of Jesus.
Translated by i3ern^arc/Pic/u. 12mo. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls.
1884. Paper, 15 cts. ; cloth, 75 cts.

Scholarly; but entertaining as a romance. The author refers, in
foot-notes, to his authorities. Well translated.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOEY. 351

Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz. The First Age of Christianity.
Translated by H. N. Oxenlams. 2 v. 8vo. L. 1866. f 8.00.
" Dr. Dollinger has long been held as one of the ablest historians
in the Roman Catholic Church; and this work may be regarded as
the most successful representation of the early history of the
Church from the Catholic point of view." — C. K. Adams.

Eusehius. Ecclesiastical History (Greek). Translated by C. F.
Cruse; with an Historical View of the Council of Nice, by Isaac
Boyle. 8vo. L., 1842. Ph., 1860. Lip. $2.50. Another
translation in Greek Ecclesiastical Historians of the First Six
Centuries, q.v.

Eusebius, "the Christian Herodotus," was intimately associated
with Constantine the Great. Died 340.

Farrar, F. W. Early Days of Christianity. N.Y. Funk & Wag-
nails. Paper, 40 cts. ; cloth, 75 cts.
A standard work.
Fisher, George P. The Beginnings of Christianity, with a View of
the State of the Roman World at the Birth of Christ. 8vo.
pp. 580. N.Y. Scr. 1877. $3.00.

Scholarly, but popular. In this volume the orthodox but liberal
author incidentally discusses the theories of the Tiibingen school.

Id. Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with special reference to

the theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tiibingen school. 8vo.

pp. 620. N.r. Scr. New and enlarged edition, 1870. $3.00.

Suited to the needs of all classes of readers. Clear, strong, readable.

Gibbon, Edward. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. See
chapters on the Growth of Christianity. Numerous editions.
Contains many depreciatory references to the Christian church.
"To counteract the influence of these arguments and insinuations
of Gibbon, both Milman and Guizot have edited special editions
of this history, with abundant notes. The Student's Gibbon, pre-
pared by W. Smith in a similar spirit, is an edition greatly
abridged." — N. Pokter. The best edition is Milman 's.

Hatch, E. The Organization of the Early Christian Churches.
Bampton Lectures for 1880. 8vo. pp. 216. Oxford and Cam-
bridge. Rivingtons. 1881. 10s. Qd.

Learned, eloquent. Shows the development of church polity from
a democracy into a monarchy.

352 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OP

Historians (Greek) of the First Six Centuries. Translations in
Holm's Ecclesiastical Library, 4 v. 8vo. L. 1851, Eusebius,
Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius. 6 v. L, 1813-47.
^.00 each,

Cf . Geo. A. Jackson : The Apostolic Fathers of the Second Century,
with extracts, pp. 203. N.Y. 1878.

Juckson, Samuel M. Lipsius on the Roman Peter-Legend. In the
Presb. Qiiar. and Princeton Rev. (N.Y.) for 1876. p. 265 sqq.

A summary of the views of R, A. Lipsius, who has examined
"carefully the heretical sources of the Roman Peter-legend, and
regards it as a fiction from beginning to end."

John, St. The Fourth Gospel.

See Baur, Strauss, Renan, and their followers. The genuineness
of this Gospel has been defended by Priestley, Andrews & Norton,
Van Oostcrzee (trans, by Ilurst), Lanr/e (Com. trans, by Schnff),
Sanday (Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth Gos-
pel, London, 1872), Li(jhifont (in Cont. Rev., 1875-77), Georrje P.
Fisher (Beginnings of Christianity, chap, x., and art. " The Fourth
Gospel" in the Princeton Rev. for July, 1881, pp. 51-84), Westcott
(Introduction to the Gospels, 18<>2, 1875, and Commentary, 1879),
McClellan (The Four Gospels, 1875), Milligun (in the Cont. Rev.
for 1867, 18G8, 1871, and in his Moulton's Commentary, 1880), and
Ezra Abbot (The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel, External Evi-
dences, Boston, 1880; paper, 50 cents. A work of great merit).

Lighl/oot, J. B. In Contemporary Review, 1875-77. A series of
articles against " Supernatural Religion," q.v. Cf. the reply of
the anonymous author in the preface to the sixth edition of S. R.

Maurice, F. I). Lectures on the Ecclesiastical History of the First
and Second Centuries. 8vo, Camb., 1854. L. Macm. $3.50.

Milman, Henry Hart. The History of Christianity, from the Birth
of Christ to the Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire.
3 v. 8vo, L. ; and 12mo, X.Y. New and revised edition : N.Y.
Armstrong. 1871. §0.2.3.

For the person that can read but one church history, this, perhaps,
is the best. It is pervaded by the spirit of enlightened faith. It
treats especially of the relations of Christianity to the Roman Em-
pire.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 353

Mosheim, J. L. History of the Ante-Nicene Period. Translated
from the Latin by Vidal. 3 v. 1813 sqq. 2 v. New Haven,
1852. New edition. 2 v. N.Y., 1853.

Neander, J. A . W. History of the Planting and Training of the
Christian Church. Translated by J. E. Ryland. Ed., 1842 ;
and in Bohn's Standard Library, L., 1851 ; reprinted in Ph.,
1844 ; revised by E. G. Robinson, N.Y., 1865. $4.00.

" This book marks an epoch, and is still valuable." — P. Schaff.

Priestley, J. General History of the Christian Chm-ch to the Fall
of the Western Empire. In W'orks, Vols. 8-10.

Pressense, Edmund de. The Early Years of Christianity. Trans-
lated by Annie Harwood-Holmden. 4 v. 12mo. L., Hodder &
Stoughton, and N.Y. 1870 and 1879. $1.50.

By a scholarly Protestant pastor. Written in a popular style.

Renan, Ernest. The Apostles. 12rao. N.Y. Carleton. 1870. $1.75.
Id. The Influence of the Institutions, etc., of Rome upon Christi-
anity. The Hibbert Lectures for 1880. L. W. & N. 1880.
$3.50.

In Kenan's best spirit. He shows, clearly and conclusively, that
in its external organization, the early church was by degrees con-
formed to the existing institutions of the Roman Empire, and that
these insiifutious thus have been perpetuated to the present day.

Simcox, Wm. H. Lectures on the Beginnings of the Christian
Church. 12mo. L. 1881. $3.00.

Supematui-al Religion, an Inquiry into the Reality of Divine
Revelation. Anonymous. L., 1873; 2 v., 8vo, B., R., 1875,
$8.00 ; 7th ed., " carefully revised," 1879, 3 v., 8vo, L., Longm.,

36s.

"An English reproduction and repository of the critical specula-
tions of the Tiibingen School of Baur, Strauss, Zeller, Schwegler,
Hilgenfeld, Volkmar, etc. ... Dr. Schiirer, in the ' Theol. Litera-
tur Zeitung " for 1879, No. 26 (p. 622) , denies to this work scientific
value for Germany, but gives it credit for extraordinary familiarity
with recent German literature, and great industry in collecting
historical details. Drs. Lightfoot, Sanday, Ezra Abbot, and
others, have exposed the defects of its scholarship and the false
premises from which the writer reasons." — P. Schaff.

354 A SELECT BIBLIOGRArHY OF

Taylor, Isaac. Ancient Christianity and the Doctrine of the Ox-
ford "Tracts for the Times." Fourth edition, with a supple-
ment. 2 V. 8vo. L. Bohn. 1844.

By an Independent. Polemic; against "Puseyism" and the Ro-
man Catholic Church.

Wadsworlh, Charles. A Church History. [To the Council of
Chalcedon, a.d. 451.] 4 v. l'2mo. L. and N.Y. 1881(?).
Vol. I., 82.50 ; II., III., and IV., ^2.00 each.
Churchly; not critical.

2. Catacombs.

The best original authorities are in Italian. The highest is Rossi.
The works of Padre-Marchi and Perret are superbly illustrated.
D'Agincourt wrote from a personal knowledge of fifty years.

Lundy, John P. Monumental Christianity; or, the Art and Sym-
bolism of the Primitive Church as Witnesses and Teachers of
the one Catholic Faith and Practice. N.Y. Bouton. 1876.
New edition ; enlarged, 1882, pp. 453. Illustrated. $7.50.
The writer is an Episcopalian.
Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Catacombs, in The Contemporary

Re\-iew, Vol. XVII. (1871), pp. lGO-175.
Northcote, J. S., and Brownlow, W. R. Roma Sotterranea. L.
Longmans, Green & Co., 1869. Second edition, "rewritten and
greatly enlarged." 1879. 2 v. 822..50.

Northcote, Canon of Birmingham, and Brownlow, Canon of Ply-
mouth, here present to English readers the results of Conimendatore
De Rossi's celebrated researches. The book is liberally illustrated
with cbromo-lithographic plates and with wood engravings.

Northcote, J. Spencer. J^pitaphs of the Catacombs; or. Christian
Inscriptions in Rome during the First four Centuries. L.
Burns & Gates. 10a-. (Vol. III. of B. & O.'s edition of Roma
Sotterranea. Vols. I. and II. £1 4s. each.)
Parker, John Henry. The Archaeology of Rome. Illustrated. Ox-
ford and L. 1877. (Parts IX. and X., 66.00; and XII., 86.00.)
Standard. Consult, also, Kip, Maitlund, McCaul, Stanley (in his
Christian Institutions), Smyth (pamphlet, 1882), Stokes (in Con-
temporary Review, 1880, 1881), Vcnahles (in Smith and Cbeetham,
I. 204-317), Marriott, and Witnrow.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 855

3. Charity.

Uhlhorn, Gerhard. Christian Charity in the Ancient Church.
8vo. N.Y. Scr. $2.50.

The best work on the subject. Cf . Chastel : Charity of the Primi-
tive Churches. Trans, by G. A. Matilcs. Ph. Lip, 1857. $1.25.

4. Controversies and Heresies.

Dollinger, J. J. I. Hippolytus and Callistus. In German, 1853.

Translated by ^(/rerfP/ummer. Svo. Ed. 1876. pp.360. $3.60.

" An apology for Callistus and the Roman See against Hippolytus,

the supposed first anti-Pope." See Wordsworth for a defence of

Hippolytus.

Mansel, Henry L. The Gnostic Heresies. Edited by J. B. Light-
foot. L. INIurray. 1875. $4.75.

Mansel was dean of St. Paul's. Cf. Dr. Lightfoot's Excursus in hia-
Commentary on Colossians and Philemon for a satisfactory account
of Gnosticism. C. W. Einr/'s Gnostics and their Remains (L., 1864)'
contains illustrations of Gnostic symbols and works of art. See,,
also, Nort07i : History of the Gnostics. B. 1845.

Newman, J. H. The Arians of the Fourth Century. L. 1838.

Second edition, unchanged, 1854; third edition, 12mo. L-

1871. $3.50.
De Soyres, J. Montanism and the Primitive Church : a Study im

the Ecclesiastical History of the Second Century. (Hulsean.

Prize Essay, 1877.) Svo. pp. 163. L. Bell & Son. 1878. 6s..

5. Patristics.

Donaldson, James. A Critical History of Christian Literature and'
Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council..
L., 1864-66. 8vo, 3 v., L.., Macm., 1874. $3.00.
Valuable. Cf . Blunt and Jackson.

6. Persecutions.

Mason, A. J. The Persecutions of Diocletian. (Hulsean Prize-
Essay, 1874.) 8vo. pp. 370. L. Bell & Sons. 1876. 10s. 6c?.
In defence of Diocletian.

356 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OP

Uhlhorn, Gerhard. The Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism.
Translated by Egbert C. Smyth and J. C. II. Rojtes. 8vo.
pp. 508. N.Y. Scr. §2.50.

IV. MEDIAEVAL CHRISTIANITY.

1. General.

Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire. Seventh edition, 12mo.
pp. xxvii, 479. N.Y. Macin. 1877. 83.00.

Standard. An excellent introduction to mediaeval history, both
ecclesiastical and secular.

Church, R. W. The Beginnings of the Middle Ages. "With three
Maps. IGmo. L. and N.Y. Longm. 1877. §1.00.

Small, but readable and instructive. Discusses the relation of the
Franks to the Church, and the ecclesiastico-political relations of
Gregory the Great, Charlemagne, and Otto the Great.

Creighton, M. A History of the Papacy during the Period of the
Reformation. 8vo. 2 v. L., Longm.; B., Houghton, Mifflin
& Co. 1882. 810.00.

