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THE TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS OF lAKHR AL-DlN AL-RA/^I
ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY
THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE
Texts and Studies
EDn ED BV
H. DAIEERand D. PINQREE
VOLUME LXIV
THE TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS OF
FAKHR AL-DIN AL-RAZi
B^
ay:^tan shihadeh
^£C/
V
BRILL
LEIDEKBOSnUN
2008
Thbi bofrk is ]]nLiied oit acid-fiij^] iiapci
liSIS CH69-!i7:?9
ISBN 9nO+U<>9IO
Kjtai'iklijke Btili .W'huaiptimki ihi impfi'it il\ilL-\tm!niii\ Pab!ii!ui<.
Mtn^tu\u< JV</6qU FitMnlf/', iPid F"J7?
Allns^U' tfifrvrd. .No pa't iif ikhfnMiiaiim nm bf rejimiacfd. tiaiLslaiM, itarnt iit
imtcimdcsl.phiitii-^pyiiiS- 'fvidhi^ai ijflVi"jitTij'. iMhuutpmi wrfflm
fit'niKuu}! ji'ini ihr fit!ili<htt.
AulhatK'^''"' til pfiuioiopy iff'n.<Jm aisrmtar peiional
ii^e hi grarilrd bv Bull pravidid that
fhf appmptiati fees an paid dirriliy fa Tfir Cvpya^li!
Dmm-M.4 VI92J,t.'SA.
Fif.' /in <ab/!tt it) cl/aiisc
paDntO IN THE METIUIUAPIQS
CONTENTS
Prffiici^ vii
Inlroductioi} 1
Genprdl In iind union 1
Al-Razi'n Biogi'aphy 4
The Develt^pnipnt nf a]- Ron's Tlmughl anfl the
Chmnolo^of his Woiks 5
Cliapii^r One. .\]- Rain's Theor\' of Aedon 13
The HLsioi'iriil B£irky;r(jiiiKl 13
The Theory of HuniJii .Arrion 17
Up.Riin> 2'i
The Theme of (he Crealion of Human Acts [1^
Chapter 'Iwo.Al-RazI on ihp Ethics of.A.rl.ion 45
Tlie HL!toiHral B^fk^roumi 47
Ethical \'.i\u<: 5G
Revealed Liiw ,ind Ethical \'alue 63
Moral (Jhlii^tion 73
Objfcuona to Mu'tazilT Ethic.'s 03
God (iiid Eihici; 9fi
Chapii^r Thrc. AI-RazI^s Perfectionist Theory of Virtuf lOO
Peifectionisini 1 09
Human Pciffclion 1 16
Ptophery 1:^9
ChaptiT Four. .,\1-Razl^s Laler Pessimism;
Coinmenlai"^' on Rt^akt Diiamm al-tadlidhat 155
The Nature and Extent of Scuaorv Pleasure (iiid Pain 15G
Socio-Political Pi'ssimi^n 169
EpLslemological Pessunism 181
Appendix: Al-Ra^T^s Rualal Dhamiii lai^hdha! til-dunya 205
Bibliograpliy 267
IndfK of Names 277
Index of Subjects 279
PREFACE
The prf senl sludy ispire!^, fir.sl and forcmosl, to make a romribiition
lo iwo main ai'fia!; nl" intcri'thi in Islauiir inltllccliLal Ilis[or^' [iame3v
ctliira] pliilo^opliv and ihr ihoui^hi (if Fakhr al-Dln iil-RazT 1 hopi'
ID ba\e dennrmslralfiH dial al-Razi in ont of ihc iiiosl. imporlanl
etliiciiCs ill Muslim hisiorv, and lo have produced nomp siiinuli for
further researcli on his dioughl. as he remains one of the most
inn iii'riii.il. vei mjltIv iLtn-leisEudird, tiiedievdl ihhikers.
