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Class

THE METHODS

TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

BEING THE SYLLABUS OF A LECTURE

COURSE ADAPTED FOR USE IN

TEXTILE LABORATORIES

BY
FREDERIC DANNERTH, Ph.D.

Consulting Industrial Chemist

(formerly of the Department of Chemistry and Dyeing

Philadelphia Textile School)

FIRST EDITION

FIRST THOUSAND

NEW YORK

JOHN WILEY & SONS

London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited

1908

GENERAL

FREDERIC DANNERTH

Stanbope ipress

H. GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON. U.S.A.

PREFACE

The few books on textile chemistry which have thus
far made their appearance, with one or two exceptions are
available only in foreign languages. This is to many a
source of deep regret, because while attention is given to
the study of modern languages in this country, yet tech-
nical writing is better understood when the reader has it
presented in his native tongue. In the following pages
an attempt has been made to systematize approved
methods of textile-chemical analysis which are at present
only to be found in widely distributed and expensive
special works and journals. These methods have for
some time formed the syllabus of the author's lecture
courses in textile chemistry. They therefore make no
claim to completeness, although care has been taken to
emphasize the essential points in each case. The student
will do well to use some standard manual of chemical
analysis such as "Newth" in conjunction with the present
volume.

The author hopes that our now prosperous textile
manufacturers and merchants may soon realize that
accurate methods are not only interesting but necessary
in these days of keen competition. At the same time this
little volume is intended to be a source of information and
ready reference for the textile chemist. To add to the
readier understanding of calculations, practical examples
have been inserted in many instances. The aim has been

iii

174753

iv PREFACE

to cover the field of chemical and physical analysis of the
textile fibers, yarns and fabrics. Dyestuffs, mordants,
and finishing materials are treated of not as raw materials
but as substances encountered on the finished goods.

FREDERIC DANNERTH.

204 Walnut Place, Philadelphia,
Autumn, 1908.

REFERENCES

In the preparation of this book the following publi-
cations were consulted:

P. Bean: The Chemistry and Practise of Sizing and Finishing.
London. 1005, 1906.

Bowman: The Wool Fibre. Manchester. 1885.

Cross and Bevan: Cellulose. London. 1 895-1905.

P. Heermann: Textil-chemische Untersuchungsmethoden. Berlin. 1907.

J. Herzfeld: Die Technische Pruefung der Game und Gewebe.
Vienna. 1896.

C. Loebner: Studien ueber die Wolle. Gruenberg. 1891.

J. M. Matthews: The Textile Fibres. New York. 1907.

W. Massot: Kurze Anleitung zur Appretur Analyse. Berlin. 1900.

H. Silbermann: Die Seide. Dresden. 1898.

Textil u. Faerberei Zeitung. Berlin.

G. Lunge: Chemisch-technische Untersuchungsmetoden. Berlin. IV
Edition.

v. Hoehnel: Microscopie der technisch verwendeten Faserstoffe. Berlin.
1905.

Allen: Commercial Organic Analysis., Philadelphia. 1900.

G. Georgievics: Chemische Technologie der Gespinnstfasern. Vienna.
1898.

The Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. London.

The Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colorists.

The "Tables for the Identification of Dyestuffs on the Fiber," by Arthur
Green and others, which appeared in the Journal of the Society of Dyers
and Colorists, may be consulted in the Yearbook for Colorists and
Dyers edited by H. A. Metz. Dyestuffs on animal fibers, 1905,
page 47. Dyestuffs on vegetable fibers, 1907, page 49.

CONTENTS

PART I
Qualitative Analysis.
Reactions of —

PAGE

Wool and hair fibers 8

Natural silk fibers 15

Jute and hemp fibers 19

Cotton, flax, and ramie fibers 21

Imitation silk fibers 27

Detection of —

Rosin, mineral, and vegetable oil, in textiles 29

Mordants on wool 30

Weighting on silk 32

Sizings on cotton 34

Finishing materials in textiles 36

PART II

Quantitative Analysis.

Analysis of a —

Wool-cotton fabric 45

Wool-silk fabric 47

Cotton-silk fabric 48

Cotton-silk-wool fabric 48

Silk-imitation silk fabric 50

Waterproof fabric 50

Analysis of —

Textile fibers 56

Raw vegetable fibers 57

Raw wool fibers 59

Raw silk fibers 61

vii

Vlll CONTENTS

Determination of —

PAGE

The «* boiling-off " loss of raw silk 63

The " washing-out" loss of raw silk 64

The " shrinkage " of raw wools 64

Moisture in textiles 66

Mineral matter in textiles : 69

Oil and grease in textiles 71

Arsenic in textiles 72

Weighting in silk fabrics 72

Finishing in cotton fabrics 81

Determination of —

Tensile strength 82

Humidity 86

Specific gravity 87

The fastness of dyes on the fiber 89

PART III
Materials, Processes, and Products.

Cotton bleaching 97

Turkey-red dyeing 106

Anilin-black dyeing 114

Mercerization 117

Carbonization 119

Appendices.

Areometry 123

Steiger and Gruenberg's Table 125

Yarn counts 126

PART IV

Glossary 131

Wool terms 131

Cotton tertns 136

Silk terms 141

Flax terms 143

PART I

METHODS OF TEXTILE
CHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION

The word "analysis" as used at the present day includes
all the processes and operations made use of by chemists
in order to determine the constituent parts of any com-
pound, or to enable them to identify the substance. The
process may involve the breaking up of the body into its
component parts, or may consist in the simple separation
of a mixture. A reaction is a chemical change: if the
change was effected only by heating the substance, it is
termed a dry reaction; and if any of the substances used
to bring about the change were in solution, we speak
of a wet reaction. In the following is given a list of the
reagents which will be required for the wet reactions;
they should be made up as indicated in order to obtain
the best results.

10% Caustic potash . . . .Dissolve 10 grams of potassium hydroxide in

50 c.c. of water, cool and make up to a total

volume of 100 c.c.
1% Caustic potash Dilute the above solution 1:10, i.e. to 10 cubic

centimeters of the 10% solution add 90 c.c.

of water.
40% Hydrochloric acid .The concentrated chemically pure acid. Specific

gravity 1.20 (24°Be). [100 c.c. of this acid

weighs 120 grams.]
3

4 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

10% Hydrochloric acid .Mix 25 c.c. of the above concentrated acid with
75 c.c. of water.
1% Hydrochloric acid .Dilute the 10% acid 1 to 10.
98% Sulphuric acid . . . .The concentrated chemically pure acid. Specific

gravity 1.84 (66° Be).
10% Sulphuric acid.. . .Dilute the above solution 1 to 10.

100% Nitric acid The concentrated chemically pure acid. Specific

gravity 1.559 (5 1. 5 Be).

10% Nitric acid Dilute the above solution 1 to 10.

Calcium hypochlorite . . .A clear solution having a specific gravity of
1. 01 (2 Tw) is prepared by rubbing down
chloride of lime with water in a mortar.
Add more water, allow to settle, and finally
decant.
Schweitzer's reagent.. . .An ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide.

Cross and Bevan prepare this reagent as follows: 2 grams of copper
sulphate are dissolved in 100 c.c. of water. Hydrated copper
oxide is precipitated from this solution by adding a slight excess
oi a 10% solution of sodium hydroxide. Wash the precipitate
entirely free from alkali, drain, and mix with a 10% solution of
glycerol. Preserve in stoppered bottles, and when desired for use wash
free from glycerol and dissolve in ammonia water of 20% strength.
Bronnert, Fremery & Urban prepare a Schweitzer's solution con-
taining about 5% of copper and a relatively small amount of ammonia
as follows: A cold solution of ammonia is poured over copper
turnings in tall cylindrical vessels, and the whole is cooled down to
o to 5 C. by placing in a freezing mixture. Cold air is now blown
through this mixture of copper and ammonia for about 10 hours.
The solutions so obtained are only stable at low temperatures, so that
suitable precautions must be observed when using the same.

MillorCs reagent An aqueous solution of mercurous nitrate.

Ten grams of mercury are treated with as much nitric acid as is
necessary to dissolve it. An additional 10 grams of mercury is
now added and the whole diluted with nine times its volume of
water. As copious fumes of the red oxide of nitrogen are evolved,
the solution of the mercury should take place under a hood.

Molisch's reagent A 20% solution of ce-naphthol in alcohol.

Lassaigne's reagent 5 grams of litharge and 5 grams of sodium

hydroxide are dissolved in 100 c.c. of boiling
water. PbO + 2NaOH - Na^bO., + E^O.

INTRODUCTION 5

Liebertnann's reagent. ..One gram of Magenta (Fuchsin or Rosanilin)
crystals is dissolved in ioo c.c. of water. To
this is added ammonium hydroxide until the
solution is just decolorized.

Loewe's reagent An alkaline copper-glycerol solution.

10 grams of copper sulphate crystals are dissolved in ioo c.c. of water.
To this are added 5 c.c. of glycerol and a solution of sodium
hydroxide until the precipitate at first formed is just redissolved.

Richardson's reagent An ammoniacal solution of nickel oxide.

25 grams of nickel sulphate crystals are dissolved in 300 c.c. of boiling
water and precipitated with a slight excess of a 10% solution of
sodium hydroxide. The precipitate is carefully filtered and washed,
then rinsed into a 250 c.c. flask containing 125 c.c. of ammonia
(sp. gr. = 0.88). The whole is now made up to 250 c.c. with water.

Eisner's reagent A solution of basic zinc chloride.

100 grams of dry zinc chloride and 4 grams of zinc oxide are mixed with
85 c.c. of water.

HoehneVs reagent Solution I) One gram of potassium iodide

dissolved in 100 c.c. of water, and iodine
added in excess.
Solution II) Twenty cubic centimeters of glycerol
are mixed with 10 c.c. of water. To this cold
solution are added 30 c.c. of concentrated
sulphuric acid.
The fiber is first treated with solution I, the excess
of reagent is removed with filter paper, and
after one or two minutes solution II is applied.

Nickel* s reagent A solution of hydrazin sulphate in water.

Zinc-chloride-iodine solution. One gram of iodine crystals, 5 grams of
potassium iodide, and 30 grams of zinc
chloride are dissolved in 15 grams of water.
NUroprusside solution. A 2 % solution of sodium nitroprusside in water
The salt may be prepared as follows: A small quantity of potassium
ferrocyanide crystals is boiled with strong nitric acid; finally dilute
with water and neutralize the free acid with sodium carbonate.
The salt is obtained in the form of deep-red crystals.
Test Solutions for Lignin. 1) Phloroglucol in 10% alcoholic solution.
Dilute with an equal volume of 10% hydro-
chloric acid before using. 2) Anilin sulphate
or hydrochloride in saturated solution. 3)
Indol in 5% solution.

6 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Adamkiewictfs reagent. A solution of glyoxalic acid in concentrated,
sulphuric acid. Adamkiewicz's test may also
be carried out as given under the reactions
for wool (page n).

Fuchsin-bisulphite solution. One gram of Fuchsin is dissolved in iooo c.c.
of distilled water. Sulphurous acid is now led
into this solution (or a few drops of liquid
sodium bisulphite is added) until the solution
is just decolorized.

Analytical Classification of the Fibers.

The following arrangement of the fibers is based upon
their chemical composition. Although this classification
is one which has seldom if ever been adopted, it is not
materially different from the usual arrangement. Such
a classification reminds us that the fibers are chemical
compounds, even though they may in some cases be
extremely complicated.

II.

III.

IV.

Wool.
Mohair.

Mulberry silk.
Tussah silk.

Jute.
Hemp.

Cotton.

Flax.

Ramie.

Lustre-
celluloses:

Fibers

Eria.

Bromelia.

Chardonnet.
du Vivier.

from the
Cashmere.

Fagara.
False Tussah.

Coir.
Esparto.

Lehner.
Pauly.

Thibet.
Alpaca.
Vicuna.

Muga.
Yamamai.

Gambo.
Manila.
New Zealand.

Stearns.

Llama.
Camel.

Raphia.
Sisal.

Cow.

Sunn.

Horse.

Vegetab. silk.

INTRODUCTION 7

Group i. Animal fibers containing sulphur (keratinic
fibers).

Group 2. Animal fibers containing no sulphur (silks).

Group 3. Vegetable fibers which respond to the lignin
reaction (lignocelluloses).

Group 4. Vegetable fibers which do not respond to
the lignin reaction (true celluloses).

Group 5. Artificial fibers or pseudo-silks (lustre-
celluloses).

Group I.

WOOL AND HAIR FIBERS.

The chief analytical differences between these fibers
lie in their physical properties. These will therefore be
discussed separately, while the chemical reactions will
hold good for the whole group.

Dry reactions. When heated in a dry combustion tube
the fiber seems to melt and then slowly decomposes with
evolution of gases. These have a characteristic "empy-
reumatic" odor, resembling that of burning horn, due to
the presence of sulphur and nitrogen. In fact, wool, hair,
horn and feathers have one common constituent which
has been given the name "keratin." A piece of red
litmus paper held at the mouth of the combustion tube
will turn blue owing to the ammonia vapors, while a
paper moistened with lead acetate solution will be turned
black owing to the vapors of hydrogen sulphide which
are given off. Finally, a black residue insoluble in all
media is observed in the tube; it is carbon. If wool
which has been thoroughly washed with carbon tetrachlo-
ride be subjected to dry distillation in a vacuum at a tem-
perature of 300 C, a bad-smelling liquid, consisting of
ammonia water and various sulphur compounds, distills
over. The gases given off include hydrogen sulphiHe
and ammonia.

The "keratinic" fibers all contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen.

WOOL AND HAIR FIBERS 9

Sulphur may be detected: First, by heating the fiber
with sodium carbonate and sodium nitrate in a combus-
tion tube. The product of the reaction is dissolved in
hydrochloric acid and the clear solution tested with
barium chloride. A white precipitate of barium sulphate
is obtained. Second, by boiling the wool with a mixture
of caustic soda and lead acetate a black precipitate of lead
sulphide is produced. Third, by heating the fiber with
metallic sodium in a combustion tube, sodium sulphide is
formed. Extract the product of the reaction with water
and add sodium nitroprusside, when a violet coloration is
obtained.

Nitrogen may be detected by heating in a strong tube
with metallic sodium whereby sodium cyanide is formed.
Boil with a small quantity of ferrous sulphate and ferric
chloride solutions. On acidifying with hydrochloric acid
a precipitate of Prussian blue is obtained.

Carbon may be observed as before mentioned, if the
fiber be strongly heated in a combustion tube.

Hydrogen and Oxygen. The water vapor given off
when perfectly dry wool is heated in a combustion tube is
formed by the union of these two constituent elements of
the fiber.

Wet reactions. Wool and other fibers obtained from
the mammalia are insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, petro-
leum benzin, coal-tar benzene, carbon tetrachloride, etc.
This fact is of value in removing the impurities from
the fiber as the mineral matter is soluble in water and
the fatty matters can be readily removed by these organic
solvents.

Potassium hydroxide (also sodium hydroxide) in 5% solu-
tion dissolves the fibers on boiling. If cold dilute sulphuric

IO METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

acid be added to this solution a precipitate, containing more
or less free sulphur, is obtained and hydrogen sulphide is
evolved. If a 40% solution of caustic alkali be applied
to the fibre at a temperature not above 20 degrees C. for
5 minutes, the fiber increases in tensile strength, becomes
white and lustrous, and acquires a "silk scroop."

Ammonium hydroxide (also ammonium bicarbonate) in
cold 10% solution does not affect the fiber to any marked
extent.

Calcium hydroxide in saturated solution removes most
of the loosely combined sulphur from the wool.

Concentrated sulphuric acid, if allowed to dry on the
fiber, will rot the same. A warm 10% solution hardly
affects the fiber in strength. By this treatment, however,
the latter acquires an increased affinity for the acid dyes.

10% Hydrochloric acid. If wool be spotted with this
solution and dried at ioo° the fiber is hardly affected,
owing to the volatility of the acid.

Picric acid in saturated aqueous solution dyes wool,
etc., a greenish yellow.

Nitrous acid apparently diazotizes the amino groups of
, the wool molecule. The product of the reaction assumes
different colors when developed with various phenols.

Chlorine, if allowed to act in the gaseous form, decom-
poses the fiber. Weak solutions of the gas are, however,
used to impart a silk "scroop" to the fiber and to render
it il non-shrinkable."

Proteid reactions. (1) Wool moistened with Millon's
reagent and gently heated in a test tube assumes a brick-
red coloration. (2) If wool be boiled with a 10% solu-
tion of copper sulphate, and after cooling, dilute sodium
hydroxide solution be added, a violet coloration will be

WOOL AND HAIR FIBERS II

observed (Piotrowski's biuret reaction). (3) Wool
moistened with a 50 % solution of nitric acid will at once be
colored a canary yellow. If the sample be then dipped in a
solution of an alkali the color will change to a deep orange
(Xanthoprotein reaction). (4) On boiling wool with
glacial acetic acid, cooling, and then adding concentrated
sulphuric acid, a violet coloration is produced, and the
solution fluoresces (Adamkiewicz's reaction). The use of
a mixture of glyoxalic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid,
in which the proteid is then boiled has been suggested for
this reaction.

Liebermanrts reaction. The fiber is boiled with the
decolorized solution of magenta and afterward well
washed. Animal fibers assume a pink color (distinction
from all other fibers).

Lassaigne's reaction. When boiled with a solution of
sodium plumbite, wool is colored a dark brown owing
to the presence of sulphur.

MoliscWs reaction. The fiber is treated in a test tube
with 1 c.c. of water, a few drops of Molisch's reagent, and
1 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid. Solution takes place
slowly, and a brown coloration is observed. Vegetable
fibers dissolve immediately with a violet coloration.

Fur fur ol reaction. If wool be heated with a dilute solu-
tion of sugar acidified with sulphuric acid, a red coloration
is obtained.

Coloring matters. All the fibers of this group have a de-
cided affinity for substantive, acid, and basic dyes. Alizarin
and a few other coloring matters will only adhere after a
metallic oxide (like Cr 2 3 ) has been fixed upon the fiber.

The physical properties upon which depends the valua-
tion of wool and hair fibers are:

12 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

" I.

Elasticity.

Uniformity in diameter.

Color.

% 7-

Crimpiness.

"3-

Lustre.

- 8.

Fineness (diameter).

' 4-

Length.

% 9-

Tensile strength.

Softness.

"io.

Serrations per inch.

The microscopic examination of a fiber is generally
sufficient for its identification, and should therefore form
a part of every complete investigation.

Group 1(a). Wools. 1
Wool (fine).

This class includes the wool of the Merino 2 sheep of
Spain, Silesia, and Australia as well as the Rambouillet
sheep of France. It is the finest grade of wool, very
elastic, white to gray in color, non-lustrous, short, very
soft, crimpy, and fine.

Diameter: 0.013 mm. (0.0005 i n ch).

Length: 5 to 12 cm. (2 to 5 inches).

Serrations: 1100 per cm. (2800 per inch).

Microscope: The characteristic difference between
wool and hair lies in the manner in which the scales form-
ing the outer covering of the fiber are attached. The
external walls of the wool fiber appear as thin horny plates
or scales of irregular shape, the appearance of which
has been compared to that of a shingle roof. The funnel-
ghaped scales seem to overlap one another, each one

1 It should be remembered that the data given concerning diameter,
length, and serrations is approximate and is therefore not absolute and
invariable.

2 The terms, Merino, Lincoln, and Southdown are used in the United
States to indicate certain grades of wool rather than the breed.

GROUP I 13

entirely surrounding the fiber. The edges resemble the
edge of a saw with teeth set at a small angle. The central
cylinder or medullary portion, sometimes called the pith
of the fiber, is absent or invisible. The epidermal scales
are attached to the cortical substance through only a
small part of their length.

Wool {coarse) .

This class includes Lincoln, Leicester, and Cotswold
wool and represents the diametrical opposite of the fore-
going in almost every particular. The fiber is elastic,
light in color, lustrous, long, straight, hairy, and coarse.

Diameter: 0.025 mm. (0.0010 inch).

Length: 12 to 20 cm. (5 to 8 inches).

Serrations: 230 to 550 per cm. (600 to 1400 per inch).

Microscope: Epidermal scales horny and attached
firmly to the cortical structure.

Wool (medium).

This class of wool is produced by the sheep of South-
down, the Cheviot Hills, Shropshire, Hampshire, Oxford-
shire, and Dorsetshire. It stands midway between the
two previous types.

Diameter: 0.020 mm. (0.0008 inch).

Length : 7 to 20 cm. (3 to 8 inches) .

Serrations: 800 per cm. (2000 per inch).

Group 1(b). Hairs.

Hairs of Goats.

Mohair is obtained in Turkey from the Angora goat.
It is very stiff, long, silky, lustrous, and almost pure white
in color.

14 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Diameter: 0.025 mm. (0.0010 inch) .

Length: 10 to 25 cm. (5 to 10 inches).

Microscope: The scales can be observed only with high
magnifying powers if at all. They are regular and encircle
the whole hair. In most cases the pith is absent, although
it is sometimes seen in the form of a canal occupying more
than half of the diameter.

Less important goat hairs are obtained from the alpaca,
vicuna and llama of South America, and from the Cash-
mere and the Thibet goats of China and India.

The term " alpaca " is frequently applied in a general
sense to all South American goat hairs. The common
varieties are brown and black. Cashmere is used in the
manufacture of the famous " Cashmere shawls." The
commercial varieties are gray and white.

Hairs of Other Mammals.

Camel hair is obtained from Russia, Syria, and China.
It is fine, crimpy, and soft (wool hair); or coarse,
straight, and stiff (beard hair). It is used, among other
things, in the manufacture of the " Jaeger normal fabrics."

Diameter: 0.015 to 0.075 mm *

Length: 5 to 10 cm.

Cow hair is obtained from Siberia, America, etc. It
is short and irregular in diameter; black, white, or red in
color. Under the microscope the hair-root can frequently
be observed, as the fiber is obtained from the tanneries as
" pulled hair." Coarse beard hairs, fine beard hairs, and
wool hairs may be distinguished. This fiber is used to a
large extent in the carpet industry.

Diameter: 0.080 to 0.180 mm.

Length: 1.5 to 5 cm.

GROUP I 15

Horse hair is used in the manufacture of "haircloth"
linings, and upholstery fabrics. That obtained from the
tail is about 65 cm. and that from the mane about 45 cm.
in length. " Pulled " horse hair is approximately 3 cm.
in length.

Diameter: 0.090 to 0.250 mm.

The hairs from the dog, cat, rabbit, and squirrel are
also used to a limited extent in the textile and related
industries (in the manufacture of hats, etc.) .

In true hair the scales are firmly attached to the cortical
fibrous substance throughout the greater part of their
length, and only reveal themselves under the microscope
as fine irregular transverse lines on the surface, and by
notches at the edge of the hair. The internal arrangement
of the cells of the fibrous substance shows a fairly dis-
tinct medullary axis. The shaft, or medulla, is usually
firm and straight, and the scales are horny and dense.
In wool fiber the scales are attached much less firmly, and
their free margin is more prominent, being frequently
notched in a more or less irregular manner. The serra-
tions are distinct and the scales translucent.

Note. — Some misleading terms used in trade are:
Cheviot shirting: a fabric made totally of cotton.
Mohair cloth: a lining fabric containing cotton and mohair.
Cashmere: a fabric made of merino wool.
Alpaca cloth: a worsted fabric.
Vicuna: a worsted fabric.
Thibet: a worsted fabric.
Merino underwear: an article containing cotton and wool.

Group II.

This group comprises two classes of silks; the one
known as genuine cultivated or mulberry silk is the prod-
uct of the insect Bombyx mori, while the most important

1 6 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

representative of the wild variety is tussah silk, the product
of Antherea mylitta. The color of the raw silk assists in
some cases in its recognition, but the chemical reactions
are almost identical for all the members of this group.

Dry reactions. The tests for carbon and nitrogen will
be found under the tests for the wool fiber. The absence
of sulphur in silk is a characteristic difference from wool.
On heating silk in a dry tube an empyreumatic odor is
noticed.

Wet reactions. All varieties of silk have the same phy-
siological origin, so that it will not seem strange that
they should all give the reactions of the proteids (see
wool, page 10).

The pure silk fiber is not affected by any of the ordinary
organic solvents.

Sodium chloride in aqueous solution if allowed to dry
on the fiber has a decidedly tendering action. A com-
mon form of this chemical action is the effect of perspir-
ation on silks prepared with the tin-phosphate-silicate
weighting.

Sodium hydroxide (and potassium hydroxide) in hot
concentrated solution dissolves the fiber in a short time.
On acidifying this solution a precipitate is obtained.

Sulphuric acid, if concentrated, dissolves silk almost
completely in 2 minutes. If immersed for only a few
seconds, then washed and neutralized, the fiber shrinks
considerably and loses most of its lustre.

Hydrochloric acid, cold —

in 25% solution contracts the fiber considerably,
in 30% solution dissolves the fiber in 10 minutes,
in 40% solution dissolves the fiber in 2 minutes.

GROUP II 17

Furfurol reaction. Allen gives the following particu-
lars of this test: " If some cane sugar be dissolved in the
not too dilute solution of a proteid and the liquid be then
cautiously poured upon some strong sulphuric acid so as
to avoid admixture of the two liquids, a fine violet colora-
tion will be observed at the junction of the two strata."

Chromic acid. A saturated aqueous solution of chromic
acid is diluted with an equal volume of water for use.
Cultivated silk dipped in this solution and boiled for one
minute dissolves completely, while the wild silk does not
dissolve in three minutes (Hoehnel).

Nitrous acid. The fiber absorbs this acid from cold
solutions and shows various colors on developing with
different phenols (" diazo " reaction).

Soap. A boiling 10% solution of neutral olive oil soap
removes the silk gum from raw silk completely. After
being thus " boiled off " the fiber presents its characteris-
tic lustrous appearance and loses about 25% of its weight
by this "boiling-off" operation.

Loewe's reagent readily dissolves cultivated silks to a
thick solution. (Distinction from wool, cotton, and lustre-
cellulose.)

