127395
MEXICO
In Peace and War
MEXICO
In Peace and War
ij a a
A Narrative of Mexican History and Con-
ditions from the larlicst Times to the
Present Hour, Including an Account
of the Military Operations by the
United States at Vera Cruz
in 1014 and the Causes
that Led Thereto.
Thomas H. RtmclK A.M., LL. D.
uf the American Historical Association, the National
<, tcutjr jiphtc &>ckty t Etc.
a
Illustrated
u
Reilly &c Britton Syndicate
Chicago
Copyright, 1914
h
Sumner C. Britton
PREFACE
Tt was novor intended that * 4 Mexico in Peace and
War " should hr limited in scope to a mere " war book/ 7
although many months ago it was thought that war was
iimnhn'nt, and quite probable, before a solution of exist-
iiiir difficulties could be brought about, or before this vol-
ume could #o to press.
For several years the eyes of the* civilized world have
IM***U directed towanl Mexico because of the*- revolution
of the masses against certain classes which had been
fierrely waited. The American imblic scn^ned eager for
(Mi'tiU f this wvil war, an<l such details were furnished
by tlu* daily pns. Th<>n canu* a domand for all kinds of
iut'ornwtitm about Moxi<u>.
What s*Mni<d mwssary to tho situation was a popular,
rwtiiuMt* book that would etnbraee all Iho facts concern-
ing thi,s land of <*on<ju<*st t nvolution an<l tnmsure. Such a
history ittusl n<*<*<Hsnnly b< authentic and comprehensive.
It wn^ part of the plan that should war actually take
plan' hrtwiMHi th* l^aitod Stat<*s nnd Mexico ore* its publi-
cation, allowance would bo made in this history for the
titt'tfti'fito and CUUH<*S hauling up to and into the beginning
of srh u war In th<* ownt of conflict it would bo only
4 (o oxjit<*t that whether or not the opposing
>tilil |H in nHtial conflict, or in n position of
ariu+d bt*lUu(nn<'V p<*n<Hng peaceful settlement, the ulti-
ttwit** Mttutttm wmhl IN* long <lrn\vn out; and to poHtpono
<b** vuiutni* f>r a ** last word M of war <levclopnu*ntB
wmld IH* t d^privo th<* public of an Immense fund of
information ii4v<*r b^for** innncfi in popular form, Thow-
fr<i ? in th** mnk4^ up of thi htntory th<* first four chapters
5
6 PREFACE
wore reserved for eventualities, and thus the actual facts
concerning the present situation in Mexico an* to be
found in most interesting sequence in the front of the
book, fully illustrated with the very latest pictures .> be
had from the seat of trouble.
This volume has been in preparation for many months
All facts and figures concerning "Mexico have been >eeure*l
from most reliable sources and may be depended upon,
Tho chapters concerning social and economic conditions
refer mainly to those which prevailed throughout the
land just prior to the outbreak of the revolution which
followed the last election of President Diaz. Hi.*- rVime
was the golden age of Me\i<an peaee and pro>p*rity and
it is therefore only logical to believe that, with the n>-
establishment of constitutional uwermueiit, a neu era
of progress and development will dawn for our Mmthern
<l^nuait is freely made of aistanc* r**ntl^n*d
during the pn^paration of the work by Mrs. Ki'au
( 1 amplH k il and Mr, Franc Campbell, ujanapT of th** Ifrau
Oaiupb<^ll Tours and son of the notid travvlrr and author
ity on Mexico, th<* late Mr, Heau Campbell, wht k coin-
pr^bonsive ** #uide %l is by thi far tin* b<*M work ui it*
kind extant. Many of tb* Hlustrationsof Mfxiniu life and
H(icnt*ry are from <h< 4 n^lin'tion of Mr, Campbell and th* 1
j^reat tuaj<u > ity are printed for the fir>1 twin* in th"*e
pa^es. The editor itf also indebted to the Bureau of
American Republics and to the works on Mexico ot' AitY*l
Jt (^onkliu^, LL,H. Ph.lt., former Tniteti Stafe> (!nltt
ffit; Arthur Kdward Xoll, author of '* From Kinpire to
Kepuhlic/* and Krancis Augustus MwNutU truu*lat>*r
and wlitor of l4 The Utti*w of (?ort<^ M aihl nuthitr f
** Fornamlo C'orte^ arul tht* (JomjnM m* Mexico/* u.;
nlno to Mr. Hugh Slillt*r and Mr, Kiith JtmeH for timely
contrihutious of available copy.
T, II It
CONTENTS
CHAiTBH PAGE
PREFACE ............ . .................. 5
INTKODUCTOBY .......................... 13
L < ^'CITATION OK VBRA OIUTB ................ 17
irfutdiiitf of I'm* t*d StiitcH FortcH Shelled by Small
Umw -Tiio ('uuaUit>H Admiral KletoiieT f 8 Warn-
ing How Uu Firrtt Alan Died (ieneral MatiH Sura-
uxmotl to Surn'noVr-- -A C'onteHt of EiHon Dtf<nCH
<*f \V**i <'ru/.- Tht City CU^aiiod Up U. fcs. Troop
I L THB TAMi'in* LNCUDKMT
Ttikwi from a Xitvnl Boat A FSahiic Oe*
Matter K*fVrn'd to Hucrta He Kofunos
ii tM*mmuiH' - i*rcmdi*ut WUnou Hoforc (Jon*
lr'sH An Cltimrttum FI<i <>rdir< v d to iSm
V'ni (Vu/, tinih HttUM of th CHHO-- KventH from
ly to Uity.
III. MIlATIiN \ DnI>OMATS ................. 59
Tlwir Hirvl<swi Ac-
Hucrta Acc^ptK thet
-Art A
IV. Tn UKvoi.rnoN UK I!U 14 .............. 77
ft" Pr^4ilt'nt. tliji/ Mndcio tH Pr^Midt'nt
Uvl lU'^ini Thi* Tf Duyn* K!j?ht in
rity lHt*r%vnlim I*WI|MWHI Kikll of
Mitm of HtrU - Not
Tin* < Vm^tit*Umll,Ht i*nmm Att
kfiu?Ury KUrtUm -Mm LtndV
8 CONTENTS
OHAPTEB PAGE
V. THE MEXICAN WAR OP 1846-7 97
Result of a Boundary Dispute The Revolt of Texas
International Boundaries Defined General Zach-
ary Taylor's Operations in Texas Congress Declares
War Battle of Monterey Battle of Buena Vista
General Scott's Campaign Surrender of Vera
Cruz On to Mexico City Battle of Cerro Gordo
In the Valley of Mexico Scott's Strategy Wins
Battle of Chapultepee In the City of Mexico
Santa Anna in Exile The Treaty of Peace.
VI. EARLY HISTORY or MEXICO * 114
The Seven Tribes Arrival of the Toltccs Origin of
Pulque The Aztecs in the Valley Legend of the
Eagle Empire of the Montczuman OVmtjuwt by
Cortez In the Aztec Capital Dwciwry of the
Treasure Rule of the Viceroys.
VII. " THE SORROWFUL NIGHT ". 125
Cortez Leaves the City A Midnight March Attack
by the Aztecs Victims Seized for Sacrifice When
Cortez Wept -Character of Cortex.
VIII. THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS . . . . 131
Modern History of Mexico The Firwt Constitution
Fate of Patriotic Chieftaina Lat of the Viceroy*
Iturbide as Emperor Riac of the Republic
The Bra of Maximilian President* Down to Di*x
IX. JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT * 1#6
A Patriot and Honest Man Klwted Fremont Hto
Re-election "The Man in the Black Coat M Itoath
of Juarez,
X. THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUOGLK - 141
Earliest Efforts for Rcpreflentativo Government Th
"Governmental Council" The Fimt Ccmgnwm
Iturbido as Emperor The Constitution of 1H24
Fundamental Law of 1836 A Military Plan Th*
Constitution of 1857.
2X MEXICO UNDER DXAJS, ** ISO
Diaz Proclaimed President -A Man of
Liberal Administration -*-Tribwtf* to
CONTENTS 9
CHAPTER PAGE
XII. GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 153
The Supreme Federal Power Legislative, Executive
and Judicial Branches Revenues Terms of the
Constitution.
XIII. THE CITY OF MEXICO 158
Origin of the Name The Federal District The Na-
tional Palace Mexico's Liberty Bell Many Mag-
nificent Churches The Great Cathedral The
Parks and Plazas The Paaeo Old Aqueducts A
World-Famed Statue Schools The Death Rate.
XIV. AROUND THE VALLEY 181
Beautiful Chapultopec Palace of Montezuma Mo-
lino del Hoy Ohurubasco The Ancient Capital
Mexico's Monte Carlo La Viga Canal The Vil-
lage of Santa Anita.
2V, A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT 191
The MoHt Popular Amusement Form of the Ring
Duties of the Present A Thrilling Scene Order
of the Procession Coming of the Bull Interesting
Features The Star Performer Death of the Bull.
XVI. RANCHES AND RANCHING 201
Tho Mexican Tablelands Many Vegetable Products
Conditions of Labor American Managers' Meth-
ods Payment for tho Crops One Result of Rais*
ing Wages Peon Slavery in the South The Hone-
<|uen Kings " Enforced Service for Debt " Break-
ing the Yaqui Spirit,
XVIL INWSTBIBS AND MANUFACTURES 216
Wonderful RoHources Lying Dormant The Cattle
Industry Hidon and Skins Hammock Making *-
Cotton and Woolen Fabrics Tho Silk Industry
Distilleries Tobacco Iroufoundriew Jewelry.
TVTIJ* MINBS AKD MINING 226
Mines Exempt from Taxes The Metalliferous Belt
Great Mining Centura ~ A Silver State Quarries of
0*7t Tfc* Patio Procws The Lmviation Procow.
10 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
XTX COAL AND OIL DEPOSITS .................. 237
Discovery of Coal States Seek Development of Mines
Great Oil Deposits.
XX. LAND LAWS OF MEXICO ................... 242
The Three Regions Public Lands Terras of the Law
The Denouncer's Rights Long Leases to Foreigners
Title of an Alien.
XXI. THE LEGEND or GUADALUPE ............... 248
Holiest Shi me in Mexico A Miraculous l * Sign "
Legend Sanctioned by the Chinch A National Holi-
day The Church of Guadalupe.
XXIL SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO ............. 259
Two Classes of Society Peona lined as Puck Ani-
mals Their Faithful Service All <Jrn<KtionH of
Caste A Veritable Feudal System Cont of Living
Rents Public Porters C
XXIII. THE ALCABALA SYSTEM ................... 271
A Peculiar Method of Taxation Reforaw of 1830
Official Interpretation of the Tax.
XXIV. BANDITS AND THEIR WOBK ................ 275
The Ruralea or Coxintry Police Weapon** of an Iron
Hand Kise of Bandit London* A Typu'al Caw?
of Brigandage Other Kxciting Kxpcrfomw An
Attack of Zapatistas.
XXV. FACTS ABOUT MEXICO .................... 284
Area and Population People, Religion untl Kduefttum
Principal Cities River* and flakes Horn nnd
Fauna States and Their Area Muftfe* The
National Hymn Transportation The Police.
XXVI. CHBONOLOOY OF MEXICAN HIBTOBV ......... 308
INTRODUCTORY
Steaming majestically south through the Gulf of Mex-
ico and the Bay of Campeche toward the ancient port of
Vera Cruz, a service squadron of modern gray war-
ships proudly bore at the masthead the flag that waves
over a hundred million free and independent people Jn
the world's greatest republic the flag that should com-
mand universal respect and insure the lives and liberty
of all, at home or abroad, who claim the protection of its
starry folds. But the bright emblem of their nationality
borne by the warships had been treated with contumely
in a foreign port. Their flag had been flouted and the
service squadron steamed steadily on.
Aboard the ships was a fighting force of patriotic,
resolute men- Young men they were, for the most part,
filled with the fire and fervor of youth and eager for a
sight of the enemy they sought ; but held in perfect con-
trol by their commanders, thoroughly trained and dis-
ciplined, expert in the arts of peace and of war, accus-
tomed to use head as well as hand in all their pursuits,
fit for any duty, and ready to go anywhere in the defense
of their flag.
Sixteen years had elapsed since the young men of
America had last been called to active service under the
Stars and Stripes, but these men, sailors and marines
of the great gray vessels on their way to Central Amer-
ica, were all of the same stamp and animated by the same
spirit as their brothers who followed the flag to Cuba
in 1898, and of whom it was well $aid by a British officer
12 INTRODUCTORY
that " every man seemed fit to command a company."
But,
" Theirs not to reason why
Theirs but to do or die."
With grim, set face the admiral paced the bridge of
his flagship. His orders were plain and his purpose
adamant. It was his duty to secure satisfaction for an
affront offered to the American flag and nothing could
turn him from his task. He was bound for the principal
port of the offending country the port that had once
before been occupied by an invading American forco in
its advance upon the Mexican enemy's capital, ami that
had been the scene, nearly 400 years before, of Fernando
Cortez' landing in his career of conquest.
But what a difference in the appearance and strength
of the advancing squadron of 1914 and that which cov-
ered the landing of Winfield Scott in 1847, to say nothing
of its contrast with the ships of Cortez, which he burned
behind him in the harbor of Vera Cruz in 1519, ore ho
advanced upon the capital that being the groat com-
mander's answer to the mutinous complaints of his men.
These mighty masses of floating steel, with their strange
network of fighting masts and protruding tooth in the
form of 14-inch guns, dwarfed into complete insignificance
any naval force that had ever been scon in those waters
and boded ill for those who had failed in respect for the,
flag they bore. The great guns of this squadron were
capable of blowing a city about the ears of its defenders
while standing almost out of sight at sea, and the smallest
guns carried by the transports that accompanied the
battleships would have been more than a match for the
ships of war that sailed all seas in the days when Santa
Anna sought vainly to prevent General Scott's triumph-
ant progress from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico.
The story of what followed the appearance of the
American squadron before Vera Cruz of how, in spitt
INTRODUCTORY 13
of tlie prevalence of a " norther, 37 one of those heavy
winds locally known as el no tie that regularly threaten
the exposed harbors of the Atlantic coast of Mexico, a
strong force was landed and the city occupied, pacified,
cleaned up and administered, first by the navy under
Admiral Fletcher, and subsequently by the army forces
under General Funston, is told in detail hereinafter.
The relations between the United States and Mexico,
or rather between the United States and the de facto
government of Mexico headed by General Victoriano
Huerta, had been strained almost to the breaking point
for more than a year. President Taft in the closing days
of his administration had refused to recognize Huerta,
and had sent a largo force of American troops to occupy
the strategic points along the border between the two
countries. The violent deaths of the deposed president
and vice-president, Madero and Suarez, in the City of
Mexico shortly before the accession of President Wilson
at Washington, had created a bad impression in the
United Slates and recognition of Huerta was positively
refused by the Wilson administration, both before and
after the unsatisfactory presidential election in Mexico
in October, 1913. ClaHhes between the American troops
along the itio ranch* River and bodies of Mexican fed-
oral soldiers wore often narrowly averted and sometimes
indeed hot were fired in anger across the international
boundary. The condition of American residents in
Mexico, in the citiew as well as in the rural districts, where
they were nubjectcd to the outrageous demands of
banditti, had grown intolerable and all American citizens
had been advised to leave the country.
The climax came with what is now generally known as
" the Tampico incident/' An unbearable affront was
offered to the American flag and after a prolonged period
of anxious waiting, the patience of the authorities
at Washington was finally exhausted and drastic action
14 INTEODTJCTORY
was decided upon. Efforts to secure reparation from
Huerta for the insult to the flag having failed, President
Wilson appeared before Congress on the afternoon of
Monday, April 20, 1914, and sought and obtained author-
ity to employ the army and navy of the United States to
enforce respect for the flag in Mexico. At that time
the service squadron of the Atlantic fleet, under Rear
Admiral Frank F. Fletcher, was already ncaring Vera
Cruz, of which it took possession on the following clay.
Meanwhile William Jennings Bryan, secretary of
state, had been making untiring efforts at Washington
to secure a settlement of the difficulties between the two
governments without resort to arms. Himself a strong
advocate of international peace, he enlisted the services
of all who could possibly help in a peaceful solution of
the problem. Senators and representatives in Congress
were divided as to the necessity for war, though they as
a body supported the president in his determination to
secure redress for the Tampico incident. Throughout
the country a strong war sentiment soon developed. In
anticipation of a call for troops for service in Mexico,
volunteers by the thousand tendered their services in
every state of the Union and the scenes that preceded our
declaration of war against Spain in 1898 were repeated
in all the large cities of the country. Tho American
casualties at Vera Cruz served to fan the flame of martial
ardor. War was indeed imminent and its declaration
before many days seemed certain when, on Saturday,
April 25, it was announced at Washington that the
proffer of the services of Argentina, Brazil and Chile in
an effort to settle the difficulty by mediation had been
accepted by President Wilson. A few days of diplo-
matic exchange of views with General Huerta were fol-
lowed by his acceptance of the principle of mediation and
by the armistice which exists as these words are penned.
What the outcome will be, it is impossible to predict
with any hope of accuracy. The downfall of Huerta, or at
INTKODUCTORY 15
any rate his elimination as a potent factor in Mexican
politics and government, seems assured, since it is the
fixed policy of the Washington administration to withhold
consent to his continuance in any position of influence
whatever. The attitude of the Constitutionalist leaders
in Mexico, flushed as they are with many victories over
the federal troops supporting Huerta, is in grave doubt,
and the diplomats of the South American republics, who
have undertaken to solve the problem and secure peace
with honor for all concerned, are confronted by no easy
task. Any solution that does not include practical pro-
visions for the pacification of Mexico, so that it will once
more become safe for American citizens and all other for-
eigners to dwell within its borders and reap the rewards
of their industry and enterprise in peace, unmolested by
either revolutionists or banditti, will not be satisfactory
or permanent and the present temper of the American
people is to insist upon a permanent settlement of Mex-
ican affairs, and to insist upon it now.
The forces of the United States occupy the city and
port of Vera Cruz und it is altogether probable that they
will remain in possession until the slow methods of
diplomacy have borne fruit. Both sides to the con-
troversy arc resting on their arms, but active prepara-
tions for possible eventualities go on apace in both
countries. The United States does not desire war with
any nation, least of all with a weaker sister republic,
already torn and distracted by internal strife. But it
will not long fail to insist upon respect for its flag and
protection for its citizens, their lives and their property,
wherever they may be.
CHAPTER I
OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ
For the second time in history the Mexican port of
Vera Cruz was occupied by the United States on the
morning of Tuesday, April 21, 1914, when a force of
marines and bluejackets from the warships Utah,
Florida and Prairie landed at 11:10 o'clock and
seized the Custom-house without opposition. The marines
were under the command of Major Smedley Darlington
Butler, son of Representative Thomas S, Butler of Penn-
sylvania, senior Republican member of the United States
House of Representatives.
Leaving a guard at the entrances to the Custom-house,
the American forces took up positions commanding the
streets leading toward the central square of the town,
the Plaza do la Constitucion. Machine guns and field
guns were placed in position to cover all the streets con-
verging on the square.
The commanding officer of the American fleet was Rear
Admiral Fletcher, and his orders were that the landing
forces should occupy these positions and make no attack
on the Mexican troops unless they were attacked them-
selves,
[N* B* The United States having been on the verge of war with
Mexico, although the South American Republics had inaugurated their
efforts at mediation and an armistice prevailed at the time this edition
of "Mexico in Peace and War'* went to press, the most recent incidents of
the difficulty with Gen. Hucrta and hi government have been treated
thus prominently, out of their chronological order, on account of the wide-
spread interest in the present situation and the demand for a permanent
record of recent events*]
17
18 OCCUPATION OF VEEA CEUZ
The scene in the harbor of Vera Cruz as the men of the
navy proceeded amid cheers to the landing at the custom-
house wharf was an unparalleled and inspiriting one.
Nearest the shore of all the warships lay the transport
Prairie, from which came the majority of the landing
force. Farther out lay the great gray masses of the
battleships Florida and Utah, their crews crowding to
their sides watching developments and envying their com-
rades ordered to duty ashore. In the outer harbor, too,
were the British cruiser Essex, the French cruiser Concle
named after the historic admiral of France, and the
Spanish gunboat Carlos V*, all intensely interested and
sympathetic witnesses of the American operations-
Before twenty hours had elapsed the scene before the
ancient city was destined to become even more interesting
from both the naval and the international standpoint,
Bear Admiral Badger, commanding the North Atlantic
fleet of the United States navy, was rapidly approaching
Vera Cruz, leading a fleet composed of the first-class bat-
tleships Arkansas, flagship, New Hampshire, Louisiana,
Vermont, New Jersey and North Dakota; also the South
Carolina, Michigan, Tacoma and Nashville, with a total
force of 7,700 sailors and 500 marines. On the arrival of
these war vessels, with their accompanying supply ships,
there were in all twenty-one ships of the United States
navy lying in their gray war paint in and outside thft port
to insure the capture and safekeeping of tlio city.
The actual landing of the naval force ordered ashore
by Admiral Fletcher in pursuance of his orders
unopposed. Sweeping in to the wharf under the
of the Prairie, the ships * boats and power launches,
crowded to the gunwales with sailors and marines, mad* 1
fast and debarked their loads of fighting men without
the firing of a hostile shot. But the white-clad AmericaiiH
had no sooner gained the center of the city and secured
the approaches to the Plaza, than opposition developed
and active hostilities began.
OCCUPATION OF VEKA CRUZ 19
Scarcely had the troops placed the guns in position
when Mexican soldiers appeared on the housetops over-
looking the square. Two shots rang out and within a
few minutes three volleys came from a Mexican force
several hundred yards from the positions occupied by the
Americans. These volleys were returned immediately by
the sailors and marines and soon the firing became
general.
GUNS OF THE PRAIRIE OPEN FIBE
When Bear-Admiral Fletcher was informed of the
attack on his men by the Mexicans he ordered the guns
of the armed transport Prairie to open fire on the posi-
tions occupied by the enemy.
Captain "William E. Bush of tho battleship Florida
was in general command of the landing force soon
located a large force of Mexicans firing on the United
States troops from tho tower of the Benito Juarez light-
house ,and ordered his men to open fire on this point.
Several throe-inch guns wore trained on the lighthouse
and the tower was struck three times, silencing the
enemy's fire.
Captain Bush signaled to the transport Prairie, on
board of which was Admiral Fletcher, as follows : " Am
being attacked from tho right and rear north of the round-
house; shell that district"
At tho same time it was noticed that sharpshooters
lined the roof of the Mexican Naval Academy and were
" Bniping " tho bluejackets. A three-inch gun of the
Prairie was trained on the academy and the Mexicans
were forced to abandon their position.
The shooting by this time had become general all over
the city. At 3 o'clock tho United States Consulate had
been ntniek by several bullets.
TWO MAKIOT8 AKD TWO SAILORS KILLED
Two sailors of tho Florida and two marines were killed
and nearly a score wounded. Under the heavy fire from
20 OCCUPATION OF VEEA CRUZ
the warships the Mexicans were driven from the center
of the city to the eastward, where they attempted to make
a stand. The Prairie, which was lying in tho harbor about
a quarter of a mile from the harbor front, turned her
guns to the point where the Mexicans were gathering
and forced them to take refuge in the narrow streets
thereabout.
UTAH SENDS MOBE SAILOBS ASHORE
At 2 o'clock several boatloads of sailors from the battle-
ship Utah were landed east of the Custom-house. As the
boats drew near the wharf, several volleys were fired on
them from large warehouses and box cars along the water
front. These places were shelled by the guns of the
Prairie and the sailors were able to land without losing
a man.
Among the American wounded were two signalmen
who were operating on the roof of the Terminal Hotel
near the water front.
About 5 o'clock the resistance of the Mexicans bogun
to dwindle appreciably. Firing from the towors and tlu*
housetops, from which the heaviest rain of bullets cairn*
at the beginning of the fighting, died away.
The marines and bluejackets made no attempt to pur-
sue the flying Mexicans, firing only whenever one of the
enemy showed himself in the streets.
KLETOHEE WABSTS OARBISOK OOMMANPBB
Captain H. McLaren P. Huso, Rear-Admiral Fletcher's
chief of staff, went ashore in the midst of the fighting
to try to get into communication with General Gustavo
Maas, commander-m-chief of the Mexican garrison. He
carried a warning from tho American commander to the
effect that his patience was exhausted and that if the
Mexicans continued to resist, tho fleet would shell tho city*
"When William W. Canada, the American consul, xioti-
OCCUPATION OF VERA CEUZ 21
fied General Maas on Tuesday morning that marines were
about to be landed and requested Mm to cooperate with,
the American forces to maintain order in the city, the
Mexican commander replied that this was impossible.
Mexican resistance in the presence of such an over-
whelming force, said an observer, can be explained only
on the ground that they desired to save their faces by
maMng a show of fight, however futile.
A cargo of war munitions for the Federal government
aboard the German steamer Ypiringa, which had arrived
in the morning, was captured by the United States land-
ing force. It consisted of 250 machine guns, 20,000 rifles
and 15,000,000 rounds of ammunition.
Captain Huse tried to ascertain the whereabouts of
General Maas, so that he could send a flag of truce to
propose an armistice and inform the Mexican commander
that the purpose of the landing of United States troops
had been accomplished by the capture of the Ypiringa 's
cargo.
A New York newspaper man volunteered to take a flag
of truce to General Maas, but Captain Huse declined the
offer, saying that the mission was too dangerous.
ADMIEAL PLETCHBE^S BEPOET
The following despatch was sent by wireless to the
Navy Department by Admiral Fletcher:
" Tuesday In the face of an approaching norther I
landed marines and sailors from the battleships Utah
and Florida and the transport Prairie and seized the
Custom-house. The Mexican forces did not oppose our
landing, but opened fire with rifle and artillery after our
seizure of the Custom-house. The Prairie is shelling the
Mexicans out of their positions- Desultory firing from
housetops and in the streets continues. I hold the Cus-
tom-house and that section of the city in the vicinity of
the wharves and the American Consulate, Casualties,
four dead and twenty wounded "
22 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ
The Americans killed in the first day's fighting at Vera
Cruz were as follows :
Haggerty, Daniel Aloysius, private, Eighth Company,
Second Advance Base Regiment, United States Marines.
Marten, Samuel, private, Sixteenth Company, Second
Advance Base Regiment.
Poinsett, George, seaman, United States ship Florida.
Schumacher, John F., coxswain, United States ship
Florida.
HOW THE PIEST MAN DIED
According to eyewitnesses, Seaman George Poinsett
was shot by a Mexican sharpshooter while raising the
flag on the Plaza following the first landing of marines.
No other shots had been fired. As Poinsett tied the flag
to the halyards and raised it, there was a puff of smoke
from the tower of a church nearby and he fell with a
bullet through his heart.
Immediately after his fall came the first resistance by
the Mexicans to the invasion of United States troops.
Thomas G. Parris, formerly principal of the Pastorius
public school, of Philadelphia, which Poinsett attended,
spoke highly of him as he had known him,
" George died as he would have chosen. Ho always
wanted to join the navy. His grandfathers were both
naval officers in the Civil
EXJLOGIZED IN CONGRESS
Poinsett was eulogized in the House of Representatives
at Washington April 22 as " the Worth Bagtey of the
Mexican trouble."
Representative Moore, of Pennsylvania, in calling
attention to the fact that Poinsett was the first man killed
in the intervention in Mexico, declared tliat ** whether
we have entered upon this war wisely or unwiscly f we
have at least demonstrated our wisdom as a nation in
being prepared for war.
OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 23
" A father who yielded to his boy's desire to serve
his country has been bereft of a son, but the nation has
added the name of that boy to its roll of heroes. "
PBESIDENT WILSON ? S EEGRETS
Letters expressing the profound sorrow of President
Wilson and Secretary of the Navy Daniels at the death
of the four sailors and marines first killed at Vera Cruz
were dispatched on April 22 by the Secretary of the Navy
to the parents of the men.
The letters were addressed to William Poinsett, of
Philadelphia, Pa. ; Mrs. Isabella McKinnon, of Brooklyn,
N. Y., mother of Coxswain Schumacher; Mayer Marten,
of Chicago, and Michael Haggerty, of Cambridge, Mass.
Mr. Daniels wrote to each as follows :
" This morning's dispatches from Vera Cruz convey-
ing the distressing news that your son was in the first
line to give his life for his country saddens all America
as the tragedy brings gloom into your home.
" My feeling and the feeling of the president to you
in this sad hour was expressed by President Lincoln,
when, on November 21, 1864, he wrote to Mrs, Bixby, of
Boston, whose five sons gave their lives fighting under
the American flag:
" * I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words
of mine which should attempt to beguile you from a loss
so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering
to yon the consolation that may be found in the thanks
of the republic they died to save* I pray that our Heav-
enly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereave-
ment and leave you only the cherished memory of the
loved and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours
to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of
freedom.' "
The navy department arranged to bring to the United
States the bodies of the Vera Cruz victims, and either
forward them to relatives or make final iriterment in a
24 OCCUPATION OF VEEA CRUZ
national cemetery. Their final disposition rested with
the families.
GENERAL MAAS WITHDBAWS
Such was in brief the story of the memorable day on
which the Stars and Stripes was once more planted on
Mexican soil. The big guns of the service squadron were
not used, and the Mexican defense of the city was
desultory, General Maas, the Mexican commander in the
city having withdrawn his main force, but remaining in
the vicinity.
The following account of the operations was given by
an eye witness :
Those watching from the ships observed through their
glasses a large force of Mexicans moving over the hills in
the western outskirts of the city, apparently with the
intention of flanking a battalion of marines in the railway
yards and along Montesinos street, which runs east and
west not far from the American consulate.
Instantly the five-inch guns of the Prairie let go, break-
ing the Mexican formation and causing a hasty retreat.
This ended the flanking movement.
Only a few minutes before the three-inch guns of the
Prairie were used effectively near shore. A small detach-
ment of Mexicans had gained positions near the custom
house and their concealed marksmen were causing some
trouble. A few shots from the Prairie 's guns served to
silence the position. From time to time the same guna
played their shells along the line of the shore, keeping
that territory comparatively free of sharpshooters.
ASKS MAAS TO SUBBENDEB
With all the eastern side of the city occupied and also
the tracks of the railway as far west as the roundhouse
near the western edge on the northern side and with the
Mexicans unable to do more than keep up SB annoying
but ineffective fire from house tops, Capt Rush at 4:20
OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 25
o'clock sent under a flag of truce a messenger chosen
from among the natives to Gen. Maas, or whoever hap-
pened to be in command, to ask if he was not ready to
surrender.
Unless the Mexicans yielded Capt. Rush had his choice
of continuing the fighting under the tactics he was using
or of charging all positions or calling on the warships
for a bombardment
He was loath to resort to a bombardment and on the
other hand did not desire to lose any more of his men by
charges. He recognized that the tactics of the Mexicans
might leave the housetop fighters in their position
indefinitely and that it was not impossible that those who
were " sniping " from the roofs might be reinforced by
others of their kind during the night.
The messenger was told to remind Gen. Maas that
while there were ashore at that time only a few more
than one thousand men, there would be available for the
American forces by morning some 10,000. It was left to
Gen* Maas to draw his own inference from this message,
but no attention was paid to it and the desultory firing
continued until all the Mexican sharpshooters had been
killed or dislodged.
A CONTEST OF IOTLES
There was no cannon firing from the Mexican side, and
it is supposed their artillery pieces were taken from the
city early in the day. With the exception of a few shots
from the light field pieces of the bluejackets and a few
from the Prairie, it was a contest of rifles.
Bravery was shown everywhere among the Americans.
The youngsters wearing the bluejackets of their vessels
behaved as well under fire as the marines, who along the
line comported themselves like veterans. Some of the
marines liad seen service before in Central America and
other places. In the earlier part of the engagement small
detachments of the Americans who were guarding the
26 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ
approaches to the central part of the city stood without
flinching while bullets from the rifles of the Mexicans sang
about their ears.
The Mexican loss on April 21 was estimated at between
150 and 200 killed.
MAKEUP OF LANDING FORCE
Rear Admiral Fletcher limited his first landing party
to 1,000 bluejackets and marines. Opposed to this force
were 900 Mexicans under the command of Gen. Maas.
The following was the approximate strength of the
naval forces available for shore duty :
From the battleships Florida, Utah, Connecticut, and
Minnesota 240 marines, 1,860 bluejackets.
From the cruisers San Francisco and Chester 400
marines, 250 bluejackets.
From the transports Prairie and Hancock 1,684
marines.
CONSUL CANADA'S BEPOET
U. S. Consul Canada's report of the day's operations
was as follows: "Marines and bluejackets landed at
11:30 this morning, immediately taking possession of
cable office, postoffice, telegraphic offices and custom
house, also railroad terminals and yards with rolling
stock. Notwithstanding firing from housetops we are
masters of the situation so far without use of heavy guns.
" Our men are simply defending themselves. Some
resistance from naval vessels soon silenced by guns on
Prairie. At this time reported four of our men killed and
twenty wounded. American newspaper men and several
other Americans in consulate.
" Several Americans including some women who
refused to go aboard refugee ship are now marooned in
hotels within firing line. Trains from Mexico City did
not arrive. "
OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 27
PKOOLAMATION TO PEOPLE OF VEKA CBTJ3
On April 22, Admiral Fletcher issued a proclamation
to the mayor, chief of police, and citizens of Vera Cruz,
as follows :
" It has become necessary for the naval forces of the
United States of America now at Vera Cruz to land and
assume military control of the customs wharves of Vera
Cruz. Your co-operation is requested to preserve order
and preserve life*
"It is not the intention of the United States naval
forces to interfere with the administration of the civil
affairs of Vera Cruz, more than is necessary for the pur-
pose of maintaining a condition of law and order and
enforce such sanitary conditions as are needed to meet
military requirements.
" It is desired that the civil officials of Vera Cruz shall
continue in the peaceful pursuit of their occupations.
Under these conditions full protection will be given to the
city by the United States naval forces.
"It is enjoined upon all inhabitants and property
owners to prevent firing by individuals from the shelter
of their houses upon United States forces, or upon any
one else. Such firing by irregulars not members of an
organized military force is contrary to the laws of war;
if persisted in it will call for severe measures.
" F. F. FLETCHEB, Bear- Admiral, U. S. N.
" Commander Detached Squadron U. S. Atlantic Fleet."
PBESJDENT WILSON PHONED THE OBDER
The story of how President Wilson ordered the cus-
tom-house at Vera Cruz to be seized was revealed in
Washington on April 22*
The president had gone to bed on Monday night while
the senate was debating the joint resolution to approve
of the use of the army and navy, and had determined
to withhold action until the resolution passed, although
28 OCCUPATION OF VEEA CEUZ
feeling that in an emergency the executive had ample
authority to act.
At 4 o'clock Tuesday morning Secretary Bryan
received a cablegram from Consul Canada, telling of the
approach of a German vessel with a tremendous cargo of
ammunition for Huerta. Locomotives and cars were in
readiness to rush the arms to Mexico City.
Mr. Bryan telephoned Secretary Tumulty, who decided
to awaken the president. He telephoned the "White House.
The servants were timid, but Mr. Tumulty insisted.
Finally the president came to the telephone, and while
Secretary Tumulty was explaining the situation Secre-
tary Daniels called up and was put on the same line. He,
too, had a dispatch about the ammunition. Rear Admiral
Fletcher had sent a wireless that 15,000,000 rounds of
ammunition and 250 machine guns would be landed from
the German vessel by noon that day.
The president listened in silence.
" What shall we do? " asked Secretary Daniels.
" Tell Fletcher to seize the custom house, " replied the
president, without hesitation.
" Good night, " said the secretary. The telephone con-
ference ended and in a few minutes wireless dispatches
were on their way to Bear Admiral Fletcher. He received
the message at 10 A. M., and an hour later American
marines had landed and taken possession of the custom
house. The ammunition went back to its shippers in
Europe.
THE SECOND DAY ? S PIGHT
Fighting was renewed in the City of Vera Cruz on
Wednesday, April 22, when soldiers, citizens and convicts
released by the Huerta officials fired down from roofs
and windows on the American forces. The small guns
on the warships in the harbor battered down some of the
buildings they occupied. The Mexican loss was heavy
and before nightfall the United States landing force had
OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 29
obtained absolute control over the city and port. Two
more Americans were killed and ten wounded, bringing
the total for the two days' fighting to six dead and
thirty wounded.
After the general advance began in the morning, Mex-
ican snipers on the roofs put up a stubborn resistance.
There was one brisk action, the guns of the Prairie and
Chester assisting in silencing a heavy fire from the Naval
College, shells from the Prairie finally shattering the
walls.
The paymaster of the British cruiser Essex, Albert W.
Kimber, was wounded on board his ship by a sniper
ashore. British bluejackets crowded to the bows and
vociferously cheered the American marines as they pro-
ceeded inshore for the landing. The flags on the Essex
and Fort San Juan de Ulua were half-masted when the
dead were carried to the boats.
Marines and bluejackets during the day occupied every
important point in the city, including the Plaza de la
Constitucion, where the Mexicans made their only real
stand in the fighting the day before.
Marines searched all houses from which shots were
fired in the morning, and all Mexicans with arms in their
hands were made prisoners and sent to the United States
mine ship San Francisco. Some of the Mexicans were
thoroughly frightened, apparently expecting that the
Americans would shoot their prisoners.
CITY THOBOUGHLY PATB6LLED
Admiral Fletcher took up his headquarters at the Ter-
minal Hotel. The entire city was strongly patrolled, and
quiet prevailed at night. Admiral Fletcher took com-
mand of the land operations, while Bear Admiral Badger,
commander-in-chief of the Atlantic fleet, who had arrived
with several battleships during the night, brought his flag
into the harbor on the Minnesota.
Admiral Badger had not decided whether to proceed to
30 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ
Tampico, and it was believed his departure would be
delayed, pending further orders from Washington.
Detachments of men of the signal corps were posted on
all the advantageous positions in the city to keep watch
on the Mexican troops, and a reconnaissance was made
by marines under Major Butler along the line of the
railway to Mexico City.
A GENEBAL ADVANCE
Bear Admiral Fle':cher at 8:30 o'clock in the morning
ordered a general movement for the occupation of all the
town. A column of bluejackets advanced, and passed
the uncompleted market place and Naval College.
When they had reached the walls of the college a
terrific rifle fire was poured in all directions from the
roof and windows. The bluejackets were helpless to
return the fire against the stone walls, and scattered-
The Prairie, Chester and San Francisco then opened
with their five and six-inch guns, and shattered the walls.
The bluejackets re-formed and advanced against the fire,
which had diminished greatly.
By 10 o'clock there was only desultory firing from the
inshore side of the tower. Battalions of bluejackets had
made their way along the water front to the southern
end of the town, and cleared several streets, but the
sniping from houses continued at intervals.
The scout cruiser Chester pounded buildings on the
outskirts with six-inch shells, firing over the heads of the
men ashore and showing almost perfect marksmanship.
The general movement from all the positions taken on
Tuesday began in the direction of the main plaza. The
marines under Lieutenant-Colonel Wendell 0. Neville
moved to the southward along parallel streets toward the
center, while those under Lieutenant Commander Buch-
anan, of the Florida, and Lieutenant Commander Arthur
B. Keating, of the Arkansas, were ordered from their
positions east of the center toward the plaza.
OCCUPATION OF VEEA CEUZ 31
The two forces swung forward with a rush for three
blocks. The machine gun and rifle fire was supplemented
by shell fire from the smaller guns of the Prairie and
Chester. The ships' guns supported the movement of
clearing the roofs to the south and east, occasionally
dropping a shell a few hundred yards in advance.
There was absolutely no organized resistance, but from
the beginning of the advance a smart fire came from the
defenders on the house tops, which invariably drew a
merciless fire from the advancing parties.
The machine guns sounded their " tap tap " in all
quarters, and American sharpshooters, posted at street
corners and other points of vantage, picked off any man
who appeared to be acting suspiciously.
Eeinforcements were landed under the protection of
the guns of the warships, bringing the total force ashore
up to 3,000,
MESSAGE TO THE MAYOB
Julio Franco, a Mexican chosen by American Consul
Canada to be the bearer of the warning from Admiral
Flotcher, was unable to communicate with any of the
Federal officials and only the mayor, Eobert Diaz, could
be located.
When Franco tried to communicate with the mayor he
was refused admission by Mexican guards stationed at
the door. Franco then crawled over the roof of an adjoin-
ing building into the court of the Diaz residence, but did
not succeed in seeing the mayor.
Senor Diaz refused to leave his bedroom, so the mes-
senger shouted the contents of Admiral Fletcher >s note
to the mayor, and personally appealed to him to yield to
save the city from bombardment, reminding him of the
grave risk to the families of Mexicans and others in the
city.
GBtf. MA AS 7 DEPASTURE
It was ascertained during the day that General Gustavo
32 OCCUPATION OF VEEA CRUZ
Maas, commander of the garrison, left the city in a car-
riage at noon on Tuesday, half an hour after the first
boatload of American marines landed. The commander 's
family followed him in another carriage.
It was also stated that the Mexican troops forming the
garrison of Vera Cruz were turned loose as soon as it
was seen that the Americans were about to land, and were
told to act as they saw fit. Very few of their officers
remained with the Mexican soldiers, whose operations
were carried on without any one to direct them.
Some of the Mexican troops obtained a considerable
supply of intoxicants by looting two stores. As a result,
many were in a condition which made them equally dan-
gerous to natives and foreigners who came within their
range.
Colonel Cerrillo was one of the few officers who
remained. He was the commander of the Nineteenth bat-
talion and was wounded in one arm early in the fighting.
The Mexican troops had one seventy-five millimeter gun,
which they used.
Among the citizen element offering opposition to the
American force were many prisoners who had been
released by General Maas before he evacuated the city.
Many of these criminals inaugurated their liberty by
becoming intoxicated and then found a convenient outlet
for their enthusiasm by joining the fighters on the house-
tops.
BOMBABDMEBTT WAS AVERTED,
The principal reason for Admiral Fletcher's hesitation
to bombard was that hundreds of non-combatants, includ-
ing many women and children who had been unable to
get out of the central part of the city, were crowded into
the Diligencia Hotel building, from which most of the
firing was done by the Mexicans,
As the Americans advanced through the city for the
purpose of clearing away any further possibility of resist-
into hoivice to remove dead iiud wounded at Vein Cuiz
A detail of bluejackets seeking the wounded after the second day's iiglit
at Vera Cruz
liiwrta
Vietoriuuo liuerta and (joueral Blanqiwt, his minihlcr of \\
OCCUPATION OP VERA CRUZ 33
ance there were many pitiful scenes when women with
children in their arms besought mercy in the belief that
they were about to be put to death.
Special trains which left Mexico City Tuesday night
with Americans aboard failed to arrive at Vera Cruz and
it was feared the lines had been cut. Great uneasiness
was felt regarding the Americans in the capital. It was
believed, however, that General Huerta would take all
possible steps to protect foreigners.
The captain of the German steamer Ypirango readily
acquiesced in the order of the American commander not
to attempt to land the large cargo of munitions of war
consigned to President Huerta, and placed his vessel at
the disposal of Admiral Fletcher. He promised not to
leave the harbor unless a norther compelled frim to seek
safety in the open sea.
All the American women and children in the city went
aboard the Ward liners Esperanza and Mexico by order
of Admiral Fletcher.
CABBANZA HEAED FEOM
The sensation of the day at Washington was a message
from General Carranza, chief of the Constitutional rebels
in the north of Mexico, demanding that the United States
promptly evacuate the city of Vera Cruz. From the com-
mencement of the Huerta regime President Wilson had
supported Carranza, as the best hope of relief from the
usurper. Now, at the first instant of American action, it
appeared likely that the Constitutionalists would make
common cause with Huerta against the Washington gov-
eminent. On the following day, however, General Fran-
jisco Villa, fighting head of all the Constitutional rebel
forces in the north of Mexico, gave out an interview
expressing his friendship for the United States and
declaring that nothing could force him to take part in a
war with his neighbors to the north. He expressed his
full confidence in his chief, Carranza, and explained that
34 OCCUPATION OF VEEA CRUZ
no offense to America was intended by the note of the
latter. He referred to the usurper as that " drunken
little ass, Huerta."
EXCITEMENT IN MEXICO CITY
When news of the occupation of Vera Cruz reached
Mexico City the excited people made attacks on some
American buildings, tore down the statue of George
Washington, and threatened the United States Embassy,
which was guarded by a squad of Huerta soldiers. A
trainload of American and other foreign refugees was
sent to Vera Cruz, where they arrived safely after con-
siderable delay en route.
GEN". HUEBTA'S ATTITUDE
On receiving news of the occupation of Vera Cruz,
General Huerta gave out the following statement in
Mexico City:
" Mexico is defending not only her national sover-
eignty, but that of all Latin America as well. This is not
a war between the Mexican and American peoples, but
between Mexico and the government of the United States,
which is controlled by men who have forced this situation
upon us in spite of our efforts to the contrary.
" We shall have 400,000 men in the field in twenty
days."
General Huerta also assured Charge O'Shaughnessy
personally and in the friendliest tone that he and all
Americans in Mexico City would be defended against all
attack.
General Huerta also made the following declaration in
Ellmparcial:
' * In the port of Vera Cruz we are sustaining with arms
the national honor against the outrage which the Yankee
government is committing against a free people, as is and
always will be that of this Bepublic. This action mil
pass on to history, which will put Mexico and the govern-
OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 35
ment of the United States each in the place where it
belongs. "
THE MABINE COMMANDEB
Major S. D. Butler, who commanded the marines that
landed in Vera Cruz, participated in the international
expedition to Peking during the summer of 1900. At the
fighting around Tientsin he was wounded and assisted
from the field by Maj. Harry Leonard, U. S. M., who has
since retired. As a result of his experience in the Chinese
rebellion Maj. Butler was advanced in rank for " eminent
and conspicuous conduct in battle with the Peking relief
column." He was appointed to the marine corps from
civil life in 1899.
The marines under Maj. Butler's command were those
previously constituting the marine contingent in the
Isthmian canal zone, regarding which Secretary of War
Garrison remarked that they were the finest body of sol-
diery he had ever seen, despite the fact that they wore
the stars of a rival service.
During their stay in the zone these marines had been
assigned to duty in operating railroad trains and repair-
ing tracks and bridges.
PBAJBEB SIXTEEN YEABS IK KAVY
The United States navy transport Prairie was pur-
chased from private owners in 1898. Previous to its incor-
poration into the United States navy it had been a pas-
senger and express steamer of the Morgan line, plying
between New York, G-alveston, and New Orleans,
It was rechristened the Prairie upon entering the naval
service, and was a sister ship of the Yankee and the Dixie.
The Prairie, now classed as an armed transport, par-
ticipated throughout the Spanish-American war as a con-
verted cruiser of the second class. It has a displacement
of 6,620 tons ; and is authorized to carry a complement, in
addition to the naval officers and seamen, of twenty-three
36 OCCUPATION OF VEEA CBUZ
marine officers and 750 marines. It is armed with twelve
rapid fire guns of small caliber.
MEXICO'S BEST POET
There are very few towns in the Republic of Mexico
that have such an interesting history as the city of Vera
Cruz. Owing to its mercantile movement, it is the first
port of the Eepublic.
Vera Cruz has more than 33,000 inhabitants. It is 264
miles from Mexico City by the Mexican railroad. The
road was commenced in the year 1842, and the construc-
tion took place during a period of thirty-four years.
The works necessary for dredging the bay and the
breakwaters for securing the safety of the port were
under construction for more than three years. The com-
plete area is about 570 acres, and now the port is in a
condition to receive steamers of deep draft and heavy
tonnage. The construction of the port works cost the
federal government $26,704,782.85. The improvements
were inaugurated on March 6, 1902, and have made Vera
Cruz one of the most beautiful ports on the Mexican
coast, and where steamers of large draft can enter and
be securely sheltered during great storms.
Vera Cruz is distinguished from the other towns of the
Eepublic on account of its crooked streets and narrow
lanes which run from the broad streets constructed sym-
metrically at right angles.
In the commercial part of the city the houses are of two
and three stories and well constructed. Among other
edifices may be mentioned the municipal palace, the par-
ish church, the market, the Dehesa theater, the Hospital
Zamora, the Cantonal school, and the Church of San
Francisco, to which is joined the public library, from
whose ancient tower shines the famous Juarez light.
The inhabitants of the port are occupied with the busi-
ness of exportation, importation, and the commission
OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 37
business. There are also cigar and cigaret factories,
match, soda water, ice and furniture factories.
During the war between Mexico and the United States
Gen. Scott, with an army of about 12,000, landed in the
vicinity of Vera Cruz on March 9, 1847. He immediately
invested the city, which, together with the castle of San
Juan de Ulua, contained a garrison of about 4,500.
On March 22, assisted by a fleet under Commander
Perry, he began a terrific bombardment, which continued
almost unabated for four days. On March 29 the Mex-
icans surrendered. The Americans lost 11 killed and 56
wounded and the Mexicans fully 1,000 in killed alone.
TJ. S. WARSHIPS IN MEXICO
The United States warships in Mexican waters April
23 were distributed as follows :
Tampico Connecticut, Des Moines, Dolphin, Solace,
Cyclops.
Vera Cruz Arkansas, Florida, Utah, Vermont, New
Jersey, New Hampshire, South Carolina, Minnesota, Han-
cock, Prairie, Chester, San Francisco, Orion, and the
destroyers Fanning, Beale, Jarvis, Jenkins, Jouett, Hen-
ley, Drayton, McCall, Warrington, Patterson, Spalding,
Ammen, Burrows and Trippe.
Guaymas Justin.
Mazatlan California, Ealeigh.
Topolobampo Glacier, Yorktown.
Salina Cruz Annapolis en route from Acapulco, Den-
ver en route from Corinto.
GUABD APPEOAOHBS TO THE OITT
On Thursday, April 23, the American forces in Vera
Cruz moved their lines some miles outside the city limits
to guard the railroad and bridges on the road to Mexico
City. In these movements three more Americans were
killed and twenty-five wounded.
It was reported that Carranza had refused offers from
38 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ
the Huerta forces to make common cause with them
against the Americans.
The following days were devoted to cleaning up the
city of Vera Cruz and establishing a civil government
with Robert J. Kerr, of Chicago, an attorney-at-law who
happened to be in the city, as temporary governor.
The old fortress prison of San Juan de Ulua was closed
by Admiral Fletcher, on account of its dirty and insani-
tary condition. Many political prisoners held captive
there were set at liberty.
Admiral Fletcher also made arrangements for the
exchange of Mexican prisoners and American refugees
from the capital and other interior points, and the
exchange was effected at a point on the railroad some
miles from Vera Cruz. News of the mediation plan pro-
posed at Washington reached the city on Sunday.
General Funston and the soldiers of the Fifth Brigade,
United States Regulars, arrived late on Monday night,
April 27, off the port, but no attempt was made to land
pending a conference between Admiral Fletcher and the
general, which occurred next day.
On Wednesday, General Funston 's soldiers, 4,000
strong, were landed and it was announced that on Thurs-
day they would take over the control of the city.
Next day occurred, with most impressive and inspiring
ceremonies, the transfer of the city of Vera Cruz from
the navy to the army. The men of the navy went back
to their ships, leaving behind them only the marines who
went to Mexico on the transports and who remained
ashore to support the army in policing the city and the
surrounding territory. The people of the city had
already begun to feel the good effects of .American occu-
pancy in the way of greater security to life and property
and better sanitary conditions*
FBEBOE FIGHTING AT TAMHGO
From Tampico came reports of fierce fighting about the
OCCUPATION OF VEBA CRUZ 39
city, the rebels pushing their advance as far as possible.
Carranza gave a shock to the adherents of the peace plan
by issuing an order for 12,000 additional troops to go
to the aid of the rebel forces.
Bear-Admiral Howard, in command of the United
States fleet on the Pacific coast, reported that the rebels
were active in their attempts to capture Mazatlan and
other western cities.
A MILITABY GOVEBNMEN'T
Orders sent to General Funston May 1 from Washing-
ton instructed him to set up a complete military govern-
ment over the city of Vera Cruz and this he proceeded to
do, the civil governor, Eobert J. Kerr, relinquishing his
office.
Bodies of Huertistas were seen in the vicinity of Vera
Cruz during the week ending May 1, but no organized
attack came from them, though many desultory shots
were fired at the American outposts. On May 2 a com-
pany of General Maas' troops appeared at the water-
works pumping station outside the city and demanded
the surrender of the marine guard. Their demand was
of course refused and General Funston promptly sent
strong reinforcements to guard the waterworks.
An armistice between the American and Huerta forces
was understood to exist May 1, pending the result of
mediatory efforts, although the Constitutionalists under
Carranza refused to agree to any truce in their war upon
Huerta and continued a fierce attack upon Tampico. But,
despite the armistice, General Funston believed that more
troops were needed at Vera Cruz and on May 5 it was
announced t at Washington that another brigade of
approximately 4,000 troops would be despatched to the
Mexican city forthwith,
It was also announced at Washington that no definite
arrangements had been made with Huerta for a truce
and that General Maas, who was said to be gathering a
40 OCCUPATION OF VERA CKUZ
force of 13,000 Federals at Saltillo, might attack Vera
Cruz at any time. Carranza's refusal to agree to a
general armistice had relieved General Maas from any
obligation to notify General Funston of the termination
of the tacit armistice which had existed for some days.
He was at liberty under the rales of The Hagne conven-
tions and international law to attack whenever he saw
fit. Under these circumstances the situation at Vera
Cruz was regarded as critical. The American forces
under General Funston had been distributed at strategi-
cal points inside and outside the city, and a strong guard
was maintained at the waterworks, nine miles distant.
A number of Americans were reported held prisoners
by General Maas outside of Vera Cruz and six hundred
American refugees in the City of Mexico were endeavor-
ing on May 5 to secure transportation to the coast. There
was daily fighting at Tampico between the Constitutional-
ist and Federal forces, the latter holding the city, and
grave fears were entertained for the safety of the oil
wells in the vicinity.
At the National Palace in Mexico City, May 5, Huerta
denied reports of his intention to resign and said:
" What the people gave to me I will not relinquish. "
There were persistent reports at Vera Cruz of con-
spiracies against Huerta at the capital.
General Maas endeavored to secure the cooperation of
General Villa, the Constitutionalist leader, in an attack
upon the United States troops at Vera Cruz, but Villa
positively refused to consider any alliance with the
Huerta forces.
CHAPTEE n
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
The causes that led to the occupation of Vera Cruz by
the United States were of a cumulative character.
Trouble with the Huerta government had been foreseen
for months, as it was surely brewing in consequence of
repeated acts of an unfriendly character by Huerta
officers and troops and the generally hostile treatment of
Americans resident in Mexico.
A climax was reached in the city of Tampico on the
afternoon of Thursday, April 9, 1914. An American
squadron under Bear- Admiral Mayo lay in the harbor,
and a paymaster and boat's crew were sent from the
Dolphin to another vessel. Their boat was a gasoline
launch, and after completing their errand they landed to
secure a supply of gasoline. A Mexican Federal officer
arrested the paymaster and part of the boat's crew in
the streets soon after their landing and two of the men
who had been left as boatkeepers were ordered out of the
boat, at the stern of which flew the United States naval
flag, and also placed under arrest. They were marched
through the streets under guard and locked up in jail
by officers of the Huerta forces occupying Tampico.
When they were released and allowed to go back to
their ship Bear- Admiral Mayo, in command of the United
States fleet in the harbor, made prompt demands for
reparation on General Zaragoza, in command of the
Huerta forces.
41
42 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
A SALUTE DEMANDED
An apology for the outrage, punishment of the offend-
ing officers, and a salute of twenty-one guns to the stars
and stripes, to be fired within twenty-four hours, was the
admiral's ultimatum.
The matter was referred to General Huerta, at the capi-
tal. He disavowed the act of his subordinates, made
apology, and stated that the officer responsible for the
arrest should be duly subjected to discipline. This might
seem to have closed the incident, but an incident of this
kind is usually concluded by the firing of a salute, indica-
tive of respect for the sovereignty of a country which,
through its uniformed forces, has been treated with
indignity. Admiral Mayo demanded such a salute, but
for some reason, Q-eneral Huerta and his governmental
and military chiefs decided to refuse to salute the flag of
the United States, except under conditions not deemed
appropriate by our authorities. For example, a full
salute as closing a grave diplomatic incident requires the
firing of twenty-one guns. The Mexicans, however, pro-
posed to minimize the affair by a salute of five guns.
All of which, in view of a vast country swept by the
almost incredible horrors of civil warfare, seemed, in the
words of a current writer, " very much like trifling over
points of etiquette in the presence of death and
destruction.''
Huerta had just persuaded the banks of Mexico City to
advance him $5,000,000 a month to pay his expenses, and
this probably influenced his action, stiffening his resolve
to resist all demands by the United States in order, If
possible, to unite the Mexican people, Federals and Con-
stitutionalists, in face of a foreign opponent.
Villa, fighting man of the Constitutional rebels of the
north, had ordered all the Spanish, residents out of his
territory and his chief, Carranza, had answered with a
snub the protest of the United States government John
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 43
Lind, President "Wilson >s unofficial envoy in Mexico, had
returned to "Washington to make a final report of prac-
tical failure in his mission. He was decidedly embittered
against Huerta, and naturally so.
AN INTOLERABLE SITUATION
By this time the entire Mexican situation had become
intolerable. If not the arrest of the Dolphin's boat crew,
some other trifle must have brought the crisis.
In the meantime, as if to add emphasis to the first
insult, the mail orderly of the United States fleet in the
harbor at Vera Cruz, going ashore in full uniform to get
his mail, was arrested by the Mexican police.
These unavenged insults to the flag deeply incensed
President "Wilson at Washington. Acting on his instruc-
tions, Charge O'Shaughnessy in Mexico City notified the
Huerta government that Admiral Mayo's demands must
be complied with in full. Through his foreign minister,
Huerta replied that an apology and the punishment of
the offending officers was sufficient reparation and all that
he would grant. When Mr. O'Shaughnessy made a sec-
ond attempt to see Huerta he was bluntly informed that
he would not be received.
WABSHIPS OBDBBED TO MEXICO
On Tuesday, April 14, after two conferences with his
cabinet and with navy officials, President Wilson ordered
the entire Atlantic and Pacific war fleets of the United
States to concentrate in Mexican waters. That started
fifteen battleships and about twenty-five auxiliary vessels
for the eastern coast of Mexico, and fifteen cruisers and
minor vessels for the west. Meanwhile Villa and his
rebels won a big battle at San Pedro de Los Colonias,
forty miles from Torreon, wiping out a force of 3,500
Huertistas. Later Villa captured Torreon.