Tlie prp?piil m[:nioijja.ph is b;ii;ed. oRen reiii^li='lv, on a dorcoral
thtfsis thai 1 submiued in 2002 to the faculty of Oric^iita] Suidies^
Oxford University, under the super\i'iioTi of Professor YalivJ Micliot
and Dr Fritz Zinuuermann. I would lite to express mv gratitude
to both my slIpel^'^SGra: from is^honi in^' I'R'iCiirch hiis beiierned in
numerous way^;. 1 am indebted to Professor \richot for more recent
exchanges of ideas, many of H'hich ai'e relevant to questions idfkled
in this thorouglJy re\L'bed \ersion.
I W'oukl like iilao to rstEtiid my sincere Eliaiiks Lu Prufesssjc Wilfrrd
\frideliiiig, Pi'ofe*isor Hnn^ Daiber and Fir Ti^^iiy Slrert, whc provided
nu' \^^th \aludhle romnicnts on thLs stuirh', co Profe.ssoi Yahva Ibn
Junaid and Di iS"izam Yaquby, ^viio boih a-ssisled ine in acrtiiiring
copies of some manuscripts- and to Sobia SN'\'ed for reading tht
monograph ^uid fiii^estiiig some corrertions in !;lvle^ Npedlesa to
sav, J aJoiie am responsible for iLs present fmm
Finally, f am U'ulv gratefu] to ibc following insLitudonjh: to tbf
iMiislim .Acadfinic IVusl, U;Lml)t"idge, lor generously luiiding mv
graduate study^ lo Osfoid Uiiivrr^iJy for fiiiiEiuL;^ pio\ided during
my doctoral s^ludy; to ihe British, Berlin State, Mar'ashf-N^jaf! and
Princeton Uni\'eriitv Libraries, for facilitating arcess to manuscripts
(}[Ri\aIaS D/ifnian htShiihai /if-duiiyd, allow'ing me lo produce n critical
edition thereof; and to BiJIl for undertaking this publication.
INTRODUCXrON
Genual JniroduHhn
'Y\u- firM rniluricH of Islam wilLirs^rd ihc I'liiirr^tncr of difltrtiit
li'adilions of (^lliiral lliinking, ^^ithiiL which rifM'i'al distinci ethical
tlieorifs were propounded. The most sophii^liraled philf)'iophic3l
iheorips Vierc dcvf^lopecl ^vilhii:i ilif Ewo largely independent tradi-
lianrh uf kisldin am] ftihufij, wlinh il^LsEied dL [he levrl of eilik^ and
ill olh<?r related aieai^, including metaphvf ir^, rorniology, pHychnlo^'
and epistemology
The main ethiral eonceni of thi' diissifiil muiokalilmUn waj; to
invesdgaK the nature of God^s justice and die goodncsi of His acts
generally, which lhe\ approached through ;inalvtic;il dis^cLi^sions of
ctliieal lanfjuiL^e, melAphysics and epii^temoio!^'. Similai diiifusisions,
likewise with an einphiL.'^i^ oil action, ean also be found in mul al-jiqh,
and coiiceni the establishment of general nijrniiiti^'e prineipks for
hiinian cunduc v. TViti fa(a.\ifa^ on lln- cj(hi.'r liiind, viccr chirilv, hiiE bv
no means solely, inleiesled in the development of human ch-iraeter,
primarily by cn;ienderin2 vhtje-i, which are essentially disposidoni
inlfrnal lo the individual.
Thp gap .'beparaling the two traditions was initially in mde that
many nodoiis centrEJ to one tradition of ethical theory were completely
aJien tn the othf^r, in whifh the\' ^vould nonnally he dismi.ssed in {oia,
wilhoiil engagement in anv proper dialogue. Yet there then emerged
fiign^ of increasing^ =ind move positi\'e, interaction between kalam
aivii Jiihafo, cuhiiiiiiLiiiif^ in ihe rnToris of al-GhdiEilJ (d. TjOj/ 1 1 1 1),
who was hoth a severe ci"ilic nf x\\p Jolfi^Jo and deeply influenced by
them in many respects. A century later Fakhr al-Din al-RazI wan
to open the gates widely, allowing a moie liberal eKchaiige of ideas,
a 'synthesis^ even, between liniam -And. Jaiia/G. TliL; feature manife.'its
no lejifi in his ethics than in other areas of hi.'i thought.