The volumes treat of the events that led to the Reformation. Vol.
II. ends with the death of Pius 11., in 14G4.

Ch-eene, G . W . Lectures on the Middle Ages. 12mo. N.Y. App.

81.50.

" A useful and tnistworthy manual." — N. Porter.

:Hallam, Henry. State of Europe during the ^liddle Ages. 8vo.
N.Y. H. 82.00. Student's edition, 12mo, 81.25.

" Though exceedingly dry and condensed in its matter and manner,
it is indispensable, even to a general reader." — N. Porter.

Sardicick, C. A History of the Christian Church. Middle Ages.
L. Macni. 82.25.

.Zacroix, Paul. Works on the Middle Ages. 5 v. Imperial 8vo.
L. 1880. N.Y. App. 812.00 per volume.

The title- of the third volume is " Military and Religious Life in the
Middle Agesand at the Period of the Renaissance." Well translated,
and richly illustrated. In collecting materials for his work, the
author made good use of his opportunities as curator of the Im-
perial Library at the Arsenal of Paris.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 857

Milman, Henry Hart. History of Latin Christianity. Including
that of the Popes to the pontificate of Nicholas V. (For price,
etc., see under General Church History, European.)

"To the student of the middle ages this work is second in import-
ance only to that of Gibbon. ... Of the numerous works on the
history of the church in the Middle Ages, this will generally be
found at once the most readable, the most impartial, and the most
satisfactory."— C. K. Adams.
Trench, Richard C. Lectm-es on Mediaeval Church History. Being
the substance of lectures delivered at Queen's College, London,
8vo. N.Y. Scr. 1878. $3.00.

" A good popular sketch." — W. F. Allen.
Ullmann, C. Reformers before the Reformation. Principally in
Germany and the Netherlands : I. John of Goch ; II. John of
Wesel ; IH. The Brethren of the Common Lot and the German
Mystics; IV. John Wessel. Translated by Robert Menzies.
2 V. 8vo. pp. XXV, 416 ; xiv, G36. Ed. T. & T. Clark.
1855. $3.00 per volume.
Woodhouse, F. C. Military Religious Orders of the Middle Ages.
Soc. 1879. 3s. 66?.

2. Celibacy of the Clergy.

Lea, Henry C. Historical Sketches of Sacerdotal Celibacy in the
Christian Church. 8vo. pp.601. B. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
1884. Ph. Lip. $3.75.

Highly valued, as embodying the results of independent and

thorough research.

3. Crusades.

{See Professor W. F. Allen's Bibliography.)

4. Lollards.

Wyckliffe, John de. Apology for Lollard Doctrine, attributed to
Wyckliffe. With introduction and notes by /. H. Todd. 4to.
L. Camden Soc. 1842.
See Biography, "Wyckliffe.

358 A SELECT niBLIOGRAPHY OF

5. !Mytii3.

Baring-Gould, S. Curious ^lyths of the Middle Ages. 12mo,
L., 1800; Ifimo, V,., R., 1880. i?1.50.

" The book is instructive, but it entertains and amuses even more
than it instructs." — C. K. Adams.

Cox, George W., and Jones, E. II. Popular Romances of the ]\Iid-
dle Ages. First American, from the second London, edition.
8vo. N.Y. Holt & Co. 1880. $2.25.

" Probably the most valuable of the several manuals on the subject

of the folk-lore of Europe." — C. K. Adams.

Dollinger, J. J. I. Fables llesi^ecting the Popes of the ^liddle
Ages, together with Dr. Dollinger's essay on the Prophetic
Spirit and the Prophecies of the Christian Era. Translated
by Alfred Plummer, with an introduction and notes by //. B.
Smith. 12mo. N.Y. Dodd, Mead, & Co. 1872. 82.25.

6. "Waldenses.

Wylie,J.A. History of the Waldenses. L. Cassell. 2d edition.
1880. 81.25.

Worxfuld, J. N. The Vaudois of Piedmont, A Visit to their Val-
leys, with a Sketch of their History to the Present Date. 8vo.
L. J. F. Shaw & Co. 1873. 3s.

V. MODERN CHRISTIANITY.

1. General Histokies of the Reformation Period.

Balmes, James. European Civilization : Protestantism and Cathol-
icism Compared in their Effects on the Civilization of Europe.
Svo. IGth edition. Baltimore. Murphy. 1850. 82.50.

By a learned Spanish priest, whose purpose in writing was to
refute Guizot's reflections upon the Roman Catholic Church. Con-
troversial. Contains interesting chapters on " Tolerance in Matters
of Religion," "The Right of Coercion," and "The Inquisition in
Spain."

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 359

Bossuet, J. B. The History of the Variations of the Protestant
Churches. Translated from the last French edition. 2 v. 8vo.
pp. 432, 424. Dublin. R. CojTie. 1829.

Translated from the classic French of a celebrated Koman Catholic
prelate.

D'Aubigne, J. H. Merle. History of the Great Reformation of the
Sixteenth Century in Germany, Switzerland, etc. Translated
from the French. 5 v. 12mo. N.Y. Carter Bros. 1846, etc.

$4.50.

The most widely read, but by no means the best, history of the
Reformation. C. K. Adams justly pronounces it "simply one side
of a great question, presented with great power by a skilful and
brilliant advocate." D'Aubigne was an ardent Protestant.

Fisher, George P. The Reformation. 8vo. N.Y. Scr. 1873.
$3.00.

Perhaps the best short history of the Reformation.

Froude,J.A. Short Studies. r2mo. 3 v. N.Y. Scr. $1.50 each.
Contain essays on "Erasmus and Luther," "lufluence of the
Reformation on Scottish Character," " Philosophy of Catholicism,"
and on "Calvinism."

Hagenhach, Karl Rudolph. History of the Church in the Eigh-
teenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Translated by John F. Hurst.
2v. 8vo. N.Y. Scr. 18G9. $6.00.

Impartial ; popular. There is a translatiou by Miss Evelina Moore,
2 v., Ed., 1879; though good, it is not equal to the one by Bishop
Hurst.

Hardwick, C. The Reformation. 8vo. L. Macm. 1873. $2.25.

Hdusser, Ludwig. Period of the Reformation (1517-1048). 12mo.
L. and X.Y. 1874. $2.50.

" A course of lectures of high scholarship and historic insight." —
"W. F. Allen. Eleven of the fifty lectures discuss the Thirty
Years' War. Not controversial. The book is translated by Mrs.
G. Stiir(/e, and edited by Prof. Wm. Oncken.

Hurst, John F. Short History of the Reformation, pp. 120. N.Y.
H. 1884. 40 cts.

The shortest history of the Reformation, and, for a beginner, the
best. It contains portraits and maps.

3G0 A SELECT BIBLIOGRArnY OF

Ranlc, Leopold I'on. The History of the Popes, their Church and
State, and especially of their Conflicts with Protestantism in
the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Translated by E.
Foster, 3 v., 12mo, L., 1840. Translated by Sarah Austin, 3 v.,
Svo, pp. 385, 414, 481. L., Murray, 18GG. L., Bell. §3.75.

"First published as early as 1837, tliis great work did more than
any other to raise its author to that supreme rank among historians,
which he has now long enjoyed. ... As a portrayal of the interior
policy of the cliurch, and of tlie course that led to the reaction
against the Reformation, tliese volumes have no equal." — C. K.
Adams.

Seebohm, Frederic. The Era of the Protestant Revolution. Sec-
ond edition, with notes on books in English relating to the
Reformation, by George P. Fisher. IGmo. N.Y. Scr. 1875.
61.00.

" A convenient and popular summary. . . . The book is less com-
prehensive in scope and less able in manner of treatment, than the
work of Hilusser." — C. K. Adams. The book is one of the Epochs
of History series.

Spalding, M. ./. History of the Protestant Reformation in Ger-
many and Switzerland ; and in England, Ireland, Scotland, the
Netherlands, France, and Northern Europe. Svo. Baltimore
and N.Y. 18G0. Many other editions. fS3.50.

By the lat« archbishop of Baltimore. Intended as a reply to
D'Aubigne. "It is consequently too controversial to be of the
greatest historical value, but it is scarcely more one-sided than the
work of D'Aubigiu', and it is perhaps the strongest presentation we
have of the Catholic side of the Reformation." — C. K. Adams.

2. The Roman Catholic Chuuch.

I. General.

Wiseman, {Cardinal) N. Recollections of the last four Popes and
of Rome in their Times. 12mo. N.Y. P. O'Shea. 4 v.
81.50 each.

See under the Reformation Period, Church and State, and
Councils.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 361

II. The Inquisition.

"The Catholic Inquisition is best described by Llorente, is most
heartily justified by Balmes, and most vigorously denounced by
Buckle." — C. K. Adams.

Llorente, D. Jean Antoine. The History of the Inquisition of
Spain, fi-om the time of the Establishment to the Reign of Fer-
dinand VII. Composed from the original documents in the
archives of the Supreme Council, and from those of subordinate
tribunals of the Holy Office. 8vo. L. 182G.

An abridged translation from the Spanish. There is no more

authentic history of the Spanish Inquisition.

Rule, William H. History of the Inquisition, from its Establish-
ment in the Twelfth Centui-y to its Extinction in the Nineteenth.
2 V. 8vo. L. Hamilton. 1874. 25s.

By a Wesleyan minister. Controversial, but fair, and ably written.

III. Jansenists.

Neale, J. M. History of the so-called Jansenist Church of Hol-
land. 8vo. Oxford. Parker. 1858. 5s.

Tregelles, S. P. The Jansenists : theii* Rise, Persecutions by the
Jesuits, and Existing Remnant. 12mo. L. Bagster. 1851. ^1.60.

IV. Jesuits.

Carlyle, Thomas. See his essay on Jesuitism in his ''Latter-day
Pamphlets." 8vo. L. C. & H. 9s.

Macaulay, T. B. See his essay on Ranke, in which he maintains
that the Jesuits, in their history, represent the Catholic reaction
from the Protestant Reformation.

Stephens, (Sir) James. See his essay on Loyala, m Ecclesiastical
Essays.

"The best brief account of the rise of the Jesuits." — C. K. Adams.

V. Port Royalists.
Beard, Charles. Port Royal. A Contribution to the History of
Religion and Literature in France. New edition. 2 v. 8vo.
L. W. & X. 1873. 84.80.
Cf. Stephen's Essays.

362 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OP

"\^. Ultrarjiontnnism and Vaticanism.
(See Church and State, under Special Topics.)

3. Old Catholic.

" Theodorus." The New Reformation ; a narrative of the Old
Catholic movement from 1870 to the present time, with an
historical introduction. 8vo. L. Longm.(?) 12s.
For periodical literature, consult Poole's Index.

4. Modern Ecclesiastical History, by Countries.

I. Bohemia.

Gillelt, E. H. The Life and Times of John IIuss ; or, the Bohe-
mian Reformation of the Fifteenth Century. 2 v. Bvo. pp.
G32, G51. B., Gould & Lincoln, 1863 ; N.y., Randolph. $7.00.

II. England. — A. Jlie Church of England established by Law.

Bede. Historia Ecclesiastica. Oxford. 1846. In Bohn's Anti-
quarian Library, with the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 82.00.
Blunt, J. II. The Reformation of the Church of England. 2 v.
N.y. Young. 88.50.

" The best complete history. Extends from 1514 to 16C2. From
the point of \iew of the Church of England." — W. F. Allen.

Id. Sketch of the Reformation in England. Young. $1.50.

Cobbett. Reformation in England and Ireland. 12mo. Baltimore,
Murx)hy, 18.51, 75 cts.; N.Y., SadUer, 81.25.
Roman Catholic. Wholly unsympathetic.
Diocesan Histories. Maps. [Canterbury, Chichester, Durham,
Sheffield, Oxford, Peterborough, Salisbury, Worcester, York.]
L. Soc. X.l^ Young. 2s. M. each, except Canterbury and
York, 3s. M.

Valuable. Intended to form a complete library of English Ecclesi-
astical History.
Dixon, R. W. History of the Church of England. 2 v. Rout-
ledge. IGs. each.

"The most thorough and important work; not yet completed." —
W. F. Allen.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 363

Fuller, Thomas [edited by J. S. Brewer}. The Church History of
Britain; from the Birth of Jesus Christ until the year 1648,
etc. 6v. 8vo. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1845. £1195,

Geikie, Cunningham. The English Reformation, How it came
about and why we should uphold it. 12mo. pp. xviii, 512.
N.Y. App. 1869 and 1879. $2.00.