Next day there were many conferences in Washington,
with the purpose of getting the army ready to aid the
44 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
forces of the navy in Mexico. President Wilson con-
ferred with the foreign affairs committee of the Senate
and an official statement was issued setting forth that
the outrages at Tampico and Vera Cruz were only two
of many insults offered by the Huerta government to the
government of the United States. Among the most seri-
ous of these were the holding up by Huerta censors of
official dispatches sent by the State Department to Charge
O'Shaughnessy in Mexico City.
HUEETA'S VACILLATION*
Alarmed by the developments and by the defeat of his
troops at San Pedro, Huerta, on Thursday, April 16,
announced that he would obey the demand of the United
States government and salute the flag by firing twenty-
one guns at Tampico. The decision of the dictator was
received with relief by the Wilson administration, which
had been striving to avoid anything approaching hostili-
ties. But the battleships kept on steaming toward Mexi-
can waters.
Overnight came another sudden change on the part of
Huerta. The dictator announced that he would fire the
salute demanded only on condition that each of his guns
should be answered by an echoing shot from a United
States battleship.
It was announced at Washington that as soon as the
ships reached Mexico they would seize the Huerta #un~
boats guarding the harbor of Tampico and thus allow the
forces of Villa and Carranza to take that city from
Huerta. And the battle fleets were rapidly nearing the
Mexican coasts.
PBESIDESTT WILSON^ ULTIMATUM
On Saturday, April 18, President Wilson announced in
Washington that unless Huerta fired the salute of twenty-
one guns by 6 o'clock on Sunday evening he would on the
following Monday personally lay the matter before Con-
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 45
gress and ask for authority to use the land and naval
forces of the United States against Huerta. It was said
that the presidential plan was to declare and enforce a
" pacific blockade " against all the ports of Mexico.
At 8 o'clock on Sunday evening, April 19, the final
reply came from Huerta. He would not agree to fire the
salute demanded, and even denied that the United States
flag was flying from the launch in Tampico's harbor when
the sailors were taken from it.
President "Wilson left Washington to spend Sunday,
out of the city. American refugees from Mexico City
began to arrive in large numbers at Vera Cruz.
It looked like war and in many parts of the United
States war meetings were held and volunteers offered
themselves to the government.
THE PBESJDE3STT BEFOBE CONGBESS
On Monday, April 20, President Wilson appeared
before Congress and asked for approval of his proposed
action in using the army and navy against Huerta and
his adherents. He disclaimed any possibility of making
war on the Mexican people, or any idea of aggression or
selfish aggrandizement.
Following is the full text of the president's message,
delivered in person:
PBESI0EKT WILSON'S APPEAL TO COtfGBESS
Gentlemen of the Congress : It is my duty to call your
attention to a situation which has arisen in our dealings
with Gen. Victoriano Huerta at Mexico City, which calls
for action, and to ask your advice and co-operation in
acting upon it.
On the 9th of April a paymaster of the U. S. S. Dolphin
landed at the Iturbide bridge landing at Tampico with a
whale-boat and boat's crew, to take off certain supplies
needed by his ship, and while engaged in loading the boat
was arrested by an officer and squad of men of the army
46 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
of G-en. Huerta. Neither the paymaster nor any one of
the boat's crew was armed. Two of the men were in the
boat when the arrest took place and were obliged to leave
it and submit to be taken into custody, notwithstanding
the fact that the boat carried, both at her bow and at her
stern, the flag of the United States,
The officer who made the arrest was proceeding up one
of the streets of the town with his prisoners when met by
an officer of higher authority, who ordered him to return
to the landing and await orders, and within an hour and
a half from the time of the arrest orders were received
from the commander of the Huertista forces at Tampico
for the release of the paymaster and his men.
APOLOGIZE AFTER EELEASE
The release was followed by apologies from the com-
mander and later by an expression of regret by Gen.
Huerta himself. Gen. Huerta urged that martial law
obtained at the time at Tampico; that orders had been
issued that no one should be allowed to land at the Itur-
bide bridge, and that our sailors had no right to land
there.
Our naval commanders at the port had not been notified
of any such prohibition, and, even if they had been, the
only justifiable course open to the local authorities would
have been to request the paymaster and his crew to with-
draw and to lodge a protest with the commanding officer
of the fleet.
Admiral Mayo regarded the arrest as so serious an
affront that he was not satisfied with the apologies
offered, but demanded that the flag of the United States
be saluted with special ceremony by the military com-
mander of the port.
CANNOT BE DEEMED TBIVIAIi
The incident cannot be regarded as a trivial one,
especially as two of the men arrested were taken from
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 47
the boat itself that is to say, from the territory of the
United States. But had it stood by itself it might have
been attributed to the ignorance or arrogance of a single
officer. Unfortunately, it was not an isolated case. A
series of incidents have recently occurred which cannot
but create the impression that the representatives of Gen.
Huerta were willing to go out of their way to show dis-
regard for the dignity and rights of this government and
felt perfectly safe in doing what they pleased, making
free to show in many ways their irritation and contempt.
A few days after the incident at Tampico an orderly
from the U. S. S. Minnesota was arrested at Vera Cruz
while ashore in uniform to obtain the ship's mail and was
for a time thrown into jail. An official dispatch from this
government to its embassy at Mexico City was withheld
by the authorities of the telegraphic service until per-
emptorily demanded by our charge d'affaires in person.
So far as I can learn, such wrongs and annoyances
have been suffered only to occur against representatives
of the United States. I have heard of no complaints from
other governments of similar treatment. Subsequent
explanations and formal apologies did not and could not
alter the popular impression, which it is possible it had
been the object of the Huertista authorities to create,
that the government of the United States was being
singled out and might be singled out with impunity for
slights and affronts in retaliation for its refusal to recog-
nize the pretensions of Gen. Huerta to be regarded as
the constitutional provisional president of the republic
of Mexico.
DA3STGEB OF THE SITUATION
The manifest danger of such a situation was that such,
offenses might grow from bad to worse until something
happened of so gross and intolerable a sort as to lead
directly and inevitably to armed conflict. It was neces-
sary that the apologies of Gen. Huerta and his repre-
48 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
sentatives should go much further, that they should be
such as to attract the attention of the whole population
to their significance and such as to impress upon Gen.
Huerta himself the necessity of seeing to it that no
further occasion for explanations and professed regrets
should arise. I, therefore, felt it my duty to sustain
Admiral Mayo in the whole of his demand and to insist
that the flag of the United States should be saluted in
such a way as to indicate a new spirit and attitude on the
part of the Huertistas.
Such a salute Gen. Huerta has refused, and I have come
to ask your approval and support in the course I now
purpose to pursue.
CAN'T BE POBOED INTO WAS
This government can, I earnestly hope, in no circum-
stances be forced into war with the people of Mexico.
Mexico is torn by civil strife. If we are to accept the
tests of its own constitution, it has no government. Gen.
Huerta has set his power up in the City of Mexico, such
as it is, without right and by methods for which there
can be no justification. Only part of the country is under
his control. If armed conflict should unhappily come as
a result of this attitude of personal resentment toward
this government, we should be fighting only Gen. Huerta
and those who adhere to him and give him their support,
and our object would be only to restore to the people of
the distracted republic the opportunity to set up again
their own laws and their own government.
But I earnestly hope that war is not now in question.
I believe that I speak for the American people when I
say that we do not desire to control in any degree the
affairs of our sister republic.
GENUINE PBIEND OF MEXICO
Our feeling for the people of Mexico is one of (loop
and genuine friendship, and everything that we have so
Uiar Admiral Muyo, II. S. N., in command of squadron at Tampico, who
demanded satisfaction for inault to American flag
guns of tho battleship l ' X<u York'
In readiness for action main battery of the " Wyoming '*
NKLSON
United Statew charg4 d'affaires at Mexico City during controversy with
Huerta, who handed him his passports with expressions
of personal regret
l c
i
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 49
far done or refrained from doing has proceeded from our
desire to help them, not to hinder or embarrass them.
We would not wish even to exercise the good offices of
friendship without their welcome and consent.
The people of Mexico are entitled to settle their own
domestic affairs in their own way and we sincerely desire
to respect their right. The present situation need have
none of the grave complications of interference if we
deal with it promptly, firmly and wisely.
No doubt, I could do what is necessary in the circum-
stances to enforce respect for our government without
recourse to the congress and yet not exceed my constitu-
tional powers as president; but I do not wish to act in a
matter possibly of so grave consequence except in close
conference and co-operation with both the senate and the
house.
TO USB FOBCE AGAINST HUEBTA
I, therefore, come to ask your approval that I should
use the armed forces of the United States in such ways
and to such an extent as may be necessary to obtain from
Gen. Huerta and his adherents the fullest recognition of
the rights and dignity of the United States, even amid the
distressing conditions now unhappily obtaining in Mexico.
There can, in what we do, be no thought of aggression
or of selfish aggrandizement. We seek to maintain the
dignity and authority of the United States only because
we wish always to keep our great influence unimpaired
for the uses of liberty, both in the United States and
wherever else it may be employed for the benefit of
mankind*
DEBATE UST OONGBESS
In the House of Representatives there was sharp debate
before the final passage at a night session of the resolu-
tion which " justified the use of the armed forces of the
United States in enforcing certain demands against Vio-
50 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
toriano Huerta. " It was supported by practically all the
Democrats, by most of the Progressives, and opposed by
thirty Republicans. The final vote was 337 in favor of
the resolution and 37 against it.
DELAY IN THE SENATE
In the Senate there was some delay. Republican sen-
ators and some of the Democrats insisted that so serious
a step ought not to be taken without giving to the world
a more complete justification than the mere statement
that Huerta had insulted the flag.
Then Senator Lodge introduced a substitute reso-
lution declaring that a state of anarchy had long existed
in Mexico, that American citizens had been murdered and
their property destroyed, and that, disclaiming any hos-
tility against the Mexican people, the United States was
justified in using its armed forces for the protection of
its people and the enforcement of its rights.
In the hope of hastening action, President Wilson per-
sonally visited the capitol Monday evening and conferred
with his supporters. Shortly after midnight the Senate
adjourned without completing the debate or passing any
resolution,
Huerta issued a proclamation declaring that all aliens
in his capital would be safeguarded. American merchant
vessels were ordered to leave the port of Vera Cruz, and
there was a rush of refugees from Tampico, Vera Cruz,
and Mexico City.
On Monday night President Wilson, without waiting
for the passage of the Senate resolution, sent orders to
Rear- Admiral Fletcher to seize the custom house at Vera
Cruz and hold it with a detachment of sailors and
marines. The result was as described in the preceding
chapter.
In the Senate at Washington a hot debate raged all
day Tuesday over the wording of the resolution author-
izing the use of armed force. Senator Boot led the fight
THE TAMPIOO INCIDENT 51
for making the resolution express more than merely the
indignation of the United States at insults to its flag and
uniform. He and his adherents succeeded in cutting the
name of Huerta out of the resolution. It finally passed
by a vote of 72 to 13, after an all-night session, in the
early hours of Wednesday morning. The text of the
Senate substitute resolution, which was promptly
accepted by the House, was as follows :
" In view of the facts presented by the president of
the United States in his address delivered to the Congress
in joint session the 20th day of April, 1914, in regard to
certain affronts and indignities committed against the
United States in Mexico, be it
" Eesolved, That the president is justified in the em-
ployment of the armed forces of the United States to
enforce his demands for unequivocal amends for affronts
and indignities committed against the United States ; be
it further
" Eesolved, That the United States disclaims any hos-
tility to the Mexican people or any purpose to make war
upon them."
SENATOR BOOTHS REASONS
In the course of his speech on the resolution Senator
Elihu Boot said:
" Lying behind the insult to the American flag are
the lives of Americans destroyed, Americans reduced
to poverty because of the destruction of their property.
Lying behind it is a condition of anarchy in Mexico, a
condition which makes it impossible to secure protection
for American life and property. It is that which makes
necessary the demand that public respect be paid the
flag of the United States.
" There is our justification. It is a justification lying
not in Victoriano Hnerta or ija his conduct alone, but
in the universal conduct of affairs in Mexico and the
real object to be attained by the course which we are
52 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
asked to approve is not the gratification of personal
pride; it is not the satisfaction of a government or of
an admiral, it is the desire of the United States to pro-
tect its citizens under these conditions.
" If we omit from this resolution that we are to pass
here tonight, the matters included in the substitute pre-
amble we omit the real reasons behind the action. On
the facts in the resolution as reported by the committee
we would be everlastingly wrong. On the facts in the
substitute we could rest before the world, and before
history, secure.
" Ah, Mr. President, " he said in a voice that sank
almost to a whisper, and the galleries leaned forward
breathlessly to hear; " the capture of Vera Cruz, the
death of our American marines, the wounds and the
suffering of those who live there tonight,' demand some-
thing more, far more, than a formal insult, for justifica-
tion. The recitals of the substitute preamble are weak
in the face of death and suffering in Vera Cruz tonight.
The substitute preamble is weak, but it gives formal,
adequate grounds, for the great formidable movement
of the great naval and military power of this govern-
ment; it gives the justification that is needed/'
It developed in Washington that Special Envoy John
Lind had predicted to the committees of Congress that
Vera Cruz and Tampico could be occupied without blood-
shed and that the Carranza forces would approve such
occupation.
O'SHATJGHKESSY HAKDED PASSPOBTS
On Wednesday, April 22, the day after the American
forces landed at Vera Cruz, Mr. Nelson O'Shaughnessy,
United States charge d'affaires in the City of Mexico,
was handed his passports. They were accompanied by
a note from the Huerta secretary for foreign affairs, of
which the following is a verbatim translation :
" Mr. Charge d 'Affaires: Assuredly your honor
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 53
knows that the marines of the American ships of war
anchored off the port of Vera Cruz, availing themselves
of the circumstance that the Mexican authorities had
given them access to the harbor of the town because they
considered their presence was of a friendly character,
disembarked yesterday with their arms and uniforms and
possessed themselves by surprise of the principal public
buildings without giving time for the women and children
in the streets, the sick, and other noncombatants, to place
themselves in safety.
" This act was contrary to international usages. If
these usages do not demand, as held by many states, a
previous declaration of war, they impose at least the
duty of not violating humane consideration or good faith
by people whom the country which they are in has
received as friends and who therefore should not take
advantage of that circumstance to commit hostile acts.
" These acts of the armed forces of the United States
I do not care to qualify in this note, out of deference to
the fact that your honor personally has observed toward
the Mexican government and people a most strictly cor-
rect conduct, so far as that has been possible to you in
your character as the representative of a government
with which we have been in such serious difficulties as
those existing.
" Eegarding the initiation of war against Mexico this
ministry reserves to itself the right of presenting to other
powers the events and considerations pertinent to this
matter, in order that they as members of the concert of
nations may judge of the conduct of the two nations and
adopt an attitude which they may deem proper in view
of this deplorable outrage upon our nation 's sovereignty.
" The president of the Eepublic of Mexico has seen fit
to terminate, as I have the honor to communicate to your
honor, the diplomatic mission which your honor has until
now discharged. You will have the goodness to retire
from Mexican territory. To that end I inclose your pass-
54 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
port, at the same time informing you that, as is the
diplomatic custom on such occasions, a special train will
be at your disposal with a guard sufficient to protect your
honor, your family, and your staff, although the Mexican
people are sufficiently civilized to respect even without
this protection your honor and those accompanying you.
" I take this opportunity to reiterate to your honor the
assurances of my highest consideration.
" (Signed) JOSE LOPEZ POBTELLO Y
MB. O'SHAUGHHTESSY'S STOEY
Here is Nelson O'Shaughnessy's own story of the nego-
tiation with Huerta in the Mexican capital, following the
Tampico incident, as he told it on his arrival at Vera
Cruz, April 27, after being handed his passports by the
provisional government ;
" It became apparent early in the developments aris-
ing from the Tampico flag incident that the situation was
fraught with ominous possibilities, although it was my
opinion almost to the last minute that Huerta would
recede from a position that made it impossible for Wash-
ington to adjust matters as Huerta wanted them adjusted.
" You must understand that had Huerta waived his
insistence upon a return salute to the Mexican flag by
the United States which act would have implied a
recognition by our government the Tampico incident
would have been unquestionably closed.
HTTEETA LOSIKG PBESTIGB
" The situation was rapidly getting worse In the coun-
try and Huerta was growing less able to resist success-
fully the rebels, to say nothing of making headway
against them.
" The loss of Torreon was a great blow to the Federal
government, although it tried its best to minimize its
importance. But it hurt, and hurt badly.
" When I received the first information of the arrest
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 55
of the Dolphin's sailors and of Admiral Mayo's demands
which, by the way, came to me first through the Mexi-
can foreign office, which had been communicated with by
General Zaragoza before my information from Washing-
ton reached me it was too late to do anything.
" That was Friday, April 10, and according to the time
limit fixed by Admiral Mayo, satisfaction had to be given
by 6 o'clock that night.
FINDS DIOTATOB ASLEEP
" Everyone who has had experience in dealing with
Mexican officials knows how difficult it is to stir them to
quick action under the most favorable conditions.
" After several hours' search I finally caught up with
Huerta at his house, where he was taking a siesta. Not
even my strongest representations of the extremity and
urgency of the case could induce his aids to arouse him,
so I was forced to go away and return again in an hour.
" When I finally did see Huerta, we discussed the Tam-
pico incident most amicably. His expressions indicated
a considerable displeasure that the arrest of the Dolphin's
people should have been permitted.
* * He gave me the impression that he was much incensed
at the stupidity of the officer who was responsible for it,
and who had added to Huerta 's troubles by his blunder-
ing step.
SEABED OPEN" BREAK
" It is interesting to note that, in spite of his frequent
public explosions against our policy toward "him and his
outward attitude of defiance and indifference to anything
we might do, Huerta was always very careful to allow
nothing to be done that would bring about an open break
between Washington and his government.
" Huerta sent for me and we talked for a long time.
I went away with a distinct impression that lie had
receded from his position regarding recognition and that
56 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
he would come to a satisfactory understanding with my
government, and I so communicated to Washington.
" Later I ascertained that I had apparently misunder-
stood what Huerta had said. This threw negotiations
back to the original status ; so we got nowhere.
THOUGHT UNITED STATES WAS BLUFFING
" I firmly believe that Huerta was skeptical that Wash-
ington would press matters to the point of armed occu-
pation of either Tampico or Vera Cruz. I think he had
probably the mental reservation that, if things grew too
cloudy, he would draw back at the last moment.
*' Palpably, he had not the slightest appreciation of the
considerations which had prevented Washington from
taking decisive steps in Mexico before this point had been
reached/'
TEOOPS OEDEEED TO VEEA OEUZ
On Thursday night, April 23, President Wilson, yield-
ing to the earnest appeals of the navy and army officers,
ordered that the Fifth Brigade, United States Eegular
Infantry, should embark at Galveston for Vera Cruz.
Four army transports were lying in Galveston harbor
and the work of loading the 4,500 men and their equip-
ment into the ships was begun at once. Brigadier Gen-
eral Frederick Funston was assigned to command the
troops.
The transports sailed from Galveston at 5 o 'clock Fri-
day evening, carrying only the soldiers, their ammuni-
tion, and sufficient equipment for active service in the
field.
Thursday evening Secretary of War Garrison sent
orders to stop the delivery of ammunition ancl arms to
the forces of Carranza and Villa across the Texas border.
This order President Wilson, in his desire to confine hos-
tilities to the Huerta sphere of influence and anxious not
to offend Carranza, was inclined to cancel. He 3ally,
THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 57
however, yielded to the military officials and allowed the
embargo to stand. It developed that some 7,500 rifles
and a large amount of ammunition stood ready for deliv-
ery to the rebels.
A resolution appropriating $500,000 to aid American
refugees from Mexico, which was passed by the Senate
on Thursday, was signed by President Wilson.
AMERICANS 1ST DANGEB
The Huerta forces evacuated Nuevo Laredo, the Mexi-
can town across the Eio Grande from Laredo, Tex., burn-
ing the city and making several attempts to destroy the
international bridge across the river. There was some
firing between the retiring Mexicans and troops and citi-
zens on the American side of the river.
Eeports came from Mexico City and from various
points along the railroad that citizens of the United States
had been taken from trains and were being held as
hostages by order of Huerta. Secretary of State Bryan
had word that one party of twenty, including one British
citizen, had been dragged from a train at Tierra Blanca
by Huerta soldiers and were in imminent danger of
execution.
All day April 25, there were reports from many parts
of Mexico that Americans were being prevented from
leaving the country in some instances dragged from
trains and locked up in jail under orders from the Huerta
government.
Fresh reports were received of riots in Mexico City.
It was declared that in every large city in the Eepublic
Americans were being detained as hostages. At "Wash-
ington it was announced that Major-General Leonard
Wood had been ordered to the Texas frontier to take
general charge of operations.
Late in the afternoon of April 25 the ambassador from
Brazil and the ministers from Argentina and Chile called
on Secretary of State Bryan in "Washington. The casual
58 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT
announcement was made in a bulletin from the national
capital and attracted little attention.
But a few hours later official announcement was made
that President Wilson " had accepted the offer of Brazil,
Argentina, and Chile to use their good offices in an
attempt to bring about a peaceful and friendly settlement
of the difficulty between the United States and Mexico."
CHAPTER HE
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
A surprise was in store for those who regarded war as
inevitable, when on April 25 it was announced at Wash-
ington and immediately telegraphed broadcast over the
country that President Wilson had accepted the good
offices of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile for the mediation
of the differences existing between the United States and
" those who speak for the several elements of the Mexi-
can people. "
Although the offer made by the three South American
countries did not reveal their plans, it was learned that
they contemplate a broad settlement of the Mexican prob-
lem through the elimination of Huerta, upon which the
United States had insisted from the beginning.
The note of acceptance, while agreeing to the sugges-
tion, reservedly pointed out that an act of aggression by
the military forces of Mexico or hostile demonstration
toward Americans might upset hopes of immediate peace.
The offer of mediation, addressed to Secretary of State
Bryan, was in the following terms :
" With the purpose of subserving the interest of peace
and civilization in our continent and with the earnest
desire to prevent any further bloodshed to the prejudice
of the cordiality and union which have always surrounded
the relations of the governments and the people of Amer-
ica, we, the plenipotentiaries of Brazil, Argentina, and
Chile, duly authorized hereto, have the honor to tender to
your excellency's government our good offices for the
59
60 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
peaceful and friendly settlement of the conflict between
the United States and Mexico.
" This offer puts in due form the suggestions which
we have had occasion to offer heretofore on this subject
to the secretary, to whom we renew our highest and most
distinguished consideration.
" DOMIOIO DA GAMA, Brazil.
" EOMULO S. NAON, Argentina.
" EDUAKDO SUABEZ MTJJIOA, Chile. "
BEPLY OF PRESIDENT WILSON"
To the above President Wilson promptly returned the
following reply:
" The government of the United States is deeply sens-
ible of the friendliness, the good feeling, and the generous
concern for the peace and welfare of America manifested
in the joint note just received from your excellencies
offering the good offices of your governments to effect
if possible a settlement of the present difficulty between
the government of the United States and those who now
claim to represent our sister republic of Mexico.
" Conscious of the purpose with which the proffer is
made, this government does not feel at liberty to
decline it.
" Its own chief interest is in the peace of America, the
cordial intercourse of her republics and their people,
and the happiness and prosperity which can spring only
out of frank, mutual understanding and the friendship
which is created by common purpose.
" The generous offer of your governments is therefore
accepted.
" This government hopes most earnestly that you may
find those who speak for the several elements of the
Mexican people willing and ready to discuss terms of
satisfactory and therefore permanent settlement If you
should find them willing, this government will be glad to
take up with you for discussion in the frankest and most
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 61
conciliatory spirit any proposals that may be authorita-
tively formulated, and will hope that they may prove
feasible and prophetic of a new day of mutual co-opera-
tion and confidence in America.
" This government feels bound in candor to say that
its diplomatic relations with Mexico being for the present
severed, it is not possible for it to make sure of an unin-
terrupted opportunity to carry out the plan of inter-
mediation which you propose.
" It is, of course, possible that some act of aggression
on the part of those who control the military forces of
Mexico might oblige the United States to act to the upset-
ting of the hopes of immediate peace, but this does not
justify us in hesitating to accept your generous
suggestion.
" We shall hope for the best results within a brief
time, enough to relieve our anxiety lest most ill con-
sidered hostile demonstrations should interrupt negotia-
tions and disappoint our hopes of peace. "
WHY THE PLAN WAS ACCEPTED
President "Wilson accepted mediation for the following
reasons :
1. It offered a hope of peace.
2. It showed the world that we are sincere in the effort
to avert war,
3. It might modify the sentiment of South America,
now strongly against the United States, even if no prac-
tical results flowed from it.
4. As the United States and Mexico are both signa-
tories of The Hague conventions, it was incumbent on
this government to observe the terms of those conven-
tions.
5. It is imposed upon this government by the treaty of
1848 between the United States and Mexico, which pre-
scribes that in case of any difference a resort shall not
be made to reprisals, aggression, or hostility of any kind
62 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
without recourse to arbitration either by a commission
composed of citizens of both countries or by a friendly
power.
AMEBIOAK TEEMS DEFINITE
Prior to the formal acceptance of the mediation pro-
posed there was a conference at the White House between
the President, Secretary of State Bryan, Senators Stone
and Shively, Democratic members, and Senator Lodge,
Eepublican member, respectively, of the Senate foreign
relations committee, and Representatives Flood and
Cooper of the House foreign affairs committee.
At this conference it was determined :
1. That the mediation should not be limited to General
Huerta, but should be extended to General Carranza, Gen-
eral Villa, and General Zapata.
2. That, as a condition of the cessation of warlike
measures by the United States :
(a) Huerta should be required to resign*
(b) An orderly government should be set up.
(c) Peace and order should be established in Mexico.
(d) Suitable reparation must be made for all insults
to the American flag.
PROPOSAL SENT TO HUEBTA
The Brazilian, Argentine, and Chilean envoys trans-
mitted the United States ' acceptance of their proposal
to the Spanish ambassador, who immediately sent it by
cable to the Spanish legation at Mexico City for presenta-
tion to General Huerta.
General Carranza, head of the Mexican Constitution-
alists, was also informed of it through his representatives
at Washington.
The three diplomats announced that no further steps
would be taken by them until replies had been received
from the leaders of the Mexican factions*
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 63
AEMY PLAITS STOT STOPPED
Coincidently with, the acceptance of the offer of media-
tion, administration officials announced there would be
no cessation of preparations by the army and navy for
future emergencies and no orders would be issued to the
naval forces at Vera Cruz or the ships at sea changing
original plans.
ACCEPTANCE BY HUEETA
On Sunday, April 26, it was announced in "Washington
by the Spanish ambassador that he had received unofficial
advices from Mexico that Huerta would accept the offer
of good offices from the ambassador of Brazil and the
ministers of Chile and Argentina, which had already been
accepted by President "Wilson. It was later learned that
Huerta accepted the " principle" of the mediation
proposed.
On the same day came word that United States Consul
Eanna had been arrested and locked up by Huerta adher-
ents at Monterey, Mexico, while 2,700 American refugees
from Tampico and Vera Cruz reached Galveston, Tex., by
steamer. They told stories of being insulted and robbed
by Mexicans, both federals and rebels, threats and tor-
ture being used in some instances to force the production
of more money.
The news that President Wilson had accepted the offer
of the three republics was received with much gratifica-
tion all over Latin America. The administration was
assured that it would have the support of Congress in
its efforts to prevent war.
Eeports from Mexico City that the foes of Huerta were
active in his capital were the chief developments of Mon-
day, April 27. It was even rumored that the dictator,
frightened by threats of assassination, had taken refuge
in one of the foreign embassies and that his government
was in imminent danger of an uprising.
64 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
Hundreds of American refugees sailed from Vera Cruz
for various ports in the United States.
On April 29 it was reported that General Carranza,
chief of the Mexican rebels, had accepted in principle the
offer of arbitration. But later in the week he balked at
the plan, refusing to cease his activities against Huerta
or to entertain any plan of mediation that involved even
temporary recognition of the Huerta government. Euro-
pean powers were reported to be bringing great pressure
to bear on Huerta to force him to retire permanently.
On Thursday, April 30, word was received at Wash-
ington that Huerta, in answer to the request of the South
American arbitrators, was willing to agree to an armis-
tice pending the result of the negotiations. On May 1
Carranza positively declined to entertain the idea of an
armistice or even of a temporary truce. The mediators
therefore planned to continue their negotiations despite
the recurrence of hostilities between the Mexican federal
forces and their Constitutionalist opponents. It was
announced by Secretary of State Bryan on May 5 that
the three mediators would meet at Niagara Falls, Can-
ada, May 18, to confer with representatives of the parties
to the controversy.
THE POLICY OF MEDIATION
Late in 1913 the co-operation of the three Latin Ameri-
can republics was urged as the only feasible means of
establishing stable conditions in Mexico. Representative
Kahn, of California, was the originator of the sugges-
tion. On August 10, 1913, he said : " The Mexican situa-
tion is the concern of every patriotic American citizen.
The formulation of a definite policy by the administration
is eagerly awaited by the civilized world. At this junc-
ture the republics of Brazil, Argentina and Chile should
be asked to co-operate with us in whatever steps we may
take to bring about a condition of peace in Mexico. "
On October 24, 1913, in Bio de Janeiro, Theodore
Rear Admiral Badger, U. 8. K, in command of North Atlantic Fleet when
Vera Cruz was occupied
Using tlie heliograph for signaling
Sending a wireless message from the field
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 65
Roosevelt gave the policy world-wide significance in Ms
address before the University of Brazil. He said:
" The United States does not wish the territory of its
neighbors. It does wish their confidence. If ever, as
regards any country, intervention does unfortunately
become necessary, I hope that wherever possible it will
be a joint intervention by such powers (Brazil, Argen-
tina and Chile) , without thought of the selfish aggrandize-
ment of any of them, and for the common good of the
western world."
POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES
President Woodrow Wilson on his inauguration in
1913 issued a formal statement of the policy which the
administration proposed to follow with respect to the
republics of Central and South America. The state-
ment follows :
" One of the chief objects of my administration will
be to cultivate the friendship and deserve the confidence
of our sister republics of Central and South America
and to promote in every proper and honorable way the
interests which are common to the peoples of the two
continents. I earnestly desire the most cordial under-
standing and co-operation between the peoples and
leaders of America and therefore deem it my duty to
make this brief statement.
" Co-operation is possible only when supported at
every turn by the orderly process of just government
based on law, not upon arbitrary or irregular force. We
hold, as I am sure all thoughtful leaders of republican
government everywhere hold, that just government rests
always upon the consent of the governed and that there
can be no freedom without order based upon law and
upon the public conscience and approval.
" We shall look to make these principles the basis of
mutual intercourse, respect and helpfulness between our
sister republics and ourselves. We shall lend our influ-
66 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
ence of every kind to the realization of these principles
in fact and practice, knowing that disorder, personal
intrigue and defiance of constitutional rights weaken and
discredit government and injure none so much as the
people who are unfortunate enough to have their common
life and common affairs tainted and disturbed. We can
have no sympathy with those who seek to seize the power
of government to advance their own personal interests or
ambition. We are the friends of peace, but we know that
there can be no lasting or stable peace in such circum-
stances. As friends, therefore, we shall prefer those who
act in the interest of peace and honor, who protect private
rights and respect the restraints of constitutional pro-
vision. Mutual respect seems to us the indispensable
foundation of friendship between states, as between
individuals.
" The United States has nothing to seek in Central
and South America except the lasting interests of the
peoples of the two continents, the security of govern-
ments intended for the people and for no special group
or interest, and the development of personal and trade
relationships between the two continents which shall
redound to the profit and advantage of both and interfere
with the rights and liberties of neither.
" From these principles may be read so much of the
future policy of this government as it is necessary now
to forecast, and in the spirit of these principles, I may,
I hope, be permitted with as much confidence as earnest-
ness to extend to the governments of all the republics of
America the hand of genuine disinterested friendship
and to pledge my own honor and that of my colleagues to
every enterprise of peace and amity that a fortunate
future may disclose."
THE MONROE AND DRAGO DOCTRINES
The " Monroe Doctrine " was enunciated by President
Monroe in his message to congress, December 2, 1823,
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 67
Eeferring to steps taken to arrange the respective rights
of Bussia, Great Britain and the United States on the
northwest coast of this continent, the president went on
to say:
" In the discussions to which this interest has given
rise, and in the arrangements by which they may termin-
ate, the occasion has been deemed proper for asserting,
as a principle in which the rights and interests of the
United States are involved, that the American con-
tinents, by the free and independent condition which
they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to
be considered as subjects for future colonization by any
European power. We owe it, therefore, to candor and to
the amicable relations existing between the United States
and those powers to declare that we should consider any
attempt on their part to extend their system to any por-
tion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and
safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of
any European power we have not interfered and shall
not interfere. But with the governments who have
declared their independence and maintain it, and whose
independence we have, on great consideration and on just
principles, acknowledged, we could not view any inter-
position for the purpose of oppressing them or con-
trolling in any other manner their destiny by any
European power in any other light than as the manifesta-
tion of an unfriendly disposition toward the United
States. "
THE DEAGO DOOTEINE
When in the winter of 1902-03, Germany, Britain and
Italy blockaded the ports of Venezuela in an attempt to
make the latter country settle up its debts, Dr. L. F.
Drago, a noted jurist of Argentina, maintained that
force cannot be used by one power to collect money owing
to its citizens by another power. Prominence was given
to the contention by the fact that it was officially upheld
66 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
ence of every kind to the realization of these principles
in fact and practice, knowing that disorder, personal
intrigue and defiance of constitutional rights weaken and
discredit government and injure none so much as the
people who are unfortunate enough to have their common
life and common affairs tainted and disturbed. "We can
have no sympathy with those who seek to seize the power
of government to advance their own personal interests or
ambition. We are the friends of peace, but we know that
there can be no lasting or stable peace in such circum-
stances. As friends, therefore, we shall prefer those who
act in the interest of peace and honor, who protect private
rights and respect the restraints of constitutional pro-
vision. Mutual respect seems to us the indispensable
foundation of friendship between states, as between
individuals.
" The United States has nothing to seek in Central
and South America except the lasting interests of the
peoples of the two continents, the security of govern-
ments intended for the people and for no special group
or interest, and the development of personal and trade
relationships between the two continents which shall
redound to the profit and advantage of both and interfere
with the rights and liberties of neither.
" From these principles may be read so much of the
future policy of this government as it is necessary now
to forecast, and in the spirit of these principles, I may,
I hope, be permitted with as much confidence as earnest-
ness to extend to the governments of all the republics of
America the hand of genuine disinterested friendship
and to pledge my own honor and that of my colleagues to
every enterprise of peace and amity that a fortunate
future may disclose."
THE MOtfBOE AND DBAGO DOOTBItfES
The " Monroe Doctrine " was enunciated by President
Monroe in his message to congress, December 2, 1823.
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 67
Referring to steps taken to arrange the respective rights
of Russia, Great Britain and the United States on the
northwest coast of this continent, the president went on
to say:
" In the discussions to which this interest has given
rise, and in the arrangements by which they may termin-
ate, the occasion has been deemed proper for asserting,
as a principle in which the rights and interests of the
United States are involved, that the American con-
tinents, by the free and independent condition which
they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to
be considered as subjects for future colonization by any
European power. We owe it, therefore, to candor and to
the amicable relations existing between the United States
and those powers to declare that we should consider any
attempt on their part to extend their system to any por-
tion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and
safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of
any European power we have not interfered and shall
not interfere. But with the governments who have
declared their independence and maintain it, and whose
independence we have, on great consideration and on just
principles, acknowledged, we could not view any inter-
position for the purpose of oppressing them or con-
trolling in any other manner their destiny by any
European power in any other light than as the manifesta-
tion of an unfriendly disposition toward the United
States."
THE DBAGO DOOTEINE
When in the winter of 1902-03, Germany, Britain and
Italy blockaded the ports of Venezuela in an attempt to
make the latter country settle up its debts, Dr. L. F.
Drago, a noted jurist of Argentina, maintained that
force cannot be used by one power to collect money owing
to its citizens by another power. Prominence was given
to the contention by the fact that it was officially upheld
68 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
by Argentina and favored by other South .American
republics. The principle embodied has become generally
known as the " Drago doctrine."
STRENGTH OF THE UNITED STATES ABMY AND NAVY
MARCH 20, 1914
Tt.TamnrT.AT* ABMY: Officers, 4,933; enlisted men, 92,426.
PHILIPPINE SCOUTS: Officers, 180; enlisted men, 5,732.
MILITIA: Officers, 9,142; enlisted men, 112,710.
EEGULAE NAVY: Officers, 3,293; enlisted men, 49,854.
MARINE CORPS: Officers, 345; enlisted men, 9,921.
NAVAL MILITIA: Officers, 615; enlisted men, 7,185.
In the regular army the infantry consists of thirty regi-
ments of three battalions each, and each battalion falls
into four companies. The cavalry has fifteen regiments
of three squadrons. The field artillery comprises six reg-
iments, each of six batteries ; of these two regiments are
light artillery, two mountain artillery, one field artillery,
and one horse artillery. To each battery are allotted four
guns firing a 15-pound shell, and eight wagons.
The militia is a body of voluntary state troops which
the president can call out for service within the country
or outside of it.
MEXICAN ABMY AND NAVY
At the present time (May, 1914) the Mexican army has
only a paper strength, as a considerable part of the regu-
lar army in the north has gone over to the Constitutional
camp. The official figures on the organization of the
army are :
PEACE STRENGTH: 107 generals, 6,236 officers, 49,332
men.
WAR STRENGTH: Estimated at from 50,000 to 84,000
of all ranks.
The army consists of 30 battalions of infantry, 18
regiments of cavalry, 1 regiment of horse artillery, 2
regimens of field artillery, and 1 of mountain guns, etc.
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 69
Each artillery regiment consists in time of peace of four
batteries, in time of war raised to sis.
The national guard is practically without training or
organization and would be very difficult to mobilize.
Mauser rifles (1901 model) are used by the regular
infantry and cavalry, but he reserves use the old Rem-
ington 1893 model. The artillery is fairly well supplied
with Schneider-Canet quick-firing guns. Eecently, the
Mexican government has made heavy purchases of guns,
chiefly rifles, in Japan. Most of the ammunition used is
made in Mexican arsenals.
The navy is almost a negligible feature. There were
until July, 1913, five gunboats, but one of these was
destroyed by the Constitutionalists in the harbor of
Guaymas.
FOBCES ENGAGED IN UNITED STATES WARS
The military and naval forces employed by the gov-
ernment since 1775 have been as follows :
War Date Total
Eevolution 1775-83 309,791
Northwestern Indian 1790-95 8,983
France 1798-1800 4,593
Tripoli 1801-05 3,330
Indian (Harrison) 1811-13 910
War of 1812 1812-15 576,622
Creek Indian 1813-14 13,781
Seminole 1817-18 6,911
Winnebago (Wis.) 1827 1,416 ,
Sac and Fox (EL) 1831
Black Hawk 1832 6,465
Cherokee removal 1833-39 9,494
Seminole (Fla.) 1835-42 41,122
Sabine Indian 1836-37 4,429
Creek (Ala.) 1836-37 13,418
< ' Patriot ' ' (frontier) 1838-39 1,500
70 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
War Date Total
Seminole (Fla.) 1842-58
Mexico 1846-48 112,230
Cayuse Indian (Ore.) 1848 1,116
Texas Indian 1849-56 4,243
Apache (Utah) .... 1849-55 2,561
California Indian 1849-55 265
Utah Indian 1851-53 540
Oregon "Washington Indian 1851-56 5,145
Comanche 1854 502
Seminole 1855-58 2,687
Civil War 1861-66 2,778,304
Spanish- American 1898-99 312,523
Philippine 1899-1902 140,038
Pekin (China) Expedition 1900-01 6,913
Total 4,371,839
The total in this table includes re-enlistments. The
total number of individuals is estimated at 3,304,993, of
whom 2,213,363 served in the Civil War.
AMEBIOAN LOSSES IN SPANISH AND PHILIPPINE WAES
PEOM WOUNDS OB DISEASE
Officers Men
May 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899 224 6,395
June 30, 1899, to July 1, 1900 74 1,930
July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901 57 1,932
SHIPS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVT
The following are the vessels of the United States navy
available for foreign service, coast defense, etc.:
First Class Battleships
Alabama, 11,552 tons; Arkansas, 26,000; Connecticut,
16,000; Delaware, 20,000; Florida, 21,825; Georgia,
14,948; Idaho, 13,000; Illinois, 11,552; Indiana, 10,288;
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 71
Iowa, 11,346; Kansas, 16,000; Kearsarge, 11,520; Ken-
tucky, 11,520; Louisiana, 16,000; Maine, 12,500; Massa-
chusetts, 10,288; Michigan, 16,000; Minnesota, 16,000;
Mississippi, 13,000; Missouri, 12,500; Nebraska, 14,948;
New Hampshire, 16,000; New Jersey, 14,948; North Da-
kota, 20,000; Ohio, 12,500; Oregon, 10,288; Ehode Island,
14,948; South Carolina, 16,500; Utah, 21,825; Vermont,
16,000; Virginia, 14,948; Wisconsin, 11,552; Wyoming,
26,000. Also, just completed, the New York, 27,500 tons ;
Oklahoma, 27,500; and Texas, 27,000. Each of these is
armed with ten 14-inch and twenty-one 5-inch guns.
Armed Cruisers
Brooklyn, 9,215 tons; California, 13,680; Colorado,
13,680; Maryland, 13,680; Montana, 14,500; North Caro-
lina, 14,500; Pittsburgh, 13,680; Saratoga, 8,150; South
Dakota, 13,680; Tennessee, 14,500; Washington, 14,500;
West Virginia, 13,680.
Protected Cruisers
Albany, 3,430 tons; Baltimore, 4,413; Boston, 3,000;
Charleston, 9,700; Chattanooga, 3,200; Chicago, 4,500;
Cincinnati, 3,183; Cleveland, 3,200; Columbia, 7,350; Den-
ver, 3,200; Des Moines, 3,200; Galveston, 3,200; Milwau-
kee, 9,700; Minneapolis, 7,350; New Orleans, 3,430;
Olympia, 5,865; Ealeigh, 3,183; San Francisco, 4,083; St.
Louis, 9,700; Tacoma, 3,200; Topeka, 2,255.
Unprotected Scout Cruisers
Birmingham, 3,750 tons ; Chester, 3,750; Salem, 3,750.
Unprotected Cruisers
Marblehead, 2,072 tons ; Montgomery, 2,072.
Torpedo Boat Destroyers
Bainbridge, Barry, Cassin, Cummings, Henley, Jarvis,
Maynart, Ammen, Beale, Burrows, Chauncey, Dale, De-
catur, Drayton, Fanning, Flusser, Hopkins, Hull, Jenkins,
72 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
Jouett, Lamson, Lawrence, Macdonough, McOall, Mona-
ghan, Patterson, Panlding, Paul Jones, Perkins, Perry,
Preble, Preston, Eeid, Boe, Smith, Sterett, Stewart,
Terry, Trippe, Truxtun, Walke, Warrington, Whipple
Worden,
The destroyers range in tonnage from 420 to 742 tons.
COAST DEFENSE VESSELS
Monitors
Amphitrite, 3,990 tons ; Cheyenne, 3,225 ; Miantonomoh,
3,990; Monadnock, 3,990; Monterey, 4,084; Ozark, 3,225;
Tallahassee, 3,225; Terror, 3,990; Tonopah, 3,225.
Torpedo Boats
Bagley, Bailey, Barney, Biddle, Blakely, Craven, Davis,
Dahlgren, DeLong, DuPont, Parragut, Foote, Fox, Golds-
borough, Gwin, Mackenzie, Manley, Morris, Eodgers,
Shubrick, Somers, Stockton, Stringham, Thornton, Tin-
gey, Wilkes.
Other Vessels
Besides the vessels named there are in the United
States navy over 30 gunboats of varying tonnage up to
1,710 tons, wooden cruisers, transports, supply ships, hos-
pital ships, a number of converted yachts, and nearly 30
colliers, mostly of very large tonnage.
In addition to the above, there are under construction
and authorized 4 battleships, 17 torpedo boat destroyers,
26 submarines, 3 gunboats, 2 colliers, 3 tenders to torpedo
vessels, 1 transport and 1 supply ship.
STRENGTH OF U. S. MILITIA
The present strength of the organized militia of the
United States, including officers and men, is approxi-
mately 120,000, according to the latest returns from
adjutants general of the different states to the war
department. These civilian soldiers are divided as
follows :
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
73
Alabama 2,569
Arizona 522
Arkansas 1,359
California 3,612
Colorado 1,446
Connecticut 2,641
Delaware 482
District of Columbia 1,646
Florida 1,220
Georgia 2,898
Hawaii 465
Idaho 840
Illinois 5,914
Indiana 2,476
Iowa 2,981
Kansas 1,824
Kentucky 2,013
Louisiana 1,142
Maine 1,448
Maryland 1,972
Massachusetts 5,793
Michigan 2,750
Minnesota 2,942
Mississippi 1,443
Missouri 3,576
Montana 610
Nebraska 1,172
New Hampshire 1,252
Nevada (mustered
out) 1,906
New Jersey 4,392
New Mexico 648
New York 15,957
North Carolina 2,568
North Dakota 629
Ohio 6,140
Oklahoma 952
Oregon 1,467
Pennsylvania 10,534
Ehode Island 1,358
South Carolina .... 1,909
South Dakota 679
Tennessee 1,834
Texas 2,561
Utah 354
Vermont 845
Virginia 2,699
"Washington 1,238
West Virginia 1,383
Wisconsin 2,903
Wyoming 688
THE PANAMA CANAL
A dispatch from Panama April 20 stated that only in
case of urgent necessity could battleships use the Panama
Canal in proceeding to the blockade of the Mexican
Pacific ports. This was made plain by Governor Goe-
thals. But he declared that if the United States govern-
ment insisted he could speed up the work on the Cuca-
racha slide in order to obtain a forty-five foot channel
He could, he said, also demolish the Empire Bridge
across the canal and tear out the railway trestle at
74 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
Paraiso, so as to make the canal available for the largest
vessels of war in a very short time.
DEFENSES OF VEEA OEUZ
Prior to the occupation of Vera Cruz by the United
States, the defenses of that city and Tampico were
described as follows :
In the event that the United States fleet had been forced
to bombard the ports of Tampico and Vera Cruz the
latter city will be the only Mexican port on the Gulf
which could properly defend itself against such an attack.
The batteries which lie hidden in the ancient niches of
the fortress on the island of San Juan de Ulua, which
guards the outer portions of the harbor of Vera Cruz,
would be the only means of keeping an enemy from suc-
cessfully taking the Bay of Vera Cruz, which would give
the invaders entrance to the city and start an army on its
way to Mexico City.
San Juan de Ulua was built originally by the Spaniards
and stands at the present day a cluster of white stone
buildings marked by hurricane winds and former battles.
The low white buildings which spread out about a quarter
of a mile north and south about a mile from the mainland
are individually pointed out by the natives, who tell ter-
rible stories of the dungeons and of the fierce penalties
inflicted on the military prisoners and felons sent there.
Porfirio Diaz, Madero and Huerta always found it
advisable to keep San Juan garrisoned with good guns
and loyal troops. During all the rebellions either the
Bravos, the Morelos or the Zaragoza, the only three ships
of any importance which the Mexican navy can boast of,
kept a permanent station close by the island. The north-
ern end of the island is taken up by a signal station which
commands a view of all incoming steamers many miles
out. Here, also, the government has located a local
observatory.
The maximum of the batteries which mount San Juan
MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 75
do not exceed three ten-inch guns which command the
outer harbor entrance, and several smaller cannon, with
perhaps half a dozen rapid fire land pieces, and usually
from 500 to 800 men.
The second fortification lies about half a mile from the
Custom-house wharf off toward the southwestern part
of the city of Vera Cruz and is known as Baluarte de
Santiago. This fortress, which also remains from the
days of Spain in Mexico, is always kept in the trim con-
dition that the island fortress knows. In case of an attack
it could, along with the outer defenses, give a pretty fair
fight before the city would finally surrender. Baluarte
de Santiago was built originally for the purpose of with-
standing a land attack upon Vera Cruz, but in the last
three years the Mexican government has deemed it more
advisable to strengthen its defenses.
THE CHANNEL AT TAMPICO
Tampico would quickly fall into the hands of a strong
naval force. Persons familiar with the port point out
only one highly improbable incident which might turn
the tables for the Mexicans if the fleet steamed up on '
the city with the intention of a bombardment. In order
to get into the roadstead off Tampico all steamers inward
bound have to pass through a channel typically Mexican
which leads into the Panuco River, This channel, which
is guarded on either side by a small lighthouse, is scarcely
a quarter of a mile in width, and during the season of the
norther, which lasts until the early part of May, steamers
are compelled to ride out the storm at sea rather than
to chance or risk attempting to run the channel, which
on such occasions cannot be depended upon for depth
with large steamers.
Often the storm lasts several days, with a wind blowing
100 miles per hour, kicking up an immense sea. The
only possible way, some critics point out, to destroy the
76 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS
American ships would be to destroy the lights and depend
on a norther.
It is recounted among shipping men at Tampico that
the only steamer which ever came through the channel
safely in a storm was manned by an American crew and
skipper. This was about two years ago, when Captain
Michael O'Keefe of the Ward liner Seguranca took the
vessel through in a raging storm and the Mexicans talked
about his feat for months after. A German vessel which
followed went aground on the beach.
PBESEDENT MC KINLEY ON MEDIATION
President McKinley's reply to the ambassadors of
Europe, who, on April 6, 1898, tendered their good offices
to bring about peace between Spain and the United States
was as follows :
" The government of the United States .ocognizes the
good will which has prompted the friendr? communica-
tion of the representatives of Germany, Austria-
Hungary, France, Great Britain, Italy and Russia, as set
forth in the address of your excellencies, and shares the
hope therein expressed that the outcome of the situation
in Cuba may be the maintenance of peace between the
United States and Spain by affording the necessary guar-
antees for the re-establishment of order in the island, so
terminating the chronic condition of disturbance there,
which so deeply injures the interests and menaces the
tranquillity of the American nation by the character and
consequence of the struggle thus kept up at our doors,
besides shocking its sentiment of humanity.
" The government of the United States appreciates the
humanitarian character of the communication now made
in behalf of the powers named and for its part is con-
fident that equal appreciation will be shown for its own
earnest and unselfish endeavors to fulfill a duty to human-
ity by ending a situation the indefinite prolongation of
which has become insufferable. 1 '
CHAPTBE IV
THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14
Recent events in Mexico since the outbreak of what
is generally known as the Revolution of 1910 have been
of an intensely dramatic character and followed one
another in rapid succession.
When General Porfirio Diaz was elected president of
Mexico in June, 1910, his opponents began to plan his
overthrow, and in November of that year they organized
a revolution and began fighting both in the south and
the north.
Francisco I. Madero was active among the rebels and
on November 23 proclaimed himself " provisional presi-
dent of Mexico." Fighting continued until May 25,
1911, when President Diaz resigned and went to Europe.
Francisco de la Barra was made provisional president
and served until October, when Madero was elected to
the office of president*
Madero represented the opposition to the autocracy of
Porfirio Diaz. But he himself had enemies who charged
Trim with using the same methods as his predecessor.
Among them were General Pascuel Orozco, Emilio Vas-
quez Gomez, General Geronimo Trevino and General
Felix Diaz, a nephew of the deposed president. These
men kept the country in a generally disturbed condition,
though Madero appeared to have control of the situation.
On October 16, 1912, General Felix Diaz with 500 men
took possession of Vera Cruz, but within a week he
and his men were captured, without a struggle, by the
Federal troops. Two of Ms officers were tried by court-
77
78 THE KEVOLUTION OF 1910-14
martial and shot, and he was condemned to meet the
same fate. Sentence was suspended, but he remained
in prison until released by a military uprising in the City
of Mexico, February 9, 1913.
The name of Diaz, by the way, has retained a good
deal of potency in Mexico and throughout the revolu-
tionary days of the last few years there have been recur-
rent rumors of a possibility of the recall of Porfirio
Diaz from his refuge in Paris to bring peace to his dis-
tracted country. But the age of the former president
and his probable antipathy to re-engage in internecine
strife have brought all such proposals to naught. His
nephew, Felix, has figured at intervals throughout the
revolution down to the present time.
The mutiny in the City of Mexico was led by students
from the military school at Tlalpam, a suburb. They
took possession of a powder magazine early in the morn-
ing of February 9, and then went to the prisons where
General Felix Diaz and General Bernardo Reyes were
confined and released them. Accompanied by these
leaders, and followed by crowds shouting " Death to
Madero! " the mutineers proceeded to the Plaza de la
Constitution in front of the National Palace. Here they
were joined by portions of several cavalry and infantry
regiments.
In front of the palace about 500 troops loyal to Madero
were drawn up and firing began as soon as the mutineers
appeared.
DEATH OP GENERAL REYES
One of the first to fall was General Keyes, who was
killed by a rifle ball through the head. Soldiers sta-
tioned on the roof of the palace and in its windows kept
up a fusillade, while machine guns were also brought
into play against the mutinous troops. The palace being
thus strongly defended, General Diaz, who had taken
command of the mutineers, withdrew and with his men
THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 79
marched to the Arsenal, distant about a mile west from
the National Palace.
The Arsenal was attacked and soon surrendered to
the rebels and they took possession of the Madero gov-
ernment's reserve artillery, many rifles and large quan-
tities of ammunition. The Arsenal was then used as the
headquarters of General Diaz. Belem prison, near the
Arsenal, was also seized and the prisoners turned loose.
The artillery from Tacubaya came in at this time and
joined the rebels.
G-eneral Villar, military commander of the capital,
remained loyal to Madero. He was wounded at the
National Palace, and was replaced by General Victoriano
Huerta, who had charge of President Madero 7 s forces
until February 18. On that date Huerta arrested Madero
and was himself proclaimed provisional president of the
Kepublic.
The first day's fighting in the city resulted in the
death of over 500 persons, including 170 women and 200
private citizens who were killed in their houses or in the
streets*
THE TEST DAYS' FIGHT
On February 10, the day following the outbreak, the
city was comparatively quiet. But the next day fight-
ing was resumed and did not cease except at short inter-
vals until February 19. In that time, so far as known,
nearly 3,000 persons were killed and about 7,000 wounded.
Several Americans, including two women, lost their
lives. The period is generally known as " the ten days 3
fight. "
Most of the victims were non-combatants men,
women and children who were unable to escape from
the zone of danger. Nearly all parts of the city were
in the line of fire, as the projectiles from modern, high-
powered guns reached everywhere.
The situation was unique. The opposing forces occu-
80 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14
pied two large buildings about a mile apart, and fired
at each other across the center of the city. The finest
business district and also a part of the best residence
district were in the line of fire and few buildings escaped
serious damage. Business houses, schools, churches,
convents, ' public structures and private homes were
pierced by shells and bullets* The American embassy
building was frequently struck and its occupants, includ-
ing the American ambassador, had narrow escapes from
death. The American consulate suffered even more
than the embassy and finally had to be abandoned.
All large buildings became conspicuous targets. Some
of them, like the unfinished National Theater at the east
end of the Alameda, the Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation building near the Arsenal, and the Mutual Life
Insurance building, were frequently struck by shot and
shell. Many of the victims met their death in the Ala-
meda, the beautiful park at the east end of the Paseo
de la Eef orma, which is one of the famous streets of the
world. The American Club was riddled with bullets
and shells and all but demolished. The cable office was
also struck frequently, but the operators remained at
their places throughout the whole of the fighting and
continued to send the news and commercial despatches
though their lives were in danger.
FIGHTIKG IK TEE STEEBTS
Most of the shooting was done from the shelter of the
Arsenal, the National Palace and other buildings, but
skirmishes in the streets were frequent. The rebels com-
manded all the approaches to the Arsenal and also had
outposts in the western part of the city to prevent attacks
from the rear. The Federals planted batteries in the
Zocalo, the Alameda, the Paseo de la Eefonna, and at
other points to the east and north. Detachments of
^ ..
;% >i -?:^>'4^iiVi t . ** .
"*
American reciuita in piactice dull ut Foit Bliss, Tex.
City of Mexico students and business men drafted by Huwta in his dire
emergency, caused by feai of American invasion
J~
1 8
c<3
s e*-i
MI
at
+* J2
+1
c3
THE BEVOLUTION OF 1910-14 81
rurales were sent by Madero against the rebels, but could
make no headway against their machine guns.
General Diaz' riflemen and artillerists proved to be
expert marksmen. They were well supplied with range-
finders and had an ample supply of ammunition. No
general attack was made by either side, because neither
of the opposing forces felt able to rush the other with-
out incurring great loss of life and the risk of utter
disaster.
CITIZENS EEMAINED QUIET
During the bombardment there was no rioting and no
crowds appeared in the streets. Order was maintained
as usual and few robberies were committed. The gen-
eral sympathy of the people, however, was with the
mutineers and against Madero.
On February 14 and 15, efforts were made to secure
the resignation of President Madero, but he refused to
listen to any suggestions to that effect, saying that he
was willing to arbitrate or do anything that a man might
do honestly and properly to bring peace to his country,
but he would not act the part of a coward, and resign
in the face of personal danger.
Many conferences were held in the American Embassy
between members of the diplomatic corps and also
between United States Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson
and representatives of the Madero government, as well
as of the rebels.
Ambassador Wilson was a dominating influence in the
legation quarter and did much to assure the safety not
only of the Americans but of all foreigners resident in
the city. After the overthrow of Madero he was per-
sonally visited by Generals Huerta and Diaz and con-
sulted upon important matters. He kept also in con-
stant touch with Washington, where the authorities main-
tained a close watch over the situation.
82 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14
INTERVENTION PROPOSED
The intervention of the United States was urged in
many quarters, but President Taft and his advisers
adhered to the policy they had followed from the out-
break of the revolution in Mexico in 1910. Their posi-
tion was explained by President Taft in a message sent
in reply to a communication from President Madero
protesting against possible intervention. The message,
dated February 16, asserted that the military and naval
measures taken by the United States were merely pre-
cautionary, and concluded as follows:
" I feel it my duty to add sincerely and without reserve
that the course of events during the last two years, cul-
minating in the present most dangerous situation, cre-
ates in this country extreme pessimism and the convic-
tion that the present paramount duty is the prompt relief
of the situation. "
While they refused to intervene in Mexico, President
Taft and his cabinet made preparations to take that step
should it become necessary. The battleships Georgia,
Vermont and Nebraska were sent to Vera Cruz, the battle-
ship Virginia to Tampico, the cruiser Colorado to Mazat-
lan, and the cruiser South Dakota to Acapulco. These
ships were authorized to receive and protect Americans
whose lives were endangered and also to land armed
forces if necessary. Three thousand marines were
ordered to Guantanamo, Cuba, to be held in readiness for
immediate service, and the developments of the singular
situation were eagerly awaited by the American people.