The present study iii thus, at once, both a coniprehen.-iive analysis
of one major facet of aURazl'a thought, \"iz. his ediical iheoi"^, and an
CKplovation ol the main li'end.s and debates in its uidei inlellectual
backgiouficl. It show^i that he hcLs forth a iiiphj^liCtiLcd ,ind ori^n.il
ediical theory, wliich is bndi eclectic and highly consistent internally.
5
INTHOU LOTION
In this thcoiy, he dcpaitu with cJassical Aili*aiT \filunlai'hin.
Al-Razi i.'^ sigiiitifant in ihis regard not as a movalisl (al-GliiiTalT
in evidciillv ^i more claboran' nioralt'^E ihan he is), but mainly as
911 fnit^l^Liidiiiglv aiialytic^J Jiirf ihoroiighjjoiiig elhir^l philohoph-^v
In ihis rpsjjecl, iiis di.snissions nf certain ethical themes are amonc
die mosi penetratino in Jslaniif history and will easily match corrp-
.sponding discusiion? in anj CKlani Mii'liizill tfxts. This owe.ii partly
lo hifi liisihand raiEiilidik^ and eiigagi-iiirnL widi dn' wiiEiiigs of
[he Mii'ijzi]:i: ej^peri^lly die ^rhool of Ahii l-Hii^ayii al^Ba^ri d.
436/I044), to an extent unprecedented aiiiong dieir earlier critics
(and u'hieh u'as apparently iin^nrpiL.ssed in later Sunni theology, lo
which Mn'tazilism beeame less relevant) Al-RazT also had ii gi'eat
detil Iff iihtlLitiu c uii liiErr cllii! a) ihiiui^hE iji Islaiii; thprriall^ in kidam^
nnd hi^ mnin ^vr>rk ^n the srience of rliarnrler, kiinb fl 'dm nl-akhlaq,
v\ listed by Ibii al-Aktani ';d 749/ I !54R^ as a major representative of
its genre (howe^'er, its circulation seems to have become limited in
laler eenturip.'b).^
±'M-Rfizi drvrlopn .i nirtarlhical throiT ihat undnlics both hi^ fabafi
ethics of chnrarrer and his kal^rti and juri'ilir ethics of action.-^ This
underlying theory inanifesLs differendy in these iwo dilTprenl eonlexts:
as a coii'iec^uenliahMU in relation to action^ and as a perfectionism
ill relatLoii to chariLeter. AUhojgh at ihe level of noini alive ethLCJ^
his flaljoratioii of ihc rrlatioii bclivfcn hii ethics of action aiid his
ethics of character remains in certain rej^pecls nnderdc\'eIoped, the
■elation between tlie two at the melaethical level \h, made clear:
conseqtientiali.sEn iind perfectionism are two aspects of the same
leieological ethics, ralher than separate ethiciJ tlieoriei^.'^
Thefe two areas; of elhical eiif^iiiiy are dL^cus^sied ^eparaleiy in al-
' IJiii al-AklSnl, AfAiK, 4-nt. The Iwn mht-r repre^eiil alive wofks llial he Llsl^ ace
iVni ^'iij^'^ Rhaia fl {-nkfilaq and Jhs.kdw^yli'i Ai-Faw!, al-a\ghat.
- Coiilemporarv clhifdl pliil-ftopliy u iiorniilly divided iiilo llie sub-lields, <^f
nt«l ^ki'llt tf^ and nHnmuli^^ b:lKir?. Tltn' nrlfnliiif tti^n a itHnI u ii iiLVt^ jl1y ^kiicnwd, pti-
nsarilv hetause the tii'o fiold^ an- arjiuiih in^l inuluall^ <'xrlu.iivT. N'lflieLtiici;, i-i
^l"I'l|]Ii'1I 'si*! irird miEir' tiIlli n, .>4:t'ks U< uitdi'rNlLtilil llii' liLtliLii' iiliil |il^I|Je4 auiriL
of elhjfjl ]udi^eineiil. Nonrtalive, "fiisl nnrler' elliii:^ dfiiole^ allempEJi Eo defend
oi e^liihlisL ellijcil JLidaemem^ on np^iifn: lypr^ o( human jcliiit^ ai iiorm^ and
pi'innjil''-. lo etiKli' liuniiii acti^^n (r( ^b. Kagan, .^^rrflrf/ifn- Hiliir^. psp l-Ji; nrlifle*
"Aiialyiif pihw-',". JtKF. "Meueiliiei". EEj
Tltf^c dilTr:i[:iil l>pi'-i uf tlliiLiil llirury drt di;fjit<!d p. 4J-fl mjiu.