Richardson's reagent dissolves silk, while wool and cotton
are unaffected.

Eisner's reagent dissolves silk in one minute.

Cultivated Silk {from Bombyx mori).

Raw silk is rather dull in appearance, due to the cover-
ing of sericin 1 which is always to be found surrounding
the fiber. It might be added that this encrusting matter in-
creases the strength of the fiber considerably. Most of the

1 Sericin, silk glue and silk gum are synonymous terms.

1 8 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

silk obtained from Japan, China, Italy, and France is of a
silvery white appearance, but there is also a large amount
of the " yellow " silk produced in Italy and China. The
golden yellow coloring matter is contained in the gum and
may be removed by "boiling off." Under the microscope
the silk fiber appears white, or yellowish white and lus-
trous. The thread is seen to consist of two distinct fibrils,
between which is the sericin. The average diameter is
0.018 mm.

Wild Silk.

The raw silk varies in color from light buff to dark
brown. This coloring matter is distributed through
the fiber, while in the case of cultivated silk the color
is contained in the gum and may therefore be removed
by boiling off. In the case of tussah silk the fiber
must be thoroughly boiled off and then bleached with
sodium peroxide. Owing to its large diameter(o.o5o mm.)
wild silk is much stronger than the cultivated variety.
Under the microscope the fiber is seen to be very broad,
while the cross-section appears wedge shaped. (Distinc-
tion from cultivated silk.) Longitudinal striations running
obliquely across the fiber are plainly visible. Irregularly
occurring coarser striations due to bundles of circular
threads may also be noticed. The sericin cannot readily
be distinguished from the fibroin. 1 The narrow side of
the fiber appears dark gray with pink or light green spots,
while the broad side is irregular in thickness, the thinner
parts appearing bluish white or light brown.

The most important varieties of wild silk are:

1 The actual fiber-substance.

GROUP III

Tussah: — Obtained in India from Antherea mylitta
(light brown in color) .

Eria: — Obtained in India from Attacus ricini (white).

Yamamai: — Obtained in Japan from Antherea yamamai
(pale green).

Fagara: — Obtained in China from Attacus Atlas.

Muga: — Obtained in Japan from Antherea assama.

False tussah: — Obtained in northern China from An-
therea pernyi (dark brown).

Group III.
Of the fibers which respond to the "lignin test" (i.e.,
contain ligno-cellulose) jute and hemp are the most im-
portant representatives. They are both bast fibers, but
jute gives much more intense color reactions than does
hemp. The following reactions are used to identify the
fibers of this group:

Reagent.

Jute.

Hemp.

Anilin sulphate.
Iodine-sulphuric acid (Hoeh-

nel).
Zinc-chloride-iodide sol.
Phloroglucol + HCl.
Hydrochloric acid.
Basic dyestuffs.

Golden yellow.

Dark yellow.
Yellow.

Intense crimson.
Yellow.
Strong affinity.

Pale yellow.

Yellow to green.
Yellow.
Pale brown.
Yellow.
Little affinity.

Jute (Corchorus capsularis).

Chromic acid followed by sulphuric acid : blue colora-
tion.

Hydrazin sulphate: pale yellow. Concentrated hy-
drochloric acid changes this color to orange.

Phenylhydrazin hydrochloride: pale yellow coloration
which changes to green after about one hour.

20 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Microscope : The cells possess a peculiar appearance
due to irregular thickening of the cell walls. The interior
(lumen) appears at some places quite large and at others
not wider than a single line. Not all commercial samples
show this variation, however. The cell wall appears
sharply defined by the lumen, the latter at times exceeding
the cell wall in width. The varying thickness of the walls
is probably the main reason for the small tensile strength
of the fiber.

Length: maximum = 3.5 meters.

Diameter: 0.010 to 0.030 mm.

Color: pale yellow to brown.

Lustre: silky.

Hemp {Cannabis saliva).

Schweitzer 's reagent swells the fiber irregularly and
finally dissolves it, leaving only the parenchymous
tissue.

Microscope: The forked ends of this fiber serve to dis-
tinguish it from flax. The cells are irregular in shape, at
times flat, and then again cylindrical. The inner canal
is generally broad, diminishing in width toward the
end of the fiber. The cell walls are much less regular
than in the case of flax. The forked ends of the fiber ter-
minate abruptly {dist. from flax) , the walls are thick and
no nodes are visible. The cross-sections have round
edges which are colored yellow by iodine and sulphuric
acid; they are devoid of contents.

Length: 15 to 25 mm.

Diameter: 0.016 to 0.025 mm.

Color: light buff.

Lustre: not pronounced.

GROUP IV

The less important fibers of group III are:

Common Name.

Source.

Botanical Name.

Bromelia.

South America.

Bromelia karatas.

Bowstring.

Africa.

Sanseviera guineensis.
Cocus nuciiera.

Coir.

Tropics.
Spain.

Esparto.

Stipa —

Gambo.

East Indies.

Hibiscus cannabinus.

Kapok.

East Indies.

Bombax pentandrum.

Manila.

Philippines.

Musa textilis.

Mauritius

Tropics.

Mauritia flexuosa.

New Zealand.

California and New
Zealand.

Phormium tenax.

Pita.

United States.

Agave americana.

Pineapple.

Philippines.

Ananas sativa.

Raphia.

Africa.

Raphia taetigera.

Sisal.

Mexico and Central
America.

Agave rigida.

Sunn.

British India.

Crotolaria juncea.

Vegetable silk.

United States.

Asclepias cornutii.

Vegetable down.

Tropics.

Bombax ceiba.

Note. — The terms New Zealand flax, New Zealand hemp, Sunn
hemp, Manila hemp, etc., often lead to confusion. These materials are
therefore preferably designated as : New Zealand fiber, Sunn fiber,
Manila fiber, etc., reserving the term hemp for the fiber obtained from
cannabis sativa.

Group IV.

The chief members of this group are cotton, flax, and
ramie. The best method for distinguishing between
these fibers is by the use of the microscope. They are
composed of nearly pure cellulose and therefore do not
respond to the "lignin" reaction; on the other hand they
give a pure blue color when subjected to HoehnePs
" iodine-sulphuric acid" test. Other reactions character-
istic of cellulose are given below:

i. Sodium hydroxide in concentrated aqueous solution
causes hydrolysis and consequent weakening of the fiber

22 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

if applied in the presence of air (see mercerized cotton).
A boiling solution of \% concentration suffices for the
removal of the waxy matter which encrusts the cotton fiber.
In concentrations of 12% under 10 atmospheres pressure
caustic soda dissolves about 50% of cotton.

2. Sulphuric acid. Cellulose (e.g. filter paper) dipped
in concentrated sulphuric acid for a moment, then thor-
oughly washed and dried, is converted into amyloid. This
product is waterproof and much stronger than the original
paper. Amyloid gives a blue color when moistened with
iodine solution. Dilute sulphuric acid, if allowed to dry
on the fiber, causes disintegration and the formation of
hydrated cellulose. (Application in carbonization.)

3. Hydrochloric acid. Dilute solutions if allowed to
dry on the fiber will weaken it considerably, while con-
centrated solutions effect immediate decomposition.

4. Nitric acid (sp. gr. = 1.4). Bleached cotton steeped
for 15 minutes in this reagent, then washed and dried,
shows a contraction of 24% and an increase in tensile
strength of 78% (Knecht). Acid of sp. gr. = 1.5 oxi-
dizes cellulose to oxalic acid, while the less concentrated
acid converts it into oxy-cellulose. This latter substance
may be recognized by its great affinity for the basic dye-
stuffs (e.g. methylene blue).

5. Nitric acid and sulphuric acid. On treating cellu-
lose with a mixture of these acids various nitrated com-
pounds are obtained (collodion, pyroxylin). The nature
of the product depends on the proportion of the two acids
used, the temperature and the duration of the reaction.

6. Hydrofluoric acid. This reagent converts cotton
and flax as well as ramie into a transparent, tough, flexible,
and waterproof substance.

GROUP IV 23

7. Non-volatile organic acids (oxalic, tartaric, citric).
If the fiber be dipped into the molten acid and then
removed, the crystallization of the acid causes rupture
of the cell walls, which manifests itself by the brittleness
of the fiber.

8. Zinc chloride. In concentrated solutions this reagent
readily dissolves cellulose. Cotton must be previously
"boiled off " with caustic soda.

9. Thymol reaction. Cellulose treated with sulphuric
acid to which a small crystal of thymol has been added,
assumes a violet coloration.

10. Furfurol reaction. This is a general reaction for
the pentoses and is therefore obtained with all fibers con-
taining cellulose. The fiber is boiled with dilute sulphuric
acid in a distilling flask and the whole is finally distilled
over. On adding aniline and hydrochloric acid to the
distillate an intense red coloration due to the presence
of furfurol is observed.

11. Calcium hypochlorite, or "bleaching powder" in
aqueous solution. If cellulose be immersed in a solution
of this compound (of about 2 to 3 Tw.) and be then
hung in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, the liberated
hypochlorous acid will convert the cellulose into oxy-
cellulose (see No. 4).

12. Schweitzer* s solution. This reagent if properly
prepared will dissolve cellulose readily. Raw cotton
must be previously "boiled off" with caustic soda in order
to remove the waxy and pectic matters which surround
the fibers.

13. Coloring matters. None of the fibers of this group
possess great affinity for aqueous solutions of dyestuffs,
the only exception to this being the substantive colors

24 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

(benzidines and diamines). These "salt colors," or " direct
colors " as they are sometimes called, produce moderately
fast shades on the vegetable fibers.

14. Dry reactions. If the fibers be heated to 150 C.
decomposition takes place. When burnt in the Bun-
sen flame a sweet odor is given off and a very small
amount of ash remains. Cellulose is a carbohydrate
consisting of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

Cotton (Gossypiurn) .

The physical properties upon which depend the valua-.
tion of cotton are:

Length of staple; uniformity in length of staple; ten-
sile strength; color; diameter of the fiber.

The characteristic varieties of cotton are:

1. G. barbadense. Including American Sea Islands
cotton, which is strong, lustrous, fine, of uniform diameter
and white in color; Egyptian (white in color); Peruvian
(white in color).

2. G. herbaceum. Including India cotton (surat), which
is white, and of uneven diameter; Egyptian (makko),
strong, long, and buff colored.

3. G. hirsutum. Including American Uplands cotton
(peeler) which is classed into short staple and long staple.

4. G. arboreum or religiosum. Including Chinese (nan-
kin) which is short, harsh, and buff colored.

5. G. peruvianum. Including Peruvian (red), and
Brazilian (white). These cottons are strong, wiry, and
harsh.

The tables on the following page show the relative
values for diameter, length, etc., of the several varieties.

GROUP IV

Egyptian •
Peruvian .
Indian
Sea Island
Chinese . .
Brazilian ,
Upland

Diameter in
mm.

0.017
0.021
0.025
0.009
0.025
0.018
0.019

Relative
Breaking
Strength.

7-5
5
10
8

Length in
cm.

2.8

4
2

3-5

2-5

Color.

White.

Light brown.

White.

Microscope: Under the microscope, cotton as a seed
hair appears as a single long cell, covered with a thin
membrane — the cuticle, which is not altered by concen-
trated sulphuric acid. The lumen or inner canal contains
air, or as is sometimes the case the fiber appears as a band
pressed firmly together, so that the lumen disappears
from view. The fiber in all cases appears as a broad band
which has been twisted around its axis many times.

Flax (Linum usitaiissimum)}

Of the numerous tests which have been repeatedly
recommended for distinguishing between flax and cotton
only a few are worthy of mention.

Frankenheim > s test (applicable only to bleached fibers
containing no sizing). If the dry fibers be immersed in
olive oil and then pressed between blotting paper, cotton
remains opaque while linen becomes transparent.

Kindt's test. First remove the size from the sample
by boiling and rubbing in distilled waten Then dry and
place for about one-half minute in concentrated sulphuric
acid.

1 The term linen should be limited to the yarns and fabrics made
totally of the flax fiber.

26 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Wash well, place in dilute ammonia water and then dry.
By this treatment the cotton is turned into a gelatinous
mass and may be removed by washing and rubbing. The
success of this test is dependent on the complete removal
of the size and upon the time of immersion in the acid.

Schweitzer } s solution causes flax to swell up strongly;
the fiber does not, however, dissolve completely.

Microscope: Under the microscope the fiber appears
regular with a lumen which is in some cases not wider
than a •line. The end is pointed. The characteristics
of the fiber are the dislocations or nodes which occur at
rather regular intervals. These sometimes take the form
of pronounced lines extending across the fiber at an angle
of from 60 to 90 degrees. There is no cuticle.

Diameter: 0.05 mm. to 0.20. mm.

Length: 20 to 100 cm. This of itself often serves to
distinguish the fiber from cotton, the maximum length of
which is s cm.

Color: yellowish white to gray, but it may be bleached
a pure white with potassium permanganate, chloride of
lime, or by the "grass bleach." The bleached fiber is
lustrous and can often be mistaken for silk at a rough
glance.

Ramie (boehtneria tenacissima).

Microscope: The interior canal occupies about two-
thirds of the whole diameter. Very often lines may be
noticed extending through the individual cells and a gran-
ular protoplasm is seen. The cell walls are regularly
thickened so that the lumen is usually uniform. The
extremes have thick-walled, round ends and striated lumen.
Length: 5 to 100 cm. Diameter: 0.25 to 0.110 mm.
(characteristic) . The purified fiber is quite white, lustrous,

GROUP V

generally tubular in form, with bast cells about 8 centi-
meters in length. The fiber is less elastic than wool, less
flexible than cotton, and more lustrous than flax.

The chemical reactions are those of pure cellulose, Lig-
nin seems to be entirely absent in the ramie fiber.

Group V.

At this time there are as many as five varieties of imita-
tion or " pseudo-silks" manufactured on a commercial
scale. Those of Chardonnet, Lehner and du Vivier are
made from nitrates of cellulose; Pauly silk is made from
Schweitzer's solution of cellulose, and Stearns silk (Vis-
cose) is made from cellulose thiocarbonate. All these
products possess a distinctly metallic lustre and the prop-
erty of being affected by water. On moistening these
fibers a gain in elasticity and a loss in tensile strength is
noticeable.

The diameter varies according to Massot from 0.028
mm. to 0.035 mm., the coarser numbers being sold as
"artificial horsehair."

The specific gravity varies from 1.50 to 1.53, but in no
case falls as low as that of natural silk (1.30 to 1.40).

The relative tensile strength of several varieties is given
below:

Name.

Tensile Strength.

Relative strength
(Silbermann).

Wet.

Dry.

Chardonnet

Lehner ,

du Vivier

2.2

1-5
2.0

3- 2

3-5

17
IS
19

50
68
24

Pauly (Glanzstoff)

Stearns (Viscose)

Mulberry silk

Tussah silk

100
126

28 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

In the valuation of lustre-cellulose the following points
should be considered: Tensile strength of the dry yarn;
tensile strength of the moist yarn; diameter; uniformity in
diameter; brilliancy; softness; elasticity.

Diphenylamin reaction: a few crystals of diphenylamin
are dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid. If pyroxy-
lin silks are immersed in this reagent, they assume an
intense blue color due to the presence of nitro groups.
Stearns silk and Pauly silk are not made from nitrated
cellulose and therefore do not give this reaction.

Potassium hydroxide imparts a yellow color to lustre-
cellulose but does not dissolve it even on boiling. (Dis-
tinction from natural silk.)

Loewe's reagent does not dissolve lustre-cellulose even
on heating. (Distinction from natural silk, quantitative
separation.)

Iodine-sulphuric acid colors lustre-cellulose a blue.
(Natural silk is colored yellow.)

Coloring matters, even the basic dyestuffs, are readily
removed from their aqueous solutions by means of
lustre-cellulose, particularly Chardonnet silk. This great
affinity of lustre-cellulose for the dyestuff makes it neces-
sary to observe great care when dyeing this material.

Dry test. Lustre-celluloses when held in the Bunsen
flame ignite with a flash like that observed in the case of
gun-cotton. No empyreumatic odor is noticeable.

Microscope. When examined under the microscope
these fibers appear with deep longitudinal striations and
distinct air bubbles. Examined in a ray of polarized
light, they show double refraction.

Schwalbefs test. If Chardonnet, Pauly, and Viscose
silk be treated in separate beakers with Fehling's solu-

DETECTION OF OILS IN TEXTILES 29

tion, Chaxdonnet silk, owing to its reducing action, will
impart a green color to the liquid. In the case of
Pauly and Viscose silk the liquid will remain blue. Now
prepare a reagent consisting of 20 g. zinc chloride, 2 g.
potassium iodide, 0.1 g. iodine and 15 c.c. water. If Pauly
and Viscose silk be then treated with this reagent, and
well washed, it will be observed that Viscose silk retains
its blue-green color while the Pauly silk quickly loses its
color on washing.

Substances Found in Textile Yarns and Fabrics.
Detection of Oils in Textiles.

1. Rosin oil. This oil obtained by the distillation of
colophony is sometimes found on waterproof fabrics or as
a stiffening in lining fabrics. For these purposes the oil is
diluted with some easily volatile solvent so that it may be
applied to the fabric in a thin layer.

For its detection and estimation, a 5 gram sample of
the fabric is extracted with petroleum benzin or coal-
tar benzene in a Soxhlet apparatus for about 30 minutes.
The extraction flask is finally disconnected and placed
on a water-bath to drive off the solvent. The residue is
placed in a test-tube with 1 c.c. of acetic anhydride and
0.5 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid., when a violet
coloration will be observed if rosin is present (Storch-
Morowski test).

2. Mineral oils. These oils are at times found on
woolen yarns and fabrics, having been used as a lubricant
for the yarns in the spinning process. They will seldom
be encountered alone, some vegetable oil being generally
admixed. In all cases their presence should be the cause

30 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

for complaint, for it is extremely difficult to remove them
from the goods by the ordinary scouring methods. For
their detection the sample is extracted with low-boiling
ligroin (previously redistilled to remove tarry matter).
The residue left in the flask after evaporating the solvent
is boiled with a solution of alcoholic caustic potash. It is
necessary to use alcoholic potash solution, as an aqueous
solution readily emulsifies mineral oil. If mineral oils are
present in the fabric they will be seen as small globules
on the surface of the potash solution, for, being hydro-
carbons, they are "unsaponifiable."

3. Vegetable oils. " Non-drying oils" or fats are found
in all woolen fabrics to a greater or less extent, having
been used for spinning the yarns. 1 To prove that the oil
contained in a particular sample of goods is purely of
vegetable origin it should be extracted and saponified
with alcoholic potash solution. The result of this treat-
ment should be a soap completely soluble in distilled
water.

Detection of Mordants on the Fiber.

Every finished article may contain dyes, mordants,
sizes, and finishing materials in addition to the fiber of
which it is constructed. The assistants used in the
dyebath, such as tartar or glauber salt, do not come into
consideration at all; " turkey reds," however, will be found
to contain both the oil and the mordant (alumina). Fin-
ishing materials may as a rule be removed from the fiber
by simple boiling with water; while the mordants, being
more firmly fixed, are obtained after ignition of the fiber
or on extraction of the fiber with various solvents.

1 In the spinning of worsted yarns on the " French System," no wool
oil is used.

DETECTION OF MORDANTS ON THE FIBER 3 1

The ignition method is often found to be preferable
as the dyestuffs are thereby destroyed. All the non-
volatile inorganic constituents are found in the ash, and
may be quantitatively determined by weighing the cruci-
ble before and after ignition.

The ash may contain aluminium, chromium, iron,
manganese, lead, copper, antimony, tin, silicates, and
phosphates. The color of the ash as well as its solubility
in concentrated acids should be noted. Silica and stannic
oxide are insoluble, and if present the ash must be fused
in a silver crucible with potassium hydroxide. This is
then added to the acid solution of the ash, and hydrogen
sulphide passed through the mixture. Pb,Cu,Sb,Sn are
precipitated and are separated in the usual manner.

Phosphates are detected by means of the ammonium
molybdate reaction. Tannic acid and oleic acid will not
be detected by the ignition method and must therefore
be tested for separately.

Tannic acid (generally combined with antimony, tin,
or iron) is removed from the fabric by (i) boiling with
water; (2) treating with 2% sodium carbonate solution;
(3) treating with 5% acetic acid solution. The three
extracts are united, acidified and tested with ferric chloride,
which gives the black " ink " reaction.

Oleic acid compounds (of alumina or some similar
metal) are decomposed with boiling dilute hydrochloric
acid, after which the separated fatty acid is filtered off
and examined. A detailed examination is only of im-
portance in the case of turkey reds in determining
whether olive oil or turkey red oil has been used.

Iron compounds will be found in fabrics dyed black
with logwood. In this case the dyestuff interferes with

32 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

any color reactions so that the iron must be removed by
treatment with 5% hydrochloric acid, after which the test
with potassium ferricyanide may be applied.

Tin compounds are looked for in the ash as given
above.

Another method for examining dark colored fabrics con-
sists in immersing the sample in a solution of bleaching
powder of i° Be, whereby the dyestuffs are destroyed. If
necessary the solution may be made of 2 Be, or it may be
heated slightly, or it may be acidified with acetic acid.
The appearance of the bleached fiber thus obtained will
art times suggest the presence of chromium and iron. If
it be white, aluminium or tin may be present. Confirm
aluminium by dyeing in an alizarin bath.

Detection of Weighting on Silks.

The weighting materials used for silk are either volatile
(that is, organic) or non-volatile (inorganic), so that the
determinations must be made accordingly. The volatile
matter is removed from the fiber by means of various
solvents, while the mineral matter is looked for in the
ash.

Colored silks may contain antimony, zinc, aluminium,
tin, phosphoric, silicic, or tannic acid; glue, oil, glucose,
cane sugar, starch, dextrin, glycerol, or gum arabic.

Black silks may contain chromium, zinc, aluminium,
tin, iron, lead, phosphoric or silicic acids, prussian blue,
and organic matters.

1. Glue and tannic acids (if not combined with iron
or tin) are soluble in water at 6o° C. Both may be present.
Tannin in aqueous solution gives a dark coloration or

DETECTION OF WEIGHTING ON SILKS 33

precipitate with ferric chloride. Glue, if in solution alone,
is precipitated by dilute solutions of tannic acid. If basic
dyestuffs are present they must be removed before testing
for glue. Tannin and glue are completely removed with
2% soda solution at 40 C.

2. Oils and fatty acids are extracted from the fabric
with sulphuric ether or petroleum ether. By weighing
the residue after evaporation of the solvent the quantity
extracted may be determined. Fatty acids are due to
decomposed soap and oils used in the brightening operation.

3. Sugar, dextrin, glycerol, and gum are removed by
cold water.

Cane sugar is recognized (after inversion with dilute
hydrochloric acid) by the reduction of Fehling's solution.

Starch is confirmed with iodine solution.

Glycerol is confirmed with the acrolein test (cone,
sulphuric acid and heat).

4. Prussian blue is decomposed with 2% soda solution.
Acidify with hydrochloric acid and add ferric-chloride.
Prussian blue will be re-precipitated.

5. Tin, aluminium, iron (not present as prussian blue)
tannic acid, and phosphoric acid are partly soluble in
warm 5% hydrochloric acid.

6. The ash may contain silica, tin, aluminium, and
phosphoric acid.

Mix the powdered ash with fluorspar and cone, sul-
phuric acid. Warm gently and detect the escaping silicon
fluoride by means of a drop of water held in platinum
loop. Now treat the ash several times with hot cone,
hydrochloric acid and dilute the whole with water
and pass hydrogen sulphide through a portion of it.
Tin is thrown down as yellow stannic sulphide.

34 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Add ammonium molybdate to a portion. A yellow
precipitate indicates phosphoric acid. 1

Add ammonium hydrate to a portion. A white gelat-
inous precipitate indicates aluminium.

Detection of Sizing on a Fabric.

The sample is boiled with water for about two hours
in order to remove stiffening materials, soluble salts, and
earthy matter. Filter the extract.

I. The filtrate should be evaporated on the water
bath in order to obtain a fairly concentrated solution for
the following tests:

Chlorides. A small portion of the solution is acidi-
fied with nitric acid. If silver nitrate be added to this a
white precipitate of silver chloride will be obtained. The
chlorides usually present are those of zinc and magnesium.

Sulphates. To a small portion of the solution add
hydrochloric acid and barium chloride. A white precipi-
tate indicates a sulphate. The sulphates usually present
are those of magnesium (Epsom salt) and sodium
(Glauber salt).

Metals which may be present are magnesium, calcium,
and zinc.

Glue, gelatin, dextrin, and gum are precipitated from
the concentrated filtrate on the addition of alcohol.
Glue if present will give a precipitate with tannic acid.
Dextrine is detected when the filtrate is examined in
the polariscope; it is dextro-rotary. Gums are precipi-
tated by lead acetate in the cold.

1 The " molybdate " reaction is more delicate if ammonium nitrate is
added to the almost neutral solution. A small quantity of hydrochloric
acid is then added before testing with ammonium molybdate.

DETECTION OF SIZING ON A FABRIC 35

Irish moss gives no precipitate with the usual reagents.

Cane sugar is detected by heating the concentrated
filtrate with hydrochloric acid, and after this inversion,
testing with Fehling's solution.

Glycerol. — If the concentrated filtrate be heated with
potassium bisulphate, irritating vapors of acrolein will be
noticed.

II. The residue may contain starch, mineral matter
or fats, etc.

Starch may be readily detected by the blue color which
it gives with dilute solutions of iodine.

Mineral matter. Gypsum (calcium sulphate), Blanc
fixe (barium sulphate) and China clay (aluminium sili-
cate) are tested for by the usual methods of inorganic
analysis.

Fats and Colophony. — An original sample of the fabric
is boiled with a 10% solution of soda for 15 to 30 minutes.
Filter the liquid and acidify the filtrate with hydrochloric
acid. By this treatment the fatty acids will rise to the top
while the sylvic acid (colophony) will appear as a pre-
cipitate.