FAIi OF MADERO
On February 18, General Victoriano Huerta and Gen-
eral Aureliano Blanquet, who up to that time had appar-
ently given President Madero loyal support, suddenly
turned against him. In the morning they fought the
rebels with apparent vigor ; in the afternoon they arrested
THE BEVQLUTION OF 1910-14 83
Madero, forced him to resign the presidency and deprived
him of his liberty. The president became a prisoner.
General Huerta then assumed the powers of the presi-
dency. The origin and development of the plot against
President Madero were not made known. It was said
that a group of senators had urged General Huerta to
put an end to the fighting in the heart of the city and to
remove the Madero family from control of public affairs.
Another report was that General Blanquet, whose son
was an adherent of General Diaz, was in reality opposed
to Madero from the first and had only awaited a favor-
able opportunity to compass his downfall.
The actual arrest of Madero was accomplished under
the direction of General Blanquet. He ordered into the
city 1,000 men from his own command and stationed
them near the National Palace, replacing the reserve
troops who had been loyally fighting for Madero. The
movement of these bodies of troops attracted much atten-
tion and a considerable crowd gathered about the palace
in the afternoon. Generals Blanquet and Huerta soon
appeared and announced in brief speeches that the time
had come when peace must be restored in the city and
that they intended to secure it. General Blanquet then
detailed twenty men under Colonel Eiveroll to arrest
President Madero.
THE PRESIDENT AEEESTED
The first intimation the president had of the new turn
of affairs was when he entered the great " Hall of
Ambassadors," which was guarded by soldiers standing
with rifles at the " ready." Madero was enraged and
engaged in a scuffle with one of the guards. The sol-
dier's rifle was discharged and a number of Madero 's
own men came hurrying to protect him. A brief encoun-
ter followed, resulting in the death of two of the guards
and the wounding of several others. At the same time
Colonel Riveroll was fatally wounded, dying a short
84 THE BEVOLUTION OF 1910-14
time afterward. It was officially charged that Madero
himself fired the shot that killed Eiveroll. When the
president had been placed under arrest, his resignation
was demanded and he complied with the command, writ-
ing a resignation in formal terms.
In the meantime other arrests were being made, includ-
ing those of Vice-President Jose Pino Suarez, Governor
Federico Gonzales Q-arza of the Federal District, and
Gustave Madero, brother of the president. The latter
was arrested in a restaurant, while in the company of
General Huerta. Members of the Madero cabinet and
other government officials were also placed under arrest,
but these officials were soon released on parole. .
OONGEESS SUMMONED TO ACT
Immediately after the arrests, at the instance of Gen-
eral Huerta, the executive officers of the Senate and
Chamber of Deputies summoned a special session of Con-
gress to legalize the change of government and name a
provisional president. It is said General Diaz knew
nothing of these proceedings until they were completed.
The first official act of General Huerta as de facto
ruler was to send word to Ambassador Wilson, asking
him to notify the other members of the diplomatic corps
and to advise President Taft that the fighting was ended
and that the foreigners in the city were safe.
Huerta also asked permission to use the American
embassy as a channel for communication with the insur-
gents. Ambassador Wilson agreed to act as an inter-
mediary, and an exchange of notes was begun which
terminated in a complete agreement. The messenger of
the United States Embassy received an ovation in the
streets. As his automobile, bearing a white flag on one
side and the American colors on the other, made its way
through San Francisco street, the crowd, which had
learned the nature of Ms errand, shouted, " Viva Los
Americanos! "
THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 85
In the evening a large crowd assembled in the Zocalo
and cheered for Diaz, Hnerta and Blanquet. Banners
bearing the words " Peace " and " Liberty " were dis-
played. At the same time there was some rioting. The
office of the " Nuova Era," a Madero organ, was set on
fire and burned by a mob, and Marco Hernandez, a
brother of the minister of the interior, was shot and killed
for shouting, " Viva Madero! "
DEATH OF GUSTAVE MADERO
Early on the next day, February 19, General Felix Diaz
went to the American Embassy and formally ratified an
agreement with General Huerta, bringing the crisis to an
end. The execution of Gustave Madero, who, after his
arrest, had been confined in the Arsenal, also occurred
on this day. He was subjected to the so-called " fugitive
law, ' ' by which he was free to run under the rifle fire of
his guards. He fell dead before he had proceeded many
paces. Gustave Madero had been " the power behind the
throne " and was generally disliked. It was said that
his personality and actions were largely responsible for
the downfall of the administration.
HUERTA NAMED AS PRESIDENT
At a special session of Congress in the evening, Gen-
eral Huerta was named as provisional president of Mex-
ico. The first act of the Congress was to accept the resig-
nation of President Madero; then Pedro Lascurian, as
minister of foreign affairs, took the oath as president ad
interim, and General Huerta, to make the succession legal,
was appointed a cabinet minister. After these formali-
ties had been complied with, he was duly elected, so that
Mexico had three presidents within the space of about an
hour.
MADERO MEETS HIS FATE
The new government proposed to send Madero into
exile, but other counsels prevailed and he was kept as a
S6 THE EEVOLUTION OF 1910-14
prisoner of war in the National Palace until the night of
February 22-23, when he and the former vice-president,
Jose Pino Suarez, were ordered to be conveyed to the
penitentiary at the eastern end of the city. They were
placed in an automobile, which was followed by another
car and escorted by 100 rurales under Commandant Fran-
cisco Cardenas and Colonel Kafael Pimiento.
An official account of what followed was given to the
press by President Huerta. According to this account,
the automobiles had traversed about two-thirds of the
way to the penitentiary when they were attacked by an
armed group and the escort descended from the machines
to offer resistance. " Suddenly the group grew larger
and the prisoners tried to escape, " said the official story.
An exchange of shots then took place, in which two of the
attacking party were killed and two were wounded.
Both prisoners were killed and the automobile in
which they were riding was badly damaged. Madero, it
was found, had been shot through the head, the bullet >
entering at the back a"ad passing out of the forehead.
The body of Suarez showed many wounds, the bullets
having entered from the front.
Despite the official versions of the affair, considerable
mystery surrounded it and it was generally supposed to
be a case of another application of the " ley fug a " (fugi-
tive law), to which Gustave Madero had already fallen
a victim.
Immediately after the deaths of Madero and Suarez,
the members of the escort were placed under arrest and
the government promised to have the whole matter made
the subject of a rigid judicial inquiry. The investigation
resulted in a decision that no one could be held legally
responsible.
The members of the diplomatic corps thereupon decided
not to recognize the provisional government. In a state-
ment issued February 24, Ambassador Wilson said that
THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 87
in the absence of other reliable information he was dis-
posed to accept the government version of the manner
in which the ex-president and ex-vice-president lost their
lives. " Certainly the violent deaths of these persons
were without government approval/' he said, " and if
the deaths were the result of a plot, it was of restricted
character and unknown to the higher officers of the
government."
On the day before the killing of Madero and Suarez,
the authorities at Washington ordered the 5th Brigade
of the Second Army Division to proceed to Galveston,
Tex., for possible service in Mexico. When the news of
the tragedy in the Mexican capital became known, addi-
tional troops were ordered south from various army
posts and within a few days some 10,000 men, under the
command of Major General William H. Carter, had
assembled at Galveston and other points near the Mexi-
can border. President Taf t disclaimed any intention of
intervening in Mexico, but deemed it prudent to prepare
for emergencies,
THE CABBASTZA REVOLT
The election of General Hnerta as provisional presi-
dent failed to pacify the followers of Madero, many of
whom assumed that he had been deliberately murdered.
Furthermore, they saw in the election of Huerta a revival
of the Diaz regime which they had overthrown in 1912. A
leader arose in the person of Venustiano Carranza, gov-
ernor of the state of Coahuila, and a friend of the dead
president, who organized the Mexican Constitutionalist
party and began an active military campaign in the
northern half of the Republic.
On March 26, some of the leading members of the new
organization met at Guadalupe, Coahuila, and adopted a
declaration, of which the following is a summary:
" 1. We repudiate General Victoriano Huerta as
president of the Republic,
88 THE EEVOLUTION OF 1910-14
" 2. We repudiate also the legislative and judicial
powers of the Federation.
" 3. We repudiate the governments of the states
which thirty days hence shall recognize the Federal
authorities which form the present administration.
" 4. For the organization of the military forces neces-
sary to enforce compliance with our purposes, we name
as first chief of the party, which shall be called the Con-
stitutionalist party, Don Venustiano Carranza, governor
of Coahuila."
THE CONSTITUTIONALIST PEOGEAM
The principal reforms sought by the Constitutionalists
were described as follows :
" The weeding out of the administration personnel and
the reconstruction of the judiciary; honesty in the man-
agement of the treasury; equitable distribution of taxes;
legislation of better labor conditions, so as to develop
better relations between capital and the working classes,
especially in respect to the peasantry and the great land-
holders ; establishment of agricultural banks ; legislation
providing for extensive irrigation throughout the land;
passing of necessary laws to make titles to real estate
respected and easy of transfer; revision of civil laws;
fair distribution of communal land; the breaking up of
large estates by means of proper expropriation; the bet-
terment of the farming population; the construction of
roads and turnpikes, and the imparting of public instruc-
tion on a large scale."
CIVIL WAR PEEVAILS
The Constitutionalist movement, however, did not
attract all of the Madero men. General Pascual Orozco,
Sr., one of the noted leaders in the north, joined the
Huerta forces, as did some of the Zapatistas in the south.
Zapata himself refused to come to terms and preferred to
continue ids guerilla warfare. The Federals and Con-
THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 89
stitutionalists were about equal in numbers. Fighting
continued throughout the year, but neither side could
claim any decided advantage. In the central part of the
Eepublic and the City of Mexico the Huerta forces were
in control, but in the north they maintained possession
of only a few places, including Laredo, Monterey, Saltillo,
Juarez, Jiminez and ParraL
Soon the contest took on all the aspects of civil war,
with the addition of bandit operations. Life and prop-
erty were threatened everywhere. Eailroad communica-
tion was paralyzed throughout the country, except be-
tween the City of Mexico and Vera Cruz, and industry of
all kinds was interrupted. Cases of robbery and vio-
lence, in which Americans and other foreigners were fre-
quently the victims, occurred in nearly all parts of the
country, and thousands were compelled to flee to the
United States for protection.
PRESIDENT WILSON A1STD HUERTA
President Huerta was short of funds and in May it was
reported that he was seeking a foreign loan of $75,000,000
to carry on the government and that English and French
bankers had promised to furnish the money, provided he
could secure recognition from the United States govern-
ment. But President Wilson, who had succeeded Presi-
dent Taft March 4, 1913, held that Huerta had no consti-
tutional or moral right to the presidency and refused to
recognize him or his administration until after a presi-
dential election, which had been announced for the latter
part of October.
On learning the attitude of the United States, General
Huerta informed Ambassador Wilson that the American
claims for damages which had been filed would not be
taken up until after recognition had been accorded.
Eelations between the two countries soon became strained
and grew more and more unsatisfactory as time elapsed.
Many clashes between Mexican and American troops
90 THE BEVOLUTION OF 1910-14
occurred on the border and the situation was not im-
proved by the fact that some European nations were
disposed to criticize the attitude of the Washington
authorities toward Huerta.
In July, Ambassador Wilson was called to Washington
for a conference. He arrived in Washington July 26,
and it soon became apparent that the views of President
Wilson and the ambassador were not in accord. The
latter, it was said, advised a partial recognition of
Huerta, but his suggestion was not favorably received.
As a natural consequence of this divergence of opinion,
Ambassador Wilson presented his resignation August 4,
to take effect October 14.
" The part which Mr. Wilson felt it his duty to take
in the earlier stages of the recent revolution in Mexico,"
said Secretary of State Bryan, * ' would make it difficult
for him to represent now the views of the present
administration."
The Mexican Embassy was thus left in charge of the
secretary, Nelson O'Shaughnessy, as charge d'affaires.
JOHN LIND'S MISSION
On the same day that Ambassador Wilson's resigna-
tion was accepted, the president directed Honorable John
Lind, former governor of Minnesota and a leading and
highly respected lawyer, to proceed to Mexico City as
his personal representative, for the purpose of acting as
adviser to the American Embassy. Mr. Lind arrived at
the Mexican capital August 10. President Huerta had
already announced that he would permit no foreign inter-
ference in Mexican affairs, but Mr. Lind or any other for-
eigner might pass through the country without fear of
molestation. The following statement was issued August
6 by Manuel Garza Adalpe, acting minister of foreign
affairs :
" By order of the president of the Republic, I declare,
THE BEVOLUTION OF 1910-14 91
as minister of foreign affairs ad interim, that if Mr.
Lind does not bring credentials in due form, together
with recognition of the government of Mexico, his pres-
ence in this country will not be desirable."
Washington officials declared that this statement was
based on misinformation as to Mr. Land's mission in
Mexico and Mr. Lind was allowed to proceed. After his
arrival in the capital he was informally received by the
Mexican minister of foreign affairs, Senor Gamboa, and
a series of conferences was held, but no agreement could
be reached on the proposals of the Washington govern-
ment, which included (1) the immediate cessation of fight-
ing in Mexico; (2) the calling of an early and free elec-
tion for president, all parties agreeing to take part in it;
(3) the consent of General Huerta to bind himself not to
be a candidate for election as president of the Eepublic
at this election; (4) agreement of all parties to abide
loyally by the result of the election.
Senor Gamboa maintained that the United States
could best secure neutrality by refusing to aid the rebels,
and that the suggestion that General Huerta pledge him-
self not to be a candidate was strange and unwarranted.
He declared that the United States government should
recognize the Huerta administration because it was con-
stitutional.
In reply to this Mr, Lind proposed that only two of the
conditions be complied with, namely, the holding of a
constitutional election and the giving of an assurance by
General Huerta that he would not be a candidate for
president at that election. Mr. Lind also said :
" The president of the United States further author-
izes me to say that if the de facto government of Mexico
at once acts favorably upon the foregoing suggestions,
then in that event the president will express to American
bankers and their associates assurances that the govern-
ment of the United States will look with favor upon the
92 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14
extension of an immediate loan sufficient in amount to
meet the temporary requirements of the de facto govern-
ment of Mexico."
FAJkTJBE OF NEGOTIATIONS
But Secretary Gramboa then declared that it was not
necessary for General Huerta to pledge himself not to be
a candidate, because under the constitution an ad interim
president could not be a candidate at the ensuing election.
The offer of a possible loan was repudiated as in effect
a bribe*
Negotiations having thus reached a deadlock, and
neither party being willing to give way, Mr. Lind deemed
that a further stay in the City of Mexico would be inad-
visable. He left on August 26 for Vera Cruz, expecting
to proceed forthwith to the United States. Developments
both in Washington and the City of Mexico, however,
caused him to postpone his departure. President Wilson
held a conference August 25 with the members of the for-
eign relations committees of the two houses of Congress
and announced the policy which he had adopted. This
he proposed to make public in a message to Congress on
the following day.
On August 26, a despatch was received from President
Huerta requesting that the message be delayed for
another twenty-four hours and this was agreed to.
Nothing further was heard from Huerta and on August
27 the Senate and House met in joint session and Presi-
dent Wilson read his message in person. After referring
to the deplorable condition of affairs in Mexico, he said
that the peace, prosperity, and contentment of Mexico
meant more than merely an enlarged field for commerce
and enterprise. " We shall yet prove to the Mexican
people, " he said, " that we know how to serve them
without first thinking how we shall serve ourselves. "
President Wilson pointed out that things had grown
worse instead of better and that those who claimed to
THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 93
constitute the legitimate government of the Republic had
failed to make good their claim in fact. War and dis-
order, devastation and confusion, seemed to threaten to
become the settled fortune of the country. Eef erring to
Mr. Lind's mission to Mexico, the president detailed the
instructions given to his envoy. These were that he
" should impress upon those exercising authority in the
City of Mesico the fact that the government of the United
States did not feel at liberty any longer to stand
inactively by, while it became daily more evident that no
real progress was being made toward the establishment
of a government which the country would obey and
->p<-ct; that the situation in Mexico was incompatible
with the fulfillment of the international obligations on
the part of that country, and that all America cried out
for a settlement/' Mr. Lind had been further instructed
that such a settlement seemed to be conditioned on the
following points :
" An immediate cessation of fighting throughout Mex-
ico a definite armistice solemnly entered into and scru-
pulously observed.
" Security given for an early and free election in which
all would agree to take part.
" The consent of General Huerta to bind himself not
to be a candidate for election as president of the Republic
at this election.
" The agreement of all parties to abide by the results
of the election and to co-operate in the most loyal way in
organizing and supporting the new administration."
President Wilson declared that Mr. Lind had executed
his delicate mission with singular tact, firmness and good
judgment, but the proposals he submitted had been
rejected in a note from the Mexican minister of foreign
affairs. Meanwhile it was the duty of the United States
to remain patient, to exercise self-restraint, and to wait
for a further opportunity to offer friendly counsels.
" We should earnestly urge all Americans to leave
94 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14
Mexico at once," the president continued, " and should
assist them to get away in every way possible not
because we would mean to slacken in the least our efforts
to safeguard their lives and their interests, but because
it is imperative that they should take no unnecessary
risks when it is physically possible for them to leave the
country."
In conclusion the president said: " The steady pres-
sure of moral force will, before many days, break the bar-
riers of pride and prejudice down, and we shall triumph
as Mexico's friends sooner than we could triumph as her
enemies and how much more handsomely, with how
much higher and finer satisfaction of conscience and of
honor."
In accordance with the announcement made in Presi-
dent Wilson's message, the Americans in Mexico were
warned to leave that country and were advised that to
enable them to do so money and warships would be placed
at their disposal. Steps were also taken to prohibit the
shipment of arms to Mexico.
HUEETA AGEEES TO AN ELECTION
When the Mexican Congress met on September 16,
General Huerta promised to spare no efforts to bring
about the unrestricted election of a president and vice-
president of the Republic in October. He deprecated the
attitude of the American government, but declared that
there was no unfriendliness between the American and
the Mexican people. He also announced that French
bankers had taken $30,000,000 of the $100,000,000 loan
authorized at the preceding session of Congress. The
sum of $24,900,000, he said, had been used in " pacify-
ing "the country.
As the date set for the election approached, the Catho-
lic party in Mexico nominated Federico Gamboa for pres-
ident and General Eugenio Bascon for vice-president of
the Eepublic. Manuel Calero and Floras Magnon were
THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 95
nominated by the Liberals. Other candidates for the
presidency were also announced, among them being Gen-
eral Felix Diaz.
HUEBTA AS DICTATOR
On October 10, by order of President Huerta, 110 mem-
bers of the Chamber of Deputies were arrested for sign-
ing resolutions of warning to Trim because of the sudden
" disappearance " of Senator Belisario Dominguez, of
Chiapas, who had criticized the president. Both branches
of the Congress were declared suspended and new elec-
tions of senators and deputies were ordered for October
14. President Huerta also suspended all constitutional
guaranties and declared himself dictator of the Eepublic.
AN UETSATISFACTORY ELECTION
The presidential and congressional elections took place
October 26. The vote cast was extremely small and the
result was unsatisfactory. Huerta, who was ineligible
and not a candidate, was declared to have received a
majority for president. General Blanquet led for vice-
president. Huerta had already been notified by Presi-
dent Wilson that under the conditions created by the
arrest of the deputies and the suspension of constitutional
guaranties, a fair election could not be held, and that the
United States government would refuse to recognize the
men chosen.
On November 2, acting under instructions from the
State Department at Washington, Nelson 'Shaughnessy,
charge d'affaires, notified General Huerta that he must
resign the presidency of Mexico and that he must not
leave as his successor General Aureliano Blanquet, his
minister of war, or any other member of his official fam-
ily. A week later, General Huerta announced that the
newly-elected Congress would be installed in a few days
and would pass upon the elections of president and vice-
president. If this Congress declared the election of Octo-
96 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14
ber 26 void, new elections would be called. In the mean-
time he said he would continue in office and direct his
effort towards the pacification of the country.
President Wilson, through his personal representative,
John Lind, notified General Huerta early on November 12
that unless he returned an answer that day to a demand
that he must prevent the newly-elected Congress from
being called into session and must make this action known
to the diplomatic corps, the United States would have no
further parleying with the Mexican government.
Huerta made no reply, and Mr. Lind, who had been in
the capital for some days, returned to Vera Cruz, saying
that he would not set foot in the City of Mexico again
until the new Congress had been dissolved. This was not
done, but on the contrary, the Congress met and ratified
the results of the election of October 26. Mr. Lind
remained at Vera Cruz throughout the winter, watching
events at tae capital and in constant communication with
President Wilson. His return to the United States was
soon followed by the Tampico incident and the ultimatum
to Huerta, the rejection of which led to the occupation of
Vera Grass, April 21, 1914.
Typical scene in the City of Mexico dm ing the ten days' fighting in the
stieets, preceding Madcro's death
, ^
Iron telegraph pole smashed by shot from the arsenal
Youth and Old Age
This aged peon woman is said to be over 112 years old
General Blanquet, the man who arrested
Mactero
Statue destroyed by gunfire neai the National Palace
on third flooi shattered by shell from
Street crowd neai National Palace viewing a aimed htatue
In the line of lire duimg the ten days' tight
CHAPTER V
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7
Mexicans and Americans have faced each other in war
in the past, the hostilities of April, 1914, at Vera Cmz
being by no means the first between armed forces of the
United States and the Spanish-Indian citizens of the
southern Republic.
Historians do not dignify the numerous engagements
between the independent Texans and the Mexicans *with
the use of the wor$ war. But the war of 1846-7, though
insignificant in comparison with the civil war in the
United States, nevertheless was of great consequence and
far-reaching results.
The war cost the United States $163,000,000 and the
lives of about 25,000 brave soldiers, on'e-f ourth the actual
number of American fighters who participated in the
struggle. It left the United States with a debt of
$85,000,000. But the cost to Mexico was so enormous
that no attempt ever was made accurately to measure it
in human lives and dollars. Thousands and thousands
of Mexicans were slain by the more highly trained sol-
diers of the United States, though the Mexicans fought
bravely, gallantly and furiously on many memorable
occasions.
The war of 1846 was the result of a boundary dispute.
Texas had belonged to Mexico, but the vast territory was
peopled by Americans and but few Mexicans lived in
Texas. Many Americans, among them the piomeer,
Stephen Austin, for whom Austin County and the city of
Austin, Tex M were named, hTad obtained land grants in
Texas from the Mexican government- Colonists moved
97
98 THE MEXICAN WAE OF 1846-7
in and the territory was dotted with thriving little com-
munities.
THE EBVOLT OP TEXAS
The elemental differences between the Mexicans and
Americans and the prejudices of religion and nationality
could only lead to one result disputes. When after
years of virtual self-rule the Mexican government began
to rule Texas harshly, the Texans rebelled in 1833, and
in 1836 set up an independent government. The republic
of Texas, which became the Lone Star State, was born.
When Santa Anna, the powerful Mexican chief, over-
threw the government in one of the numerous revolutions
from which Mexico was seldom free, Texas prepared to
seek admittance to the Mexican confederation as a new
state. Stephen Austin was the commissioner who went
to the City of Mexico bearing the petition.
It was ignored and Austin imprudently wrote jback to
the Texan leaders to go ahead and organize a state "with-
out waiting for the government's consent. His letter fell
into the hands of Santa A mm and Austin was arrested
and thrown into prison and placed in solitary confinement
for a year. The indignity inflamed the Texans, but when
Santa Anna sent General Cos into Texas to enforce an
act passed in 1830 prohibiting immigration of Americans
into Texas, and to demand the surrender of Lorenzo de
Zavala, a refugee wanted because he had introduced a
bill in the Mexican Congress directed against church
property, the Texans prepared for resistance. The Mex-
ican general took possession of the town of Antonio de
Bexar.
The Texans, on September 28, 1835, attacked and de-
feated a small body of Mexicans at Gonzales, on the Bio
Guadalupe, and the war and revolution of Texas was
begun. The Mexicans met victory in most of the earlier
engagements, but the Texans, aided by the United States
in every possible way, finally defeated Santa Anna, who
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 99
was himself captured and his army destroyed. Texas
was free.
TEXAS BOTJKDAKIES DEPUTED
The revolution closed with the battle of San Jacinto
April 21, 1836, when General Samuel Houston was vic-
torious and captured Santa Anna. Texan delegates had
previously met at Washington, on the Brazos, March 2,
and declared the independence of Texas, drew up a con-
stitution and formed a government. Santa Anna was a
captive and readily acknowledged the independence of
Texas.
The boundaries of Texas were then defined as " begin-
ning at the mouth of the Eio Grande, thence up the prin-
cipal stream of said river to its source; thence due north
to 42 of north latitude; thence along the boundary line,
as defined in the treaty between the United States and
Spain (February, 1819), to the beginning."
Santa Anna's acknowledgment of Texas' independence
and the treaty of peace which set the Bio Grande del
Norte as the western boundary of Texas, were repudiated
a little later, after President Bustamente took charge of
the reins of Mexican government and recommenced the
war with Texas, which was carried on in a desultory
fashion until Texas was finally annexed by the United
States in 1845.
In 1844 President John Tyler negotiated a treaty of
annexation secretly, but it was rejected by the Senate.
That occurred in April of that year and the question of
annexing Texas was thereby made a political one, by
reason of the national nominating conventions meeting
in May. James K. Polk was nominated by the Democrats
on a platform of " reannexation of Texas " and was
elected the eleventh president of the United States.
The result of the election was interpreted by President
Tyler as expressing the will of the voters and he urged
Congress to acquire Texas. Congress gave the president
100 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7
authority to negotiate with Texas and he chose to submit
it in the form of a joint resolution to Texas. Texas
accepted the terms. That territory then was slave soil
and it was arranged that four states to be free soil should
be formed in that part of T^xas north of 36 30' north
latitude.
BOUNDARY IS DISPUTED
Texas claimed the Rio Grande River as her western
boundary and Mexico claimed that the Nueces Eiver was
the line. The territory between those two rivers was
disputed. Texas asked that the United States send an
army to its defense and occupy the disputed strip.
Accordingly General Zachary Taylor, then in command
at Camp Jessup, was ordered to move his forces into
Texas. He moved to Corpus Christi 09 the Arranza Bay
in the early part of August, 1845. In November of that
year his forces aggregated 4,049 men, comprising a gen-
eral gtaff of 24 officers, two regiments of dragoons, four
of artillery and five of infantry.
Mexico, hearing the reports of the annexation of Texas
by the United States, announced that annexation would
mean war.
"When General Taylor was ordered into Texas, Captain
Stockton was ordered to proceed with a squadron to the
Gulf of Mexico. General Winfield Sqptt was the com-
mander-in-chief of the army.
Mexico, however, desired no war, and although the
diplomatic relations of the two countries had been broken
off, Manuel de la Pena y Pena, Mexican minister of for-
eign affairs, acceded to a request to receive an envoy
entrusted with full powers to adjust ell differences be-
tween Mexico and the United States. John Slidell was
sent to Mexico City. His mission failed.
GENERAL TAYLOR MOVES HIS AJRMT
On January 13, 1846, an order was issued to move
General Taylor's army from Corpus Christi to the Eio
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 101
,nde and occupy the western border of the disputed
-itory. The army established its position at Point
Del on March 25 and three days later had arranged
If within cannpn range of Metamoras. Official reports
cv that more than one-half of the United States army
in the corps of General Taylor.
eneral Arista assumed chief command of the Mexican
y on April 25, 1846, and the same day a detachment of
y-three dragoons was se&t to watch the course of the
r above Metamoras. Thirty miles from the camp
- were surprised by the Mexicans, sixteen of them were
id and wounded, and Captain Thornton, in charge of
detachment, was compelled to surrender. General
ita treated his prisoners with great respect and
ness.
tree days after the Thornton affair Captain Walker's
as Rangers were attacked and several tilled at a point
reen Point Isabel and Metamoras. General Taylor
a body of troops in charge of some unfinished field
and hurried with his main force back to Point
el, believing that that place would be attacked and
Mexicans would seek to cut him off in the rear. Major
>b Brown was in charge of the work,
le Mexicans thereupon decided it safe to attack Port
vn. The batteries in Metamoras began a bombard-
; on May 3 and the siege was not raised until May 9,
i General Taylor returned after winning victories
Mexican troops at Palo Alto and Eesaca de la Palma.
tfieral Taylor, in his report, stated that he believed
>ral Arista had about 6,000 men and that the Artier-
army lost four men killed aM thirty-seven wounded
alo Alto and occupied the field, the Mexicans retreat-
ffith a loss of about 100 killed. 'General Taylor's
* in that battle did not exceed 2,300 men. On the
day May 9 he met and again defeated the Mex-
f orce at Eesaca de la Palma and they fled across the
Grande, many of them being overwhelmed in its
102 THE MEXICAN WAK OF 1846-7
waters. General Taylor reported to the war department
the loss of forty-three killed and about 100 wounded, and
300 Mexicans killed and a much greater number wounded.
General La Vega was among those captured and refused
a parole. He was sent to New Orleans.
C02STGEBSS DECLAEES WAE
As a result of these engagements, President Polk asked
Congress on May 12 to declare war, and the next day
Congress declared that war existed between Mexico and
the United States, and voted $10,000,000, and a call for
50,000 volunteers was made. General Scott was called
into consultation with the president and was informed
he was to be assigned to command the army in Mexico
at once. He then began plans for conquering Mexico.
He said he wanted a special army of 30,000 effective men,
but his force never reached that number. Actually, the
regulars were less than 7,000 strong, and the twenty-four
regiments of volunteers made about 18,000 men.
Preparations for an advance into the interior of Mexico
required several months, and differences of opinion
among officials and between certain of them and General
Scott caused further delay, so that the commander did
not leave Washington until November, 1846. He reached
the mouth of the Eio Grande in January, 1847, and called
on General Taylor to send him 10,000 men.
Although his force had been increased, General Taylor
could ill afford to send General Scott any large number
of men. He had occupied Metamoras after the battle
of Eesaca de la Palma and planned to push ahead against
Monterey.
BATTLE OF MONTEBEY
The march on Monterey began on August 20, 1846.
The battle at that point did not commence, however, until
the night of September 20. General Taylor moved his
forces slowly, and although he had believed that General
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 103
Pedro Ampudia, commanding the Mexicans in Monterey,
had no more than 2,000 or 3,000, it later was discovered
that the force was twice as strong.
Monterey is situated in the valley of the San Juan
Eiver, which flows behind the city. The ridges of the
Sierra Madre Mountains also rise behind the city. The
army approached by the road from Marin. At the left
of the road before Monterey the river bends along the
highway. On the right the road to Saltillo leads up
through the valley. On a prominence above the Saltillo
road was the Bishop's Palace and on other heights were
fortifications occupied by the Mexicans. In front of the
city was the citadel, with a strong garrison.
On the night of September 20, General Taylor sent a
division to turn the position at the Bishop's Palace,
which was accomplished, the division remaining outside
range of the Mexicans' guns. Howitzers and mortars
were placed in position against the citadel and on the
morning of the 21st the battle began.
The lower part of the city was first attacked and the
Americans found the enemy entrenched in the streets.
They had little success that day. On the following day
the heights above the Bishop's Palace were stormed and
the next found the Mexicans concentrated in the heart
of the city, fighting from the citadel and the Plaza. The
Americans literally had to fight their way from house to
house and so strong were the barricades that they dug
through one house and barricaded street into the next.
The citadel remained untaken and to have reduced it
would have meant great loss of life.
General Ampudio finally asked for terms of surrender,
and on the night of August 23, General Taylor arranged
an eight weeks' armistice with the Mexican commander.
By those terms the Mexicans were allowed to evacuate
the city with their arms. General Taylor, however, had
received no wagon trains, and provisions were running
low.
104 THE MEXICAN WAE OF 1846-7
The American loss at Monterey was 400 killed and
wounded.
The news of the armistice was not favorably received
in Washington and its cessation was ordered on October
13. General Taylor so announced to General Santa Anna,
then commander-in-chief of the Mexican army, but when
he suggested that an honorable peace might be arranged
the Mexican general is said to have declared that there
could be no peace so lo'ng as a North American remained
on Mexican soil.
The troops did not move again until November 12, when
a march on Saltillo was made, and that point, Parras, and
finally Victoria, were occupied without real opposition.
The American forces occupied Victoria on December 29,
arid Tampico being taken by Qpmmodore Perry, the cam-
paign of th'e Bio Grande, in which General Taylor and his
men had signally honored themselves and their country
many times, was substantially brought to a close.
BATTLE OF BTTESTA 7ISTA
The battle of Buena Vista, which was to decide whether
or not the Americans would remain in command of the
valley of the Rio Grande, was yet to be lought, however.
General Taylor returned to Monterey from Victoria
in January, 1847. He had left about 6,000 men, after
sending three of his strongest divisions of regulars to
Tampico to join General Scott's expedition against Vera
Cruz, the most important port on the Gulf of Mexico.
Santa Anna, with a magnificent force of more than
20,000 men, the best fighting men of Mexico, though many
of them severe, of course, volunteers and recruits, was at
San Luis Potosi. He planned to go against General
Taylor, then to hurry to the coast to attack General Scott
and frustrate the assault on Vera Cruz.
General Taylor learned of his approach and moved
his force to Buena Vista, establishing Ms men in a strong
mountain position. With his volunteers, he there calmly
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 105
prepared to await the coming of the Mexican troops,
trusting to the strength of his position, the enthusiasm
of his men and Providence to win a victory.
When the contending forces met, the general again dis-
tinguished himself; his sharpshooting volunteers never
wavered and the Mexican loss was enormous. This battle
was the crowning victory of the Eio Grande campaign.
The American loss was 267 killed, 456 wounded and
twenty-three missing.
Santa Anna had been compelled to move his men across
a desert country, but after the defeat he nevertheless set
out resolutely to meet Scott.
GENERAL SCOTT'S CAMPAIGN"
General Scott planned to take 12,000 men in the expe-
dition against Vera Cruz. He sailed from New York
November 30, 1846, and went to New Orleans, thence to
the mouth of the Eio Grande. He was joined by the
troops sent on by General Taylor. New volunteers and
a few regulars gathered from forts throughout the coun-
try had made a rendezvous of the Island of Lobos, 125
miles northwest of Vera Cruz. The troops from the
Upper Eio Grande were taken on board transports and
taken to Lobos.
On the morning of March 7, 1847, General Scott, on
board the Massachusetts with Commodore Connor,
reconnoitered and at sunset the troops which had been
transported in the warships were landed opposite the
Island of Sacrifices. They expected to be met by the
Mexicans, but the latter did not appear.
In full view was the city and the old castle of San Juan
d'Uloa. The guns of the castle and city opened fire, but
no Mexican troops appeared. In the days that followed
numerous skirmishes occurred, but preparations for the
siege continued, and in accord with General Scott's
orders, prepared in advance, the line of siege was made
five miles long. Heavy guns were landed from the ships
106 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7
of war on the night of March 17 and on the 18th trenches
were opened and the army gradually moved in upon the
invested city.
Surrender was demanded on March 22, but the gov-
ernor of the castle refused. The heavy batteries imme-
diately began their deadly fire. More guns reinforced
the besiegers in succeeding days and the siege was furious
day and night. Consuls of European governments sought
a truce, but General Scott replied that they had had the
opportunity to leave, with all women and children, and
they had not availed themselves of that opportunity; and
that the exigencies of war demanded continuation of the
siege.
SURRENDER OP VERA CRUZ
The American shells made Vera Cruz a fiery furnace,
and on March 26 the Mexicans made overtures of sur-
render. Articles of capitulation were signed on the night
of the 27th.
On the morning of March 29, the American flag floated
over the ancient castle and forts about the city. The
city was taken with the loss of two officers and a few pri-
vates. The Americans had protected themselves well in
their entrenchments and the fire of the heavy guns from
the ships of war was effective. The Mexican fire from
the castle and forts, on the other hand, had little effect.
Commodore Connor was given much credit for the assist-
ance of the sailors and the heavy guns.
By the terms of the capitulation General Scott obtained
the surrender of 5,000 prisoners on parole, and all arms
and munitions of war. The capture of the city left the
way open toward the City of Mexico.
It was just 328 years since Hernando Cortez had landed
at Vera Cruz and begun his conquering march which sub-
dued the ancient Aztecs and obtained for Spain the land
of the Montezumas ; Spain having ruled Mexico until the
country won independence in 1821.
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 107
ON TO MEXICO CITY
General Scott found the way to Mexico City hard. His
ranks became thinner and thinner. Many perished by
disease. He never once planned to go back. For him
the march to the capital would only be ended with com-
plete victory. He left Vera Cruz April 8, after making
General W. J. Worth governor of the city and castle.
General Worth had successfully stormed the heights
above the Bishop 's Palace at Monterey and proved one of
the most distinguished aids to both General Taylor and
Commander-in-Chief Scott.
The army proceeded along the Jalapa road. Wagons
arrived from the United States slowly, and there were
great quantities of ammunition, arms and provisions to
be moved. When they arrived the march began. In three
days the foot of the mountains had been reached.
BATTLE OF CEBEO GOKDO
Meanwhile General Santa Anna, with 15,000 men, had
crossed the interior provinces and was ready to defend
the heights of Cerro Gordo. General Twiggs, who also
won fame for his participation in the Eio Grande cam-
paign with General Taylor, was in advance with his
division. He planned to attack the enemy in their almost
impregnable position behind the fortifications of Cerro
Gordo on April 13, but was persuaded to delay the attack
until General Scott arrived from the rear.
The Commander-in-chief deemed a frontal attack sure
to end in defeat. He ordered a road built around the
base of the mountains that the army might reach the rear
of the Mexican forces on the heights. His men accom-
plished the herculean task. The Mexicans did not dis-
cover the work in progress until three days had passed.
Then they began firing, on April 17. That night General
Scott ordered as follows :
" The enemy's whole line of entrenchments and bat-
teries will be attacked in front, and at the same time
turned, early in the day tomorrow. "
108 THE MEXICAN WAE OF 1846-7
The order was executed, the heights were stormed, the
enemy routed, and a vigorous pursuit followed until
Jalapa was in view. When Cerro Gordo fell General La
Vega and 3,000 prisoners were taken. Q-eneral Scott
scarcely knew what to do with them. Santa Anna and
8,000 men had escaped. They were pursued to Jalapa
by General Worth's reserve division.
General Scott lost 250 killed and wounded, the Mex-
icans many more. He did not halt, but pushed on rapidly,
taking Jalapa on April 19. On April 22 he took Perote.
Moving slowly then, the army pushed on and on May 15
General Worth's men entered Puebla, encountering little
opposition. Thus the campaign from Vera Cruz to
Puebla in two months' time was a procession of unbroken
victories.
Ten thousand prisoners had been taken, thousands of
arms of all kinds seized, and General Scott became a
greater popular idol than ever before in his great career.
IK THE VALLEY OF MEXICO
In Puebla he rested until August 7. Three days later
he was within sight of the City of Mexico. Bound about
that city prosperity then appeared abundanjt. There
were fields of waving grain, which indicated that hus-
bandry had been resumed in Mexico in spite of revolution
and war. Agricultural pursuits had suffered great
depression, but when General Scott's army of slightly
more than 4,000 effective men, many ill, some wounded,
and all tired and worn by the campaign, arrived on the
borders of the Valley of Mexico, there were many indica-
tions of labor and thrift. The native Mexican, however,
was exactly as he had been 1,000 years before and in
this twentieth century many contend he is the same.
Six miles from Puebla had stood the ancient city of
Cholula, believed to have been once a city of 200,000
inhabitants. There Hernanclo Cortez had seen the spires
of 400 idol temples. Not even ruins remained in 1847.
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 109
Only a huge pyramid, truncated at the top, believed to
have been dedicated to the gods of the Aztecs, remained
as a monument of the once proud city.
After two months of delay, in which period illness,
short rations and attacks of guerilla parties had harassed
General Scott's forces, new regiments and supplies were
forwarded, and in the early part of August, 1847, the
commander-in-chief started for the City of Mexico sur-
rounded by many strong positions and forts. His army
had been augmented to slightly less than 11,000 men. The
troops marched along the National road, ascended the
Anahuac range of the Corderilla Moiantains, and on the
third day reached the pass of Eio Frio, 10,120 feet above
sea level; and, a few miles farther on, reached the crest
of the mountain and beheld the Valley of Mexico. On
August 11, Ayotla, fifteen miles from the capital, was
reached. Here a survey was made and Q-eneral Scott
determined that the fortifications directly in front of the
city would prove extremely hard to take and that the
effort would involve great loss of life.
General Santa Anna had strongly fortified all the posi-
tions around the city, but the National road, as the most
common mode of ingress to the capital, was presumed to
be the route which the invading army would follow. Gen-
eral Scott, however, determined to send his men miles
out of their way around Lake Chalco to the Acalpuco
road west of the lake. On that highway San Augustine
was selected as a depot. Between that point were San
Antonio, Conteras and Churubusco, where successive
engagements took place.
SOOTT'S STBATEGT WIN'S
In sending the army around the south end of Lake
Chalco, a route deemed impracticable by the Mexicans,
it was necessary for the soldiers to cut another road for
the artillery, even as they did about Cerro Gordo. It
was done, and in three days General Scott's forces had
110 THE MEXICAN WAE OF 1846-7
reached the neighborhood of San Augustine after a march
of twenty-seven miles. The first fortified point ahead
was San Antonia.
The commander-in-chief determined to pass around
that point, take the strong fort of Contreras, west of San
Antonia, passing around to the rear of the latter point
and attack Churubusco. Batteries at San Antonia began
firing on August 18, but no great damage was done, and
by strategy three brigades were moved about Contreras
on the night of the 19th, and taking position in a ravine
the Americans were able to strike hard on the morning
of August 20. The Mexicans were surprised, having
been unaware of the force in the ravine, and fled in a
rout with large losses. They lost 700 killed, about 1,000
wounded and more than 800 were taken prisoners. One
writer says, " The actual conflict lasted but seventeen
minutes! The pursuit for hours."
Churubusco, situated four miles east, with formidable
entrenchments, was next to be taken by the entire army,
though several brigades were sent back to San Antonia
and that point taken with no great difficulty. With two
important victories, the army then marched on to Churu-
busco, and in the third memorable engagement attacked
the fortifications in two places simultaneously and car-
ried them, though under deadly fire and with consider-
able loss.
It was here that several American deserters actually
manned batteries for the enemy and fought desperately,
killing many Americans. A number of the deserters
were captured, twenty-nine were sentenced to be hanged
and twenty of them were executed.
A TBTJCE AGBEED UPON
On the morning of August 21, following the memor-
able engagements of the preceding day, General Scott
advanced toward the City of Mexico. He was met by
representatives of General Santa Anna and an armistice
L TEE MEXICAN WAK OF 1846-7 111
proposed. He marched on, however, to Tacubaya and
slept that night in the Archbishop's Palace near the great
castle of Chapultepec. The next day the general met the
representatives of Santa Anna and agreed on a truce.
The impression had prevailed in the United States
early in the year 1847 that Mexico wanted peace and Mr.
N. P. Trist was sent from Washington as the envoy of
President Polk to confer with representatives of the
Mexican government. Negotiations failed, for Mexico
was not ready to yield.
BATTLE OF CHAPTJLTEPEO
On September 7 of that year, after it was known the
peace negotiations had been unsuccessful, General Scott
prepared to resume hostilities. He determined to take
the City of Mexico by assault. Less than a mile from
his headquarters in the village of Tacubaya were the
enemy's fortifications and the rocky hill of Chapultepec.
Approach seemed only permitted from the forest covered
slope on the west. At the base were the towered stone
structure of El Molino del Eey and Casa de Mata, another
strong stone building, with batteries between.
On the morning of September 8 the battle began and
in bloody engagements the victorious army, greatly out-
numbered but intrepid and unconquerable, drove the Mex-
icans from their fortified positions. Munitions were
taken and destroyed and the enemy routed from those
positions at the base of Chapultepec, but that apparently
impregnable castle remained to be taken, for it com-
manded the City of Mexico and the roads to the capital.
After the double victory at the foot of Chapultepec the
forces retired to Tacubaya and General Scott planned
the final assault. Batteries were erected and began firing
on the morning of September 12. The firing, intended
to cripple the defenses, preliminary to storming the place,
continued all day. On the morning of the 13th the col-
112 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7
umns charged and carried the castle and placed the
American flag on its ramparts.
IN THE CITY OF MEXICO
The way was then open to the capital and with more
fighting that night at the Belem and San Cosmo gates
the Americans entered the outer districts of the city,
where the soldiers and citizens fought from behind breast-
works and from the roofs of houses.
When morning came the ayuntamiento (city council)
informed General Scott that the government and the
army had evacuated, and at 7 o'clock that morning
September 14, 1847 the American flag floated over the
National Palace.
The capital was taken with less than 6,000 men, while
the Mexicans had 30,000 in the neighborhood when the
Americans rounded Lake Chalco. General Scott reported
his losses in the fighting of August 19 and 20 and Sep-
tember 8, 12, 13 and 14, as 2,703 killed and wounded,
including 383 officers.
SANTA AETNA IN EXILE
General Santa Anna escaped from the capital with
some two or three thousand men and was next heard of
when he attacked the city of Puebla, where a small garri-
son had been left, on September 25. Before he could
accomplish anything even against that small garrison his
men deserted Trim and he became an exile. He formally
resigned the supreme power October 18. Pena y Pena,
president of the Supreme Court of Justice, took charge
and called a congress of the states at Queretaro to pre-
pare to restore a federal government and to arrange a
treaty of peace with the United States. This was done
in November, 1847, and one of the first acts of the new
government was to appoint a commission to meet Mr.
N. P. Trist and negotiate terms of peace.
While General Taylor was conquering northeastern
Effects ot shell the during the "Ten Days' Eight"
U. S. battleship Florida cleared for rough weather
Custom House and Whaif, Tampico
In the harbor at Vera Cru?
Major General Leonard Wood, former chief of staff of the United States
Army, named as commander-in-chief of forces in the
field in case pf war.
Mexican cuvahy of Huerta/s army in Mexico City
The rurales d part of the Fecleial forces o* Mexico
THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 113
Mexico, General Stephen W. Kearney made a bloodless
conquest of New Mexico. California was taken by Lieu-
tenant John C. Fremont, the explorer known as " the
Pathfinder," and thus New Mexico and California were
claimed for the United States. Commodore Stockton,
with a fleet on the Pacific coast, made California safe for
the American settlers who had set up the " Bear State
Republic " because of Mexican depredations.
THE TBEATY OP PEACE
On February 2, 1848, a treaty of peace was signed by
Mr. Trist and three Mexican commissioners. Although
Mr. Trist 's powers as a commissioner had been with-
drawn by President Polk, he nevertheless assumed to
act. The terms of the document by which several million
dollars were to be paid Mexico in return for New Mexico
and California caused much controversy in Washington
and throughout the United States. The treaty, with sev-
eral important amendments, was finally ratified, however,
by the United States Senate, March 10. Several weeks
later the Mexican Congress ratified it, but it was not
until June 19, 1848, that it was announced to the people
of the United States that the treaty was complete and
the country at peace with Mexico.
TERMS OF THE TBEATY
By the terms of tlie* treaty tiie United States was to
retain New Mexico and California an addition of 522,-
568 square miles but Mexico was to be paid $15,000,000
for this territory. In addition, claims of $3,500,000 of
citizens of the United States against Mexico were to be
paid by the American government.
Another treaty was made with Mexico in 1853, when
the boundary line was changed so that by payment of
$10,000,000 the United States acquired 45,535 square
miles additional generally called the " G-adsden Pur-
chase/' after James Gadsden, the man who negotiated
the agreement.
CHAPTEE VI
EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO
The history of the earliest development of Mexico is
shrouded in what has been well called * ' an impenetrable
mist of fable. ' ' Scientific investigation and archeological
researches have not yet lifted the veil sufficiently to dis-
close the original inhabitants of the country. Ruins and
hieroglyphics in different portions of the Republic reveal
the story of a series of immigrations from the north
towards the south, but the point from which the pere-
grinations began has not been and never may be made
known.
Mexican historians generally agree, however, found-
ing their theories on the interpretations of hieroglyphics
and upon the ancient ruins, that the country was invaded
by seven families, successively immigrating from the
north, all speaking the same language, the Nahuatl or
Mexican; but history does not reveal the starting point
of these races nor disclose the mystery of the multiplicity
of languages of so diverse a character spoken by the
many tribes that followed them, nor the causes that
impelled them to abandon their former homes. Accord-
ing to the Mexican scholar, Pimental, not one of the one
hundred and eight indigeneous tongues bears any analogy
to Asiatic tongues, but certain resemblances to the lan-
guage of the Esquimaux would indicate direct communi-
cation between Asia and America.
ARRIVAL OF THE TOLTBCS
The annals of the Toltecs have furnished a start-
ing point for the history of Mexico. These composed
a semicivilized nation who inhabited a country called
114
EABLY HISTOEY OF MEXICO 115
Euehuetlappallan, towards the north of the continent,
where they built cities and temples, and were versed in
agriculture, the arts, and the computation of time. Owing
to civil disturbances, the Toltecs, with a number of their
partisans and neighbors, in the year 544 A. D., were
expelled from their country and began their wanderings
southward, founding cities on their way.
In 648 they arrived in Anahuac and one hundred and
seventeen years after leaving their country they reached
the present site of Tula (50 miles north of the City of
Mexico, on the line of the Mexican Central Eailroad),
where they laid the foundation of their powerful king-
dom, i This tribe remained here until overthrown by
the " lords of Jalisco," in 1116, eleven monarchs having
reigned.
OEIGIN OF PULQUE
There is a notable event in the history of the Toltecs
which deserves mention, as it is well authenticated. It
is the origin of the universal and famous Mexican bev-
erage " pulque " in the reign of the eighth Toltec chief,
Tepaucaltzin, in the latter half of the eleventh century.
It is narrated that a noble named Papantzin discovered
the method of extracting the juice of the maguey plant,
of which it is made, and sent some of the fermented
liquid to his chief by the hand of his daughter, the beau-
tiful Xochitl, called the Flower of Tollan (Tula). The
chief, enamored both of the drink and the maiden,
retained the latter a willing prisoner, and she became
the mother of his illegitimate son, who afterwards wielded
the scepter. This incident inaugurated the troubles of
the Toltecs. And pulque has been causing trouble ever
since.
After the dispersion of the Toltecs, a roving tribe, the
Chichimecas, hearing of the former's overthrow, occu-
pied the abandoned country, starting for it from the
north in 1117.
116 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO
Other tribes of the original seven successively
descended from the north and spread themselves over
the valley of Mexico, founding cities and erecting temples
and palaces.
THE AZTECS IN THE VALLEY
The last tribe to reach the valley was the Aztec, or
Mexican, whose annals claim the greatest interest in the
history of Mexico. This tribe is supposed to have orig-
inally come from the north of California, according to
the historian, Clavijero, their country being called Aztlan.
They reached Tula (50 miles north of the present City
of Mexico) in 1196, remaining there nine years, and
spending eleven in other parts of the valley. At the
expiration of this time they arrived in Zumpango, 30
miles north of their future capital. Here they were
received and the chief 9 & son married a daughter of one
of the Mexican families. From this marriage sprang
the military chiefs of the Mexicans.
LEGEHD OF THE EAGLE
After many wanderings they settled on the marshy
islands near the western borders of Lake Texococo, and
there, in the year 1325, was established the nucleus of
the city first called Tenochitlan, derived according to
some authorities from Tenoch, one of their priests and
leaders. Other authorities claim that the name comes
from Tenuch (prickly pear cactus), as there is an old
legend that the leaders of the tribes of Mexicans wander-
ing in search of a place to rest, saw an eagle standing
upon a cactus strangling a serpent, on the site of the
City of Mexico. This legend has been generally accepted
and gave Mexico the design for its escutcheon.
The present name of the City of Mexico finds its source
in the name of the Aztec's god of war, Mexitli, also
known as Huitzilopochtli. The name of the country dem-
onstrates the hold the maguey plant had upon the ancient
EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO 117
tribes. Mexican traditions, as preserved in the most
ancient writings, relate that this god Huitzilopochtli was
born of a virgin belonging to the noble family of Citli
(free and ancestral) ; that his cradle was the heart of a
maguey plant (metl), and hence the name of Mecitli,
afterwards changed into Mexitli and finally into
" Mexico."
THE FtEST AZTEC KING
Here the Aztecs constituted their first government,
which was theocratic and military under Tenoch, who
died in the year 1343. Three years subsequent to his
death the form of government changed, and in 1376 the
first king was elected. Ten kings followed, during the
reign of whom the Aztecs devoted themselves to the arts
of peace and built a fine city, connecting it with the main-
land by four causeways. The last of the Aztec monarchs
was Cauhtemoc, whose conquest by Hernando Cortez
brought an end to the Mexican dynasty.
BMPIEE OF THE MOKTEZTJMAS
The Montezumas established their empire about the
year 1460 and continued to govern till the arrival of the
Spaniards in 1521, when Montezuma n. was killed by
the arrows of his own warriors when Cortez forced him
to go upon the portico of his palace to quell, if possible,
the rioting Aztecs, who under Cauhtemoc were attempt-
ing his rescue. Cauhtemoc, the nephew of Montezuma,
became his successor and was the last of the Aztec kings.
CONQUEST BY OOETEZ
Hernando Cortez, a famous Spanish officer, sailed from
Santiago de Cuba for Mexico February 18, 1519. The
fleet consisted of eleven ships, carrying 110 sailors, six-
teen cavalry men with their horses, 553 foot soldiers, 200
Cuban Indians, a battery of ten small cannon and four
falconets; with this army went two Indians as inter-
preters, captured by Corboda in Yucatan two years
previous.
118 EAELY HISTORY OF MEXICO
On his ship Cortez raised the standard of the conquest,
a black ensign, emblazoned with the arms of Charles V.
of Spain, bearing the crimson cross borne in clouds, with
the motto: Amici, sequam crucem et si nos fidem
habemus vere in hoc signo vincemus " Friends, let us
follow the cross, and if we have faith we will conquer. "
The first landing was on March 20, 1519, near the Rio
Tabasco, where there was fighting with the natives and a
number made captives, among whom was La Marina, a
native of Jalisco, sold here as a slave. She understood
the language of the uplands as well as the coast, and thus,
through her, Cortez could communicate with the people.
La Marina soon learned the Spanish language and
became the interpreter, ally and wife of the conqueror.
Cortez then sailed up the coast and dropped his
anchors off Vera Cruz, April 21, 1519. Efforts to secure
a peaceful reception on the part of the natives were
unavailing. Discontent arose among the Spaniards.
Cortez, acting with his customary decision, burned his
ships, and on the 16th of August began his march toward
the capital of the Aztecs.
With little incident or opposition the brave band of
adventurers reached the table-lands and after a fight with
the Tlaxacalans secured them as their allies. The natives
were completely terrorized by the cannon and fire-arms,
and the horse and rider of the cavalry were regarded
as almost a god, or at least one being, as they had never
seen a horse, so the invaders proceeded on their march,
unopposed, and entered the present City of Mexico, Tues-
day, November 8, 1519.
The Aztec king, Montezuma, came out to meet Cortez,
tradition says, on the site of the present Hospital de
Jesus, founded by him in commemoration of this meet-
ing. The aggressions of the Spaniards, and their oppres-
sion of the Mexicans soon turned their apparent friend-
ship to hatred, and they drove them out of the city over
the Tlacopan causeway, now called Tacuba, on the night
EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO 119
of July 1, 1520, called la noche triste, or the Dismal or
Sorrowful Night; retreating, Cortez fought another bat-
tle at Otumba on the 8th of July, where the Tlaxacalans
came to his rescue and turned the tide of war in his
favor, and he halted in the city of these allies. While
at Tlaxacala reinforcements came from Cuba, and pow-
der for the cannon and small arms was made from the
sulphur taken from the crater of Popocatepetl.
Montezuma died on the 30th of June, the day before
the Noche Triste, and his nephew, who, it is said, shot
the arrow that caused Montezuma 's death, was placed in
command. The siege continued till the native garrison
was starved into submission, and the Spaniards made
their second and triumphal entry into the City of Mexico,
August 13, 1521; but they found a different city than
that when the meek Montezuma met them at the city
gates. Almost all the treasure had been destroyed or
concealed, and to extort the secret from Montezuma 's
nephew, Cortez cruelly put him to torture, but without
avail; the wealth of jewels, gold and precious stones had
been thrown into the lake.
Hernando Cortez, the conqueror, died in the town of
Castelleja de la Questa, in Spain, December 2, 1547.
EST THE AZTEC CAPITAL
No better description of the great market-place of
the Aztecs has ever been written than that penned by
Cortez to Charles V. of Spain. He was the first European
who ever beheld that novel spectacle and said:
" There is one square, twice as large as that of Sala-
manca, all surrounded by arcades, where there are daily
more than sixty thousand souls, buying and selling, and
where are found all the kinds of merchandise produced
in these countries, including food products, jewels of gold
and silver, lead, brass, copper, zinc, stones, bones, shells,
and feathers. Stones are sold, hewn and unhewn;
adobes, bricks, and wood, both in the rough and manu-
120 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO
factured in various ways. There is a street for game,
where they sell every sort of bird, such as chickeus,
partridges, quails, wild-ducks, fly-catchers, widgeons,
turtle-doves, pigeons, reed-birds, parrots, eagles, owls,
eaglets, owlets, falcons, sparrow-hawks, and kestrels, and
they sell the skin of some of these birds of prey with their
feathers, heads, beaks, and claws. They sell rabbits,
hares, and small dogs, which latter they raise for the
purpose of eating.
" There is a street set apart for the sale of herbs,
where can be found every sort of root and medicinal herb
that grows in the country. There are houses like apothe-
cary shops, where prepared medicines are sold, as well as
liquids, ointments, and plasters. There are places like
our barber shops, where they wash, and shave their
heads. There are houses where they supply food and
drink for payment. There are men who carry burdens,
such as are called in Castile porters. There is much
wood, charcoal, braziers made of earthenware, and mats
of divers kinds for beds, and others very thin, used as
cushions and for carpeting halls and bedrooms. There
are all sorts of vegetables and especially onions, leeks,
garlic, borage, nasturtium, water-cresses, sorrel, thistles,
and artichokes. There are many kinds of fruits, amongst
others cherries, and prunes like the Spanish ones. They
sell bees' honey and wax, and honey made ^of corn stalks,
which is as sweet and syrup-like as that of sugar, also
honey of a plant called maguey, which is better than
most; from these same plants they make sugar and wine,
which they also sell.