l>JTHOUtlt3TlOr<
RazT's writings Tor sevprai reasons. First of all^ the flassical mut/ikni-
iman fofiiscd on action exrlusixely, a-s thev were ronrei'iicd with
invp.sti^tLtiiig linw Cind^s acis relnlc [o Hi'^ rreature.'i. Al-R^izl, loo,
di.qcu^'ipf divine ^rlirni, whifh he appro jchei on the basis; of a ihor-
ou^h anaU'sis of huniitn action. Mori^over, in dfvclopine; hui ethical
theory, he works wilhin separate e.stablished iraditionji, each havin^
its own .sco^jp and ethos. He does not attempt to produce n. synthesis
belwern llir nieiicf of (haiiii tri dud juf irhpHLilrnrc. Yia tie doeii
provide ^<nne o;eneral giiitlflines on liov-' ihe elh]f^ i>f ^clion and ihp
ethics of chiiracter siioiild he viewed in ['elation to each olhei\
The starting point for this sludv will be al-Ra-'.T's ethics of action
(Chapter II); for which first we will need to examine his theory of
aciioii, whit h is i riiiidl Eii his uirLariJiit s (Chapuri I). Sim e ht- .sEaris
a*i a cLis.sif al A.sh':in iheologinii with liitlr inrf I'e^r in rhe eyrLimnniioii
of character, his interest in action will lia^e chronological precedence
in his inteUecluai career. Even in his later thought, hii analysis of
action does not presuppose a theory of character (which nornially
iv(jiild gi\^ moral primary to characler oyrr acliQii). although it v^ill
he complemented by such a dienr^'. Chapter III will then examine hit
theory of virtue, including his ethics of rhaiacter and the iiilluence
of his theciiy of virtne on his later theory' of prophecy.
Chapter IV uill focus on the epiitle entitled Dhamm tfiilMtnU nl-
daityd [C'eusmf of ike Pi€a.iUiei nf Tins World)^ which i^ puhlishrd here
and studied for the first lime (a critical edition can be found as an
Ajjpendix;. In this immensely interesting short text, which al-RazI
wrote toward:! the end of hi'h life, he expresses prrmounced moral
pessimism and intelleciual scepticism. The hiickgroiind of this stance
ill his wriiings more ■widely \i'ill also be esplored.
The narrower theoretical themes covered in this sitidy will be
introduced in their appiopriate places in the following chapters.
First, however, we should pi'ovidc a shoit biograph\' of al-RazI and
a brief descriptive bibliography of his main v^ritings that are cited
ill thi? iLiudy.
4 INTHOU LOTION
Abn 'Alidtillrtli Muhdrnmad Ibii 'Umiir Fakhr dl-Dlii dl-Rail UdS
born ii] i44/ I 1-}^ in the cxyy of R-^yy [f» il^ nidiii prearlieiv uln?iice
his litle^ "^Ihii Kballb al-Ra^y'^ or more cnmniniiK "Ibn itl-KlialTb'\
His fiLiher Diya' dl-Dln [d. jrt9i'l ll>4), who was n promiiipnt ShaH'T
surf Ash'arl,' was Fakhr ai-Dln\ firil tpachir in bnch ksldrti iiiid fiqhf'
Al-Rd^T, iliiis, hn'^dii as a vri^ iradiiimidl Arhli'ari, as is th'dr fimii
111? e^ii^lie^r hnok'h. Ainrmij; ilin^p lii' Miiriierl i^'iili :ifrpr \\\-i f^rlier i\\i-(\
wcie Ahiiiiid Ibn Zannbini dl-Kamal iJ-Simnrini id. ?) of Siinnan^
not far from Ra\'\: and llie llieii famous philo.'iopher-l.hpologian Majd
al-Dln al-Jllr (d. t) of Maragha in Azcrhaijan^ who ^\as a .sludenl
Iff Muliiiiiniad llm Yahya ,d-NdyfiabQii (d. :yiU/\\:y% al-GIidZdll's
.'iHudpiil id. 305/ 1 I I ]). Rfjinrlpdly, h*^ ih^n roiniiuied lo sliirly ihr
philosophical sdencps in depends i illy.'