The starchy matter in a fabric may be removed by the
malting operation. For this purpose an infusion of malt
is prepared by steeping 10 grams of ground malt in 1000
c.c. of water at 60 to 65° C. The fabric is immersed in
this infusion for two or three hours, after which it is
thoroughly washed in order to free it from the dissolved
starch. Within the last two years a special preparation
of malt has appeared in commerce under the name of
"diastafor." This can be used in a concentration of one
gram per hundred cubic centimeters of water.

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40 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Survey of Finishing Materials used for Textiles.

i. For Stiffening. — The starch of wheat, potato,
rice, corn, and sago; flour, dextrin, glue, gelatin, glucose,
gum arabic, gum tragacanth, gum tragasol, Iceland moss,
Irish moss.

2. For Softening. — Turkey red oil, soaps, tallow,
stearin, paraffin, olive oil, Japan wax, spermaceti.

3. Hygroscopic Agents. — Ammonium chloride, mag-
nesium chloride, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, glycerol,
glucose, cane sugar.

4. For Filling. — Kaolin (or China clay, an hydrated
silicate of alumina), gypsum (calcium sulphate), talc
(magnesium silicate), whiting (calcium carbonate), blanc
fixe (barium sulphate).

5. Colored Weighting Agents. — Ultramarine (a
mixture of sodium-aluminium silicate with polysulphides
of soda), prussian blue Fe 4 (FeC^N^, smalt (finely
powdered cobalt silicate), ochre (a mixture of silica, clay,
and hydrated oxide of iron), indigo carmin (soluble sul-
phate of indigo).

6. Illuminating Agents. — Copper, brass, silver and
aluminium in a finely powdered condition; powdered
metallic sulphides.

7. For Waterproofing. — Aluminium, magnesium and
lead soaps, gelatin, tannin, paraffin, caoutchouc, ceresin
(purified ozokerite), waxes and oils, beeswax.

8. For Fireproofing. — Sodium tungstate, sodium
biborate, sodium silicate, ammonium phosphate.

9. Antiseptic Agents. — Salicylic acid, carbolic acid,
formic acid, boric acid, borax, camphor.

■■■' ,;; v~\

O- THE

A'EP.IITY

/.i.t;>:». r y

PART II

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

PART II .

Mixed Fabrics in General.

Fabrics are made in a variety of grades or qualities in
order to meet the varying demands of the consumer. It
is a very common thing in textile manufacturing to vary
the grade of a fabric for this reason only. This is par-
ticularly true in America, where the fabrics must at the
same time be cheap and pretty. As a result the manu-
facturer is compelled to bend the quality to the price
instead of being able to command a fair price for a higher
grade article. The price is met by making the goods
lighter in weight, using poorer yarns, making the cloth
narrower, or finally by supplying a deficiency in weight
by chemicals called filling materials. A person who
thinks he is buying the same fabric for 12^ cents as for
1 5 cents is as a rule badly mistaken. ' 'All wool " fabrics, in
which the warp lies on the face, are frequently found to con-
tain a fine worsted fiber in the warp and a much cheaper
wool or shoddy yarn for filling.* " India linon" contains
no flax at all; it is made of combed cotton yarns. "Linen
mesh" underwear has been produced solely from cotton
yarns, and " cotton-worsteds' ' contain no trace of wool.
Goods made of linen and cotton can be finished with a
beetle and so made to look like "all linen." Then again
two mohair fabrics which at a rough glance appeared

* See Note, page 15.
43

44 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

to be identical were offered at 50 cents and $1.25 per
yard. The analysis showed that the first contained 50%
cotton, while the second contained 25% of the vegetable
fiber. These are but a few of the many examples of
falsification, or rather substitution, which serve as illus-
trations at this point. One flagrant abuse of a term has
been observed in recent years in the case of "merino."
This name was originally applied only to the wool obtained
from sheep bearing the same name. It is one of the finest
wools at the disposal of the textile industry. After a while
the term merino was applied to mixtures of wool and
cotton containing from 5 to 50% cotton, and now to avoid
the disputes which arose from this second usage we may
buy in our drygoods stores "pure merino underwear"
which contains cotton only. The "wooly" effect is ob-
tained by napping or "raising" the fabric. There are
three different ways in which fibers may be mixed in a
fabric so that by the use of one or more of these, various
effects may be obtained.

1. The raw fibers are mixed before spinning. Under-
wear fabrics made of "merino yarns," and certain
umbrella cloths containing silk and cotton, will serve to
illustrate this method.

2. Two " single " yarns are twisted together. This may
often be noticed in cheap suitings, where a black shoddy
yarn is twisted with a fine white cotton yarn, producing
what is known as a "pepper and salt" effect. In better-
class goods this same effect is obtained with silk and
worsted yarns.

3. Two different fibers are used in warp and filling.
Cotton or linen being stronger is generally chosen for the
warp, while wool, worsted, or silk is used for the filling.

ANALYSIS OF A WOOL-COTTON FABRIC 45

As examples of this manner of mixing we have umbrella
cloths, farmers' satin, and lansdowne.

In the analysis of weighted fabrics the sizing and fin-
ishing materials should in all cases be previously removed
by boiling with hydrochloric acid (2 or 3%) for 10 minutes.
The iron weighting on silks can thus be totally removed
provided it does not form more than 25% of the sample.

Analysis of a Wool-cotton Fabric.

The analysis of this class of fabrics may be made
according to a variety of methods depending on, — (1) the
solubility of wool in caustic alkalis; (2) the destruction
of the cotton by mineral acids; (3) the solubility of
cotton in Schweitzer's solution; (4) the mechanical sep-
aration of the warp and filling threads.

Method I. The fabric is boiled for about 15 minutes
in a 5% solution of caustic potash. The residue, which
is cotton, is washed well to remove the alkali, then dried
and weighed. In ordinary analysis the results obtained
with air-dry material will be close enough. If, however,
the moisture in the sample is determined, it must be
remembered that the average amount for cotton is 8%,
and for wool 15%.

Example:

Weight of the sample (air-dry) 5.32 grams

Weight of the sample (after treating) 2 .27

Loss (-wool) 3 . 05

Percentage of wool 57 .3

Percentage of cotton 42 . 7

Note, — Owing to the fact that cotton is slightly attacked by this
treatment, an amount equal to 5% of the weight of the cotton found
is added and a corresponding amount subtracted from the wool figure;
for example:

5% of 42.7 = 2.13 and 42.7 + 2.13 = 44-83% cotton

and 55.17% wool

46 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Method II. Finishing materials are first removed from
the sample by boiling in i% solution of hydrochloric
acid followed by rinsing in a solution of sodium carbonate
(0.5 g. per liter). The sample is now immersed in 80%
sulphuric acid for 12 hours. It is finally washed well
m 50% alcohol and filtered off, using alcohol for wash-
ing the residue. The weight after drying in the air
represents wool.

Method III. This method finds very limited applica-
tion because of the difficulty with which ordinary cotton
dissolves in the ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide.
The insoluble residue left after treatment represents wool.

Method IV. The mechanical analysis of fabrics is
in many cases quite as satisfactory as the separation of
the fibers by chemical means. For this method it is
however essential that the yarns be made wholly of one
fiber: the warp may for instance be of cotton and the filling
totally of wool. The sample is cut exactly parallel to
the warp and filling, weighed, picked apart, and the warp
and the filling threads weighed separately.

Method V. Pinagel has devised the following modi-
fication of the caustic soda method. The analysis
requires about 5 hours: (1) remove all grease by ex-
traction with a volatile solvent; (2) remove finishing
materials by treatment with hot 2% hydrochloric acid for
15 minutes. Wash thoroughly with distilled water, dry
in a weighing bottle at no°C. and weigh; (3) remove
the wool by boiling in a 2% caustic soda solution for 15
minutes, occasionally adding water to replace the loss by
evaporation. Rinse the remaining cotton in water, hydro-
chloric acid and distilled water. Dry and weigh. The
following constants are used for the calculations.

ANALYSIS OF A SILK-WOOL FABRIC 47

Per cent
Cotton loses on boiling with caustic soda ... 3.5
Scoured wool loses on boiling with water. . . 1.0

Average moisture in wool 17.0

Average moisture in cotton 8.5

Example:

Weight of dry sample after degreasing 9. 5590 g-

Weight of sample after NaOH boil 5-2437 g-

Add 3.5% 0.1835

Dry cotton 5.4272 5.4272

Add 8.5% 0.4613

Normal cotton 5.8885

Wool removed by NaOH 4. 1318 4. 1318

Add 1% 0.0413

Dry wool 4-1731

Add 17% 0-7094

Normal wool 4.8825

The weight of the fabric with the normal amount of
moisture is then equal to 4.8825 + 5.8885, or 10.7710
grams, and from this we calculate. •

Per cent

Cotton 54. 7

Wool 45.3

100.0

Note. — In the United States the amount of moisture in " normal "
wool is usually taken as 15% instead of 17%. (Compare page 68.)

Analysis of a Silk-wool Fabric.

Method I. Treat the sample with dilute hydrochloric
acid and then with sodium carbonate, in order to remove
finishing materials, etc. Dry and weigh. A concen-
trated solution of hydrochloric acid (40%) is now heated
to 5o°C. and into this the sample is dipped for 2 or 3
minutes. By this treatment the wool is hardly affected,
while the silk is dissolved. Dilute with water, and filter.
The weight of the dried residue represents the amount
of wool present.

48 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Method II. The silk is dissolved by immersion in an
ammoniacal nickel hydroxide solution for 5 minutes at
20°C. (Richardson). It will usually be found that the
nickel hydroxide cannot be completely dissolved by the
proportion of ammonia stated in the list of reagents. If
this is the case the mixture of hydroxide and ammonia
should be thoroughly shaken before using. After boiling
the sample in this turbid liquid for 5 minutes it is re-
moved, rinsed and then thoroughly washed with 1%
hydrochloric acid in order to remove the adhering
hydroxide. The residue of wool is then rinsed again,
dried, and weighed.

Method III. The silk is dissolved in a boiling solu-
tion of basic zinc chloride. If dipped in this solution for
not longer than one minute, the wool will remain unaf-
fected. The residue (wool) is finally well washed with
1% hydrochloric acid, washed with water, dried and
weighed.

Analysis of a Silk-cotton Fabric.

Method I. The previously weighed sample is immersed
in Loewe's alkaline-copper-glycerol solution at a tem-
perature of 50 C. for 15 minutes. The residue of cotton
is then rinsed, dried and weighed.

Methods II and III. — See analysis of silk-wool fabric.

Analysis of a Wool-silk-cotton Fabric.

Method I. a. Remove moisture by heating in the oven
to 105 C. to constant weight.

b. Remove finishing materials and dyestuffs by boiling
in 3% hydrochloric acid for ten minutes.

ANALYSIS OF A WOOL-SILK-COTTON FABRIC 49

c. Remove the silk with ammoniacal nickel hydroxide
solution, or remove the silk by dipping in a boiling solution
of basic zinc chloride for one minute. Wash well with
acidulated water.

d. Remove the wool by boiling in 5% caustic soda.

If the sample be weighed before and after each operation
the amount of each constituent may be determined. The
final residue of cotton will in both cases be found to be
somewhat below the actual percentage present, so that 4%
should be added to the weight of the residue and sub-
tracted from the weight of the wool.

Method II {von Remont). a. Weigh out 4 samples of
the air-dry fabric of 2 grams each (weight a).

b. Boil 3 of the samples in a 3% solution of hydrochloric
acid, decant and repeat with a fresh solution of hydro-
chloric acid. Size and coloring matter are hereby
removed.

c. Rinse well in order to remove all the acid (residue b).

d. Two of the samples obtained by the above opera-
tion are placed for two minutes in a boiling solution of
basic zinc chloride in order to dissolve silk.

e. Wash well with 1% hydrochloric acid and distilled
water (residue d).

/. One of the two samples left after the above opera-
tion is boiled for 15 minutes with 5% caustic soda in order
to remove any wool. Wash well with water, (residue/).

We will now have one residue from b, one from d and
one from /. These are dried in the air for 10 hours and
then weighed.

The first loss represents finishing material; the second
loss, silk; the third, wool, and the residue is the
cotton.

50 methods of textile chemistry

Analysis of a Silk Imitation-silk Fabric.

Fabrics containing both genuine silk and lustre -cellu-
lose (imitation-silk) may be analyzed by treatment with
Loewe's reagent. Genuine or mulberry silk dissolves in this
solution at room temperature in 30 minutes, while lustre-
cellulose is not affected. The residue left after treating a
weighed sample will therefore represent lustre-cellulose.

Examination of Waterproof Cloths.

The increasing number of so-called "raincloths," for
which the claim is made that they resist the penetration
of water, brings with it the necessity for accurate methods
for comparing the value of such fabrics. The two chief
articles for which waterproof fabrics are demanded are
raincoats and umbrella covers. Three other articles
which may be considered here are sailcloths, bookbinder
cloth, and rubber-coated cloths. The methods of pre-
paring fabrics in order to make them water-resistant, are:

1. Impregnation with metallic salts.

2. Coating with oils, fats, and waxes.

3. Coating with solutions of rubber.

4. Superficial solution by means of Schweitzer's
reagent.

The first method finds application in the dressing of sail-
cloth. The material is impregnated with alum and ace-
tate of lime and is then entered in a " fixing-bath " con-
taining waterglass. For some classes of goods this latter
bath consists of a soap solution, in which case an insoluble
aluminium or lime soap is formed in the fabric.

EXAMINATION OF WATERPROOF CLOTHS 5 I

The second method is used for raincloths, signcloths,
imitation leather, etc. The fabric is passed between
hot rollers and then over the block of wax. By another
method the wax is dissolved in benzin and the fabric
padded with this solution. As the latter method is much
more expensive it is generally limited to high-class ladies'
dress goods.

In the third method the rubber is dissolved in carbon
disulphide, chloroform and the like. The goods may be
either coated or padded with the solution. As examples
of this class of fabrics we have gossamer cloth, mackin-
tosh cloth, bathing caps, etc.

The fourth method has found application in the manu-
facture of bookbinders' cloth and "Willesden canvas."
It consists in passing the fabric through an ammoniacal
solution of cupric oxide, which dissolves the cotton on
the surface to a slight extent. A passage between hot
rollers completes the operation. 1

The determinations to be made in the examination of
waterproof fabrics include, —

i. The amount of wool, cotton, and silk present.

2. The weight of the fabric per square yard.

3. The amount of matter soluble in 3% hydrochloric
acid.

4. Thte amount of matter soluble in ether.

5. The amount of ash.

6. The waterproof value.

1. Wool is separated from cotton by the usual method
of boiling in a 5% solution of caustic potash for 15

1 If a solution of cellulose in Schweitzer's reagent is used in place of
the ordinary ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide, a still better finish
is obtained.

52 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

minutes. Four per cent is added to the weight of the
cotton residue. The difference between this and 100%
then represents the amount of wool present. Wool is
separated from silk by immersing the sample in concen-
trated hydrochloric acid for 3 minutes at 50 C, whereby
the silk is dissolved. Linen is separated from silk by
treating with an alkaline glycerol-copper solution, whereby
the silk is dissolved.

Fine quality "cravenettes" are made of pure wool
whilst the lower grade cloths consist of wool and cotton
or all cotton. The " pepper and salt " effects often ob-
served in raincoats are produced by twisting a black
worsted yarn with a white thread of cotton, worsted, or
silk. The term " gloria" is generally limited to fabrics
made of wool and silk, or linen and silk. The impervi-
ous quality of these umbrella cloths is due more to the
weave than to any finishing materials. However, in
the case of heavily weighted silk covers, the loading
materials assist materially in rendering the fabric water-
proof.

2. The weight of the fabric may be determined by
weighing a sample containing 10 square cm. (2 X 5).
For example, 10 sq. cm. of one fabric which was examined
weighed 0.4 gram; one square meter would then weigh
1000 X 0.4 = 400 g. This may readily be changed to
ounces per square yard by multiplying by the constant
0.02949, thus:

400 X 0.02949 = 1 1.8 ounces per square yard.

The factor 0.0295 is sufficiently accurate for technical
work. It is derived as follows:

EXAMINATION OF WATERPROOF CLOTHS 53

i gram = 0.03527 ounce av.

1 sq. meter = 1550 square inches.

1 sq. yard = 1296 square inches.

1206
0.03527 X -^ = 0.02949.

Rule: If the weight in grams of one square meter of a
fabric be multiplied by 0.0295 the result will be the weight
in ounces of one square yard of the same fabric.

3. By treatment with a 3% solution of hydrochloric
acid for 15 minutes any soaps which may be present will
be decomposed and the inorganic matter will to a large
extent be dissolved. Weigh the sample before and after
treating.

4. The fats which remain in the fabric after washing
and drying the residue of the previous determination
are soluble in ether and can therefore be estimated by
extracting the sample in a Soxhlet apparatus.

5. The ash is determined by igniting a weighed sam-
ple in a porcelain crucible until all the organic matter
has been oxidized or burnt off. The weight of the resi-
due represents non-volatile mineral matter.

6. The waterproof value of the fabric may be deter-
mined by the following method, which has given good
results:

A sample about two and one-half inches square is
stretched across the mouth of an ordinary thistle tube, 1
taking care that the sample contains no selvage, as this
is generally more pervious than the fabric proper. Fasten
the sample securely by means of a string around the neck
of the tube so that the face of the goods will be toward

1 If the diameter of the mouth of the thistle tube is 3 cm., the area of
cloth exposed to the water will be: 3 X 3 X 0.7854 = 7.06 sq. cm.

54 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

the inside, i.e., toward the water. The thistle tube filled
with distilled water at 2o°C. is supported by a clamp
above a graduated cylinder, and the amount of water pass-
ing through in 5 hours and in 10 hours is measured in
cubic centimeters. A fabric which allows no water to
pass through in 10 hours is considered first class. An-
other point which may be observed is the time which
elapses before the appearance of the first drop on the
outer surface.

The examination of rubbercoated cloths includes several
special tests which are given below.

7. The percentage of "rubber and coating materials' y
is determined by immersing the goods in solvent naphtha
or carbon disulphide for several hours in order to soften
the coating; this is then removed by scraping with a
blunt knife edge and the last particles removed by treat-
ment with boiling carbon disulphide for 30 minutes. By
weighing the sample before and after treatment, the loss,
i.e., the percentage of coating material, may be deter-
mined. A sample five inches square should be used
for the test.

8. The tensile strength of the fabric is determined
before and after the coating has been removed, as
the coating of rubber is very often depended upon
to cover up a poor piece of cloth. For this test the
ordinary cloth testing machines of Schopper or Kohl may
be used.

9. The drying test should give some idea of how r a
rubber cloth will wear when subjected to high tempera-
tures. For this purpose the sample is placed in a dry-
ing oven heated to 50 C. for 5 hours and then
allowed to lie in the air again for one hour. The "feel"

EXAMINATION OF WATERPROOF CLOTHS 55

of the cloth at the end of this test will show whether it has
become brittle and lost its elasticity.

10. A qualitative test for the mineral matter is some-
times desired and may then be carried out according to
the usual methods of inorganic analysis. The substances
which may be encountered are: sulphur; sulphides of
sodium, lead, and antimony; oxides of magnesium and
zinc; chalk, gypsum, and vermilion. Most of these sub-
stances may be detected by careful incineration in a
porcelain crucible. Sulphur is determined quantitatively
by burning the sample in a current of oxygen and leading
the sulphur dioxide so formed into water acidulated with
nitric acid. The sulphuric acid so obtained is determined
by means of barium chloride and calculated to sulphur.
If metallic sulphides are present the sample should be
heated in a crucible with sodium carbonate and potas-
sium nitrate in order to form potassium sulphate. The
sulphuric acid is then precipitated in the form of barium
sulphate as before.

Example. — Analysis of a high grade " cravenette."

Warp and filling: worsted yarn, 92.4%

Weight per square yard: 10.4 ounces.

Breaking strain: 30.2 pounds (sample 5 in. long

and 2 in. wide).
Matter soluble in 3% HC1: 2.7%

Matter soluble in ether: i-9%

Ash (mineral matter) : 3-o%

Waterproof value: After five hours the water had

completely passed through the fabric. Drops of

water were visible on the outside of the fabric 15

minutes after starting the test.

56 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Analysis of Textile Fibers.
The ultimate analysis of fibers is as yet of no practical
value. Cross and Bevan have spent much time * in exam-
ining into the chemical constitution of cellulose but have
come to no final conclusions. Cellulose forms the essen-
tial constituent of all vegetable fibers and belongs to the
group of organic compounds known as carbohydrates.
The empirical formula C a H 10 O 5 has been calculated from
the analysis:

Per cent

Carbon 44.4

Hydrogen „ 6.2

Oxygen 49.4

Bowman, Schuetzenberger, and Williams have inde-
pendently examined into the chemical nature of wool.
It is termed a "keratinic" fiber and seems to be a
proteid containing one or more amino groups. The
average composition is:

Per cent

Carbon 51.0

Hydrogen 7.0

Oxygen 21 .0

Nitrogen 18.0

Sulphur 3.0

Mulder, Silbermann, Vignon, and Richardson have at
different times observed interesting reactions of the silk
fiber and seem to agree that it is a proteid possessing the
nature of an amino-acid. The average composition of
fibroin is:

Per cent

Carbon 48-5

Hydrogen ; 6.5

Nitrogen 19.0

Oxygen 26.0

1 Vignon has proposed a formula for cellulose (see Matthews, 216).
See also: Green and Perkin (J. Chem. Soc, 1906, page 811).

ANALYSIS OF TEXTILE FIBERS 57

All of the investigators have proposed formulae for the
silk-fibroin, but the approximate empirical formula seems
to be C 48 H 78 O 20 N ia .

Analysis of Raw Vegetable Fibers.

For the proximate analysis of these fibers Cross and
others have proposed the following determinations:

1. Moisture.

2. Mineral matter.

3. "Boiling-off" loss.

4. " Hydrolysis' 9 loss.

5. "Mercerization" loss.

6. "Nitration" gain.

7. "Purification" loss.

8. Percentage of cellulose.

9. Percentage of carbon.

1. A 5-gram sample of the fiber is dried in an oven
at no° C. until its weight is constant. The loss in weight
is calculated as per cent of the original sample.

2. The mineral matter or ash is determined by igniting
a weighed sample in a porcelain crucible. Care should
be taken that the organic matter is completely oxidized.
It will be found to be low in true celluloses (cotton) and
high in the pectocelluloses (raw flax), while the ligno-
celluloses (jute) occupy an intermediate position.

3. By this is meant the loss in weight incurred on boil-
ing the fiber for 5 minutes with a 1% solution of sodium
hydroxide. The result will show the alkali-soluble por-
tion of the fiber.

4. This is carried out in order to estimate the effect

58 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

of bleaching, scouring, and frequent washing of the fiber.
It is determined by boiling the sample in i% sodium
hydroxide for one hour, whereby the fiber is hydrolyzed.

5. The fiber is placed in a 30% solution of potassium
hydroxide for one hour at a temperature not exceeding
20°C. The change in tensile strength and microscopic
appearance should be noted.

6. The fiber is treated for one hour with a cold mixture
of 50 c.c. nitric acid and 50 ex. sulphuric acid.

7. The fiber is boiled with 20% solution of acetic acid
for 30 minutes, washed with alcohol, then with water,
and finally dried. By this treatment the acid-soluble
impurities are removed without affecting the fiber ma-
terially.

8. This is of course the most important determination,
for, after all, the cellulose is the most valued constituent
of the fiber. Boil for 5 minutes in a 1% solution of
sodium hydroxide; wash well with water and then expose
for one hour to the action of chlorine gas at ordinary tem-
peratures, remove, wash and treat with a boiling alkaline
solution of sodium sulphate for 5 minutes. Now wash
successively with water, dilute acetic acid and water.
The residue, which represents cellulose, is dried and
weighed.

9. The fiber obtained by purification with acid (7) is
analyzed in the ordinary combustion oven or in the wet
way by means of chromium trioxide (CrOg) and sul-
phuric acid. In the latter case the mixture of carbon
monoxide and dioxide is obtained and measured in the
gaseous form. The percentage of carbon found may
vary from 40 to 43% for pectocelluloses to 44.4% for
cotton cellulose, and 45 to 50% for ligno-celluloses.

ANALYSIS OF RAW WOOL 59

The analysis of raw cotton shows approximately:

Per cent

Cellulose 87.0 to 91.0

Water 7.0 to 8.0

Fat and wax 0.5 to 0.4

Intercellular matter 0.05 to o. 7

Ash 0.12 to 1.7

The analysis of raw flax shows approximately:

Per cent

Cellulose 71.0 to 83.0

Water 8.0 to 11. o

Fat and wax o .5 to 2.4

Intercellular matter 2 . 5 to 9.5

Ash 0.5 to 5.0

Analysis of Raw Wool.

The examination of raw wool includes the determina-
tion of —

1. Moisture.

2. Grease.

3. Matter soluble in water.

4. Matter insoluble in water (sand and earth).

5. Wool fiber. *>

1. The water is determined by the usual method of
drying at 105 ° C. in a stream of dry hydrogen.

2. The grease is preferably determined before steep-
ing the sample in water, as otherwise some of the fatty
matter is removed. The weighed sample is extracted
with ethyl-ether or with benzene and the residue of wool-
fat weighed after evaporation of the solvent in the flask.

Note. — If it is desired to estimate the amount of alkaline oleates
present, this may be done by shaking up the ethereal extract with water
in a separatory funnel.

METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

3. After the removal of the grease the wool is agitated
in distilled water at a temperature of about 30 C. This
removes the dried perspiration (suint, schweiss or yolk)
and at the same time the mechanically adhering sand
and earth.

4. The insoluble mineral matter removed in the pre-
vious operation is filtered off on a weighed filter, dried
and weighed.

5. The wool finally obtained is dried and weighed.
The following figures will give some idea of the per-
centage composition of raw wools.

Low Grade.

High Grade.

Moisture

Grease

Matter soluble in water . .
Matter insoluble in water.
Wool fiber

Per cent

100

Per cent
12

15
22

. 30
21

Method of Maercker and Schulz. 1. Determine moist-
ure by drying in a stream of hydrogen gas at 105 C.