Haddan and Sluhhs. Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relat-
ing to Great Britain and Ireland. 8vo. 3 v. pp. 704, 285,
660. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1869-78. Vols. 1 and 2, £1 Is.
each ; vol. 2, part 1, 10s. M. ; vol. 2, part 2, 3s, Qd.

Herford, Brook. The Story of Religion in England. 12mo. pp.
391. Ch. Jansen, McClurg, & Co. $1.50.

Perry, G. G. A History of the Church of England from the Ac-
cession of Henry VIII. to the Silencing of Convocation in the
Eighteenth Century. With an Appendix containing a Sketch of
the History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United
Statesof America, by/. .4. 5pe«cer. 8vo. N.Y, H. 1879. $2.50.
Excellent. " The best that has yet been written." — N.Y. Church-
man.

Short, (Bp.) Thomas V. Sketch of the History of the Church of
England, to the Revolution, 1688. 8th edition. 8vo, L.
Longm. 1870. 7s. Qd.

Stanley, A. P. Historical Memorials of Canterbury Cathedral.
8vo. L. Murray. 1855. 5th edition, 1869. 7s. 6d.

Id. Historical Jklemorials of Westminster Abbey. 8vo. L. Mur-
ray. 1867. 4th edition, 1874. 15s.
Important ; entertaining.

Strype, J. Works : Ecclesiastical Memorials, Annals, etc. [Orig.
fol. 1694-1733.]

An excellent edition is that of the Clarendon Press, 1820-28, Svo,
27 v., including two index volumes, £7 13s. M. Important.

For histories of the Book of Common Prayer, see Liturgies.

B. Dissenters.
Neal, Daniel. The History of the Puritans ; or, Protestant Non-
conformists, from the Reformation (1517) to the Revolution in

364 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

1688. Reprinted from the Text of Dr. Toulniin's edition, with
his life of tlie author, etc. Revised, corrected, and enlarged.
3 v., Svo, L., Tegg, 1837; and with notes by J. 0. Choules, 2 v.,
Svo, X.Y., II., 18G3. ?4.00.

See Denominational Histories of the United States, for American
churches having their origin in England.

III. France.

Baird, Henry M. History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France.
Maps. 2 V. 8vo. N.Y. Scr. 1879. 83.50.

"An excellent account . . . from . . . 1515 to . . . 1574. . . . Written
with judicial moderation." — C. K. Adams.

Poole, Reginald Lane. A Ilistorj' of the Huguenots of the Disper-
sion at the Recall of the Edict of Xantes. 12mo. L. Macm.
1880. 6s.

" A very learned, and a very successful, attempt to show what be-
came of the Huguenots after the dispersion." — C. K. Adams.

Pressen^e', E. de. Religion and the Reign of Ten-or ; or, the Church
during the French Revolution. Translated by ./. P. Lacroix.
12mo. pp. 416. X.Y. Carlton and Lanahan. 1869. $1.75.

Smiles, S. The Huguenots in France. Svo. N.Y. II. 82.00.
Id. The Huguenots in England, Ireland, and America. 8vo.
X.Y. II. 82.00.

Weiss, Charles. History of the French Protestant Refugees.

Translated from the French by H. W. Herbert. With an

American Appendix. 2 v. Svo. pp. 382, 419. N.Y. Stringer

& Townsend. 1854.

A fine work, well translated.
White, Henry. The ^lassacre of St. Bartholomew, preceded by a

History of the Religious Wars in the Reign of Charles IX.

With illustrations. Svo. X'.Y. H. 1871. 81.75.

" AVritten in a judicioas spirit. . . . Adopts the view of Ranke and
of Soldan in believing that the famous massacre was not the result
of a long-premeditated plot. . . . Many new materials tending to
confirm this view. . . . The book, however, does not show the
same intellectual grasp as that manifested in the pages of Baird."
— C. K. Adams.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 365

rV". Germany.

Lloyd, Julius. Sketches of Church History in Germany. L. Soc.
1882. Is. M.

See, also, Doctrines, Biography, and General Histories of the Refor-
mation Period.

V. Holland.
Martyn, W. C. The Dutch Reformation : a History of the Struggle
in the Netherlands for Civil and Religious Liberty in the Six-
teenth Century. 12mo. pp. 823. N.Y. American Tract
Society. 1868. $1.75.

VI. Hungary.

D'Auhigne, J. H. Merle. History of the Protestant Church in
Hungary to 1850. Translated by the Rev. J. Craig, D.D., with
an introduction by /. H. Merle D'Auhigne, D.D. 8vo. pp.
xxviii, 464. L. J. ]N"isbet & Co. 1844.

VII. Ireland.

Mant, Richard. History of the Church of Ireland, from the Refor-
mation to the Revolution, with a Preliminary Survey from the
Papal Usui-pation in the Twelfth Century to its legal abolition
in the Sixteenth. Large 8vo. 2 v. pp. 809, 844. L. Parker.
1845. 17s each.

VIII. Italy.

Baird, Robt. Sketches of Protestantism in Italy. 12mo. B.

1845. $1.75.
McCrie, Thos. History of the Progress and Suppression of the

Reformation in Italy in the Sixteenth Century. Including a

Sketch of the History of the Reformation in the Grisons.

12mo. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.00.

IX. Poland.

Krasinski, Valerian. Historical Sketch of the Rise, Progress, and
Decline of the Reformation in Poland. 2 v. 8vo. pp. xxi,
415 ; xxiii, 573. L. Murray. 1838.

36C A SELECT BIBLIOGRArHY OF

X. Scandinnvla.

Crichton, A., and Wheaton, II. Scandinavia, Ancient and Modem :
being a History of Penniark, Sweden, and Norway ; conipre-
heuding ... an account of the Mythology . . . Religion, etc.
2v. IGmo. pp. xvii, 373; X, 403. N.Y. II. 1872. $1.50.

XI. Scotland.

Lawrence, E. The Scottish Covenanters, pp. 14. Harper's Maga-
zine, V. 46, 1873, p. 103.
Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Church in Scotland,
8vo. pp. 180. L. IVIurray. 1872. 7s. Gd.

" Delighted the moderate aud liberal, but displeased the orthodox "
people of Scotland.

XII. Spain.

McCrie, Thos. History of the Progress and Suppression of the
Reformation in Spain in the Sixteenth Century. 8vo. pp. viii,
' 424. Ed. Blackwood & Son. 1820.

Cf. PrcscotVs History of the Reign of Philip II.
Yonge, (Miss) C. M. Christians and Moors of Spain. L. Macm.
§1.25. X.Y. H. Paper. 10 cents.
A popular sketch.

XIII. Sicitzerland.

D'Aubiffne, J. II. Merle. Reformation in Switzerland. 2 v. 1864.
See Biographies of Calvin, Servetus, and Zwiuglius.

XIV. United States of America. — A. General.

Baird, Robert. Religion in America. 8vo. pp. 338. N.Y. H.
1844. 83.00.

By a Presbyterian minister. The best book on the subject.

Belcher, Joseph. The Religious Denominations in the United
States. Illustrated. New and revised edition. Large 8vo.
pp. 1024. Ph. John E. Potter. 1861. §5.00.

A voluminous and somewhat crude work, which is, nevertheless,
useful for reference. It contains many extracts from official docu-
ments not elsewhere easily accessible.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 367

Mather, Cotton. Magnalia Christi Americana. [1702.] With
notes and translations by Rohhins and Robinson. 2 v. 8vo.
pp. 622, 682. Hartford. S. Andrews & Son. 185.3.

Confined chiefly to New England. Editions without critical notes
are misleading.

Rupp, I. D. An Original History of the Religious Denominations

in the United States. Svo. pp. 734. Ph. Humphreys. 1844.

Chapters contributed by prominent members of the several churches.

Sprague, William B. Annals of the American Pulpit. 8 v. Svo.

N.Y. 1859-65.

Biographical; impartial. Vols. 1 and 2, Trinitarian Congregation-
alists; vols. 3 and 4, Presbyterians; vol. 5, Episcopalians; vol. 6,
Baptists; vol. 7, Methodists; vol. 8, Unitarians. There is a later
edition published by Carter in 9 v. ($36.00).

B. Denominational.
Baptist.

Backus, I. History of New England, with Particular Reference to

the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. Svo. B.*

1777; Providence, 1784; B., 1796; Newton, 1871. 2 v. pp. x,

538; \i, 584. Ph. Am. Bap. Pub. Society. 90 cents.

Moss, Lemuel {I^d .'}. The Baptists and the National Centenary. A
Record of Christian Work. Svo. Ph. 1876. $1.75.

Stewart, J. D. The History of the Free Will Baptists, for Half a
Centurj'. 12mo. pp. 479. Dover, N.H. Free Will Baptist
Printing Establishment. 1862.

Christian.
Summerbell, N. History of the Christians. Dayton, 0. Christian
Publishing Association.

Congregational.
Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches.

Svo. N.Y. H. ^2.50.
Dexter, Henry Martyn. Congregationalism. Svo. pp. 1082. N.Y.
H. 1880. $6.00.

A complete bibliography is appended. Cf. Waddington (London,
1880) and Piinchard (Boston, 1865-80). These three are the best
authorities on general Congregational history.

368 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Friends.
Hodgson, Wm. The Society of Friends in the Nineteenth Century.
8vo. 2 V. pp. 349, 441. Ph. Smith, English & Co. 1875.
Cf. Finn and Wagstaff.

LlTHKUAX.

Schimtcler, S. S. The American Lutheran Church, Historically,
Doctrinally, and Practically Delineated in Several Occasional
Discourses. 12mo. Ph. 1852. 75 cents.

Cf, Hnzdine (Zanesville, O., IMG) and Cong. Quar., 1862, article

Lutheran Church in the United States.

Seiss, Joseph A. Ecclesia Lutherana. A Brief Survey of the
Lutheran Church. 32d edition. 12mo. Ph. Luth. Bd. of
Pub. 18G7. (Cf. Krauth. §5.00.)

Methodist.

Simpson, Matthew. Cyclopedia of Methodism. Revised edition.
4to. pp. 10:31. Ph. L. II. Evarts. 1880.
Valuable as a work of reference.

Stevens, Abel. History of Methodism. 3 v. 12mo. -N.Y. Meth-
odist Book Concern. 1858-61. 84.50.

Id. History of the ^Methodist Episcopal Church in the United
States of America. 4 v. 12mo. X.Y. Methodist Book Con-
cern. 1804. aO.OO.

Dr. Stevens is the highest authority on Methodist history.

Wood, E. M. ^lethodism and the Centennial of American Inde-
pendence. With a brief History of the Various Branches of
IMethodism, and full Statistical Tables. 12mo. pp. 412. N.Y.
Nelson & Phillips. 1876. $1.50.

Cf. Atkinson, John: Centennial History of American Methodism,

N.Y., 1884. S2.00.

Mormon.
Stenhouse, (Mrs.) T. B. H. Rocky Mountain Saints: History

of the Mormons. 8vo. pp. xxiv, 761. N.Y. App. 1873.

85.00.
Tucker, Pomeroy. Origin, Rise, and Progress of Mormonisra.

12mo. N.Y. App. 1867. §1.25.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 369

Moravian.

Schtceinitz, E. de. The Moravian Manual, containing an Account
of the Protestant Church of the Moravian United Brethren.
12mo. Ph. 1869. $1.00.

Of. Eeichel, Memorials. Ph., Lip., 1870.

Presbyterian.

Gilletl, E. H. History of the Presbyterian Church in tlie United

States of America. 2 v. Ph. 1864. $5.00.
Hodge, Charles. The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian

Church in the United States. 8vo. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub.

$3.00.
Presbyterian Reunion: A Memorial Volume, 18.37-1871. By the

Rev. Drs. Millei; Stearns, Sprague, Humphrey, Adams, Jacobus,

Fowler, Hall, Irving, Hatjield, and Knox, and the Rev. G. S.

Plumley. Illustrated. Large 8vo. pp. 568. N.Y. Lent &

Co. 1870.

Valuable for the history of Old School and New School Presby-
terian Churches from the separation in 1837 to the reunion in 1871.

Protestant Episcopal.
Perry, W. S. [editor in chief]. The History of the American
Episcopal Church, 1587-1883. 2 v. 4to. Illus. B. O.

In course of preparation. It will surpass all existing histories of

the Protestant Episcopal Church.

Wilberforce, (Bp.) S. A History of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in America. 2d edition. 12mo. N.Y. Stanford &
Swords. 1846. 12mo. pp. 357. 1849. Pott. $3.50.
Cf. White's Memoirs, 1836, and Hawk's Contributions, 1836.