Al-RdzT tid\e]lfd widely throughfiiit his life^ mainly in Ffr.sia. pai'Li;
of central Asia and norlhern India.'^ Al somp .stage in his Eravi'ls, he
i^^tahlLshcd n cloir rflationnhip ^ith die GhOiid sultan tihiyFidi al-Dln
(d. ?)'^'^/\7(y^) of Ghazna. and teprtrlodly worked for him and then
fnr his brother and suri:esmi\ Shihab al-Dln d. G02/l!206\ Later^
^^"hilf maintaining a good rrlation.ship witti the Ghurid.s, he became
elo.'ie to their oppoiieni, the Khv^arizni-SEiah 'Ala' al-Dlii Tekcsh
[d. 5^8/1 200), M'orLcd for liim, and Caii,s;hE his son, Miihiiinniad [d,
fil7/1219). \Mien the latter inhedled llie nultanate, al-Razl's status
■^ Somi; lifrhr main rlisiiial hift^aplinr^ <A .il-Rjzi jri'i Ihn Ahi U.Nayhi ii, 'L'mn.
X 34-45; al'Qilii Mba>, llU-!^; al-'.A^r[alJiii Li>sn. 4. 42(> ^; Ahii Sli'aini Dhayl,
W; Ihh Khflllikaii. IVof^yHt. 4, 24fl-.i?; Thn ^V\hn TUmK ?40; '2.i4: \\m nl-Si'T,
3ami\% 30G-a' IbnKjibi., Bdaya, I \ SS-ft; al-Safadi, M-aji, 4, 2^-h?.; aI-Dh:iliabT,
TiiiflA, 1^,211 ?^'al-£ubkr, 7"jfi£h^,j;, fl.Jtl OG; nl' YiTLT. .U/f 'Ji. 1. 7 H' al-^lialua-
zlirl^ ^Vw^Aif , ?, 144-fiO. See ^so' Mulimnmad al-Zirkiii,i'flX'4'ij/-D^fl al-Ra^J, Fl-j'i'
tienrvif^ Aii:iuali, "tdml/T/T'. \9'.^-'Z*M- ""t,lrm''iil^"' 'Kjblii aMJIn il-Ri^i'" iii £/';
Jnhn Cfifipf-r, "j]-Ra7J, Fakhr ahDiii", ffEF; Yaz^Lii Cp\lan Thedu^v- L-H; Tuny
Slrcel, "life and ^Voiks"' |ari[iifc Jnmior, "Qiir'amf CuninifiiliTv".
^ Cr. dl-Subki, Tsba^ai. 1 I.S^IT.' 7, 2E?; Ibn KhmllikJii, fVafayJI, ■]. ?S?.
'* .\I-R.^2i'^ Aih ill tliaiii <:xlind'< fnun Iik lallii-i, lr> AbQ I'Qasini aUAniirT,
lii jl-Juwayni, Iq Abu Ihliaq ^il'lElara'ini, lo Abii l-Hasan al-Bahili, irt al-.'^sliari
{Tafinl al-kaqi). 5?; cF. al-yafiT, Mir'dl. 4. 1 1). He also preseiitf lua Shafi'T junilif
^rtiaiir il^iliiFQ VL'Uh lii^ ralli4'r
' Ihii Al>T L\jybi :,. Lyiiv. ^, ?4.