2. Determine wool-fat by extraction with ether and
afterward shaking extract with water in order to remove
oleates. Separate the two solutions, evaporate the ether
to dryness and weigh the fatty residue. Evaporate the
wash water to dryness, weigh this residue and add to the
"matter soluble in water."

3. Wash the ether-extracted wool with cold distilled
water several times. Evaporate the solution to dryness
and add this weight to the " matter soluble in water "

ANALYSIS OF RAW SILK 6 1

found in the previous determination. The combined
weight represents the alkaline oleates. Finally wash
with alcohol in order to remove the last traces of alka-
line oleates.

4. The earthy oleates are decomposed by washing the
wool with 5% hydrochloric acid. Wash with water to
remove the acid, dry and finally extract with ether and
alcohol. The solvents are evaporated and the residue
weighed.

5. The wool which remains after these operations is
dried, well shaken and then teased out by hand over a
large sheet of paper in order to remove dirt, sand, etc.
It is then again dried and subsequently weighed.

6. Sand and dirt are determined by difference.

Analysis of Raw Silk.

Owing to the great value of silk ($4 to $7 per pound)
and the fact that shipments from China and Japan are
at times found to be adulterated with large quantities of
fat, the examination of this material is very desirable.

The commercial value of such an examination will be
easily realized when it is stated that one lot which was
examined contained 9% of fat in place of the 1% usually
found in natural silk.

Although Mulder was the first chemist to investigate
the nature of raw silk his methods and results have been
given a rather low rating by Silbermann. The latter
investigator has spent much time in the chemical study
of the silk fiber, a subject in which he is unquestionably
the leading authority. A typical analysis of a white mul-
berry silk by this author is given on the following
page: —

62 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Per Cent
Water .11.00

Salts 0.30

Wax and Fat 1.36

Sericin 22.01

Fibroin 76. 20

Ash of Fibroin 0.09

Analysis.

1. Moisture can be determined in the r^w silk accord-
ing to the usual method of drying a weighed sample at
105 C. to constant weight.

2. The salts soluble in water may be determined by
steeping a weighed portion of the dried sample in
water at a temperature of 50 C. for 30 minutes. It
is then rinsed in warm water, dried at 105 C. and
reweighed. The loss in weight gives the amount of salts
present.

3. The sample left from the previous estimation is dried
and extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus with ethyl-ether
or with C. P. benzene for about 5 hours. The solvent in
the flask is evaporated by means of a current of warm
air on a steam bath and the residue weighed in the flask.
The difference between this weight and the original
weight of the flask will represent the amount of wax and
fat in the sample.

4. The silk residue from (2) is now "boiled off" in a
bath containing 10 grams of perfectly neutral olive oil
soap per liter of distilled water. After boiling for one
hour it is washed in distilled water and dried at 105 C.
The amount which the silk loses in weight represents
silk gum (sericin).

ANALYSIS OF WOOL SILK

5. The residue obtained after all the previous opera-
tions have been performed is almost pure fibroin. The
percentage obtained varies from 70 in Canton and 76
in Italian silk to 84 in Japan silk.

Determination of the "Boiling-off" Loss of Raw

Silk.
Crefeld Method. A bath is prepared with 5 to 7
grams of perfectly neutral olive oil soap per liter of dis-
tilled water. In this solution the silk is boiled for about
one hour. It is finally washed well in distilled water
and dried at 105 to i2o°C. The difference between
this weight and that of the original dry silk shows the
"boiling-off" loss. For example:

Raw silk dried at 115 C 48. 7 grams

Boiled-off silk dried at 115 38.9 grams

Loss = gum 9.8 grams

9.8 X 100 ~

_£_ = 2 o.i% gum.

table of actual results obtained prom various silks.

(Crefeld Conditioning House, Average Values for 1906.)

Lombardy organzine yellow.

Japan organzine

French organzine

Bengal (through France) . . .

Grege

Chappe

China

Canton

Boiling-off

23.6

18.86

25.29

25-52

21.93

4.65

20.43
25.28

Standard.

24.0
20.0
25-5

22.5

4.0

24.0

Washing-
out Loss.

1.08
1.27
1.64
5-94
o.43

2.25
2.78

Standard. 1

1.20
1.30
1.65

0.50

4.80
2.50

1 These figures are those usually used in calculations and represent
the average values of a very large number of determinations.

64 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

The highest boiling-off loss was observed in the case of
a Canton silk (30.69%). The lowest (excluding Chappe)
was observed in the case of a Japan silk (15.62%).

Determination of the "Washing-out" Loss of
Raw Silk.
Crefeld Method. A weighed sample of raw silk is
boiled for about one hour in a bath of distilled water at
about 50 C. Rinse, dry, and re-weigh. Example:

Raw silk dried at 115 C 45 . 2 grams

Washed silk dried at 115 C 44.1 grams

Loss 1.1 grams

1.1 X 100 ~

-45^ 2 ' 4 3%'

Determination of the " Shrinkage' ' of Raw Wool.

By the "shrinkage" of raw wool is meant its loss in
weight after passing through the usual processes of scour-
ing. An experienced wool sorter acquires a rather ac-
curate idea of this loss by examination of the fleeces.
The approximation should come within one or two per
cent in order to be of any value. Other things being
equal, the money value of two wools offered at the same
price will be inversely proportional to the shrinkage
which they suffer on scouring. Thus if a wool which
shrinks 50% costs 45 cents the value of a similar wool
which shrinks 40% would be 56! cents.

«2<io =

40 °

To find the percentage of shrinkage of a wool:
Rule: Subtract the weight of the scoured wool from the
weight of the raw wool. Divide the remainder by the
weight of the raw wool and multiply by 100.

SHRINKAGE OF RAW WOOL

Example: If 128 pounds of raw stock yield 60 pounds

of wool on scouring, what is the percentage of shrinkage?

(128-60)

— ^g — X 100 = 53.1% (or a yield of 46.9%).

To find the cost of wool at a given shrinkage:

Rule : Divide the cost per pound of the "wool in

grease" by the yield stated in per cent.
Example: If a wool in grease costs 24 cents per pound

and shrinks 40%, what is the cost of the scoured wool?

24
100 — 40 = 60% yield. ^- = 0.40.

The scoured wool costs 40 cents per pound.
In the table below are given a few "shrinkage" values
of " domestic " wools.

WASHED WOOLS.

Grade.

XXX

Half-blood

Three-eighths-blood

Quarter-blood

Common

Cost.

Cents.
34
36
34
34
33
34
3i

Yield.

Per cent.
64

45
46

5o
60
72
82

Price
"Clean."

Cents.

73
68

56
47
73

UNWASHED WOOLS.

Grade.

Cost.

Yield.

Price
" Clean."

XXX

Cents.
27
27
27
28
27
27
24

Per cent.

30
34
36
43
54
62

Cents.

90
80
75
65
50
43

Half-blood

Three-eighths-blood

Quarter-blood

Common

66 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

"Washed wools" axe those which have had part of
their yolk removed by washing while still on the back
of the sheep.

The shrinkage of a raw wool may be determined ex-
perimentally as follows: — Several samples are drawn
from various parts of the bulk, and portions of this are
carefully selected so as to obtain a fair average sample.
A quantity equal to iooo grams is accurately weighed
and thoroughly scoured. For this purpose it is first agi-
tated in soft water of 50 C. for 15 minutes, then squeezed
and well washed in two successive baths containing 5
grams of Solvay soda and 2 grams of soap per liter of
water. The complete removal of the grease may take
from 30 to 60 minutes. Care should be taken that the
temperature does not rise much above 50 C.

The wool is finally dried at 105 C. and the standard
regain added to the dry weight in order to obtain the
"yield."

Pulled wools, i. e., those obtained from tanneries by
the brushing or liming process, shrink anywhere from
15 to 55%.

Determination of Moisture in Textiles.

The determination of moisture in textile fibers is
technically called "conditioning." This estimation is
of especial importance in the case of the more valuable
fibers such as wool and silk. The apparatus required
consists of —

1. An oven of cylindrical shape constructed with an
inner and outer case, about 40 inches high and 30 inches
in diameter (outside measurement). A space of i£ inches

DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE IN TEXTILES 67

is allowed between the two cases to permit the heated air
to circulate freely.

2. A pair of scales sensitive to 0.1 gram firmly fixed
to the oven in such a position that one extreme end of
the beam is exactly over the centre of the oven and from
which is suspended a reel or cage containing the sample.
The reel and cage are of equal weight and when in position
exactly balance the pan and chains at the other end of
the beam.

3. One reel and one cage mentioned above, the former
for tops and yarns and the latter for wool, noils, and
loose material.

4. A thermometer with a scale ranging from ioo° to

250°F. (40 tO I20°C).

5. A Bunsen gas-burner.

The following data are taken from the pamphlet of
the Bradford Conditioning House and may therefore
with propriety be quoted as the

Bradford Method. To insure the complete removal of
the moisture in the oven the temperature must not be
raised above 23o°F. Cotton cannot be heated higher
than 22o°F. as it is easily scorched.

The samples are drawn, in the case of tops, from the
centre, middle, and outside of the ball and are weighed
immediately. The sample should weigh about 500 grams
but its exact weight is determined to T V gram. The
sample of top is placed on the reel or in the cage and the
whole suspended from the balance. The time required
to expel all the moisture will vary with the quality, age,
and condition of the tops. The heating in the oven
is continued until the sample ceases to lose weight and
the needle of the balance remains stationary for about

68 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

5 minutes. The drying operation may take from 3 to
5 hours. The wool is now "bone dry," and the weight
is recorded as follows:

Weight of wool "air-dry " 512 grams

Weight of wool " bone-dry " .' 420 grams

Loss (— moisture) 92 grams

02
Percentage of moisture -2— X 100 =» 17.9%

After years of observation it has been found that the
various fibers contain an amount of moisture which is
fairly constant for each fiber, and as the results of many
tests the following percentages have been fixed as repre-
sentative of the amount of moisture which a perfectly
dry sample will take up: (Bradford constants).

Wools 16 %

Tops (in oil) 19 %

Tops (without oil) i8J%

Cotton yarns 8J%

Silk yarns 11 %

Linen yarns 12 %

These percentages represent "regain." For example
let us say that a regain of 16% is allowed on the sample
tested above. 16% of 420 grams =67.2 grams. 420 +
67.2=487.2 grams of "normal wool." If the dealer
had in this case charged for 512 grams of "normal wool"
he would be selling 24.8 grams of water at the price of
wool. The essential part of the conditioning is the de-
termination of the amount of "absolutely dry wool"
in the sample. From this the amount of dry wool in
the whole lot can then be readily calculated.

Example: How much "bone-dry" wool in a 1000-
pound lot which gave the above test?

512 : 420 : : 1000 : x

x = 820.3 pounds dry wool.

DETERMINATION OF MINERAL MATTER '6g

How much "normal wool" in a iooo-pound lot which
gave the above test ?
512 : 487.2 : 1000 : x

x =951.5 pounds "normal wool."

Below are recorded the results of tests made on various
lots of worsted tops in the Philadelphia district. The
average for this territory appears to be about 13%, but
whether 13 or 15 or the European standard of 18 \%
be chosen as the American standard is quite immaterial
as the price of worsted tops or of any other textile ma-
terial is regulated in all cases by the amount of "bone
dry" material which the seller knows or estimates the
lot to contain.

Results of the Tests.

Per cent.

Low grade top 15.8

High grade top combed in oil 13.8

Medium grade top combed dry 13.5

Top combed in oil 12.8

Top combed in oil 12.0

Top combed in oil 11 .3

Tops direct from comber 9.2

Determination of Mineral Matter in Textiles

The term mineral matter as thus used means the ash
which remains on igniting a weighed sample of the fabric
until all the organic matter is completely volatilized. It will
be readily seen that the volatile inorganic salts such as
ammonium chloride will not be found in the crucible. For
the determination a 5 gram sample should be cut up in
small pieces and placed in a weighed porcelain crucible.
Heat with a good Bunsen flame until all the black, car-
bonaceous matter disappears. After allowing to cool in a

yo METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

desiccator the crucible is reweighed. The matter remaining
in the crucible is the ash and is calculated to percentage.

Example:

Crucible (after drying and cooling) 5-5643 grams

Crucible (with sample of fabric) 10.4653 "

Fabric (air dry) 4.9010 "

Crucible (with ash) 5.9644 "

Ash (after deducting weight of cruc.) 0.4001 "

_ . 0.400I X IOO Q 'Of

Percentage of ash — = 8.16%

^ 4.9010

In certain cases it is interesting to know the moisture
content of the sample, and so the following preliminary
weighings are made:

Weight of sample air-dry 4.9010 grams

Weight of sample after drying in an oven at 105 C. for

one hour 4.4000

Loss (= moisture) o. 5010

Percentage of moisture 10. 2%

The complete report of this analysis would then read:

Name of fabric: fireproof cloth.

Moisture 10. 2%

Non-volatile matter (ash) 8. 16%

Volatile matter (fibers, etc.) 81.64%

100.00%

The estimation of the mineral matter is of especial
importance in the examination of such fabrics as:

Waterproof raincloths (aluminium, magnesium, and

metallic oxides).
Window shade cloths (Hollands) (prussian blue, ultra-
marine, ochre and other pigments).
Bookbinders' cloths (gypsum and dye-lakes).
Fireproof cloths (sodium-biborate, -silicate, -tungs-

state; phosphates).
Heavily weighted silks (tin, iron, etc).

DETERMINATION OF OIL AND GREASE IN TEXTILES 7 1

Sign cloths (calcium acetate, alum, water glass, lead,

etc.)

Fabrics used for flour and salt bags (kaob'n, talc,

gypsum, etc.)

A qualitative analysis of the ash may be made according

to the usual methods of inorganic analysis. (See also

page 40, where a survey of the finishing materials is given.)

Determination of Oil and Grease in Textiles.

This determination is made in the case of tops and
" yarns spun in oil " and in the examination of finishes on
fabrics. A weighed sample of the fabric or "top " is placed
in a Soxhlet extractor which is connected with a weighed
flask. For the extraction, sulphuric ether or petroleum
ether may be used. After about one hour the extraction
should be complete. The flask is put in a warm place
in order to drive off the solvent, after which the weight
of the oil is determined. From this the percentage of
oil in the air-dry fabric may be readily calculated. In
the case of tops it is convenient to weigh out a sample of
about 10 grams just before conditioning. After the per-
centage of moisture has been determined it will be easy
to calculate exactly how much absolutely dry top the
weighed sample represents.

Example:

A sample of tops was found to contain moisture 13. 2%

Hence, fiber + grease = 86. 8

100.0%

A small sample taken just before conditioning weighed 8.4607 grams

Hence, fiber + grease 7-3438 "

After extraction the flask -f grease weighed 28.3490 grams

The flask weighed 27.9610 "

Therefore grease weighed o. 3880 "

0.3880 ~

3 X 100 - 5.2% grease.

72 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Determination of Arsenic in Textiles. 1

At the present day there will seldom be any necessity
for making this determination as the causes have been
removed. Thus the use of arsenic in the preparation of
artificial dyestuffs is now obsolete. The commercial
sulphuric acid used in the dyehouse usually contains traces
of arsenic but as this is either washed off or deposited on
the fiber as an insoluble compound this source of arsenic
is of little importance. The third and most common source
of the arsenic found on woolen goods are the " sheep dips "
applied to sheep for the cure of the scab disease. Thus
1000 grams of a wool flannel were found to contain
5 milligrams of arsenious oxide.

Examination of Weighted Silks.

The weighting on a black silk may vary from zero to
250%. The values of 300 and 400% sometimes mentioned
in text books are now seldom if ever encountered. The
Weighting number, for example, 80%, is given with
reference to the weight of the raw silk (this latter weight is
known in Europe as the " par " weight). Thus if 100
pounds of " raw " silk yield 75 pounds of " boiled-oflf "
silk the dyer must add 25 pounds of " weighting " in order
that he may return 100 pounds to the mill. If now the
mill requests that the silk be weighted 80% the dyer applies
an additional 80 pounds of weighting making a total of 180
pounds. From this we see that a " weighting of 80% "
may actually represent a silk containing 105 pounds of

1 For further information on this subject see: Arsenic in papers
and fabrics, by J. K. Haywood, Bulletin 86, Bureau of Chemistry,
U. S. Department of Agriculture. Also: Textil chemische Unter-
suchungen, Paul Heermann, Berlin, 1903.

EXAMINATION OF WEIGHTED SILKS 73

foreign matter in each 180 pounds of the finished product.
The data given below will serve to illustrate the point:

Example: If the weight of the raw silk = 60 pounds
and the boiling-oflf loss of the silk = 25% and the weight-
ing = 80%,

To find the weight of the finished goods,

60 + (60 X 0.80) = 108 (pounds).

To find the weight of the fibroin in the raw silk,
60 — (60 X 0.25) = 45 (pounds).

To find the percentage of fibroin in the finished goods,

w 60 — (60 X 0.25) , M

60 + (60 X 0.80) ' /v

To find the percentage of weighting in the finished goods,

100 -41.67% = 58-3%-

The proximate analysis of weighted silks includes a
determination of Prussian blue, silica, tin and phosphoric
acid. See: Luehrig, Chemiker Ztg., 1902, 87, page 1039;
also Gnehm & Baenziger, Faerber Ztg., 1897, page 1.

In the United States the weighting on silk is indicated
by stating the " ounces of weighting " which have been
added to each pound of raw silk. As the " charge," or
quantity of weighting material which the silk has taken up,
varies slightly the dyer states it within certain limits. Thus
it has become a trade custom to allow a variation of two
ounces. For example, if we speak of a 30/32 weighting,
it is understood that 16 ounces of raw silk have been loaded
until the weight has reached approximately 32 ounces.

74 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Such a weighting is known as " 100% above par." To
recapitulate:

Original weight of the raw silk 16 ounces.

Weight of the boiled-oflf silk 12 ounces.

Weight of the loaded silk 32 ounces.

32 ounces therefore represents an increase of 100% above
16 ounces.

The results of the chemical analysis will show the
amount of actual silk fiber present. From this the
amount of weighting is calculated by difference and
reported in "ounces per pound." This can be done
with the aid of the table prepared by Matthews:

Per cent Weighting.

Ounces. 1

Per cent Weighting.

Ounces. 1

O-13

12/14

142-158

3o/3 2

13-29

14/16

158-174

32/34

29-45

16/18

174-190

34/36

45-6i

18/20

190-206

36/3*

61-77

20/22

206-222

3V40

77-93

22/24

222-238

40/42

93-109

24/26

238-254

42/44

109-125

26/28

254-270

44/46

125-142

28/30

270-286

46/48

To illustrate the use of the table:

A commercial sample of silk was dried at 105° C. and
then weighed 0.45 grams. The weighting was removed,
the remaining fibroin was dried at 105 C. and found to
weigh 0.31 grams.

Weighted silk = 0.45 grams

Fibroin = 0.31 grams

Weighting = o. 14 grams

0.14 X 100

0.31

= 45% weighting.

See page 73.

WEIGHTING ON SILK 75

From the table we see that this corresponds to 18/20
ounces (or an average of 19 ounces). These 19 ounces
of weighted silk represent 16 ounces of "raw" (un-
weighted) silk, or 12 ounces of "pure " silk, and by sub-
traction we find that 19 ounces of the commercial silk
contain 7 ounces of foreign matter. (19 — 12=7.)

Determination of the Weighting in Silk.

Gnehm's Method. (Not applicable to silks containing
tannin and iron.)

1. Determine the water in a two gram sample of the
silk.

2. Treat in a platinum dish with 100 c.c. of a 5%
solution of hydrofluosilicic acid and agitate frequently
during one hour at ordinary temperatures.

3. Decant the solution and treat the sample with
another 100 c.c. of the acid as before.

4. Decant, and wash the silk several times with large
quantities of distilled water for about 15 minutes.

5. Place the sample in a tared weighing bottle and
dry at 95 to 105° C. to constant weight. The weighing
bottle must have a ground glass stopper as the silk is
extremely hygroscopic. The difference between the last
weight of the silk and the weight of the original dry
sample represents the weighting. The action of the
fluorine acids on silk is inconsiderable and may there-
fore be neglected.

Examples:

Air-dry silk = 2. 1264 g-

Anhydrous silk = 1.9384 g. = 8.85% moisture

After extracting and drying = 0.9176 g. = 43.15% fibroin

Difference = 1.0208 g.= 48.00% weighting.

j6 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

If the "boiling-off" loss be taken at 20% we have the
proportion: 43 . IS - 4 g : : 80 : x

x = 88.9.
Therefore the sample examined contains:

80.0 parts fibroin (equal to ioo parts of raw silk)
88.9 parts weighting
168.9

which means that the silk has been weighted 68.9%
above par.

Moyrefs Method. 1. Water. Dry a ten gram sample
at 1 2 5 C. to constant weight. Moisture in excess of
15% indicates the presence of hygroscopic substances.

2. Substances soluble in water. Boil with distilled
water. Glycerol, sugar and epsom salt will be dissolved.
Dry and weigh.

3. Substances soluble in petroleum ether. Treat a
dried sample with the solvent and examine the residue
after evaporation. (Fats and oils will be dissolved.)

4. Substances soluble in hydrochloric acid. Treat for
15 minutes in a bath of 5% hydrochloric acid at 40 C.
Aluminium, chromium and iron mordants will be dissolved.

5. Substances soluble in 5% solution of sodium car-
bonate. Tannins, etc.

6. Ash. Ignite a sample of the silk in a porcelain
crucible. Silica, etc.

7. Determination of the nature of the dyestuffs.
Koenig's Method. 1. Water. Dry at i25°C. to con-
stant weight.

2. Fats and oils are extracted with petroleum ether.

3. Silk glue. Boil with a solution of 5 grams soap in
100 grams of water.

4. Prussian blue. Treat the residue from (3) with
sodium hydroxide. The sodium ferrocyanide obtained

. WEIGHTING ON SILK 77

is reprecipitated with ferric chloride. Ignite the precipi-
tate and oxidize with a drop or two of nitric acid,
i gram of Fej0 8 = 1.5 grams of prussian blue.

5. Stannic oxide is determined in the ash of the silk.
Calculate as catechu-tannate of tin.

1 gram of Sn0 2 = 3.33 grams of catechu-tannate.

6. Ferric oxide. The total iron is estimated as ferric
oxide. Now subtract from this the iron present as prus-
sian blue and 0.5 g. iron naturally present in silk.

The remaining iron is calculated to tannate.
1 gram FejjOj = 7.2 grams of ferric tannate.

Mueller and ZelVs Method. 1 This method is based on
the solvent action of hydrofluoric acid on silicic acid and
is therefore suitable only for the tin-phosphate-silicate
weighting.

1. Place about 2 grams of the silk sample in distilled
water for 5 minutes at ioo° C.

2. Place the sample in a i£% solution of hydrofluoric
acid for 15 minutes at 6o° C.

3. Without washing place the silk in a 5% solution
of hydrochloric acid at 50 to 6o° C. for 10 minutes.

4. Rinse well in hot water.

5. Treat with a boiling 3% solution of Marseilles soap
for one hour in order to remove any sericin which may be
present in case the original silk was ecru or souple.

6. Wash in a 1% solution of sodium carbonate for
15 minutes to remove the soap.

7. Rinse well in hot distilled water.

8. Dry and weigh.

1 For Steiger and Gruenberg's table for the calculation of the
weighting see Appendix I.

78 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

The substance obtained at the end of this procedure
is practically pure fibroin.

Nitrogen Method (Steiger and Gruenberg). This
method is based upon KjehldahPs observation that nitro-
genous matter gives off ammonia quantitatively if it be first
decomposed with concentrated sulphuric acid and after-
ward treated with caustic soda. This is applied in tex-
tile analysis to the determination of nitrogen in silk after
all other nitrogenous bodies have been removed. These
substances include glue, ammonium salts, amino dye-
stuffs, and silk gum. It should be remarked that the suc-
cess of the determination depends upon extremely careful
manipulation. The nitrogen found is calculated to fibroin
and then to raw silk.

i. An air-dry sample of the silk (about 2 grams) is
accurately weighed out.

2. Boil for one or two hours with a 3% solution of
Marseilles soap. This removes dyestuffs and any sericin
which may be in the silk.

3. Treat with a 1% solution of sodium carbonate for
10 minutes at 6o° C. to remove soluble salts.

4. Boil with a 1% solution of alcoholic-hydrochloric
acid to remove all foreign matter.

5. Wash with a weak alcohol-ammonia solution.

6. Rinse thoroughly and dry.

7. Determination: The silk obtained at the end of
the above treatment is treated with 30 to 50 c.c. of sulpho-
phosphoric acid 1 in a round-bottomed flask; 0.5 g. of
metallic mercury is added and the whole is heated cau-
tiously until the black color entirely disappears, only a

1 Pure sulphuric acid containing 10 to 20% phosphorus pentoxide.
Specially prepared by Kahlbaum.

WEIGHTING ON SILK 79

pale yellow remaining. Heat for one-half hour longer to
insure the completion of the reaction.

8. After allowing to cool the contents of the flask are
transferred to an Erlenmeyer flask with about 400 c.c. of
water. Add sodium sulphide to precipitate the mercury,
and pumice stone to prevent bumping in the subsequent
distillation. Now add caustic soda solution very care-
fully (to avoid any loss of ammonia). Connect the flask
with a condenser and conduct the distillate into a receiver
containing 25 c.c. of normal sulphuric acid. To prevent
any caustic soda from going over, a bulb tube is used to
connect the distilling flask with the condenser. The
mixture in the flask is boiled for about one hour, after
which time the residue in the flask is tested for ammonia
by means of litmus paper.

9. The contents of the receiver are titrated with nor-
mal caustic soda and from this the amount of sulphuric
acid used (the amount of ammonia obtained) is calculated
and figured to nitrogen.

1 c.c. of normal sulphuric acid used = 0.017 g. NH,
(ammonia) =0.014 g. N (nitrogen) =0.07638 pure fibroin.