[The whitish, slippery, fermented liquor called pulque
is extracted from the maguey and is still the popular
drink in Mexico ; as it must be drunk fresh, special pulque
trains daily carry supplies to towns along the railway
lines. Flavored with pineapple, strawberry, and other
fresh fruit juices, and well iced, it is a very good drink,
wholesome, and only intoxicating if drunk immoderately.]
E'AKLY HISTOEY OF MEXICO 121
" They also sell skeins of different kinds of spun cot-
ton, in all colours, so that it seems quite like one of the
silk markets of Granada, although it is on a greater scale ;
also as many different colours for painters as can be
found in Spain and of as excellent hues. They sell deer-
skins, with all the hair tanned on them, and of different
colours ; much earthenware, exceedingly good, many sorts
of pots, large and small, pitchers, large tiles, an infinite
variety of vases, all of very singular clay, and most of
them glazed and painted They sell maize, both in the
grain and made into bread, which is very superior in its
quality to that of the other islands and mainland; pies of
birds and fish, also much fish, fresh, salted, cooked, and
raw; eggs of hens, and geese, and other birds in great
quantity, and cakes made of eggs.
" Finally, besides those things I have mentioned, they
sell in the city markets everything else that is found in
the whole country and which, on account of the profu-
sion and number, do not occur to my memory, nor do I
describe the things, because I do not know their names.
Each sort of merchandise is sold in its respective street
and they do not mix their kinds of merchandise of any
species; thus they preserve perfect order. Everything
is sold by a kind of measure, and until now, we have not
seen anything sold by weight.
" There is in this square a very large building, like a
court of justice, where there are always ten or twelve per-
sons sitting as judges, and delivering their decisions upon
all cases that arise in the markets. There are other
persons in the same square who go about continually
among the people, observing what is sold, and the meas-
ures used in selling, and they have been seen to break
some which were false.
" This great city contains many mosques, or houses
for idols, very beautiful edifices situated in the different
precincts of it ; in the principal ones of which dwell the
religious orders of their sect, for whom, besides the
122 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO
houses in which, they keep their idols, there are very good
habitations provided. All these priests dress in black
and never cut or comb their hair from the time they enter
the religious order until they leave it; and the sons of
all the principal families, both of chiefs as well as of
noble citizens are in these religious orders and habits
from the age of seven or eight years, till they are taken
away for the purpose of marriage. This happens more
frequently with the first-born who inherit the property,
than with the others. They have no access to women,
nor are they allowed to enter the religious houses ; they
abstain from eating certain dishes, and more so at cer-
tain times of the year than at others/'
DISCOVEEY OF THE TBEASTTKE
The discovery by Cortez of the treasure-house of the
Montezumas has been thus described by Mr. MacNutt:
From the market-place Cortez went to the teocalli, or
temple of the Aztecs, where Montezuma, who had been
carried thither in his litter, awaited him. Six men were
in readiness to spare Trim the fatigue of the ascent by
carrying "him up the steps, but, refusing their proffered
assistance, he and his soldiers marched up the broad
staircase to the top where the emperor received him. In
reply to the courteous observation of Montezuma that he
must be fatigued by the climb, Cortez answered, with a
touch of bravado that was unusual to him, " Nothing
ever tires me or my companions."
From the summit of the teocalli, towering as it did
above the entire city, an extensive view of the capital
and its surroundings was offered to the Spaniards, who
gazed on the beauty of the scene with interest, increased
by the sight of the system of canals and bridges, by
which they might be completely cut off from retreat at
Montezuma J s pleasure.
The first thought of Cortez, however, was to plant a
Christian church on the teocalli. Fray Bartolome de
EAELY HISTORY OF MEXICO 123
Olmedo, who was present, objected and reasoned so
earnestly against a step that was obviously premature
and also dangerous, that the commander consented to
refrain from mentioning his wish at that time. He asked
permission, however, to see the interior of the sanctu-
aries and, after consulting with the priests, Montezuma
accorded his consent. The sight that met the eyes of
the Spaniards was a horrifying one. The gigantic
images of Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and Ms com-
panion deity Tezcatlipoca, decorated with gold and
precious stones and splashed with human gore, stood
within the dim sanctuary that reeked with the blood of
recent sacrifices and the heavy fumes of copal incense.
On a golden salver lay human hearts.
Revolted by this ghastly spectacle, Cortez spoke to
Montezuma through La Marina, saying, " My lord
Montezuma, I know not how so great a sovereign and so
wise a man as Your Majesty should never have perceived
that these idols are no gods, but the things of evil, called
devils.' 7 He further asked for permission to cast out
the idols, cleanse the temple, and erect there a cross and
a statue of the Blessed Virgin that Montezuma had
already seen. The consternation and anger provoked
by this demand were very great and Montezuma
answered with offended dignity, " Had I thought, Senor
Malintzin, that you would offer such an insult as you
have thought well to utter, I would not have shown you
my gods ; we hold them to be very good, for they give us
health, rains, good harvests, victory, and all we desire ;
hence we are bound to adore them and offer them sacri-
fice. I beg you to dishonor them no further/'
Even Cortez saw that he had gone too far and, chang-
ing his tone, he took leave of his host, who remained
behind to placate the outraged deities with fresh
sacrifices.
The Spaniards, with the emperor's consent, fitted up
a chapel in one of the rooms of the palace they occupied,
124 EARLY HISTOET OF MEXICO
where mass was celebrated as long as the limited supply
of wine held out. The soldiers said their prayers before
the altar, with its statue of the Blessed Virgin and the
symbol of the cross, and all assembled there for the
Angelus.
While the altar in this improvised chapel Was being
erected, the carpenter discovered a masked door which,
on being opened, was found to lead to a vast hall that
served as a treasury. In the center of the floor was a
great pile of gold and precious stones, while the walls
round-about were hung with rich stuffs, mantles of
costly feather-work, shields, arms and numerous orna-
ments of gold and silver exquisitely worked. This hoard
was the treasure left by Montezuma's grandfather, the
Emperor Axayacatl. After inspecting the secret
treasure-house, Cortez ordered the door to be sealed up
and the discovery never to be mentioned.
ETJLE OF THE VICEROYS
Under the name of New Spain, Mexico was ruled from
1521 to 1821 successively by five governors, two royal
commissioners (audencias), and sixty-two viceroys, the
last of whom, Juan O'Donoju, did not assume control.
During the administration of the first viceroy Don
Antonio de Medoza, who ruled from 1535 to 1550, dis-
coveries were actively prosecuted in the north, the first
money was coined in Mexico, the University of Mexico
and several colleges were founded and the first press in
the New World was introduced. The School of Mines,
which is still standing and yearly graduating talented
men, was founded by the viceroy, the Marquis of Branci-
f orte. The construction was begun in 1797 and the build-
ing was completed in 1813. Its total cost was over
$1,600,000.
CHAPTER VH
"THE SORROWFUL NIGHT"
Among the dramatic episodes of Mexican Mstory there
is none more interesting than that of " la Noche Triste "
or the Sorrowful Night when Cortez and his men evacu-
ated the City of Mexico with their treasure, July 1, 1520.
The following graphic description is given by Mr. Francis
Augustus MacNutt, in his able work on " Fernando Cor-
tez and the Conquest of Mexico ":
" The decision to leave the city silently and as secretly
as possible, under cover of night, having been agreed to
by most of the captains, preparations for flight were at
once undertaken. The accumulated treasure that had
already cost such rivers of tears and blood was piled in
a room of the palace and, the royal fifth being first care-
fully separated, the remainder was divided amongst the
officers and men according to the provisions already
stipulated. The quantity, however, was so great that it
was impossible to carry it away, and the men were cau-
tioned against loading themselves down with heavy
weights that might prove their destruction. The wiser
among them chose pearls and precious stones, with only
such a small quantity of gold as they could easily carry;
the more avaricious could not turn their backs on the
shining heap of metal, but weighted themselves until they
could hardly move. The hour fixed for departing was
midnight on the thirtieth of June.
" To Gonzalo de Sandoval was assigned the vanguard,
composed of two hundred foot-soldiers and twenty horse-
men. They were charged with one of the most important
duties of the march, namely, the laying down of the port-
125
126 " THE SORROWFUL NIGHT
able bridge wherever the ditches in the causeway had
not been filled in. This bridge was carried by four hun-
dred Tlascalans, who were under the protection of fifty
soldiers commanded by a captain, Magarino. Cortez
took command of the centre division of his forces. Two
hundred and fifty Tlascalans, protected by forty shield-
bearers, dragged the artillery in this division, in which
were the baggage, the treasure, the prisoners, and the
women. The latter comprised Marina and two of Monte-
zuma's daughters who were placed under a guard com-
posed of thirty Spaniards and three hundred auxiliaries ;
two sons of Montezuma, the young King of Texcoco, and
a few others who had escaped the general execution that
afternoon, were among the prisoners. The rear-guard
was composed of the main body of infantry and most of
the force of cavalry.
LEFT THE SLEEPING CITY
" The night was dark with a drizzling rain. Leaving
fires lighted, the troop cautiously emerged at the hour
of midnight into the deserted streets of the sleeping city,
making its way as silently as possible along the street
leading to the Tlacopan causeway. Magarino and his
men had placed their bridge over the first ditch and the
vanguard and artillery had passed safely over when, out
of the darkness, was heard a cry of alarm that was
quickly taken up by other Mexican sentinels, and in a
moment the city was roused. The priests, keeping watch
at the sacred fires on the teocalli, began to beat the sacred
drum, whose lugubrious roll could be heard for miles.
From all sides the Aztec warriors fell upon their escaping
foes, the surface of the lake on both sides of the cause-
way became alive with light canoes, darting hither and
thither, from which volleys of arrows and sling stones
were discharged into the now disordered mass of panic- *
stricken fugitives. The bridge, upon which their safety
so greatly depended, was found to be wedged fast and
" THE SORROWFUL NIGHT 127
immovable after the passage of so many horses and heavy
guns, while at the second ditch, the people in the fore
were being driven into the water by the pressure of the
oncoming multitude from behind. Terror banished dis-
cipline and the retreat became a mad scramble for safety,
in which each one thought only of himself.
VICTIMS SEIZED FOB SACBE5TCE
" The second ditch became quickly choked with guns,
baggage, dead bodies of men and horses, over which the
later comers sought to struggle to the opposite side.
Cortez, leaving those of his own people who had managed
to cross the second ditch, returned to the scene of con-
fusion to lend what assistance he might to the rear-guard.
Many of those who fell into the water met a more terrible
fate than mere drowning, being seized by the Mexicans
and carried off in their canoes to die on the stone of sacri-
fice. The third ditch was still spanned by a single beam,
over which some of the more agile of the first to reach
it were able to cross, but the onrush from behind was
too great and the attack of the enemy too fierce to allow
many to profit by this narrow road to safety. The com-
mander's voice, giving orders and seeking to calm his
people, was lost in the uproar of battle, the shrieks of the
drowning, and the wild shouts of the assailants; the
scene of confusion at the second ditch repeated itself. It
was at this ditch that Alvarado is alleged to have made
his incredible leap, one of the exploits of the conquest
so firmly rooted in three centuries of tradition and popu-
lar folklore that no proof, however lucid, of its entirely
apocryphal character will ever dislodge it. The last of
the baggage and treasure was here abandoned, and the
Mexicans allowed themselves to be diverted from further
pursuit by their desire to collect the rich spoils.
WHEN OOBTEZ WEPT
" The dawn that broke after the Sorrowful Night found
the remnant of the army at Popothal, a village situated
128 " THE SORROWFUL NIGHT "
on the shore of the lake. And what a sad remnant!
Forty-six horses were dead, the artillery no longer
existed, hardly a musket had been saved, the treasure
was lost, all the prisoners had fallen and the few men
who filed before the commander, as he sat on the steps
of a temple with unaccustomed tears rolling down his
cheeks, were soaked to the skin, destitute of arms, and
so caked from head to foot with mud and the blood of
their wounds, as to be scarcely recognizable. (The site
is still pointed out and a venerable tree standing there
is known as the Arbol de la Noche Triste, or ' Tree of the
Sorrowful Night.')
" The actual number of the dead cannot be positively
known, for the figures given by different writers are hope-
lessly conflicting. Prescott, whose judgment it is safe
to follow, adopted the estimate of Gromara, according to
which four hundred and fifty Spaniards and four thou-
sand of their Indian allies perished during the retreat.
Cortez, in Ms letter to the Emperor, reduces these fig-
ures to one hundred and fifty Spaniards and two thou-
sand Indians, but his tendency throughout his reports
was to minimize his losses. Oviedo, quoting Juan Cano,
one of the gentlemen present, states that eleven hundred
and seventy Spaniards and eight thousand Indians were
killed and missing. Cano's estimate was made in Tlas-
cala, and included all who fell during the whole of the
retreat from Mexico until safety was reached inside the
loyal republic, but his authority is questionable. He it
was who invented the tale that two hundred and seventy
men of the Spanish garrison, who were ignorant of the
plan to march out of the city, were left behind in the
quarters where, after surrendering to the Mexicans, they
were all sacrificed. He does not explain how these men
were kept in ignorance, while their comrades departed
with the artillery, baggage, and all of the treasure they
could carry. In Herrera's account of the plan to escape
from. Mexico by night, the historian records that Ojeda
4
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eJ
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3
Loading mannes on tianspoit at Philadelphia,
Marines in New York Harbor en route to Mexican waters
Detachment of the Fifteenth XL S. Cavalry at Fort Bhss, Tex.
The same detachment in a practice drill
The " Texas " at sea on lici way to Mexico
The " Texas " approaching Vera Cruz
u THE SOBROWFUL NIGHT " 129
was particularly charged by Cortez with the care of the
wounded and to see that no one was left behind in the
hurried preparations.
" The Spaniards who remained behind were either
unwilling to relinquish the gold collected in the quarters
or, failing to cross the first bridge, found themselves
driven back by the crowd of Mexican warriors that cut
them off from joining their comrades. The latter ex-
planation seems the more probable. Herrera fixes their
number at one hundred; Acosta mentions' the fact but
gives no figures. Those unfortunates managed to hold
out for three days, at the end of which time they were
forced by hunger to make terms with the Mexicans.
Although there is nowhere an authentic record of their
end, there is little doubt as to their fate. Deplorable as
were the losses, the condition of those who survived the
Sorrowful Night and reached Tacuba was hardly less
discouraging, for so broken and exhausted were they that
not even in defense of their lives did they seem able to
raise a hand, while their horses could scarcely stand on
their trembling legs, much less carry their riders."
OHABAOTEB OB 1 CORTEZ.
Few, if any, of the companions of Cortez understood
him, says Mr. MacNutt. His admirers, who were ready
to follow him anywhere, were attracted by the magnetism
which, as a born leader, he exercised powerfully over just
such men as they. He was their alter ego, in whom they
beheld reflected their own daring aspirations, but united
to powers of command as alien to their inferior abilities
as they were necessary to the success of their wild under-
takings.
Cortez was indeed daring, but he was never rash.
His seemingly spontaneous decisions were, in reality,
the result of plans carefully formed, of cautious calcula-
tions that seemed to take cognizance of every emergency,
to forestall every risk. In the execution of his designs
130 " THE SOEEOWFUL NIGHT "
he was relentless, hence the unmerited reputation for
cruelty that has obscured his really kindly instincts and
many generous deeds. Both his resolution and his per-
severance were implacable, and those who did not will-
ingly bend to his will were made to break. " Be my
friend, or I kill you," not inaccurately describes his atti-
tude to those who crossed his path. His equanimity was
never disturbed by misfortune, and, as he sustained suc-
cess without undue elation, so did he support reverses
with fortitude; defeat might be a momentary check but
was never accepted as final. Besides being compared with
Julius Cesar as a general, he has been ranked with
Augustus and Charles V. as a statesman, nor does he
unduly suffer from such lofty comparisons, for he unques-
tionably possessed many of the qualities essential to
greatness, in common with them. He ruled his motley
band with a happy mixture of genial comradeship and
inflexible discipline and hence succeeded, where an excess
of either the one or the other would have brought failure.
He knew when and whom to trust and, though he was
ready with his friendship, he avoided favoritism, with
the consequence that his men were united by the bond of
a common trust in their commander.
CHAPTER Vin
THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS
The modern history of Mexico and the commencement
of the almost continuous internecine wars may be said
to date from the " grito de Dolores " on the night of the
16th of September, 1810, by the parish priest of Dolores,
Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who gathered about him
many trusty followers under his banner to the cry of
* ' Long live religion ! Long live our Most Holy Mother
of Guadalupe! Long live America, and death to bad
government! " This cry is what is known as " el grito
de Dolores/'
Several efforts to cause rebellion against the Spanish
authorities had been made previous to this date, in fact
ever since 1798, during the incumbency of the forty-fifth
viceroy, Miguel Jose de Azanza, but they were all
suppressed.
Hidalgo marshaled a considerable force and was vic-
torious in several engagements, but he and his lieuten-
ants, Allande, Aldama, and Jimenez, were captured and
put to death in 1811, the first on the 31st of July and the
three last named on June 26. The bullets that crashed
through these patriotic breasts terminated the first stage
of the war for independence.
One of the greatest figures in Mexican history then
came to the front, Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, the par-
ish priest of Caracuaro, who by his audacity, valor, and
military sagacity was acceded a position at the head of
the leaders of the cause of independence. After many
notable engagements, in which he was almost always vic-
131
132 THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS
torious, he captured Acapulco on April 12, 1813, thus
ending his second campaign. On the 14th of September,
1813, in the town of Chilpamcingo, the first Mexican
Congress was installed, which two months later (Novem-
ber 6) issued the declaration of independence and decreed
the emancipation of the slaves. The first provisional
constitution was adopted October 22, 1814.
Morelos was eventually overcome by being betrayed by
a deserter from his ranks named Oarranco, was taken to
Mexico, tried, and sentenced to be shot. The sentence
was carried out at San Cristobal Ecatepec on the 22nd
of December, 1815.
FATE OP PATBIOTIO CHIEFTAINS
But the cause of independence was still sustained by
many leaders in different parts of the Republic, among
them being Francisco Javier Mina, a Spanish officer, who
resolved to do battle for the independence of Mexico.
He disembarked at the port of Soto la Marina on April
15, 1817, with 500 men recruited in the United States, and
marched rapidly into the interior, gaining many victories.
He was apprehended at the ranch called Venadito, and
was shot on the llth of November, 1817. Many other
patriotic chiefs arose to lead the independent movement,
but most of them met the fate of their predecessors.
Among these was Guerrero, who, after many hazardous
exploits and brilliant achievements, finally, on the 10th
of January, 1821, held a conference with Augustin Itur-
bide, brigadier-general in command of the royalist forces,
at Iturbide's request and the two leaders agreed to pro-
claim independence. The latter proclaimed what is known
as " The Plan of Iguala " on February 24, 1821.
Iturbide, then assuming command of the forces,
marched on Mexico, making Valladolid (now Morelia),
Queretaro, and Puebla, capitulate on the way. On reach-
ing Mexico the Viceroy Apodaca was deposed July 5,
1821.
THE EEVOLUTIONAEY WARS 133
LAST OF THE VICEROYS,
The sixty-second and last viceroy, Juan O'Donoju,
arrived at Vera Cruz on the 30th of July, and, upon hear-
ing of the condition of affairs, issued a proclamation and
entered into communication with the independents'.
Iturbide went to Cordoba, where a conference was held,
resulting in the treaty of Cordoba, which, with slight
modifications, confirmed the plan of Iguala and Spanish
domination in Mexico, which had lasted 300 years, closed
forever when, on the 27th of September, 1821, Iturbide
made his triumphal entry into the capital.
ITUBBIDE AS EMPEBOB
The second Mexican Congress, the first after securing
independence, met on February 24, 1822, and elected
Iturbide emperor on the 19th of May of the same year.
He was crowned and anointed with great pomp and cere-
mony in the great cathedral of the capital on the 21st
of June following as Augustine I., Emperor of Mexico.
His reign was short. The people who had been warring
so long could not settle down to peaceful pursuits. Am-
bitious leaders thirsted for high places, and the smoke
of the battles for independence had scarce lifted before
General Santa Anna headed a revolutionary movement
in Vera Cruz, proclaimed a republican form of govern-
ment and compelled Iturbide to abdicate and leave the
country. He became desirous to revisit it, and returning
to Mexico, was arrested immediately upon disembarking,
taken to Padilla, brought before the legislature of Tamau-
lipas in session there, and by that body condemned to
death. He was shot July 19th, 1824, just five days after
landing.
EISE OP THE EEPtTBLIO
The Federal Eepublic was established on the ruins of
the Empire. The third Mexican Congress assembled
November 7, 1823, and proclaimed on October 4, 1824, a
republican constitution, which was patterned closely upoij
134 THE REVOLUTIONAKY WAES
that of the United States. The first president of Mexico,
the patriot General G-uadalupe Victoria, took the oath
of office on October 10. Congress was dissolved Decem-
ber 24, 1824, and the first constitutional Congress con-
vened January 1, 1825. During this year England and
the United States formally recognized Mexico.
Independence being secured, two parties came into
existence: The Spanish, which became the Centralists,
and the Eepublicans, who became Federalists. To this
division is due the constant internal disturbances and
agitations in Mexico from 1828 to 1846. During this
period five radical organic changes swayed the people
between centralism and federation.
The two parties succeeded each other in power, nfostly
through revolutions, until 1847, when the war with the
United States, which had commenced the year previous,
ended and the latter nation acquired more than two-fifths
of the Mexican territory. After the declaration of peace
between the two countries the Mexican Liberal party
remained in power (except from 1853 to 1855, when Gen-
eral Santa Anna governed as dictator), carrying out its
theories of government. In the year 1857 the constitu-
tion now in force in Mexico was framed by a constitu-
tional assembly.
THE EBA OF MAXIMILIAN
In 1861 England, Spain, and France formed an alliance
to declare war against Mexico, but the alliance had been
scarcely perfected when the two first-named powers with-
drew and France was left alone in the enterprise. War
between the two nations lasted from 1862 until 1867 with-
out the French gaining any decided foothold.
Possessing themselves finally of the capital, they estab-
lished an empire, aided by a number of disaffected Mex-
icans, and placed the crown upon Maximilian of Haps-
burg, Archduke of Austria.
The archduke arrived in the City of Mexico oil June
THE EEYOLUTIONAEY WARS 135
12, 1864, accompanied by Ms wife, Carlotta, daughter of
Leopold L, king of the Belgians. These two unfortunate
beings were crowned emperor and empress of Mexico
with great solemnity in the cathedral and ruled a portion
of the country until 1867, when the perfidy of Bazaine and
the cowardice of Napoleon III. destroyed the life of Maxi-
milian and the reason of Carlotta.
Maximilian, bereft of the aid and protection of the
French, intrenched himself in Queretaro, where he was
made prisoner by the Republicans and shot, together with
the Imperialist Generals Miralon and Mexia, on the Cerro
de las Campanas, on the 19th of June, 1867.
Benito Juarez, of Indian birth, and possessed of great
ability, patriotism, and energy, was the president of the
Republic during the turbulent times of the reformation
and the war with France. He entered the capital vic-
torious on the 15th of July, 1867, and retained the presi-
dency until his death in 1872, being the only Mexican
who died during the occupancy of that office. His imme-
diate successor was Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, who re-
tained the office until 1876, when he was unseated by the
revolution of Palo Blanco. General Porfirio Diaz suc-
ceeded Lerdo de Tejada in May, 1877, and was followed
by General Manuel Gonzalez in 1880. In 1884 General
Diaz was elected to a second term, and was continued at
the head of the government until 1910. His administra-
tion was attended with great progress and prosperity.
CHAPTER IX
JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT
Benito Juarez stood out conspicuously in the history
of Mexico as a thoroughly honest and incorruptible man.
He was thus placed in striking contrast with the repre-
sentatives of some of the European nations with whom
he was called upon to treat in 1862, says Mr. Arthur
Howard Noll in his story of the struggle for constitu-
tional government in Mexico.
Not the least difficult of the tasks which confronted
Juarez in his public career, and in his efforts to estab-
lish constitutional government, was that of maintaining
a high standard of morality in his administration. The
public men of Mexico, who had been trained in the old
Spanish school of politics, or in the later school of Santa
Anna, were accustomed to no such distinctions between
right and wrong as the new constitution presupposed or
as Juarez in his government made. They were incapable
of appreciating the nice distinctions between honesty and
fraud being constantly made by their Indian president.
Juarez was a patriot. Love of country, and the desire
to set her far forward toward the realization of the des-
tiny which he felt to be hers by nature and by the will
of Providence, actuated his whole life and engaged all
his energies of body and mind. It took strange forms
sometimes as, for example, at the breaking out of the
war with the Interventionists, when he refused all offers
of foreign troops for his army, declaring that he would
invite no foreigner to shoot down men who, though in
136
JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT 137
fc.
rebellion against Mexico, were yet citizens of that nation.
Simple in his tastes, not personally ambitious, depre-
cating pomp or display, Benito Juarez gave his life to
the effort to set law above force in Mexico, and served
his country in honorable poverty in the chief magistracy
for thirteen years, the greater part of the time an exile
from his capital.
JUAREZ ELECTED PRESIDENT
In August, 1867, Juarez called for a general election
for members of Congress and for president. The election
was to determine the propriety of his action in continuing
in the presidency in Paso del Norte after the expiration
of his former term of office. He was elected over Sebas-
tion Lerdo de Tejada and Porfirio Diaz, and his action
at Paso del Norte was thereby fully sustained. He began
a new constitutional term in the presidency, upon his
installation in that office in December.
It might seem that the country had now had its fill of
revolutions and pronunciamentos, and was ready to co-
operate with the president in an effort to maintain peace
and constitutional government. But the administration
of Juarez was much disturbed by revolutionary attempts
made by those who were still under the spell of the ancient
Spanish methods of " practical politics. " Santa Anna
entered the Eepublic with no very honorable intentions,
we may be sure. He was taken prisoner and sentenced
to be shot, but was allowed to escape, and returned to
the place of his former exile. Probably the measure by
which Juarez himself would have preferred that his
administration of the government from 1867 to 1871
should be best known was his decree of general amnesty.
Under its provisions, even Santa Anna was enabled to
return to Mexico and spend the remainder of his days
at the capital.
138 JUAEEZ, THE INDIAN PEESIDENT
JTJABEZ EE-ELECTED
As the electoral campaign of 1871 approached, Juarez
was advised by many of his best friends to decline a
re-election. They urged that, inestimable as was the
value of the services he had rendered in securing the
constitution and in maintaining the government of Mex-
ico thereunder during the period of stress and storm
from 1861 to 1867, he was not a pronounced success in
the administration of the presidency. His pre-eminent
quality adherence to a great principle in the face of
opposition did not especially fit him for the task of
building upon the foundation he had laid. He was blind
to the actual needs of the nation, it was said. His mind
was giving way, some alleged and such might have
been the case in one who had passed through all that
he had suffered. He remained, however, firm in the
belief that his presence in the administration was neces-
sary for the continuance of the effort to maintain good
government in Mexico, and prevent a suspension of the
constitution which had been established at so much cost.
He therefore entered as a candidate against the same
opponents as four years previously. The contest was an
exciting one, and his election was extremely close. Con-
gress met on the sixteenth of September, and it was not
until the twelfth of October that Juarez was officially
declared elected by the vote of a plurality of the states.
Pronunciamentos followed, but Juarez, with indomitable
energy, confronted every attempt to overthrow the con-
stitution and return to the former methods of governing
the country by force.
DEATH OF JUAEEZ
On the seventeenth day of July, 1872, he who had
never before known more than a day's sickness, was
JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT 139
taken suddenly ill with heart disease. Near midnight
on the eighteenth he died. Two days later the body was
taken to the national palace, where it lay in state, under
guard of government officials, and was visited by throngs
of Mexicans of all classes. On the twenty-second it was
borne through the streets of the capital, followed by five
thousand people, and laid to rest in the Panteon of San
Fernando. There, over the dust of Benito Juarez, now
rests an exquisitely sculptured marble group represent-
ing the grief of Mexico over the death of her great
national hero. Thither, on the eighteenth of July every
year, lovers of constitutional government go to rehearse
the story of his noble and devoted life, and of iiow through
his efforts the constitution of Mexico came into being.
" THE MAST IN THE BLACK COAT "
Benito Juarez was short of stature, but of powerful
frame, like most of the Zapotecans, and had small hands
and feet. His was a " very dark complexioned Indian
face, which was not disfigured, but on the contrary made
more interesting, by a very large scar across it. He had
black piercing eyes, and gave the impression of a man
reflecting much and deliberating long and carefully before
acting." His dress was that of the Mexican student or
professional man plain black broadcloth, unrelieved
by any official or military insignia. This placed him in
such striking contrast with the brilliant dress affected
by other Mexican officials, who were, almost to a man,
military officers, and with the foreign diplomats with
whom he came in contact, that he was known in semi-
diplomatic language as " The President in the Black
Coat." While other public men in Mexico had military
titles, he preferred to be known simply as Ciudadano
Citizen.
They were greatly mistaken who supposed him defi-
140 JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT
cient in mental acquirements. He was able to write
French with ease; and could read English, though he
never attempted to speak it. He was well read in consti-
tutional law. History was his favorite study. He re-
ceived the degree of doctor of civil law from his alma
mater, and the honor was worthily conferred. His state
papers were models of clearness and exact style.
CHAPTER X
THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE
In seeking independence the Spanish colonies in
America were moved by the democratic doctrines of
France and by the example of the United States. Their
long submission to Spanish rule, however, had given rise
to traditions which tended to keep them loyal to
monarchy. But when Ferdinand VIL fell into the hands
of Napoleon the bond of attachment to Spain was weak-
ened and signs of revolt appeared. The open struggle
for independence, which began in 1810 and lasted with
occasional interruptions till 1824, stands in marked con-
trast with the efforts of the English colonies. It had
many characteristics of a civil war, on account of the
large number of those who advocated continued depend-
ence on Spain, while the more complete unity of purpose
in the English colonies gave their war for independence
the character of a struggle against a foreign enemy.
An early suggestion of a national representative gov-
ernment for Mexico appeared in the proposition made
by the ayuntamiento (city council) of the City of
Mexico to the viceroy that he should call a national assem-
bly composed of representatives of the provinces. The
proposition was favored by the viceroy, but was opposed
by the audencia, who represented the spirit of Spanish
possession and dominion. The higher clergy, moreover,
as holders of great power, opposed all attempts at inde-
pendence, while the lower clergy, to which Miguel Hidalgo
Costilla belonged, became the earliest champions of the
movement.
141
142 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE
THE " GOVERNMENTAL COUNCIL "
After the overthrow of Hidalgo 7 s forces and the cap-
ture of the leader it became evident to the patriots that
they ought to be represented by some formally consti-
tuted government. An assembly, composed principally
of officers of the army, was therefore convened. In ac-
cordance with its decree a governmental council was
established, consisting at first of three members and later
of five, whose collective title was the " Supreme Govern-
mental Council of America. "
In the exercise of their new authority they cited the
military officers, the governors, and alcaldes of the Indian
pueblos of the vicinity to take the oath of obedience and
fidelity to the council, which governed in the name of
King Ferdinand VII.
The use of the king's name was clearly an act of policy,
through which the council hoped to gain forces at the
expense of the enemy, and to turn to the cause of free-
dom those who desired independence, but who halted at
the idea of fighting against the king.
The attempt on the part of the council to make an agree-
ment with the viceroy only led him to reject with indig-
nation the project of an independent power in Mexico.
Strictly speaking, the council was an illegal body, deriv-
ing authority neither from a popular election nor from
any existing legitimate source. It was feared, however,
by the Spanish party that it might gain recognition and
exercise the functions of a legitimate government. A
price was therefore set on the head of each member, but
its subsequent dissolution was due rather to internal dis-
sension than to external attack.
THE FIRST CONGBESS
On the first of September, 1813, a Congress constituted
by popular election was assembled in Chipancingo. This
body proclaimed anew the independence of Mexico, and
THE CONSTITUTIONAL STKUGGLE 143
agreed upon a republican constitution, which was pub-
lished in Apanzingan in October, 1814. This constitution
was also short-lived, being set aside by the adoption of
the Spanish constitution of 1812 in so far as it was
applicable to Mexico.
Between 1815 and 1820 Mexico was little disturbed by
military operations, but finally the cause of independence
was revived, and on the 24th of February, 1820, the plan
of Iguala was published. By this instrument an inde-
pendent limited monarchy was erected in Mexico, and
the throne was to be offered to Ferdinand VII., and in
case of his refusal to other princes designated. The
Eoman Catholic faith was declared to be the sole religion
of the state, and the equality of all social classes was
proclaimed. The plan of Iguala, a compromise between
political independence and religious intolerance, found
very general favor; even the new viceroy, O'Donoju,
accepted it with only slight modifications, and recognized
the new Imperio Mejicano. A provisional governmental
council was then formed, which was charged with the
legislative authority until the Cortes should be installed.
The executive power was temporarily intrusted to a
regency of three persons, who should exercise it till the
accession of the prince.
In carrying out the provisions of the plan of Iguala,
as modified by the agreement at Cordova between
O'Donoju and Iturbide, it was discovered that the scheme
was not approved by either the king or the Cortes of
Spain, and that in Mexico itself there were many repub-
licans dissatisfied with it.
ITTTBBEDE PROCLAIMED EMPEROR
In this condition of affairs Iturbide, supported by a
portion of the army, was proclaimed emperor. But his
conduct in his temporary use of power only increased
the opposition which he had encountered in the begin-
ning, and, finding it impossible to maintain an independ-
144 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE
ent imperial government in Mexico, he abdicated and
went into exile.
The Congress, taking advantage of the departure of
Iturbide, declared that his administration had been a rule
of force and not of right, and that all of his acts were
illegal and subject to revision. It then placed the execu-
tive power in the hands of a triumvirate composed of
Negrete, Bravo, and Victoria, representing the Spanish,
the monarchical, and the republican parties.
THE CONSTITUTION OF 1824
A new Congress was installed on the 7th of November,
1823, and on the 3rd of December it began the discussion
of a project for a fundamental law, which was approved
January 31, 1824, and " in thirty-six articles contained
the basis of the future political constitution. " Through
the adoption of this constitution the nation acquired a
popular representative, federal, republican government.
But this was only a provisional government, and was set
aside on the adoption of the definitive constitution of
1824, which in many particulars was a copy of the consti-
tution of the United States.
FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF 1836
The constitution of 1824 remained in force eleven years,
but during these years Mexico was not without internal
disturbances, and in 1833, by a revolution, General An-
tonio Lopez de Santa Anna was made president. After
a temporary retirement a reactionary movement restored
him to power in 1834. Having allied himself with the
Clericals and Centralists, he dissolved the Congress on
the 31st of May, set aside the liberal decrees which that
body had passed, made the vice-president, Gromez Farias,
resign, and broke openly with the Federalists. The new
Congress, which was installed in January, 1835, under-
took to reform the constitution of 1824, and in 1836 a
new fundamental law was issued, which rejected the fed-
eral principle and established a centralized government,
O
O
Machine gun pldtoon of United States Regulais at El Paso, Tex.
Machine gun in readiness for action
THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE 145
the whole territory of the Republic being divided into
departments instead of the pre-existing states, the depart-
ments into districts, and these again into partidos. By
thus enlarging the functions of the central government,
the grounds of party separation were made more con-
spicuous. Every adherent of federalism became an oppo-
nent of the new order of things, and in the next decade
Mexico was without an effective constitution. Power
rested with the most successful military leader. In 1847,
however, the Congress passed an act which brought into
force again the constitution of 1824 with certain amend-
ments.
A MILITAEY u PLAN "
Without attempting to note the numerous * i pronuncia-
mentos " made and the " bases " promulgated, attention
may be called to the *' plan " promulgated by the garri-
son of Ayutla. According to this plan Santa Anna was
to be deprived of the power which he exercised arbi-
trarily, an ad interim president was to be appointed, and
a constitutional convention convened. The garrison of
Acapulco seconded this plan with slight modifications,
and Ignacio Comonf ort became the leader of the new rev-
olution. On the 8th of August, 1855, Santa Anna left
the presidency, and a few days later went into exile. On
the 13th of the same month the garrison of the capital
also adopted the plan of Ayutla. The 4th of October
General Alvarez was elected ad interim president, and
in February, 1856, the constituent Congress, or constitu-
tional convention, was assembled. Comonfort, who had
become president on the resignation of Alvarez, now
issued, in accordance with authority conferred upon him
by the plan of Ayutla and Acapulco, an " Estatuto or-
ganico provisional de la Republica Mejicana." The
estatuto was a quasi-constitution, in 125 articles, which
organized completely the executive and judicial powers
in accordance with the principles of centralism, and which
146 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STBTIGGLE
detailed with much method and in liberal sense the civil
and political rights of the Mexicans; but which oblit-
erated all this, as with one dash of the pen, by Article 82,
conceived as follows: " The President of the Eepublic
shall be able to act discretionally, when, in the judgment
of the council of -ministers, this shall be necessary in
order to defend the independence or the integrity of the
territory, or to maintain the established order, or to pre-
serve the public tranquility: but in no case shall he be
able to impose the penalty of death, nor those penalties
prohibited by Article 55."
THE CONSTITUTION OF 1857
The new constitution, which was formulated in the
meantime by the constitutional Congress, was finally
adopted on the 5th of February, 1857. But this consti-
tution, by abolishing the ecclesiastical and military priv-
ileges, excited vigorous opposition. As a result of this
opposition, the nation found itself, in 1858, in civil war,
with Benito Juarez as leader of the Constitutional party,
while General Zuloaga, and later General Miramon, led
the Revolutionary forces and took possession of the cap-
ital. Juarez, in accordance with Article 29 of the consti-
tution, received extraordinary powers to suspend the
individual guarantees recognized by this law. During
the same year, 1861, the Eevolutionary party entered into
certain foreign alliances against the Constitutional party,
led by Juarez, and from these alliances proceeded the
series of events which constitute the imperial episode of
Maximilian's reign. While Maximilian, backed by the
power of France, was attempting to establish an imperial
government in Mexico, the forces of the Constitutional-
ists were scattered on the frontiers. Three months after
the withdrawal of the French troops, in obedience to the
demands of the United States, the Imperialists were
undone, Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia had been shot,
THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE 147
and the way was once more open to the Constitutionalists.
The constitution of 1857 became again effective funda-
mental law of the land, and, with a number of subsequent
amendments, has continued in force to the present time.
AN OPTIMISTIC VIEW
After the retirement of General Diaz in 1910 and the
assumption of power by President Madero, the optimistic
business men of Mexico looked forward with great con-
fidence to the future. One well-known writer expressed
their views as follows :
* ' New times and manners have come to Mexico. New
figures of national importance have stepped upon the
stage to direct the destinies of the land which the clear-
headed, unenthusiastic scientist, von Humboldt, called
' The Treasure House of the World.*
" New policies and processes of government have been
inaugurated; although new to Mexico, they have stood
the test of practice in the other great republics. By this
proved standard they may be depended upon to impart
fresh vigor and irresistible impetus to the progress and
development of Mexico.
" The events which prefaced the administrative
changes in Mexico were revolutionary. History records
few important steps in the advancement of any nation
which were not conceived and born in revolution.
Instances are far less common wherein righteous and
successful revolutions have not purified the national life-
streams and made for political, social and economic well-
being.
" Mexico was at peace for thirty-five years. Neither
foreign wars nor domestic turmoil had disturbed her
tranquility and interrupted the wonderful material
development fostered by the establishment and inflexible
maintenance of law and order.
" This gave her unique distinction among the nations.
iWhile Mexico's sword was sheathed, the United States,
148 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE
England, France, Germany, Russia, China, Japan and
Spain, wasted billions of gold and sacrificed thousands
of lives in wars.
" A hundred-fold more men and money than the revolu-
tion in Mexico cost, were expended by the United States
since 1876 in Indian wars alone.
" What has occurred in Mexico was an anti-climax.
Like most contingencies which are viewed in anticipation
with profound apprehension, the prospect of the passing
of the old regime in Mexico and the commencement of
the new, when it became a reality, presented itself in far
less ominous guise than it assumed when it was merely a
vague, much debated possibility.
" It was an anti-climax because it came prematurely
and unexpectedly. So swift was the march of events in
the six months which compassed the duration of the
revolution that the country was spared most of the pros-
tration and disorganization that come with armed
political movements.
" When the transfer of authority came, the vital ele-
ments of the government were substantially unimpaired.
The federal treasury was intact; the cash reserves had
not been drained to finance a long and costly war; busi-
ness was interfered with but slightly; the country had
not been stripped of able-bodied men; the lines of com-
munication had been interrupted, but not destroyed, or
even seriously damaged; the national credit continued
high; federal revenues had fallen off to a surprisingly
small extent, and the damage to public and private prop-
erty in the cities and towns of consequence was limited.
"In the foreign money markets confidence in the
national stability of Mexico and in her possession of
inherent vital power to survive political shocks that
would cripple a less wealthy, resourceful country, was
shown in impressive fashion.
" The public funds and many of her standard railway,
banking and industrial securities were not seriously
THE CONSTITUTIONAL STEUGGLE 149
affected, and in a majority of cases either maintained
their price, or were given higher quotations. A month
after peace was declared London was buying National
Eailway securities at from $2.25 to $2.50 higher than the
prices quoted before the revolution.
" In every fibre of her being Mexico, in 1911, is a
thousand times stronger and better buttressed to main-
tain and enhance her financial, political and industrial
respectability and place than she was in 1876, when
Porfirio Diaz came to government. Now she has every-
thing with which to do. Then she had virtually nothing,
save her inexhaustible natural resources, which were
sparsely developed.
" Thirty-five years of peace and prosperity have sped
her too far along the road of progress to warrant fair-
minded, competent critics in assuming that she will retro-
grade, or that her affairs will not be patriotically, com-
petently and profitably administered. Mexico will press
on."
CHAPTER XI
MEXICO UNDER DIAZ
In an election under the Constitution of 1857, held in
1871, four years after the City of Mexico had surren-
dered to General Diaz after the execution of the Emperor
Maximilian, the opposing candidates were the then
President Benito Juarez, Lerdo de Tejada, and Porfirio
Diaz. Juarez was elected December 1, 1871, and took
his seat for the third time, the result of which was a
slight revolution, occurring in various parts of the coun-
try. These were headed by Porfirio Diaz on his hacienda
of La Noria, in Oaxaca. A manifesto was issued propos-
ing a convention and assembly of notables, to reorganize
a government with Diaz as commander-in-chief of the
army, until the establishment of such government. The
movement was interrupted by the death of Juarez and
the succession of the president of the Supreme Court,
Lerdo de Tejada. The administration of Lerdo was
peaceful, and he was elected president December 1, 1872,
continuing in office for three years, during which time
the railroad between Vera Cruz and the City of Mexico,
called the Mexican Eailway, was opened on January 1,
1873.
DIAZ PEOCLAIMBD PRESIDENT
Another revolution occurred in Oaxaca, January 15,
1876, and once more the country was in the midst of a
strife. Lerdo was forced to leave the country, and Gen-
eral Diaz entered the City of Mexico November 24, 1876,
and was proclaimed president ; on the 6th of May, 1877,
he was declared constitutional president, in which office
he remained until November 30, 1880, during which time
ISO
MEXICO UNDER DIAZ 151
he put down small revolutions and executed nine revolu-
tionists on June 24, 1879.
On the 25th of September, 1880, Congress elected Gen-
eral Manuel Gonzales president. During the administra-
tion of General Gonzales the celebrated Nickel riots of
1883 occurred, the common people refusing to accept
nickel coin in the place of silver and copper, entailing
on them considerable loss. The national debt of Mexico
was also greatly increased, and his administration was
practically a financial failure.
General Diaz was again elected president and took the
oath of office December 1, 1884, and at each recurring
election to 1910 succeeded "himself.
A MAN OF ACTION
On taking the office in 1884, says the noted authority
on Mexico, Mr. Eeau Campbell, Diaz found an absolutely
empty treasury and a country without credit. It was a
condition and not a theory that confronted Diaz a con-
dition that theories alone could not ameliorate. Urgent
and immediate action was the only remedy for the deplor-
able state of the country. General Diaz was the man of
action, man of the hour, and delayed not till the morrow.
To perceive a need, with him, was to act at once, and to
promote the prosperity and peace of his country was his
'only aim. The railroads and the telegraphs had only
been proposed; the commerce of the country was in a
state of lethargy. Diaz' quick, restless, active disposi-
tion called it to life, and his liberal, wise and efficient
administration of the government made it possible to
complete the enterprises of communication and com-
merce, and it so promoted the internal improvements in
every direction that his own acts have placed President
Diaz among the foremost statesmen of the world.
A patriotic Mexican writer says : " With the restless,
inconstant character of our race, the long tenure of office
by one man is one of the greatest dangers of the peace
152 MEXICO UNDER DIAZ
of the nation. Yet, notwithstanding, General Diaz has
succeeded in avoiding shipwreck on this shoal, making
himself all hut indispensable to the completion of the
reconstructive and conciliatory work of which he is the
true and only author. The work of pacification accom-
plished by General Diaz has consisted in the strengthen-
ing of the central power, and the discreet use of his
personal prestige and influence for the purpose of secur-
ing in all the states of the Mexican Union the election
of governors attached to him personally, and resolved to
second him at any cost in the task of assuring to the
country the supreme benefit of peace, as the most im-
perious necessity of the Mexican people. The patriotic
conviction of the urgency, for a nation bleeding and weak-
ened as ours has been, of a convalescent political regime
to enable us to recuperate our shattered strength, has
facilitated the insensible and voluntary creation of a
system of governmental discipline wherein the federated
units, like the wheels of an immense machine, receive
without shock the impulse of force which is conveyed to
them from the great central motor. "
Even the Encyclopedia Britannica pays its tribute of
respect to Diaz, when it says :
" His term of office marks a prominent change in the
history of Mexico; from that date he at once forged
ahead with financial and political reform, the scrupulous
settlement of all national debts, the welding together of
the peoples and tribes (there are 150 different Indian
tribes) of his country, the establishment of railroads and
telegraphs, and all this in a land which had been upheaved
for a century with revolutions and bloodshed, and which
had fifty-two dictators, presidents, and rulers in fifty-
nine years. "
CHAPTER
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION
The government of the Republic of Mexico is repre-
sentative, democratic and federal. The seat of the
supreme power of the federation is the capital of the
republic, which is also the capital of the federal district.
The supreme federal power is divided into three branches,
legislative, executive and judicial.
The legislative power is lodged in the general congress,
which is divided into two bodies, the senate and the cham-
ber of deputies. The members of the chamber of deputies
are elected by popular vote of the Mexican citizen every
two years, one deputy for each 40,000 inhabitants. The
senate is composed of two senators from each state and
the federal district. Senators are elected indirectly,
half of the body being renewed every two years. The
salary of deputies and senators is $3,000 a year. Congress
has two regular sessions every year, the first commencing
on the 16th of September (the national holiday) and end-
ing on the 15th of December. It may be extended thirty
days longer. The business of this session is the general
regulation and conduct of the federal government. The
second session begins April 1 and ends May 31, but may
be prolonged fifteen days. Its business primarily is
auditing the accounts of the previous fiscal year and mak-
ing appropriations for the fiscal year to come.
The executive power is vested in the " President of the
United Mexican States/' He is elected by electors
chosen by popular vote every four years. He is
inaugurated and enters upon his administration on the
153
154 GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION
1st of December. In the discharge of his high duties the
president is assisted by seven secretaries or ministers,
whom he may appoint and remove at will. The secre-
taries are : Of foreign affairs, of home affairs, of justice
and public instruction, of colonization, industry and com-
merce, of the treasury and public credit, of war and the
navy, and of communication and public works. All of
these secretaries authenticate with their signatures the
regulations, proclamations, and decrees of the president,
and have charge of the several departments of the gov-
ernment designated by their respective titles. The salary
of the president is $30,000 a year and of the secretaries
$8,000.
The judicial power is lodged in the supreme court of
justice and in the district and circuit courts. The
supreme court consists of one chief justice, eleven asso-
ciate justices, four alternate justices, an attorney-general,
and a public prosecutor. These several officers are
chosen by indirect popular vote and their term of office
is six years. Formerly in the event of a vacancy
occurring in the presidency by reason of death or cause
other than limitation, the duties of the president devolved
upon the chief justice. By amendment to the constitution,
Congress, on October 3, 1882, vested the presidential
succession in the president and vice-president of the
senate and the chairman of the standing committee of
Congress successively. The same amendment prescribes
that these functionaries must be native-born citizens of
Mexico.
The jurisdiction of the federal courts extends to all
cases arising (1) from laws or acts of any authority
infringing on individual rights; (2) from laws or acts of
the federal authority violating or limiting the sover-
eignty of the states, and (3) from laws or acts, the latter
eignty of the states, and (3) from laws or acts of the latter
made from the district courts to the supreme court of
justice.
(K)VEBNMENT AND CONSTITUTION J.55
The political organization of the states is similar to
that of the general government.
SEVENTIES
The federal government is sustained by import dnties,
the stamp tax, internal revenue taxes, and by the " fed-
eral contribution," which is an additional duty levied on
all taxes collected by the states. There are other sources
of revenue, such as export duties, mint duties, and the
taxes on nationalized property.
The governments of the states were sustained by excise
duties levied on all foreign and domestic merchandise,
and by certain direct taxes, but the system of state taxa-
tion has recently been reorganized, so as to abolish the
taxation of imported merchandise.
The city governments are sustained by direct taxes,
and in some cases they receive besides a percentage of
the duties collected by the state.
THE CONSTITUTION
The present constitution of Mexico was adopted Feb-
ruary 5, 1857. By virtue of this instrument the Republic
is formed of states, free and sovereign, so far as regards
their internal affairs, united under a federal government
The population necessary to entitle a territory to state-
hood is 120,000 inhabitants at least. The national power
resides primarily and exclusively in the people, from
whom all public authority emanates and by whom it is
exercised through the channels of the state and national
governments, with the reservation, so far as state author-
ity is concerned, that state laws shall not conflict with
those of the nation.
All persons born on the soil are free, and slaves become
free by entering the Eepublic. Freedom of education,
freedom to exercise the liberal professions, freedom of
thought and the inviolable freedom of the press are guar-
anteed this last with the restriction that private rights
and the public peace shall not be violated.
156 GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION
No person can be obliged to work against his will or
without proper compensation.
The rights of petition and lawful association are
recognized.
The right to carry arms for lawful self -protection and
defense, and to freely enter, and leave, and travel over
the Eepublic without passport is guaranteed.
Titles of nobility, hereditary honors, and prerogatives
are not recognized, neither are the judgments of privi-
leged tribunals.
Ex post facto laws and the concluding of treaties for
the extradition of political offenders and the search with-
out warrant of the competent authority are all prohibited.
Imprisonment for debt of a purely civil nature is
abolished.
Arrest is prohibited except for offenses meriting cor-
poral punishment, as is also detention without trial for
a longer period than three days. The rights of accused
persons are guaranteed. The application of penalties,
other than those purely correctional is limited exclusively
to judicial authority, "Whipping, branding, mutilation,
torture, or other infamous punishment is prohibited. The
death penalty is limited to high treason, highway robbery,
arson, paricide, and willful murder.
In criminal actions three appeals only are permitted.
A second trial after acquittal on the same charge is
prohibited.
The inviolability of private correspondence as well as
the right of private property is recognized. In case of
condemnation of private property for public uses
previous indemnity under prescribed forms is
guaranteed.
The quartering of soldiers in time of peace upon the
property of individuals is forbidden, as it is in time of
war, save under the regulations established by law.
Civil and ecclesiastical corporations are not permitted
to acquire landed estates.
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 137
Monopolies are prohibited save the government monop-
olies of coinage and the postal service, and the limited
monopoly enjoyed by patentees of useful inventions.
The president, with the concurrence of his cabinet and
the approval of congress, or, during its recess, the con-
gressional standing committee, may suspend all consti-
tutional guarantees in case of invasion, grave internal
disorder, or serious disturbance endangering the state.
All children born in the country or abroad of Mexican
parents, foreigners naturalized under the laws of the
federation, and foreigners acquiring real estate in the
Eepublic, or begetting children by Mexican mothers, are
regarded as Mexican citizens unless a distinct claim of
citizenship elsewhere is avowed in due legal form. As
such they are liable to military service and taxation and
are guaranteed all the rights and privileges enjoyed by
Mexican citizens. All persons within the Eepublic, citi-
zens or foreigners, are guaranteed the protection afforded
by the constitution and the laws.
Article 33 of the constitution treats of foreigners, and
contains among its provisions one empowering the presi-
dent to expel any " pernicious foreigner."
The congressional committee referred to in the con-
stitution is composed of twenty-nine members, fifteen
deputies and fourteen senators, appointed by their respec-
tive chambers on the eve of closing their session.
The amendments to the constitution adopted Septem-
ber 25, 1873, establish the independence of church and
state ; deprive congress of the power to make laws which
establish or suppress any religion whatever; insti-
tute marriage as a civil contract; substitute
affirmation for religious oath; prohibit the existence of
monastic orders, without regard to domination or object ;
prohibit the clergy to wear their clerical garb except
when performing religious offices, and expressly exclude
ecclesiastics from eligibility to the presidency.
CHAPTEE
THE CITY OF MEXICO
The City of Mexico derives its name from Mexitli, the
great war-god of the Aztecs. Its original name was
Tenochtitlan, from " tunal," a cactus on a stone, and
had reference to the legend preserved on the banner of
Mexico, already related in these pages.
The city is in the midst of a broad plain completely
surrounded by high mountains forming the rim of a bowl
or basin, from which there is no natural outlet for the
streams that rise in the hills, hence the accumulation of
waters that may have, at one time, covered the entire face
of the plain, and since the establishment of the city great
inundations have occurred as in 1552 and again in 1629,
flooding the streets and drowning thousands of the inhab-
itants. To prevent the recurrence of the floods and con-
sequent disaster the dyke of San Lazaro was built in
1552, and a canal, called the Tajo de Nochistongo, was
commenced in 1607, but neither served the purpose of the
drainage of the valley and the city is subject to the
rise of the waters in the very wet seasons, but inunda-
tions will be prevented in future by the great tunnel com-
pleted in 1896, bored through the hills of the eastern rim
of the bowl. The tunnel is connected with the lakes by
canals, which makes a perfect drainage of the city and
of the valley.
THE FEDEBAL BISTEICT
The city is in what is called the Federal District, cov-
ering an area of some four hundred and fifty square
miles the government of the district like the District
158
THE CITY OF MEXICO 159
of Columbia is directed by the national legislature,
administered by the ayuntamiento, or city council, the
city and district being presided over by a governor ap-
pointed by the president of the Republic. The popula-
tion of the district is in round numbers nearly 700,000,
and of the city proper about 470,000.
The great Lake of Texcoco is eastward of the city,
Xochimilco and Chalco to the southeast, Zumpango
and San Cristobal to the north. It is probable that before
the filling up by the building of causeways, and the made-
lands from the grading, both for the old city of Tenoch-
titlan and the newer City of Mexico, these lakes were
all one immense body of water, completely surrounding
the ancient cities.
The altitude of the City of Mexico, 7,349 feet above the
level of the sea at Vera Cruz, only 200 miles away, gives
it a most delightful climate and a most even temperature.
The average mean range of thermometer from October
to April is 56 degrees and from May to September 63
degrees ; practically the only difference between summer
and winter is that it never rains in the winter and it does
almost every day in the summer but only in showers,
and never with long periods of rainy weather and the
only cold weather results from a norther that blows up
from the G-ulf and lasts not more than a few hours or a
day. With the clean, well-kept streets and delightful
climate, the Mexican capital is a most delightful city,
whether the sojourn be in the winter or summer months.
THE NATIONAL PALACE
* Mexico City abounds in public buildings of great his-
toric interest and of architectural beauty. Foremost
among these is the National Palace, or Palacio Nacional,
on the east side of the Plaza Mayor.
This historic building is the capitol of the Eepublic
of Mexico, as it was the vice-regal palace when the coun-
try was a province of Spain, and before that period was
160 THE CITY OF MEXICO
the site of a palace of Cortez, and the property of the
Conqueror; the land fell to his share when the city lots
of Tenochtitlan were divided among the Spaniards. At
that time the site was occupied by what was known as
" the new palace" of Montezuma, which, being de-
stroyed, Cortez built in its place a house flanked with
towers. The estate was confirmed by the king of Spain
to Cortez in 1529 and remained in the possession of his
heirs till 1562, when it was bought by the crown for the
residence of the viceroy, and remained as the vice-regal
residence until 1692, when the house was destroyed in
the riots of that year.
BEBUILT IN 1692
The present building was begun in 1692 and from time
to time has been added to until it extends over the entire
east side of the Plaza Mayor, having a frontage of 675
feet, extending down the side streets proportionately,
the whole surrounding an immense patio or court, with
accommodations for the various departments of the fed-
eral government, the executive offices, Senate chamber,
treasury, and barrack room for several regiments.
The presidential apartments are in accord with the
high office and the dignity of the government, magnifi-
cently appointed and splendidly decorated. It is not the
presidential residence, only the offices of the president
and of the government.
The most noted room is the Hall of the Ambassadors,
an apartment of regal dimensions and adornment. It
extends its elegant proportions along the palace front,
the immense windows looking out upon the Plaza. The
walls are hung with portraits of the illustrious men of
the country's history, including the martyrs of the War
of Independence, Hidalgo, Allende, Morelos, Matamoros
and others ; Iturbide, and Presidents Arista, Juarez and
Porfirio Diaz; there is also a fine portrait of George
Washington.
The laigest guns of the largest battleship afloat the "New Yoik"
Sailors and marines line up on a fourteen-inch gun
02
CQ
*H
o
Twentieth U. S. Infantry on the maich
Fifteenth U. S. Cavalry patroling the Rio Grande
Submarines at the Ghai lesion Navy \\iid
Huerta gives land to obtain recruits the lota are at the bottom of a lake
THE CITY OF MEXICO 161
MEXICO J S LIBERTY BELL
On the 16th of September, 1896, there was placed over
the main gateway of the National Palace the bell from
the tower of the church of Dolores, in the State of Gua-
najuato, rung by Hidalgo incidentally to call the people
to mass, but in reality to call them to arms for the cause
of independence; hence, it became the Liberty Bell of
Mexico.