" E.g. .Vijdi^^sfljJJ. 7;Af<imb, 1. ■iRFl-9I.Onfii5tzaveh, wej.jonin-c, "Qur^anic
CiimUH'liLiny", fiuviim.
l>JTHOUtlt3TlOr<
increased greatly. Il app'ar^ that although he was inilialK" poor,'
al-RazT iicqiiired great wealth later on. perhaps as a resiill of hin
iiigh-jjit-rilr liiikfh. In Hnai. Uu- GliQiid snluni biiili him d rhf lunjl,
xvlirre he <;nighl x gi'pat number of ^Inrlpnfs.
AffonnES of his travels iilso iiboimd wilh Hebaleii he had \^ith propo-
nents of \avioiis other iheologicaLschools, especially tht"- Karrainiwa/"
Mii'tiLzilDb and HiLnb^IIs. His di'batinji a.bilitiF'i brought him notoriety.
He himsrlf vrcordrd .lomr of hii< dchatr;^ in a srpayati^ cnllcrtioii,
the Munazaral^ while others are referred to by later sniirees." On
one occasion, a debate he had mth the head of the Karrami^'va in
Fiiiizkoh, the capital of a branch of the Ghririds, resuhed in a riot,
fomhii^ him Uf depanJ^ The exii-ni iff Uic niniiLy Uiai ihLs r^eci had
lo'H';irds him iv^i.t; Mich th^il, in his de;ilhhed \fc\\\^ lie askeil for hi'i
body to be buried secredj in a remote place, apparcndy for fear that
supporters of this seel may exJiuine and nnililate it. Al-RazT died in
1i0fVI2IOin Herat.
The Deneiopuienl ofal-Ra^i'i Though! and the Chrmoh^ of Hu Wq}^
Most atudifs on al-Razr^ thought icly on a more ov less narrow
selection of his writings, often wiih lillle attention paid to iheir
chronology The sheer volnnie of his writings- he is a main con-
tender to being [he mn^l piohfic of all MnJim theologians and
philosophers ''' — -and the fact that some of the mosi iinpoilant among
them rersiriin iiiipLiblii^hed, are normally siifEiriei-[i lo place [he stu-
dent of his thought under a foimidable burden, more so than iii
the case udth nioit other major Muslim thinkeis. Yet, positively, in
contrast to some other thinkers, moiit ol al-Raii's \yorl;s, including
the itioAt imporiani ones, have aiir^-ivi'd. In thr alinolutc iniijoricy
of these texts one encounters nn problems in attributing them to
^ E-B ^'Qil|i. !UM>. 190
'" Oil ilii. KLyi^iiiivv^ dit LinUtriifHiniLMpJii:^ h;ii, si-c rUi/HiiSi. E0L;^-Slidlir^i3nl.
Miln/^ I lOH-IS' arlirif "Kanami^-va" in Ef
II E.g al-Qpiui-iii, ^^rjj, ?.i?-^; cf Td/ifr. 7 Ji^t; Fl, Ii9-7I.
1^ Thn il-Aihir. Kimf. ]2. 151-?.
'^ Bio^aplii'i.s rirpoit ihal hf nullu-n-d moie lliJii ?00 ivork' llbii ^-fifil.. J^mi' ,
9, >07- Um KalliJi. Bttlaia, 1 1. j.S'i j^rHTjiittd a lliirit of (hi-ic- ate. kito^kii lo i". fxli-Liil
Tike irm*;! uspIuI ilhcuij^h iiicoinplcle and oul fi ihn-) puljlclted bililmerjphy ofal-
t^azT's tiiown vvnrks TeiiuiiiiS' M. :il-/.aikjii, /■fiUi al-UTn al-Ha^l, fiJ]-lt>4.
Eh INTHOU LOTION
dieir aiillior. Most, iiirlLidiii^s; all [he iniportiint ours, are in Arabic;
.snnif are in Persian.