Reformed Episcopal.

Aycrigg, Benjamin. Memoirs of the Reformed Episcopal Church,
and of the Protestant Episcopal Church, with Contemporary
Reports respecting these and the Church of England, extracted
from the Public Press. 5th edition. 8vo. pp. Ixvi, 373. N.Y.
and Passaic, N.J. Aycrigg. 1880.

A collection of materials. Indexed. This work is not of a popular
character, but will be invaluable to future historians of the Protes-
tant Episcopal and the Reformed Episcopal Churches.

370 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Cumtnins, (^frs.) G. D. Memoir of G. D. Cummins, First Bishop
of the Reformed Episcopal Church. 12mo. pp. 544. N.Y.
Dodil, Mi'a.l, & Co. 1879. 8:2.50.

It contains an excellent account of the origin and organization of
the Reformed Episcopal Church.

Refohmed Church ik Amehica (Dutch).
Demarest, David D. History and Characteristics of the Reformed
Protestant Dutch Cluirch. ll2nio. pp. xxviii, 221. N.Y.
185G, 1859. 81.00.

Rkfoumed Church ix the United States (German).
Mayer, Lewis. Tlie History of the German Reformed Church.
Vol. I. 8vo. pp. 477. Ph. Lip. 1851.

Cf. article by E. V. Gerhart in Bib. Sac, vol. XX., 1863.

Roman Catholic.

Clarke, R. 11. Lives of the Deceased Bishops of the Catholic Church
in the United States. 2 v. 8vo. N.Y. P. O'Shea. 1872. $8.00.

Murray, .7. 0. A Popular History of the Catholic Church in the
United States. 8vo. pp. G19. 2d edition. N.Y. Sadlier &
Co. 1876. 82..50.

An Appendix contains valuable statistical tables and biographical
sketches. Cf. Le Clerc;/, translated by Shea, Cin. ($12.00) ; and
Parkman, Jesuits in North America.

Shakers.
Evans, F. W. Compendium of the Origin, History, etc., of the
United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming. 16mo.
N.Y. App. 1859.

United Brethren.
Lawrence, John. History of the Church of the United Brethren in
Christ. 2 vols, in one. 8vo. Dayton, O. U. B. Pub. House.
82.50.

Cf. Spayth, Circleville, Ohio; Conference OflSce, 1851.

Unitarian.
Ellis, Geo. E. A Half Century of the Unitarian Controversy. B.
American Unitarian Association. 18.59. 81-50.

Cf. Ware, American Unitarian Biography. 2 v. B. 1850-51.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 371

Universalist.
Thomas, Abel C. A Century of Universalism. B. Universalist
Publishing House.

Cf. Adams, Fifty Notable Years ; and Eddy, Universalism in
America.

VI. SPECIAL TOPICS.

1. Art.

Heaphy, Thomas. The Likeness of Christ. Being an Inquiry into
the Verisimilitude of the Received Likeness of Oiir Blessed
Lord. Edited by Wyke Bayliss. With 12 colored plates.
Folio, pp. 78. L. David Bogue. 1880. £3 Gs.

Cf . Schaff, History of the Christian Church. N.Y. 1882. Vol. I,

pp. 167-170.

Jameson, {Mrs.) Anna. Sacred and Legendary Art. Portrait of
Leonardo da Vinci. 2 v., 32mo, §3.00; 6 v., 8vo, L., Longm.,
£5 15.?. 6d.
Popular.

Jameson, (Mrs.) Anna, a,nd Eastlake, (Lady). The History of Our
Lord as Exemplified in Works of Art. Illustrated. 2 v. L.
Longm. 2d edition. 1865. 42s.

Liibk^, W. Ecclesiastical Art in Germany during the Middle Ages.
High authority.

Norton, C. E. Studies of Church Buildings in the JVliddle Ages.

8vo. pp. 331. N.Y. H. 1880. $3.00.

The result of careful study. Written in good style.
Poole, Geo. A. History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England.

8vo. L. 1848. f3.50.
Scott, G. G. Lectures on the Rise and Development of Mediaeval

Architecture. Illustrated. 2 v. 8vo. pp. xv, 365 ; xvi, 347.

L. Mm-ray. 1879. 42s.

Id. An Essay on the History of English Church Architecture,
prior to the Separation of England from the Roman Obedience.
Illustrated. 4to. pp. 195. L. Simpkin, Marshall, & Co.

1881.

372 A SELECT BIBLIOGRArHY OF

Tt/rtchitt, R. St. John. The Art Teaching of the Primitive Church.
L. Soc. 8yo. 7s. 6c?.

2. BlOGKArHT.

A. Biblical. — I. Lives of Christ.

Ebrard, A. Wissenschaftliche Kritik der Evangelischen Ge-
schichte. Condensed translation. 8vo. Ed. Clark. 1869.
10s. Gd.

Against Strauss, Bruno Bauer, etc.

Ewald, H. Geschichte Christus' und seiner Zeit. (Vol. 5 of his His-
tory of Israel.) 'Yr.hj 0. Glover. Cambridge. Bell. 1865. 9s.

Farrar, Frederic W. Life of Christ. 2 v. L. 1871. About thirty

editions have since appeared, many of them in America. One

is illustrated. $4.00.
Geikie, C. The Life and Words of Christ. L. Strahan & Co.

1878. 2v. Illustrated. 30s. Several editions. X.Y. Munro.

Paper, 40 cts.
JIardioick, Chas. Christ and Other Masters. L. Macm. 4th

edition. 1875. 10s. Gd.

A comparison of Christ with founders of Eastern religions.

Keim, Theodore. Geschichte Jesu von Nazara. Zurich. 1867-72.
3 V. Translated into English by Geldart and Ransom. L,
W. & X. 2d edition. 1873-70. 2 v. 10s. Gd. each.

Based chiefly upon Matthew. In the preparation of this work the
Fourth Gospel was not used.

Lange, John Peter. The Life of the Lord Jesus Christ : a Complete
Examination of the Origin, Contents, and Connection of the
Gospels. New edition. 4 v. 8vo. Ph. 1872. §10.00.
By a distinguished German commentator.
Neander, J. A. W. The Life of Jesus. Translated by McClintock
&nd Blumenthal. X.Y. II. 1848. ^2.50.

"A positive refutation of Strauss." — P. Schaff.

Pressense, E. de. Jesus Christ : His Times, Life, and Work. 4th
edition. Revised. 8vo. L. 1871. $3.40.
Written in reply to Kenan.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 373

Renan, Ernest. Life of Jesus. Translated by E. Wilhour. 12mo.
pp. 37G. N.Y. Carletou&Co. 1861,1870. $1.75.

Renan professed to write without any otlier passion than a very-
keen curiosity. "This book created even a greater sensation
than the Leben Jesu of Strauss, but is very superficial, and turns
the gospel history into a novel with a self-contradictory and im-
possible hero. Eloquent, fascinating, superficial, and contradic-
tory."— P. ScHAFF. "In it the learning of the Orientalist vied
with the enrapturing rhetoric of the fine writer to warp the judg-
ment of sentimental amateurs." — J. F. Hurst in ''Crook's &
Hurst's Theological Encyclopaedia and Methodology."

Strauss, D. F. Life of Jesus. Translated by Marian Evans
{George Eliot). L. 184G. 3 v. Republished in X.Y., 1850.
Authorized translation. 2d edition. 2 v. 8vo. pp. sxii, MO;
iv, 439. L. W. & N. 1879. 246-.
Refuted by Neander, q.v.

Weiss, Bernard. The Life of Christ. Translated by Jb/^?i TF. lloije.
3 v. 8vo. Ed. 1883-4. #3.00 each.

Liberal evangelical. Dr. Weiss is professor of theology at Berlin.

Youncj, J. The Christ of History-. L. & N.Y. 1855. 5th edi-
tion. 1808. L. Strahan. 6s.
Evangelical. Popular.

These are excellent lives of Christ, original and translated, by
Lyman Abbott, S. J. Andrews, H. W. Beecher, C. E. Caspari,
Howard Crosby, C. F. Deems, Z. Eddy, C. J. Ellicott, Fleet-
wood, Wm. Hanna, Carl Hase, Mrs. Jameson ("as exemplified
in works of art '*), E. H. Plumptre, Chr. Fr. Schmid, D. Schenkel,
and /. R. Seeley. Cf . G. Uhlhorn : Modem Representatives of
the Life of Jesus. Translated l)y Grinnell. 16mo. B. L. & B.
1868.

II. Lives of the Apostles.

Baur, Ferd. Chr. Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ. Translated
by Allan Menzies. 2 v. L. W. & X. 1873 and 1875. 10s.
6c?. each.

The standard work of the Tiibingen school.

374 A SELECT BIBLIOGEAPHY OF

Conyhcare and Iloicson. Life and Epistles of St. Paul. L. 1853.
Many reprints, botii English and American.

A standard work; of especial value to Christian teachers.
Farrar, F. W. Life and Work of St. Paid. 2 v. L. & N.Y.
1870, and other editions. N.Y. Funk & AVagnalls. 1880.
Paper, 50 cts.

Canon Farrar is a learned and rhetorical writer.
Pearson (Bp.). Annales Paulini. Works. Also separately.
Cambridge. 1821.

Renan, E. St. Paul. Translated by IngersolL Lockwood. 12mo.
pp. 422. X.Y. Carleton. 1809. 81.75.
Entertaining, but fanciful and illogical.

Tholuck, Aug. The Life, Character, and Style of the Apostle
Paul. In Selections from German Literatui-e (pp. 1-72). Trans-
lated by jB. B. Edwards and E. A. Park. 8vo. pp. iv, 472.
Andover. Gould, Newman, & Saxon, 1839.

B. General. — I. Collections.

Baring-Gould, Sabine. Lives of the Saints. 15 v. 12mo. N.Y.

Pott, Young, & Co. 1879. $2.50 each.
Butler, Alban. Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and other Saints.

12 V. 24mo. L. Duffy. 1800. Fii-st American edition, 2 v.

Svo. Baltimore. J. Murphy & Co. 1850. |7.00.
Roman Catholic.

Hook, W. F. Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury from St.
Augustine to Juxon. 12 v. 8vo. L. R. Bentley & Son.
1800-70. 1.5s. each ; vol. 12, 21s.

In two series. The last volume is an index to the others.
Piper, Ferdinand. Lives of the Leaders of our Church Universal
from the Days of the Succession of the Apostles to the Present
Time. Translated from the German, with valuable American
additions, by McCracken. Svo. J. & T. Clark. 1880. 2 v.
pp. 430, 443. S3.00.

For popular use, this is the best book of Christian biography. Its

tone is Protestant, but not sectarian.

Sprague, W. B. See Geueral Histories, under United States.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTOHY. 375

Stephen, (Sir) J. Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography. 1st edition.
1850; 4th, 1860. L. Longm. 7s. M.
Few subjects, but well treated.

Tulloch, John. Leaders of the Reformation : Luther, Calvin, Lati-
mer, and Knox. 2d edition. 8vo. Ed. W. Blackwood &
Sons. 1860. 3d edition, enlarged, $3.00.

H. Individual.

Ambrose, St. R. Thornton. Soc. 2s.
Anselm, St. By R. W. Church. Macm. $1.75.
Arnold, Thomas. A. P. Stanley. Scr. 1880. $2.50.
Augustine, St. E. L. Cutts. Soc. 1880. Cf. Clark, Pott, 75 cts.
Id. Possidius (personal friend of Augustine) ; Pressense, in Smith
and Wace; Schaff,\Soi:', PoriartT/ and Tulloch, in Encycl. Brit.

Basil, St. R. T. Smith. Soc. 1879. 2s.

Becket. /. A. Froude in Nineteenth Century, 1877.

Id. Bj E. A. Freeman in Contemporary Review, 1878.

A reply to Froude 's article in the Nineteenth Cent. ; more favorable.

Bede. G. F. Broivne. Soc. 2s.

Calvin. Wm. Blackburn. 2 books. Ph. Presb. Bd. 70 and 75 cts.

Chrysostom, John. Aug. Neander. Translated by Stapleton.

Bohn. 1845.
Id. W. R. W. Stephens. L., 1872; 2d ed., 1880. L., Murray, 12s.

Constantine. E. L. Cutts. L., Soc. N.Y., 1881.

Erasmus. R. B. Drummond. 2 v. S. & E. 21s.

Farel. Wm. Blackburn. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.50.