In the old tower of the little church at Dolores, over
a hundred years ago on that September night when the
stars shone bright, rang out the clear tones of a bell.
The people listened and wondered at its ringing at such
an hour, but well knew that it rang not except upon the
order of the faithful padre, the good Father Hidalgo,
and came from their homes quickly to answer the sum-
mons and hear what he might say. Assembled there
under the dim light of the flickering candles of the altar,
the patriot priest told his people that the hour of inde-
pendence was at hand and that they should follow him
and march then to do battle for their country and against
the Spanish king. With the banner of Guadalupe taken
from the little church of Atotonilco as their standard,
the people followed Hidalgo, they knew not where, they
only followed Hidalgo, and thus was born the Bell of
Liberty in Mexico.
Long ago the banner of Guadalupe of Atatonilco was
placed in the National Museum of the capital of the Ee-
public, but the Liberty Bell of Mexico was but recently
placed above the gates of the National Palace, and on
the night of the 16th of September, 1896, rang out again
as it did in that night of 1810 for liberty and independ-
ence.
It is in history that the hour when this bell first rang,
except for mass or matin, was at eleven o'clock, and forty
minutes of the night between the 15th and 16th of Sep-
tember, 1810, then Hidalgo rang it in the call to arms
and liberty, and when the people answering, assembled
162 THE CITY OF MEXICO
under the darkening shadows of its tower he pronounced
the Grito of Mexican independence.
It has long been the custom of the president of Mexico
to go upon the balcony over the main gateway of the
National Palace at the same hour and there pronounce
again the Grito as Hidalgo said, and now he may ring
the bell that Hidalgo rang and all the people shout their
vivas now, as did the little band of patriots in 1810.
The bell had remained in the towers of the church at
Dolores since Hidalgo rang it on that eventful night,
says Mr. Beau Campbell in his well-known work on
Mexico, but on Independence Day of 1896 it was brought
to the capital, and on the 16th of September, with all
the pomp and circumstance of state, was carried in grand
procession and placed over the palace gate. The tri-
umphal car bearing the bell, the central figure of a glit-
tering pageant, rolled on golden wheels, whose spokes
were trimmed with flowers. An eagle with outspread
wings on the front of the car seemed to fly before the
precious relic as if to lead the way. In the shadow of
the eagle's wings rested an old brass cannon, cast by
Hidalgo. The bell and the cannon were surrounded by
trophies of the War of Independence, muskets, swords,
cannon, sponges, picks and pikes; the entire group sur-
mounted with a wreath of laurel and oak, ending in a
background of tropic trees, entwined with the colors of
Mexico.
The car was drawn by six magnificent horses, mounted
by postilions and guarded by an escort of rurales; the
grand procession following was composed of the digni-
taries of state, civic and military, the army and the peo-
ple. The lookers-on in Mexico were massed to the walls
on the sidewalks, every window and balcony was filled
and so were the housetops, from whence came showers
of flowers and serpentines in green, white and red, and
the vivas drowned the music of the band, as the people
cheered the bell on its progress to the home of the nation.
THE CITY OF MEXICO 163
When the car arrived on the Plaza in front of the
Palace, the bell was removed and hoisted over the central
gate, in the facade of the Palace, and as it reached its
final resting-place a thousand doves with tricolor bands
about their necks rose up from the archway, circled
around and flew away to the four quarters, carrying the
glad news.
The president and his cabinet watched the hoisting of
the bell from a pavilion, and when the work was com-
pleted it was formally received from the commission
that had brought it from Dolores Hidalgo. The patriotic
speeches of presentation and reception were received
with wild applause and the ceremony continued till the
evening,
All day long the crowds had not left the Plaza, only
thinned out a little now and then, and when night came
it was packed again until the hour of eleven drew on and
there was a solid mass of humanity within the walls of
the great square.
At 11:35 o'clock President Diaz came from the Hall
of the Ambassadors to the balcony where, till now, he
had only pronounced the Grito, took the rope in his hand,
a silence fell on the multitude till the hands of the clock
crawled to forty minutes past, and he gave the bell four
lusty strokes, and a mighty shout went up and re-echoed
to the surrounding hills ; then rang all the bells in every
tower. A star of electric fire surrounded the bell and
cascades of colored fires poured down from the cathedral
towers and the Palace walls, bands played and people
shouted, and almost wept from patriotic joy. The inde-
scribable scene may not be written in the words of any
language. Great was the boon of him who saw the dedi-
cation of Mexico's Liberty Bell. V," .
MAGNIFIOBKT CHUBOHBS
" It was a marvelous time of original and beautiful
work that covered Mexico with churches, and set up in
164 THE CITY OF MEXICO
all the remote and almost inaccessible villages towers
and domes that match the best work in Italy, and recall
the triumphs of Moorish art," writes that ardent student
of Mexico, Mr. Charles Dudley Warner. " The beauty
and originality is wholly in the exterior. While nearly
all the towers, domes, facades, and outside walls are
original in form and color and decorations and have a
special charm, the interiors are strikingly alike and gen-
erally commonplace. This uniformity is the more
remarkable in a people that build their interior domestic
courts and decorate them with so much variety. /It should
be said, however, that some of the interiors of the
churches were very rich in silver and gold decorations
prior to the sequestration of church property. )
" Except in the general form of these churches, there
is nowhere any repetition of design. The artists seemed
to have had free play to express their love of beauty in
towers, domes and facades. Nothing is commonplace;
nothing is vulgar. Towers and domes, any one of which
I should like to see in the United States, are common
in the Republic /but it seemed to me that in this part of
Mexico they expressed a feeling not common elsewhere
not Italian (which one encounters in so many lovely
cloisters and towers), nor yet exactly Spanish, but rather,
I should say, Saracenic. At least this was the impression
strongly made upon me. The domes always reminded
me of the tombs of sheiks, of the califs, and so on, as one
sees them in all Moslem lands, and the slender towers
recalled the graceful minarets. These two forms in com-
bination, so constant and so varied, suggested always
the Saracenic spirit in the artist.
" It may be only a fancy, but it is not unreasonable to
believe that the Spanish architect who designed them
was strongly influenced in his work by the Saracenic
forms with which he was so familiar three centuries ago.
There is another fancy about the facades of many of the
best old Mexican churches which I may have mentioned
THE CITY OF MEXICO 165
before. It is a peculiarity which one sees in many vil-
lage churches, and even in the City of Mexico, and in
such suburban towns as Coyoacan and Tacubaya.'
" While the churches were evidently designed by
Spanish architects, the workers who executed the facades
were evidently Indians; and in the strange stone-work
designs, unlike any other architectural decoration that
I know, and very difficult for us to interpret or enter
into the spirit of we have the Indian traditions of a
prehistoric art and ornamentation. Much of this work,
untranslatable into our terms, has more in common with
the carving on the prehistoric temples than with that on
any Christian edifices. The subject is one, however, that
a layman is incompetent to deal with. / Jt is much to be
desired that trained artists should study and describe the
old churches of Mexico. Many of them, like the noble
edifice of Churubusco, with its interior wealth of old
Spanish tiles, are already going to ruin. *
NO TWO TOWEBS AUKE
" The fascination in pursuing the study of the towers
and domes is that there are no two alike. There was no
slavish copying from book designs. The style is the
same, but each architect followed his own genius in con-
structing an object of beauty. The edifices are not
always simple; the roof masses are bold and grand,
often; and there is an effect of solidity, of grandeur,
with all the airy grace of form, and the satisfaction of
the eye with color.
" There is a touch of decay nearly everywhere, a crum-
bling and a defacement of colors, which add somewhat
of pathos to the old structures ; but in nearly every one
there is some unexpected fancy a belfry oddly placed,
a figure that surprises with its quaintness or its position,
or a rich bit of deep stone carving, and in the humblest
and plainest facade there is a note of individual yielding
to a whim of expression that is very fascinating. The
166 THE CITY OF MEXICO
architects escaped from the commonplace and the con-
ventional; they understood proportion without regular-
ity, and the result is not, perhaps, explainable to those
who are only accustomed to our church architecture.
But most of ours, good as it occasionally may be, is
uninteresting; whereas you love this, in all its shabbi-
ness of age, and do not care to give a reason why. ' '
THE GBEAT CATHEDBAL
On the very foundations of the greatest pagan temple
of the continent is erected the most ambitious house of
the Christian Church in the western world the Cathe-
dral. The Holy Metropolitan Church of Mexico is built
on the site of the great teocali of the Aztecs.
The bishopric of Mexico was established in 1527 by
Pope Clement VII., and on the 12th of December of that
year Fray Juan de Zumarraga, at the instance of Charles
V. of Spain, was made bishop, but it was not until a year
later that he arrived in the City of Mexico, and on the
2d of September, 1530, was confirmed as bishop-elect and
protector of the Indians.
The archbishopric of Mexico was created by Pope Paul
IL on the 31st of January, 1545, with Bishop Zumarraga
as archbishop^'
When the Aztec temples that were in the center of the
city of Tenochtitlan were destroyed by the Spaniards
in 1521, the space was set apart for the building of a
Christian church, as before the walls of 'the teocali were
razed to the ground the sign of the cross and the image
of the Virgin were shown above the pagan altars, and at
the throwing down of the heathen gods and idols, as a
consecration of the ground, and when the ruins had been
cleared away, the first church in the City of Mexico, the
little church of the Asuncion de Maria Santisima, was
built where the temple stood.
This church, finished about three years after the con-
quest, was replaced soon after by the first cathedral, and
THE CITY OF MEXICO 167
was preserved until the larger one could be built. It
stood in the open court in front of the present cathedral,
..the first stone of which was laid just beyond the north
wall in 1573.
BEGUN IN 1573
The corner-stone of the present cathedral was laid in
1573; the foundations were completed in 1615, and the
"walls were well under way; the roof over the sacristy
was finished in 1623, the first service held in 1626. The
great inundation of 1629-35 greatly hindered the work,
so that the dedication did not take place till 1656, Febru-
ary 2, and even then the building was still incomplete,
and it was not until eleven years later, on the 2nd of
February, 1667, that the final dedication occurred*
The towers were completed in 1791, and the bells placed
in position in 1792. The cost of the towers was nearly
$200,000, and the great bell called Santa Maria de
Guadalupe, twenty feet from the top fastenings to the
tongue, cost $10,000. The larger bell, in the other tower,
called Dona Maria, cost nearly as much.^ '
The estimated cost of the Cathedral, from the laying
of the corner-stone to the hanging of the bells, is put at
$2,000,000 but that does not represent a tithe of the
actual cost if the labor had a fair value put upon it, and
the material had been bought at market prices. From
north to south the building is over 400 feet in length, the
interior measuring 387 feet. From west to east the
interior width is 177 feet, the height from roof to the
tiles of the floor is 179 feet The towers are 203 feet 6
inches high.
The material of the walls and towers is stone, the roof
is in arches of brick and cement. The front is to the
south, the facade richly carved and with friezes, statues,
etc., in white marble between the two great towers, with
their bell-shaped caps and crosses in stone, make it one
of the handsomest in the world. On the cornices are
168 THE CITY OF MEXICO
statues of saints and great men of the church and
religions orders. In the center of the facade is the clock,
and below it the arms of the Eepnhlic. Surmounting the
whole is the magnificent dome and lantern of graceful
proportions, by the architect Tolsa. The entire Cathe-
dral was from the architectural plans of Alonzo Perez
Castaneda.
AN IMMENSE EDIFICE
The immensity of the great church is apparent imme-
diately upon entrance. It is Gothic and Doric, with
a cold simplicity. Twenty massive fluted columns of
stone separate the nave from the aisles and support the
vaulted roof, that under the lofty dome is shaped in the
form of a Latin cross. The dome is handsomely painted
in pictures of sacred history, among which is the
Assumption of the Virgin. There are fourteen chapels
in the Cathe^-al, seven in each aisle, dedicated to the
various saints, each decorated in its own particular style
with pictures of scenes from the lives of the respective
saints. These chapels were formerly inclosed with hand-
somely carved wood railings. Now they are behind iron
gratings, where there are constantly burning candles
and tapers in front of the images of the saints. The
most noted of the chapels is that of San Felipe de Jesus,
where are preserved some relics of this saint, and in
front of which is the font in which he was baptized. In
this chapel rest the remains of the first emperor of Mex-
ico, Augustin Iturbide, beneath a monument erected to
the honored memory of " The Liberator. "
^Another chapel is that of Las Eeliquias, containing
pictures by Herrera of the holy martyrs. In another,
that of San Pedro, lies buried the first bishop and arch-
bishop of Mexico, Juan de Zumarraga, and also the
remains of G-regorio Lopez, the Mexican Man with an
Iron Mask, supposed to have been a son of Philip the
Second of Spain.
THE CITY OF MEXICO 109
The choir is enclosed within a high railing of richly
carved woods, and in the center of this enclosed space is
a large octagonal stand of highly polished dark wood
for the music books, that have their notes so large that
they can be read from the seats around the railing. Two
immense organs, also in carved wood, rise almost to the
arches of the roof. From the choir, leading up the nave,
is a passageway to an altar, inclosed between railings
of tnmbago, a metal composed of gold, silver and copper.
In the rear of the choir is the Altar of Pardon (del
Perdon), where at any time may be seen the devotees
kneeling in crowds about the base of the altar. Here
are two fine paintings, one by the great woman artist,
La Sumaya, a San Sabastian, and a Candalaria, by
Echave.
The main altar, erected in 1850, was designed by
Lorenzo Hidalgo, and cost a fortune in its ornamenta-
tions, gilding and carving. The fine Altar of the Kings
(de los Reyes) is the most imposing in the building, of
magnificent proportions. Its top reaches to the arches
of the roof. The altar was by the artist who made the
Altar de Los Reyes in the Cathedral of Seville in Spain.
The rich carvings and gildings are the especial admira-
tion of the Indians. A noted Mexican artist, Don Juan
Rodriguez Juarez, greatly added to the beauty of the
altar by his images and pictures, among which are the
Assumption and the Epiphany. Beneath the Altar of
the Kings are buried the heads of the patriots Hidalgo,
Allende, Aldama and Jimenez, brought from Guanajuato
in great state and pomp after independence was secured. ^
In the sacristy are some magnificent pictures that com-
pletely cover its walls : The Entry into Jerusalem, the
Catholic Church and the Assumption, by Juan Correa;
the Triumph of the Sacrament, Immaculate Conception,
and the Glory of St. Michael, by Villalpando. In the
Meeting Room is a Last Supper and Triumph of Faith
by Alcibar, and a collection of portraits of all the arch-
170 THE CITY OF MEXICO
bishops of Mexico by various artists. In the Chapter
Eoom is a fine Murillo, the Virgin of Bethlehem, a Virgin
by Cortona, and another by an unknown artist repre-
senting John of Austria imploring the Virgin at, the
battle of Lepanto. Campbell's Guide to Mexico. T '
In all this great Cathedral and its adjunct churches
and chapels are concentrated the pomp and circumstance
of the church of Rome, that for centuries was the power
of the land, and within the walls was made much of the
country's history.
CHTJECH OF SAtf FBAtfCISCO
The churches of Mexico City are so numerous that it
is impossible to describe more than one or two of them
here, though they are all interesting. But the old Church
of San Francisco deserves more than passing notice.
The original church and monastery was the greatest
in all Mexico, and its name is closely identified with the
great events of the country's history, from Cortez to
Comonfort and Juarez. Established by the Twelve
Apostles of Mexico and Fray Pedro de Gante, who came
to Mexico City three years after its occupation by Cortez,
the first church was built in the grounds that had been
the wild beast garden of Montezuma. The building
material was taken from the great teocali, or temple of
the Aztecs, in what is now the Plaza Mayor, Cortez con-
tributing the building fund. The grounds covered three
great squares in the very center of the city, bounded on
the north by First San Francisco Street, on the south by
the Calle de Zuleta, on the east by Calles Coliseo, and
Colegio de las Ninas, and on the west by San Juan de
Letran, an estate that would now be worth more than
ten millions of dollars for the ground alone, which is
now occupied by the Hotels Iturbide, San Carlos and
Jardin, and the adjoining stores and residences, an estate
worth some more millions.
The history of this great house of Franciscans from
THE CITY OF MEXICO 171
the zenith of its power to its downfall would fill volumes
with its incidents. Cortez heard masses from its altars,
and within its walls his bones were entombed. In this
church the viceroys attended mass and lent their pres-
ence at the great festivals. Here was sung the first Te
Deum of Mexican Independence, General Augustin Itur-
bide being in the assemblage, and here he, too, was
buried.
" The church flourished, " says Eeau Campbell, " the
brothers went about doing good, and they prospered
until the evil day came when they thought to put the
state under the rule of the church. A conspiracy tending
to the overthrow of government was discovered and it
was reported to President Comonfort the 14th of Sep-
tember, 1856, that the Franciscans were at the head of a
revolt and that the blow was to be struck on the 15th,
Independence Day. The president, acting with his accus-
tomed promptness, sent his troops to the monastery early
on the morning of the 15th, arrested the entire commu-
nity of monks, and took possession of church, monastery
and grounds. On the 16th a decree was announced open-
ing a new street called Independencia that cut the
grounds from east to west. Two days later another
decree cited the treason of the Franciscans and sup-
pressed the monastery.
" The decree of suppression was rescinded in the fol-
lowing February, and, although shorn of its greatness
and some of its real estate, the monastery was restored
and continued in a feeble way till the entry of the army
of Juarez, on the 27th of December, 1860, when the great
monastery was closed forever. The ornaments, jewels
and paintings were taken to the Academy of Fine Arts,
the interior decorations were defaced and the altars
removed. In April another street was opened through
the property, with the scant satisfaction to the Francis-
cans that the street was called Gante, in honor of the
greatest of their order.
172 THE CITY OF MEXICO
" Soon the construction of dwelling houses began, and
stores were built, the monastery became a hotel, and the
refectory, where there was room for five hundred broth-
ers to sit together at the table, became a stable and
the church, after an almost royal existence of three hun-
dred and thirty years, became a Protestant Cathedral
with scarcely a memory of its Catholic glory. "
DEDICATED IN 1716.
The main church of San Francisco, as it existed up to
1860, was dedicated December 8, 1716. It was a magnifi-
cent structure, 60 feet wide by 230 feet long, with a dome
and lantern over a hundred feet high; the great walls
were covered with pictures, and thousands and thou-
sands of dollars were expended in decorations, the silver
tabernacle over the altar costing $25,000.
Bather than a church there was a group of seven
churches, called by different names, but all were San
Franciscan. The only remaining one of the group is that
of Nuestra Senora de Aranzazu, and that is now known
as San Felipe de Jesus. The entrance is on First San
Francisco Street, where a new facade has been built
that is joined to the old walls whose corner-stone was
laid in 1683, on the 25th of March. Many of the elegant
interior decorations remain. In walking around the
block bounded by the streets of San Francisco, San Juan
de Letran, Independencia and G-ante remains of the
facades of the old churches may be seen. The Hotel
Jardin was the infirmary and lodging house of the mon-
astery. Across the garden is the old refectory, now a
livery stable. The Iturbide Hotel is on grounds intended
for a convent, and the San Carlos is within the line of
the walls of old San Francisco.
In 1869 the great church was sold to the Protestant
Church of Jesus in Mexico, but it has since been resold
to the Catholic Church. Trinity (Methodist Episcopal)
Church was constructed from a portion of the old walls,
THE CITY OF MEXICO 173
and Christ Church., Church of England, occupied another
part. Dwellings, stores, shops, hotels, restaurants, are
built on the grounds of the ancient church and monastery.
CHTJBCH OF JESTTS
The church now called Jesus Nazareno was founded
by Cortez immediately after the permanent occupation
of the city; by his will he left ample endowment for its
building and support, but it was nearly a hundred years
before it reached an era of prosperity, and the church
whose building commenced in 1575 was not dedicated till
ninety years after, when the name was changed from the
original one of Nuestra Senora de la Purisima Concep-
cion to Jesus Nazareno, from the miraculous image of
Jesus of Nazareth that came into its possession through
the death of a pious Indian woman to whom it had
belonged.
The church has suffered little from modern repairs
and renovations. The handsomely carved wooden roof
remains, but the doors and other woodwork were renewed
in 1835. The old altars and the large tabernacle are
still in place.
Another notable image is that of Nuestra Senora de
la Bala, that was once the property of a poor Indian of
Ixtapalapan, who, the legend says, took his gun with the
intent of shooting his wife. The terrified woman fell
down before the image and implored the protection of
the Virgin and when the shot was fired it was found
that the old man was 'not a particularly good marksman,
and that the ball had lodged in the image, after which
husband and wife became reconciled as they perceived
that a miracle had been performed. The image was kept
in the church of San Lazaro for two hundred years and
brought to Jesus Nazareno in 1884
The bones of Cortez rested in this church for awhile.
The Conqueror directed that should he die in Spain Ms
bones should, after ten years, be taken to Mexico and
174 THE CITY OF MEXICO
placed in the Convent of La Conception, that it was his
intention to build, but which never was built. Cortez
died in Castelleja de la Questa, in Spain, December 2d,
1547, The body was deposited in the tomb of the Dukes
of Medina Sidonia, and ten years later was taken to
Mexico and placed in the Church of San Francisco, in
Texcoco, where it remained till 1629. On the 30th of
January of that year his grandson, Don Pedro Cortez,
died, the last of the male line. It was concluded to
remove the remains of the conqueror and bury them
with the grandson in the Church of San Francisco, in the
City of Mexico, which was done with great pomp and
ceremony, and here his bones reposed for one hundred
and sixty-five years.
On the 2d of July, 1734, the bones were removed again
and placed in a magnificent marble mausoleum in the
Church of Jesus Nazareno, remaining there for nearly
thirty years. During the revolutionary times of the war
for independence the hatred of the people for the Span-
iards threatened even the bones of the great soldiers of
the conquest, and on the night of the 15th of September,
1823, they were removed and secreted in another part of
the church, and later taken out secretly and sent to
Spain, and were finally laid to rest in the tombs of the
Dukes of Monteleone in Italy. His bones having crossed
the Atlantic twice, were interred six times in as many
different places, and finally have rested neither in the
land of his birth, nor in the country he conquered.
Campbell.
THE PAKKS AKD PLAZAS
The Alameda is the fashionable park of the City of
Mexico, and is so called from the fact that it was first
planted with alamos, or poplars. Every city, town and
village has an alameda, but this is the alameda of Mexico.
In 1592 a petition was made to the city council to set
THE CITY OF MEXICO 175
apart certain ground for a park of recreation, and the
old Indian market, the Tianquis del San Hipolito, located
on a part of the present Alameda, was selected, and a
little later the Plaza del Quemadero, the place of the
stone altar on which the victims of the Inquisition were
burned, was added. The Quemadero was removed by
order of the Viceroy Marquis de Croix, and the Alameda
attained its present size and shape. By his order to
remove the Quemadero the viceroy, it is said, incurred
the displeasure of the bigots of the church, and this same
Quemadero came near being his own funeral pyre.
The Viceroy Eevillagigedo, famous for his energetic
reforms and municipal improvements, inclosed the
Alameda with a high board fence in 1791, which was
replaced in 1822 by the stone wall that had done duty
on the Plaza Mayor in inclosing the unfortunate statue
of Charles IV. A trench was outside the wall of the
Alameda, but these were all obliterated in 1885. The
Alameda is the resort of the fashionables, and here they
congregate Sundays and feast days to enjoy the music
of the military bands. The magnificent trees, the flowers
and the fountains make the Alameda a most beautiful
park.
THE PLAZA MAYOB
The Main Plaza, or Plaza Mayor de la Constitucion,
is in the city's center, where stood the great teocali, the
temple of the Aztecs, and where stands the Cathedral,
and facing it the National Palace. "When the Aztec tem-
ples were destroyed and the city being built, an open
space was left here that soon became a market place and
filled with shops and booths. These were destroyed by
fire, after the royal order of January 18, 1611, creating
the space a public plaza, only to be rebuilt and subse-
quently destroyed in a riot in 1692, the fire destroying
the building of the Ayuntarmiento (city council) and injur-
176 THE CITY OF MEXICO
ing the palace, with a loss of valuable records, a portion
only being saved through the efforts of Don Carlos de
Siguenza y Gongora, the custodian.
Afterward an elegant stone building, called the Parian,
was erected by the municipality, and was rented to mer-
chants of a high class, who brought here their wares,
and it became the bazaar of fine trade, but the fruit
sellers and vegetable venders surrounded it with their
huts again and remained for many years.
The coming of the Conde de Eevillagigedo, the viceroy,
in 1789, marked the beginning of the present plaza. The
hucksters and peddlers were driven off to the Volador
market, the open ditches were covered into sewers, the
panteons removed or obliterated, and in 1830 the founda-
tion was laid in the plaza for the equestrian statue of
Charles IV., that was afterward removed and which now
stands at the entrance of the Paseo de la Eef orma. The
Parian was looted during the revolution of 1828, and
later, in 1843, the building torn down and the site included
in the plaza.
In the center of the plaza is the Garden of the Zocalo,
which derives its name from the zocalo, or foundation,
for a monument that was never built, a monument to
Mexican independence. From this the plaza is often
called the Zocalo. A music stand is built on the founda-
tion, and a military band plays here evenings and Sun-
days for the middle and poorer classes.
On two sides of the Plaza Mayor are the portales, an
extension of the buildings over the sidewalks that are
supported by columns with arches between, under which
are some of the finest stores in the city. On the east
side the National Palace extends almost its entire
length; on the north the great Cathedral, with its towers,
flanked on one side by the flower market and on the
other by the Plaza del Seminario, which is only a part
of the main plaza. Here is a monument to Enrico
Martinez, the noted engineer of his day, who was
A sanitaiy Ameiiean camp The Second Division, U. S. A., Camp at
Texas City, Tex.
An unsanitary camp of the Villa revolutionists
United States warships at the Chaileaton Navy Yaid
Taking aboard ammunition for the fleet in Boston Harbor
A practice charge of the Sixteenth Infantry at Foit Bliss, Tex.
Sham fight between 'U. S. infantry and cavalry on the Mexican border
tango on the u North Dakota 1 ' at the Biooklyn Navy Yard
Sweethearts' farewell just before the sailing for Vera Cruz
THE CITY OF MEXICO 177
responsible for the Nochistongo canal, for the drainage
of the city. Bronze figures, inlaid in a marble shaft,
show standards of measurement and the level of the
lakes at different times.
From the Plaza Mayor street cars for all parts of
the city and the suburbs start, and here the salutes are
fired, and the troops reviewed on national days, the
16th of September, 5th of May, 2d of April and other
days of national celebration.
THE PASEO
The Paseo de la Eeforma extends for almost three
miles from the city to Chapultepec, commencing at the
glorieta of the statue of Charles IV., running in a direct
line to the gates of the park at the foot of the Hill of the
Grasshopper. It is a broad, smooth, and very beautiful
boulevard, shaded by splendid trees, as are the wide
walk- ways on each side ; along the curb and between the
promenades, at certain intervals, are erected statues to
the illustrious men of Mexico, presented by the various
states of the Eepublic; massive stone seats are along
the promenade under the trees. The Paseo widens into
circles, here and there, called glorietas, in the center of
which are splendid statues, one of Columbus and one of
Cuautemoc, the Aztec warrior, nephew and successor of
Montezuma. Other statues are to be erected in all the
six glorietas. In the glorieta at the entrance of the Paseo
is the statue of Charles IV. of Spain. The Aztec statues ^
once here have been removed to the Paseo de La Viga.j
The Paseo was established during the empire of
Maximilian, and became at once the fashionable drive of
the Mexican capital, and a more beautiful one does not
exist in Europe or America. Here in the late afternoon
of every day, greatly increased in brilliancy on Sundays
and feast days, is a magnificent display of carriages and
equipages of every style, and a more splendid review
does not exist anywhere. The fine array passes up one
178 THE CITY OF MEXICO
side and down the other, a cordon of cavalrymen in the
center keeping the procession in line, and adding to the
brilliancy of the scene. There are other paseos in the
city, but the Paseo de la Beforma is the paseo.
THE OLD AQUEDUCTS
Aqueducts for the city's water supply began to be
built more than two centuries ago, but their usefulness
has passed, they have given way to the more prosaic
iron pipes, and the ancient waterways have been torn
down and the material used for street repairs. There
were two aqueducts bringing water to the southern part
of the city, one from a spring near the Desierto, about
twenty miles distant. This aqueduct formerly came to
the center of the city, passing by the west side of the
Alameda, where it served as a position of advantage for
those wishing to see the burning of the victims of the
Inquisition. It now ends in San Cosme. Formerly there
were nearly a thousand arches of stone and brick, but
the whole work cost less than $200,000. The building
covered a period from 1603 to 1620.
The other aqueduct brought the water from the spring
in the park at Chapultepec, ending in the beautiful foun-
tain called El Salto del Agua, which is still preserved,
and the remaining arches may be seen from the street
cars of the Tacubaya line. At certain intervals are some
beautiful shrines artistically sculptured. An inscription
on the fountain of El Salto del Agua says that this aque-
duct was completed March 20, 1779, during the viceroy-
alty of Bucareli, and that it was built on the line of an
ancient aqueduct of the Aztecs, built in the time of the
Emperor Chimalpopoca, who obtained the right to take
the water of Chapultepec from the king of Atzcapatzalco,
to whom the Aztecs owed allegiance until their inde-
pendence, in the time of Itzcohuatl, in 1422 to 1433.
The more modern iron pipe brings water from the
THE CITY OF MEXICO 179
springs near G-uadalupe to the northern portion of the
city. The aguador still does business, carrying water
from the fountains to residences. The water coming
from the springs is exceptionally pure, as it comes from
the hills, and there is no contamination by contact with
sewage.
A WORLD-FAMED STATUE
The statue of Charles IV. of Spain is the most notable
of the many in the city of Mexico. It is of heroic dimen-
sions, being the largest single piece of bronze in the
world. It is located at the entrance of the Paseo de la
Eef orma, but was originally in the Plaza Mayor, opposite
the National Palace, where, before the casting a wooden
model of the statue, gilded, was placed on the pedestal
pending the molding of the bronze work. A royal order
by the king of Spain was made November 30, 1795, per-
mitting the building of the statue. The cast was made
August 4, 1802, at six o'clock in the morning, after two
days had been spent in melting the bronze, under the
direction of Don Salvador de la Vega, from the model
of Don Manuel Tolsa, the work feeing done under the
administration of the Viceroy Branciforte, paid for by
the city and private contributions. The statue was not
completed until 1803, when it was unveiled with great
ceremony on the 9th of December of that year.
The statue remained in the Plaza Mayor until 1822,
when the feeling against the Spaniards became so bitter
that its destruction was threatened, and a great wooden
globe was constructed about it and painted blue to pro-
tect it from patriotic missiles thrown by the now inde-
pendent Mexicans. But the blue globe was not thought
to be a complete safeguard, and the statue was removed
to the patio of the university, where it remained until
1852, when the animosity against Spain had in a measure
subsided, and the great bronze horse with his royal rider
was placed in its present position. The height of horse
180 THE CITY OF MEXICO
and rider is fifteen feet nine inches, and the statue weighs
60,000 pounds.
PUBLIC AND PBIVATB SCHOOLS
There were in 1908, 353 government schools in the
city, including 13 professional and technical schools, and
nearly 200 private schools ; a geographical society, a geo-
logical society, an association of engineers and archi-
tects, a society of natural history; also a national
library dedicated in 1692, of upwards of 225,000 volumes.
There are over 150 manufacturing establishments,
including ironworking shops.
By rail the city is 264 miles northwest of Vera Cruz.
It is laid out with almost unbroken regularity. The
name of a street changes with almost every block, accord-
ing to old Spanish custom.
DEATH BATE IMPROVING
Though the climate is so favorable and Mexico City
is 7,415 feet above the sea, yet, with a wet, undrained
subsoil, and many thousands of Indians and half-breeds
Hiving in crowded quarters, the death rate has been
notoriously high 46 to 56 per thousand. Of late years,
however, drainage works, underground sewers, and san-
itation have tended to improve these conditions.
CHAPTEE XIV
AROUND THE VALLEY
BEAUTIFUL CHAPULTEPEO
In all the lovely Valley of Anahuac, none of the hills
embrace so many beauties as cling to Chapultepec, the
beautiful Hill of the Grasshopper, where, the legends say,
under the grateful shades of the giant ahuehuetls, was
the home of Montezuma and the Aztec tsins. When the
summer days were long they came from old Tenochtitlan,
over the long causeway, the emperor, in palanquin borne,
the first in the royal pageant, with the princess attended
by plumed and feathered warriors, and sat them down to
rest ere they commenced the climb of rugged rocks.
Attending slaves rested too their waving fans, when the
cooling zephyrs from the trees fell more softly on the
monarch's brow, till, less languid now', before the ascent
began to be half way done, the Aztec lord one day left
his palanquin, when he had bade its carriers put it down,
and entered a cavern that is there; and while the tzins
waited his return they heard his voice from the rocks
high above them, and it seemed their king was a very
god, since none knew but Montezuma how to pass thus,
through the earth from the valley to the hill-top, and all
the people shouted in adoration of their " fair god."
PALACE OF MOtfTEZUMA
It is in the legends that the palace of the Montezrunas
was on the Hill of the Grasshopper, called Chapultepec,
and here the Spanish viceroy, Don Matias de Galvaez,
commenced in 1783, and his son Don Bernardo com-
181
182 ABOUND THE VALLEY
pleted In 1785, the palace that stands there to-day, but
since each recurring viceroy, emperor and president has
proceeded further with its completion, adding, each one,
to its size and cost, until it is now a palace indeed, the
home of the president of Mexico and the seat of the
National Military Academy.
A STJPEBB SITE
The site is a superb one, reached by a winding carriage
road on one side and a steep foot-path on another, while
the other sides are precipitous, with almost perpendicular
cliffs. The carriage road and foot-path from the gates
end at the broad esplanade at the top, where the sentinels
of the cadet corps are always on guard, and beyond which
guard there is no passing, except by permit from the
governor of the National Palace. The card of the gov-
ernor is not taken up by the guard, as it is necessary to
present it to the attendant in charge to gain admittance
to the palace.
The view from the esplanade is beautiful indeed.
Tacubaya, almost hidden by trees, is in the middle dis-
tance, and beyond, on the rising hills, other towns and
villages; and still beyond the mountains are the great
snow-capped peaks of Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl. If
you agree that the vista from the esplanade is very beau-
tiful, pass through the garden to the overhanging gallery
on the other side, and look out over the broad spreading
plain of the valley. To the right is the field of Churu-
busco, and farther on to the east sheltering mountains.
In front, the magnificent city, with its hundreds of
towers ; the tallest overshadowing all the others, are the
Cathedral ? s. Beyond the city's spreading squares you
can see the hill and church of Guadalupe. Following the
range of vision round to the left there is the suburb of
Tacuba, the hill of Los Eeraedios ; and nearer to where
you stand is the battleground of Molino del Eey. The
magnificence of the picture baffles all description; it is
ABOUND THE VALLEY 183
wondrous to behold, and the memory of it lives with yon
always.
Far below your feet the tall cypresslike trees shade
the modest monument erected to the memory of the
cadets who fell in the defense of the castle from the
assaulting Americans in '47. The names on the shaft
tell of those whose lives went out in the merciless fire
of a superior army. A monument was not needed except
in their honor, says Mr. Eeau Campbell in his guide, for
the memory of these brave boys lives in the hearts of
their countrymen. There are fresh beauties in this hang-
ing garden filled with pretty flowers, in the galleries,
adorned in Pompeiian color, but these do not detain,
there is too much grandeur in the view, and you wander
again to the terrace and gaze over the valley to the
blue rim of the mountains melting into the lighter blue
of the sky, and are loth to leave even for the magnificence
of the interior of this splendid palace.
The salons and apartments of the Castle of Chapul-
tepec have the appointments of regal magnificence, since
they are a heritage from the viceroys of olden times
and a latter-day emperor; and the luxurious beauty of
the decorations is due to none more than " poor
Carlotta," though all that was indicative of the empire
has disappeared, and the monogramed " E. M." appears
everywhere to remind you that it is the palace of the
Republic of Mexico.
MOLINO DEL BET
The field of the battle of September 28, 1847, at Molino
del Eey, is near Chapultepec, and may be seen from the
palace terrace. The battle of Molino del Eey was
declared by General Grant to have been one of the
unnecessary battles of an unholy and unjust war.
CHTJBUBTJSCO
One of the engagements during the siege of the Mex-
ican capital by the Americans, was fought August 20,
184 AROUND THE VALLEY
1847, at Churubusco, under the American Generals
Smith, Worth and Twiggs. A gallant defense was made
by the commander of the Mexican forces, General Don
Pedro Maria Anaya, who, in answer to an inquiry by
General Twiggs after the battle as to the whereabouts
of the ammunition, gallantly replied: " Had I any
ammunition, you would not be here. ' ' A monument com-
memorative of the battle is in the village plaza.
In Aztec times the city of Huitzilopocho, with its tem-
ple to the god Huitzilopochtli, stood on the site of the
now straggling village of Churubusco. The old city had
a bad name as the abode of evil spirits and demons that
made night hideous with their howlings, but when the
monks built a temple to the true gods the demons of
Huitzilopochtli vanished. The Church of Santa Maria de
los Angeles, the name also of the primitive church, was
completed in 1678, May 2d, under the patronage of Don
Diego del Castillo, a silver merchant, and his wife Dona
Helena de la Cruz, whose images carved in wood are still
preserved in the church. Although almost a ruin, the
church is one of the most interesting in Mexico, and
there are still remains of its former great beauty. The
pretty decorations of tiles are rapidly disappearing, and
the richly carved organ is falling into decay. There are
several curious pictures, among which is a fine Assump-
tion of the Virgin.
THE ANCIENT CAPITAL
The town of Coyoacan was once the capital of Mexico
and is older than the City of Mexico, since Cortez estab-.
lished the seat of government there August 17, 1521, and
from Coyoacan laid out the plans and directed the found-
ing of the city, and there were the feasts celebrating the
victories of the conquest. On the north side of the plaza
stands the house in which the conqueror lived for many
days with La Marina, his faithful guide and interpreter.
,The coat of arms of Cortez is over the doorway. Near
ABOUND THE VALLEY 185
this house is another with a garden, where Cortez also
dwelt, and in the garden a well in which he drowned his
wife, who lies beneath the cross on the mound in a near-by
churchyard. The Church of San Juan Bautista was built
in 1583, founded at the same time with the Dominican
monastery in 1530 by Fray Domingo de Vetanzos. The
stone cross on the mound in the churchyard was placed
there by Cortez.
MEXICO'S MONTE CABLO
Tacubaya is the prettiest place in the valley of Mex-
ico, with its beautiful gardens, parks and shaded streets,
lovely flowers and luxuriant trees everywhere, so that
it is no wonder that here is the place of the summer
homes of the wealthiest people in the Mexican capital*
The location of the little city, on the slope of the hills
back of Chapultepec, is so advantageous that it was con-
templated at one time, after the great inundation of the
City of Mexico in 1629 and '34, to make this the site of
the national capital- At that time Tacubaya was called
Atlacoloayan, the " place in the bend of the stream;"
but after its settlement by the Spaniards it became
known as Tacubaya de los Martires.
The principal church is that of San Diego, but the
parish church and the old monastery of the Dominicans
are worthy of a visit. The one-time palace of the Arch-
bishop of Mexico was afterwards used as the National
Astronomical Observatory. The palace was built in 1737
by the Archbishop and Viceroy Vizarron. Before its
removal to Chapultepec the National Military Academy
occupied this palace.
The Alameda and the Plaza de Cartagena are pretty
places, with trees, flowers and fountains. In the west
part of the city are the quaint old mills of Santo Domingo,
and near them the Arbol Benito, " the blessed tree."
The story goes that a monk passing that way was wearied
and so rested was he under the grateful shade that he
186 ABOUND THE VALLEY
blest the tree and bade it be always green. Immediately
there came from its roots a spring of cold clear water,
That this is true, yon may see that the tree is ever green,
and the brook goes on forever.
Tacnbaya has been called the Monte Carlo of Mexico,
and not inaptly so. There was gambling there by gam-
blers of all sorts, sizes, ages and conditions, on the streets,
under the white umbrellas, in booths nnder the trees,
where you may wager a penny or a peso. In the gardens
were games that savor of Monte Carlo indeed. There
were tables for monte, rouge et noir, or any game you
please. The tables were crowded all the time, particu-
larly in the evening; when the stakes were high, as much
as twenty and thirty thousand silver dollars were on
the tables at one time. There are dozens of rooms in
one garden, for games, refreshment, music and dancing,
while the gardens are lighted with many colored lights
that make the scene one of enchantment. Bull fights and
cock fights are the other attractions of this intensely
interesting town.
LA VIGA CANAL
The Canal of La Viga is a navigable waterway for
traffic between the city and the outlying towns and vil-
lages on the shores of Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco,
flowing from those lakes to Lake Texcoco, and does not,
as is popularly supposed, take in any drainage or sewer-
age from the city; the water coining from the south to
the eastern district of the city passes northeasterly to
Lake Texcoco; it is a murky-looking water, but is not
nearly so murky as it looks; taken up in the hand or
vessel, it is as clear as it comes from the lake. The boats
of La Viga are different from the boats of any other
canal, and there are different styles of boats on La Viga,
ranging from the dug-out canoe of the Chinampas to the
flat-bottom freight boat propelled by poles in the hands
of strong arms, a sort of Armstrong motor, and
ABOUND THE VALLEY 187
wheel steamers of antiquated design. All classes carry
passengers, with their donkeys and dogs, these latter
being indispensable accompanists to the passenger, since
each is an owner of part of the cargo of wood, charcoal
or garden truck, and must have the burro to make a
delivery at the port of destination, and the dog well,
the dog just goes along from force of habit, or an innate
aversion to being left behind, and alone, because the
family comes to town with its head and the house is
closed till they return. One of these long, low, rakish
craft from the other shores of Chalco and Xochimilco is
a sight to see, at once a freighter and a floating menag-
erie, as there are other live stock besides the dogs and
donkeys, in the shape of goats, sheep, ducks, and chickens.
The boats bring the provender for man and beast in a
city of nearly half a million of people, and largely supply
the city with fuel, the boats bringing it to the landing
places and the burros making the delivery throughout
the city.
But there are boats for passengers, and for tourists
to Santa Anita, Mexicalcingo, San Juanico, Ixtacalco,
and las chinampas, the floating gardens* These boats are
a Mexican edition of the gondola, and with a Mexican
gondolier in the bow, using a pole instead of a paddle.
These gondolas are as picturesque in a way as the
Venetian sort, not as graceful, perhaps, but sui generis,
in a class of their own, a wide, flat bottom batteau, like
an old-fashioned country ferryboat; there are low seats
on each side running lengthwise, from end to end, under
a canopy with gaudy-colored curtains.
The start on the voyage does not impress favorably,
but as it proceeds it grows interesting, especially after
passing the Grarita, where the municipal duties were
collected from incoming freighters ; thence the wide, open
canal is alive with queer little craft, the long, narrow
canoes darting here and there among the larger ones, the
little pleasure boats with their passengers squatted under
188 ABOUND THE VALLEY
the grass-woven canopies, and the larger boats coming
from or going tc Xochimilco and Chalco with their car-
goes of men, women, children, burros, dogs, wood, char-
coal and garden truck; then there are little bumboat
canoes with dusky " Little Buttercups " to come along-
side your boat, with the cleanest-looking baskets covered
with the whitest of drawn-work cloths, under which are
the native sandwiches, tortillas, tamales, con carne or
con dulce, that, no matter how they may have seemed else-
where, here look temptingly toothsome. Any day will
do for the voyage to Santa Anita and much will be seen
that you never saw before, but on a Sunday or a feast
day there will be more life on the canal and in the
villages.
VILLAGE OF SANTA ANITA
Santa Anita is a straggling village of thatched houses,
a relic of primitive times almost under the shadow of the
towers of the metropolitan city, a pleasure resort of the
middle and lower classes, where every house is an open
one, fonda, restaurant or pulque shop, with thatched
bowers over the seats and tables of the revellers.
" When your boat is anchored under a great tree at
Santa Anita," says Mr. Beau Campbell, " go ashore
and pass up the street from the canal to the little old
church and beyond to a forlorn little plaza, where there
are some swings and some more fondas and pulque shops,
and you will find the canoes to take you through the
sluices of the floating gardens. These gardens have no
walks and must be floated through, which would entitle
them to their name, even if they were not really floating
gardens, as they were in the olden times when the
chinampas grew the fruits and flowers for Montezuma
and the Aztec tzins ; now they are flower and vegetable
beds to supply the city markets. It is worth the while
of the trip if it were only to see the acres and acres of
poppies, whence the natives garland themselves and their
ABOUND THE VALLEY 189
houses on feast days, and of which, you may bring away
a boat load for a real.
" On the going or the return trip a stop should be
made at the hacienda of Juan Corona. While he lived,
Don Juan's house was yours; his was a hospitable roof,
and it remains to-day in happy memory with open doors.
Don Juan was a great man in his day, as valiant as he
was good and charitable, not a soldier, nor yet padre or
a missionary ; his life was full of brave deeds and good
works. Don Juan was a bull-fighter on Sundays and
feast days, and a philanthropist all the week, as if he
would make six days of charity balance his account of
questionable sport on Sunday. His pleasure was the
care of the children of the poor, till he was called the
father of the destitute, when he established a school for
his wards that is still maintained in one of the rooms of
his house. The old Don's hobby was less of tauromachy
than the collection of curios, and his house is a monu-
ment to the memory of that hobby; every room is a
museum in itself. Pass through the open door ; no invita-
tion is needed, and there is none to stop your way. Within 1
the patio of trees, flowers and climbing vines is a stone
stairway leading to an upper gallery; the curios com-
mence on the stairway and continue through all the
house. Pass around the gallery to the far side of the
patio and enter through the kitchen, the quaintest, clean-
est kitchen in the world; then through the dining-room,
bed chamber and parlor, coming out again onto the
gallery at the stairs, where you may enter the school-
room and see a school wholly unlike any other. As a
visitor enters, the bright little beneficiaries of Corona's
bounty rise in respectful salutation and welcome. The
school has not the ample means it had in the life of good
old Don Juan, and any offering is not only to a worthy
charity, but a tribute to the memory of a good man.
" It will take longer to see all in the quaint old house
than to write it down, since it is impossible to do it com-
190 ABOUND THE VALLEY
pletely. In the kitchen is the old-fashioned cooking-
place built of brick, around it and on all the walls are
the utensils of earthenware, and in the dining-room the
table and its appurtenances are as quaintly curious. But
it is in the other rooms where are the curios and relics,
of every age and era of Mexico's history back to prehis-
toric times; idols from the Pyramids of the Sun and
Moon at San Juan Teotihuacan ; weapons, plumes, shields
and war dresses of the Aztecs, a cigar case, pistol and
sword of the patriot-priest Hidalgo; the bed in which
General Santa Anna died; some pieces from the table
service of the Emperor Maximilian and one of the mus-
kets with which he was shot ; the rifle of General Miramon
used at Queretaro ; a fine collection of chicaras, chocolate
cups painted by the Indians of Michoacan: very curious
and ancient costumes of the bull-ring, among which is one
used by the Spanish matador, Bernardo G-avino, when
he was killed in the ring at Texcoco ; ancient Chinese and
Japanese armor; paintings of religious subjects and
scenes from the bull ring ; portraits of Don Juan and his
wife and of Mexican celebrities ; a collection of bird eggs,
stuffed animals, two immense bowls or platters with the
portraits of Maximilian and Carlotta ; old tapestries and
silken shawls; rugs of the skins of wild beasts, and a
thousand and one other curious things collected in a long
lifetime, of which no complete list or description may be
made, but each article is in its place just as Don Juan left
them when he died."
CHAPTER XV
A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT
Bullfighting is still by far the most popular amusement
of Mexico. The spirit of tauromachy inherited from old
Spain lives in the modern bull ring or Plaza de Toros,
according to Mr. Beau Campbell, the noted traveler,
whose graphic description of the methods of the ** cruel
sport ' ' is reproduced below.
An honest effort has been made by the government to
stop the sport by the enactment of laws interdicting the
functions in the federal district and other metropolitan
localities, but the laws were repealed as often as enacted,
so great was the pressure of popular demand from the
masses, and notwithstanding the influence and example
of non-attendance of the best people, the Plaza de Toros
is easily the most liberally patronized amusement in
Mexico.
" The better the day the better the deed " may not be
a Mexican maxim, but the better days are given over to
the bull fight. Sundays and feast days are chosen, and
on no other day are the plazas open.
The Plaza de Toros is the bull ring a great circular
building of stone or wood with an interior that is an
immense amphitheater seating thousands of people. The
seats are in tiers rising to the top where the private
boxes are, and as there is no roof except over the outer
circle shading the boxes, there is a shady side called
" sombra " and a sunny side, " sol/' with prices in
accordance with 'the location, from 25 to 50 cents in the
sun and $1 to $3 in the shade, the private boxes with
191
192 A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT
eight to ten chairs cost from $12 to $20, according to the
reputation of the company giving the performance, as
they vary greatly as the stars and support in a theatrical
troupe, and what may be the price when only local talent
is on the bills will be largely increased when a star
matador and his company are underlined. Tickets may
be bought at the gates, but it is always best to buy them
in advance, usually at some cigar store frequented by the
toreadores or at the city offices of the bull ring, the loca-
tions of which are announced in the advertisements.
FOBM OF THE BIlsTG
The ring itself is an arena about a hundred feet in
diameter encircled by a strong board fence about five
feet high with a foot rail on the inside two feet from
the ground. This is to assist a torero too closely pursued
by the bull to escape by a leap over the fence to the
passageway that extends around the ring between the
fence and the seats. But it is not always an escape, since
the bull often leaps the barrier in pursuit of his tormemor
or to get away from him, and at intervals in the passage-
way short barriers are placed just far enough from the
wall to admit the body of the man and not wide enough
for the bull's horns. There are gates that open into the
ring and at the same time close the passage and thus
the bull is forced to return to the ring.
There is a " president " to preside at each corrida, or
performance, to direct the details and to decide all differ-
ences of opinion between the people and the performers.
There are always questions to be decided, and the presi-
dent, usually a state or municipal officer, must be a man
of executive ability and well posted in tauromachy. His
seat is in a gorgeously decorated box near the center of
the shady side, and when he enters, with a staff of high-up,
well-known lovers of the sport, it is the signal for much
cheering, especially so if he is a president whose decisions
have been favorable to the people.
Pla/a at <<uanajuaio, with La Fiance Hotel in background
Flower Market in the Plaza Mayor, Mexico City
Hall of tlie Petrified MuminiCH m the Catacombs, Guanajuato
A hall in the National Museum, City of Mexico
Play of the Capes Typical scenes in the Plaza de Toros, City of Mexico
Enraging tlie Bull
A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT 193
DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT
The president has the general direction of the corrida,
when he is ready the company must be, and when he has
given his permission for the bulls to be killed then the
killing commences. A bugler stands at the president's
side to call the signals to remove the horses, or a bull
that may prove too tame, to call the banderilleros and
announce the killing of the bull. Hence it may be seen
how easily a president may be popular or unpopular with
the masses, as he may or may not give them quite enough
of bloody action on the scene. Any deviation from the
program must be with the consent and approval of the
president, and the performance cannot end until he is
satisfied that the advertisement has been carried out.
There is music by one or more brass bands that may
be heard by those sitting very near; the shouts and
cat-calls of the canaille drown all semblance of music for
those on the opposite side of the arena, but the musicians
are there and you can see when they are playing. A
company of soldiers stationed within call of the president
with another company deployed about the arena do
police duty, and try to prevent the too enthusiastic mem-
bers of the audience from taking charge of the whole
thing, throwing the seats into the ring, or other mild
methods of evincing their disapproval of an act or presi-
dential decision. The soldiers are rarely called into
active service ; their presence has a wholesome effect, and
while the mad enthusiast who would like to see a horse
gored just once more, and gets madder because the presi-
dent says there has been enough of it, feels like fighting
the whole company, he is usually pacified by a gentle
touch on the shoulder by the gendarme and growlingly
subsides.
AND THRILLING SOBFE
The scene is a brilliant one and the tension of nerves
is great in anticipation of what is to come; the feeling
194 A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT
is one of amazement and anxious expectation. The bands
are playing, or seem to be, and the thousands of impatient
spectators are shouting, whistling and yelling themselves
hoarse. There may be five thousand people, but there is
noise enough, and seats too, for twenty thousand, and if
there is a star matador they will all be occupied. The
president and his companions are in their places, and the
applause grows greater as the gates on the other side of
the arena open to admit a gaily costumed horseman
mounted on a splendid horse ; he is the alguasil; he rides
directly to the front of the president's box and asks per-
mission to kill the bulls.
Permission granted, the president tosses to him the
key of the toril, which he catches, and gallops back to
receive the company. If he catches the key there is
applause; if he misses it, a storm of hisses.
The gate opens again and the coining of the gay com-
pany is loudly announced with a grand flourish of
trumpets. It is a brilliant spectacle, this company of
nimble-footed athletes in costumes of silk and satin, gold
and velvet, as they march quickly across the arena to
make their obeisance to the president and then to the
audience.
OBDEE OF THE PROCESSION
First in the gay procession come the matadores or
espadas, the stars of the company, who handle the swords
to the death of the bulls ; next the l)anderilleros, second
only to the matadores in the profession ; these gentlemen
are they who place the banderillas in the bull's shoulders ;
and then the capeadores, third in rank, who hope to be
'banderilleros and some day matadores , but now have only
to manipulate the capes to distract the bull's attention or
place him in proper position for the banderilla or the
sword. The picadores follow on horseback, their long
lances in hand. Then four mules, gaily caparisoned, har-
nessed together and driven to an arrangement of traces
A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT 195
for dragging out dead bulls and horses. Behind these
two men with wheelbarrows, shovels, rakes and brooms,
for cleaning up the ring, and then the attendants, " sabios
monos," the wise monkeys, as they are called from their
good suggestion and advice to the performers diestros,
toreros or toreadores as the bull-fighters are called.
The toreador is recognized on the street by a costume
as distinctly his own as the one of silk and satin, gold and
velvet that he wears in the ring; it is a short " round-
about " jacket with very tight trousers; the hat has a
straight stiff brim with a low flat top felt crown; under
the rim of the hat is a little queue of plaited hair, called
a coleta; what this is for does not appear, but if any
offense against the ethics of the sport is committed this
queue is cut off, so the possession of it may be regarded
as a reward of merit, that when a torero is retired is cut
off with a scissors of gold.
Proceeding to the president's box, and having received
his acknowledgments, the company parades around the
arena to receive the plaudits of the people.
COMING OF THE BULL
Now all is ready, the beautiful capes of satin and
velvet are thrown to admirers in the audience, for it is
an honor to hold a toreador's cape; as they are not used
in the ring, cheaper and stronger capes of bright-colored
oil-cloth are taken instead. Everyone except the toreros
have left the ring and for a brief moment there is com-
plete silence. The bugle sounds. All eyes are turned to
a low door on the other side that is suddenly thrown open.
From a dark stall beyond the bull is coining. As he
passes under the rail a barbed steel point covered with
flowing ribbons is placed in his shoulder; the colors of
these ribbons indicate the ranche or hacienda from
whence he came, as the bulls are bred on certain farms
for their fighting qualities, and your smallest sport can
pick out a good fighter when he sees the ribbons as easily
196 A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT
as a Kentucky boy does the winner in a horse race by the
colors of the jockey's jacket.
The bull comes from a dark stall where he has been
kept previous to the fight, finding the gates suddenly
opened and a possible way of escape, gallops through a
scarcely less dark passage that leads him to the open
arena and to certain death. Startled by the pricking of
the steel dart in his shoulder and maddened by its sting-
ing he bounds forward to the center of the ring, where,
with head up and tail lashing the air, he stops a second.
It is a magnificent sight now before the carnage begins.
The splendid animal stands and bids defiance as he
throws the dust over his back, pawing and shaking his
shaggy head with mingled rage, surprise, and fear, per-
haps but little of fear, for in a second he has decided upon
a plan of attack.
KO ESCAPE FOB THE HORSE
The shouting thousands and the blare of trumpets
would frighten a more fearless beast, but if it scares the
bull there is no hint of it in his action. A look to right
or left and the unequal fight is on. The throwing of a
cape in front of him and the thrower is chased to the
barrier around the ring and the man is over it none too
quickly, as he may believe when he hears the boards crack-
ing behind Trim as a pair of sharp horns are thrust
through them as if they were paper. Foiled here, the
bull turns about and finds a horse in his way, a poor
broken down horse, with eyes blindfolded that he may
not see Ms danger.
There is no way of escape for the horse ; his rider spurs
him on, and while the picador with his lance may for a
moment turn the bull and save the horse, it is but
deferring the inevitable for the time. Passing by this
horse the bull finds another on the other side ; this time
the horse does not fare so well; the bull rushes upon
him with all his might, the sharp horns sink into his
A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT 197
flesh as needles into a piece of cloth, the horse is lifted
bodily into the air and tossed over on the ground with
the rider underneath perhaps.
A capeador throws a cape over the bull's face, distracts
his attention from the fallen picador and wounded, or
more probably dead horse. The capeador deftly leads
him to the other horse that just now escaped, but now his
time has come; the bull has learned that the horse is
defenseless, the pricking of the picador's lance is nothing.
While it is intended that the bull should be held off and
the horse saved it is rarely done, and this one is disem-
boweled it may be that if he does not die in his tracks
he is ridden on around the ring dragging his intestines
under his feet, only to be gored again and again till he
is dead, for without the blood of the horses no bull fight
is complete. The two horses slain, or so badly disabled
that they cannot be ridden, the bugle sounds, and unless
the president panders to the clamor of the crowd for
more horses the first act with the first bull is over and
the banderilleros are ready.
AK INTEKESTING FEATTJEB
Now comes the really artistic and interesting feature
of the bull fight, the placing of the banderillas. The
banderilla is a dart about two feet long with a sharp
barbed point and covered with fancy colored paper or
ribbons. The banderillero, a man without cape or means
of defense, takes two landerillas, one in each hand, walks
out in front of the bull, holding them up, shaking the
ribbons to call the bull towards him, and as he approaches
the darts are placed in his shoulders where the barbs
cause them to hang as if they were for ornaments instead
of goads to further rage and madness. The man is an
athlete and a nimble one. It is the rule that the darts
must not be thrust except while the bull is in action and
on the attack, so it must be done quickly.