Calculation: —

If the hygroscopic moisture in silk = 11. 00%

the boiling-off loss (silk gum) = 24 . 00%

fibroin = 76. 00%

the nitrogen content of pure fibroin = I 8-33%

then one gram of nitrogen is equal to 5-455 grams fibroin

and 0.014 gram of nitrogen is equal to 0.07638 " "

For example:

weight of the original sample 1.0000 gram

weight of the nitrogen found 0.0672 "

which is equivalent to fibroin o. 366576 "

equivalent to silk gum = 0.366576 X ^J. 0.11576 "

therefore weight of raw silk = 0.366576 + o. n 576 = 0.48233 "
add 11% for moisture o. 5354 "

hence weighting above par = -5354 X 100- 86.77%

80 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Nitrogen Method 1 (alternative estimation). The pure
fibroin is placed in a 200 c.c. round-bottom flask, and
treated with 30 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid. A small
amount of anhydrous copper sulphate is then added and
the whole heated for about 5 hours. The end of the
reaction is shown by the solution turning green. Remove
the heat and add potassium permanganate until a
deep green color is obtained. After allowing to cool
add water carefully. Allow to cool again and pour
the whole into a copper distilling flask, using plenty of
water in transferring it. Add excess of caustic soda,
distill off the ammonia and absorb in U tubes with
standard acid.

The percentage of " charge" is usually stated with refer-
ence to raw silk containing 11% of moisture. For exam-
ple a charge of 40% above par means that 100 grams
of raw silk yielded 140 grams of weighted silk. The
amount of bast or gum in raw silk varies within several
per cent, so that it is advantageous to know which variety
has been used in the sample. In the table below are
given the average values which are usually accepted:

Italian (yellow) 24%

Japan 20

China (white) 24

Canton 24

Chappe 4

If Japan silk had been used in the example given above,

the fibroin figure would then be multiplied by M instead

of?*.

1 For other methods of determining nitrogen see U. S. Dept. of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 107. For Steiger and Omen-
berg's table for the calculation of the weighting see Appendix I.

FINISHING MATERIALS IN A COTTON FABRIC 8 1

Determination of the Finishing Materials in a
Cotton Fabric.

The analysis of a finished cotton fabric containing no
mineral matter includes the determination of,

i. The percentage of filling materials. A weighed
sample of the fabric is boiled consecutively in distilled
water, i% caustic soda solution and i% hydrochloric
acid; each operation should be continued for about one
hour. If the sample be finally washed and dried to con-
stant weight at 105 C. the result will give the amount
of absolutely dry fiber present. Add 8% to obtain the
"normal" air-dry weight.

2. The percentage of moisture in the air-dry fabric
is determined by drying to constant weight at 105 C.

3. The percentage of fats and waxes is determined
by extraction in the Soxhlet apparatus.

4. The percentage of starch, etc., is determined by
difference as shown below:

Total filling materials 22%

Moisture 12%

Fats, etc 5%

'0-

}i7%

Starch, etc 5%

TJie qualitative test for mineral matter in the fabric
is the ash which remains after ignition of the fabric in
a crucible. The filling material may be soluble in water,
e. g., the chlorides of zinc, calcium, magnesium, and so-
dium. The insoluble portion may consist of China clay,
barytes, gypsum, chalk, talc, lime or aluminium soaps.
These latter compounds will of course be decomposed
on heating.

82 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Determination of Tensile Strength.

The determination of the tensile strength of yarns
and fabrics affords an excellent method for the control of
those textile processes which tender the fiber to greater
or less extent. Among these processes may be men-
tioned,

i. The dyeing of aniline black. In the drying and
ageing operations high temperatures and a dry atmos-
phere should be avoided in order to prevent the hydro-
chloric acid from attacking the fiber. For this purpose
the development of the green should also be carefully
observed.

2. The dyeing of " mixed goods" with sulphur colors.
Sodium sulphide has an injurious action on animal fibers;
an excess should therefore be avoided. The dyeing
should also be done at the lowest possible temperature.

3. The dyeing of turkey-red by the old "method."
After the yarn has been impregnated with oil and dried
the hanks should not be piled up too tightly, as in this
case they might be "burnt" by a rise in temperature
with a consequent weakening of the fiber.

4. The production of mercerized cotton. If properly
carried out this process increases the tensile strength of
the material, but care must be taken that the tempera-
ture of the liquor does not rise above 65 or 70 F.

5. The production of non-shrinkable wool. It has
been observed that caustic soda of 42 B6 produces a
yarn of decidedly increased tensile strength, while less
concentrated liquors have a decidedly weakening effect
on the wool. Here again the temperature must be kept
low and the immersion extended over not more than 5

DETERMINATION OF TENSILE STRENGTH 83

minutes. If a solution of bleaching powder be used to
render the wool non-shrinkable, concentrated liquors
must also be avoided.

6. Artificial silk. As this product loses greatly in
tensile strength on coming in contact with water, tensile
strength determinations of the dry and moist material
should be made on all lots.

7. Waterproof cloths. The waterproof effect is often
obtained by impregnating with solutions of metallic salts
which sometimes corrode the fiber; raincloths, umbrella-
cloths and rubber-coated cloths should therefore be
examined in this particular.

8. Sized yarns. The object of sizing is to strengthen
the yarn so that it may be used for weaving without dan-
ger of breaking. The elasticity of the yarn depends on
the staple, the evenness of the thread, the twist per
inch, the percentage of size on the yarn, and the per-
centage of moisture contained in the yarn at the time
it is being tested.

9. Shoddy yarns. The carbonization of the vegetable
fiber invariably affects the tensile strength of the wool
fiber, even though the acid and soda have been thoroughly
removed.

10. Bleached cotton yarn and fabrics. The action
of chloride of lime is in no case without its injurious
effects on the fiber. In order to ascertain the relative
loss in tensile strength and so observe the "tendering"
action the raw and the bleached cotton should be tested.

The determinations are made with specially designed
apparatus made for testing fibers, yarns, and fabrics. It
is encouraging to note that governmental contracts for the
delivery of yarns and fabrics are now in almost all cases

84 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

based on a definite strength of materials, so that in this
case also we will soon observe the "survival of the fittest."

Tensile strength is defined as the resistance which
a solid body offers to being pulled apart. It is propor-
tional to the area of the cross-section and independent of
the length of the body, and is measured by the number
of kilograms required to tear apart a body having a
cross-section area of one square millimeter. In the case
of cloths and yarns it is practically impossible to obtain
a definite cross-section, so that in this case the term
"breaking strain" is preferred.

Elasticity is defined as a property possessed by solids to
return to their former shape after deformation. The
elongation which a thread suffers is —

Proportional to the pulling force exerted;

Proportional to the length of the thread; and

Inversely proportional to the cross-section area of the

thread.

The coefficient of elasticity is a fraction which expresses
the increase in length suffered by a piece of the material
having a length of one meter and a cross-section of one
square millimeter, when a weight of one kilogram is at-
tached to the end. Under these conditions a silver wire
stretches 1/7400 or 0.014% of its length. That is to say,
a weight of 7400 kilograms is necessary to stretch the wire
to twice its original length.

The tensile strength of fibers is determined by means of
very delicate apparatus as the values are much smaller
than for yarns. In the following table are given extreme

Note. — Tensile strength testing apparatus is manufactured by Louis
Schopper (Leipzig), Max Kohl (Chemnitz), Henry Baer (Zuerich),
Tarnogrocki (Essen). For the testing of fibers the machine built by
A. S. Mackenzie (Philadelphia) yields excellent results. It is the only
one which has come into extended use.

DETERMINATION OF TENSILE STRENGTH 85

values which have been observed, the numbers indicating
kilograms per square millimeter.

Cotton from 30 (Upland) to 40 (Egyptian)
Wool from 20 (Lincoln) to 40 (merino)
Silk from 35 (boiled-off) to 45 (raw)
Jute from 30 (bleached) to 50 (raw)
Flax from 30 to 36 (Courtrai)

Hemp from 40 to 45 (Italian)

In recording tensile strength determinations it is well
to make a complete analysis of the fabric in order
that the results obtained may be more intelligently inter-
preted, e. g. :

Name of fabric.

Wfeight per square yard in ounces.

Picks per inch (filling).

Ends per inch (warp).

Breaking strain in pounds.

Note. — The length of the sample between the jaws of the two vises
should be 5 inches and the width 1 inch. Knitted fabrics may be cut in
widths corresponding to ten wales.

Yarns and fibers are reported as follows:
Name of the fiber.
Diameter of the fiber.
Tensile strength of the fiber.
Elasticity of the yarn or fiber.
Size (or count) of the yarn.
Breaking strain of the yarn.

The tensile strength of yarns of the same material will
vary with the " count " of the yarn, the length of the

METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

" staple " of the constituent fibers, and the " twist per
inch " applied in spinning. The following table showing
the results of tests with carded cotton yarn is of interest
at this point:

■8 C
§1

8 1

1 •§

* e $

!J w

Average number of fibers

in cross-section of yarn. .
Strength of each fiber in

grains

Calculated strength of yarn

in pounds

Actual strength of yarn in

pounds

120

140

200

5°

100

140

160

no
146

184

100

146

167

150
127

60
150
103

Determination of Humidity.

This determination is of especial importance in the spin-
ning, winding, carding, and weaving of cotton and in the
oxidation or " ageing " of anilin black. The amount of
moisture contained in the air can be ascertained by means
of an instrument known as a hygrometer, the form com-
monly used being known as a wet and dry bulb hygrometer.
The wet bulb consists of a thermometer, around the bulb
of which is wrapped one end of a wick. The other end
of the wick dips into a small bottle of distilled water.
If the air is very warm and dry the water on this bulb
will evaporate quickly with the result that a lower tem-
perature is indicated. The dry bulb is an ordinary
thermometer suspended within a few inches of the wet
bulb. The temperature on the dry bulb is read and then
from a table is ascertained the amount of moisture which

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY 87

the air is capable of holding at this temperature. By
means of the same table we can ascertain how much
moisture the air is capable of holding at the temperature
indicated by the wet thermometer.

The figure corresponding to the wet thermometer is
known as the absolute humidity (A).

The figure corresponding to the dry thermometer is
known as the maximum humidity (M).

The fraction — represents the relative humidity and is

expressed in percentage. For example:

The dry thermometer indicates 77°F. and the wet
thermometer 68° F. From the table we see that

At 77 F. the air is capable of holding 10 grains of water
per cubic foot.

At 68° F. the air is capable of holding 5.9 grains of water
per cubic foot, and

^ X 100 = 59%.

Determination of Specific Gravity.

A. In the dyehouse it is often necessary to determine
the strength of a bath of a tannin extract or of some acid by
a quick and fairly accurate method. In this case a densi-
meter is used. As its name indicates, this instrument is
used to ascertain the density and therefore the concentra-
tion of the liquid. The common forms of densimeter are
the specific gravity spindle, TwaddelFs hydrometer and
Baum^s hydrometer. In the reference table 1 it will be
noticed that TwaddelPs scale bears a direct relation to the
specific gravity scale and is therefore preferable to the
1 See Appendix.

88 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

scale of Baum£. Twaddell divided the space between
the specific gravity i and 2 into 200 parts or degrees.

(168 Tw X 5) + 1000

Conversion: = 1.84 sp. gr.

1000 ** r &

B. Some years ago Vignon suggested that the weighting
of silk could be calculated from the specific gravity of the
sample. Although this application is of no value, the
specific gravity of fibers may in some cases form a basis
for judging the quality of a fiber. A good example of this
is furnished by imitation silk or lustre-cellulose, which
should possess a density very near to that of cotton.

For obtaining the following data an ordinary balance is
required:

Specific gravity of a sample of pure coal-tar ben-
zene (Db).
Weight of the fiber in air (use from 0.5 to 1 gram) (Wa).
Weight of the fiber in the benzene (Wb).

Then Wa — Wb = loss of weight in the benzene, and

-— — -- X Db = the specific gravity of the sample.

Wa — Wb

The average values obtained by Vignon and others are

given below:

Per cent.

Raw silk 1.30 to 1.37

Boiled-off silk i . 25

Wool 1.30

Cotton 1.52

Lustre-cellulose 1.52

Linen , 1.52

Hemp 1 . 48

Jute L48

Ramie 1.52

DETERMINATION OF FASTNESS

8 9

Determination of the Fastness of Dyed Fabrics.

The tests which will receive consideration at this point
include fastness to

alkalis

finishing

rain

air

fulling

sponging

acids

greening

stoving

boiling-off

hot-pressing

soda

chlorine

light

street-dust

carbonization

perspiration

weather

crocking

peroxides

washing.

Alkalis. Cotton. Immerse the sample for 2 minutes
in 10% ammonia solution. Dry without rinsing. In
place of ammonia a 10% soda solution may be used.

Wool. — Immerse the sample in a 20% solution of
soda crystals. Squeeze and dry without rinsing.

Air, light , and weather. The samples are affixed to a
board of convenient size. They are then covered with
a strip of cardboard so that only one-half of the sample
is exposed to the influence of the air, light, and weather.
If a standard sample be exposed at the same time under
the same conditions the relative fastness of the two colors
can readily be observed. If only the fastness to light
is to be tested the experiment must be carried out under
a glass cover. By removing the glass and exposing the
sample to the air protected from the action of dust and
rain the fastness to air may be observed. The fast-
ness to all three influences can be determined by sub-
jecting the sample to the action of light, and exposing it
to the action of the air, dust, and rain at the same time.

Acid. Cotton. 1. Spot the sample with dilute hy-

90 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

drochloric acid containing ioo c.c. of the (sp. gr. = 1.18)
acid per liter. Allow the acid to act for 10 minutes.

2. Spot the sample with a 50% solution of acetic acid.
Allow the acid to act for 10 minutes.

Wool. Spot the sample with dilute hydrochloric acid
containing 300 c.c. of the (sp. gr. = 1.18) acid per liter.
Allow the acid to act for 2 hours.

Boiling-off or degumming. Silk is sometimes dyed
in the raw state, woven up with cotton and afterward
boiled off. In this operation the goods are treated in a
boiling soap solution containing 15 grams of soap per
liter, for two hours.

Chlorine. Cotton. Immerse the sample for one
hour in a solution of chloride of lime. Two experiments
should be carried out, one with a i° B6 and another with
a o.i°B£ solution. Printed colors are frequently sub-
jected to an after-chloring, so that the test is of especial
importance in this case.

Carbonizing. Wool. Treat the sample with sul-
phuric acid (3.5% strength). Squeeze and dry in the
oven for 2 hours at 8o°C. Neutralize with dilute soda
solution. Rinse, dry, and examine. In order to observe
the degree of carbonization to which the sample has been
subjected it is advisable to sew the sample with a few
threads of cotton.

Crocking. Wool. This test may be carried out by
rubbing the sample on a white linen cuff or other suitable
white surface.

Finishing. The varied nature of the finishing processes
makes it necessary to alter the test to suit the particular
case. As one example we might take the following:
Prepare a paste containing 20 grams of potato starch per

DETERMINATION OF FASTNESS 9 1

liter and acidify this with acetic acid. The sample is
rubbed in this at a temperature of about 50 C. The
excess of paste is scraped off and the sample dried on a
hot drum or with a hot iron.

Fulling or milling. Wool. The sample of yarn is
plaited with white wool and white cotton, then thor-
oughly rubbed in a strong solution of soap at 30 C. (25
g. neutral soap + 2 5 g. soda ash per liter). A second
experiment is carried out with a solution containing 50 g.
neutral soap per liter.

For Hats. In the manufacture of felt hats the acid
milling is used, so that in this case the test should be
modified, using a solution of 5 c.c. sulphuric acid in 1000 c.c.
of water.

Cotton. In this case the test is carried out by rub-
bing in a solution of soft soap or by immersing in a 1%
soap solution for 12 hours or by immersing in a soda so-
lution (15 g. soda ash per liter). In all cases the yarn
should be plaited with white wool and white cotton.

Greening. This test is applied to dyeings of anilin
black on cotton. The natural test is to subject the sample
to the action of air, light, and weather and observe the
changes taking place in 4, 8, and 12 weeks. The labora-
tory test may be carried out according to Noelting and
Lehne: 20 grams of sodium bisulphite solution (^8°B6)
are mixed with 20 grams of hydrochloric acid (2i°B£)
and 500 grams of water. The sample is immersed in
this for 10 minutes, rinsed thoroughly with distilled water,
dried, and examined.

Hot-pressing. Cotton. The sample is ironed with
an iron which has been well heated and the change of
color is noted.

92 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Light. (See under Air.) When stating the fastness
to light it is of importance to note whether sunlight or
diffused daylight has acted on the sample. Further-
more the time of exposure should be noted.

Perspiration. The sample of cloth should be sus-
pended about the neck of a white person for 10 days.
The sample may be examined each day in order to note
any change which has taken place. The laboratory test
is carried out with a solution containing 50 grams of 50%
acetic acid and 100 grams of sodium chloride per liter.
Another perspiration substitute which has been suggested
consists of 50 c.c. of 50% acetic acid H- 25 c.c. butyric acid
per liter of distilled water. Whatever solution is used
the sample is dried after each immersion. The fabric
is examined each day in order to note any change which
has taken place.

Peroxides. Cotton and silk. Fabrics made of these
two fibers (satins and other mixed fabrics) sometimes
contain threads of mercerized cotton in the weave. This
dyed yarn must be able to withstand the subsequent
operations of degumming and bleaching to which the
silk is subjected. As the bleaching operation is now
generally carried out with peroxides it is important to
know what action these chemicals have on the coloring
matters.

The test is made to suit the particular case in hand.

Rain. — Fabrics intended for flags, umbrella covers
and raincoats should be colored with dyestuffs capable
of resisting the action of this agency. The sample is
sewed to a piece of white wool, another sample is sewed
to white cotton, and a third to white silk.

The samples so prepared are subjected to the action

DETERMINATION OF FASTNESS 93

of rain and then dried. After- repeating this 5 times the
samples are compared with the standard.

Steaming. This test is best carried out by placing
the sample between two layers of a cloth which is about
to pass through the actual steaming operation in the
works. A small piece of undyed fabric should be simul-
taneously steamed in the case of wool, as this fiber is
sometimes yellowed during the steaming process.

Staving. Wool. — The sample is washed in soap
water, wrung out, and then placed in a sulphur box for
12 hours. The sample should be previously plaited with
white wool yarn and white cotton yarn. These should
finally be examined to see if the color has bled. The
fumes of sulphur dioxide may be generated by burning
sulphur or by decomposing sodium bisulphite with sul-
phuric acid.

Soda. Cotton. — The sample is plaited with white
cotton yarn and boiled for one-half hour in a solution of
2 grams soda ash per liter. Notice whether the color
has bled or become paler.

Wool. — The sample is plaited with white wool and
white cotton and immersed for 6 hours in a solution of
soda ash (20 g. per liter).

Street dust. Wool and silk. — A milk of lime is pre-
pared by rubbing down 200 grams of lime with 1500 c.c.
of water. The sample is spotted with this mixture, then
allowed to dry, and finally brushed.

Weather. This has already been discussed under
Air.

Washing. Cotton. — The sample is treated with a
solution containing 2 grams neutral soap per liter for
one-half hour. Two experiments are carried out, one at

94 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

6o° C. and the other at roo° C. The change in shade
of the sample is noticed.

Wool. — The sample is treated with a solution con-
taining 2 grams soap and 0.5 g. soda ash per liter for 15
minutes. The change in shade is noted.

In carrying out the tests above outlined it must be re-
membered that the term "fastness" is in every case
meant to be "relative fastness." There are up to the
present time no instruments which enable us to draw
absolute comparisons between two dyestuflfs on the fiber.
Of all properties, the fastness to light is probably the most
important, so that this should be determined in every
case, while the other tests may be applied as the necessity
for the same may arise.

PART III.

Materials, Processes, and Products.

The matter presented in this section is but an outline
of the chemical technology of a few important textile
processes. The complete analysis of "materials" has
been omitted as being a subject not peculiar to the
textile industry. * The enumeration of the various
operations performed in the individual processes it was
thought would be of value for obtaining a survey of the
subject and so make possible a more logical chemical
control. The three main points of each operation which
have been specified as far as possible are the concen-
tration of the bath, the temperature of the bath, and the
duration of the treatment.

Cotton Bleaching.

Materials.

Bleaching powder. (Chloride of lime, Chemic.) De-
termine calcium chloride, calcium oxide, calcium car-
bonate, and available chlorine. The latter may be
determined by titration with arsenious acid. The
main constituent of bleaching powder is calcium hypo-
chlorite (CaCl 2 2 ). The best commercial article contains
about 40% available chlorine.

1 Those desiring more complete data concerning the analysis of
dyers* materials will find the volume " Faerberei-chemische Unter-
suchungen " by Paul Heermann, Julius Springer, Berlin, 1907 (second
edition), a valuable help.

98 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Water. — The most desirable water for bleaching pur-
poses is what is technically known as an upland surface
water. Such mountain water is preferred because it has
not yet drained through any limestone and therefore
contains a negligible amount of impurities. Hard water
(i. e., water which contains lime and magnesium salts
in solution) will form insoluble compounds when used
in conjunction with soap. These insoluble compounds
then remain in the fabric only to spoil the appearance of
the bleach and render the goods harsh. The presence of
iron in the water makes it totally unfit for use in bleach-
ing, owing to the red-brown color of iron compounds.

Lime. — The removal of the wax from the fiber in
the boiling-oflf operation is sometimes effected with lime.
A good quality of lime (" fat lime ") should contain only
small amounts of magnesia and alumina and be free from
iron.'

Caustic potash and caustic soda. — Determine chlo-
rides, sulphates, carbonated alkali, caustic alkali, and
water. The caustic alkalis are used for removing the
cotton wax in the boiling off of raw cotton.

Rosin (colophony). — This is the solid residue left after
the crude turpentine has been distilled. It should be
brittle, tasteless, and have a smooth shiny fracture. Fifty
grams of rosin and 5 grams of caustic soda boiled in
30 c.c. water for 15 minutes should yield a clear solution.
Rosin is sometimes used in the boiling-off operation
because of its supposed cleansing action.

Muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid). — This acid is used
in preference to "oil of vitriol" for the souring of the
goods after the chemic bath, as calcium chloride is sol-
uble in water, whereas calcium sulphate is only slightly

COTTON BLEACHING. PROCESSES 99

soluble. The acid used in the bleach process should
contain not more than 0.03% iron.

Antichlor. — Substances bearing this name are at
times used in place of the acid bath for souring the goods
and at the same time removing the excess of chlorine.
Sodium bisulphite and sodium thiosulphate are most
suitable for this purpose. The commercial products may
be valuated by titration with iodine.

Sulphonated oils. — Turkey-red oil and other oils " sol-
uble in water" are used in the wetting out of cotton in
conjunction with caustic soda. The best turkey-red
oil is made from castor oil (acetyl number above 140).
Determine total fat, neutral fat, fatty acids, solubility in
distilled water, solubility in hard water containing 400
parts CaCOg per million. The effect of the oil is to pro-
duce a better white and give the goods a soft feel.

Soap. — After the goods have been bleached they are
soaped in order to remove any harmful substances and
give the goods a soft feel. The soap used for this pur-
pose should be neutral and free from filling materials.
If free .(imcombined) fat is present decomposition will
soon take place and the fiber will be tendered or at least
be turned yellow.

Processes.

1. Boiling off. The goods are boiled in a kier for 6
or 7 hours with a solution of caustic soda or caustic potash
having a concentration of 0.5% (1 pound soda to 200
pounds, or 24 gallons, water).

2. Rinsing. The greater part of the caustic liquor
is removed by washing with cold water.

3. Bleaching. The bleach or chemic bath consists of

IOO METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

a clear chloride of lime solution having a concentration
of 0.7 to 2 B6. The goods may be left in this bath for
i hour to 2 hours, depending on the concentration of the
liquor. The bleaching takes place in the cold, and care
must be taken that no solid particles of lime get into the
bath, as these may cause spots.

4. Rinsing. The greater part of the chemic solution
is removed by rinsing in cold water.

5. Souring. In order to complete the bleach the
goods are often passed direct into a weak bath of hydro-
chloric acid without previous washing. Three pounds of
acid of 22 B6. may be used for every 12 gallons of water
and the goods left in this cold solution for about 2 hours.
The bath should have a specific gravity of about 1.005.

5a. Antichlor. In some cases a bath of bisulphite of
soda is used instead of the acid. The commercial "bi-
sulphite" of 38 B6. is used in the proportion of 2 pounds
for every 100 pounds of goods. The goods are entered
in this bath after the fourth operation and worked in the
cold until all the free chlorine has been removed from
the goods.

6. Rinsing. After the antichlor or the acid bath the
goods must be thoroughly washed in cold water.

7. Soaping. In order to give the goods a soft feel
they are now passed through a weak soap solution. For
this purpose a good neutral soap is desirable and the tem-
perature of the water should be about ioo° F. (use 3
pounds soap per 100 pounds goods).

8. Rinsing. This final operation is frequently re-
sorted to in order to avoid any discoloration of the goods
after storing. Soft water at a temperature of ioo°F.
must be used.

COTTON BLEACHING. PRODUCTS IOI

Products.

The analytical tests applied to bleached goods include
the determination of,

i. The tensile strength of the fabric before bleaching.

2. The tensile strength of the fabric after bleaching.

3. The fatty matter.

4. The lime-soaps.

5. The ash.

6. The detection of oxycellulose.

7. The detection of free chlorine in the goods after
the acid or antichlor bath.

8. The detection of free acid in the goods after rinsing
(before drying).

9. The detection of lime, resin, and bleach spots.

10. Comparison of the color of the bleached goods
with accepted standards.

As tests 1 and 2 have been fully discussed in the
chapter on tensile strength the reader is referred to that
article.