Fox, George. /. Marsh. B. 1817.

Id. S. M. Janney. Ph. Lip. $1.25.

Gregory the Great. /. Barmby.

Gregory VII. A. F, Villemani.

Huss, John. E. H. Gillet. 2 v
A learned monograph.

Id. A. H. Wratislaw. L. Soc. 3s. Qd

Soc. 2s.

3 v. Bentley.

26s.

N.y. 1864.

$7.00.

370 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Hutten, nrichvon. D.F.Strauss. L. Daldy & Isbister. 1874. 10s.6d.

,reronie. E. L. Cults. 12mo. Soc. 1878. 2.s-.

.lulian. Randall. L. 1879.

Kempis, Thomas k, and the Brothers of the Common Life. S.
Kcttleicdl. Svo. 2 v. N.Y. Put. 1882. 88.00.

Knox, John. Thomas McCrie. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $2.00.
Cf. Carlyle, Hero \Yorship.

Laud. Peter Bayne in the Chief Actors in tlie Puritan Revolution.
Originally in the Contemporary Review. Cf . Mozley's Essays,
2 v., L., 2ts.; and J. E. T. Roger's Historical Gleanings, L.,
Macm., $1.7.'5.

Leo the Great. C. II. Gore. Soc. 2s.

Louis, St., and Calvin. F. Guizot. 8vo. Macm. Gs.

Luther, ^uf/m (strongly denunciatory); Peter Bayne , T. Carlyle,
in Hero Worship ; /. A. Froude (Longm., 1883) ; Julius Kcestlin
(Longm., IG."?.) ; Rein, based on Kcestlin and translated by Beh-
ringer (N.Y., Funk & Wagnalls, 25 cts. and 81.00) ; and J. II.
Treadwell (Put., 81.00). Cf. Essays by Mozley.

Patrick, St. Wm. M. Blackburn. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. 81.00.

Savonarola. W. R. Clark. 3s. M. N.Y., 1879, Pott, 81.50.
Id. Villari.

Schleiermacher, F. E. Autobiography and Letters. L. S. & E.

18G0.
Sixtus V. Baron Ilubner. L. Longm. 2-ls.

Swedenborg. Ilohart, B., 1832; R. L. Tafel (translated; the most
complete) ; AVorcester, B., R., 1883. 82.00.

Theresa, St. L. Macm. 82.00.

Wesley, John. Robert Southey, with notes by S. T. Coleridge. X.Y.

1820.
Id. Luke Tyerman. 3 v. N.Y. H. 1872. 87.50.

The best that has yet been written.
Id. R. Denny Urlin. (The Churchman's Life of Wesley.) L.

Soc. 3s. Gd. Cf. /. Ilampson, 2 v. ; //. Moore, 2 v. ; and R.

Watson (best edition, with notes in reply to Southey, Gs.).

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 377

Whitefield, George. Luke Tyerman. 2 v. N.Y. Randolph & Co.
1878. $2.00.

Wyclif. G. V. Lechler,tT.hj Peter Lorimer. 2 v. L. Paul. 21s.

Id. /. E. T. Rogers. Vol. II. of Historical Gleanings. L. Macm.
$1.75.

Zwingli. Jean Groh. Translated. 12mo. IST.Y. Funk & Wag-
nails. 25 cts. and $1.00. Cf. Blackburn. Presb. Bd., $1.25.

Xavier. Coleridge. Also Venn, and BouTiours (translated by
Dryden, 1G88).

3. Church and State.

Bryce, James. Holy Roman Empire. L. Macm. 7s. 6c?.

" Invaluable for clearing up the relations of Germany and Rome."

— C. K. Adams.

Geffcken, Heinrich. Church and State ; their Relations Historically

Considered. Translated and edited, with the assistance of the

author, by Edward Fairfax Taylor. 2 v. 8vo. L. 1877. 42s.

" For knowledge, acumen, and fairness, the work is worthy of high

praise." — C. K. Adams. The author, a conservative Protestant,

is professor of international law in the University of Strasburg.

Thompson, R. W. The Papacy and the Civil Power. 8vo. N.Y..
H. 1876. $3.00.

"Carefully prepared. . . . A powerful indictment of the temporal
policy of the Catholic Church. It contains several ecclesiastical"'
documents that enhance its value. ... It is the best easily acces- ■
sible sketch of the subject of which it treats." — C. K. Adavis.

4. Councils.

Bungener, L. F. History of the Council of Trent. Edited by

John McClintock. 12mo. N.Y. H. 1855. $1..50.
Hefele, C. J. A History of the Councils of the Church. 4 v. haver,
been translated by W. R. Clark and H. N. Oxenham. Ed:.
T. & T. Clark. 1871-1884. $4.80 each.

By a Roman Catholic bishop of great learning. Independent^
original, authoritative. Vol. Y. covers the Nestorian and Eutychian
controversies. Cf . E. H. Landon (Anglican) . 12mo. L. 1846.

378 A SELECT BIBLIOGRArHY OF

Pusei/, E. B. The Councils of the Church, from the Council of
Jerusalem, a.d. 51, to the Council of Constantinople, a.d. 381 ;
chiefly as to their Constitution, but also as to their Object and
History. 8vo. L. 1857. .?;].50.

By the Tractariaii leader. Died 1882,

Sarpi, P. Council of Trent. Tr. by N. Brent. 4to. pp. 889. L. 1C76.
" A work of genius, concerning which see Dr. Johnson's account
in his 'Lives of Eminent Persons'; also a charming account in
Howell's 'Venetian Life.'" — C. K. Adams. "Ranked by Mac-
aulay with Thucidides." — W. F. Allen.

5. Creeds.

Schaff, P. The Creeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical

Notes. 8vo. 3 v. I. The History of Creeds ; II. The Greek

and Latin Creeds, with Translations; III. The Evangelical

Protestant Creeds, with Translations. N.Y. II. 1877. $15.00.

Of great value.

6. DOCTUINES.

Alger, William R. A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future
Life. 1st edition, Ph., 186L 6th edition, 8vo, pp. 676, N.Y.,
Widdleton, 1869. New edition, with additions, 1878, $3.50.
A valuable bibliography, by Dr. Ezra Abbot, is appended.

Donaldson, James. A Critical History of Christian Literatui-e and
Doctrine, from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council.
3 V. 8vo. London. 1864-66. $12.00.

Dorner, J. A . History of the Development of the Doctrine of the
Person of Christ. With a Review of the Controversies on the
Subject in Britain since the Middle of the Seventeenth Century.
Translated by W. Lindsay Alexander, D.D., and D. W. Simon,
D.D. 5 V. Svo. Y>\y. xviii, 407; viii, 544; 456; viii, 462;
xxviii, .502. Ed. T. & T. Clark. 1862-64. £2 12.s. M.

" By far the most learned and instructive discussion of the theme
which has ever been undertaken. . . . The book is a fine example
of the mingling of intellectual freedom with due reverence, and of
the spirit of science with genuine devoutness." — G. P. Fisher, in
the The Independent, July 24, 1884.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 379

Id. History of Protestant Theology; particularly in Germany.
Translated by G. Rohson and Sophia Taylor. 2 v. 8vo. pp.
xxiii, 444; 511. Ed. T. & T. Clark. 1871. 21s.
By a popular aud profound theologian, who died in 1884.

Hagenbach, K. R. Text-Book of the History of Doctrine. The
Edinburgh translation of C. W. Bush, revised, with additions
from the fourth German edition, by Henry B. Smith, D.D. 2 v.
Svo. pp. 478, 558. N.Y. Sheldon & Co. 1861-62. $6.00.

The additions are from Neander, Gieseler, Baur, etc. An edition
of Hagenbach's History of Christian Doctrine, translated from the
fifth German edition, with an introduction by E. H. Plumptre, is
published by T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh. Vol. II. Svo. pp. 466.
1880. §3.00.

Neander, A . Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas. Trans-
lated by J. E. Ryland. 2 v. 12mo. pp. 356, 264. L. H. G.
Bohn. 1858. §3.00.

Mackay, R. W. The Tubingen School and its Antecedents. A
Review of the History and Present Condition of Modem The-
ology. 8vo. L. W. & N. 1863.

Reuss, Edward. History of Christian Theology in the Apostolic
Age. Translated by Annie Harwood. With preface and notes
hj R.W.Dale. 2 v. 8vo. L. Hodder & Stoughton. 1872-74. 24s.

Shedd, W. G. T. A History of Christian Doctrines. 3d edition.
2 v. 8vo. pp. viii, 412; vi, 508. X.Y. Scr. 1869. $5.00.

Clear, Calvinistic, and -sngorous. Dwells on theology, anthropol-
ogy, and soteriology, and entirely omits the doctrines that relate
to the sacraments. There are other important omissions, which
greatly lessen its value.

Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in
England in the Seventeenth Century. 2 v. 8vo. Ed. Black-
woods. 1872. 28s.

Wiggers, G. F. An Historical Presentation of Augustinianism
and Pelagianism from the Original Sources. Translated from
the German, with notes and additions, by Ralph Emerson. 8vo.
pp. 383. Andover. Draper. 1840. #1.25.

so A SELECT BIBLlOGRAniY OF

7. Fiction.
(^Illustrating Periods of Church History.^

Anonymous. Arius, tlie Libvan. 12ino. X.Y. App. 1884. $1.50.
Entertaining, but in many historical points inaccurate. See Boston
Watchman for Aug. 14, 1884.

Anonymous. The Days of Knox. L. 1869. $3.00.

Banvard, Joseph. Priscilla; or, Trials for the Truth. An Historic
Tale of the Puiitans and the Baptists. 8vo. pp. 400. B. 1855.

Bungener, L. The Priest and the Huguenot. An historical novel
of the time of Louis XY. B. Lothrop. 1874. $1.50.

Id. The Preacher [Bourdaloue] and the King [Louis XIV.]. $1.50.

Carpenter, Boyd. Narcissus. A Tale of Early Christian Times.
8vo. L. Soc. 3s (id.

By the author of " The Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family."

Charles, {Mrs.) Elizabeth. Diary of Kitty Trevilyan. A Story of
the Times of Whitfield and the Wesleys. 12mo. pp. 304. L.
T. Nelson & Sons. 1865. N.Y. Dodd. 1864. $1.00.

Clarke, James Freeman. The Legend of Thomas Didymus, the
Jewish Sceptic. [Life of Christ as it appeard to co-tempo-
raries.] 12mo. pp. 448. B. L. & S. 1881. $1.75.

Croly, Geo. Salathiel. Cincinnati. U. P. James. $1.50.

Davies, Samuel. From Da\\-n to Dark in Italy. A Tale of the
Reformation in the 16th Century. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25.

Ebers, G. Homo Sum. [A tale of the early Anchorites.] N.Y.

Munro. 10 cents.
Eliot, George {^Marion Evans"]. Romola. [Savonorola.] N.Y. Munro.

15 cents.

"Deserving all the high encomiums it has received." — N. Porter.

Hale, E. E. In Ilis Name. [Waldenses.] B. 1877. 40 cents.

Kingsley, C. Ilypatia. [Alexandria.] L. and N.Y. Macm. $1.75.

Lockhart, J. G. Valerius. Ed. and L. Blackwood & Son. 1849. 3*.
Excellent.

Mille,J.de. Helena's Household. 8vo. N.Y. Carter. 1869. $1..50.
" Gives an interesting and faithful picture of the workings of
Christianity in a Roman household, and interweaves also much of
the history of a part of the first and second centuries. " — N. Pobtee.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 381

Newman, {Cardinal) J. H. Callista. 8vo. L. B. & O. 1873, 5s. M.

Reade, C. Cloister and the Hearth. [Germany, 15th cent.] 2s. Qd.

Spindler, C. The Jew. [Council of Constance, 1414-18.] N.Y.
H. 75 cents.

Wallace, Lew. Ben-Hiir, a Tale of the Christ. N.Y. H. ^1.50.
Recognized as a work of unusual worth.

Ware, W. Aurelian, Julian, and Zenobia. 3 v. N.Y. Miller.
$2.00 each.

" Excellent examples of good historical tales of the earlier Christian
centuries . " — N. Pokter.

Wehh, (Airs.). Pomponia; or, the Gospel in Cajsar's Household.
[Rome, Nero, and Britain.] Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. §1.25.

Id. Al;\Tius of Tagaste. Ph. Presb. Bd. of Pub. $1.25.
Wiseman, (Cardinal) N. Fabiola. [The Catacombs.] N.Y. Sadlier.
$1.50.