Tin- |jir'sciii '>iiidy iisrs ilie iiiuiL i iiniprcheiisivr hdri Jon of ^J-
Ra^T"^ \^orku m rlnip; ^pvcijiI are ii^prl fni ih'' first lime Thk li;i*i
;Jlowed a more iicciiralc understanding of the conijileK dpvFlo]]nieiU.s
tliai took plaee in hL> thougln. which are often .■iubile, bui ionioiime.'h
ibtriking. Some oi his eiirlie^t aiid latest v^orks gi^'e tlie impression
of bf ing writtf i] by very difTrrfnt milhorei (yd tliiv itc hh, ivithnut
doubt). To give one cuiioui example, ^^■hile in the eaily Lhaia., Abu
l-'Ali* al-Ma'ariT is eursed for hLs heresy, he is referred to appreeia-
lively in ihe late Tafm and Mafoiib as the philosopher-poet (fiakiPi
ti!-.\hfi'aiu^. Ie i.s tin ^l] too fdiiiilitir iiiiMdke Rjr siiLilii:s ut liir j vidw
presented in one oi' rwo of al-Rriyr'; books a*; heini^ siinplv bis \'ieiu,
Vhhen in fael eontrasling view.s may be itadily tbund in his othi^i^
or later, puhlLshed ^vorks.
Moreover, a.s was the prarliee of many other aullinrs, al-Razl
will nflen li'eat :i problem thoroiii^bly in one hook, ^iid uill iben
lefer to it in passing in later books^ sometimes without mention of
(he earli(;r di.snission. In one book, he writes that he ;vill a\oid dis-
cu.ssing topics that have been diseiLssed el.sewhere.'* It is, therefore,
noc uiircjniinoi] for rradrrs of a gi\rn ■Vi'ovk by al-RazT^ prc-modcrn
and modern alike, to ronelude that he fails to address a pai'lieular
problem, wiicn in fart die anthor himself Is .sali.sfied in ha\'inj^ done
ary elsewhere.
Ai this stage, we are able to determine the exact dating of some
of al-Razi'? work^ and fo eiilimate the general, relative chronology
of Others. Some texts remain very diffieult Eo date, except sometimes
very tentatively. Inti^rnal e\'ideiire of dates, sueh as refereiiee.s made
to other work.s, may o["ten mislead, smee .some works unden^ent
ic\'ision by tbrii' author years aJlcr tliry wcxc fir^t ■uritlcii. Thufl,
e.g. we fmd references in the Aiahdhith lo Skurh KuihyyGi at-Qnnm and
\iee versa, whirh leads us to roncUide either that both were written
in the same period, or that references in at lea.st one of iheni uere
inserted in d laii-r rtviriiun.
Al-Razr*; earliest work-S are j^trictlv classical Ash'atI in .style and
content.'^ This is most evident in Usui al-i!in and. eo a slightlv lesser
'* A"d^,ifl^y:)<,, (A..), Jifl' '.Ptt.).. [ 1 1.
'^ See M. jl-Zirkan. F^ii /tl-Dia al-M;J, (if9-26; A. Shilurlih, Troin al-
(iliaz^i In al-K-d^Li', Lli't
l>JTHOUtlt3TlOr< 7
degree, Ehe hhara. In [he later Jifififiyti! al-uqUi, he inlrodiiffs Aris-
lolehiiii Ifigif into kGidm, biu still prnd^inri, in line \-vith rlapsical
AriL'jiLsiii ilidi iLr |iiLipii.se uf hih Lliecflij^k al tnquiiv 1^ ii' (KTn'inl
\\\f ovchcirlfii; rrperi. T :irpr, he 'Aihrilelii^:irlefllv" '■ni!"ir:ire*, the growing
eclertifi.sni of his milieu, and starts lo tu'ite works nn fil^nfo, logic,
medieinp and the oecnlt. Al this stage, he wriles the Mahihifh and
the Mulokhkhai, whieli he deirrities <\.fi 'Jai^qfT, ctr ^hikinT. works, in
roiilraeil to hLs 'kaSamf works. Hi* then rcluvii.'i to wrining in tlir l^tti^r
genre, gradually .synthesisin^ kfildni srxdf/iliofu.
The following is a ehionologieal li.'bt, with brief descriptions, of
some ol' ihe mo.'it important worlc^ used in ihr- present study. Most ol
die iiiienidl eiidniue for du- daiing has been otnii[[:d; d .svriienidEif
evaliiMlirm ihei'eof will go well bevniiH the .irope of thi^ hihlirigr:iphir
iiiivoduetioii.