3. The estimation of the fats, resins, and waxes which
have been left in the fabric is carried out with a sample
weighing about 10 grams. This is extracted in a Soxhlet
apparatus with petroleum ether which has been recently
distilled to remove any tarry matter. The amount of
solvent necessary is found by filling the Soxhlet extractor
until the contents siphon off freely. Some excess should
be allowed for loss by evaporation. The dry extraction
flask should be accurately weighed before use. If the
extractor has siphoned off regularly the operation will be
finished in about 90 minutes. The extraction flask is now

102 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

placed on a water-bath, whereby the solvent distills off
and the fats remain. The increase in weight of the
flask will show the amount of fats and the like present
in the weighed sample. The amount of fatty matter
permissible in well-bleached goods is usually taken as .05
per cent, but it is quite possible to produce cloth with as
little as .025 per cent. The amount of fatty matter present
may also be calculated from the loss in weight of the
fabric. In this case the sample must be dried at no° C.
and accurately weighed both before and after extraction.

4. The ideal bleached fabric contains no appreciable
amount of lime soaps. As, however, nearly all natural
water contains some lime salts in solution the formation
of a small quantity of this insoluble soap can hardly be
avoided; another cause of their presence is the boiling
off of the cloth in the kiers. If lime is used, the waxy
matters which are softened by the process are very prone
to combine with it to form a soap. A third source of the
trouble is the imperfect washing of the goods before
bleaching. The estimation of the amount of calcium
soap present is carried out as follows:

A sample which has been thoroughly degreased in a
Soxhlet extractor is immersed for thirty minutes in a
mixture of 5 grams of concentrated hydrochloric acid
and 95 c.c. of distilled water and then well washed and
dried. By this operation the lime is converted into
soluble calcium chloride, while the free fatty acid remains
on the fabric. The sample is dried and extracted with
petroleum ether as before. The fatty acids may be
weighed and reported as such. They may in addition
to this be dissolved in alcohol and titrated with ^ normal
caustic potash solution, using phenolphtalein as an indi-

COTTON BLEACHING. PRODUCTS I03

cator. The maximum amount of fatty acid in the form
of lime soap permissible in properly bleached goods is .05
per cent. If this amount is exceeded the souring and
rinsing operations require investigation.

5. Although the raw cotton lint contains as much as
1.65 per cent of ash, pure cellulose leaves on ignition no
ash at all. This gives another method by which to de-
termine the perfection of the bleach, for the object in
bleaching is to remove all extraneous matter and obtain
the cellulose in as pure a form as possible. Whether or
not the operation has been successful may be judged by
the amount of mineral matter which a sample of the fabric
leaves on ignition. Take about a 5-gram sample, deter-
mine its weight accurately, cut into small pieces and place
in a porcelain crucible. Now burn off the organic matter
until the remaining ash is white or light gray. The in-
crease in weight of the crucible will show the amount of
mineral matter present in the sample taken; it should not
exceed 0.1 per cent. This ash consists essentially of
calcium oxide and a small amount of silicates. The
former is due to the lime soaps in the fabric, while the
latter is attributed by some to mechanically adhering
matter with which the raw cotton is sometimes willfully
adulterated.

6. The detection of oxycellulose is of extreme impor-
tance, as careful tests have shown that its presence not
only interferes with the dyeing of level shades but also
considerably affects the tensile strength of the fabric.
This weakening of the fiber becomes especially evident
in the subsequent treatment of the fabric with alkalies
or soap, so that it may escape notice until the goods are
finally sold at retail. The housewife then discovers to

104 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

her dismay that the goods appear rotten after the first
washing.

The formation of the oxycellulose is generally caused
by undue exposure of the goods to light and air after re-
moval from the bleach bath; then again it may result
from the use of very strong bleach baths, but the chemical
change which takes place is in both cases an oxidation.
The test usually recommended to determine the presence
of this oxidation product depends upon its affinity for the
basic coloring matters. Five grams of methylene blue are
dissolved in iooo grams of boiling water. The previously
moistened fabric is now immersed in this for about ten
minutes and then washed. The presence of oxycellulose
in the fabric is indicated by spots or stripes which have
been dyed a bright blue, while the rest is only slightly
tinged. This test, though apparently simple, requires
some experience if the results obtained are to be properly
interpreted.

Another excellent test is carried out as follows: Boil
the fabric thoroughly in water in order to remove any fin-
ishing material. Then squeeze and boil for five minutes
in a mixture of 30 c.c. of Fehling's solution and 20 c.c. of
water. A red color on the fabric due to the deposited
cuprous oxide (Cu 2 0) indicates the presence of oxidized
cellulose. This latter oxidation product may be prepared
artificially by saturating a fabric with bleach solution
and then exposing in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide.

7. In order to obtain a purer white and to remove
the excess of chlorine from the fiber the goods are passed
through the acid bath. As this treatment with muriatic
acid often leaves the goods harsh many bleachers prefer
to use sodium hyposulphite (Na2S 2 Og) or sodium bisul-

COTTON BLEACHING. PRODUCTS I OS

phite (NaHSOg) to insure a "soft feel." If used in
sufficient quantity these substances effectually remove the
chlorine which remains in the goods after the bleach bath,
according to the following reactions:

2 Na^O, + 2 CI = 2 NaCl + Na^O,.
NaHS0 3 + 2 CI + H 2 = 2 HC1 + NaHS0 4 .

To determine whether all the chlorine has been re-
moved the washed fabric is immersed in a io per cent
solution of potassium iodide to which a few drops of
boiled starch solution have been added. The appear-
ance of a blue color indicates the presence of free chlo-
rine. This in turn shows that an insufficient quantity
of " antichlor " has been used.

8. The presence of free mineral acid in cotton goods
which are to be exposed to high temperatures is extremely
detrimental to the strength of the fabric. The goods
may be tested by moistening with a few drops of a yellow
solution of methyl orange. Free acid will turn the color
to red.

9. The detection of the presence of lime and of resin
spots in a lot of goods is especially important in case they
are to be afterward dyed with alizarine colors. The
best test is to dye a 10-gram sample of the bleached
goods with alizarine red according to the usual method,
whereby the spots will show up distinctly.

Finally reference should be made to a test which is ser-
viceable in the examination of bleached linen cloth. Well-
bleached linen should not be discolored when steeped
in a 10 per cent solution of ammonia. If the linen is
colored at all yellow by this treatment it is an indication

106 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

that the pectin and waxy matters have not been properly
removed.

10. When observing the color of bleached cloth, i. e.,
the purity of the white attained, the cloth should always
be laid double and examined in a good north light, other-
wise a dark background may detract from the appearance of
the goods. Two lots of the same goods bleached consecu-
tively may yet appear 6f different tints, even though the
bluing was the same in both cases. This is often due to
a difference in the yarn used. The cream white, which is
usually undesirable, is corrected by tinting with ultra-
marine or methyl-violet. The fact that various coloring
matters are at present used for this purpose makes it
difficult at times to compare bleached garments purchased
at different establishments. Before concluding that one
fabric is more valuable than another because of the purity
of the white it would be well in some cases to make a com-
parative test of the tensile strength of the two samples.

Note. Cotton which has become discolored by undue exposure to
rain and frost can not be bleached a perfect white ("Blue benders
cotton").

Turkey-red.
Materials.

The chemical control of the materials used in the
turkey-red dyehouse includes the examination of

i. The water used for dyeing. This should be free
from iron, otherwise a black ink will be produced in the
fiber when the goods are worked in the tannin or sumac
bath. Moreover the iron-alizarine lakes are much darker
than the aluminium lakes, so that shades would be
obtained varying in dullness according to the amount

TURKEY-RED I07

of iron present. For the same reason the other chem-
icals used must be practically free from this impurity.
On the other hand the water used for dyeing should con-
tain a certain amount of lime salts in order that the for-
mation of the aluminium-lime-alizarine lake may take
place. In the case of soft water* whiting or in some cases
acetate of lime {free from iron) is added. Excellent
results are obtained with water of the hardness of 9
(French). 1 If the water is too hard it must be pre-
viously softened with acetic acid. The alkalinity, of
the water is determined by titrating 1000 c.c. with
decinormal hydrochloric acid. The amount of acetic
acid necessary to soften the water is then ascertained
from a table. The water used in the final operations of
clearing or brightening shoyld be soft, otherwise the soap
used will be precipitated as insoluble lime soap. A pale
gray bloom is thereby imparted to the fabric and the
brilliancy of the color is in most cases ruined.

2. Turkey-red oil. This is used as a fixing agent for
the aluminium salts as it makes the colors fast to soaping.
It is preferably made of good quality castor oil, but it
should in every case be made from a non-drying oil. It
must show no turbidity when added to hard water of
20 (French) after adding ammonium hydroxide to alka-
line reaction. A turbidity or precipitate indicates that
impure castor oil, rape, cotton or olive oil has been used.
The oil should be slightly alkaline or neutral and should
contain at least 50% fatty acids.

3. Olive oil (called tournant oil or Gallipoli oil when
fermented), used in the emulsion process for turkey-red.

1 One degree hardness (French scale) indicates one part calcium
carbonate in 100,000 parts of water (10 parts per million).

108 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

4. Castor oil, used for making sulphated oils. For
this purpose only the pure oil should be used; castor
oil foots are unsuitable. The red oil prepared from
the latter material causes turbidity when used with
hard water.

5. Marseilles soap, used for the final brightening bath,
should be perfectly neutral and free from filling ma-
terials.

6. Sumac assists in fixing the alumina and causes the
alizarin to be taken up evenly.

7. Tannic acid, used as a substitute for sumac in pale
shades. The presence of tannic acid in some form or
other is essential for the production of reds fast to
chlorine.

8. Glue is added to the dyebath in case the fabric
contains a white reserve in order to prevent any bleed-
ing of the color.

9. Starch paste, used in the dyebath because of the
cleansing action which it exerts on the color lakes.

10. Aluminium sulphate, used for mordanting. This
material should not contain more than 0.001% of iron.

11. Aluminium acetate (red liquor), used as a mor-
dant in steam alizarin red on calico. The commer-
cial " liquor' ' of 6° B6. must not contain more than
0.005% iron.

12. Calcium acetate, used for hardening the water
of the dyebath in order to make possible the formation
of the lake.

13. Soda ash (sodium carbonate), used for neutralizing
part of the acid in the alum mordant bath.

14. Sodium stannate, used for brightening and as an
adjunct in the oiling operation.

TURKEY-RED. IO9

15. Whiting (calcium carbonate), used for hardening
the water in the dyeing operation.

16. Tin crystals (stannous chloride), used in some cases
in place of sodium stannate for brightening.

Processes. 1
1. Old Style or Emulsion Method.
In this process the yarn is treated as follows:

1. Boil off with soda ash to remove impurities.

2. Impregnate with a cold emulsion of tournant oil
and 'soda whereby the alkali salts of the fatty acids are
deposited on the fiber.

3. Wring oat.

4. Dry at about so°F. for 12 hours. Hereby the
deposited alkali salts are probably oxidized into salts of
the oxy-fatty acids.

5. Rinse thoroughly with water of 50 F. in which
a small amount of soda ash is dissolved, in order to
remove any unchanged fat.

6. Place the yarn in an infusion of sumac leaves at
5o°F. for 5 hours. For this purpose a 15% infusion
having a sp. gr. of 1.0075 is prepared.

7. Mordant in a 12% solution of aluminium sulphate
for 24 hours at 50 F. The alum, which should be pre-

1 Among the numerous processes for dyeing turkey-red may be
mentioned the following:

1) Old style, emulsion process with olive oil emulsion.

2) Old style, Steiner process with clear hot olive oil.

3) New style, sulphated oil process with dry mordant.

4) New style, sulphated oil process with wet mordant (Wesserling).

5) Sulphite-alizarine red (Hoechst) dyed with sodium pyrosulphite.

6) The aluminate processes (Schlieper and Baum).

IIO METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

viously neutralized with soda, should be free from iron.
The concentration of the bath should correspond to a sp. gr.
of 1.04.

8. Rinse in hard water in order to neutralize any
acid remaining in the yarn from the mordant bath.

9. Dye in a bath containing alizarin, sumac and bul-
locks' blood. Work at 212 F. for one and one half
hours. The water used in this operation should not con-
tain any iron but should possess a hardness of about 9
to 10 degrees (French).

10. The clearing operation consists in boiling the yarn
under } atmosphere pressure with 3% soda ash (to* re-
move impurities).

11. The yarn is brightened by boiling under a pres-
sure of £ atmosphere with 3% palm soap and 0.1% tin
crystals, or by

1 1 a. Passing the yarn through a cold solution of tin
crystals and then soaping.

12. The yarn is finally subjected to a thorough wash-
ing in cold water.

New Style or Sulplutied Oil Method {dry).

1. Boil off the yarn with 3% soda ash.

2. Rinse and wring.

3. Impregnate with a mixture of turkey-red oil and
sodium stannate and wring.

4. Steam under 5 pounds pressure for one hour.

5. Mordant with aluminium sulphate (free from iron)
previously neutralized with sodium carbonate. Sp. gr.
of the bath 1.0500; wring.

6. Dry at 120 F. and then hang in the air.

TURKEY-RED III

The operations 2 to 6 are now repeated if it is desired
to produce a more fiery red which is also much faster to
soaping.

7. Chalk in a bath containing 4 pounds of whiting
per 100 gallons of water. Temperature of the bath
H5°F.

81 Rinse and wring.

9. Dye for 2\ hours at 140 F. in a bath containing
15 pounds alizarin, 2 pounds calcium acetate, per 100
pounds of yarn.

10. Wring and dry.

n. Steam under one atmosphere pressure for two
hours (the shade is hereby brightened).

12. The brightening proper is done in a bath contain-
ing 1000 pounds of water (120 gals.), 2 pounds Marseilles
soap, 0.3 pound soda ash and 0.1 pound sodium stannate.
Boil under two atmospheres pressure for two hours.

13. Rinse thoroughly and dry in the open air.

Note. The steam pressures given indicate pressure in excess of
normal atmospheric pressure. One " Atmosphere " is equivalent to
a pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch.

Products.

1. Examination of the bleached goods before dyeing.
If the goods have been improperly bleached so that lime
remains in them, these portions will attract the coloring
matter more readily than the rest of the yarn or fabric
so that unevenness will result. Calico intended for
turkey-red is not given the full madder bleach, as no
white ground is necessary and the bleaching powder might
cause the formation of oxycellulose and uneven shades.

112 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

2. Detection and determination of aluminium, cal-
cium, and tin in the finished fabric. A normal red, ac-
cording to Liechti and Suida, has the composition ex-
pressed by the formula ALjOg • CaO • (C, 4 H e O s )3, and
one square meter of the goods should contain 0.198
gram A^Oj and 0.099 gram of calcium oxide. The
commercial turkey-reds, however, contain much more
alumina without any additional fastness or beauty. In
fact the harshness of fabrics dyed with turkey-red oil
seems to be due to the formation of aluminium soaps with
the fatty acids. Tin will be found as oleate of tin in old-
style turkey-reds, as in this process the final brightening
is done with palm soap and tin crystals.

3. Examination of the red for purity of shade. Aliz-
arin reds dyed by the sulphated oil process will have
either a yellow or a blue cast, depending upon the par-
ticular method pursued. Thus if the goods are oiled
slightly after the dyeing operation a blue red will result;
if, however, the goods are well oiled before mordanting
and again after dyeing, or if tin crystals be used for
brightening, a yellowish red will be obtained. Bluish
reds are also obtained by the use of Para soap. 1

4. Fastness of the red to various agencies. A good
turkey-red should be fast to chlorine; this is of especial
importance in the case of towels which are afterwards
to be bleached. The red should also be fast to light
soap, acids, and to crocking.

5. Tests to distinguish turkey-red from other cotton
reds.

1 Para soap is an ammonium compound of sulphated castor oil,
manufactured by the Hoechst Color Works.

TURKEY-RED 113

Turkey-red.
Baryta water: changes it to violet on boiling.
Nitric acid: produces a yellow spot.
Chromic acid : bleaches it.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid : changes the color to

orange or pale yellow.
10% caustic soda: produces a violet spot.
Stannous chloride: in cold, acid solution, does not

affect the color.

ParanUr aniline red.

The color penetrates the whole fabric, whereas in

the case of alizarin red the dye is superficially

deposited. Para-red is not so fast to light and

weather as is turkey-red.
Concentrated sulphuric acid: deep red which changes

to brown on dilution.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid : almost no change.
Concentrated nitric acid : color changes to carmin.
Ammonia: almost no change.
10% caustic soda: dark brick red.
Stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid: decolorized.

Direct red (benzo, diamine, congo, etc.).
Boiling water : color partly removed.
Acetic acid: color turns black; returns on applying

ammonia.
Concentrated sulphuric acid : deep blue.
Concentrated hydrochloric acid: bright blue.
Concentrated nitric acid: yellow to light brown.
Ammonia: no change.

114 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Anilin Black.
Materials.

Anilin oil. The analysis of this substance should
include a quantitative determination of anilin, toluidin,
nitrobenzol, and water. The specific gravity and boiling
point should also be determined.

Anilin salt. This should be neutral and free from
toluidin.

Hydrochloric acid is used in the dyebath as a solvent for
f he anilin oil.

Potassium chlorate ) are used in the dyebath as oxidiz-

Copper sulphate ) ing agents.

Ammonium vanadate ) are used in the dyebath as car-

Copper sulphide ) riers of oxygen.

Ferrous sulphate is added to the dye liquor to prevent
" after-greening " of the black. In the liquor it is quickly
changed to ferric sulphate, which then acts as the oxidiz-
ing agent.

Ammonium chloride is added to the impregnating
liquor to provide moisture for the oxidizing chamber.

Potassium ferrocyanide is used in Prudhomme's black
to render the hydrochloric acid harmless.

Potassium bichromate is used for finally developing
the emeraldin to anilin black.

Soaps, oils, and softeners are used for the final washing
in order to give the goods a soft feel, as they would* other-
wise be very harsh to the touch.

Processes.

i. Dyeing. The goods are impregnated with the ani-
lin liquor in the tom-tom at a temperature of about

ANILIN BLACK IIS

6o° F. Below is given an example of a padding
liquor:

60 lbs. of anilin salt dissolved in 32 gals, of water.

2.75 lbs. copper sulphate dissolved in 6 gals, of water.

19 lbs. sodium chlorate dissolved in 4 gals, of water.

2 lbs. sal ammoniac dissolved in 1 gal. of water.

25. lbs. aluminium acetate liquor (16 Tw.).

Add water to bring the bath to 12 Tw. = sp. gr. 1.06.

2. Extracting. The goods are placed in the whizzer
in order to remove the excess of liquor.

3. Drying, and

4. Ageing. These two operations take place in the
so-called "oxidizing cage," and require from 3 to 8 hours,
depending on the temperature of the chamber. The
thermometer should not rise above i2o°F. and the devel-
opment and intensity of the green should be observed
from time to time.

In order that the process in the oxidizing chamber
may take place rapidly and properly a moist atmosphere
is necessary. This may be attained by passing steam
into the compartment directly or by means of a steam
pipe leading into a box of water. For the determination
of the amount of moisture in the room an instrument
known as the hygrometer l or psychrometer is used. This
consists essentially of two thermometers (a dry and a
wet bulb). The dry bulb indicates as usual the tem-
perature of the room and the wet bulb indicates indirectly
the amount of moisture in the room. On a foggy day
the two thermometers, if placed outside, will show the
same temperatures, as no evaporation can take place.

1 See page 86.

Il6 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY '

A suitable condition in the ageing room is: wet bulb
90 F., dry bulb 95 F. equal to a relative humidity of 86%.

Some dyers, using a larger proportion of anilin oil than
others, allow: wet bulb ii5°F., dry bulb i20°F. equal
to a relative humidity of 86%.

5. Tumbling. This operation has for its purpose
the removal of the protruding fibers, and is performed
after the goods have dried in the cage.

5a. Singeing (takes the place of tumbling for fine
work). The "lisle finish" is given to stockings by passing
them very rapidly over gas flames in the singeing machine,
in order to remove the protruding fibers.

6. Chroming. At this stage of the process the emeral-
din is converted into the black nigranilin by working
the goods in a bath containing 3 lbs. of potassium
bichromate for each 100 lbs. of goods. Work for 15
to 30 minutes at 120 F.

7. Rinsing. The goods are well washed with water
in order to remove the excess of chrome.

8. Softening. The goods are entered in a bath con-
taining olive-oil, olive-oil soap, and sodium carbonate.
Agitate in this bath at 190 F. for 15 minutes.

9. 10, 11. Rinse, whizz, and dry.

Note. Since the formation of anilin black is due to an oxidation
process which is energetic and proceeds with considerable rapidity, there
is great danger of the formation of oxycellulose and a tendering of the
fiber. Attention should therefore be paid to the temperature of the
dyebath and the ageing chamber, the degree of moisture in the ageing
chamber and the duration of the oxidizing operation.

Products.

1. Determine the tensile strength of the fabric before
and after dyeing.

MERCERIZATION 1 1 7

2. Determine the amount of mineral matter in the
finished fabric.

In goods which have been imperfectly washed chro-
mium will be found. Logwood blacks leave an ash con-
taining iron, and can therefore be readily distinguished.

3. Determine the fastness of the finished black to soap,
soda, light, " greening," acids, perspiration, and crocking.

4. Examine the black for its quality. The various
blacks found on cotton goods dyed by different methods
have blue, red, or green casts. The intensity of the black
depends among other things on the amount of anilin
oil used.

5. Tests for blacks encountered on cotton goods, as
compared with anilin black:

Bleaching powder: A \° Tw. solution intensifies ani-
lin black. A 4 Tw. solution turns anilin black a red
brown. Characteristic reactions.

Stannous chloride (with hydrochloric acid) — color not
affected. Distinction from sulphur black.

Sodium hydrosulphite — color removed but returns on
washing. Distinction from diazo-blacks.

Boiling water — color unaffected and water remains
clear. Distinction from direct blacks.

Boiling dilute sulphuric acid — color does not turn
red. Distinction from logwood black.

Mercerization.
Materials.
Turkey-red oil, sodium silicate, soap, used for boiling
off .the yarn previous to mercerizing.

Caustic soda, used in a concentration of 55 to 6o° Tw.
(1.3 sp. gr.) at 65 F. for mercerizing.

Il8 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Alcohol and glycerol, added to the mercerizing liquor to
facilitate the uniform impregnation of the yarn. Use
about 5% on weight of goods.

Glucose and ether, added to the mercerizing liquor to
avoid the necessity of exerting tension (obsolete).

Zinc oxide, an adjunct to the mercerizing liquor.

Ammonia, added to the rinsing water to neutralize any
free acid.

Acetic acid and tartaric acid, used for giving the yarn
the effect of the "silk scroop."

Sulphuric acid, used for neutralizing the excess of
caustic soda liquor which remains in the goods after
washing.

Process.

i. The yarn is boiled off with soap, soda or sulphated
oil, not with caustic alkalis.

2. Rinse and whizz.

3. Mercerize under tension (temperature never above
65° F.).

4. Rinse in fresh water.

5. Rinse in water acidified with acetic acid or sul-
phuric acid (cold).

6. Rinse thoroughly with fresh water.

7. If mineral acids have been used the goods are
now soaped.

8. Dry.

It is preferable to singe the yarn before mercerizing
and bleach the yarn after it has been mercerized.

Products.
1. Examination of the cotton fiber before merceriza-
tion; long stapled Egyptian or Sea Island cotton is best
adapted for purposes of mercerization.

CARBONIZATION 119

2. Determination of the tensile strength of the raw
yarn before mercerizing.

3. Determination of the tensile strength of the yarn
after mercerizing.

4. Examination of the product for the quality of the
lustre.

5. Examination of the product for the silk-scroop.

6. Examination of the product for the affinity for dyes.

Carbonization.

Materials.

Carbonizing agents: Sulphuric acid of sp. gr. — 1.025.
Hydrochloric acid in the gaseous form.
Aluminium chloride of sp. gr. 1.050.
Magnesium chloride of sp. gr. 1.075.
Sodium silicate.

Sodium bisulphate of sp. gr. 1.050.
Sodium carbonate, used for neutralizing the acid left in
the goods after carbonization.

Process.

1. Impregnate with sulphuric acid of 5 Tw. (1.025
sp. gr.) at ordinary temperatures for about two hours.

2. Extract in the whizzer.

3. Dry at 100 F. and finally at 150 F. for 5 hours.

4. Rinse in fresh water.

5. Neutralize any free acid which may have remained
in the goods by working in a bath of sodium carbonate
of 3 Tw.

6. Rinse thoroughly.

120 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

Products.

i. Detection of acid spots. These are due to im-
perfect neutralization of the sulphuric acid by the soda
bath and give rise to uneven dyeing.

2. Detection of soda spots. These are due to imper-
fect washing of the goods after the soda bath.

3. The analysis of regenerated wool (shoddy). De-
termine

Water, by drying at 105 C. to constant weight.

Grease, by extracting with ether.

Ash, by igniting in a porcelain crucible.

Cotton, by dissolving the wool with caustic soda.

Length of fiber by measurement.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

Areometry or Hydrometry.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, BAUME DEGREES AND
TWADDLE DEGREES.

Tw.

B£

Sp. Gr.

Tw.

B6.

Sp. Gr.

Tw.

B6.

Sp. Gr.

1. 000

19.8

1. 160

35-o

1.320

0.7

1.005

20.3

1. 165

35-4

I-325

1.4

1. 010

20.9

1. 170

35-8

1-330

2.1

1. 015

21.4

i-i75

36.2

1-335

2.7

1.020

22.0

1. 180

36.6

1.340

3-4

1.025

22.5

1. 185

37-o

1-345

4.1

1.030

23.0

1. 190

37-4

i.35o

4.7

1 -03S

23-5

1 -195

37.8

1-355

5-4

1.040

24.0

1.200

38.2

1.360

6.0

1.045

24-5

1.205

38.6

1.365

6.7

1.050

25.0

1. 2 10

39-o

i.37o

7-4

i-°55

25.5

1. 215

39-4

1-375

8.0

1.060

26.0

1.220

39-8

1.380

8.7

1.065

26.4

1.225

40.1

1.385

9.4

1.070

26.9

1.230

40.5

1.390

10.