8. Liturgies.

Hammond, C. E. Liturgies, Eastern and "Western : being a Re-
print of the Texts, either Original or Translated, of the most
representative Liturgies of the Church from various sources.
With Introduction, Notes, and a Liturgical Glossary. 12mo. L.
Macm. 1878. 10s. 6c/.

Humphrey, Wm. G. An Historical and Explanatory Treatise on
the Book of Common Prayer. 12mo, cloth. L. Bell & Sons.
1856, 1875. 4s. Gd.
Excellent.

Mashell, W. The Ancient Liturgy of the Church of England, ac-
cording to the L^ses of Sarum, Bangor, York, and Hereford, and
the ^lodern Roman Liturgy, arranged in parallel columns. 3d
ed. 8vo. pp. Ixxxiv, 338. Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1882. 1.5s.
Neale, J. M. Essays on Liturgiology and Church History. 8vo.
pp. 527. L. Saunders, Otley, & Co. 1863 and 1SG7.

Scholarly. Dr. P. Schaff says of Xeale that he was a " most
learned Anglican ritualist and liturgist, who studied the Eastern
liturgies daily for thirty years, and almost knew them by heart. . . .
The . . . work of . . . the English Episcopal divine, Freeman, . . .
treats mucli of the old liturgies, with a predilection for the West-
ern, while Neale has an especial reverence for the Eastern ritual."

382 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Neale, J. M. The Liturgies of St. !Mark, St. James, St. Clement,
St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, or according to the use of the
Churches of Alexandria, Jerusalem, Constantinople. L. 1859
(in the Greek original, and the same liturgies in an English
translation, with an introduction and appendices, also in L., 1859).
2d edition. 12mo. L. Hayes. 18G8. 6s.
Of permanent value.

9. Martyrs.

See works by Fox (standard, comprehensive, Protestant ; best edi-
tion by G. Townsend, 8 v., L., 1843), Bulkley, Chateaubriand
(translated by 0. W. Wight; not critical, very poetical), and
Pre55e«.<e' (translated, L., 1871).

10. Miracle Plays axd Mysteries.

See Wm. Hone, 1823; J. P. Jackson (Passion Play at Oberammer-
gau, historical introduction), 1873, and Marriott (A Collection
of English Miracle Plays or Mysteries), 1858.

11. Missions.

Chrisllieb, Theodor. Protestant Foreign Missions. Translated from
the Fourth German edition, by David Allen Read. lOmo, pp.
264, X.Y., Randolph, 1880 ; 16mo, pp. 280, B., Cong. Pub. Soc.
81.00.

Compact, but complete. Sufficient for the needs of the general

reader.

Maclear, G.F. Apostlesof Mediaeval Europe. 8vo. L. Macm. 4s. 6c?.
Protestant; standard.

Merivale, C. Conversion of the West. 5 v. Maps. 16mo.
I. The Continental Teutons, by C. Merivale, pp. 180; II. The
Celts, by G. F. Maclear, pp. 189 ; III. The English, by G. F.
Maclear, pp. 186 ; IV. The Xorthmen, by G. F. Maclear, pp. 202;
V. The Sclavs, by G. F. Maclear, pp. ii, 202. L. Soc. N.Y.
Pott, Young, & Co. 1879. 60 cts. each.

Seelye, J. H. Christian Missions. 12mo. pp. 207. N.Y. Dodd,
Mead, & Co. 1876. 81.00.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 383

Smith, Thomas. History of Mediaeval Missions. 12mo. L. Hamilton.
1880. 4s. Qd.

Protestant; standard.

12. Monastic Orders.

The development of Monastic institutions is impartially and skil-
fully traced by Milman, in his History of Latin Christianity.

Montalemhert, Count de. The Monks of the West, from St. Bendict
to St. Bernard. Translated from the French. 7 v. 8vo. Ed.
and L. Blackwoods. 1860-70. Vols. 6 and 7, 25s. B. Xoonan.
2 V. $6.00.

" The ablest plea that has ever been made for the several orders of
monks, being at once scholarly, sympathetic, and conscientious."
— C. K. Adams. Cf. Sir James Stephen's Ecclesiastical Essays,
and Mrs. Jayneson's Legends of the Monastic Orders.

Ruffner, H. The Fathers of the Desert ; or, an Account of the
Origin and Practice of Monkery among the Heathen Nations,
its passage into the Church ; and some wonderful stories of the
fathers concerning the primitive monks and hermits. 2 v. X.Y.

1850.

The author, a Presbyterian, is by no means friendly to monastic
institutions.

13. Rationalism.

Hurst, John F. History of Rationalism. Embracing a Survey of

the Present State of Protestant Theology. With appendix of

literature. 8vo. N.Y. Scr. 1865. 9th rev. ed. 1875. $3.50.

Lecky, W. E. H. History of the Rise and Influence of the Spu-it of

Rationalism in Europe. 2 v. Svo. L. &X.Y. App. 1865. $4.00.

" His sympathies are obviously rationalistic, though he usually

succeeds in maintaining a moderate and judicious spirit." — C. K.

Adams.

14. Reference Books.
Abbott, Lyman, and Conant, T. J. A Dictionary of Religious
Knowledge, for Popular and Professional Use ; comprising full
Information on Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Sub-
jects. "With nearly One Thousand Maps and Illustrations.
Royal 8vo. pp. 1000 +. N.Y. H. $6.00.
Adapted to the needs of general students.

384 A SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF

Bingham, Joseph. Origines Ecclesiasticae ; or, the Antiquities of
the Christian Church. With two sermons and two letters on
the Nature and Necessity of Absolution. Edited hy R. Bingham,
8vo. L. Macni. Also in 7 vols, in liinghaiu's complete works.

9 V. 1840. L. W. Straker. 1843. 10 v. Oxford. Clarendon
Press. 1855. £3 Gs.

Standard.
Blunt, J. H. Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties,
and Schools of Thought. Imperial 8vo. pp. 048. $10.00.
Anglican. Not always unprejudiced and impartial.
Edwards, B. B., and Brown, J. N. Encyclopaedia of Religious
Knowledge; comprising Dictionaries of the Bible, Theology,
Biography, Religious Denominations, Ecclesiastical History,
and Missions. Illustrated. Imperial 8vo. pp. 1276. Brat-
tleboro, Vt. 1850.

" This valuable work comprises a complete library in itself, on the
above subjects, from the most authentic sources ; with copious
original articles by the ablest American writers, — Episcopal, (on-
grcgationalist, Presbyterian, Jlethodist, and Baptist." — Nk holas
Trubner, in his " Bibliographical Guide to American Literature,"
published in London, 1859. Now superseded, in most points, by
Ahhott and C'onant, McClintock and Strong, and Schaff-IIerzog.

McClintock, John, and Strong, J. A. Cyclopsedia of Biblical, Theo-
logical, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Maps. Illustrated.

10 V. 8vo. N.Y. II. 18G7 sqq. $5.00 each.

Contains many articles on American biography and history, — too
large a proportion being upon Methodist subjects, as might be ex-
pected from the church relations of its editors. Notwithstanding
this imperfection, and the inferior literary qualifications of some
of its contributors, it is the largest and most useful work of the
kind that has yet appeared in the English language.

Schaff, Philip. A Religious Encyclopaedia ; or. Dictionary of Bib-
lical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Tlieology. 3 v. Royal
8vo. N.Y. Funk & Wagnalls. 1882-84. 80.00 each.

A condensed and otherwise greatly modified translation of the
Real-Encyclopiidie fiir Protestantische Theologie und Kirche, by
Herzofj, Pitt, and Hmifk. In the work of translation, Dr. Schafif
was aided by his son, D. S. Schaff, and Samuel Jackson. The work
is convenient and authoritative.

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 385

Smith, Henrij B. History of the Church of Christ in (16) Chrono-
logical Tables. N.Y. Scr. 1860. $5.00.

Useful as an introduction to the study of church history ; also valua-
ble for reference and review. Nowhere else can be found a more
clear and impartial outline of American church history to a.d. 185S.

Smith, William. Bible Dictionary. 3 v. L. 1860-64. Ameri-
can edition much enlarged and improved by H. Hackett and E.
Abbot. 4v. pp.3667. N.Y. Hurd & Houghton. 1868-1870.

$•20.00.

Valuable for topics in early church history. An excellent bibli-
ography of ecclesiastical history concludes the article Church.
Another standard Bible Dictionary is Kitto's, edited by W. L.
Alexander. 3 v. Ed. A. & C. Black. 1862-G5. £2 2s.

Smith, W., and Cheetham, S. A Dictionary of Christian Antiquities.
The History, Institutions, and Antiquities of the Christian
Church ; Being a Continuation of the " Dictionary of the Bible."
2 v. Royal 8vo. L. Murray. 1875-1880. $7.00.
All that Dr. Smith has edited is valuable.
Smith, William, and Wace, Henry. A Dictionary of Christian
BiogTaphy, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines. 5 v., royal Svo, L.,
Murray, 31s. 6f/. each. 4 v., B., L. & B., 1877 sqq., $5. .50 each.
' ' By far the best patristic biographical dictionary in the English
or any other language. A noble monument of the learning of the
Church of England, to which nearly all the contributors belong."

— P. SCHAFF.

15. Sacred Seasons.
Grant, Alex. H. The Church Seasons, Historically and Poetically
Illustrated. 2d edition. Revised. 12mo. pp. 506. N.Y.
Whittaker. 1881. $1.50.

16. Symbolism.
Audsley, W. and G. Handbook of Christian SjTnbolism. Illus-
trated. Small 4to. pp. x, 145. L. Day & Son. 1865. 12s. M.
0 'Brien, John. A History of the Mass and its Ceremonies in the
Eastern and the AVestern Church. 12mo. N.Y. 4th edition.
Revised, pp. xix, 414. Cath. Pub. Soc. Co. 1879. $1.50.
More comprehensive than its title would indicate. It aims to point
out the symbolical meaning of aU the ceremonies of the eastern and
the western churches.

Prrss of

gcrfaich tC Smil^,

^oslon.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

PEMQOGICAL LIBEAKY.

Edited by G. Stanley Hall, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy
in Johns Hopkins University.

Vol. I. Methods of Teaching and Studying History.

[Second Edition to he rcadtj in December.

Consists of independent contributions by the following i^romi-
nent teachers of history : Dr. A. B. Hart, Harvard University ;
Prof. E. Emertox, Harvard University; Prof. Chas. K. Adams,
University of :\richigan ; Prof. W, F. Allex, University of Wis-
consin ; Prof. Herbert P>. Adams of Johns Hopkins University ;
Prof. Richard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University; Pres. Andrew
D. White of Cornell University ; Prof. J. W. Burgess of Colum-
bia College, J^.Y. ; Prin. W. C. Collar, Roxbury Latin School;
Joseph Thacher Clarke; W. E. Foster, Providence Public
Library ; and others ; also an article on " The Relation of Physical
Geography and History"; with a very carefully selected and dis-
criminated bibliography by Prof. Allen of Wisconsin University ;
a "Bibliography of Church History," by Rev. J. A. Fisher, Balti-
more, Md. ; and an introduction by the Editor. It is thought that
this volume will be indispensable to every teacher and student of
historv in the country.

The Nation : The general excel-
lence and helpfulness of ' the book
before us ought to secure it many
readers. We can heartily recom-
mend it as well to teachers who are
conscious of deficiencies in their
preparation, as to principals and
school boards who wish for assist-
ance in laying out courses of study.
It contains few details of fact, but
an excellent summary and analysis
of princij)les.

The American : The volume is
certainly an excellent one, and one
that ought help to fill a need where
a need has been felt, and to create a

desire for something better where in--
dolence or brainlessness has brought
about a perverse satisfaction. The
question is whether the proportion of '
teachers anxious for and capable of
something better will outnumber-
those "who merely hear recitations,
keeping the finger on the place \\\\
the text-book, and only asking the
questions conveniently ijrinted for-
them in the margin or back of the-
book."

Yale Courant : It would certain-
ly be a most decided improvement
on the cut-and-dried text-book reci-
tations that some of us have kno-wn.

Vol. II. Methods of Teaching and Studying Ancient

Languages and Literature. [7n preparation.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

Vol. III. Methods of Teaching and Studying Natu-

ral Science. [In preparation.

Vol. IV. Methods of Teaching and Studying Read-

intj, Eixjli^h Literature and Langnafjc. [//i pri jKiraticm.