It is said that the bull in the moment of attack closes
198 A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT
Ms eyes, so it is but a quick decision of the instant to
thrust the darts, step to one side, and the bull passes by,
only to find another banderillero on the other side with
another pair of banderillas for his further decoration.
Another rule is that the banderillas must not be placed
back of the shoulder. If they are properly placed and so
firmly that they are not shaken out, loud and long is the
applause, otherwise the hisses are shrill and sharp. The
banderillero is a favorite with the lover of tauromachy
as well as with the first-timers at the fight. It seems with
his lack of defense, and depending entirely on his agility
he is the hero in this contest between human skill and
brute force, so that it is often the matador comes back
from his advanced position as a star, much to the delight
of the audience, to try his hand and thrust an extra pair
of banderillas.
In all well-regulated companies there are two banderil-
leros, each with two pairs of banderillas, making eight
in all, that, if their work is well done, are hanging from
the bull's shoulders, and the president's bugler announces
the end of second act and calls the matador to kill the
bull.
THE STAR PERFOBMER
As the star in some great drama is received with
plaudits as he enters upon the stage, so is the matador
with shouts and throwing of hats, that is, if he is indeed
a star matador known to kill his bulls with a single stroke
of the sword. The matador takes his sword and muleta,
and while the capeadores are leading the bull to further
weariness on the other side of the ring, advances to the
front of the president's box, hat in hand, dedicates the
bull to something or somebody, some state or county,
some man, or girl, and tells the president that he will kill
the bull in the most approved style, then, tossing his cap
to an admirer in the shady seats, proceeds to do his part,
or after saluting the president, he may cross to the
A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT 199
sunny side, as it is sometimes well to cater to the rabble,
and tell the people there that he will kill the bull in their
especial style and toss his cap there to be held in great
honor while he does it.
DEATH OF THE BULL
Then advancing toward the bull, the matador holds in
his right hand a long, perfectly straight, sharp-pointed,
keen-edged sword; in his left he carries the muleta, the
" red rag " of the Spanish bull fight, and used only in
the last act, in the killing of the bull. The muleta is a
piece of red flannel three or four feet square, held on a
stick, near the ground and in front of the bull, kept in a
fluttering motion before his eyes, which seems to infuriate
further the already enraged animal. He lowers his head
and makes a rush for the muleta, which is held, although
in the left hand, across to the right of the matador; this
gives him a fair play for the stroke of the sword, and as
the bull lowers his head to attack the " red rag " the
right hand of the matador drives the sword to the hilt
into the bull's shoulders, or between them, cutting the
spinal cord or piercing the heart, which if it has been
well done brings the bull to his knees and he lies down to
die, but it may not be death until the " stroke of mercy "
has been given by the cachetero, an attendant with a
short dagger who comes from behind and gives the bull
a quick, sure thrust between the horns to instantaneous
death.
DEAGGIKG OUT THE BEAD
While this is being done the matador is bowing his
acknowledgments to an enthusiastic audience, who have
gone wild and thrown their hats, canes, coats, cigars and
coin into the ring; the hats, canes and coats are thrown
back to their owners, but the cigars and coin are kept for
future reference. But if the killing has been bungled
and the espada's work not well done, then instead of
200 A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT
canes, hats and cigars the disapproving enthusiast pulls
up the boards, and with the chairs and anything that is
loose or that he can loosen, throws them into the ring.
Four mules gaily harnessed are then driven in, a chain
fastened about the heels of the dead bull and he is
dragged out.
Even before the dead first bull has disappeared and the
dead horses dragged out, the two picadores appear on
other horses worse than the first, if possible, the bugle
sounds again, and another bull bounds into the ring to
meet the fate of the first; after the second another and
another till five or six are killed, and if you have been
there you are to be the judge whether your Sunday after-
noon has been well spent.
The upper classes, as a rule, do not frequent the bull-
ring, though there are many and brilliant exceptions;
you may see on the Paseo in the city of Mexico almost
any day the most elegant equipages on that grand boule-
vard among whose occupants are little children dressed in
the full ring costume of the t reador. The Mexican small
boy plays at bull-fighting as the American does at base-
ball, or as the more sporty one puts on the gloves with
his fellows is it then any wonder that the custom pre-
vails since the children are taught to admire it?
CHAPTER XVI
RANCHES AND RANCHING
In Mexico, every large plot of land used for agricul-
tural purposes, or for cattle grazing, is known as a ranch
or " hacienda. " In the majority of instances the haci-
endas are devoted to the grazing of cattle and the raising
of agricultural products in conjunction with one another.
Farms which in the United States would be considered
unusually large, placed beside these Mexican ranches
would shrink into insignificance. In America a ranch
of 60,000 acres is considered exceptional. In Mexico a
ranch covering 100,000 acres is considered relatively
small. They range from this figure up into the millions
of acres under one man's ownership. There are farms
in Mexico employing 10,000 laborers and covering terri-
tories as large as some of our New England states.
Mexico is the country of vast landed proprietors, the
whole of the country being controlled and practically
owned through indeterminate grants from the govern-
ment to a relatively small number of land barons.
THE MEXICAN" TABLE-LANDS
The great mass of the farming and ranching territory
consists of an elevated plateau formed by the expansion
of the Cordilleras of Central America, from which ter-
race slopes descend with more or less rapid inclination
towards the Atlantic on the east and the Pacific on the
west. It is on these slopes, too, that great haciendas have
been built up. The wealth of the higher land lies in its
wonderful silver and gold mines and in the immense value
201
202 RANCHES AND RANCHING
of its forests of precious woods. The table lands of
Mexico lie at elevations of from 5,000 to more than 9,000
feet above the sea level and they exhibit great variations
of land and soil. Rising out from these plateaus are
some of the highest volcanoes in the world. The most
famous of these is the volcano of Popocatapetl, or The
Smoking Mountain, whose peak is 17,880 feet above the
sea level.
The principal chain of mountains intersecting this
table land is the Sierra Madre range, in which lie the
chief gold and silver mines of the country. Lesser ranges
break up the Pacific slope of the plateau and cut the land
with deeply cleft ravines of astonishing magnificence.
Up these ravines and all over the west coast during cer-
tain periods of the hot season there blow storms of
exceeding violence, and it is during these months, also,
that the climate of the coast is exceedingly prejudicial
to persons of the white races, although during recent
years knowledge of preventive medicine and preventive
sanitation, and the exercise of greater care in the choice
of drinking water, have done much to lower the death
rate among the whites who remain in the lower lands dur-
ing the hot season.
In the far southern part of the country, in the Penin-
sula of Yucatan, science has been unable to check the
ravages of fevers which attack the natives almost as
readily as the whites. Weakened by the brutal slave-
driving which the laborers undergo, the terrible diseases
attack the emaciated frames of the workers and they are
Mlled off by fevers in appalling numbers annually.
But to return to ranching as it is carried out in the
more favored parts of Mexico :
KANY VEGETABLE PEODTJOTS
"While the staple farm products raised on these great
ranches are comparatively few in number, the differences
EANOHES AND EANCHING 203
in altitude that may be found in Mexico permit the grow-
ing of almost all the vegetable products that may be
found between the equator and the pole. In Mexico, in
the course of a few hours, a traveler may experience
every gradation of climate, embracing torrid heat and
glacial cold, and a pass through different gradations of
vegetation, including wheat and sugar cane, apples, olives
and guavas.
The Spaniards on their first visit to Mexico distin-
guished its climatic divisions under three heads : Tierras
Calientes (hot or littoral lands), Tierras Templadas (tem-
perate lands), and Tierras Frias (cold or high lands).
The mean annual heat of the hot lands is 77 degrees, and
the soil, which is generally fertile, produces corn, tobacco,
bananas, oranges, pineapples, and other fruits and vege-
tables which grow under similar climatic conditions.
The tract of which mention will be made later as a
great slave district, knows only two seasons, the hot and
the dry; the winter, or season of north winds, and the
summer, or season of breezes. It is during the season
first named that there occur the terrific storms that yearly
pass over parts of Mexico and are known as " northers."
The one redeeming feature of this season is that at this
time the coastal regions are free of the ravages of yellow
fever.
It is in the medium elevations that some of the most
productive farms are found, and it is certainly on these
that the best class of laborers are found to work the farms
and there live the best class of townsmen. The tempera-
ture is extremely equable, varying from 70 degrees to
80 degrees as the greatest heat. Water is plentiful and
fairly pure, and crops grow vigorously.
To call the third division " cold " from our northern
standpoint is a misnomer, but from the standpoint of
tropical countries the thermometer falls considerably
lower than is generally experienced so near the equator.
The average temperature is approximately 66 degrees,
204 RANCHES AND EANCHING
falling at times considerably below this figure, and during
the hot months it rises much higher.
CONDITIONS OF LABOR
The condition of the laborer ranges from a state of
comparative freedom in the northern part of the country
to one of partial serfdom as one progresses south, and
finally in Yucatan and neighboring territories the state
of the laborer is reduced to actual slavery and slavery
of the cruelest sort. Men, women and children there are
literally worked to death, and if they fail to meet the
demands made on them by their owners it is no uncom-
mon thing to have the slaves stretched out by their hands
and feet and flogged until they are dead.
In the more northern territories, however, the treat-
ment of the peons who do the work on the ranches is more
humane, but in the end it amounts to little more than a
system of contract labor which places the laborer in a
position of virtual ownership by the managers of the
haciendas.
It is practically impossible to buy tracts of land in
Mexico with a clear title, but it is not difficult for for-
eigners to persuade the Mexican land barons to lease for
a given number of years parts of their own immense
tracts of land. American capital having secured a lease
on the land, the owners find already on the territory
families occupying the acres and in the possession of
crude adobe houses and crude instruments for purposes
of tilling the soil. The more wealthy of the peons might
possibly own an ox or two, but in their absence all of the
labor on the plot is done by hand.
AMEBICAN" MAHAGEBS' METHODS
Taking possession of the main buildings standing in
the center of the territory acquired by lease, the new
managers go among the peons and offer this proposition:
" We," the managers say, " will provide you with
EANCHES AND RANCHING- 205
modern instruments for plowing and cutting and reaping
your grain crops, but at the same time you must give us
your promise that you will turn over to us all of the
grain that you reap from the tracts of land you occupy.
In return for this a certain percentage of your debt to
us on account of the farming tools will be wiped out. At
the same time you will be allowed credit at the company
store for the value of the grain in excess of the install-
ment payment you have made on the machinery given
you."
The company owning the hacienda is by this means
relieved of the responsibility of superintending the grow-
ing of the crops. The running of the concern becomes
largely a matter of bookkeeping. The grain turned into
the company by the laborers on the farm is paid for at
from one-third to one-half its market value. The expense
of storing, however, and shipping to markets where there
is a sale for it is borne by the company's officers.
PAYMENT FOB THE OEOPS
On many of the haciendas, however, instead of payment
for the crops being made in credit at the company's store,
the laborers are given cash for their produce. But in the
end it works out in the same way, because of the fact that
the only place peons have an opportunity to spend their
money is at the company's store. The money, therefore,
eventually finds its way back to the pockets of the haci-
enda owners. At the same time, in this return of the
money to their pockets a considerable profit is reaped,
because the prices charged at the company's stores allow
a wide margin of profit.
' PLAN SUITS THE PEONS
Strange as it may seem, the Mexican on the better
regulated ranches of this sort is perfectly contented with
his lot. Through the presence there of American capital,
he is enabled to get credit, or money, and hence is able to
206 RANCHES AND EANCHING
make purchase of things which to us might seem humble
enough, yet to him are luxuries. The better equipment
he gets enables him to get through his day's labor with a
little less effort than under the old regime. His home,
a humble adobe building most likely, plain as it may be
on the outside, yet within is added to here and there with
simple comforts that, without the presence in the district
of American capital, he would utterly lack. He marries
and raises a family of children under conditions in the
northern part of the country, at least, which are in some
points of view enviable. The system has the advantage
that while a peon may never possibly rise to any great
level of wealth and certainly not to social position, yet
through persistent effort he may provide for the com-
forts of himself and family in direct proportion to the
labor, industry and intelligence he puts into the cultiva-
tion of his little farm.
LIVING FBOM HAKD TO MOUTH
The lower-class Mexicans themselves are a slow, easy-
going folk, crushed by so many years of oppression into
dogged servility, but when in a fight among themselves
they have no great fear of death, as, indeed, what of great
value is there for them to live for? They live from hand
to mouth and from day to day, having apparently little
care for the morrow.
Daily wages, when labor is paid for in cash, amounts
to about 35 cents a day in United States currency. Among
the laborers the clothes worn are of the simplest kind,
a pair of trousers, a shirt and a hat, and maybe a pair
of sandals. These are used where the character of the
ground they are to travel over is rough, or is likely to
be infested by the many kinds of cactus growths with
which the country abounds.
The men are usually paid once a week, on Sunday,, but
they invariably have contracted debts during the week
equaling or amounting to more than the total of their
EANCHES AND BANCHING 207
weekly wage. The result is that a few minutes after they
have been paid they are penniless again and are borrow-
ing or opening charge accounts once more at the com-
pany's stores.
ONE BESULT OF EAISIKG WAGES
A characteristic story is told of an American who
started a tobacco plantation near Mazatlan in the terri-
tory of Tepic, and after the initial start had been made
commenced reaping big profits from his investment. The
men doing the actual work on the tobacco fields at this
time were receiving approximately 35 cents a day. The
American, in a spirit of generosity, decided to let his
employes share in some measure in his profits and he
raised the pay of the men from 35 cents a day to a dollar
and a half. This was done shortly prior to the time the
tobacco was to be harvested and the American made the
increase in pay in anticipation of the profits he was to
make on the season's work.
He paid the men off on Sunday morning, and one by
one they gradually disappeared until the three or four
Americans on the hacienda were the only human beings
on it. The following morning, when the call was made
for the men to get into the fields, there were none present
to take care of the harvest. They did not appear that
day and the American made frantic but unsuccessful
efforts to get other men to go into the fields and cut the
tobacco, which had just reached the proper stage in its
growth for harvesting. He was unable to do so, and in
the due course of time the wet season came around, the
dried leaves were soaked, and the whole crop became a
total loss.
Five weeks later, almost to a day, the hundred or more
employes of the hacienda who had vanished re-appeared
on the ranch and announced that they were ready to go
to work.
" You fools! " cried the American, addressing them.
208 EANCHES AND EANCHING
" Don't you know that the crop time has come and gone
and that the whole harvest is lost. Where have you been f
"Why should you have gone and treated me in this way
just at a time when I gave you a great increase in your
pay? "
" That was just it," responded the leader of the men.
" Senor was so good as to pay us five times as much as
we were getting before, so what was the use of our going
to work again until all the money had been spent? "
HOW THE OWNEBS LIVE
The owners and managers of these large ranches live
in great adobe buildings in something of the grandeur
of ancient feudal lords. Mexican housemen or " mozos "
attend to every want of their employers and life is made
exceedingly easy for the management. While the owners
of the hacienda are up and at work early in the morning
almost as early as their employes from two to four
hours during the middle of the day is set aside as a time
of rest for both the laborers and the managers. From
half past eleven in the morning until 2 :30 to 3 :30 p. m.,
during the greatest heat of the day, the whole human
population of the ranch and the animals as well
take their daily " siesta."
PEON SLAVERY IN THE SOUTH
While the lot of the peon in the northern part of
Mexico is not so bad as it has often been pictured, in the
southern part, in the states of Yucatan and Campeche
and in the territory of Quintana Boo, the peon is in a
state of absolute slavery and the treatment accorded him
by his masters is such as to rival the ill treatment of
slaves and captives in the most barbarous times of the
world's history. The Peninsula of Yucatan is an elbow
of Central America which shoots off in a northeasterly
direction almost half way to Florida. The peninsula is
some 80,000 square miles in area and embraces the two
Foyer of the Jiuuez Theater
Juarez Theater, said to be the finest in America
Small farms in the valley on Mexican National Railway
Scene on a Mexican hacienda
Castle of Chapultepec in the Valley of Mexico
Open top observation car of the Reau Campbell Tours, from which many
of these illustrations were photographed
Wateifall at the Budge of the Gods, on the Mexican Central RR
At the Floating Gardens, La Viga Canal
EANCHES AND BANCHING- 209
states and territories named, each of which, is slightly
in excess of 25,000 square miles in extent. Yucatan is
about 1,000 miles directly south of New Orleans, La.
The character of the country is such that almost noth-
ing of an agricultural character will grow, yet the popu-
lation of the country is more dense than that of the
United States. The land is barren and rocky, but it is
the scene of the production of henequen, or sisal hemp,
from which binder twine and hemp rope are made. This
territory furnishes the world's supply of this material.
WHEBE SISAL HEMP GKOWS
Henequen itself is a variety of hardy cactus plant
which has been found peculiarly adapted to growth in the
strange rocky soil of Yucatan Peninsula. Eows and rows
of the gigantic green plants extend for miles and miles,
the farms being of immense size and each hacienda house
being surrounded by a small city of employes or slaves
who work the hemp plantations. The number of slaves
employed on the farms varies from 400 to 2,500, accord-
ing to the size of the plantation itself and the wealth of
the men who are operating it.
Nearly a quarter of a billion pounds of sisal hemp are
annually exported from this tract of land. This vast
amount is grown and harvested by an army of slaves who
are under the absolute control of about 250 landowners.
THE HEKEQTJEK KINGS
The owners of these plantations have made themselves
hugely wealthy. Greatest of all the henequen kings is
Olegario Molina, former governor of the state of Yuca-
tan, whose lands in Yucatan and Quintana Eoo aggre-
gate 15,000,000 acres. As slaves on these plantations,
the Maya Indians constitute by far the greatest propor-
tion. They number only a little under 100,000, while the
Orient contributes about 4,000 slaves from Korea and
210 EANCHES AND BANCEING
the number is rounded out by about 10,000 Taqui Indians
from Sonora.
The Mayas who are now the slaves on the plantations
were once the owners of the lands, but were deprived of
their possessions and reduced to chattels by the powers
which grabbed their lands.
" EiBTFOBCED SEBVIOE FOB DEBT "
Now, as a matter of fact, while the slavery practised
in the Yucatan Peninsula is just as truly slavery as was
ever practised in any country, the owners of the ranches
do not admit that the men employed on their lands are
slaves. They call it " enforced service for debt." But
once the man is put in this position he can be traded
about and exchanged from plantation to plantation for a
money consideration, just as much as any slave could
have been bartered about in the old slave days in this
country before the Civil War.
The " price " of the laborers fluctuates according to
the condition of the money market. A good price
for a man to bring is $400, but in years when the har-
vests are full, money is freely in circulation and there is
a demand for men to take care of the henequen crops,
landowners have been known to pay as much as $1,000
for a good, able-bodied slave. With the Yaqui Indians,
however, the price is low. This is because the sullen dis-
position of the Indians, their quickness to anger, and not
infrequently to kill their drivers, makes them much less
desirable as slaves than are the more peaceable Mayas
and Koreans. The price of the Yaquis is about $65. The
slaves are mostly recruited from persons accused of some
crime and arrested. Frequently the accusations are
trumped up for the sole purpose of adding to the slave
market.
A BUBEATT OP ZDENTIMOATIOK
An identification bureau of all the slaves in the employ
of the various ranches or plantations is kept mutually by
RANCHES AND RANCHINQ 211
all the slave-owners. The records kept are not unlike
the record of identification kept in this country of crim-
inals. Full-face and profile photographs of the various
slaves are taken and notations made of any unusual mark-
ings they possess, as well as a record of all the standard
items of measurement, such as height, weight, hair, color
and facial characteristics. These are kept on file accord-
ing to a scheme built up by the plantation owners, and
when any Maya, Korean or Yaqui is apprehended on
suspicion that he might have escaped from some planta-
tion, reference to this index is made, the slave identified,
and returned to the owner from whose place he escaped.
The theory of the " service for debt " device by which
the laborers are held is that upon their being turned over
to the plantation a price agreed upon is given by the
plantation owner to the man who transferred the laborer
to him. Possession of the man is first secured by charg-
ing Trim with some crime and arresting Tri-m. It is then
the duty of the laborer to render service to his purchaser
to a value equivalent to the sum which was paid for him.
Sometimes in the towns the freeing of the laborer after
a period of years is actually negotiated, but on the planta-
tions they never secure their freedom. Once sold, they
are the virtual slaves of their purchasers for life.
NO HOPE FOB THE SLAVE
An employer of a salaried man or a wage-earner as
an incentive to work holds over the worker the possi-
bility of discharge, and consequent loss of income, should
the wage-earner not do his work in a manner to please
his employer. In the Yucatan country, however, there is
no such possible threat, because the worker earns no
money. There the worker's happiest wish is that he may
get " fired, " but no such luck ever befalls him. The
suggestion that a cutting down of their food supply if
they failed to do the work that was required of them
would be an incentive to keep them at their tasks, does not
212 EANCHES AND BANCHING
hold good either, because the slave's food supply even
under the best of circumstances is just large enough to
keep him from starvation, and to cut it off further would
result in nothing but the death of the laborer. So this
cannot be used as a " big stick " over the slaves.
One thing only remains and that is physical punish-
ment which can be used to keep them driving at their
work or to punish them for misconduct. And this form
of " incentive " is used freely and with terrible cruelty.
One of the commonest forms of punishment is beating
the slaves over their backs with wet ropes. The culprit
in these instances is held on the back of a larger and
more powerful slave while one of the overseers wields the
lash with such force that each blow rips the slave's back
wide open.
BEATINGS FOLLOWED BT DEATH
In numerous cases of this sort the slaves have died
under the beating, or have bled to death afterwards. Not
infrequently infection sets in in the open wounds, and
death comes to the slaves some weeks later, possibly in
the agony of blood-poisoning.
Another form of punishment for laziness most often
caused by a real sickness on the part of the slave is
to string them up by their thumbs, or to reverse this
process and stringing them up by their big toes, let them
hang head downward until they have become unconscious
from pain and blood pressure.
In general, the owners of the plantations take no per-
sonal interest in the punishments meted out to the slaves.
But there are instances on record where the managers
actually wielded the ropes over their chattels, and other
instances where the managers stood by and with coarse
jests directed the inflicting of the punishment, the while
laughing brutally at the writhings of the poor devil under
the lash.
But the most terrible of all places in the peninsula is
BANCHES AND RANCHING 213
the Valle Nacional known throughout the 80,000 square
miles as the Valley of Death. Therein are located great
tobacco plantations. The reputation of the valley is that
no slave who enters this area of scenic marvel ever comes
out alive. It is a place of terrible fevers, wonderful
tropical scenery and death-dealing flies. The number of
its slaves is ever needing to be augmented to take the
places of those who fail and die.
BKEAKIITG THE YAQUI SPIEIT
One illustration will suffice to show the severity of the
punishment meted out to slaves in Yucatan.
The Yaqui Indians are noted in their native state for
the pride they have in their race and the resentfulness
they show to any suggestion of subservience on their part
to the coin -mauds of a person not of their race. They
are a bold, copper-skinned race that would stand along
with any American Indian in bearing pain stoically, and
refusing to acknowledge the superiority of another man ;
but so terrible is the course of spirit-breaking that these
Indians are put through in the first months of their stay
on the slave ranches that it is a common sight to have
these Indians so cowed in abject fear and broken in spirit
that they will crawl upon hands and knees and like a dog
lick the hand of the man who holds the lash which has
been wielded over their backs.
A TEBBIFIC BEATING
A Mexican traveler returning recently from a visit to
one of these sisal hemp ranches described a terrific beat-
ing which he had seen meted out to a poor Yaqui Indian,
whose only offense was that he had found himself physic-
ally incapable of performing within the day the amount
of work that had been required of him by the slave-
drivers.
" The laborers had lined up, several hundred of them,
by a wall near their living quarters, awaiting instructions
214 BANCHES AND BANCHING
as to what they should do that day," said the traveler,
" when one of the overseers called out the name of one
of the Indian slaves. This man stepped out a lithe-
bodied man, straight of frame but not of great strength.
At the same time the foreman motioned to an enormous
Chinaman to step out and seize the Indian. The poor
fellow knew then what was coming and he snarled and for
a moment made a show of resistance, but soon he whipped
off his shirt with a scornful gesture and stood bare-
shouldered in the center of a hundred pairs of horror-
stricken eyes. His back was already cut and ribbed with
welts of previous beatings he had received. The great
Chinaman caught the Indian by the wrists and with a
jerk threw him over his shoulders as he would a sack
of meal.
" The Chinaman then bent double until the Indian's
back presented a taut surface, exposed to any lash that
might be applied to it. Next a great brute of a man with
an arm like a blacksmith's stepped forward and after
carefully choosing one of several lengths of wet rope,
stood off and laid the rope's end across the Indian's back
with all his might. A pause and he struck again exactly
along the same welt as raised by the first blow. At this
second lash the Indian's skin broke and the blood oozed
forth. After the sixth blow the skin on his back com-
menced jumping back and forth, and quivering. At the
eighth blow the Indian, until this time mute, gave an agon-
ized cry and made pitiful appeals for mercy; but four
more blows were laid on before the punishment ceased.
When he was dropped to the earth he collapsed like a wet
rag. He had lost consciousness.
ONLY A SAMPLE CASE
" This Indian has been there less than two months.
In that time he had undergone many beatings, had been
strung up by his thumbs, nearly starved to death and
undergone other forms of punishment unbelievably cruel.
EANCHES AND RANCHING- 215
" The managers of the ranch laughed when I remon-
strated with them about the treatment accorded the
Indian, and said that he had been one of the most
obdurate cases which had come to the hacienda recently,
but that they expected with a few more beatings they
' would have him rounded into really tractable shape/
He ought then, they said, to make a good man. Of all
the hundred Indians who looked on at the beating of their
comrade, all had undergone the same course of punish-
ment. But their spirits had been broken, and that was
why, although there were not more than one or two
officials of the ranch about, they had no longer the cour-
age to protest against the treatment which was being
meted out to their unfortunate comrade. Upon inquiry,
I was laughingly told that more than one-half of the
Indians brought to work on that ranch died before they
were there a year,"
CHAPTER
INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES
Mexico is not a manufacturing country. Such, articles
as the mass of the people require are, however, generally
produced in sufficient quantities to meet demand. Mexico
will never become to any appreciable extent a manufac-
turer of articles beyond those of which she produces the
raw materials, yet this field is by no manner of means
restricted. The revolution has greatly interfered with
industries, of course, and in what follows we treat prin-
cipally of conditions in recent times of peace.
The Indian, who forms the greater part of the labor-
ing population, is not progressive. He is loath to lay
aside the rude implements of his forefathers and take
up methods of modern invention and progress. His
needs are few and he is not inspired with a desire to
improve his condition. Having inherited nothing but
traditions and the meager physical means to provide for
his sustenance, he zealously guards the one and utilizes
the other to the same extent as his progenitors, leaving
his children only what he himself received.
Everthing he does is executed in a perfunctory man-
ner. He goes to his daily toil early and returns to his
frugal meal and rest late. He is satisfied with his lot
and cares little what the morrow may bring forth. But
the Indian is losing ground. The whiter races are sur-
passing him, and with increasing transportation facili-
ties, a new government fostering industrial interests, and
the disappearance of internal strife, his successors will
in the not very distant future either join the ranks of the
316
INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES 217
progressive people, as in the thickly populated portions
of the Republic they have already begun to do, or will
die off, to be replaced by a more energetic and ambitious
class.
Manufactures will spring up with the increased pro-
duction of raw materials, but the country's agricultural
resources are so great that it is destined to become, still
more than at present, a great exporter, so certain and
so sure of good markets that capital is diverted to agri-
cultural and mineral development rather than into manu-
facturing enterprises on a large scale.
BBSOUBCES LIE DOEMANT NOW
What was said fifty years ago by Brantz Mayer about
California is applicable at this time to Mexico. The
whole world rushed to the Golden Gate when the news
spread that fortunes lay sparkling in the yellow sands
and auriferous rocks of that state, and every one shoul-
dered a pick and a pan to seek the alluring nugget and
aureate dust, noting not the fertile lands yearning like
all of nature, to produce and reproduce. When the fever-
ish excitement engendered by the pursuit of sudden
wealth abated, then, and then only, did the wealth-seeker
lay aside his pick and pan and take up the implements
of agriculture and of other industries and make of that
fair land what it is today. Mexico has been regarded by
the natives and the foreigners as a land of mineral wealth
only, and her many other resources are as yet but little
noticed or developed.
Brantz Mayer's words alluded to above were these:
" California has, at least, illustrated one great moral
truth which the avaricious world required to be taught.
When men were starving though weighed down with gold
when all the necessaries of life rose to twice, thrice,
tenfold, and even fifty or a hundred times their value in
the Atlantic States that distant province demonstrated
the intrinsic worthlessness of the coveted ore and the per-
218 INDUSTBIES AND MANUFACTURES
manent value of everything produced by genuine industry
and labor. "
If the country were populated, even in proportion
to Guanajuato and its outlying districts, the census of
Mexico would show 58,000,000 of inhabitants, according
to a recent estimate, and under such conditions the agri-
cultural interests would become and constitute an element
of enormous wealth.
THE CATTLE IKDTJSTBY
One of the most important of Mexico's industries is
cattle raising. The states of the northern frontier are
so well adapted to such purposes that they may be said
to be immense cattle ranges. The excellent situation of
the lands, as well as their generally well-watered con-
dition, will, as has been said by the persons who have
given study to the matter, make Mexico a formidable
rival to the Argentine Kepublic. In recent years Texan
and English capitalists made extensive purchases of lands
and live stock in the northern states and devoted them-
selves to the lucrative business of raising cattle for the
market. But it is not only in the temperate and cold
lands of the northern states that this industry may be
carried on. In the warmer latitudes, where the herba-
ceous vegetation is exuberant and watercourses abundant,
it offers equal opportunity for success.
The fattening of beeves on ranges well-conditioned for
grazing or which lend themselves to grass growing and
are well watered will give excellent results when the
country is pacified and resumes its normal condition after
revolutionary troubles.
The States of Durango, Sonora, Chihuahua, Nuevo
Leon, Oohahuila, Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz, and Michocan
present admirable fields for the carrying on of the cattle
industry. The rich pasture lands of the latter state feed
the thousands of cattle slaughtered for the sustenance
of the residents of the capital of the Mexican Republic.
INDUSTRIES AND MANUFAOTUEES 219
Some of the states above named are not well provided
with water, but it has been demonstrated that with small
expense all the necessary water can be provided by the
boring of wells. In the State of Guanajuato a company,
under the patronage of the state government, bored wells
and began the breeding and fattening of the cattle on a
large scale. This company imported into the country
a considerable number of specimens of the best breeds of
horned cattle from the United States and elsewhere, and,
judging from appearances, its efforts were meeting with
gratifying success when the revolution came.
Mexico raises great numbers of cattle for the United
States and does so under better conditions of climate than
the latter country, for the stock-raisers of this country
lose thousands every year owing to the rigorous winters
and severe summers, while in Mexico perennial spring
smiles on man and beast.
Statistics show that thirty years ago in the Northern
States of Mexico alone, over an area of 300,000 square
miles, there roamed 1,500,000 horned cattle, 2,500,000
goats, 1,000,000 sheep, 1,000,000 horses, and 500,000
mules.
Other live stock, such as horses, sheep, goats, swine,
etc., are also raised on these ranges for export.
HIDES AKD SKINS
Another considerable industry is the collecting and
exporting of hides and skins. Mexico occupies the fourth
rank among the nations of the earth in this particular
branch.
The kid exported through the Matamoros custom-house
is much esteemed for the manufacture of strong shoes,
its dimensions and weight ranking high. This kid brings
from 45 to 50 cents per pound. The Vera Cruz goat skins
are more sought after and bring 2 cents more a pound,
while those from Oaxaca are lighter and bring about 39
220 INDUSTKIES AND MANUFACTURES
cents per pound. These kids are considered among the
best in the world for women's and children's shoes.
Another industry, although not a prominent one, is the
killing of seals and sea-lions on the coast of Lower Cali-
fornia, the skins being converted into leather.
Tanneries are to be found at many places and a very
fair leather is turned out. There were thirty-three tan-
neries at the capital a few years ago. Mexicans are
artists in leather work, and in making saddles they excel.
Saddles manufactured in the country have sold for more
than $800, being profusely ornamented with silver and
finely stamped leather. The center of the leather-work-
ing industry is the city of Leon. There are no large shoe
manufactories, most of the disciples of St. Crispin carry-
ing on their trade in small huts or houses and on the
sidewalks. The Mexicans are wonderful repairers of old
and dilapidated footwear.
Among other industries may be mentioned the gather-
ing of sponges, mother-of-pearl, abalone, and 'other shells,
pearl diving and tortoise fishing. These industries are
at present but little developed, but, with the exception of
pearls, which at one time were quite abundant in the
Gulf of California, that gulf and the coast of both oceans
abound in the articles enumerated, all of which are the
choicest kinds. The " carey," or tortoise shell, of Yuca-
tan and Guerrero has been for a long time an article of
trade. This article is also shipped to some extent from
Magdalena Bay, in the territory of Lower California. In
comparison to the returns the capital necessary to exploit
these industries is small.
HAMMOCK MAKING
Another quite prominent industry of the Republic is
hammock making. This is principally carried on in the
State of Yucatan, where hammocks have been articles of
use and barter from time immemorial. This fact is dem-
INDUSTBIES AND MANUFACTURES 221
onstrated beyond peradventure by the discovery in buried
cities of hammock beams and hooks.
Yucatan exports more hammocks than any other prov-
ince in the world. These articles are made from the
fiber called henequen, which grows so abundantly in the
state named, and are woven entirely by hand, with the
aid of a few very primitive Implements, in this, as most
other cases, the Indian proving his disapproval of inno-
vations. All that is necessary to make a hammock is a
couple of straight poles, a shuttle, a thin slat of zapoli
wood, and a pile of henequen leaves. With these articles
at hand a Yucatan native is prepared to accept contracts
for hammocks by the piece, dozen or hundred. Some of
these ham-mocks are brilliantly colored. The great ham-
mock-making district, whence come the best made, and
which produces more than all the other districts com-
bined, is Texcoco. Almost the entire exportation of these
articles is consumed by New York.
COTTON FABBIOS
The principal manufacturing industry of the Republic
is the making of cotton cloth, mostly manta, a coarse,
unbleached cotton cloth. It has been estimated that the
mills of the country consume annually 26,000,000 pounds
of cotton, most of which is grown there, but quite a con-
siderable quantity is imported. The industry gives work
and support in the field and mill to more than 50,000
families. The mills are usually provided with English
and American machinery of modern type, and a few
operators carry on business on an extensive scale. The
ordinary cotton cloth (manta), which is about the only
material for clothing used by two-thirds of the inhab-
itants of the country, is usually made up in pieces of 30
yards 4 inches in length by 34.12 inches in width. The
manufacture of knit goods as hosiery, underwear, etc.,
has increased considerably of late years, and has resulted
in making a noticeable reduction in the amount of im-
222 INDUSTEIES AND MANTJFACTUEES
ported goods of this character. The cloth made is of fair
quality, and sells at from $1.62 per vara, carpets bringing
from $1 to $1.34 per vara. A vara is 34.12 inches.
WOOLEH FABEIOS
The weaving of " zarapes " constitutes a profitable
industry, there being an extensive and increasing demand
for them. These multicolored woolen cloaks or blankets
are well made, those of Satillo and San Miguel being
celebrated for their fine texture, brilliant colors, good
finish, and excellent wearing qualities.
There are in the Republic quite a number of woolen
mills, four of which, situated in the Federal District, have
a yearly production of 162,000 pieces of cloth. It is not
generally known that wool spinning has been carried on
in Mexico for more than three centuries, yet such is the
well authenticated fact. In the year 1541 the first viceroy
introduced merino sheep into the country and established
manufactories of cloth.
THE SILK INDUTJTBY
Silk weaving can hardly be said to be a great industry
as yet, but it is increasing rapidly. Silk was cultivated
and sold in the markets of Mexico as far back as the time
of Charles V., Cortez speaking of the fact in his letters
to that monarch, and there are still preserved pictures
done by the ancient Mexicans upon a paper made of silk.
For some political reason, known only to the Spaniards
of the day, the culture of the silkworm and the weaving of
its product was prohibited by the Spanish crown in its
.American possessions during the vice-regal administra-
tions. The industry gradually died out, and it is only
of late years that it has been revived.
The climate of Mexico is considered unexcelled by any
in the world for the raising and developing of cocoons.
Silkworms are mostly raised in Oaxaca, in the state of
the same name; Tetela, in the State of Puebla; Ixmiquil-
INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES 223
pam, in Hidalgo, and in the States of Jalisco, Oaxaca,
Tlaxcala, Michoacan, Queretaro, Vera Cruz, Chihuahua,
and Zacatecas. In all of these states, as well as in the
Federal District, the white and black mulberry leaves
grow. In the factories women are generally employed
because of the delicacy required in the work, most of the
female operatives receiving 37^ cents per day.
DISTILLERIES
Distilleries are to be found all over the country, yet
very few of them have modern plants. These distilleries
are chiefly engaged in distilling the liquor called mescal,
a strong alcoholic beverage, which is colorless or of a
very light amber tint. This liquor is distilled from the
root of the American agave, and has an odor and a taste
not unlike Scotch whisky. Mexicans claim that it has
good stomachic qualities, but it is a great intoxicant.
Another liquor made in Mexico is distilled from the sugar
cane, and is called aguardiente (burning water). It is
one of the strongest liquors known.
Grapes flourish in the States of Chihuahua, Coahuila,
Nuevo Leon, Aguascalientes, and Sinaloa, as well as in
some other parts of the country, and a very fair native
wine and brandy are made of them, as well as raisins and
sugar, but the industry is not a prominent one and the
production does not supply the home demand.
Beer and pale ale are brewed, there being five brew-
eries in the capital doing an extensive business, only one
of which, however, is well equipped, and all of them do
not supply the demand.
TOBACCO
The tobacco industry is extensive, nearly every town
and hamlet having its cigarette factories, which may be
counted by the hundreds in the Eepublic. The tobacco of
Vera Cruz is considered to rival that of Cuba, and the
factories of that city manufacture an excellent quality of
224 INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES
cigars, much sought after by foreigners. Cigarettes are
very cheap, seven to eight hundred selling for a dollar.
Good brands of cigars may be purchased from $35 to $80
per thousand, Mexican coin.
There are many flour mills in the country, and nearly
all the millstones were imported from France. Not very
fine grades of flour are manufactured, nor do the mills
supply the domestic demand.
IBOK FOUKDBIES
Iron foundries are numerous, the excellent quality of
the Mexican minerals and their abundance making it
possible for these foundries to turn out good work. Some
large pieces have been cast, but the production is mostly
limited to the smaller agricultural implements and ordi-
nary marketable iron. There are some foundries where
sugar-making machinery has been constructed and
heavier work turned out, but foreign articles compete
against them profitably. The government arsenal and
gun foundry in the City of Mexico has done some excel-
lent work. Arms and munitions of war have been pro-
duced at this establishment which speak highly for the
skill and dexterity of the operatives in the establishment.
Good work is also done in the two type foundries located
in the City of Mexico.
MEXICAN JEWELBY
Mexican jewelry has justly acquired a world-wide fame.
When the Spaniards invaded the country, they acknowl-
edged that the gold and silversmiths of the Aztec Empire
excelled those of their own land.
The precious metals were used in casting vessels, some
of which were said to have been so large that a man
could not encircle them with his arm&.
Gems like opal, turquoise or chalchihuitl, ruby, agate,
heliotrope, and chalcedony, were mounted in gold, and
Summer Palace of Coitez, Cuemavaca
Monument in front of old Oortez Palace, Cuemavaca
A Street Bridge in Guanajuata
Porfirio Diaz in a parade, just after his last election
View of Ixtacchihuatl, from Sacramonte
View of Popocatepetl, from Sacramonte
INDTJSTBIES AND MANUFACTURES 225
artistic filigree-work in both gold and silver was made
extensively.
According to the accounts of the early Spanish chron-
iclers, the ornaments worn by Montezuma must have
been equal in elegance to many of the crown- jewels of the
imperial families of Europe.
At the present day the traveler will not meet with any
large specimens of silverware, excepting the exquisite
silver service of Maximilian, which is on exhibition in the
Museum at the national capital.
The modern jewelers confine themselves principally to
the manufacture of watches, chains, necklaces, brooches,
pins, buttons and other articles for personal adornment.
The filigree-work in silver is worn extensively, but that
of gold is seldom used.
Chapetas, or silver studs for hats, are made in large
quantities. They are in the form of stirrups, revolvers,
ropes, horse-heads, dull-heads, spurs and other figures.
These chapetas are fastened on either side of the crown.
Silver ornaments are sold at a low price, and they make
handsome presents for tourists to purchase.
CHAPTEE XVHI
MINES AND MINING
Nature has richly endowed Mexico with resources well
nigh countless, but in the bestowal of mineral resources
she has been most lavish. Beneath the surface of that
volcanic ridge raised between two great bodies of water
lie buried treasures incomparable, and although mining
enterprises innumerable have for nearly 400 years ex-
ploited the metal-bearing regions and have extracted
fabulous quantities of precious metals, by far the greater
part is yet to be laid bare.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century Humboldt
estimated the mines in Mexico to number 3,000. At the
end of the century hardly that many were being worked,
but since the railroads have been extended and remote
sections of the country brought into closer communica-
tion, they have greatly increased in number and in value.
This increase is also due to another cause.
During the economic crisis of 1886, due to the depre-
ciation of silver, the Mexican Congress appointed a com-
mission composed of distinguished men to study the
question. The commission suggested as a remedy the
absolute necessity of the production of something else
than silver. It called attention to the undoubted fact
that the Republic, possessed as it is of the most varied
climates, was favorable to all kinds of cultivation, and in
consequence it proposed a series of measures tending to
the protection of agricultural and mechanical interests.
The result of the studies, and report of this commission
has been the reformation of the mining legislation, en-
226
MINES AND MINING 227
couragement to large companies, the working of coal,
mercury, and iron mines, the revision of the customs tar-
iff in a way favorable to agriculture and industries, and
the conferring upon the executive of the power to accord
advantages to the development of the cultivation of cer-
tain agricultural products. Another result of the work
of this commission was the placing upon the free list a
few years ago by the Mexican Congress of some eighty-
six articles used in connection with the mining and agri-
cultural interests.
MINES EXEMPTED FEOM TAXES
The law of June 7, 1887, exempted for 50 years from
all federal, state, or municipal taxes (excepting the stamp
tax), coal, iron, and quicksilver mines. Iron of Mexico
origin in bars, ingots, rails, etc., enjoys the same privi-
lege. All mines other than those mentioned are subject to
but one tax, which cannot exceed 2 per cent of the value of
the annual product. The free circulation of gold and silver
in bars or coined, and in general of all the products of
mines, can not be impeded by any tax whatever. Mer-
cury is exempted from all tax. The tax on reduction
works levied by states of the Federation can not exceed
one-fifth of 1 per cent of value of the works. The law
also prohibits the states from imposing any other tax
whatever upon mines, their machinery, products, the cap-
ital invested in them, the declarations or denouncements,
or any other acts necessary to the acquiring of a mine.
Pursuant to this law the government entered into many
contracts with companies for the exploration and devel-
opment of the mineral wealth of many of the states.
THE METALLIFEBOUS BELT
From the state of Sonora to that of Oaxaca, an extent
of about 1,242 miles, running northwest and southeast,
lies what is known as the metalliferous belt, because it is
of extraordinary richness and it comprises the greater
228 MINES AND MINING
number of mining districts in the Republic, the most
active centers being those of Zacatecas, Guanajuato and
Pachuca.
This belt includes one hundred and forty-three impor-
tant mineral districts, situated in the states of Sonora,
Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes,
Jalisco, San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, Queretaro,
Hidalgo, Mexico, Michoacan, Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla,
Vera Cruz, and Oaxaca. Mineral deposits also exist in
the states of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas, but
they do not lie in the belt above mentioned and are mostly
abandoned*
Of the two great ranges into which the Sierra Madre
Cordillera is divided, the westernmost greatly exceeds
the eastern in metal-bearing lodes.
In Chihuahua there are over one hundred rich min-
eral districts, with more than five hundred and seventy-
five mines producing gold, copper, lead, mercury, salt,
coal, and silver, generally accompanied by other metals
from which may be obtained iron, zinc, antimony, arsenic,
and other substances.
GBEAT MINING CENTERS
In the district and near the city of Chihuahua is sit-
uated the celebrated Santa Eulalia mine, one of the oldest
in the country, the products of which have left a monu-
ment in the very handsome parish church of San Fran-
cisco, erected in the city between the years 1717 and 1789
with the proceeds of a tax of one real (12% cents) on
each half pound of silver got from the mine. The total
sum thus secured is stated to be $800,000.
Sonora is one of the richest cities as well as a most im-
portant mining center. It is noted for its high-class
metals, among which are ores which are easily worked
and so aid materially in smelting. There are also other
minerals, such as asbestos, copperas, magnetic iron ore,
muriate and carbonate of soda, and saltpeter. The native
MINES AND MINING- 229
silver is found in these districts in considerable quanti-
ties and native iron has also been discovered in the Sierra
Madre, Papagueria, and the vicinity of the Colorado
Eiver.
Sinaloa has also more than one hundred mining dis-
tricts, the mineral deposits being classified into six forma-
tions. Calciferous and quartz ore prevails with silver
in a native state or combined with sulphur antimony, and
arsenic, with more or less traces of gold. Veins of gold-
bearing quartz exist in some localities and deposits of
iron ore, sulphite of lead, zinc, copper, and silica are to
be found.
The districts of Durango run mostly to silver, yet many
other metals exist, such as tin and iron, in inexhaustible
quantities in the Cerro del Mercado, which is an enor-
mous mass of magnetic iron. This cerro, or hill, has been
calculated to contain 60,000,000 cubic yards of iron ore,
having a specific weight of 5,000,000,000 quintals (100
pounds). An analysis of this ore has given 66 per cent
of pure metal.
Jalisco is another silver-producing region, and fur-
nishes also copper and lead ores and coal.
A GBEAT SILVEB STATE
Zacatecas is the great silver-producing state. It is
estimated that in the last three centuries its many mines,
which were first worked by the Spaniards in 1540, but
which had previously been worked in a rude w k ay by the
Indians have yielded over a thousand million of dollars.
In 1910 there were over twenty thousand miners
employed in the mines clustered around the city of
Zacatecas.
Guanajuato is another far-famed silver-producing
state, and has been and still is the center of great
exploitation. The district bearing the name of the state
was discovered in 1548, and has been worked almost con-
tinuously ever since that date, the output of its mines
230 MINES AND MINING
reaching fabulous figures. Native gold has been discov-
ered in this district and the late denouncing and register-
ing of mines has disclosed the presence of other minerals,
such as tin and bismuth.
In the mineral district of Queretaro are to be found
lead metals, cinnabar and the ever present silver. The
mines are numerous and important. The celebrated San
Juan Nepomuceno or El Doctor mine is situated here, in
the Cadareyta district. It is one of the oldest and richest
of Mexico, its production being so great two hundred
years ago that it paid the Spanish government $18,000,000
in taxes. It is in this state that the fine opals, which
reflect every prismatic color and are much sought after,
are found. Great beds of these stones exist on the cele-
brated hacienda of La Esperanza. The opals from this
place are sold in the City of Mexico by itinerant venders
at remarkably low prices. The most important deposit
of these stones produces from $80,000 to $100,000 a year.
QUAEBEBS OF ONYX
Puebla's districts yield native gold, silver, oxide of
manganese, and pyrites, as well as coal and iron ore.
Here also exist quarries of beautiful onyx and what is
known as Puebla marble. A syndicate was formed in
New York some years ago, with a capital of $1,500,000,
to control the almost sole source of the world's supply
of onyx. This onyx is much used in the United States
for decorating houses and in the jeweler's trade.
The state of Mexico is rich in mines of native gold and
silver as well as those of copper, iron, and manganese.
The territory of Lower California is rich in minerals.
The peninsula is barren and without water. The moun-
tain ridge forming the backbone of the peninsula is a con-
tinuation of the coast range of upper California and
it is interwoven almost over its entire extent with metallic
veins of all descriptions. Near San Jose and Cape St.
Lucas there are argentiferous and auriferous out-
MINES AND MINING 231
croppings and in the municipalities of La Paz, El Triunf o,
and San Antonio, veins of gold and silver, iron and other
substances are exhibited on the surface of the mountains.
In the districts of Comundu, Loreto, San Luis, and
Muleje in the northern part of the peninsula, rich copper
mines abound; also other metals, such as mica, iron, tin
and oxides of iron, besides gypsum, enormous piles or
hills of which are to be found, marble, alabaster and sand-
stone. Gold was discovered near Santa Gertrudis, north
of Muleje, about 1884, and it is said that the mountains
and gulches in that vicinity have rich veins of this metal.
In this district there are also solid mountains of iron.
The frontier district of Lower California is noted for
its gold digging and ledges, mica and other mineral sub-
stances such as sulphur, soda, and salt. American cap-
italists are largely interested in this region.
Besides the minerals named there are in the peninsula
plumbago, sulphuret of lead, porphyry, prismatic pyrites,
sulphur, oxide of antimony and lead carbonate and phos-
phate of lead, hydroxide of iron and hydrosilicate of
copper. Near Todos Santos exist some lime quarries.
DISCOVERED THE PATIO PBOOESS
The state of Hidalgo deserves more extended mention
here as it was in one of its districts that a Mexican miner
discovered the patio process for reducing ores a pro-
cess which to this day is most in use in Mexico, and one
which no miner or mining engineer has been able to super-
sede by a more economical one for reducing the peculiar
ores in which the country abounds. The great mineral dis-
trict of this state is situated in the vicinity of Pachuca,
the principal mines being the Heal del Monte, Antontolico
el Chico, and Zinxipan.
Pachuca with its rich cluster of mines lies on a plain
about 60 miles from the City of Mexico, and is one of the
oldest mining centers in the country, having been worked
for more than three and a half centuries. It has a pop-
232 MINES AND MINING
illation of about 50,000 souls, mostly Indian miners. It
was here that the process of amalgamation called the
patio process was discovered by the celebrated Mexican
miner Bartolome de Medina in 1557. The very hacienda
and reduction works where this discovery was made are
still to be seen in the town.
There are in Pachuca and the mining regions adjacent
about 300 mines. Sulphate of silver is the prevailing
metal, although native silver mixed with ore is found in
some of the mines. Most of these mines, as well as those in
other states, are still operated in the primitive Mexican
fashion. The metal is brought up in rawhide sacks by
means of ropes made of the fiber of the maguey wound
about a large malacate, or horse or mule whims, and
the peons or laborers carry pieces of ore weighing some-
times between 100 and 200 pounds on their backs from
" headings " of the levels to the main shaft. Some for-
eigners are employed in the mines of Pachuca and else-
where at good wages, but they generally are superin-
tendents, engineers, bosses, etc.
The most celebrated salt deposits of Mexico are those
of Penon Blanco, in San Luis Potosi, their product con-
taining from 70 to 80 per cent of chloride of sodium. On
the coasts of both oceans there are also a great number of
salt mines, the most useful being those of Yucatan,
whence comes the salt used for reducing the product of
the mines of Hidalgo.
Mexico also has deposits of precious stones, such as
opal, topaz, emerald, agate, amethyst, and garnet. It is
related that one of the heroes of Mexican independence,
General Guerrero, possessed some diamonds which had
been given him by one of his soldiers, who had found
them during an expedition in that part of the Sierra
Madre running through the State of Guerrero. The field
or locality whence came these precious stones, of which
the general gave but vague information, has been vainly
sought by various prospectors.
MINES AND MINING 233
The total metal product of Mexico in coined gold and
silver, in gold and silver bullion, in minerals not treated,
and in other metals, as well as the balance exported or
utilized in home consumption may be put down at about
$70,000,000 per annum.
There are five processes for the reduction of ore at
present in use in Mexico the patio, tonel, lixiviation,
fuego and pan.
THE PATIO PROCESS OF BEDUCTION
The patio process, invented, as before stated, by
Bartolome de Medina, consists of amalgamation with
quicksilver. A description of this system of treating ore
is as follows :
" The ore as it is brought from the mine is in large
pieces ; this is piled up in the court-yard in a huge pile,
and does not look as if it contained any mineral, but like
so much red stone. It is in the first place put into an
inclosed box, and pounded to pieces by immense wooden
pounders, armed on the end by iron pestles which are
lifted up by arms connected with an axle, which is turned
by mules. The ends of these arms fit into a notch in the
pestles and lift them up to a certain distance, and then
the end of the arm slips out of the notch, the iron pestle
falls down with an immense force upon the mineral, and
comminutes it into small pieces. These fall down upon
a sieve made of hide, and the smaller pieces fall down
through the holes in the sieve, and the larger pieces are
thrown back under the pestles to be again crushed. There
are several of these pestles in a straight line, connected
with the same axle, and they are lifted up alternately.
" After the ore is pounded in pieces in the mortars
(mortears) it passes to the tahones, or mills, which con-
sist of a round vat, placed on a level with the floor, where
the ore is ground up into fine mud (water being added),
by means of three heavy and hard granite stones of an
oblong shape, which are tied to the arms, connected with
234 MINES AND MINING
a revolving axle turned by a mule, which walks around
in a circle, blindfolded. Into holes made in the stones
sticks are introduced, and these are connected by means
of ropes or chains to the revolving arms. There are
several of these circular vats, all situated in a line in a
long room, each worked by a mule blindfolded. These
are called tahones, and the crestpole in the middle, peon,
with its two brazos (arms) of wood, from which are
suspended the heavy stones called metapiles, or crushers.
" From here the ore, looking like so much mud, is
thrown out into the patio or yard, which has a floor well
made of some hard cement or stone, and here are added
quicksilver and salt in a liquid state, or caldo (soup) as
it is called. It is thus left in the open air exposed to the
heat of the sun some twenty or thirty days, and is stirred
up every day or two by the feet of men and horses, who
walk around in a circle until the quicksilver and salt are
well incorporated with the ore. When this process is
completed the mud thus mixed is called torta de lama
(cake of mud). After the ore is thus worked or brought
to a proper state it goes to the lavedero (washing place),
called tina (vat), which is round and made of wood and
stone, where the silver is separated from the earth, and
here is where the tortas de lama are taken from the
yard, and here remains, after the mud is washed out, what
is called the plata pina (amalgamated silver), containing
quicksilver; this amalgam is then put into stout canvas
bags and submitted to a heavy pressure to get rid of the
mercury, and afterwards it goes to the furnace, where
the silver is purified of all foreign substances/ '
A FTJETHBE PEOCESS
An additional process is connected with this system in
the reduction of certain kinds of ores, as follows :
After the mineral has been exposed to the sun in the
patio, or the yard, it is transferred to the planillo, which
is an inclined plane in the open air, having a solid stone
MINES AND MINING 235
floor some 60 feet long and 20 feet wide. At the foot of
this sit a number of nearly naked men, who occupy them-
selves by throwing water gradually on the mass of mud
by means of pieces of ox horn, so that the mud flows
off, and runs outside of the yard in a ditch, and the silver
with some mud is left at the foot of the inclined plane.
This requires a great deal of skill, as the water must be
thrown on gradually. After this process, the greater
part of the mud has flowed off and only a small portion
remains, which contains the silver. This mud is then
removed to a room in the second story, where it is placed
in the criso, a large round iron boiler, with fire under-
neath; water is added, and it is stirred up by means of
revolving arms worked by a mule, and the remaining mud
flows off, only a small portion remaining. The rest of
the process consists in removing the remaining substance
to the amalgamating room, where quicksilver is added,
which unites with the silver in the mud, and then this is
further washed, and only the quicksilver is left united
with the silver. This is further purified in a furnace and
the silver runs off into molds.
THE LIXIVIATIOlSr PEOCESS
Another method in vogue is smelting, and lately Amer-
ican machinery and systems have been introduced in
many of the mining districts. Lixiviation is the system
adopted in several of the states. Leaching tubes have
taken the place of barrels and pans in a number of the
mills. A writer on Mexico has thus described the lixivia-
tion process :
" The rock is crushed dry and passed through screens *
of twenty to thirty meshes to the inch. It is then roasted
in reverberatory furnaces with salt. The roasted ore is
then subjected to the water process, being kept in large
tanks or tubs, constantly covered and run over by clear
water during a number of hours, after which the water
is drawn off, and a cold solution of hypo-sulphate of soda
236 MINES AND MINING-
is made to pass through the ore until it is ascertained
that the solution of another solution is precipated "by the
addition to that solution of another solution of quicklime
and sulphur, known as calcium sulphide, which is made
by boiling lime and sulphur. After the precipitation, and
the running off of the precipitation liquid, the silver
appears as a sulphate, is put into canvas filters, dried,
roasted in reverberatory furnaces to carry off the sul-
phate, and then melted in bars. If the operation is care-
fully performed the bullion resulting will be from
900 to 1,000 fine. The solution is pumped back into the
tanks to be used again, "
CHAPTER
COAL AND OIL DEPOSITS
Mexican geologists affirmed for many years that no
mineral coal existed in that country. About the year 1881,
however, reports from several parts of the country
claimed that anthracite coal had been discovered, and
many specimens of what was supposed to be this mineral
were sent to the National College of Engineers to be
assayed. Much enthusiasm was aroused by these reports,
and the Department of Public Works appointed scientific
commissions to visit the alleged coal localities and report
thereon. The labors of these commissions proved that
coal did exist, assaying from 41 to 92 per cent, the latter
in the state of Sonora. It was to this coal that General
Eosecrans gave the name of black gold. The commis-
sions discovered and reported on anthracite deposits in
Sonora, Michoacan, Vera Cruz, Ghiererro, Oaxaca, Puebla
and other states.
The excitement and enthusiasm thus created led to the
formation of many coal companies, and many persons
looked forward to fortunes out of collieries, but the
results were not great. This enthusiasm was succeeded
by a state of depression and inactivity by the discovery
that the seams of coal brought to light were poor, and
that the reports and rumors were exaggerated. Want
of means of communication between the deposits and
the markets also had much to do with the quiescent state.
The depression continued until profitable coal deposits
were unearthed in Coahuila, and were purchased by C.
P. Huntington, the American railroad magnate.
237
238 COAL AND OIL DEPOSITS
Mr. Huntington's mines produced in the first year
they were worked 150,000 tons, and were soon yielding
250,000 tons, which was shipped to the United States.
In 1890, a deposit of coal having continuous, power-
ful, and compact seams was discovered within a short
distance from Piedras and, according to an examination
made by a French engineer, the amount of coal in sight
was 9,000,000 tons, of a superior quality.