I-Q75

27.4

1-235

40.8

i-395

10.6

1.080

27.9

1.240

41.2

1.400

11. 2

1.085

28.4

1.245

41.6

1.405

11. 9

1.090

28.8

1.250

42.0

1. 410

12.4

1.095

29.3

1.255

? 3

42.3

1. 415

13.0

1. 100

29.7

1.260

42.7

1.420

13.6

1. 105

30.2

1.265

43-i

1.425

14.2

1. no

30.6

1.270

43-4

1.430

14.9

1. 115

3i. 1

1.275

43-8

1-435

15.4

1. 120

3i.5

1.280

44.1

1.440

16.0

1. 125

32.0

1.285

44-4

1-445

16. s

1. 130

32.4

1.290

44-8

1.450

17. 1

1. 135

32.8

i-295

45-i

1-455

17.7

1. 140

33-3

1.300

45-4

1.460

18.3

1. 145

33-7

1.305

45-8

1.465

18.8

1. 150

34.2

1. 310

46.1

1.470

19-3

1. 155

34-6

1. 3i5

46.4

1-475

123

124

METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY, BAUME DEGREES AND

twaddle degrees. — Continued.

Tw.

B6. Sp

.Gr.

Tw.

B6.

Sp. Gr.

Tw.

B6.

Sp. Gr.

46.7 1

480

122

54.7

1. 610

148

61.4

1.740

47-i 1

485

123

55-0

1.615

149

61.6

1-745

47.4 1

490

124

55-2

1.620

150

61.8

I.750

47.8 1

495

125

55-5

I.625

151

62.1

i-755

100

48.1 1

500

126

55-8

1.630

152

62.3

1.760

IOI

48.4 1

5o5

127

56.0

1.635

153

62.5

1.765

102

48.7 1

5io

128

56.3

I.640

154

62.8

1.770

103

49.0 1

515

129

56.6

1.645

155

63.0

1-775

104

49-4 1

520

130

56.9

1.650

156

63.2

1.780

i°5

49-7 1

525

131

57-i

1.655

157

63-5

1.785

106

So-o 1

53o

132

57-4

1.660

158

63-7

1.790

107

So. 3 1

535

133

57-7

1.665

159

64.0

1.795

108

50.6 1

54o

134

57.9

I.670

160

64.2

1.800

109

50.9 1

545

135

58.2

1-675

161

64.4

1.805

51.2 1

55o

136

58.4

1.680

162

64.6

1. 810

5i-5 1

555

137

58.7

1.685

163

64.8

1.815

112

51.8 1

560

138

58.9

1.690

164

65.0

1.820

52. 1 1

565

139

59-2

1.695

165

65.2

1.825

114

52.4 1

57o

140.

59-5

I.700

166

65.5

1.830

S2.7 1

575

141

59-7

I-705

167

65.7

1.835

116

53.o 1

580

142

60.0

1. 710

568

65.9

1.840

117

53-3 1

585

143

60.2

I- 715

169

66.1

1.845

118

53-6 1

59o

144

60.4

1.720

170

66.3

1.850

119

53-9 1

595

145

60.6

I-725

171

66.5

1.855

120

54. 1 1

600

146

60.9

I-730

172

66.7

1.860

121

54.4 1

605

147

61. 1

1-735

173

67.0

1.865

The determination of the strength of acids and alkalis
by means of the hydrometer or spindle is as a rule open
to objection as the solution may contain salts in addition
to the particular acid or alkali which is being tested for.
The safe method is to make a titration with a standard
or deci-normal solution of hydrochloric acid or sodium
hydroxide, as the case may be.

APPENDIX II

Steiger and Gruenberg's Table.

For the calculation of the weighting when the per-
centage of nitrogen in the silk is known. The figures
for Japan silk are based on a content of 20% of gum
while the figures for yellow Italian silk correspond to
24% of gum.

Equivalent to a

Nitrogen

Weighting.

Nitrogen
Found,

Weighting.

Pound,

per cent.

Japan Silk,

Yellow
Italian,

per cent.

Japan Silk,

Yellow
Italian,

per cent.

Under par

Above par

i»-33

27.9

31-5

7.00

88.5

79.8

17.0

22.3

26.1

6.75

95- 8

86.0

16.0

17-4

21.S

6.50

103.2

93-i

iS-o

11. 9

16.3

6.25

III. 4

100.9

14.0

5-7

10.3

6.00

120.3

109.2

i3-o

1.6
Above par

3-4
Above par

5-75

130. 1

118. 4

12.0

10. 1

4.6

S.50

140.2

128.3

11.

20.1

14. 1

5-25

151.6

139.2

10.

32.1

25.6

5.00

164.3

151-1

39-1

32.2

4.75

178.2

164.2

9.0

46.9

39- S

4-5°

193.8

179.2

& o' 5

55-4

47-7

4.25

210.8

195-4

8.0

65.1

S6.9

4.00

230-3

213-9

7.75

7o-S

62.0

3-5°

277.1

258.6

7-50

76.2

67.4

3.00

340.6

3i8-S

7-25

82.1

73-2

2.50

428.6

402.2

Note. By " par weight " of the silk is meant the weight of the raw
silk.

125

APPENDIX III
Yarn Counts (Number or Titre).

By the "count" of a yarn is meant the number of
hanks of a given length which weigh one pound.

Cotton yarn single i's contains 840 yards per hank
and this hank weighs one pound. Single eighties (i/80's)
cotton yarn is so fine that one pound contains 80 hanks
or 80 X 840 = 67,200 yards. Two eighties or eighties
two-ply (2/8o , s) is a yarn composed of two threads of 1/80
twisted together. One yard of this yarn will therefore
weigh twice as much as 1/80, and is equal in weight to
one yard of 1/40. Single forties cotton yarn contains
40 X 840 = 33,600 yards per pound. As an example of
the use to which the various sizes are put we have 2/150,
which is used for sheer organdies, and 2/5 which is used
for upholstery goods.

Worsted yarn single i's (i/i's) contains 560 yards
per pound; therefore 2/6o's. (== 1/30) will contain
30 X 560 = 16,800 yards per pound.

Woolen yarn — "cut system," single i's (called one
cut) contains 300 yards per pound; therefore 30*3 cut
is a yarn of which 30 X 300, or 9000 yards, weigh one
pound. These yarns are as a rule " single."

Woolen yarn — "run system," single i's (called one
run) contains 1600 yards per pound; therefore 2/6o , s
run (= 1/30 run) indicates a yarn of which 30 X 1600,
or 48,000, yards weigh one pound.

126

APPENDIX

127

Silk yarn — thrown. The size of these yarns is always
given for their weight "in gum"; that is, their condition
before boiling-off and dyeing.

"One dram" silk is that of which 1000 yards weigh
one dram avoirdupois; hence one pound contains 256,000
yards.

Weight in drams of
1000 yards

Yards per pound
avoirdupois

256,000

128,000

8 5>333

64,000

51,200

42,667

Weight in drams of
1000 yards

Yards per pound
avoirdupois

36,57i

32,000

28,444

25,600

23»273

2i,333

The unit of the "international" silk skein (legal In
France) is 500 meters in length and weighs 0.05 gram.
This is known as one "denier." A silk skein marked
20 deniers would then contain 500 meters and would
weigh 20 X 0.05 or 1.0 grams.

Silk yarn — spun. The count indicates the number
of hanks in a pound, and one hank is equal to 840
yards. 2/3o's spun silk is made by twisting together two
threads of i/6o's.

Flax yarns — machine spun. In the English sys-
tem the count of the yarn indicates the number of leas
in a pound and one lea is equal to 300 yards. Thus
number 20 linen yarn is that size of which 20 X 300
or 6000 yards weigh one pound.

GLOSSARY

Wool Terms.

Australian wools. — Those obtained from the various districts
of the Australian continent. Arranged in the order of their quality
they are Geelong, Port Philip, Sidney, Adelaide, Tasmania, New
Zealand. Other types of Australian wool are Brisbane, Melbourne,
Botany, Victoria, Queensland, South Australian, New South Wales.

Blood. — "Full blood," " half blood," " three-eighths blood,"
" quarter blood," are terms used to denote the proportion of
merino blood in a sheep. They are at present used arbitrarily
to designate particular grades of wool.

Braid wool. — The lowest grade of wool. It is more lustrous
and crimpy than " common wool."

Britch wool. — One of the lower grades of wool.

Burry wool. — Applied to certain South American wools be-
cause of a spiral burr which is entangled in the wool. It can be
removed only by carbonization. Some wools from the western
United States <x>ntain large burrs, but these are removed in the comb-
ing process. The burrs are then found in the noils, from which
they are removed by carbonizing.

Carpet wool (foreign wools). — Coarse wools from southern
Europe, China, Persia, Russia, Scotland, Turkey, etc.

Carbonized wodl. — See Regenerated wool.

Carding wool. — Short-fiber wool, suitable for spinning yarn
on the woolen system. It is possible to spin these wools to 6o's cut,
but in practice they are seldom spun finer than 3o's.

Clothing wool. — See Carding wool.

Combing wool. — Long as well as medium length wool which
is suitable for the manufacture of worsted yarn. Formerly only
the very long fibers could be used and they were called " combing
wools" to distinguish them from the short or "clothing wools."
In the modern combing processes all fibers less than ij inches in
length are rejected as " noils."

131

132 GLOSSARY

Colonial wool. — That produced in Australia, New Zealand,
and Cape of Good Hope.

Common wool. — One of the lower grades of wool.

Cotted fleece (cots). — One in which the fibers have become
much entangled. Such fleeces are not in demand, as the wool is
very difficult to card and spin.

Dead wool. — Wool which has been removed from the skin of
the dead animal (obsolete). See Pulled wool.

Defective fleece. — A fleece obtained from old, sick, neglected,
improperly fed sheep or such as have been exposed to sudden changes
of temperature. The wool lacks strength and elasticity.

Delaine. — i. See Combing wool.

2. " Muslin delaine " is a fabric made of cotton warp and
wool filling.

3. " Moussline de laine " is a light worsted fabric made from
fine, strong, and long-stapled wool.

Discolored wool. — See Stained wool.

Domestic wool. — That produced in the United States. The
two main classes are :

Territory wools (including those from Wyoming, Montana, Utah,
the Dakotas, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado,
Oregon) and fleece wools (including those from Ohio, New York,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, Virginia, Illinois,
Kentucky, Missouri, Texas, California).

Extract. — See Regenerated wool.

Fleece-washed wool. — That which has been washed while on
the back of the sheep.

Fleece wool. — That shorn from the living animal. (See Pulled
wool.) Also applied to wools not classed as territory wools.

Flocks. — The "Short material obtained in the operation of shear-
ing worsteds. They are used for adding weight to fabrics. For
this purpose they are added to the liquor in the fulling of woolens,
being inclosed and felted by the protruding fibers.

Foreign wool. — As types of these may be mentioned Awassi,
Aleppo, Bokhara, China, Cordova, Donskoi, Joria, Kandahar,

GLOSSARY 133

Karadi, Khorassan, Mossul, Pyrenean, Vickanier. The majority
of these are used in the manufacture of carpets.

Garnetted stock. — Yarn waste and the like which has been
put through a garnetting machine in order to open the stock so that
it may be respun.

Grades of wool. — The method of grading wool varies some-
what with the particular district in which it is done. Some domes-
tic grades are xxx, xx, x, i blood, i blood, \ blood, and common.

Hair. — The term used in general to designate the epidermal
covering of various mammals. It may be divided into three dis-
tinct classes:

1. Wool which is obtained from the several varieties of sheep.

2. Fur obtained from the rabbit and the cat. It is too smooth
to be spun by the usual methods.

3. True hair obtained from goats, etc., may be classified as
Soft wool hair, from the alpaca, llama, vicufia, camel, cow
Stiff beard hair and soft beard hair, from Russian cows.
Short body hair, long mane and tail hair, from the horse.

Hog wool (teg wool). — The first fleece from a sheep which has
not been shorn as a lamb.

Kemps. — Short fibers of uneven diameter, deficient in crimp,
strength, felting power, and lustre. They are obtained from dis-
eased sheep, from low-bred sheep, as well as from the " leg and
neck " wool of good merino sheep. The microscopic examination
shows the medulla and the scales of the fibers to be imperfectly
developed. It is for this reason that dyes and mordants are not
attracted by the fiber.

Lamb's wool. — That taken from animals before they are six
months old.

Lustre wools. — A synonym for the Lincoln and Leicester types
of wool. They are, as the name indicates, unusually lustrous. Some
wools possess so smooth a surface that they are very difficult to
dye. Lustre wools are straight, smooth, and stiff.

Merino. — 1. The name of a breed of sheep. The wool pro-
duced by these sheep has always served as a standard for compari-
son, — thus the proportion of merino blood in a sheep is indicated

134 GLOSSARY

by the terms J blood, f blood, i blood, etc. As prominent types
we have Spanish, Silesian, Saxon, and Australian merinos. The
wool is strong, elastic, and wavy.

2. The term applied to yarn made of a mixture of wool and cot-
ton. It was originally understood to be a 50/50 mix, that is, half
wool and half cotton, but the term is at present applied to under-
garments containing no wool at all. The " wool " effect is obtained
by " raising the nap."

3. The name of a fabric made of a very soft wool such as is ob-
tained from merino sheep.

Mohair. — The fiber obtained from the Angora goat. The
best grades are obtained from Turkey, while good grades are
obtained from Cape Colony (Africa). The mohair produced in
the United States is much coarser than the oriental product, due
to the fact that the breeding is carried on rather indiscriminately.

Mungo. — See Regenerated wool.

Non-lustre wools. — Applied to the merino wools because of
their deficiency in this respect. These wools possess much more
curl than the lustre wools.

Non-shrinkable wool. — Wool which has been treated with
a solution of bleaching powder. When examined under the micro-
scope the scales appear fused to the main cylinder. The wool has
lost to a great extent its felting property — in other words, it can-
not shrink. The fiber obtained by this treatment has an increased
affinity for dyestuffs, is more lustrous, stronger, and in some cases
acquires a " silk scroop."

Noils. — See Tops.

Nubs. — A term used in the spinning of novelty yarns.

Overgrown wool. — Individual dead fibers occurring in fleece
wool having been forced out by the roots previous to the time of
shearing. They are harsh, weak, and difficult to dye.

Pitchy wool. — See Unwashed wools.

Pulled wools. — Those obtained from tanneries. They may be
" brush pulled " or " lime pulled." The former are obtained by
allowing lukewarm water to run over the hide and the wool whereby
the fibers are loosened. The wool is then cleaned by a revolving

GLOSSARY 135

brush and removed by hand. In the lime method the skins are
put through a sweating process, after which they are immersed in
a bath of lime water. The pores of the skin are thus opened, and
the wool may be readily removed by pulling. Owing to the fact
that the lime removes part of the sulphur, the " lime-pulled " wools
are always more or less brittle. When examined under the micro-
scope the medulla, the endpoints of the cortical layer, and the space
between the scales are seen to be stopped up with solid particles of
lime. All pulled wools may be recognized under the microscope
by the presence of the ovoid hair root.

Raw wool. — See Unwashed wools.

Regenerated wool. — The products found in trade under the
names of Shoddy, Mungo, and Extract. The fibers vary in length
from 0.5 to 2.5 centimeters. They are obtained from knitting-mill
waste, from tailor clippings, and from old clothes, — Shoddy from
fabrics which have not been felted, Extract from half -wool fabrics,
and Mungo from goods which have been fulled. Examined under
the microscope a variety of colors can frequently be observed, the
ends are in most cases frayed, and the scales are either missing or
corroded. These products are sometimes termed carbonized wool,
as the cotton is removed from the rags by treatment with sulphuric
acid. The vegetable fibers are thereby destroyed and carbonized,
and may be dusted from the dry residue of wool.

Rambouillet. — The name of a breed of French sheep. They
have been crossed with merino sheep, so that those found at the
present day in the United States are not full-blooded. The wool
is fine, but short and weak.

Seedy wool. — That obtained from sheep which have been fed
on timothy and the like. The result is that the seed has become
. embedded in the fleece.

Shearlings. — A term used in grading pulled wools. Wools which
have been pulled a month or two after the animal has been sheared.

Southern wools. — Those produced in New Mexico, Arizona,
and Colorado.

South American wools. — These are mostly crossbreed wools
found in trade as: Buenos Ayres, Rio Platte, Punta Arena,
Montevideo.

136 GLOSSARY

Shoddy. — See Regenerated wool.

Stained wool. — Wool which has been discolored by urine or
other excrements.

Tanner's wool. — See Pulled wool.

Territory wool. — That produced in the Dakotas, Arizona,
Colorado, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming.

Teg wool. — See Hog wool.

Tops and Noils. Terms used to designate the product and
by-product obtained in the manufacture of worsted yarns. The
source of the raw material may be sheep, goats, or camels. Tops
is the name applied to the slubbing which comes off the combs;
the staple varies in length from ij to 7 inches. Noils represent
the short, burred, and nopped fibers which are eliminated during
this process.

Unwashed wools. — Those from which the major portion of
the dried sweat and grease has not been removed while the wool
was on the sheep's back. They are also known as "raw wools"
or " wool in grease" or " pitchy wools."

Vigogne. — A term applied to yarn made of a mixture of wool
and cotton. The name is now applied to yarn containing nothing
but cotton. The wooly appearance may be obtained by dyeing
the cotton with substantive colors in the loose state, i.e., before it
is spun.

Washed wools. — Those which have been washed while the
fleece was still on the back of the sheep.

Wether wool. — That which is cut from sheep after the first or
" hog " fleece has been removed.

Wool. — The soft, hairy covering of the skin of the sheep.

Cotton Terms.

Absorbent cotton. — Natural cotton from which the waxy and
pectic matter has been removed by saponification and emulsion
with boiling caustic soda. After the removal of this encrusting
matter the fibers absorb water very readily, so that this product finds
extensive use in surgery.

GLOSSARY 137

Animalized cotton. — That which is prepared by coating cot-
ton yarn with a solution of albumin, and then steaming in order to
coagulate the coating. Other substances which have been recom-
mended for this purpose are tannic acid, gelatin, casein, and wool
dissolved in caustic soda. The object in all cases rs to produce a
yarn which may be dyed fast shades with the substantive as well
as with the basic dyes, in a single bath.

Bearded motes. — The dark fragments of immature or im-
perfect seeds observed in cotton yarns.

Bender's cotton. — Any cotton grown in the bends of the Mis-
sissippi river. It is of good quality and good length of staple.
Much of it is doubtless " Peeler." The variety known as " blue
bender's" is the result of exposure to storm and weather.

Bleached cotton. — That which has been treated with chloride
of lime in order to destroy those coloring matters which cannot be
removed by " boiling off."

Boiled-off cotton. — That from which the waxy and pectic
matter has been removed, e.g., by boiling in a }% solution of
caustic soda.

Carded cotton. — Cotton as delivered by the carding engine in
the form of a sliver.

Colored cotton. — This term is sometimes applied to the buff
colored Egyptian fiber, the brown nankin cotton of China, and
the terra-cotta colored cotton obtained in Peru.

Combed cotton. — That which has been prepared in a combing
machine in order to bring all the fibers parallel to each other. The
yarns made by this method are much more even and may be spun
into much finer numbers than those spun from " carded cotton."

Cotton. — The white, downy seed-hairs which envelop the seeds
of the cotton plant.

Cotton-worsted. — A term applied to fabrics made totally of
cotton, but which are finished so that the fabric closely resembles
the cloth made of worsted yarn.

Dead Cotton. — The term applied to fibers which have not
ripened and in which therefore the cells have not yet separated.
They are straight without any twist, and the lumen has entirely dis-

138 GLOSSARY

appeared. The cross-section shows the inner canal to be stopped
up or at times collapsed. As these fibers are weak and have no
affinity for dyestuffs they are almost worthless, and should therefore
be detected if present.

Defective cotton. — Cotton which is unripe, imperfectly de-
veloped, dead, tinted, or stained.

Egyptian cotton. — That produced in Egypt (especially Gos~
sypium barbadense). It is characterized by a long staple, silky
fiber, and great strength. Ashmouni, Mitafifi, Bamia, Abbasi,
Gallini, are names given to the several varieties. Egyptian cotton
is either white or light buff in color.

Gassed. — A term applied to cotton yarns which have been passed
by a gas flame in order to remove the protruding fibers. The most
modern method is to pass them rapidly over a piece of platinum
foil which is heated to a white heat by electricity.

Gun cotton. — That which has been nitrated with a mixture
of concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids. It is the most highly
nitrated compound of cellulose, very explosive, and insoluble in
alcohol and ether.

Immature cotton. — See Unripe cotton.

Indian cotton. — That produced in India by Gossypium her-
baceum. It occurs in trade as Bengal, Comptah, Dharwar, Dhol-
lerah, Broach, Oomrawuttee, Hingunghat and Surat.

Kekchi cotton. — That cultivated in Guatemala by the Kekchi
Indians.

Kidney cotton. — A synonym for Gossypium peruvianum, cul-
tivated in Brazil and Peru. Cotton in which the seeds of each cell
are closely adherent in an oval mass, hence the name.

Lint. — The cotton fiber with the seed, in the condition as it
is removed from the boll.

Linters. — The short fibers left on the seed after the first ginning.
They are used for the manufacture of gun-cotton, lustre-cellulose,
and cotton batting.

Lisled cotton. — See Gassed. The "lisle finish" on cotton
hosiery is produced in a similar manner.

GLOSSARY 139

Makko cotton. — The first variety of cotton which was culti-
vated in Egypt (from Maco-Bey, a cotton planter). The term is
also applied to underwear made of buff-colored Egyptian cotton.

Maranham cotton. — A variety of cotton produced in South
America by Gossyfrium peruvianum.

Mature cotton. — When viewed under the microscope mature
cotton is seen to resemble an irregularly twisted ribbon with thick
rounded edges. The thickest part of the fiber is at the root end.

Mercerized cotton. — Cotton in the form of yarn or fabric
which has been subjected to hydrolysis by the action of caustic soda
of about 6o° Tw. (30% NaOH). If this be done while the yarn
or fabric is under tension, a fiber much more lustrous and stronger
than natural cotton will result. The so treated fiber also possesses
an increased affinity for the basic dyes. When examined under the
microscope it appears as a cylinder without any twist. It is this
cylindrical form, very probably, to which its great lustre is due.
Mercerized cotton gives the following reaction, which is character-
istic of hydrated cellulose. Prepare two solutions:

1. Five grams of potassium iodide and 0.5 gram of iodine crystals
are dissolved in 16 grams of water.

2. Twenty-five grams of zinc chloride are dissolved in 12 grams
of water. Mix the two solutions, allow to settle, and decant.

If mercerized cotton and natural cotton be immersed in this solu-
tion for about 3 minutes, both samples will be colored brown.
Place in a dish filled with distilled water (previously boiled and
cooled) and wash until the brown iodine solution has been
removed, leaving a dark, blue-black color. Place in fresh water,
— natural cotton will lose its color in about 5 minutes, while
mercerized cotton retains its color for about one hour. The sam-
ples must be kept under water during the test, as they otherwise
discolor, owing to oxidation of the iodine.

Mock Egyptian cotton. — Ordinary white cotton which has
been tinted a light buff in imitation of the genuine Egyptian
cotton.

Nankeen cotton. — A cotton fabric woven on handlooms in
Shanghai (China).

140 GLOSSARY

Nankin cotton. — A yellowish-brown cotton produced in China
by G. religiosum.

Neps. — Small white specks in the baled cotton, very difficult
to remove in spinning and often appearing in the completed fabric
as white dots. They are tangled, weak, and undeveloped fibers, due
in part to picking the cotton before maturity. They are also ob-
tained from bolls which have been forced open to extract the lint,
and which have therefore not had the necessary exposure to the sun.
Neps are further obtained from diseased bolls.

Nun's cotton. — A variety of cotton produced in India by
G. religiosum. This cotton was formerly picked by nuns and has for
ages been used in the manufacture of clothing for the Brahmins, —
the religious caste of Hindoo society. The seed is small and closely
surrounded by the fiber, so that the cotton cannot be cleaned by
the ginning process. (Synonyms, " Nurma " and " Deo.")

Peeler cotton and Allen cotton are varieties of long staple
upland cotton of ij inches staple, cultivated in Mississippi.

Pernam cotton. — That obtained from Gossypium peruvianum
in the mountain districts of the Andes (Peru).

Raw cotton. — The cotton fiber as it appears in trade, the
seeds having been removed by ginning. The raw cotton fiber is
surrounded by waxy and pectic matter which must be removed
by " boiling off " before dyeing.

Santos cotton. — The Orleans variety of cotton grown in
Brazil.

Schreinerized cotton — A cotton fabric to which a lustre
has been imparted by passing the goods between heavy, engraved
calenders under pressure.

Sea Island cotton. — That produced in the Barbadoes Islands,
near the coast of Georgia and the Carolinas, by G. barbadense.
It is strong, long, and lustrous.

Seed cotton. — i. The fiber as taken from the plant before
the seeds have been removed.

2. Cotton which has been grown in order to obtain good seeds
for replanting.

GLOSSARY 141

Short staple cotton. — Cotton fiber i to 1 J inches in length.

Singed cotton. — See Gassed yarns.

South American cotton. — As types of this group may be men-
tioned Pernam, Santos, and Ceara.

Stained cotton. — That which has been exposed to frost with
the result that the fiber is colored a pale buff, resembling Egyptian.
It is not so valuable as carefully cultivated white cotton.

Staple cotton. — A synonym for long staple upland cotton.

Surat cotton. — Collective name for the cottons of India.

Tinged cotton. — That which has been exposed to rain and
storm and so discolored.

Unripe cotton. — That obtained from immature bolls after
the plant has been killed by frost. The fiber possesses little twist
and the' ribbon is very flat. It is brittle, weak, and incapable of
taking up dyestuffs.

Upland cotton. — That grown in the interior upon the higher
lands of the states. This grade is divided into short staple uplands
and long staple uplands (Allen, Peeler).

Silk Terms.

Bourette silk. — Silk yarn spun from the shorter waste fibers.
(Bourne = the external floss of the cocoons).

Boiled-off silk. — That which is obtained by complete removal
of the gum from raw silk. The average yield is 12 ounces boiled
off silk from 16 oz. raw silk.

Carded silk. — Waste silk which has been boiled off and passed
through the carding machine. It is used for the manufacture of
spun silk.