Each of these volumes will contain special and general bibli-

• ograpliies, contributions by eminent and widelY-knowu American

and foreign educators, and a conspectus and digests of the best

pedagogical literature on the respective subjects. The Editor will

,spare no pains to make each volume indispensable to every teacher.

EDUCATIONAL CLASSICS.

Under this general title we shall publish from time to time
translations and reprints of books that have contributed so much
toward the solution of educational problems as to make them in-
dispensable to every teacher's library.

Suggestions from teachers, as to what books such a series should
coutain, will be gratefully received.

The first volume in the series is

Extracts from Rousseau's Em He.

Coiitaiiiiiitr tlie Principal Elements of l't(latro<fy. "Witli an Introduc-
tion and Notes, by Jlles Steeg, Paris, De'putd dc la (iironde. Trans-
lated ]>y Ei.KANou AVoRTHiNGTON, late of the Cook County Normal
School, 111.

"There are fifty pages of the Emile that should be bound in vel-
vet and go!d." — Voltaire.

" Emile " is like an antique mirror of brass ; it reflects the

features of educational humanity no less faithfully than one of

■more modem construction. In these few pages wnll be found the

germ of all that is useful in present systems of education, as well as

most of the ever-recurring mistakes of well-meaning zealots. Price

■ to Teachers, 80 cts.

The second volume will be

Festal ozzi's Li en hard und Gertrud.

A work that has proveil the f^enids and assured the immortality of
this {Treat teacher of teachers. Translated and abridged by Eva
Chaxking.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

The following Books should find a ^^Zace in every
Teacher's Library : —

Minto's Manual of English Prose Literature.

Biographical and Critical. Designed mainly to show characteristics
of style. Price to Teachers, $2.00.

Arnold's Manual of English Literature.

Historical and Critical: With an Appendix on English Metres, and
summaries of the different literary periods.

The student of this manual will receive just impressions of the
relative value of names and books, as well as political and religious
influences. Price to Teachers, ^1.50.

Craik's English of Shakespeare.

Illustrated in a Philological Commentary on Julius Caesar.

Gives an exposition of the language and style of Shakespeare.
Price to Teachers, 90 cts.

Hudson's Life, Art, and Characters of Shake-

speare. In 2 vols. Price to Teachers, §1.00 per vol.
These two volumes contain : —

1. The Life of Shakespeare .

2. An Historical Sketch of the Origin and Grotcth of the Drama in

England, discussing under this head Miracle-Plays, Moral-
Plays, and Comedy and Tragedy.

3. Shakespeare's Contemporaries.

4. Shakespeare's Art, discussing under this head Nature and Use

of Art, P]-inciples of Art, Dramatic Composition, Character-
ization, Humour, Style, Moral Spirit.

5. Shakespeare's Characters, containing critical discourses on twenty-

five of the Plays.

Hudson's Essaus on Education, English Studies,

and Shakespeare.

The first Essay gives good reasons why foot-notes are better for
the young Shakespeare student than a mass of annotation at the

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

end of the play; discusses the comparative value of verbal and
a-sthetic criticism ; and protests, with all possible earnestness,
against the course now too commonly pursued in studying and
teaching English Literatiu-e. The second discusses the questions :
" Wliy should English Literature be taught in our Schools?" and
'' AMiat is the best way of teaching it ? " The third explains how
Shakespeare should be adapted to scliool use, and at what age the
study should be luidertaken. The foiiith was instigated by numer-
ous letters asking for advice or suggestions as to the best way of
using Shakespeare in classes. The author details his own meth-
ods, deduced from an experience of more than thirty years in
teaching Shakespeare in schools, and shows how the study ought to
be, and can be, "a pastime, a recreation, a delight." In passing, he
shows up some of the glaring faults of our present high-pressure
system of education. Price to Teachers, 25 cts.

Thorn's Two Shakespeare Examinations.

It contains also an essay on the limitations of teaching and
studying Shakespeare in schools, and suggestions as to method,
as well as some notes on text-books. It is hoped that the book
will prove of especial value to teachers who must do their work
on Shakespeare within prescribed limits of time, and without
advantages of access to good libraries. Price to Teachers, 45 cts.

Allen 's History Topics, for High Schools & Colleges.

The first object of the topical method is to give prominence to
the most important names and events of history, and concentrate
the reading of the students upon certain selected ones of these. A
second object is to encourage independent research.

In an appendix is given a classified list of those books which are
considered most serviceable in connection with this method. Price
to Teachers, 25 cts.

Allen's Reader's Guide to English History.

A classified list of works in English History, including poems,
dramas, and works of fiction, arranged by periods, for convenience
of reference. It has a Supplement, extending the plan over
ancient, modem, European, aud American history. Price to
Teachers, 25 cts.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

Lambert's Memory Gems in Prose and Verse.

Contains three hundred and fort jj -six "gems " selected from more than one
hundred and fifty authors, and embracing a wide range of thought. Ar-
ranged in three groups, — for primanj, intermediate, and advanced
classes.

Designed to encourage the excellent practice, now generally
introduced into schools, of committing to memory choice passages
from the best English and American authors. Teachers do not
always have at hand original som-ces from which to make selec-
tions, and young pupils should not be allowed to select for them-
selves. Price to Teachers, 30 cts.

Knox's Guide to Teachers of Elementary Lessons

in English.

In a preliminary chapter will be found a discussion of the
Pestalozzian principles of education and instruction, of the art of
questioning and the laws of questioning, of methods of correcting
oral and wTitten mistakes, and of oral lessons — how to prepare
them, and how to give them. It includes also material and
plans for Oral Lessons in Language for the first, second, third, and
fourth years in school, observation lessons, dictation and test exer-
cises, questions for oral and written reviews, materials for compo-
sition exercises, plans for conducting picture lessons, a story lesson,
etc., etc., etc. There is no book published in this country which is
so clear, direct, and complete a maimal for the use of teachers.
Price to Teachers, 60 cts.

Bigsby's Elements of Engfisfi Composition.

Intended to give children habits of thought and observation, a
knowledge of the uses of words, and the power to express their
ideas.

Part First deals with the Elements of Grammar.
Part Second, the Formation of Sentences.
Part Third, the Construction of Paragraphs.
Part Fourth, the Figures of Speech.
Part Fifth, the Structure of Themes.
Price to Teachers, 35 cents.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

Bancroft's Metfwd of English Composition.

A brief system of instruction in the preparation of essays or
com ix)sit ions. The second part consists of lists of classified themes,
with specimens of plans of compositions ; also reference lists for
reading, with hints from experienced librarians on the use of the
library by young writers. Price to Teachers, GO cts.

Gilmore's Outlines of the Art of Expression.

It is intended to help prepare students in English for admission
to college ; or to give them, after they have entered college, such
preliminary training as will enable them to profit by higher and
more systematic instruction in Rhetoric. Price to Teachers, 60 cts.

Tomlinson's Manual for the Study of Latin Gram-

mar.

Designed for all Latin classes in the preparatory course. It
does not aim to supplant, but supplement, the other work. With
its use, time and labor will be saved, knowledge will be increased,
and better habits of study will be formed. Price to Teachers, 20 cts.

W hi ton's Auxilia Vergi liana; or, First Steps in Latin

I'rusodij.

Intended to facilitate the mastery of metre and rhythm at the
very outset of the study of Latin poetry. Price to Teachers, 15 cts.

King's Latin Pronunciation.

Contains a few explanatory and historical paragraphs on the
Roman, Continental, and English methods of pronouncing Latin,
and a brief presentation of the main features of each. Price to
Teachers, 25 cts.

Allen's Remnants of Early Latin.

Chiefly inscriptions. The object is to Ijring together, in small
compass and convenient shape for reading, the most remarkable
monuments of archaic Latin, with enough explanation to make
them generally intelligible. Price to Teachers, 75 cts.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

Bender's Brief History of Roman Literature.

Contains terse, suggestive, and admirable characterizations of
the Roman writers and of their times, and suggests much for the
teacher to enlarge upon. Price to Teachers, $1.00.

Slium way's Latin Siinoniimes.

It is designed to meet the needs not only of the college student,
but also of the preparatory school. The study of synonymes should
begin with the earliest lessons in Latin, and never cease. By no
other method can a vocabulary be so speedily and surely mastered,
or so great interest ai'oused. Price to Teachers, 30 cts.

Maduig's Latin Grammar.

- Whatever may be the preferences for one or another modern
Latin Grammar, the scholars of the country agree in placing Mad-
vig's Latin Grammar as the highest authority for reference. Price
to Teachers, S|2.25.

Par/^ hurst's Latin Verb.

The immediate aim is to introduce to the study of Comparative
Grammar. Price to Teachers, 35 cts.

Halsey's Etymology of Latin and Greets.

It presents side by side for each group of related words the
form of the root in Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin,
with the meaning of the root. Following these roots ai'e the most
practical Greek words and the most practical Latin words, with
their meanings. It may be used withovit confusion in connection
with any grammar or lexicon; and it supplies thoroughly what
they may lack in the important department of Etymology. Price
to Teachers, 81.12.

Ginn & Heath's Olassical Atlas and Geography

of the Ancient World.

Comprising in twenty-three plates, colored maps and plans of
all the important countries and localities referred to by classical
authors. Embodies the results of tha most recent investigations.
Brief suggestions to teachers are added, to assist in the work of
<;he class-room. Price to Teachers, $2.00.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

White's Junior Student's Latin-English Lexicon.

rricc to Tfachurs, s^.UO.

White's Junior Student's Latin-English and

Etifflish-Lathi Lexicon. Rcvi.sed CHlition. rriet' to Tuachorfi, .s;;.00.

White's Junior Student's English-Latin Lexicon.

PricL' to Teachers, $1.75.

Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses.

The object of the Avork is to give a plain statement of the
principles which govern the constrnction of tlie Greek ]\foods and
Tenses, — the most important and the most difficult part of Greek
Syntax. Price to Teachers, §1.50=

Keep's Essential Uses of the Moods in Greek

and Liillii.

Describes clearly and accurately, in language not too technical,
the actual use of moods in Latin and Greek. Price to Teachers,
25 cts.

White's Stein's Summary of the Dialect of Hero-

dot

I tot IIS.

Makes a complete statement of the euphonic and inflexional
peculiarities which distinguish the language of Herodotus from
Attic Greek, and is suitable for use with any edition of Herodotus.
Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

White's Schmidt's Rhythmic and Metric of the

K^iuSSICul LdlKJIKUfta.

Teachers will probal)]^ differ in opinion in regard to the extent
to which such a book as this should be used in school and college
instruction ; but certainly no teacher can afford to ignore the sub-
ject of which it treats. Price to Teachers, §2.50.

Liddell & Scott's Greek-English Lexicon.

Unabridrjed. Price to Teachers, §9.40.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

Liddell & Scott's Greek-English Lexicon.

Abridged. Price to Teachers, 81-90.

Wentworth & Hill's Examination Manual.

I. Arithmetic. Price to Teachers, 35 cts.

Wentworth & Hill's Examination Manual.

II. Algebra. Price to Teachers, 35 cts.

Wentworth & Hill's Exercise Manual.

II. Algebra. Price to Teachers, 35 cts.

Wentworth & Hill's Exercise Manual of Geometry.

Price to Teachers, 70 cts.

These, and others to follow, are a series of short Manuals, in-
tended to cover the main subjects studied in our schools and col-
leges. Each Manual is confined to one subject, and consists of two
parts : the first containing about 100 examination papers made
from the best collections of questions ; the second containing recent
papers actually set in English and American schools and colleges.
Each Manual also contains a paper completely worked out, as a
model.

Byerly's Syllabus of a Course in Plane Trigo-

nometry. Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

Byerly's Si./llabus of a Course in Plane Analytic

Geometrij. Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

Byerly's Syllabus of a Course in Plane Analytic

Geometrij. (Advanced Course.) Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

Byerly's Syllabus of a Course in Analytical

Geometrij of Three Dimensions. Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

Byerly's Syllabus of a Course in the Theory of

Equations. Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

10 BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

The Fitz Globe.

Clearly illustrates all the phenomena produced by the sun's rela-
tions to the earth, and is the tirst j^lobe to illustrate the sun's
daily course, or indicate the interval of twilight, or represent one's
horizon, without falsifying the existing relation of the earth's axis
to its orbit.

Trice of Six-inch Globe .... $12.00.
Price of Twelve-inch Globe . . . 25.00.

The Jos/in Terrestrial, Celestial. & Slated Globes.

Six-inch Globe, Semi-Frame . . . §4.00.