In 1890, an English company, called " The Mexican
Explorations, Limited," secured from the government a
concession of coal lands in Sonora, and planned a rail-
road to connect the collieries with the port of Guaymas.
One of the most important mineral deposits of Sonora
is anthracite, it having been discovered at Barranca,
on the Yaqui Eiver, 100 miles from its mouth. The
coal contains 90 per cent of carbon and is found in sand-
stone and conglomerate.
Plentiful coal deposits have also been discovered in
the district of Justlahuaea, Oaxaca.
STATES SEEK DEVELOPMENT
The government of the state of Puebla has been anx-
ious to stimulate the development of coal deposits, and
to this end some years ago decreed all such properties
exempt from taxes for twenty-five years. It, moreover,
offered a bounty of $1,000 per year for ten years to the
first company to supply Puebla with a quantity of coal
at a price not higher than that of other fuel. Further
inducements were offered to railroads which should
traverse coal regions. All industrial enterprises, thereto-
fore, had to rely on wood and charcoal for necessary fuel.
Green wood cost from $7 to $8 a ton and charcoal between
$25 and $30. To import coal from England entailed an
expense of $40 per ton of 2,208 pounds, and coke from
the Vera Cruz gas works cost $30 per ton.
Until recent years no foreign company or outside cap-
COAL AND OIL DEPOSITS 239
ital stepped in to purchase coal or other mines in the
state.
In 1890, coal was discovered in Jalisco, on the borders
of Lake Ameca and San Gabriel Valley.
Deposits have also been discovered in the states of
Tlaxacala, Vera Cruz, Hidalgo, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo
Leon. Some of the coal found in the latter states is
burned in the locomotives of the Mexican National Rail-
way. Brown, or lignite, coal is found in many localities,
although it is but little used.
The scarcity of fuel near the lines of the great rail-
roads was the cause of great quantities of coal being
imported. The Mexican Railway connecting Vera Cruz
and the capital of the nation long used cakes of com-
pressed coal imported from Great Britain, and the Mexi-
can Central Railway, which formerly used wood, later
imported its coal from the United States.
In November, 1890, a Mexican engineer, while exam-
ining the coal fields of San Marcial, in Sonora, found a
layer 6 feet in thickness at a depth of 17 feet. The
existence of coal, great in quantity and excellent in
quality, for a distance of 10 miles in a northeast and
northwest direction was proved. Operations at the coal
fields are carried on about 40 miles from Ortiz, a town
on the Sonora Railway between Hermosillo and Ghiay-
mas. This concession is owned by a Mexican company
and covers 4,000,000 acres. Coal has been found in bor-
ings 50 miles apart. The diamond drill has gone through
three veins one of 2 feet, another of 4 feet, and a third
of 7y 2 feet, and in a fourth it has already penetrated
22 feet, and is still working in coal. The coal, which by
test is said to equal the finest Lehigh Valley product,
can be traced for miles on the surface, the four veins
showing the same thickness throughout the whole extent.
A railway 60 to 65 miles in length carries the coal to the
harbor at Ghiaymas, whence it can be laid down in San
Diego, Cal, for $5 a ton.
240 COAL AND OIL DEPOSITS
It has been said that an extensive coal mine in Mexico
will prove a greater bonanza than a gold mine.
GREAT OIL DEPOSITS
The territory of Mexico also abounds in deposits of
asphaltum, liquid petroleum, and bituminous coal. For
a long time these deposits were not worked to any great
extent, however, many causes having existed for the non-
activity in this and other industrial pursuits, among
which may be mentioned the relatively small number of
inhabitants in comparison to the extent and richness of
the soil (there are about five inhabitants to the square
mile), the absence, to within a few years, of public secur-
ity and protection to property, and the lack of means of
communication, which have been only lately partially
supplied. Now there are great oil fields operated by
English and American capital. The greatest of all is
in the vicinity of Tampico.
The turning of the minds of the people of the country
to peaceful business occupations and the ever-increasing
influx of foreigners have created a largely augmented
demand for illuminating and heating substances. The
consumption of petroleum in Mexico, it has been stated
on good authority, amounts to 5,000,000 gallons per
annum. Foreign crude petroleum pays an import duty
of 1 cent per kilogramme, which is about 10 per cent ad
valorem on the average market value of the refined
article.
The entire Atlantic coast of Mexico shows traces of
oil and asphaltum, which there goes by the name of
chapopote. In the northern part of the Eepublic between
the foothills and the coast there exist springs and deposits
of the substances named.
The deposits of asphaltum in the vicinity of Tuxpan
and Tampico are excellent in quality, and from them
the merchants of the coast have shipped at various times
small quantities to the United States and Europe. This
A typical Mexican ^ceiio Peon Wouiun and Children
Santa Rosa Cathedral, Queretaro
The Rebel loader, Zapata, whose operations in Southern Mexico havo been
more or lefcs independent of the CJonrtitutlonalirt movement
The Pnsoncis' Band in the Penitential y at Uuadalajaia
Patio of the Penitentiary in the City of Puebla, Mexico
COAL AND OIL DEPOSITS 241
asphalt may be easily broken into blocks and floated
down the river to the seacoast, where it may be collected
and laden on ships.
Crude petroleum springs running freely are to be found
on the banks of several rivers, the oil flowing into these
and covering their surface for some distance. When
samples of this oil were assayed in Pennsylvania, they
were reported to be of a quality equal to the crude prod-
ucts of that state. Some of these springs have a natural
flow of three inches in diameter.
Deposits of bituminous coal of the class known as
" Grahamite " are also found in the regions named.
This was an important discovery, since the value of this
article is much greater than that of anthracite coal, owing
to the superior qualities it possesses for the manufac-
ture of gas. One deposit is situated a few miles up tlio
river from Tampico, and the amount of the coal in sight
proves it to be an important field.
Almost all of the oil springs and asphalt and coal
deposits are situated in localities favorable to their being
worked profitably and their products easily transported.
Under a law of 1887, coal, iron and quicksilver mines
and their products were made free from all taxes and
duties for 50 years.
CHAPTER XX
LAND LAWS OF MEXICO
Land in Mexico may be divided into three regions,
which have been called respectively, the hacienda coun-
try, the pueblo country, and the free country.
The first-named comprises the greater part of the
central plateau, many of the temperate valleys situated
on the slopes or terraces of this plateau, nearly all of the
gulf coast, and many points on the Pacific.
The pueblo or community holdings lie toward the
southern part of the country.
The free country, or pueblo lands, so called because of
the fact that few if any haciendas or pueblos exist there,
is situated in the north of the Eepublic.
As regards the central plateau, it is really marvelous
that its lands retain their fertility, considering their
great productiveness for hundreds of years. The only
way this can be accounted for is that the system of
irrigation there in vogue yearly resupplies the soil with
natural fertilizing matter.
Previous to the conquest this very land had to provide
food for at least twice the existing population of the
country and was producing for more than six centuries
unceasingly and without fertilizers. Strange, indeed,
then, that it has not become sterile. But it is said that
the day is fast approaching when the fecundity of this
soil will vanish. Dryness and barrenness are already
becoming evident in certain portions of the table lands.
The almost virgin land and that which invites the
energetic arm of the careful husbandman lies on the east
242
LAND LAWS OF MEXICO 243
and on the west, towards the coasts, and when the rail-
road system is complete and has nnited one and the
other points, many fertile valleys will be in a posi-
tion to bring forth two and three crops a year to gladden
the eye and fill the purse of the tiller of the soil.
THE PUBLIC LANDS
The free or public lands are situated mostly in parts
of the States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Sinaloa,
and Sonora. Immense tracts are here almost uninhabited,
and in the western Sierra Madre the plains reach down
to the tropics. These lands were formerly settled upon
by religious orders, or were held by officers of the Span-
ish crown. After the war of independence and the
escheating to the state of ecclesiastical holdings they
became public lands, and are what are now called ter-
renos baldios. The nation, under a law to that effect
enacted, has had most of the lands surveyed and meas-
ured, giving to the companies doing the surveying one-
third of the land surveyed, and disposed of the rest to
private parties and companies. About 100,000,000 acres
have thus been disposed of, and the government still
retains in the neighborhood of 25,000,000 acres.
The land in the north is generally laid out in squares
containing from 4,000 to 6,000 acres.
The climate of this section greatly resembles that of
the south of Europe, and is well adapted to colonization.
As has been said, the pueblo system prevails nearly
everywhere in the south of the country, and the govern-
ment will require some three or four years more to com-
plete the reclamation of public lands in that quarter.
The southern railroad system will not be completed
before that time, and the country must wait some time
before the fertile valleys of the States of Chiapas,
Guerrero, and Oaxaca can be opened up to immigration
and settlement. Land may, however, be bought there at
very low prices, but organized immigration, compelled
244 LAND LAWS OF MEXICO
to produce and sell quickly, should look elsewhere for a
few years.
The great question in Mexico is water. The country,
excepting the lowlands of the gulf is dry, and has been
likened to Algeria and Egypt.
TERMS OF THE LAW
The law concerning the occupation of public lands
(terrenos baldios) was promulgated on July 22, 1863,
and, with amendments afterwards enacted, is in sub-
stance as follows :
All lands in the Republic are considered as public
(baldios) which have not been utilized for public pur-
poses nor ceded to individuals or corporations authorized
to receive them.
Every inhabitant of the Eepublic has the right to
denounce or enter upon public land to the extent of 2,500
hectares (about 6,177 acres), and no more, excepting
natives or naturalized citizens of bordering nations, who
can not, except by express authority of the president of
the Republic, acquire land in any state or territory bor-
dering on their country situated within 20 leagues of the
boundary line or within 5 leagues of the coast.
(Aliens desiring to acquire property within the pre-
scribed limits must apply to the department of public
works (of Mexico), accompanying the application with a
report of the government of the state, district, or terri-
tory wherein the land sought to be acquired is situated.)
The denouncing of public lands must be made before
the judge of the federal court in the judicial district
wherein the land is situated.
This step taken, the survey and plat of the land
denounced will be made by the government surveyor, or,
in default thereof, by a surveyor appointed by the court.
After the survey and platting, inquiry will be made at
the land office if the land is in the possession of the gov-
ernment. Should this be the case the patent is issued to
LAND LAWS OF MEXICO 245
the denouncer without further proceedings; but in the
event of an adverse claim the case between the claimant
and denouncer is tried in the courts, the government also
being a party thereto.
THE DENOUNCER'S BIGHTS
In case the government is not in possession of the land
the denouncement shall be published three times, at inter-
vals of ten days, in the newspapers, and by notices dis-
played in public places. If no claimant presents him-
self, no patent shall issue, but a possessory title shall be
decreed to vest in the denouncer; but should a claimant
intervene, the case shall be tried, with the government
as a party.
A judicial decree granting a patent or possessory title
shall not have effect without the approval of the depart-
ment of public works, to which end the record and copy
of the map shall be forwarded to said department by the
governor of the state wherein the land in question is
situated, accompanied by the report he may deem it
advisable to make.
The approval alluded to having been obtained, and the
party in interest having filed the certificate and having
deposited in the proper office the value of the land, in
accordance with the biennial price list, or the requisite
installment when time payments are allowed, the judge
will deliver to him the patent, or possessory title.
The expenses incident to measurement, survey, or pro-
curing of title and all other necessary expenses shall be
borne by the denouncer, but he is indemnified in case an
adverse claimant is successful against whom costs shall
be decreed.
LOHG LEASES TO FOBEIGNEBS
By act of June 7, 1886, the government, evidently
intending to favor the introduction of foreign capital
into Mexico, decreed, among other provisions, that for-
246 LAND LAWS OF MEXICO
eigners shall not be required to reside in the Eepublic
for the acquisition of waste or public lands, real estate,
and ships, but that they shall be subjected to the restric-
tions imposed by the laws then in force. The act further
provided that all leases of real estate made to foreigners
shall be considered as sales if for a longer period than
ten years.
The obligations contracted by an alien acquiring real
estate in Mexico are :
1. To subject himself to the laws of the country in
force at the time of acquisition or which may thereafter
be enacted respecting the ownership, transfer, use, and
improvement of land, and to submit to the judgment and
decrees of Mexican courts in everything affecting the said
land.
2. To pay all lawful taxes levied on the property.
3. To aid with his services and means in the preserva-
tion of order and security in his place of residence, except
in cases of disturbance due to political revolutions, or
civil war.
4 To perform the duties of a Mexican citizen, which
a foreigner becomes on acquiring real estate, provided
he does not beforehand declare his intention to retain
his nationality.
(Up to the year 1886 the Mexican law recognized as a
citizen every foreigner who had acquired real estate, or
had a child born in the Republic, unless he explicitly
made known his intention to preserve his nationality by
being " matriculated, " i e., having his name and nation-
ality inscribed in a book kept for the purpose in the
department of foreign affairs, and outside of the capital
in the state governor's office, etc., but by the law of July
7, 1866, the acts requiring the registration of foreigners
were repealed. A foreigner, however, desiring to be
recognized as such, may solicit and receive of the said
department a certificate of nationality, which will con-
stitute a legal presumption of foreign citizenship, but
LAND LAWS OP MEXICO 247
will not bar proofs to the contrary being adduced in
courts of competent jurisdiction in the manner estab-
lished by the laws or treaties.)
TITLE OF A.-N AUEISr
An alien holding real estate in the Republic loses all
right, title and interest therein in the following cases :
1. By absenting himself with his family from the
country for more than two years without previous per-
mission of the government. This does not apply to
mining property.
2. By residing permanently abroad, although the
owner may leave a representative or attorney to look
after the property and represent him. Mines are also
excluded from this provision.
3. By transferring the title to the real estate to any
non-resident of the Republic, either by deed, will, or
other conveyance. An alien thus situated must sell the
property within two years from the date of absenting
himself, under penalty of having it sold on his account
by the local authorities. In the event of there being an
informer to bring the matter to the notice of the proper
authorities, one-tenth of the proceeds of the sale may be
retained by him. Mines are not included.
Under the law, as given in substance above, the secre-
tary of public works publishes every two years the prices
at which government lands may be purchased*
CHAPTER XXI
THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE
At Guadalupe, in the Valley of Mexico, is found the
holiest shrine of all in Mexico and its legend is the
prettiest of all legends.
As we read the little of Aztec history that the Spanish
left unburned we may well wonder at the similarity of
their religion to that of the Christians, and we are apt
to conclude that the ancient Mexicans were not the pagans
they have been painted, says Beau Campbell in his inter-
esting " Guide." The Aztecs waited for the coming of
a Christ to save them; Malintzi, the Saviour of the
Aztecs, was a man of fair countenance, long flowing hair
and beard, was of gentle mien and character, was and is
to come to save the Mexican ; Tonantzin was the Mother
of Gods in their religion, and the people worshiped her 1
on the Hill of Tepeyacac, now called Guadalupe, where
the Holy Virgin appeared to Juan Diego and where her
holiest temple stands. This is the legend of Guadalupe :
A pious Indian, Juan Diego, lived in the village of
Tolpetlac, and as he went to mass in the church of Santi-
ago Tlaltelolco, passed around the hillside of Tepeyacac,
on Saturday morning, December 9, 1531. He heard the
sweet music of singing voices ; he was afraid, and, look-
ing up, behold, a lady appeared to him and bade him
hear what she might say; he should go to the bishop and
tell him that it was her will that a temple in her honor
should be built on that hill; he listened tremblingly, on
his knees, and when the lady had vanished, went his way
and told the bishop what he had seen and heard,
248
THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE 249
The bishop was Don Juan Zumarraga; he listened
incredulously to the Indian's story and sent him away.
Sorrowfully he returned to where the lady appeared to
him, found her waiting and told the bishop's answer;
she bade him come to her again.
On the following day, Sunday, Juan Diego came again
to the hillside ; the lady appeared for the third time and
sent him to the bishop again with her message that a
temple should be built for her. The bishop, still unbeliev-
ing and distrusting the improbable means of conveying
such a command through this poor Indian, told him he
must bring some unmistakable token that what he said
was true, sent him away again, and, unknown to him,
sent two servants to watch him; but as he approached
the hill he became invisible in some mysterious way,
passed around the hill, and alone saw the lady and told
her the bishop required a token of the truth of her com-
mands; she told him to come to her again the next day.
A MIEACULOTJS " SIGN "
Then returned Juan Diego to his house, and found
that his uncle, Juan Bernardino, was ill with the fever,
cocolixtli, so that he must wait at home and attend him.
Early on the morning of December 12, the sick man being
at the point of death, Juan Diego started to Tlaltelolco
to call a confessor; fearing that he might be delayed if
he met the lady, and that his uncle might die unconf essed,
he went another way, around the other side of the hill
But behold! she was there, coming down the hill and
calling to him; he told her of his uncle's illness and of
his need for a confessor, but she assured him that his
uncle was already well. Then the lady told him to gather
flowers from the barren rocks on top of the hill, and
immediately the flowers grew where none had ever been
before; she commanded him to take these flowers to the
bishop as the token he had desired, and to show them to
no other until the bishop had looked upon them.
250 THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE
Joyfully lie folded the flowers in Ms tilma, a sort of
cloak made of ixtU f a fiber of the maguey, and departed
again for the bishop's house. From the place where the
Virgin stood a spring of clear, cold water gushed forth;
that is there to this day a panacea for the ills that
flesh is heir to. When he came to the bishop 's house,
the Indian dropped the flowers at the holy father's feet
and upon the tilma appeared the image of the Virgin
Mary, in the most beautiful colors. The bishop placed
the wonderful tilma with its miraculous picture in the
oratory of his house, holding it as a priceless treasure.
Juan Diego, escorted by the bishop's servants, returned
to his own home and found that his uncle was well, cured
in the hour when the Virgin spake and told him, no con-
fessor was needed. A chapel was built where the roses
had so miraculously grown from the rocks, and on the
7th of February, 1532, the tilma of the holy image was
placed over its altar within the shrine. Juan Diego and
his uncle, Juan Bernardino, became the attendants, and
under the teachings of Fray Toribio Motolinia, Juan
Diego and his wife took vows of chastity and remained
in the house of the Virgin as her servants till Juan Diego
died, in 1548.
SANCTIONED BY THE OHTJBOH
The legend had the sanction of Borne, first under Pope
Alexander VII., who ordered an investigation by the
Congregation of Rites with a view to the granting of
authority for the perpetuation of the feast of the 12th
of December, the day of the last appearance of the Virgin
to Juan Diego, the day of his gathering the roses in his
tilma, and the appearance of the image when the flowers
fell at the bishop's feet.
Toward the middle of the eighteenth century the Virgin
of Guadalupe was made the Patron Saint of Mexico for
her protection during the plague of the matlanzalhMatl in
1736. In 1754> Juan Francisco Lopez, a Jesuit priest,
THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE 251
having been sent to Rome for that purpose, secured
favorable action by the Congregation of Rites, and the
feast of the 12th of December was established by the
Papal bull of Benedict XIV., dated 25th of May of that
year, and the Virgin of Guadalupe was officially pro*
claimed the Protectress and Patroness of Mexico, or
New Spain.
A NATIONAL HOLIDAY
On the 15th of September, 1810, when Hidalgo took
the banner of this Virgin from the little church of Ato-
tonilco and proclaimed the independence of Mexico,
" Guadalupe " became the battle-cry of his followers.
The first Congress of the Republic of Mexico gave the
festival further recognition by making the 12th of
December a national holiday through the decree of No-
vember 27, 1824, and the day is religiously observed
throughout the country, particularly by the Indians, who
in former years walked hundreds of miles to present
themselves before the holy shrine, and since the building
of the railroads, come from the uttermost parts by tram
loads.
There are other festivals of the Virgin of Guadalupe,
notably that of January 12, when the archbishop and the
clerical dignitaries are present, and the feast is one of
splendid magnificence; another on the 22nd of Novem-
ber, one on the 3rd of December, and on the 12th of each
month.
At the foot of the Hill of Guadalupe Is a group of
churches, that have grown about the original church of
Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe, built by Bishop Zumar-
raga, afterwards Archbishop of Mexico, who received
the sacred tihna from Juan Diego. The first temple of
the tilma was built and the image placed in it within
fourteen days after the apparition. A htmdred years
after, a new and larger church was added and the tikoa
with its miraculous image placed in it, in November of
252 THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE
1622. Here the tilma remained for three hundred years,
with the exception of four years, when it was housed
in the Cathedral in the City of Mexico.
AID SOUGHT IN" FLOOD
During the great inundation of 1629, when the city
was endangered, the Archbishop Francisco Manso y
Zuniga and the viceroy, Marques of Cerralvo, sought
the aid of the Virgin for the subsidence of the waters,
and to that end brought the image of the tilma to the
Cathedral. The waters covered the face of the earth in
all the valley, and the bringing of the image was in a
barge, in which rode the archbishop; the viceroy fol-
lowed in another barge carrying a brilliant company of
the dignitaries of church and state.
This weird and unique procession passed over the
waters in the night; the barges and gondolas were
lighted with torches and paper lanterns, while the musi-
cians played sacred music and the people sang their
hymns to the Virgin. When the flotilla came to streets
of the city the image was taken to the archbishop's resi-
dence for the night, whence it was taken the next day to
the Cathedral, where it remained four years, till the sub-
sidence of the waters, then taken back to the shrine at
the Hill of Guadalupe.
THE CHTJBOH OF GTTADALUPE
In 1695, the existing parish church was built and used
as a temporary shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe, while
the work on a larger and greater temple progressed,
which was dedicated in May, 1709. The arched roof is
surmounted by a dome and lantern that is 125 feet from
the floor; the supports are massive Corinthian columns.
The nave is nearly 200 feet long by 122 feet wide. The
original altar was from designs by the great Tolsa, drawn
THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE 253
in 1802, but the work was so hindered by the wars from
1810 to 1821 that little or no progress was made, and it
was not completed till 1836; the cost to this time was
nearly half a million dollars, which, added to the million
or more that the churches had cost, made the expendi-
tures nearly two million dollars up to that year. Around
the chancel was placed a massive silver railing on a base
of white marble, the gift of the Viceroy Bucareli, who
lies under the pavement of the west aisle. The choir was
of carved mahogany and ebony; there are other carvings
in the sacristy, where there are also some paintings and
two very curious tables of onyx. This church is what
is termed " collegiate," that is, although not the seat
of an archbishop or bishop, it has the organization of a
cathedral.
In the year 1887, Father Antonio Plancarte y Labas-
tida prepared to carry out a long cherished design for
renovation and embellishment of the Church of Our
Lady of Guadalupe, and he lived long enough to see the
crowning glory in the completion of his work before he
put down his burden. Father Plancarte died in 1898.
When the work was commenced the tilma was moved to
the adjoining church, one time the convent of the Capu-
chinas, but not without some opposition on the part of
the Indians, who ever watch the image with a jealous
eye. They are suspicious of every move ; and when the
work was completed the tilma was replaced in the
renewed basilica on the 30th of September, 1895, at a
very early hour before the break of day, thus avoiding
further protests from the Indians.
On entering the great doorway there is a bewildering
sense of the gorgeous magnificence of the scenic interior,
and one stands almost in awe, with indecision whether
to move on or stand there, and so great is the beauty of
the ensemble that it is hardly possible to fix the eye on
individual objects; before entering there was a pre-
eminent object of seeing the famous tilma, but for the
254 THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE
moment even that is forgotten in the glorious harmony of
color.
A MAGNIFICENT ALTAR
The magnificent altar containing the frame holding
the sacred tilma is a mass of Carrara marble white as
the snows of Popocatapetl, exquisitely carved and
wrought with gilded bronze, executed at Carrara by the
sculptor, Mcoli, from designs by the Mexican artists,
Agea and Salome Pina. The bronze work was done in
Brussels. On the left, or Gospel side, of the altar is the
figure of Juan Zumarraga, on the Epistle, or right side,
that of Juan Diego, done in Carrara marble; imme-
diately in front is the kneeling figure of Mgr. Labastida
y Davalos, Archbishop of Mexico, under whose care the
great work was completed. Under the statue are his
ashes and the remains of his father and mother. At
the top of the frame holding the image on the tilma
are the marble reliefs of three angels representing the
archdioceses of Mexico, Michoacan and Guadalajara,
which were chiefly instrumental in securing the Papal
authority for the coronation. Above the high altar
is a splendid Byzantine baldachin supported by pillars
of Scotch granite, surmounted by a gilded cross of roses,
the flowers of the Virgin of Guadalupe. The front arch
of the baldachin bears the arms of Pope Leo XIII., the
other three arches the arms of the Archbishops of Mex-
ico, Michoacan and Guadalajara, who applied to Pope
Leo for permission to crown the image of the tilma.
Underneath the high altar is a crypt with a vaulted
iron roof that will sustain a weight of 300,000 pounds.
The crypt contains four altars under the high altar, and
has thirty urns for the reception of the ashes of the
thirty persons who gave $5,000 each to the cost of the
high altar and the baldachin, the total cost of which
was $150,000.
THE LEGEND OF GUADALTJPE 255
In all there are ten altars in this great church. The
fine windows of the church were the gifts of prominent
people of Mexico.
The high altar holds the sacred tilma in which Juan
Diego brought the roses to the bishop, and on which the
image of the Virgin so miraculously appeared. Some
years ago a number of artists and scientific men were
permitted to examine the picture, which they did critic-
ally, taking off the plate glass, but they were not able
to say that the colors were put on in any manner known
to art; they all agreed that the picture was not painted,
and by their decision the mystery of the picture was
enhanced and its miraculous origin all but determined.
The tilma has remained here in this place for nearly
four hundred years ; its colors are bright and fresh, while
other pictures as old are faded and worn; is it any won-
der, asks Mr. Campbell, that the mass of the people
believe, since learned men and artists cannot of their
learning and art gainsay the legend?
The adoration of the image on the tilma has not been
confined to olden times; it continues, and will probably
continue for all time. The culmination was on the 12th
of October, 1895, when a crown of gold and jewels, a
galaxy of gems, diamonds, rubies and sapphires, was
placed over the tilma. On that day came pilgrims from
every quarter; they thronged the church and covered
the plain round about
A MULTITUDE OF PILGRIMS
It was a magnificent scene to stand upon the hill and
look down upon the numberless multitude of pilgrims,
come from the remotest corners of Mexico and assem-
bled without the walls, for only hundreds could get within
the sacred portals. The unsheltered thousands knelt in
mute adoration, with bowed heads, in the dust of the
salty plain, and listened to the tolling of the bells in the
256 THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE
tower when the jeweled, golden crown was raised to the
brow of the Virgin of Guadalupe, then fell down and
kissed the ground in the fervor of their adoration and
blessed the memory of good Juan Diego.
Within, under the arches of the vaulted temple, were
gathered the dignitaries of the Church of Borne, come
from all the sees and bishoprics of the western world,
and in all the pomp and ceremony of the church, with
mitered heads and gorgeous robes*
The glad news had gone over every hill, down to every
valley and over all the plains of Mexico, that the corona-
tion of Guadalupe was to be on this day. The news went
not by advertisement or printed paper, but on the wings
of the wind. The birds of the air told it to the people,
and they came and knelt at the Hill of Guadalupe, that
was called Tepeyacac,
The crown is of gold and precious stones, contributed
by the women of Mexico from their own jewels, and was
made by a Parisian goldsmith at a cost of over $30,000
for manufacture alone. In shape it is an imperial dia-
dem, 62 centimeters high and 130 centimeters in circum-
ference. There are 22 shields representing the 22
bishoprics of Mexico. Above these are angels circling
the crown and upholding six other shields bearing the
arms of the six archbishoprics of Mexico. From the
wings of the angels are festoons of roses and diamonds
gathered at the top under a globe showing Mexico and
the Gulf.
Surmounting the whole is the eagle of Mexico bear-
ing in its talons a diamond cross. The crown is held
above the image on the tilma by a cherub. The shields
are surrounded by emeralds and sapphires, and on the
breast of each angel is a blazing ruby. Altogether it is
the finest jewel used in religious ceremonies in existence.
At the coronation the ladies who gave their jewels
for the crown carried it to the steps of the throne of the
Onyx Altar tit Puebla, Mexico
Chapel on the Hill of the Bells, Queietaio, wheie the Emperor Maximilian
was executed
General view of Zacatecas
Sciup lion Maikct at San Luib P
Street Market in Guanajuato
THE LEGEND OF GTJADALUPE 257
archbishop, where the Papal brief authorizing the coro-
nation was read, and the notarial certificates of the action,
made, and it was received by the archbishop amid the
clangor of bells and salvos of artillery.
The event of the coronation revived the discussion of
the authenticity of the tilma and the image ; one bishop
at least, the Bishop of Tamaulipas, dissented and
preached against it, and the great agnostic, Senor Don
Juan Mateos, who has been called the Ingersoll of Mexico,
opened the flood gates of his splendid oratory against
the story of the tilma and eulogizing the advancement
which he saw in the unbelief of a bishop of the church.
But the legend will go on forever, and it can do no harm,
even if it only serves for a pretty story.
The great church fronts on the main plaza of the city
of Guadalupe, opposite the street that leads to the cause-
way over which the street cars pass to and from the City
of Mexico. The church is a massive stone structure with
a tall tower, filled with bells, on each corner ; the south-
west tower holds the town clock; the towers are over
a hundred feet high. The center facade is of stone of
marble whiteness, handsomely sculptured; twenty stone
columns support the elaborately carved friezes of the
first and second elevations; between the sets of two
columTis are life-size figures, also in stone. Immediately
over the main entrance and in the center of the facade
is a sculptured representation of the scene in the bishop's
house when Juan Diego let the roses fall from his tilma,
disclosing the image of the Virgin.
THE STOKE SAILS OF QUADAJLJJPE
Near the church is a stone stairway that leads to the
Capilla del Cerrito, the Chapel of the Hill, built on the
spot where the legend says the roses grew in the barren
rock, at the Virgin's word, for Juan Diego to gather and
take to the bishop in token of her wish for a temple there.
About half way up the stairs are the Stone Sails of
258 THE LEGEND OF GUADALUPE
Guadalupe, and thereby hangs a tale : Some sailors in
dire distress in a storm-tossed ship that had lost her
rudder, prayed to the Virgin of Guadalupe and vowed
that if she would bring them safe to land they would
carry the foremast to the Hill of Guadalupe and set the
sails before her shrine. There the sails are to this day,
incased in stone, a memorial to the protecting power of
the Virgin. The date of the placing of this curious work
remains untold in the annals of Guadalupe.
CHAPTEE XXII
SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO
There are but two classes of society in Mexico, those
who work to live and those who live by the labor of their
fellow-men, the one including all the wealth and intelli-
gence of the country, members of the professions and
public officials, and the other consisting only of those
who serve. Between the two there is an almost impass-
able gulf; for the poor are hopelessly poor, and looked
upon with contempt, while the high-born, if reduced to
poverty, prefer starvation to manual labor, which is con-
sidered as degrading. At present there is no great
powerful middle class, though such an element is being
gradually evolved through the social and material prog-
ress of the country. There is not, as in most of the coun-
tries of Europe and in the United States, a great body
politic consisting of farmers, traders, and artisans, many
of them owning the land which they till, the wares which
they sell, and the shops and dwellings which they occupy.
This most important factor in the community, forming
as it does the very backbone of a nation, is still in process
of development. Thus the term lower classes, in what-
ever sense it may be used, signifies in Spanish America
something different from its meaning elsewhere on this
continent and perhaps elsewhere in the world.
The present condition and status of the lower classes
are matters easy of explanation. Given as a base the
conquered aboriginals, merged into innumerable castes
by intermarriage with Africans and Europeans; steep
them in ignorance and superstition; grind them for oeix-
259
260 SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO
turies under the heel of political, ecclesiastical, and social
despotism, and the result is exactly what might have been
expected.
In physique, the Mexican peon is somewhat below
medium stature, and of slender build, but hardy, and
remarkably patient of fatigue. The men frequently carry
for a considerable distance packages of two or three hun-
dred pounds weight, the load being born on the back and
shoulders and balanced by a leather strap around the
forehead and chest, while women support lighter bur-
dens on their heads, after the fashion of the French and
Italian peasantry. Their condition is pitiable in the
extreme; for in the cities they are the servants of
servants, and in the country, bound by debt or family
ties, they live, almost as bondsmen, on the haciendas, or
the mines where dwelt their fathers and forefathers.
The lowest grade include some of the most abject crea-
tures on earth, says Bancroft, beings who are almost a
reproach to humanity, or rather to the European civiliza-
tion which placed them in a condition far more degraded
than that of their ancestors under aboriginal regime.
They are thinly and but partially clad in coarse cotton
garments, many of them going barefoot and bareheaded ;
their food consists of whatever they can pick up, and
at night they huddle together in adobe huts, or sleep
on the ground wherever they may chance to be when
night overtakes them.
USED AS PACK ANIMALS
Even those who are a little higher in the scale of civil-
ization are utilized in the cities as pack-animals, and in
the mines in place of machinery; and yet so fearful are
they of losing their employment that they destroy all
labor-saving implements, even though they may tend to
relieve them of a portion of their burdens. In the streets
and on the highways they may be seen bearing huge tim-
bers, loads of adobe, and boxes and packages of
SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO 261
enormous weight; and heavy articles, as pianos and iron
safes, are carried for miles across barrancas almost
impassable for vehicles.
But degraded as is the condition of the lower classes
in Mexico, it has improved somewhat since the era of
the revolution. Descriptions which have been handed
down to us of the 20,000 leperos, or lazzaroni, who
twenty years ago infested the suburbs of the capital, rep-
resent a scene of poverty, filth and wretchedness almost
beyond belief. Not long afterward a law was passed
requesting vagrants to go to work or suffer imprison-
ment, and this regulation produced a wholesome effect.
Not that the reform proved radical, for to this day beg-
gars may be seen who pass their lives standing, like
statues, by the wayside or on the street corners, rather
than raise a hand to provide themselves with food.
Others, shockingly deformed, obstruct the sidewalks, and
exhibit their twisted frames in mute appeal for aid.
Nevertheless there are few classes of laborers who do
more work for less money than the Mexican peon. It is,
moreover, a significant fact that there are few Chinamen
in their midst, except on the plantations of the lowlands ;
for Mongolians cannot compete with them, either in
amount or quality of labor, or in the straitness of their
economy.
PEONS GIVE FAITHFUL SEBVICE
The employer who keeps faith with his Mexican labor-
ers, paying them promptly according to his agreement,
will receive faithful service in return, being acknowledged
as their master almost by divine right; for the peons and
their ancestors have been drilled for centuries in tho
school of servility. So accustomed are they to kicks and
curses that they regard this species of abuse as incidental
to their sphere of life. Even when making their pur-
chases at the stores they look with suspicion on the shop-
keeper who addresses them politely; for such treatment
262 SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO
is regarded as significant of dishonest intent. Expecting
to be asked an exorbitant price for goods, and then to
obtain a reduction, if a fair equivalent is demanded, from
which there is no rebate, they seldom purchase, though
knowing that they can do so at cheaper rates than they
must pay elsewhere.
In no respect are the several classes so strictly divided
as in the regulation of traffic. The tradesmen who receive
the patronage of the rich never come into competition
with the provision stores, or bakeries, or pulque-shops
which supply the wants of the poor. The latter dwell
and toil apart; they build their own houses, provide their
own food and clothing, and even when sick do not venture
to seek the aid of a physician of aristocratic repute. On
the one side there is arrogance and contempt; on the other
antipathy and indifference; and there is no powerful
middle class to stand between these opposing elements.
And yet the people thoroughly understand each other;
for each one knows his place and his sphere in life.
Though the streets of the capital are usually thronged,
there is neither hustling nor crowding, and there are few
of those unseemly brawls and sickening tragedies which
occur so frequently in the cities of the northern republic.
There is little scolding or altercation among the women,
and there is little violence, either in word or deed, among
the men. Even rival journalists are urbane, and poli-
ticians are seldom turbulent, however fiercely may burn
the fires which underlie the surface.
ALL GBADES OF CASTE
Among the upper classes, as among the lower, may be
found all gradations of caste, in addition to the pure-
blooded European and the pure-blooded American. In
point of ability, education, wealth, comfort, and refine-
ment, the former far excel the standard to which in the
estimation of foreigners they are entitled; for in these
respects they are by no means behind the other civilized
SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO 263
nations of the world. Those who are most prominent in
society and in politics are exclusive and reticent, making
no parade of their resources and opportunities; but he
who attempts to impose on them by superior subtlety and
shrewdness will surely meet with disappointment.
Wealth, education and gentility are the principal pass-
ports to society; but the possession of wealth alone does
not win recognition for its owner, and all who are but
one or two degrees removed from the brute condition of
the peon have rights which are duly respected, though
they may not possess a dollar in the world.
The number of Spaniards in Mexico has been esti-
mated at 30,000, and of other foreigners, apart from
Americans, at about the same figures, the latter class of
population being variable, though constantly increasing
in number. The term foreigner is applied to all who are
not born in the country, whatever may be their parentage.
On the other hand, a native of Mexico, though of foreign
descent, is called a Mexican, if by any political act, as
voting or accepting office, he has proclaimed his nation-
ality. As a rule, Europeans are not in sympathy with
Mexican institutions, holding themselves apart, frequent-
ing their own clubs and places of resort, and regarding
the natives with offensive superciliousness. Moreover,
European merchants have sought to monopolize the trade
of the country by spreading false reports, by smuggling
and taking advantage of official corruption, and by help-
ing to keep the masses in poverty and ignorance, while
charging the evils produced by their own baseness to the
faults of a government which they openly despise, in
common with everything else that is Mexican.
LAJBOB IS ABUNDANT
Labor is abundant in Mexico ; in some places the supply
is greater than the demand, and as the laboring classes
can live on such frugal diet and need so little clothing,
wages, except for imported skilled labor, are small
264 SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO
Speaking of these classes, a Mexican newspaper says :
" One of their greatest evils at the present time is the
existence of a scale of wages which defies all power of
reduction; which robs the laborers of all sense of dignity,
or feeling of association with the rest of their fellow
citizens, and having reduced them to a condition of abject
debasement, deteriorates to a like extent their productive
power and the measure of their utility. Instead of claim-
ing and occupying the position of an important and essen-
tial element in the process of the development of the
country's resources, they, the laboring classes, are con-
tent to regard themselves as a plant, or machinery which
moves by extraneous aids only, and has no power of voli-
tion, and no desire to exercise it if it had."
Mr. John Bigelow, late minister to France, once said
that the laborers of Mexico lived at less expense than a
farm horse in a New England state.
A VERITABLE FEUDAL SYSTEM
The hacendados, as the large landowners are called,
own immense tracts of land, and the hacienda, or manor,
is a congregation of buildings forming, at times, quite a
settlement, and is generally fortified. The hacendado
usually works his possessions in accordance with the tra-
ditions handed down from the time of the Spanish Con-
quest a veritable feudal system. He is not only a land-
owner, but he is a dealer in provisions, clothing, etc. His
peons, as the laborers and the tillers of his soil are called,
are descended from those his father had before him, and
they are paid, live, and work as their progenitors were
and did. The peon is born under the shadow of his mas-
ter's house, grows up and remains under him, following
Ms father's steps in everything, using the same imple-
ments, and receiving the same pay, generally from 27 to
37% cents a day. On many of these haciendas the Indian
may be seen clad as were his prototypes on the banks of
the Nile, and handling tools and working in tlie same
SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO 265
manner as those that toiled when the Pharaohs reigned.
The best wages are paid in Yucatan.
MEXICAN ABCHITEOTXJBB
The prevailing style of architecture throughout Mexico,
so far as regards what may be termed modern buildings
as contradistinguished from the ruined temples and pal-
aces of the Republic, is the Spanish renaissance. The
cathedrals and churches are all built in this stylo. Ara-
besque work and stone carvings ornament the facades of
nearly all religious edifices. Governmental buildings and
those devoted to public uses are generally imposing and
commodious. The National Palace in Mexico City has a
frontage of 675 feet and is two stories high.
Private houses arc always substantially built, generally
in a rectangular form around a courtyard. It is rare,
except at the capital, to see a private residence ovor two
stories high. The roofs are Hat, with a wall miming
entirely around them. The roof is called the nzotoa, and
in the warmer region is often utilized by the residents
for sleeping purposes during the dry season. Growing
plants and shrubs are often to be seen in the assotoa and
in the courtyard The windows of the houses are gen-
erally barred with railings of iron. The larger residences
are constructed of igneous rock, such as porous amygda-
loid, porphyry, or trachyte. Dwellings arc made usually
of brick and topctato (a kind of clay thickly sprinkled
with sand and pebbles, which is soft when taken out of
the deposit, but on exposure becomes exceedingly hard)
and are stuccoed.
On the table-lands houses in the smaller towns and
villages are constructed of adobe, a sun-dried brick made
of dark clay mixed with straw.
COOT OF LIVING
It may be said in a general way that the cost of living
in Mexico is not great, although, of course, it varies in
266 SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO
different localities. In the interior towns and villages
the common necessaries of life, such as beef, vegetables,
etc., are cheap. Coffee and tea, the latter being very sel-
dom used or seen in the interior, are dear. Luxuries are
not to be thought of, as they are only procurable from
distant points and at great expense. Imported German
beer and English ale in some cities of the interior costs
75 cents a pint. Butter, when it is procurable, and it is
sometimes made without salt, is very expensive. If one
can accustom himself to the rich, highly-seasoned food,
and does not object to a considerable sameness in and a
limited bill of fare, meals may be had at hotels in the
interior for about 50 cents each. Board and lodging at
these hotels range from $2 to $2.50 per day.
In the City of Mexico living is more expensive. Hotels
charge from $2.50 to $5 per day. Good meals may be
procured at any first-class restaurant for $1.
Beady-made clothing, except of an inferior quality, is
not to be had; but imported English and French cloth
is made up into suits at about the same cost as in the
United States. The large dry-goods establishments, mil-
linery stores, etc., are as well stocked as those of the
larger cities of the United States and for imported goods
the prices vary very little from those prevailing in the
latter country.
BENTS AEE HIGH
Rents in the City of Mexico, however, are very high.
This is due not so much to the rapacity of the landlords
as to the cost of the house-building and other reasons.
Landlords, when renting their houses, have to pay into
the municipal coffers a tax of 12 per cent on the annual
rental, besides pavement, drainage, water and stamp
taxes. The expense in taxes on a house costing $10,000
to build and renting for $75 per month is $13.08 per
month, or about 17% per cent of the receipts.
There is not much money to be saved by hiring private
SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO 267
lodgings unless it is proposed to take them for a pro-
tracted period. Furnished rooms in desirable localities
cost nearly as much as hotel apartments. Although un-
furnished rooms may be secured, the cost for furnishing
them is very considerable ; still they rent for about one-
half the amount charged for furnished rooms. Casas de
huespedes, corresponding to the American boarding
house, abound, but as a rule the meals served are not of
the best. Their charges are relatively moderate.
The hotels are generally not provided with baths, but
in Mexico City, as well as in every interior city and town,
there are excellent public baths.
The peons in the warm, well-wooded regions, build of
wood, palm leaves, and stalks ; in the table-lands, of adobe,
the houses having flat roofs of stamped clay supported
by beams.
In the Indian villages the rudest possible habitations
are to be seen, often boing more frameworks of limbs
of trees with the bark on and thatched in on all sides with
grass, palm leaves, or stalks.
PUBLIC PORTERS
A considerable number of the Indian population act
as public porters on the highways. Men and women
engage in this occupation, and many use alpenstocks
while walking. An ordinary porter will carry a load of
one hundred and fifty pounds for a distance of twenty
miles daily. All kinds of merchandise are transported
on the backs of porters.
One Mexican traveler reports that he saw an Indian
carrying a large sofa on the road from the City of Mexico
to Cuernavaca. It was fastened to his body by means of
ropes and straps passing across Ms breast and forehead,
and extending under his arms.
During the eighteenth century the Spanish priests are
said to have imported donkeys, or burros, in large num-
bers to take the place of porters in carrying burdens.
But the porters still follow their profession*
268 SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO
The laboring classes of Mexico are exceedingly jealous
of the introduction of labor-saving machinery. They
regard it as an unwarranted means of preventing them
from earning a living. Two occurrences in recent years,
related by Alfred R. Conkling, will serve to illustrate the
antagonism of the peons to modern improvements :
Soon after the adoption of the compressed air-brake on
the railroads of the United States, the Mexican Railway
Company discharged several of their brakemen and intro-
duced this improved brake on their trains. The com-
pany's servants rebelled against this system, and stole
the stopcocks from the air-pipes, thereby compelling their
employers to reinstate them.
Eecently the owner of a large hacienda purchased an
outfit of American agricultural implements. His peons
saw in them an unjustifiable interference with their own
methods of farming, and in the course of a few weeks the
enlightened hacendado discovered to his surprise that his
stock of instruments had been destroyed. These facts
are significant, but fortunately the intense feeling against
new inventions and improved machines is confined to the
lowest laboring classes.
In constructing railroads, the contractors introduced
the wheelbarrow among the peons. They carried it on
their heads when filled with earth, and it was found that
more work could be done with a gunny-bag held on the
shoulders.
MEXICAN COSTUMES
The upper classes, especially the government officials,
in Mexico, have in recent years discarded the national
costume, and now wear the European dress. Black coats
and silk hats are as commonly seen on the Plaza Mayor
of the City of Mexico as on Broadway or Fifth Avenue.
There is a great variety of costumes, however, among
the country gentlemen, and among both sexes in the lower
SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO 269
classes. The Mexican hat, or sombrero, is the most
prominent part of the national dress. It is either of felt
or straw, and has a very wide brim. When made of the
former material, the color varies from light gray to brown
and black. The crown is trimmed with a silver band, and
the brim is oftentimes heavily embroidered with silver
thread. The cords around the crown are either single,
double or quadruple, and small silver ornaments called
chapetas are attached to both sides of it. Straw hats are
generally provided with puffed bands of the same mate-
rial, and occasionally silver cords are worn on them.
The peasantry wear plain straw hats and white cotton
shirts and trousers. Cloaks of water-flags or palm-leaf
strips are used by the Indians. They are impervious to
the rain.
A zarape, or blanket woven either of woolen goods or
of both wool and cotton, is worn in the early morning and
in the evening. An infinite variety of patterns may be
seen in these zarapes. Stripes of various shades of red,
yellow, and brown, are the prevailing colons. Unlike
the ponchos and mangas of Spain, the zarapes are thrown
over the shoulder instead of inserting the head through
a hole or slit in the middle. However, some of the latter
style of blankets are worn, especially by diligence-drivers
and donkey-boys. Stage-coachmen also wear loggings
embossed with large nail-heads.
Huaraches, or leathern sandals, fastened with straps
over the instep and across the ball of the foot, take the
place of boots or shoes among the lowor classes.
The usual style of dross among the peasant women con-
sists of a white waist and skirt, with a blue scarf or shawl
(rebozo ) . Straw hats, like those worn by the poorer class
of men, arc donned by the women.
The ladies in cities are generally dressed in plain black,
and without a bonnet. They carry black silk parasols and
black fans. The mantilla is now generally disused. Since
270 SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN MEXICO
1881 young ladies, especially in the City of Mexico, have
been wearing hats of foreign make and dresses of various
colors.
The American consul at the capital in 1880 said that
Ms wife was compelled to send to the United States for a
bonnet, being unable to purchase one in the City of
Mexico,
The hacendados and country gentlemen usually wear
suits of black cloth, consisting of a short jacket with sil-
ver buttons, a waistcoat cut low, and pantaloons open-
ing on the outside of the leg, with two rows of fancy silver
buttons along the outer seam. A faja, or sash, which is
commonly of a red color, is added to the costume, and
the boots are made with high heels. This dress is worn
in the tierra fria (colder regions), and in the upper part
of the tierra templada (temperate region). In the tierra
caliente (hot country), the gentry wear plain white cot-
ton suits with sombreros of felt or straw. In riding
through the underbrush, chaparraleros, or loose leather
trousers, are worn over the ordinary pantaloons. Except
in the large cities, swords or machetes are usually
attached to the saddle-bow.
CHAPTER XXIII
THE ALCABALA SYSTEM
The alcabala system of taxation in Mexico is so little
understood abroad that it will not be out of place to give
a short resume of it here. Escriche, in his law dictionary,
defines the word " alcabala " as follows: " The tribute
tax charged upon the proceeds of all sales or barters,
which is paid into the public treasury.' 7
The etymology of the word is doubtful. It is not known
whether it is of Moorish, Hebrew or Latin origin, or is a
corruption of the Spanish phrase algo qua valga (al que
vala), which means " something of value."
The alcabala was first established in Mexico at the
beginning of the year 1575, and the tax could be farmed
out to corporations, civil or municipal, or individuals,
being purchaseable at public auction. The term " alca-
bala " was generic and included import duticu as well as
the tax on sales. Under this system the exportation of
articles, especially of precious metalw, which wore greatly
handicapped by excessive duties, was restricted.
The first alcabala laws promulgated in Mexico, or New
Spain, in the course of time wore gradually modified, and
assuming different forms and expanding, constituted
eventually a complete branch of jurisdiction.
The commercial movement of the Spanish colonies was
much impeded by the Spanish laws, or as was stated by a
writer in a Mexican publication, " was subject to regula-
tions which, by an inexplicable contradiction, wore called
free trade regulations- " Those regulations prohibited
271
"Ovens" or Mortuaiy Vaults, Pantheon at Guanajuato
First-class Funeral Car on Mexican Street Railway
THE ALCABALA SYSTEM 273
into which, the country was divided was increased, and
there were at one time 276 different soils in the Republic.
The alcabala legislation of this period declared a 5 per
cent extra tax on consumption, over and above duties,
on foreign products and manufactures. Foreign liquors
were taxed 10 per cent extra. Four-fifths of the 5 per
cent tax and nine-tenths of the 10 per cent went to the
federal treasury, the residue being turned into the treas-
ury of the state collecting the same.
The coastwise trade was less hampered, a system of
permits prevailing under which a trader going from port
to port paid the duties on the goods as they were sold,
the permits covering the articles disposed of becoming
void. Warehouses were established for the coasting
trade where merchandise might be deposited for a period
of forty days, at the expiration of which time the owner
was required to remove the goods, failing to do which lie
was charged a half real (6*4 cents) por day for each
package, piece, bale, barrel or case. Should the with-
drawal of the goods bo delayed for forty days longer the
customs officers, after summoning the owner, proceeded
to the inspection, appraisement, and assessment of the
goods and sold the same, or such portion as might bo
necessary, to liquidate the duties.
OFFICIAL MEANING IN 1839.
In 1839 the administration declared the official moan-
ing of the word alcabala to bo :
" The tax on the price of property, sold or bartered,
which the seller or bartorer pays to the public treasury."
This tax was 12 per cent on tho majority of taxable
articles and was divided into fixed and contingent tax, tho
former being the 6 per cent levied from tho year 1639 on
all sales, barters or transfers of taxable things, and tho
latter being 6 per cent added to the alcabala in 1817 in
274 THE ALCABALA SYSTEM
place of certain war taxes levied to carry on the struggle
for independence.
During the period of the dictatorship, offices for the
collection of the alcabala were opened in the states and
territories, and all collections were turned into the gen-
eral treasury.
As regards collection, the tax on consumption of for-
eign goods and the alcabala on domestic articles were
payable at the port of introduction, the place of sale, or
of final destination, according to the regulations for the
coastwise trade and other regulations in force previous
to the establishment of the federal system.
In 1857 the federal congress amended the constitution
by adding Article 124 thereto, which article abolished the
alcabala tax and interior custom houses throughout the
Eepublic on and after June 1, 1858. This amendment had
little effect, however, and might be classed as a dead
letter.
Since 1880, the alcabala has continued to be the most
general tax in the country.
But little can be said of the tax laws in the several
states of Mexico, for they are in a very unsettled condi-
tion. The abolishing of the internal custom houses cut
off much of their revenue.
CHAPTER XXIV
BANDITS AND THEIR WORK
The most picturesque of all Mexican classes are the
rurales, or " country police," whose salaries are paid
by the government of the country instead of by the local
authorities. The duty of these men is to preserve peace
in the country districts in the same way that regular
policemen preserve peace in American cities. Among
these men are found some of the best horsemen in the
world; they are accurate shots with rifle and revolver
and wear the typical uniform of Mexican soldiery, con-
sisting of trousers tight about the hips and flaring at
the bottom, a soft shirt, a short jacket, a broad som-
brero, and a gay-colored sash hung about the waist.
The rurales were an institution of President Diaz, who
picked the men from the bandits that (luring the early
years of his regime infested the country. He paid them
better salaries than the total they could inako by brigand-
age, raised them to a certain position of distinction, and
made the office of a ruralo a thing to be* aspired to. Tho
men he chose proved worthy of tho trust he imposed in
them and as the system spread throughout Mexico I HUH
evolved a wonderful instrument for wuppreHwing revolts
in their incipient stages.
WEAPONS OF AN IBON HAND
The rurales were the great weapon of the iron hand
with which Diaz ruled the country, TTpon arrent by the
rurales the loaders of any insurrection were invariably
put to death, in reality at the order of Dia^i or Ms lieu-
275
276 BANDITS AND THEIR WORK
tenants, but appearing in the public records as having
been " killed while attempting to escape. "
The rurales were in constant and active service and
well able to keep in hand any situation that arose, until
the revolution instituted by Madero, whom the people
believed was a true champion of their rights, took the
popular fancy and revolt flamed widespread. The groups
of bandits posing as allies of Madero become so numer-
ous that the rurales lost control of the situation. Mur-
der, pillage and looting progressed on every hand and
the rurales saw the lowest laboring men making more
money by being bandits than they themselves the
rurales were making. Then on every hand they sev-
ered their affiliation with Diaz and themselves became
the most bloodthirsty of all bandit organizations.
EISE OF BANDIT LEADEBS
The lash of the rurales removed, brigandage became
the chief occupation of many men in the rural districts.
Farming and agriculture were neglected, and the country
rapidly sank into a state of demoralization. Natural
leaders on a small scale rose by the dozen. Men that
had been the poorest workers and the laziest men on the
haciendas quietly vanished from sight along with a band
of a dozen other men, and a month or so later some fellow
hitherto considered worthless would reappear at the
ranch at the head of a body of a hundred or more mounted
men. Demands would be made on the American owners,
of the ranch for horses, rifles and provisions, under
threat of general slaughter if the demands were ro fused.
Invariably, however, the Americans gave in to the de-
mands, because they knew that to offer resistance was
almost futile, as the men still remaining on the ranch,
at the firing of the first shot, would just as likely as not
flock to the side of the bandits, or still worse, commence
shooting at the Americans from places of protection
within.
BANDITS AND THEIR WORK 277
Starting afoot or with miserable mounts, and armed
often only with the machete or scythe he was using when
the inspiration came to him to join a passing band of
brigands, the lowliest of laborers in less than a month,
after a few successful attacks on prosperous ranches,
would find himself riding a superb horse, modernly
armed, and wearing clothes which a short time before
adorned the back of some wealthy Mexican landowner.
The result, of course, when such a person returned to
the ranch where he had been originally at work, was to
inspire envy in the hearts of the men who did not become
bandits, and set them to following in the footsteps of
their comrade.
A TYPICAL CASE
A case in point was the attack in the fall of 1912 upon
the Hacienda Quimichis, territory of Topic, located about
seventy miles south from Mazatlan. Shortly before mid-
night the Americans on the ranch were awakened by the
sound of a horse pounding along the road toward the
ranch-house. The rider dismounted at tho gate, knocked
loudly at the door, and was admitted after identifying
himself as a mozo in the employ of the ranch.
He said that he had been riding in tho vicinity of tho
ranch-house and in tho distance had seen a body of horse-
men quietly approaching. He knew that they could not
be employes of the ranch and said he surmised they were
bandits.
A few minutes after his arrival several men appeared
before the great gate of the ranch-house and demanded
admittance. The manager of the ranch went out onto
a little balcony above the doorway and replied that he
would not admit them until they stated their business.
Then in a cold, matter-of-fact way the leader of the band,
Guido Hilago, who a few weeks prior to this time had
been employed at the ranch as a butcher boy, told the
manager who he was, said that he had a hundred
278 BANDITS AND THEIR WORK
icans hidden a short distance away behind some build-
ings, and demanded that the ranch-owners give up cer-
tain rifles that Hilago said he knew to be stored in the
ranch headquarters. He also demanded that he be given
certain horses. Hilago made threats which stirred the
ire of the manager and he refused to accede to the
demands. Hilago then withdrew.
FOBCED TO DESEET THE BAETCH
A few minutes later, behind almost every bush, the
Americans saw Mexicans stealthily advancing as they
kept in the dark shadows. The manager and eight other
American men on the ranch took position behind loop-
holes and at a given signal opened fire. It was returned
by the bandits, but without any of the Americans being
wounded. A rapid fire was kept up on the part of the
Americans and several Mexicans fell.
Surprised by the unexpected resistance offered them,
the Mexicans withdrew for a conference. While this
was in progress the Americans also held a hurried con-
sultation and it was decided that as there were American
women on the hacienda it would be best to take advan-
tage of an avenue of escape which was offered them by
a river which flowed to the sea and passed the ranch-
house several hundred yards in the rear. They escaped
to the river, boarded canoes, and two days later were
picked up by an American vessel standing at sea off
the mouth of the river. Their property was deserted and
left at the mercy of the bandits.
OTHER EXCITING EXPERTS** OES
Experiences of other Americans in Mexico were even
more exciting.
Among the refugees compelled to leave Mexico in 1913
by the transport " Buford " was Alphonse Ardourel, a
mining engineer of Boulder, Colo., state senator from
his district in the Colorado Legislature. He had been
BANDITS AND THEIR WORK 279
mining at Cumuripa, Sonora, up the Yaqui River from
Corral station. So bad had conditions become, accord-
ing to Mr. Ardourel, that it was impossible for him to
remain longer in the country. All the Americans except
himself had left, taking what advantage they could of
the railroad, which had already had its service inter-
rupted several times by burned bridges. For weeks, he
says, every train had been crowded with Americans has-
tening to the border, where they found refuge on the
other side of Nogales. All work and business had been
paralyzed on the Yaqui River, where the Indians were
on the warpath.
After two or three bands of Yaquis had raided
Cumuripa, Mr. Ardourel finally gave up his work. As it
happened, the train which he took out was the last train
the railroad was able to run south of Empalme. On
arrival at Guaymas, he purchased his ticket, but was
assured by the chief dispatcher of the railroad that if the
revoltosos burned another bridge on the line to Nogalos,
the railroad would tie up completely and not turn another
wheel. He decided to risk being turned back, however,
and left Guaymas on the morning of April 27, 1913.