Chappe silk. — Yarn spun from waste silk which has not been
boiled off.

Cuit silk. — Prepared from raw silk by thoroughly " boiling
off " in a bath containing 10 to 15 grams of soap per liter. When
examined under the microscope it is seen to be devoid of the gran-
ular layer of gum and composed of but one fiber. It is much more
lustrous than raw silk.

142 GLOSSARY

Ecru silk. — Silk from which only 3 to 4% of the gum has been
removed by washing in a very weak soap bath. Compare Cuit.

Florette silk. — A silk yarn spun from the longer waste fibers.

Floss silk. — See Waste silk.

Grege. — See Raw silk.

Noil. — The product obtained in the carding of waste silk.

Organzine. — Raw silk prepared from the choicest cocoons.
It consists of two or more threads separately twisted in the same
direction, then doubled and retwisted in the opposite direction.
It is used for warps.

Raw silk (grege or reeled silk). — The product of the reeling
machine. It is used in the manufacture of tram and organzine.

Recotti. — The final waste in the manufacture of yarn from
silk waste.

Reeled silk. — See Raw silk.

Silk Shoddy. — The fiber regenerated from fabrics containing silk
and cotton. (See Regenerated wool.)

Spun silk. — Yarn made from waste silk by carding and spin-
ning it like cotton. It may often be recognized by the irregular
structure of the filaments and by patches of sericin or silk glue
surrounding the fiber.

Souple silk. — Raw silk from which 8-10% of the gum has
been removed by partial boiling off. Compare Cuit.

Strussa. — Waste obtained from double cocoons.

Tram. — Raw silk usually prepared from inferior cocoons. It
consists of two or more single untwisted threads, which are then
doubled and slightly twisted. It is used for weft (filling).

Thrown silk. — That produced by " throwing together " and
slightly twisting two or more threads of raw silk. The product
may be either tram or organzine.

Waste silk. — That obtained from the reeling rooms, from
cocoons spoiled in steaming, from perforated or otherwise imper-
fect cocoons, from the extreme interior and exterior parts of the
cocoon.

Weighted silk. — Silk yarns or fabrics which have been treated
with solutions of metallic salts or tannin which are readily absorbed

GLOSSARY 143

by the fiber. The original intention was to restore the weight
which was lost in the boiling-off operation. Thus 100 ounces of
raw silk yielded about 75 ounces of boiled-off silk; in order to
return 100 ounces to the customer it was necessary to treat the silk
in order to make up the 25 ounces. At the present day 100 ounces
of raw silk in many cases come out of the dyehouse weighing 200 or
300 ounces.

" In gum." — A term applied to raw silk, that is, such as has
not been boiled off.

Frissonnets. — Waste obtained in reeling the cocoons.

Flax Terms.

Bleached flax. — That from which the natural coloring matter
and the incrusting pectic matter have been removed by boiling off
and subsequent bleaching on the grass or by means of chloride of
lime. Linen yarns found in trade are classed as " full white,"
"three-quarters white," and " half white."

Broken flax. — That which has been subjected to the second
operation in the manufacture of linen yarn. The brittle woody
center of the stalk is broken up into small pieces by being passed
through a series of fluted rollers. (Operation 2).

Combed flax. — See Hackled flax.

Codilla. — The waste fibers obtained in scutching.

Dressed flax. — See Hackled flax.

Gray flax. — Yarn which has been boiled off but not bleached.

Hackled flax. — That which has been well cleaned by being
" combed." The fibers are hereby brought to lie almost parallel.
The product obtained by the hackling operation is dressed flax
(line) and hackling tow, which is short and more or less tangled.
(Operation 4.)

Line. — See Hackled flax.

Retted flax. — That from which the central woody portion
of the stem (shive, shore, boon) as well as the gummy matter has
been removed by fermentation. Flax may be thus treated by
dew retting, tank retting, or river retting. (Operation 1.)

144 GLOSSARY

Scutched flax. — That which has been beaten with a strong
wooden scutching blade in order to remove the particles of woody
matter adhering to the fiber. The products obtained by this scutch
ing operation are scutched flax and scutching tow or codilla. (Oper-
ation 3.)

Tow. — The short fibers which are eliminated in the operation
of combing or hackling flax. It should not be confounded with
scutching tow, which is properly known as codilla.

Waterslain flax. — That which has been wholly deprived of its
gum. It may result toward the end of the retting, when that portion
of the gummy matter which should remain in the fibers is reduced to
a mucilaginous state and therefore readily removed by too strong
a flow of water.

CURRENT LITERATURE ON TEXTILE
ANALYSIS.

The references given below are to be found in the
Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry (of the
years 1901 to 1907 inclusive) on the pages indicated.

1901.

358. Detection of Oxycellulose in Cotton Goods. Philip.
509. Detection and Determination of Artificial Silk. Duyk.
1 1 47. Detection of Weighting on Silk. Romann.

1902.

105. Analysis of Shoddy. Meggitt.
113. Examination of Artificial Silk. Strehlenert.
1024. Examination of Black Dyed Cotton Goods. Whittaker.

1903.

415. Adulteration of Raw Silk with Fats. Gnehm.
622. Removal of Weighting from Silk. Mueller.
730. Determination of Shrinkage of Raw Wool. Tingle & Morrison.
825. Determination of Weighting on Silk. Zell.
968. Determination of Weighting on Silk. Gnehm.
968. Action of Hydrofluo-silicic Acid and Hydrofluoric Acid on Silk.
Gnehm and Weber.

1904.

563. Determination of Crude Fiber in Ligneous Fibers. Duschetschkin.
783. Examination of Natural and Artificial Silks. Herzog.
783. Action of Hydrofluo-silicic Acid on Silk. Gnehm.

I46 METHODS OF TEXTILE CHEMISTRY

1906.

610. Detection of Tin in Woolen Goods'. Paterson.
687. Chemical Characteristics of "Ecru" Silk. Gianoli.
1 121. Determination of the Weighting on Silk. Persoz.

1007.

195. Detection of Tin in Mordanted Fabrics. Scheurer.
252. Determination of the Weighting on Silk. Gianoli.
605. Determination of the -Weighting on Silk. Sisley.
1 195. Determination of Hydrogen Peroxide on Bleached Cotton Goods.
Scheurer.

INDEX

PAGE

Absorbent cotton 136

Acid, detection of, in bleached cotton 105

Acid, glyoxalic 6

Acid, hydrochloric, as reagent 3, 4

Acid, nitric, as reagent 4

Acid spots in shoddy 120

Acid, sulpho-phosphoric 78

sulphuric, as reagent 4

sylvic 35

tannic, for turkey-red 108

tannic, "ink" reaction for 38

Agents, antiseptic 40

filling 40

fireproofing 40

hygroscopic '. 40

illuminating 40

softening 40

stiffening 40

waterproofing 40

weighting 40

Alkaline oleates, estimation of 59

Alpaca 14

Amyloid, formation of 22

Analysis, definition of 3

Anilin black, 82

Anilin black, materials for 114

process for 114

products of 116

Animalized cotton 137

Antherea assama 19

Antherea mylitta 16, 19

Antherea peryni 19

Areometry, table for 123

Arsenic in textiles 72

147

I48 INDEX

PAGE

Arsenic in textiles, literature on 72

Ash, determination of, in bleached cotton 103

Attacus atlas 19

Attacus ricini 19

Australian wool 12, 131

o-naphthol, as a reagent 4

Baume* degrees, table of 123

Bearded motes 137

Beard hair 133

Benders cotton 137

Biuret reaction 11

Black, Prudhomme's 114

Blacks, tests for cotton 117

Bleached cotton, color of 106

Bleached cotton \ 137

Bleached flax 143

Blood 131

Blue bender's cotton 106

Body hair 133

Boehmeria tenacissima 26

Boiled-off cotton 137

Boiled-off silk 141

Bombyx mori 15

Bombyx mori, silk produced by 17

Bone-dry wool 1 . . .68

Bookbinder's cloths 50

Bourette silk •■* 141

Bowstring fiber 21

Braid wool 131

Breaking strain, meaning of 84

Britch wool 131

Broken flax 143

Bromelia fiber 21

Brush pulled wool 134

Burry wool 131

Calcium hypochlorite, as a reagent 4

Calculation of weighting 73, 75, 79

Cannabis sativa 20

Carbon, detection of in wool 9

INDEX 149

PAGE

Carbonization, chemistry of 2

materials for 119

products of 120

process of 119

Carbonized wool 131

Carbonizing agents 119

Carded cotton 137

Carded silk 141

Carding wool 131

Carpet wool 131

Cashmere, a fabric 15

Cashmere, a goat 14

Cashmere shawls 14

Cats, hairs from the 15

Caustic potash, as a reagent 3

Cellulose, affinity of, for coloring matters 23

Cellulose, dry reactions of 24

Cellulose, empirical formula of 24

Cellulose fibers, action of calcium hypochlorite on 23

hydrochloric acid on 22

hydrofluoric acid on 22

nitric acid on 22

organic acids on 23

Schweitzer's solution on 23

sodium hydroxide on 21

sulphuric acid on 22

zinc chloride on 23

Chappe silk 141

"Charge" on silks 80

Cheviot shirting 15

Cheviot wool 13

China, camel hair from 14

China, goats of 14

China, silk from 18

Chlorine, detection of, in bleached cotton 104

Clothing wool 131

Cloths, bookbinders 50

rubbercoated 50

sail 50

Codilla 143

Coefficient of elasticity 84

150 INDEX

VAGE

Coir fiber 21

Collodion, formation of 22

Colonial wool 132

Colophony in textiles 35

Colored cotton 137

Combed cotton 137

Combed flax 143

Combing wool 131

Common wool 131, 132

Compounds, iron, as mordants 31

oleic acid, as mordants 31

tannic acid, as mordants 31

Conditioning of wool 66

Corchorus capsularis 19

Cots 132

Cotswold wool 13

Cotted fleece 132

Cotton, analysis of raw 59

definition of 137

diameter of 25

microscopy of 25

physical properties of 24

strength of 25

Cotton bleaching, antichlor for 99

bleaching powder for 97

caustic potash for 98

lime for 98

materials for 97

muriatic acid for 98

processes of 99

products for 98

products of 101

soap for 99

water for 98

Cotton terms J36

Cotton worsteds 43, 137

Count of cotton yams 126

flax yarns 127

silk yarns 127

woolen yarns 126

worsted yarns 126

INDEX 151

PACE

Cravenette, analysis of 55

Cravenettes 52

Cuit silk 141

Cut system 126

Dead cotton 137

Dead wool 132

Defective cotton 138

Defective fleece 132

Defective wool 132

Delaine 132

Denier, definition of 127

Densimeter 87

Diastafor 35

Diazo reaction 17

Direct reds, tests for 113

Discolored wool 132

Dog, hairs from the 15

Domestic wool 132

Dorsetshire sheep 13

Dressed flax 143

Dry reactions, meaning of 3

Dry reactions of cellulose 24

lustre-cellulose 28

silk 16

wool 8

Earthy oleates, estimation of 61

Ecru silk 141

Egyptian cotton 138

Elasticity, definition of 84

Empyreumatic odor 8

Epidermal scales of wool 13

Eria silk 19

Esparto fiber 21

European standard for tops 69

Extract 132, 135

Fabric, analysis of a finished 81

silk-cotton 48

silk-imitation silk 50

152 INDEX

PADS

Fabric, analysis of a silk-wool 47

wool cotton 45

Fabrics, analysis of turkey-red 111

fastness of dyed 89

in general 43

mechanical analysis of 46

Fagara silk 19

False tussah silk 19

Fastness, a relative term 94

Fastness of dyed fabrics 89

Fastness of dyes, to acid 89

to air 89

to alkalis 89

to boiling 90

to carbonizing 90

to chlorine 90

to crocking 90

to finishing 90

to fulling 91

to greening 90

to hot-pressing 91

to light 89, 92

to peroxides 92

to perspiration 92

to rain 92

to soda 93

to steaming 93

to stoving 93

to street-dust 93

to washing 93

to weather 89, 93

Fibers, analysis of raw vegetable 57

analytical classification of 6

cellulose 6

keratinic 7

lustre-cellulose 6

silk 6

specific gravity of 88

tensile strength of 85

Fibroin of wild silk 18

Finishing materials, determination of 81

INDEX 153

PAGE

Finishing materials, organic reactions of 36

survey of 40

Flax, analysis of raw 59

characteristics of 26

microscopy of 26

reactions of 25

Flax yarns, machine spun 127

Fleece-washed wool 132

Fleece wool 132

Flocks 132

Florette silk 142

Floss silk 142

Foreign wools 131, 132

France, sheep of 12

France, silk from 18

French scale, meaning of 137

French system of spinning 30

Frissonets 143

Full blood 131

Furfurol reaction, particulars of 17

for celluloses 23

for silk 17

for wool 11

Gambo fiber 21

Garnetted stock 133

Gassed cotton 138

Glanzstoff 27

Gloria 52

Goat hairs 13, 14

Gossamer cloth 51

Gossypium, varieties of 24

Grades of wool 133

Grass bleach for flax 26

Gray flax 143

Grege 142

Group L 6, 7, 8

Group I (a) 12

Group II 15

Group III 19

Group III, minor fibers. , . 21

154 INDEX

PAOI

Group IV 21

Group V 27

Gun cotton 138

Hackled flax 143

Hair 133

Hair, beard 14

pulled 14

wool 14

Haircloth 15

Half blood 131

Hampshire sheep 13

Hank, meaning of 127

Hemp, distinction of, from flax 20

physical properties of 20

reactions of 19

Hog wool 133

Hollands 70

Horse hair 15

Humidity, absolute, meaning of 87

calculation of 87

determination of 86

maximum, meaning of 87

relative, meaning of 87

Hydrated cellulose 22

Hydrometer, Baum6's 87

Hydrometer, Twaddle's 87

Hydrometry, table for 123

Hygrometer, description of 86

Imitation silk, specific gravity of 88

Immature cotton 138

India linon 43

Indian cotton 138

"In grease," wool 136

"In gum," silk 143

International silk skein 127

Italy, silk obtained from 18

Japan, silk obtained from 18

Jute, microscopy of 20

INBEX 155

PAGE

Jute, physical properties of 20

Jute, reactions of 19

Kapok fiber 21

Kekchi cotton 138

Kemps 133

Keratin 8

Keratinic fibers 7

Kidney cotton 138

Kjeldahl determination 78

Lamb's wool 133

Lea, meaning of 127

Leicester wool 13

Lignin test 19

Lignocelluloses 7, 57, 58

Lime pulled 134

Lime soaps, determination of, in bleached cotton. 102

Lincoln sheep 12

Line, a flax term 143

Linen cloth, examination of 105

Linen mesh underwear 43

Linen, proper use of the term 25

Lint 138

Linters 138

Linum usitatissimum 25

Lisled cotton 138

Lisle finish 116

Llama 14

Lustre-cellulose, affinity of, for dyes 28

chemical reactions of 28

microscopy of 28

physical properties of 27

Lustre wools 133

Mammalia 9

Mammals, hairs of 14

Manila fiber 21

Manila hemp, proper designation of 31

Makko cotton 138

Maranham cotton 139

1 56 INDEX

PAGE

Marseilles soap 108, 111

Mature cotton 139

Medulla 15

Medullary axis 15

Mercerization 117, 118

Mercerized cotton, test for 139

Merino 12, 133

Merino, abuse of the term 43

Merino underwear 15

Method, alternative nitrogen 80

Bradford 67

Crefeld 63, 64

Gnehm's 75

ignition, for mordants 31

Koenig's 76

Moyret's 76

Mueller and ZelPs 77

nitrogen, for silk analysis 78

Millon's reagent, action of, on wool to _

Mineral matter, determination of, in textiles 69

Mineral matter, fabrics containing '. . . 70, 71

Misleading terms 15

Mock Egyptian cotton 139

Mohair cloth 15

Mohair, definition of 13, 133

Moisture, determination of, in textiles 66

Mordants, detection of 30

Mousseline de laine 132

Muga silk 19

Mulberry silk 15

Mungo 134, 135

Muslin delaine 132

Nankeen cotton 139

Nankin cotton 140

Neps 140

New Zealand flax, proper designation of 21

Nitrogen, detection of in wool 9

Nitrogen, determination of, in silk 78, 80

Noils 134, 136, 142

Non-lustre wools 134

INDEX 157

PAGE

Non-shrinkable wools 134

"Normal wool" 68, 69

Nubs 134

Nuns' cotton 140

Oil, castor, for making sulphated oils 108

Gallipoli, for turkey-red dyeing 107

mineral, in fabrics 29

non-drying 30

rosin, in fabrics 29

tournant, for turkey-red „ 107

turkey-red, for dyeing 107

turkey-red, for softening 99

vegetable, in fabrics 29

One atmosphere, meaning of 11 1

One dram silk, meaning of 127

Organic solvents, action of, on silk 16

Organic solvents, solubility of wool in 9

Organzine 142

Overgrown wool 134

Oxalic acid, obtained from cotton 22

Oxfordshire sheep 13

Oxidizing cage for anilin black 115

Oxidizing chamber for anilin black 115

Oxycellulose, detection of in cotton 103

Oxycellulose, formation of 22

Padding liquor for anilin black 115

Paranitranilin red, tests for 113

Para soap, composition of 112

Par weight, meaning of 72

Pectocelluloses 57, 58

Peeler cotton 140

Pepper and salt effect 44, 52

Pernam cotton 140

Phenylhydrazin, action of, on jute 19

Pineapple fiber 21

PiotrowskPs reaction 11

Pita fiber 21

Pitchy wool 134, 136

Potassium hydroxide, action of, on wool 9

158 INDEX

PAGE

Proteid reactions 10

Proteids 16

Proximate analysis of weighted silks 73

Prussian blue 9

Pseudo-silks, meaning of 27

Psychrometer 115

Pulled hair 15

Pulled wools 134

Pulled wools, shrinkage of 66

Pyroxylin, formation of 22

Rabbit, hairs from the 15

Raincloths 50

Raincoats 50

Rambouillet 12, 135

Ramie, microscopy of 26

Raphia fiber 21

Raw cotton 140

Raw silk 142

Raw wool •.... 135, 136

Raw wool, determination of the shrinkage of 64

Reaction, Adamkiewicz's n

biuret 11

diphenylamin 28

furfurol 11, 17, 23

ink 31

Lassaigne's .11

Liebermann's 11

Molisch's 11

molybdate 34

xanthoprotein 11

Reactions, dry, of wool fibers 8

proteid 10

wet, of wool fibers 9

cellulose fibers 21

ligneous fibers 19

lustre-celluloses 28

silk 16

Reagent, Adamkiewicz's 6, 39

Eisner's 5

Hoebnel's, 5

INDEX 159

PAGE

Reagent, Lassaigne's 4

Liebermann's 5

Loewe's 5

Millon's 4, 39

Molisch's 4

NickePs 5

Richardson's 5

Schweitzer's 4

Recotti 142

Red liquor 108

Red, Wesserling 109

Reeled silk 142

Regain 168

Regenerated wool 135

Retted flax 143

Rubber-coated cloths 50, 54

Run system 126

Russia, camel hair of 14

Sailcloths 50

Santos cotton 140

Schreinerized cotton 140

Schweiss 60

Scutched flax 144

Sea Island cotton 140

Seed cotton 140

Seedy wool 135

Sericin . . 17, 62

Shearlings 135

Sheep dips 172

Shoddy 120, 135

Short staple cotton 141

Shrinkage of wool, calculation of 64, 65

Shropshire sheep 13

Silesian sheep 12

Silk, action of chromic acid on 17

of hydrochloric acid on 16

of Loewe's reagent on 17

of nitrous acid on 17

of soap on 17

of sodium hydroxide on 16

l6o INDEX

PAGE

Silk, action of sulphuric acid on 16

boiling-off of 17

cultivated, appearance of 17

determination of boiling-off loss of 63

determination of washing-out loss of 64

distinction of, from lustre-cellulose 17

Eisner's reagent for 17

HoehnePs test for 17

Richardson's reagent for 17

yellow, from Italy and China 18

Silk scroop 10, 118

Silk shoddy 142

Silk yarns, sizing of 127

Singed cotton 141

Sisal fiber 21

Sizing, detection of, on a fabric 34

Soap, Marseilles 108

Soda spots in shoddy 120

Solution, anilin hydrochloride 5

sulphate 5

fuchsin-bisulphite 6

indol. 5

nitroprusside 5

phloroglucol 5

zinc chloride-iodine 5

South America, goats of 14

South American wools 135

cotton ' 141

Souple silk 142

Southdown sheep 12, 13

Southern wools 135

Spain, merino sheep of 12

Specific gravity compared with degrees Baume* 123

compared with degrees Twaddle 123

determination of 87

Spots, detection of in bleached cotton 105

Spun silk 127, 142

Squirrel, hairs from the 15

Stained cotton 141

wool 136

Staple cotton 141

INDEX l6l

PAGE

Steam pressure, meaning of no

Steiger and Gruenberg's table 123

Strussa 142

Suint 60

Sulphur, detection of, in wool 9

Sunn fiber 21

Surat cotton 141

Surgery, cotton used in 136

Syria, camel hair of 14

System, cut, for woolen yarn 126

System, French, for worsted yarn 30

System, run, for woolen yarn 126

Table for the calculation of weighting 123

Tanner's wool 136

Teg wool 133

Tensile strength, affected by dyeing with anilin black 82

dyeing with turkey-red 82

mercerizing 82

definition of 84

determination of 82

method of reporting 85

of artificial silk 83

of bleached yarns 83

of non-shrinkable wool 82

of shoddy yarns 83

of sized yarns 83

of waterproof cloths 83

Territory wools 132, 136

Test, acrolein, for glycerol 33

Adamkiewicz's, for proteids 6

Frankenheim's, for flax 25

Kindt's, for flax 25

Schwalbe's, for lustre-cellulose 28

Storch-Morowski's, for rosin 29

Test solutions for lignin 5

Textile fibers, analysis of 56

Thibet, a worsted fabric 15

Thibet, goats from the plains of 14

Three-eighths blood 131

Thrown silk 127, 14a

162 INDEX

PAGE

Tin crystals 109

Tinged cotton 141

Titre of yarns 126

Tom-tom for anilin black 114

Tops 136

Tow 144

Trade custom for silks 73

Tram 142

Tumbling 116

Turkey, Angora goats of 13

Turkey-red, aluminate process for 109

emulsion process for 109

materials for 106

new style no

Steiner's process for 109

sulphated oil process for 109

tests for 113

water for 106

Turkey-red fabrics, examination of 30, 31

Tussah silk 16

Twaddle degrees compared with specific gravity 123

Umbrella cloths 50

Underwear, linen-mesh 43

merino 15

non-shrinkable (see non-shrinkable wools).

Unripe cotton 141

Unwashed wools 136

Upholstery fabrics •. 15

Upland cotton 141

Vicuna 14

Vigogne 136

Viscose .27

Vegetable down 21

Vegetable silk 21

Washed wools 136

Washed wools, price of 65

Waste silk 142

INDEX 163

PAGE

Waterproof cloths, examination of 55

mineral matter in 55

value, determination of the , 53

Waterslain flax 144

Wax, determination of in bleached cotton 101

Weight per yard, calculation of • 53

Weighted silk 142

Weighted silks, examination of 7 2

Weighting, calculation of 72, 125

detection of, on silks 32

Weighting materials, inorganic 36

organic 33

on silk, meaning of 73

Wether wool 132

Wild silk, characteristics of 18

color of . 19

large diameter of 18

varieties of 19

Wild silk from China, India and Japan. 19

Wool, action of ammonium hydroxide on 10

of calcium hydroxide on 10

of chlorine on 10

of hydrochloric acid on 10

of nitrous acid on 10

of picric acid on 10

affinity of for dyes 11

analysis of raw 59

chemical reactions of 9

coarse grade 13

diameter of 12, 13

distinction of, from hair 12

dry distillation of 8

fine grade 12

length of 12, 13

medium grade 13

microscopy of 12, 13

non-shrinkable 82

physical properties of 11

serrations of 12, 13

Wool hair . v 133

Worsted tops, moisture in 69

164 INDEX

PAGE

Xanthoprotein reaction n

• i

Yamamai silk 19 '

Yarn counts, meaning of 126 ,

Yarns and fabrics, substances found in 29 »

spua in oil 71 !

Yolk 60 1

r Al -Z<

FIBRE TESTING MACHINE

FOR TESTING THE STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY

OF SINGLE FIBRES, AS COTTON,

WOOL, SILK, ETC.

In use by the U. S. Government at Washington, the
English Government at London and Bombay, and many
technical schools and agricultural colleges throughout
the United States.

MANUFACTURED BY

A. S. MACKENZIE

Philadelphia, U.S.A.

PUBLICATIONS OF JOHN WILEY & SONS

THE TEXTILE FIBRES.

Their Physical, Microscopical, and Chemical Properties.
By J. Merritt Matthews, Ph.D., formerly Head of Chemical
and Dyeing Department, Philadelphia Textile School.
Second Edition, Rewritten. 8vo, viii 4- 480 pages, 127
figures. Cloth, $4.00.

AIR-CONDITIONING.

Being a Short Treatise on the Humidification, Ventilation,
Cooling, and the Hygiene of Textile Factories, especially
with Relation to those in the U. S. A. By Q. B. Wilson.
i2mo, 143 pages, illustrated. Cloth, $1.50.

THE DYEING AND CLEANING OF TEXTILE

FABRICS.

A Handbook for the Amateur and the Professional. By
F. A. Owen, B. S. Based partly on notes of H. C.
Standage. (In Press, ready Dec. 1st.)

^ s

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY

THIS BOOK 18 DUE ON THE LAST DATE

STAMPED BELOW

Bdukf not returned on tim# arn subject to a fine of
60c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing
to $1,00 per volume after the sixth duy. Booka not in
demand amy be renewed if application Js made before
expiration of loan period.

JUL 9 1917

UA21 29 "«^ 4
7Nov'49B6

JUL***

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REC'D LC

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UNIVERSITY OF CALWORKIA LIBRARY

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