Nine-inch Globe, Semi-Frame . . . 9.G0.

Twelve-inch Globe, Semi-Frame . . . 13.G0.

Mounted on Full Wood Frames and suited to the working of prob-
lems, §4.00 more on each Globe.

The Celestial Globes are sold at the same prices as the Terrestrial.
Slated Globes of each style, 15 per cent less.

Johnston's Wall Maps.

If returned free of expense, a set will be sent for examination.
Ketail Trice, $5.00 each ; Introduction I'rice for three or more, §.'J.00
each. If mounted on spring rollers, 85 cts. extra per map; and in
cases (seven maps in a case), §1.10 extra per map.

Adopted hy nearly every School Board in Great Britain, and hy
such cities as Chicago, Cincinnati, Minneapolis, etc., and also in use
in over Jive thousand schools in the United States.

Guides for Science Teaching.

Intended for the use of teachers who desire to practically in-
.struct their classes in Xatural History, and supplies such informa-
tion as they need in teaching and are not likely to get from
any other source. In addition to many simple illustrations, and
instruction iji modes of pre.sentation and study, there are, in each
pamphlet, hints which will Ije found useful in purchasing, collect-
ing, presening, and preparing specimens.

Tiiese Guides were prepared solely as aids to teachers, — not as
textrbooks. The plan of teaching followed throughout is based
upon the assumption that, —

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 11

Seeing is the first step on the road to knowledge ; that, —
How much the child learns in his early years is of little impor-
tance, — HOW he learns, everything ; that, —

The teacher's icork is not to leach the facts, but to lead the mind
of each pupil to icork out for itself the simple physical problems
witnessed or described, and to cultivate the habit of observation and of
perseverance in investigation.

Ifo. I. Hyatt's About Pebbles.

An ilhistratiou of the way in which a common object may be
used profitably in teaching. It contains all the suggestions neces-
sary to enable any teacher to make the lessons a complete success.
Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

ITo. II. Goodale's Concerning a Few Common Plants.

Gives an account of the organs or " helpful parts " of plants, and
shows how these can be cultivated and used in the school-room for
the mental training of children. The appliances recommended are
of the most trifling cost. Even simple lenses are not absolutely re-
quired for any of the studies suggested. Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

No. III. Hyatt's Commercial and Other Sponges.

Gives an account of the Sponges in common use, and of their
structui-e, etc. The skeletons are present to the eye every day, and
even the dullest scholar will undertake with interest to find out
their different qualities, their common names, where they come
from, and how they are formed. Price to Teachers, 20 cts.

No. lY. Agassis' s A First Lesson in Natural History.

Gives, in narrative form, for very young children, a general his-
tory of hydroids, corals, and echinoderms. Scientifically accurate
and clear, it is as simple and fascinating as a wonder story. Xo
fairies could more completely win the interest of children than do
sea-anemones, corals, jelly-fishes, star-fishes, and sea-urchins, as
described and depicted in this little book. Price, 25 cts.

No. Y. Hyatt's Common Hydroids. Corals, and Echinoderms.

Shows throughout how the studies, or observations, are to be
most satisfactorily made. The illustrations are remarkably clear
and suggestive. Price to Teachers, 20 cts.

12 BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

No. YI. Hyatt's Mollusca. Oyster, Clam, and Other Common Mnl-

lusks.

Apart from its usefulness as holding iu compact form all that
need bo taught beginners about the oyster, clam, and other common
mollusks, this book is invaluable as illustrating in detail the natural
method of teaching. From first to last, the pupil is a discoverer ;
the teacher is simply the guide, — the pupil is self-taught. The
author condescends to the simplest things, and tells in the plainest
way just how to lead the class to make, in proper order, the neces-
sary investigations and discoveries. The most inexperienced will
be able, with this manual, to give these lessons with success. Price
to Teachers, 25 cts.

IJo. VII. Hyatt's Worms and Crustacea.

The space given to the description of the lobster (and fresh
water crayfish) will, it is hoi-)ed, incite teachers to occupy more
time in dealing with some one common animal, and thus cultivat-
incr the habit of close observation. In these lessons, as in the
preceding, the children are to be discoverers, not mere learners, —
they are to be taught by experience the value and the pleasure of
direct personal observation. Price to Teachers, 25 cts.

fTo. XII. Crosby's Common numerals and Rocks.

Kspecial prominence is given to the easy identification of the
common minerals and rocks, and to the constant association, in the
mind, of the rocks and rock -structures with the agencies by which
they have been formed. Price to Teachers, 25 cts.

Complete sets of specimens of minerals and rocks referred to in the
Guide, have been prepared hy the author. Price per set, $2.00.

No. XIII. Richard's First Lessons in numerals.

A valuable introduction to (iuide Xo. 12. The outline of the
lessons was first worked out by Mrs. Richards with three successive
cla.sses of children, from six to eight years old, just out of the
Kindergarten. The lessons were then given to classes in two
public schools in the city of Boston ; after which they were written
out and printed for private distribution. During the two years
which have since elapsed, the lessons have been given to about one

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 13

thousand children of the fourth classes of several of the Boston
Grammar Schools. Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

Sets of Specimens, illustrating Science Guides III.-VIT, have
been prepared, and can be obtained at the following prices : —

Guide in. (7 specimens) $1.00.

" IV., \. (15 specimens) .... 2.00.

" VI. (12 specimens) 1.00.

" VII. (10 specimens) 1.00.

Orders should be addressed to Samuel Henshaw, Boston So-
ciety of Natural History, Boston, Mass.

Shaler's First Book of Geology. Teacher's Edition.

There are general directions for the guidance of teachers in their
work in giving lessons on natural hi,story ; then each chaptei- of the
book is taken up in tm-n, and the instructor is told how to supple-
ment the lessons by reference to facts that may be easily accessible
in the nature about the school.

The Teacher's Edition will be. found interesting by tho.se who
desire to get a glance at geology, and a general notion of its bear-
ings on ordinary life. It is believed that these instructions will
open a new field for the better use of the text-book in teaching
geology. The instructor who will make proper use of these pages
will find it possible to enliven the printed page with many an
illustration thai; will be of value to his students. Price, 81.00.

Hill's Questions and Exercises on Stewart's

Physics. With Answers and occasional Solutions.

Will be found serviceable for purposes of review and examina-
tion. It will stimulate original thought on the part of the student,
and give the teacher the means of testing thoroughly the student's
knowledge of principles. Price to Teachers, 35 cts.

Mason^s National Music Teacher.

The precise work of the teacher and class is shown, each step
being carefully explained. In fact, the basis of the book is a series
of verbatim reports of actual lessons given to little children by the
author. The words of both teacher and pupils are reported, so that
the exercise is brought vividly to the mind of any intelligent in-
structor. Price to Teachers, 40 cts.

14 BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

Mason & Holt's Manual for Music Teachers.

An aid to teachers who know Imt little about music. It con-
tains also appendices on " French Time-Xames " and the " Manage-
ment of the Voice." Price to Teachers, 40 cts.

Harvard Examination Papers.

These are all the questions (except on the subject of Geometry),
in the form of papers, which have been used in the examinations
for admission to IIar\-ard College since 18G0. They furnish an
excellent series of Questions in Modern, Physical, and Ancient
Geography ; Grecian and Roman History ; Al'ithmetic and Alge-
bra ; Plane and Solid Geometry ; Logarithms and Trigonometry ;
Latin and Greek Grammar and Composition ; Physics and
^Mechanics. They have been published in this form for the
convenience of Teachers, classes in High Schools, and especially
for pupils preparing for college. Price to Teachers, SLOO.

Yale Examination Papers.

This book is published for the convenience of teachers and
pupils in preparatory schools, and may profitably be used as a
text-book for review. Price to Teachers, 75 cts.

Halsey's Genealogical and Chronological Chart

of the Jtulers of England, Scotland, France, Germany, and Spain.
33 X 50 inches in size.

Has just been revised and brought down to the present j'ear.
It is printed very distinctly on tough rope paper ; and the price
has been made only 25 cts., postpaid, placing within reach of every
student of history what has been recognized as a most valuable
help.

The Teachers' Improved Class-Boohs.

No. I. 90 pages. This is arranged for five days' record each week,
the names of twenty pupils on a page, and for terms not exceeding
fifteen w( eks in length. Price to 'leachers, 30 cts.
No. II. 120 pages. This provides for six days' record each week, for
the names of twenty-four pupils on a page, and for terms not exceed-
ing fifteen weeks in length. Price to Teachers, 40 cents.

BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 15

Three advantages result from the arrangement of pages adopted
in the Improved Class-Books : 1. The names of pupils in any class
need to be entered hut once for an entire term. 2. The standing for
the three months, instead of needing to be compiled from different
parts of the book, is present to the eye at one view. 3. In connec-
tion with each month's record is a blank for temporary memoranda,
•which may be cut out when no longer of use.

X.B. — These books are not only more convenient in form, but
are one-third less expensive than any similar book on the market.

Monoyer's Sight-Test for Schools.

A ready means of detecting the presence of near-sight among school
children. Full directions for using are given on the back of each
chart. Size 11' X 30 inches. Unmounted, on thick paper: Price to
Teachers, 12 cts. Mounted, on Manilla board . Price, 32 cts.

The Question of a Division of the Philosophioal

Faadtij. Inaugural Address on assuming the Rectorship of the
University of BerHn, delivered in the Aula of the University, Oct. 15,
1880, by Dr. August Wilhelm Hofmann, Prof, of Chemistry.

Deals chiefly with a question which excites great interest and no
little controversy in the German Universities, and will, it is hoped,
interest all in this country who are devoted to the educational
problems of the day. The action of Germany in dealing Avith the
question of dividing the great Philosophical Faculty cannot fail to
be weighty and lasting in its effect on the education of the world.
The Address, however, as Prof. Hofmann remarks, owes its general
interest mainly to its discussion of a question closely connected
with the principal subject, — that of admitting students to the mii-
versities without the literary training which a German Gymnasium
affords, and especially without a knowledge of Greek. Piice, 25 cts.

Wood-Worliing Tools: How to Use Them.

A Hand-hook for Teachers. Edited (for the Industrial School Associ-
ation) Isy Chanxixc. Whitaker, Professor of Mechanical Engineer-
ing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

A course of simple lessons in the use of the universal tools : the
hammer, knife, axe, plane, rule, chalk-line, square, gauge, chisel,
saw, and auger. The lessons are so amply illustrated that any

16 BOOKS FOR TEACHERS.

bright boy will find tlie liottk alone a great help in his endeavors to
loarn the right way of nsing common tools. Price ( o Teaoliers, 50 cts.

Warren's True Key to Ancient Cosmologii and

M ilthii-iil 0< <>i/r(i]ili ij.

This little book shonld be in the hands of every teacher of the
classics. The remarkable light which the w-ork throws upon the
Odyssey renders it indispensable to every student of that poem.
Price to Teachers, 20 cts.

Straight's Aim of Industrial Education in the

Public Schools, and its Proper Relation to the Regular Studies.
Price to Teachers, 10 cts.

Seel ye' s Hiolioh's Empirical Psychology; or, The

HuiiKin Jliiid as Given in Consciousness.

The publishers believe that the book will be found to be re-
markably comprehensive, and at the same time compact and clear.
It gives a complete outline of the Science, concisely presented, and
in precise and plain terms. Price to Teachers, $1.12. ^

Seelye's Hickok's Moral Science.

Price to Teacliers, •'31.12.

Lotze's Outlines of Metaphysic.

Translated and Edited by Prof. Geo. T. Ladd of Yale College.

The German from which the translation is made consists of
the dictated portions of his latest lectures (at Gottingen, and for
a few months at Px-rlin) as formulated by Lotz himself, recorded in
the notes of his hearers, and subjected to the most competent and
thorough revision of Professor Rehnisch of Gottingen. The "Out-
lines " give, therefore, a mature and trustworthy statement, in
language selected liy this teacher of Philosophy himself, of what
may be considered as his final opinions upon this subject. It has
met with no little favor in Germany. Price to Teachers, 80 cts.

GINN, HEATH, & CO., Publishers,

13 Tkemoxt 1'lack, Boston. 4 iJoM> Stkeet, New York.

180 Wabash Avenue, Chicago.

907W582MC.1

White # Methods of
teaching histon

LU
if)

3 0005 02033560 3

The R.W .B.Jackson

Library
OlSE

^61 Copy i

"U582M
White

Methods of teaching
history

507 Copy 1

'\^582M
White

Methods of teaching history

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Methods of teaching history"

See other formats