Before reaching Carbo, Sonora, however, the train was
fired into by about one hundred mounted Yaquis, who
sat their horses beside the track, and fired a volley into
each coach as it passed. In the second-class coach ahead,
one woman was killed, three bullets riddling her body,
and the child she carried in her arms breaking its neck
as the mother fell forward across the car scats. In the
seat in front of Mr. Ardourel a man was killed instantly
by a shot through the temple and fell in the car aisle.
The train then put back to Guaymas. Neither the train
crew nor the passengers were able to discover which
political party the Yaquis were fighting for, nor did they
tarry long to try to learn their reasons for firing into an
unprotected passenger train. In common with all the
Americans wljo are refugees froi Mexico, Mr* Ardourd
280 BANDITS AND THEIR WORK
believes that neither peons nor Indians were fighting for
any political party, but for the possible plunder and loot,
and on account of the general lawlessness which the
anarchistic conditions in Mexico encouraged.
GETTING OUT OF THE COUNTBY
At Guaymas, Mr. Ardourel, after six days, secured
passage on the steamer " Ramon Corral," for Mazatlan,
but while lying at dock in the harbor of Topolobampo
she took fire. It was from this point that the manager of
the Navalato Sugar Company made a famous ride on a
locomotive to San Bias, and hired four section crews
of the Southern Pacific Railway of Mexico, at an enor-
mous price, to carry him the one hundred and fifty miles
to Culiacan, from which point he reached the .Americans
on his sugar plantation at Navalato.
The fire on the " Corral " gained much headway before
it was discovered. The main portion of the cargo was
alcohol and gasoline, and had it not been for the presence
of mind of an American locomotive engineer who was
at the time switching in the yards, and came to the ship's
rescue with a tank car backed up to his engine, an explo-
sion would probably have been the fate of the steamer.
As it was, the entire baggage and personal effects of the
Americans on board was destroyed, though Mr. Ardourel
believes the fire was a pretext for loot on the part of the
crew, and says he found later a portion of his belongings
which he had been told were destroyed in the fire, care-
fully concealed in the steward's room.
From Topolobampo, the " Corral " put to sea in her
crippled condition, and after four days of sleeping on
deck, and with scarcely any food, the American refugees
reached the port of Mazatlan, where the transport
" Buford " took them on board.
" The stars and stripes flying at the ' Buford *s 9 miz-
zen," said Mr. Ardourel, " when she appeared on the
horizon off Mazatlan, looked awfully good to me."
BANDITS AND THEIE WORK 281
ANOTHER REFUGEE'S STORY
J. C. Alberts, an electrical engineer of Los Angeles,
and Joseph Soler, his wife and three children, also of
Los Angeles, who had charge of the commissary and
subsistence department of the Tajo Mining Company,
at El Eosario, Sinaloa, report their experiences as
follows :
" We were driven out of our homos, and from our
work and living, by the attack of tho Zapatistas, under
command of Juan Canedo, which took place on Saturday
morning, April 29, 1913, and lasted all that day, and until
Sunday afternoon, when tho federal forces under Gon-
eral Ojeda came up on tho attacking parly's roar, and
put thorn to flight, with 64 killod. It was a curious Fact
to us, at the timo, whon we saw tho (load being brought
into town, that thoro wore HO vory few wounded. Most
of the dead, however, had several Imllol holey in them.
I had sent out my wifo two months earlier, when the first
of the trouble began, and General O.joda furnished us
an escort of soldiers to protect the carriage of Mr* Holer
and his family. I awaited tho last day before tho arrival
of the " Buford," which the United Hiatus government
sent to take us off, and in common with nil tho Ameri-
cans on the west coast, believing that to bo the first of
Uncle Sam's moves toward intervention, decided il WUB
bettor not to remain.
ATTACK BY REBKli CTTTRF
" Trouble had boon browing," ho continued, " for
some time in southern Sinalon. On tho last day of Feb-
ruary, Juan Canedo roclo into town with fifteen men,
without warning. This is not tho usual procedure, for
most of the rebel chiefs demand a town's surrender with
a threatening letter, before they attempt to force it. The
letter usually is enough, and the government's prefect,
police, rurales, and all the officials of the town, like tho
postmaster, federal telegraph operator, judge, mayor,
282 BANDITS AND THEIR WORK
jail guard, etc., flee at once. Getting opposite the prefec-
tura, Canedo and Ms men galloped across the plaza, and
charged right against the doors, just as the frightened
police, who had hastily gathered inside, slammed the
door. The prefect, a new man, and a brave one, went
to the window above, and going onto the balcony ordered
Canedo and his men to disperse, and fired his revolver
into them, killing one horse. The revoltosos (rebels)
replied with a scattered volley, and galloped off down
the street, followed by the police, shooting at anyone
they saw looking from door or window.
ZAPATISTAS COME IN FORCE
" One week later, while we were out on the power trans-
mission line of the mining company, some of my men
called my attention to a band of armed men on the oppo-
site side of the river, moving through the heavy under-
growth which borders its banks. ' Revoltosos/ said they.
' No,' said I, * too many of them. Federals.'
" But it was impossible to get the men back to work,
and suddenly they all cut together, pell-mell down the
hill for the camp; for if there is anything a peaceable
Mexican likes less than a Zapatista, it is a Yaqui Indian.
" I stood and watched them for some half-hour from
the hillside, as they gathered both above and below the
ford, but a bullet striking on the ground near mo, I
stepped down into a ditch out of sight. There was firing
going on continually, the Federals defending the town
from the tower of the cathedral. Most of the Zapatistas
were armed with "Winchesters and the Federals with
Mausers. The attacking party numbered about 200 men.
Many bullets narrowly missed me before I could make
my way back to my house.
" In that part of Mexico," said Mr. Alberts in con-
clusion, " conditions are dreadful. Business is para-
lyzed. All industries are closed down. The ranchers
cannot harvest their crops. Famine stares Mexico in
BANDITS AND THEIR WORK 283
the face inside of one year. There is no government, law,
order, police, prefects, or authorities. If one man robs
or murders another, there is no one to interfere. As
most Mexicans are undetained from violence by the
standard of their ethical training, a strong hand and a
government like that of the United States are the only
things they respect or fear. Now there is neither justice
in the courts, nor protection of life or property on the
whole Mexican west coast. "
CHAPTER XXV
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
AREA AND POPULATION
The total area of the Republic of Mexico, including
islands, is 767,005 square miles. The population, accord-
ing to the federal census of 1910, is 15,063,207. The pop-
ulation of leading cities of the republic is as follows:
City of Mexico (capital), 470,659; Guadalajara, 118,799;
Puebla, 101,214; Monterey, 81,006; San Luis Potosi,
82,946; Pachuca, 38,620; Aguas Calientes, 44,800; Zaca-
tecas, 25,905; Durango, 34,085; Toluca, 31,247; Leon,
63,263; Merida, 61,999; Queretaro, 35,011; Morelia,
39,116; Oaxaca, 37,469; Orizaba, 32,894; Chihuahua,
39,061; Vera Cruz, 29,164.
TWO EACIAL STOCKS
The Mexican nation is composed of two racial stocks.
Nearly one-half of the people are of mixed Indian and
Spanish blood, about one-third are of pure Indian descent,
and the remainder are of European ancestry, descendants
of Spanish colonists who immigrated under Spanish rule.
The Mexicans of pure Indian blood range in the social
scale from the city Indians, who have acquired the ways
and ideas of Spanish- American civilization, to the unciv-
ilized wild tribes of the unsettled wilderness in the
extreme southern and northern states. The Indians of
the cities and farming regions are a sober and hard-
working people, capable of much physical endurance, but
as a rule unambitious and unprogressive. Some, how-
ever, have become distinguished men. President Juarez
284
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 285
was a pure-blooded Indian. The Mexicans of pure Span-
ish blood are also conservative in ideas, bnt they main-
tain the European modes of life of their ancestors and
preserve Spanish culture. They are the real leaders of
Mexican social life and dominate in political effort.
The population of mixed blood combines much of the
genius of Spanish ancestry with the vitality of Indian
blood. Under the stimulus of education and political
experience this element is showing an ability in practical
affairs that seems to guarantee a strong national devel-
opment for the Eepublic,
AND EDUCATION
The prevailing religion of Mexico is Roman Catholic.
The clergy formerly possessed great political influence,
but since 1859 it has largely lost it through the confisca-
tion of church property by the government and the enact-
ment of repressive laws. Marriage has been made a civil
ceremony, convents have been suppressed, and religious
instruction barred out of the public schools. Protestant-
ism has secured a foothold among the Mexicans, but exists
feebly.
Education is in a backward state. Public schools exist
under the control of the federal government, and since
1896 primary education has been compulsory in the dis-
tricts directly under federal control In nearly every
state the law provides for free, schools and compulsory
attendance, but there is no strict enforcement of the law.
At the national capital there are excellent schools of law,
medicine, and engineering. School statistics show more
than 10,000 public schools in the country and about 2,600
private schools. The Indian population, however, is prac-
tically illiterate.
PBIBTOIPAL CITIES Otf MEXICO
The principal cities, besides the City of Mexico,
described elsewhere, are as follows :
286 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
Toluea, capital of the state of Mexico and its principal
commercial town, is situated forty-five miles from the
City of Mexico and 8,000 feet above the sea level. The
state is one of the most important agricultural and indus-
trial sections in Mexico. The climate varies with the
altitude. Stock-raising is an important source of wealth,
and valuable mineral deposits are worked.
Puebla, capital of the state of the same name, lies
southeast of the City of Mexico and at practically the
same elevation. The great volcanic cones of Popocatapetl
and Ixtaccihuatl lie to the west in full view of the city.
Puebla has extensive manufactures of cotton cloth, pot-
tery, and glassware, and important agricultural interests.
Guanajuato is the capital of the state of the same name,
a region rich in minerals and one of the most important
mercantile and industrial centers of Mexico. The total
trade of the state has an estimated annual value of about
$67,000,000. The capital city was the scene of the execu-
tion of a number of patriots during the war for independ-
ence in 1811.
San Luis Potosi, capital of the state of the same name,
is situated in a broad, fertile valley, rich in silver. The
productive Potosi mines became known to Europeans in
the sixteenth century. The capital, founded in 1576, is an
important railway center with thriving manufactures of
shoes, hats, and hardware. Trade is large and increasing.
Monterey, capital of the state of Nuevo Leon, has many
manufacturing establishments and is the commercial cen-
ter of northern Mexico ; the city is located in a great plain,
flanked by the Sierra Madre and Sierra de Picachos
mountains.
Saltillo, capital of the state of Coahuila, is noted for
the manufacture of zarapes, cotton cloth, knit goods, and
flour. Owing to its mild and genial climate, the city is a
favorite summer resort.
Durango, capital of the state of the same name, is a
prosperous town with modern municipal improvements
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 287
and flourishing sugar, flour, and woolen mills and foun-
dries. It is also a banking center.
Vera Cruz, the commercial capital of the state of
Vera Cruz, has an annual trade amounting to about
$100,000,000.
Guadalajara, capital of the state of Jalisco, is a beauti-
ful city situated 6,100 feet above the sea level. The agri-
cultural, manufacturing, and commercial interests of the
state are of considerable importance.
Culiacan, capital of the state of Sinaloa, is an important
commercial center with cotton manufactories. The state
is well watered and a number of its rivers are navigable.
The chief agricultural products of the hot belt of this
state are corn, wheat, sugar-cane, rum, henequen, and
mescal; the raising of cattle is important. In the cold,
wet mountain region are mines of wonderful richness.
RIVERS AND LAKES
Owing to its extremely mountainous character, Mexico
has very few permanent rivers. Even the Eio Grande,
the largest stream, at times becomes almost dry between
El Paso and Ojinaga (Presidio del Norte) in consequence
of the diversion of water for irrigation in New Mexico.
The Eio Grande is navigable, for small boats only, for
about 450 miles. The most important stream of the north
is the Conchos, an affluent of the Eio Grande, which flows
through the state of Chihuahua. In southern Mexico two
considerable rivers flow into the Pacific the Grande do
Santiago or Lenna, principally in the state of Jalisco,
and the Eio de las Balsas, navigable for a short distance
in its course through and along the northern borders of
the state of Guerrero. The Grijalva and Usumacinta
rivers, with the tributaries, afford the only navigable
waterways worthy of note in the Isthmus of Telmantepee*
The principal lake region of Mexico is within the states
of Michoacan and Jalisco. Lake Chapala, on the border
line, eighty miles long and thirty miles wide, is by far
288 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
the largest inland "body of water. In the Valley of Mexico
is a group of lakes which has a history unique in the
annals of hydraulic engineering. The valley is an
immense basin largely occupied by these shallow bodies
of water. Not only were destructive inundations fre-
quent, but the miasmatic exhalations from the stagnant
lakes made Mexico the most unhealthful city in the world.
Under the Spanish viceroys large sums were expended
and hundreds of thousands of lives were sacrificed in
the fruitless endeavor to drain the valley, but under the
government of President Diaz the drainage plan of the
Spaniards, with certain modifications, was realized, the
system having cost more than $20,000,000 complete. A
canal nearly thirty miles long controls the waters of the
lakes, and with them flushes the sewers of the city, while
a drainage tunnel 6.2 miles long and from 13.7 to 14.06
feet in cross-section has been bored through the moun-
tains north of Lake Zumpango. This work ranks among
the greatest achievements of modern times.
MEXICAN FLOBA AND
The flora of Mexico is unrivaled. It has been remarked
that the most striking characteristic of the Mexican
flowers, to which branch of the flora this sketch is limited,
is their deep, rich color. The prevailing color of the
flowers is always glowing and intense. There can be
no more pleasing or extensive field for the botanist than
the tropical forests of Mexico, in whose deep shades
bloom the most exquisitely tinted flowers and orchids. In
the vicinity of Orizaba, a locality almost incomparable
as regards the great variety of flowers, orchid collectors
may find a paradise.
In the valley of Mexico there is no day in the year that
finds the markets wanting in a superabundance of beauti-
ful roses and flowers to delight the eye and regale the
senses, and the marvelous size the calla lilies, heliotropes,
camelias and poppies attain arrests wondering attention.
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 289
There are about fifty varieties of lilies blooming in varied
garb in this valley. Each belt, the hot, the temperate and
the cold, displays its own peculiar varieties of flowers,
and in each has Nature spread her most gorgeous colors,
her fairest tints, and her sweetest perfumes.
The animal kingdom is almost as extensively repre-
sented in the territory of Mexico as the botanical. On
the plains of the north, over the frontier states, roamed
bands of bison and antelope, and chamois, beaver, tiger-
cat, tapir, and black, brown and cinnamon bear abound.
Venomous serpents and insects lurk in the forests of the
hot lands. The mountains and foot-hills present a verit-
able paradise to the sportsman deer, hare, rabbits,
quail, wild pigeons, partridges, and an infinite variety of
birds and ground game abounding. Horses, cattle, sheep
and goats are found almost everywhere, and are the
source of much wealth and industry.
The birds are far-famed for their brilliant plumage
and singing qualities. In the hot lands the birds are more
distinguished for beauty of plumage than melody of voice,
their coloring being as varied as that of the flowers, but
in the colder belts splendid songsters fill the air with
thrilling notes.
Sperm and ^ray-back whales, seals, and sea lions
abound in the westein waters of Lower California and in
the gulf of that name. The waters of both coasts as well
as the rivers and mountain streams teem with a great
variety of fish. Alligators infest the river mouths of both
coasts. Turtles of all kinds are also found in abundance
on the Coasts. Tortoises exist in the waters of Yucatan
and Lower California as well as on the coasts of Sinaloa.
The shell is an important article of export.
THE STATES OF MEXICO
The Eepublic of Mexico comprises twenty-eight states,
one territory and the Federal District in which the
national capital is located. The state governments are
290 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
very similar to those of the United States, having a
governor, legislature, courts, etc. The following table
is interesting :
Area in
Name of State Capital Sq. Miles
Aguas Calientes Aguas Calientes 3,080
Campeche Campeche 20,760
Coahuila Saltfflo 59,000
Colima Colima 2,700
Chiapas Tuxtla Guitierrez 29,600
Chihuahua Chihuahua 89,200
Durango Durango 42,300
Guanajuato Guanajuato 12,300
Guerrero Chilpancingo 22,700
Hidalgo Pachuca 7,600
Jalisco Guadalajara 38,400
Mexico Toluca 8,080
Michoacan Morelia 23,000
Morelos Cuernavaca 1,850
Nuevo Leon Monterey 25,000
Oaxaca Oaxaca 28,400
Puebla Puebla 12,600
Queretaro Queretaro 3,800
San Luis Potosi San Luis Potosi 26,100
Sinaloa Culiacan 36,100
Sonora Hermosillo 77,000
Tabasco San Juan Bautista 10,000
Tamaulipas Victoria 29,000
Tlaxcala Tlaxcala 1,500
Vera Cruz Jalapa , 23,840
Yucatan Merida 28,400
Zacatecas Zacatecas 25,300
Territory of Tepic Tepic 530
Lower California La Paz 60,000
Federal District City of Mexico 450
Total . 748,590
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 291
The largest state is Chihuahua, since Coahuila was
shorn of that portion of the domain now called Texas.
Tlaxcala is the smallest state. After the Federal Dis-
trict, Puebla is the wealthiest in assessed values, with
Guanajuato a close second. The wealth of the former is,
for the most part, in the silver mines; of the latter, in
agricultural lands and onyx quarries. Campeehe repre-
sents the smallest amount of wealth. The Federal Dis-
trict is to Mexico what the District of Columbia is to the
United States, with laws administered under the direction
of the Federal government.
MINERAL RESOURCES
" Mining is the most productive industry. Mines of
some description are to be found in 26 of the 31 states
and territories. There is also considerable production
of coal, copper, and iron.
" The mineral resources of Mexico also include
petroleum, asphalt, platinum, graphite, sodium, and
marble.
" The most celebrated iron deposit is that of the Ccrro
del Mercado, in the* outskirts of tlie city of Durango
a mountain 640 feet in height, 1,100 in breadth, and 4,800
in length, reputed to be almost a solid mass of iron."
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
MUSIC
" The Mexican people arc very fond of music, " says
Mr. Alfred R. Conkling, formerly United States geologist,
in his useful guide to Mexico. " There are excellent
military bands in all the cities and garrisoned towns,
where a pagoda is generally erected in the main plaza.
They usually play tlireo evenings in the week, when the
* swell ' population turns out to enjoy the music. Trav-
elers will find pianos all over the country, oven in towns
500 miles distant from a seaport or railway terrninm
Violins and guitars are also used, the latter being com-
292 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
mon among the Indians and mestizos. Wandering street
musicians are rare.
" There is not much original Mexican music; the
national hymn, consisting of ten verses, being the best
known. It was written by Baconegra, and set to music
by Nuno."
MEXICAN NATIONAL HYMN
The following is a metrical translation of the first two
verses and chorus of the national hymn of Mexico,
arranged for Mr. Conkling by a friend to whom he gives
due credit for the excellent version:
Oh, may the olive-branch of peace,
Dear Fatherland, wave over thee;
For writ in heaven, by God's own hand,
Is thine eternal destiny.
And if the foe, with foot profane,
Invade thy soil, sacred land!
Each son of thine, a soldier born,
The fierce invasions shall withstand.
CHOBUS
Mexicans, haste to fight and bleed !
Make ready sword and bridled steed;
Let the earth tremble to its core,
Exulting in the cannon's roar.
SECOND VEBSB
Behold them plunged in bloody strife;
The love which animates each heart
Impels them on to give their life,
And e'er count death the better part*
The former exploits of thy sons,
Fatherland, remember now,
And once again immortal crowns
Of laurel shall adorn thy brow*
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 293
EXPOBTS AND IMPORTS
The chief exports of Mexico are precious metals, coffee,
tobacco, hemp, sisal, sugar, dyewoods and cabinet woods,
cattle and hides and skins. In 1912 the total exports
amounted to $149,007,000; total imports for the same
year were $71,330,000.
The trade of Mexico is chiefly with the United States,
Great Britain, France, Germany and Spain. In 1913,
the imports from the United States were $54,571,584;
exports to $77,543,842.
MIXED BLOOD IN MEXICO
As the Spanish conquerors brought few women, there
was much mixture of races. Among the pure whites
who were practically all of Spanish extraction there
were two well-defined classes, the Gachupines or chape-
tones, Spaniards born in Europe, said to be so named
in allusion to their spurs, from Aztec words meaning
" prickers with the foot," and the native-born or Creoles;
the former, though a small majority, had almost all the
higher positions both in the public services and in com-
merce. Besides these there were five well-defined castas :
mestizoes (Indian and white); mulattoes (negro and
white) ; Zambos (negro and Indian), who were regarded
as specially vicious and dangerous; native Indians and
negroes. But there were about a dozen intermediate
" named varieties, " of which the saltoatras (tending
away from white) and tente en Paire (tending towards
white) may be mentioned; and many of the last named
eventually passed into the Creole class, sometimes by the
decree of a court. The fact that the trade route to
Manila passed through Vera Cruz, Mexico City, and
Acapulco entailed the settlement also of a few Chinese
and Malays, chiefly on the Pacific coastEncyclopaedia
Britannica,
294 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
AMPAEO 9 '
This word means literally " protection," and in
Mexico recourse may be had to the writ so called when-
ever any constitutional guaranty or natural right is vio-
lated by established authority. Should any citizen
consider himself restrained of his liberty or deprived of
his property, or denied any other right recognized under
the constitution, without due process of law, he may go
into the federal courts for amparo, setting forth his
specific grievance, and asking amparo from the authority
to whose action the restraint, deprivation or denial is
due.
This writ is the magna charta of the Mexicans, and is
pointed to by them as their most precious constitutional
right. The legal proceedings in cases of this character
partake largely of what are known under the United
States laws as quo warranto, habeas corpus, mandamus,
and prohibition proceedings. The effect of the granting
of the writ is to nullify the act complained of.
MANY BIBDS AND INSECTS
Senor Don Antonio Garcia Cubas mentions fifty-two
varieties of mammal quadrupeds as existing in the Eepiib-
lie, and two hundred and three varieties of f owls, includ-
ing domestic fowls, as well as over fifty kinds of humming
birds, differing in color and form, and forming a
chromatic scale of brilliant tints running from sea green
through bluish green to emerald green, and from the
lightest straw color to the deepest scarlet and fiery red.
Of reptiles the authority cited enumerates forty-three
classes, and of batrachians thirteen species.
Among insects those claiming attention are the coch-
ineal (coccns cacti) and the honey bee, because of the
excellent materials they produce beneficial to industry
and to commerce. The former insect is cultivated in
Oaxaca, living on the prickly-pear cactus, and producing
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 295
a red liquid dye. Winterbotham, one of the eighteenth
century's historians, in his " History of America,"
relates that the trade in cochineal by the city of Oaxaca
alone in the year 1796 amounted to 200,000 crowns in
value.
The bee is to be found all over Mexico, busily produc-
ing prodigious quantities of honey and wax.
The country offers a vast and rich field to the naturalist
and entomologist for the study of the innumerable species
of coleopterous insects.
THE PABIS OF AMEBICA
The City of Mexico has been aptly termed the Paris of
America. Although situated in the heart of the country,
it is no less cosmopolitan in character than are New
York and San Francisco, containing, as it does, a largo
percentage of foreigners, and of citizens who have
resided and traveled in foreign countries.
The capital has been subject to remarkable changes, as
well of a physical as of a social and political character.
Once it was the Venice of the continent, enthroned amid
the lake and surrounded with a sheltering circle of forest-
crowned heights and green meadows, among which were
tributary settlements, bright with garden foliage. Canals
intersected the city in every direction, filled with swiftly
gliding canoes and stately barges, and on gala days the
expanse was crowded with spectators, intent on witness-
ing the imposing ceremonies at the temple of the war-
god. Now unsightly marshes fringe the over-narrowing
surface of the lake, while the forests have been wantonly
destroyed, and ancient structures razed to the ground by
the early conquerors, or defaced by the ravages of civil
war.
FEAST BAYS AND HOLIDAYS
Among the Mexicans there are many feast-days and
religious holidays so many as to interfere somewhat
296 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
with the affairs of this busy and untiring world; but
their span of life is not shortened or made unpleasant
by these brief interludes from toil. On such occasions
nearly all places of business, except those of the grocer,
the barber, and the dram-seller, are closed; though
venders of fruit, sweetmeats, and trinkets follow their
calling until dusk or far into the night. Yet the people
seem none the worse for their recreation, ever ready as
they are to accept excuse from labor, and it is doubtful
whether they would be better engaged were there no such
celebrations.
On certain feast-days, troops of girls arrayed in white
may be seen upon the streets at daybreak, singing in
chorus as they wend their way toward the church* The
orthodox dress of an aldeana on such occasions is some-
what elaborate a white muslin garment trimmed with
lace, satin vest, open in front; a long colored sash and
rebozo, and as many gold and silver ornaments as the
wearer can afford to purchase.
In their mode of life the wealthy Mexicans have
adopted European customs. The desayuno, or first break-
fast, consists simply of coffee or chocolate, taken vsoon
after rising. After two or three hours comes the break-
fast proper, served between nine and twelve, and consist-
ing of a great variety of dishes. The dinner hour, depend-
ing on professional or other duties, is between four and
six, followed by supper at eight, after which come choco-
late and cigars.
While the rich eat more than is good for them, the
poor are underfed, their diet consisting principally of
fruit, tortillas, and frijoles, though with a piece of meat,
and a few vegetables, they can set forth half a dozen
dishes of excellent quality.
THE COBNEB GBOCEBY
As in the United States, the corner grocery is a promi-
nent institution in Mexico. Native adulterated wines,
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 297
aguardiente, or fire-water, bread, sugar, rice, beans, chile,
and divers mixtures, preserved in tin or glass, are dealt
out by greasy and unkempt shopkeepers, who insist on
having the money in one hand before they dispense their
wares with the other. Hardly less common are the
pulquerias, where only pulque is sold. To many this
liquor is moat, drink, and all earthly consolation, more
money being expended for it than for food, clothing and
the necessaries of life.
TORTILLAS AND PULQUE
Tortillas and pulque are staple articles of consump-
tion, in the manufacture of which hundreds of thousands
of persons arc employed, the former being to the poor
their daily bread and often meat as well In the out-
skirts of the cities are places where a dozen women work
under a female overseer, who owna the business. Their
chief utensils, the petate, or reed mat, the metatv, or stone
for crushing the softened corn, and the comalli, or pan,
are indispensable articles in every Mexican household
Then there is the enchiladera, who sits at the door of the
pulqueria, and offers hot turnover tortillas, containing
meat and chile, or sometimes cheese and onions, which are
bought at the rate of two for a cent, and sold at two for
a tlaco* The breakfast of mechanics consists of beans and
pulque, and for supper their usual fare Is beans and
pulque,
HOW PULQUE IS PBBPARBD
Pulque, as already stated, is the fermented juice of the
Agave Americana, of which there are several varieties
in Mexico, and east of the capital, near Guadalajara and
elsewhere, are vast plantations which yield a large and
steady income. As the plant is about to put forth its
high, flowering stalk, the core is cut out, leaving a recep-
tacle that will contain from three to four gallons, and
Into which flows the sap which should support the stalk*
298 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
Twice a day this is withdrawn by means of a long gourd,
which is emptied into a sack made of pigskin, and carried
on the back.
After fermentation, the fluid has the consistence and
somewhat the appearance of milk, but with a perceptible
odor, and in this form it is taken to the pulque shops to
be sold and drunk. At first it has been said to taste like
a combination of soap-suds, bilge-water, and turpentine ;
but a liking for it is soon acquired, and it is even said to
be beneficial if taken in moderation, though with this, as
with all other intoxicating drinks, the greater the modera-
tion, the greater the benefit.
"While passing a pulque field travelers frequently stop
to drink of the agua miel, or unfermented juice of the
agave, which is cool and transparent as water, and with
a sweet acid taste.
AN AZTEC TYPE
A fair type of the original Aztecs may be found among
the boatmen and women who ply their trade on th< Chulco
Canal, bringing into Mexico City flowers ami vegetables
from the remains of the floating gardens* The boat arc
of two kinds, one resembling a canoe and usually man-
aged by a woman, the other flat-bottomed, six or eight
feet wide, thirty or forty foet long, and capable of carry-
ing the produce belonging to two or three families. Many
of the latter have a cabin in the middle, which forms the
home of the occupants, where they work, eat, ami sleep.
CHOLULA AKD ITS VICINITY
Among the finest views of Mexico is the one obtained
from the summit of the hill of Cholula, where the visitor
stands amid drooping pines, stunted roso-lmsiuw, and
porcelain-plated graves, beside the dilapidated wall of the
church. It is a rugged, uneven elevation, rising some two
hundred feet above the plain, and is partly the work of
nature and partly of man. The winding* roadway, paved
with smocih atones and containing broad flights of steps,
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 299
is bordered with thrifty grasses, and the thick shrubbery
that covers the hillside is freely interspersed with cactus
and the popper-tree. In front is Popocatepetl, and the
next to it the scarcely less imposing peak of Iztaccilmatl,
the White AVoinan, She of the Recumbent Figure; while
in the opposite direction, over the glittering domes of
distant Puobla, stands forth Orizaba, white-crested and
winded with fleecy clouds.
Below is the city of Cholula, with its long lines of inter-
secting canals, aw when Cortez first saw them, marking
the divisions of cornfields and gardens, lined with planta-
tions of maguey. A single glance, says Bancroft, tells
the siory of its inhabitants how the poor, in their
small, uncomfortable houses, pinch themselves to main-
tain the* costly service of the great temples, and to add
to their splendor. The inhabitants of all this rich and
fertile valley, given up as a prey to contending armies
since the advent of the Spaniards, arc now for tho first
time learning the arts of ponce, and are yet greatly
devoted to religious rites, as was the case in the remote
epoch of the Toltec dynasty, when pilgrims flocked from
afar to the shrine of the Feathered Serpent.
Within sight of the hill of Cholula are about forty
villages, marked by the tall, white towers of thrice as
many churches, some standing solitary in the open plain,
some sheltered by trees and shrubbery, and others being
mere hamlets, with a score of dingy and half-deserted
houses, clustering around a dingy and dilapidated church.
A CITY OF CHXJKCJIES
Puebla lias boon called the city of churches, with its
sixty or seventy high-domed and broad-spreading tem-
ples, about one for every thousand of the half-naked and
barefooted natives, who are called upon to support them
and their throo hundred priests. The state prison In in
part a church; the house of maternity is a church; the
state college was once a convent, forming part of a church
300 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
edifice; and the cathedral, though smaller than that of
Mexico City, is even richer in interior decorations.
But in proportion to population, the squalid though
famous little town of Cholula outranks even Puebla in this
respect. There is the small church, with its two towers,
and their huge bells, on the historic hill, rusty without,
but elaborately gilded within; there is the large church
amid the houses below, near to which the worshippers
congregate for the bull-fight after divine service; there
is also one to the right of it, and one to the left, with
others surrounding them on every side, the simultaneous
clangor of their bells during the red glow of sunset giving
to the visitor the impression that the entire place is on
fire and that the alarm is being sounded.
On the site where these churches are built, there once
stood no less than four hundred heathen temples ; but of
all the architectural monuments which in former days
crowned the pyramid of Cholula, or clustered around the
base, not one has been preserved. The records which
have been handed down to us are, however, more distinct
even than those which have been sculptured on Egyptian
marble or Assyrian frieze. One may still picture to one's
self the ancient Aztec processions with their dismal chant
and clang of instruments, wending their way through the
long, white streets toward the sacrifice; one may see In
fancy the bodies of victims hurled over the precipice, as
the blood-besmeared priest holds aloft the still quivering
heart, and may imagine the beneficent deity, Quotzalcoatl,
here taking leave of his people, promising to return ere
long with new and celestial blessings.
CITIES AND THEIR CHARACTER
In most of the cities of Mexico the Asiatic style of
architecure is observable, though the Moorish is perhaps
the most common. The houses, with their solid walls,
are usually of one story, low and with flat tiled roofs, the
better class of dwellings enclosing a spacious court with
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 301
a wide entrance, closed at night with double doors, and
having iron-barred windows or openings looking into
the street and court-yard. The palaces, as they are
termed, and the more pretentious residences, are usually
of two stories, with colonnades of masonry, wooden raft-
ers, and bare floors, usually of tiles. Outside are narrow
stone sidewalks, frequently worn hollow by centuries of
use. Everywhere the exterior is plain, and sometimes
even forbidding; but in the chief cities there are abodes
which are fitted up with oriental luxury and splendor.
A common dwelling in the tierra caliente is a one-story
hut, built of canes resting on the ground and supporting
a roof, thatched with palm leaves if near the sea-shore,
or covered with a long, coarse grass if near the hills. On
the table-lands adobes are commonly used for the walls,
or adobes mixed with stone.
THE ItOKB OF THE PEON
The interior of those humble abodes corresponds to the
bareness without. Entering one of them we find a single
room from twelve to fifteen feet square, with a hole in
the roof, which servos as chimney, a door to admit the
occupants, the air, and the light, a hole in that door for
window, unplaatered walls, a flooring of earth, and a
ceiling of tiles. For furniture there are a few seats made
of canon bound together with rawhide, and covered with
untanned calfskin; there is seldom a table, and never a
bedstead. In a corner of the hut is the bedding, which
is rolled up until nightfall, and consists of matting or
dried skins ; while for covering the man has his zarape,
and the woman her rebozo, the threshold of the door doing
duty for pillow. A few shelves contain the family crock-
ery and cooking utensils, and earthen bowls and pots
surround the hearthstone, on which at meal-times a small
fire of sticks or charcoal is kindled to bake the tortillas
and cook the frijoles, and then carefully extinguished,
for fuel is expensive, and wages of eight or ten dollars
302 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
a month do not admit of luxuries. In this dwelling live
man and wife, with probably several children, a few fowls,
a pig or two, and perhaps a small collection of canine
favorites. Such is the home of the Mexican peon, of
which class the people are mainly composed, and on whose
descendants wiU largely depend the destiny of the nation.
PEBSONS OF MIXED BLOOD
In Mexico, the offspring of a European and an Indian
is termed a mestizo; of a European and an African, a
mulatto; of an Indian and an African, a zanibo or cliino.
A mestizo union with a European, Indian or African pro-
duces respectively a castizo or trigueno, a mestizo-claro,
and a mulatto-olscuro; from a corresponding mulatto
union spring a morisco or terceron, a cliino-obscuro and
a zambo-negro; and from a similar intermarriage with a
zambo come a chino-blancho, a chino-cliolo, and a zambo-
chino. These are the terms most frequently used, though
varying in different parts of the Bepublic.
PEOTESTANTS IK MEXICO
In the year 1871 the Protestant Episcopal Church
sent one of its representatives to Mexico, in tho person of
H. C. Eiley, by whom the work of Protestant missions
was initiated. Soon afterward came Baptist, Congreffu-
tionalist, Presbyterian, and Methodist missionaries, of
whom the last have probably been the most successful;
for to this sect, a few years ago, the field was virtually
conceded. In the capital a portion of an old conventual
building was granted to them, and notwithstanding tho
opposition of the Catholics, they met with a friendly
reception from the government. Churches and chapels
were constructed; congregations gradually collected, and
in 1883 there were more than two hundred Protestant
ministers in the country, the majority of whom were
Mexicans by birth. It cannot be said, however, that as
yet the Protestants have made much progress in the work
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 303
of evangelization, although, no special obstacles have been
encountered; for in Mexico all religions are tolerated,
while none are officially recognized.
TKANSPORTATIOtf
The unsettled political conditions of Mexico from 1821
to 1877, and the lack of transportation facilities, pre-
vented development of the country's rich resources. At
the accession of President Diaz to power in 1877, Mexico
had but one railroad. Since that year the building of
railroads has been the greatest feature of Mexican devel-
opment, and the federal government has aided the work
by large subsidies. Nearly all the larger cities now are
connected with each other by rail. Rich mining regions
and agricultural districts have secured outlets for their
wealth, and trade has been developing rapidly. Outside
capital lias done this for Mexico. Railroad building and
mining have been mainly in the hands of American and
English investors, while retail trade of the cities 1ms
been largely absorbed by German merchants.
BAILBOAD TBAVEL
When conditions are normal, travel in Mexico is
attended by nil the comforts and very many of the luxur-
ies that are found on the railway and steamer linos of the
United States, where tho science of travel has well nigh
been perfected. Patfsongor trains uro composed of coaches
of American manufacture and are for passengers of the
first, twcond and third classes, with nil the accommoda-
tions found in modern cars- Pullman Bleeping earn are
attached to the through express trains of tho trunk linos
between the United Btates and Mexico, and on side lines
and branch roads of importance.
The dining-car and buffet service* IB yet in its infancy,
but tho wnysido restaurant is as a rule good and up to
tho average*.
Baihvay tickets arc regulated by a code of rules, sim-
304 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
ilar to those in effect in the United States. They are
first, second and third class, at prices in accordance with
accommodations furnished.
COINS AND PAPEB MONEY
The money of Mexico is the same as that of the United
gtates i. e., dollars and cents called in Spanish
pesos y centavos; that is the legal way of counting it, as
enacted by a law taking effect in 1890, but the people still
use the old system to some extent, though they under-
stand both. A tlaco is a cent and a half, a cuartilla is
three cents; these are of copper and now almost out of
circulation. The old silver coins were the medio, 6%
cents; real, 12% cents, also called in; the quarter and
half dollars are rarely so called, they are dos reales (pro-
nounced do re-al-es), and cuatro reales; and seventy-five
cents is seis reales. Regardless of the law to the con-
trary, prices are quoted in reales, up to one dollar, then
in most cases it is pesos y reales, thus : a dollar and a half
is un peso y cuatro reales, one dollar and four reales.
The fifty-cent piece is sometimes called a toston, and
25 cents a peseta, though rarely. The Mexicans make
change to a nicety, says Reau Campbell, and are credited
with splitting tlacos, literally, and with a hatchet.
Gold is little used but under the recent laws the $5,
$10 and $20 coins are coming into circulation. Tho legal
value of the Mexican peso is 50 cents gold.
The paper money in circulation is in notes of the
National Bank of Mexico, the state banks and the Bank
of London, Mexico and South America, all passing at par,
except in rare cases notes of some of the stato banks
beyond the limits of the state where issued are taken at
a slight discount.
Silver is to be depended upon at all times, bttt it is too
bulky and heavy to carry in large amounts. The native
possessed of a sufficiency carries it in a handbag attached
to a strap over the shoulder.
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 305
POLICE AND BUBALES
The police are not as hard to find in Mexico as in some
other countries, and there are soldiers everywhere, not as
a menace in ordinary times, but as a protection.
There has never been but one " hold up " of a passen-
ger train in Mexico, and that by American border ruffians.
Train robbers are ordered to be shot on the spot of the
hold up, and orders are obeyed in Mexico. The police of
the cities are a well-trained, disciplined body of men, and
always within call. In the City of Mexico and in the
larger cities a policeman stands at street intersections at
night; his lantern is placed in the middle of the street,
and the long row of flickering lights up and down, in
either direction, tells of the watchmen of the night. Your
Mexican policeman never lets the wrong man go ; he lets
no guilty man escape; in case of altercation, dispute or
difficulty he arrests all hands. No matter what occurs,
when you are asked to accompany a policeman to the
" comiseria n it is the part of discretion to accede to his
request no harm can come to the innocent and the mat-
ter is quickly settled by the officer in charge. The police-
man is a soldier as well, and almost without exception is
courteous and obliging and will go out of his beat to show
the way or find a place for a stranger.
The rurales, as already stated, are the country police,
mounted on the finest horses, and uniformed in the most
picturesque manner, with saddles and trappings richly
decorated- The men are fine specimens of humanity,
stout and well built, wearing the broad sombrero of the
country, a short leather jacket and trousers braided and
bedecked, all with silver braid and gold. They are armed
to the tooth with the latest improved arms, and well they
know how to use them, for they were born to their use
as their fathers before them. The first corps of the
rurales was recruited from the bandits of the country in
the seventies. Among other reforms instituted by Presi-
306 FACTS ABOUT MEXICO
dent Diaz this was one of the most important. He f onnd
tribes of bandits scattered all over the country whose
fathers before them had been bandits they were a body
of men who knew every nook and corner of the country
and could not easily be put down. General Diaz offered
amnesty and to organize them into a corps of the army,
with regular pay, higher than any other cavalrymen in
any of the armies of the world. The bandit accepted the
amnesty and became a rurale.
The military education and army regulations are very
similar to those of the United States ; the West Point of
Mexico is at Chapultepec ; the officers' grades are almost
identical with those of the United States.
The jefe politico is the chief political officer of a district
comprising several towns or villages,- under him is the
alcalde, who is the mayor in the smaller towns. The
police have no discretion in case of a quarrel or fight on
the street or elsewhere ; all participants are arrested and
hurried off to the comiseria; every man is presumed
guilty until he proves his innocence.
AMEKICAN CAPITAL IN MEXICO
According to a report made by U. S. Consul Letcher at
Chihuahua to the state department in 1913, the amount
of money invested in Mexico by Americans is more than
$1,000,000,000, classified as follows :
Eailway bonds $408,926,000
Eailway stocks 235,464,000
Mines 223,000,000
National bonds 52,000,000
Smelters 26,500,000
Bank deposits 22,700,000
The oil industry 15,000,000
The rubber industry 15,000,000
Factories 10,800,000
Live stock 9,000,000
FACTS ABOUT MEXICO 307
Timber lands 8,100,000
Bank stocks 7,850,000
House & personal property 4,500,000
Insurance 4,000,000
Ranches 3,150,000
Wholesale stores 2,700,000
Retail stores 1,680,000
Professional outfits 3,600,000
Public institutions 1,200,000
Tramways & power plants . 760,000
Farms 960,000
Hotels 260,000
Breweries 600,000
Small additions of a miscellaneous character bring the
total up to $1,057,770,000. American investments very
largely exceed those of any other foreign country.
CHAPTER XXVI
CHRONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY
A. D. 648 Toltecs arrived in Anahuac.
1051 Toltecs abandoned tlie country.
1170 Chicimecs arrived in Mexico.
1196 Aztecs (Mexicans) reached Tula.
1200 Alcouans arrived.
1325 Mexicans founded Tenochtitlan or the City of
Mexico.
1428 Foundation of the Aztec kingdom.
1431 Enthronement of Netzahualcoyotl, Bang of
Texcoco.
1485 Cortez born at Medellin, Spain.
1502 Montezuma U. enthroned.
1504r Cortez left Spain for Cuba.
1510 Great tidal wave on Lake Texcoco overflowed
Tenochtitlan.
1511 Turrets of the great Aztec temple burned.
Spanish ship wrecked on tho Island of
CozumeL
1516 Death of Nezahualpilli, the Tezcuean King*
1517 March 4, discovery of Yucatan by Cordoba.
1518 May 1, departure of Grijalva from Cuba for
Mexico.
November 18, Cortez sailed from Santiago.
1519 February 10, Cortez sailed from Habana.
March 20, Cortez landed at the mouth of the
Tabasco Biver.
April 21, Cortez landed at Vera
308
CHBONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY 309
August 16, commenced the march, to the City
of Mexico.
September 23, Cortez entered Tlaxcala.
November 8, Cortez entered the City of
Mexico.
1520 June 30, death of Montezuma.
July 1, Cortez driven out of City of Mexico,
Noche Triste, the " Dismal Night-"
July 8, battle with the Mexicans at Otumba.
1521 August 13, re-entry of Cortez into the City of
Mexico.
Establishment by Spain of the rule over the
new province by a governor.
Cortez established the seat of government at
Coyoacan,
Establishment of the first Christian church in
the New World at Tlaxcala.
1524 First church commenced on the site of the
present Cathedral.
1525 Hanging of Tetlepanquetzaltzin by Cortez.
1526 September 19, Bishopric of Puebla estab-
lished, scat at Puebla.
1528 Establishment of the government under the
Audencia.
1529 July 6, Cortez made Marques dol Valle do
Oaxaca.
1530 Guadalajara founded.
1531 December 9, vision of the Virgin of Gtoad-
alupe to Juan Diego.
December 12, Juan Diego gathered the flowers
from where the Virgin stood. The feast of
Gnadalnpe.
July 25, Queretaro became a Christian city.
1533 Toluca founded.
1535 The first Viceroy arrived in Mexico.
Jtme 2, Bishopric of Oaacaca established, seat
at Oaxaca.
310 CEEONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY
First printing press brought to the country
and first book printed in Mexico.
1536 August 29, cornerstone of the Cathedral at
Puebla laid.
1539^ March 19, Bishopric of Chiapas established,
seat at San Cristobal.
1541 May 18, Valladolid, now Morelia, founded.
1542 San Miguel founded.
1545 January 31, Archbishopric of Mexico estab-
lished, seat at City of Mexico.
1546 September 8, discovery of silver at Zacatocas.
1547 December 2, Cortez died in the town of
Castelleja de la Questa, in Spain,
1548 January 20, Zacatecas founded.
July 31, Bishopric of Guadalajara established,
seat at Guadalajara.
1552 First inundation of the City of Mexico, and
the dyke of San Lazaro built.
1553 Silao founded.
1557 Guanajuato founded.
The Patio process for the amalgamation of
silver invented by Bartolouic de Medina at
Pachuca.
1562 August 15, Bishopric of Yucatan established,
seat at Merida.
1568 English driven off the island of Los Sacra-
ficios near Vera Cruz;.
1570 August 16, the Inquisition established in
Mexico.
Celaya founded.
1573 Cornerstone of the Cathedral laid in City of
Mexico.
1574 Twenty-one Lutherans burned by onlor of the
Inquisition.
1576 Leon founded
1583 San Luis Potosi founded
1586 An English ship captured near Acapuico.
CHBONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY 311
1587 Sir Francis Drake captured a Spanish ship
with a rich cargo, off California.
1596 Monterey founded.
1600 The City of Monterey founded.
1603 Building of the Aqueduct of Chapultepec
commenced.
1604 Church on the Pyramid of Cholula dedicated.
1607 November 28, the great drainage canal, Tajo
de Nochistongo, commenced.
1615 Foundation and walls of the Cathedral com-
pleted.
1618 Cordoba founded.
1620 September 28, Bishopric of Durango estab-
lished, seat at Durango.
1623 Cathedral placed under roof.
1626 First service in the Cathedral.
1629 Great inundation of the City of Mexico*
1634 Subsiding of the waters of the inundation of
the Plain of Mexico.
1643 Salvatierra founded.
1649 April 10, fifteen persons burned by order of
the Inquisition,
April 18, Cathedral at Puebla consecrated.
16GO A colony of a hundred families settled in New
Mexico*
1667 December 22, dedication of the Cathedral.
1078 May 2, Church of Santa Maria los Angeles at
Churubusco completed.
1691 Conquest of Texas,
1692 Building of the National Palace commenced*
1709 May 1, completion of the Clmrcli of Guada-
lupe near City of Mexico.
1722 January 19, opening of the first theater in
Mexico*
The first newspaper, Gaceta de Mexico, pub-
lished in Mexico*
312 CHRONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY
724 February 4, completion of the Palacio del
Ayuntamiento or City Hall.
1760 The first regular army organized in Mexico.
Houses numbered in the City of Mexico.
1767 Jesuits expelled from Mexico by Royal Order,
dated January 15.
1770 A fleet sailed for Spain with a cargo of thirty
millions of silver dollars.
1776 February 25, establishment of the Monte de
Piedad or national pawn shop.
1777 December 25, Bishopric of Linares estab-
lished, seat at Monterey.
1779 j a y 7^ Bishopric of Sonora established, seat
at Culiacan.
1783 September 27, Iturbide born.
1789 Arrival of the famous Viceroy, Conde de
Revillagigedo. He appointed a police force
in the City of Mexico, lighted and paved
the streets.
1791 Completion of the towers of the Cathedral.
1795 Cession of Florida, west of the Perdido Rix*er,
to France.
1802 August 4, casting of the bronze statue of
Charles IV., at 6 a. m.
1803 December 9, statue of Charles IV. unveiled in
the Plaza Mayor.
Humboldt traveled in Mexico.
1810 September 16, Hidalgo sounded the Grito of
Mexican Independence.
October 30, battle of Las Graces.
1811 January 16, Hidalgo defeated at the Bridge
of Calderon.
May 21, Hidalgo captured at Acatita do
Bajan.
June 26, Allende, Aldama and Jiminez exe-
cuted.
July 31 ? Hidalgo executed at Chihuahua,
CHEONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY 313
1812 Evacnation of Cuautla by Morelos.
1813 September 14, meeting of the first Mexican
Congress at Chilpancingo.
November 6, first formal Declaration of Mex-
ican Independence.
December 23, defeat of Morelos.
1814 February 3, execution of Matamoras at
Morelia.
October 22, proclamation of the first Consti-
tution at Apatzingan.
1815 December 22, Morelos executed by order of
the Inquisition.
1820 May 31, suppression of the Inquisition in
Mexico.
1821 Promulgation of the Plan of Iguala and the
colors of the Mexican flag.
August 2, Puebla taken by Iturbide.
September 27, Iturbide entered the City of
Mexico.
1822 February 24, first Congress of the Mexican
Nation assembled.
May 19, Iturbide elected emperor.
Iturbide and his wife anointed and crowned
in the Cathedral of Mexico.
December 6, a Republic proclaimed by Santa
Anna at Vera Cruz.
1823 July 14, Iturbide shot at Padilla.
1824 October 4, Constitution proclaimed.
October 10, first President of Mexico inaugu-
rated.
November 7, Second Mexican Congress.
Statue of Charles TV. taken down and re-
moved from the Plaza Mayor to the patio
of the University.
1825 January 1, First Constitutional Congress as-
sembled*
314 CHBONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY
During this year the last Spanish soldier left
Mexico in the evacuation of the Island of
San Juan de Ulua.
1829 A Spanish force landed at Tampico in July.
September 11, Spanish invaders defeated and
captured by the forces under Generals
Santa Anna and Mier.
1830 September 15, Porfirio Diaz born.
1835 Rebellion of Texas under Sain Houston.
1836 December 28, Spain formally recognized the
Republic of Mexico.
March 6, massacre of the Alamo, San Antonio,
Texas.
March 27, massacre at Goliad.
April 22, battle of San Jacinto, Texas. Santa
Anna captured.
1837 August 22, first concession granted for a rail-
way between the City of Mexico and Vora
Cruz.
1840 April 27, Bishopric of Lower California es-
tablished, seat at La Paz.
1844 April 12, Texas admitted into the Union.
1846 April 24, first skirmish of the American War*
May 8, battle of Palo Alto, and May 9, Bttsaca
de la Palma.
May 18, General Taylor crossed the Bio
Grande at Matarnoros.
July 7, Monterey, CaL, captured
July 8, San Francisco, CaL, captured.
September 20, Monterey captumi
1847 February 23, battle of Buena Vista.
February 28, Chihuahua occupied.
March 9, General Scott landed at Vora Cruz,
March 27, Vera Cruz captured.
April 18, battle of Cerro Gordo.
May 25, Puebla occupied by the Americana,
CHRONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY 315
August 9, General Scott entered the Valley of
Mexico.
August 20, battles of Padierna and Churu-
busco.
September 8, battles of Casa Mata and Molino
del Rey.
S3ptember 12 and 13, storming and capture
o^ Chapultepcc.
Sep umber K>, capture of tlie Garita de Belem
and San Cosmo.
September 15, entry of the Americans into
the City of Mexico.
1848 February 2, conclusion of peace and signing
of the Treaty of Guadalupe, Hidalgo.
1850 June 1, Bishopric of Vera Cruz established,
seat at Jalapa.
1851 President Arista inaugurated,
1852 Statue of Charles IV. placed in its present
position.
1853 Santa Anna proclaimed dictator of Mexico.
1854 August . 4 K), Bishopric of San Luis Potosi
established, soat at San Luis Potosi.
1855 Coinonfort elected President,
1856 June 25, decree ordering sale of church real
estate by President Comonfort.
September 16, suppression of the Franciscan
monks*
1859 July 12, proclamation of the Laws of the Re-
form, by President Juarez.
1861 July 17, passage of the law suspending pay-
ment on bonded debt of the Republic.
October 31, adoption of the Treaty of London
by "England, France and Spain.
Arrival of the allied fleet at Vera Cruz, in
December, 18G1, and January, 1862,
1862 January 26, Bishopric of Quer6taro estab-
lished, seat at Quer^taro.
316 CHRONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY
Bishopric of Leon established, seat at Leon.
Bishopric of Zamora established, seat at
Zamora.
Bishopric of Zacatecas established, seat at
Zacatecas.
February 19, Treaty of La Soledad signed.
May 5, brilliant battle at Puebla and repulse
of the French by the Mexican General Zara-
gosa.
1863 March 6, suppression of all religious orders
in Mexico.
March 16, Bishopric of Tulancingo estab-
lished, seat at Tulancingo.
Bishopric of Chilapa established, seat at
Chilapa.
Archbishopric of Michoacan established, seat
at Morelia,
Archbishopric of Guadalajara established,
seat at Guadalajara.
May 17, Puebla captured by the French.
June 9, French troops occupied the City of
Mexico.
July 10, assembly of notables called in thfl
City of Mexico, and the crown tendered to
Maximilian, the Archduke of Austria.
1864 June 12, Maximilian crowned Emperor of
Mexico.
1865 October 3, Maximilian published a decree de-
claring all persons in arms against the Im-
perial Government bandits, ordering them
executed,
October 21, Generals Felix Diaz, Arteaga,
Salazar and Villagomez shot at Uruapam as
bandits under Maximilian's decree
November 6, the United States, through Sec-
retary Seward, sent a dispatch to Napoleon
IEL, protesting against the presence of the
CHRONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY 317
French army in Mexico as a grave reflection
against the United States, and notifying
him that nothing but a Republican would
be recognized.
1866 April 5, Napoleon withdrew his support from
Maximilian.
November, Napoleon ordered the evacuation
of Mexico by the French troops.
1867 The last of the French troops leave Mexico in
February.
April 2, capture of Puebla by General Porfirio
Diaz.
April 11, Diaz defeated Marquez at San Lo-
renzo.
May 15, capture of Queretaro, surrender of
Maximilian to General Escobedo.
June 19, execution of Maximilian, Mejia and
Miramon.
June 21, capture of the City of Mexico by Gen-
eral Porfirio Diaz.
July 15, Juarez entered the City of Mexico
and re-established his government.
1869 September 16, completion of the Mexican Rail-
way to Puebla.
October 4, Bishopric of Taiu&ulipas estab-
lished, seat at Victoria.
1871 December 1, Juarez re-elected President
1872 July 18, death of President Juarez.
December 1, election of President Lerdo.
December 20, completion of the Mexican Bail-
way in the meeting of the tracks above
Maltrata,
1873 January 1, opening of the Mexican Eailway
between the City of Mexico and Vera Croas.
1874 Incorporation in the Constitution of the Laws
of the Eef ora.
318 CHRONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY
1875 December 5, opening of the National Exhibi-
tion of Mexican products, in the City of
Mexico.
1876 January 15, commenced the revolution under
the plan of Tuxtepec.
November 24, General Porfirio Diaz entered
the City of Mexico at the head of the revo-
lutionary army and was proclaimed provi-
sional president.
1877 May 6, General Diaz declared Constitutional
President.
1878 Concession granted for the building of the
Interoceanic Railway.
1879 June 24, execution of nine revolutionists
against the Diaz government, at Vern Cruz.
1880 May 25, Bishopric of Tabasco established,
seat at San Juan Bautista.
September 25, election of General Manuel
Gonzalez as President.
Track laying on the Mexican Central com-
menced.
October 14, construction of Mexican National
Eailroad commenced.
1882 November 25, Sonora Eailway opened.
1883 The " Nickel Eiots " occurred.
March 15, Bishopric of Colima established,
seat at Colima.
1884 March 8, completion of the tracks, and on
April 5 opening of the Mexican Central
Eailway from El Paso to the City of Mexico.
1885 February, some Americans arrested for
breaking twigs from the tree of Xocho
Triste (the Sorrowful Night).
1886 Completion of Mexican National Railroad to
Morelia and Patzcuaro*
December 1, re-election of General Porfirio
Diaz to the presidency.
CHRONOLOGY OP MEXICAN HISTORY 319
1888 April 17, completion of tlie Mexican Central
to Guadalajara.
March. 1, completion of the International Rail-
road, Eagle Pass to Torreon.
November 1, completion of the Mexican Na-
tional Railroad, from Laredo to the City of
Mexico.
1889 Construction of the Mexican Southern Rail-
road commenced in September.
1892 November 11, opening of the Mexican South-
ern Railroad.
1893 Completion of ihe Interoceanic Railway to
Vera Cruz.
1894 March 1 , first party of American tourists vis-
ited the Ruins of Mitla, under escort of the
American Tourist Association.
Completion of the Tehuantepec Railroad.
1895 October 12, coronation of the Virgin of Guada-
lupo.
1896 September 16, Mexico's Liberty Bell, the bell
of Hidalgo, placed over the entrance to the
National Palace.
November 8, President Diaz opens 2nd Pan-
American Medical Congress.
1897 Completion of the Mexico, Cuernavaca & Pa-
cific Railway to Cuernavaca.
1901 April 10, dedication of the Chapel on the
Corro Campana, where Maximilian was
executed.
Excavations at Mitla reveal subterranean
chambers, cement pavings, stone curbings.
1903 First solid train of Pullmans from Vera Cruz
to the City of Mexico.
1905 Mexican National R R. made standard gauge
through to the City of Mexico.
1906 Mexico adopts gold standard, fixing the value
of the peso at fifty cents gold.
320 CHRONOLOGY OF MEXICAN HISTORY
1908 Merger of the Mexican National and Mexican
Central Railways under the name of the
National Lines of Mexico, the government
owning controlling interest.
1910 November 23, Francisco I. Madero proclaims
himself provisional president.
1911 May 25, Diaz resigns and sails with family
for Europe May 31.
October 1, Madero elected president
1913 February 1&, Madero arrested by General
Blanquet and General Victoriano Huerta,
commander of federal troops, proclaimed
provisional president
February 21, General Carranza starts new
revolution in Northern States.
February 22, President Madero and Vice-
President Suarez assassinated about mid-
night.
United States declines to recognize Huerta
as president.
November 2, General Huerta notified by Pres-
ident Wilson that he must resign the presi-
dency of Mexico.
1914 April 20, President Wilson appears before
Congress and asks authority to use army
and navy of United States in enforcing re-
spect for United States flag in Mexico*
April 21, United States sailors and marines
occupy City of Vera Cruz. Active hostili-
ties begun.
April 25, Mediation proposed by Argentina,
Brazil and Chile, accepted by President
Wilson and later by Huerta* Armistice
agreed upon.