— [Hi^fiji LhQl fil-drn, 'ni^^'id ifii til-sttinis]. The originaJ title of thin
iinpubli'ihpd ■r'ohimp i; uncerlLiii}; heiic!, it \%ill he referi'fd t^ ^.'i Uiiii
al-difi.^' Given iL'i elas^sieal Ash'aiT eoiilent and appmaeh^ it apjiears
to be ihe earliest kiinwn lheolf>gie£il book authored by al-RazI. He
demonstrates great I'^uniliiivity with the works ol al-Ash'ari (d. 324/
93G) and llif main proponciitJi oT his school, to vvhoin hr rcfi^rn ai
'our masters' {ti'immoinm\ indnding al-H^jqillanf (d 4O3/1013), hin
student Abu Ja 'far al-SimiiriiiT [d. +44/105?), Abu Ishaq Ed-lsfar^lnl
(d. 4ia/l027) and aljm^aynl [d 478/1085).
— A!-l\ba!ajs'shn til-kalaii.''^ Thi^ book lepresent^ ^l-Rai;i'^ earliest,
highly Ash' ari st^ige, but \r slightly later ihiin 1/0 nl-dm.
2il
— AI-MafisulJi-flm al-uiuL Completed in i7<j/l l^it),-" thLS is al-KazI's
moAt iinpovtf[iil| and liiglily iiiflunitial, woi^k on u.iiil al-fiqh-
— Mhayal al-uqiH^ Srayoi sl-mul Still unpublished, this laige kalom
"■ SliJlid.lrli. -TriiLi! J-Glij^Jli lo .il'Ri-i". \M H.
'^ li fould lie Tnhdiilb al-da}a'il ^ ^uyin ai-ma^a'il. ineiiliiiin^d in FliijaMl, I4f>.
'" 'I'lip OEr^'mitl lillf; i^ nm^i pii)hjblv tiliaial af-im^z^r da lalii'i! al-u'im, a kalam
Ixiok llial al-R.i^i iiH'ntiiJti^ m rtigsdal. I4<>.
''' E-ij. al-A^h'^rT is referred ^r^ a.'i Simkheiia Aba /-Hninii m^jn Atlaha 'miha (e g.
I.hsr^, fol. ^b; Ilib; *\2!.).
^^ Aiali^ui, T^li^ al''AI%yaiiri I't^ilniiAl Jnli(iduelJr»n, 43 Thi' liflfinf / 1^ nienrioned
in A't^al nZ-if/ul. Ifil -AM-,.
s
INTHOU LOTION
^^■ork i.s one of the most infliipnl.ial iPKls m the luslnry of Llanuf
tlieolo^ II represents a crucial liaii.'jilory stage between al-Ra^i's
rarlin AriL'afJ Uujili^Iil aiul hh Idici pliilijsuplik iil Uinikn^v'"
— Al-Siir al-maktum (JT mukkaiahGi af-nujiim. (ir Ji asror al-rmjum, ot Js
'ilm ai-iihi wa-i-lalasim iva-l-nujUm, etc.). Slill an inlriguiiig aspect of
Ill's CELi'ecr, and apparently \M'itten al a relatively early stage thereof.-^
diiii book dL'it'Li.'.^r^ thi' ihcorv ancl praciitc of niagii:. Ti may give
creclpiice to the report tliat he spt^nt some time in hi'* youth fsperi-
ineiiiiiig with alchemy.^'
— Al-^iiibdhiih vl-Jiiti.\hTi<(i)'yti. Tlie niiiiii iiintieiii eri cjjj wh.it ajfjiedrs
to hf thp e;ivlie^l of al-Ra7T\i; ■iww'w'wt^f/sSmfT honk? :ire Tim Slna H
439/1037), Abu l-Baiakat al-BaghHadi .'d 560/1164 5), and Ahu
Bakr al-RazT (d 3LV923). This ^ork does not represent al-Ra^i's
philosophy in its niiiiurily; but coiiiains many views thai difler con-
siflerahly from hi^ later and eai'liei vietv?.-^
— Al-AInlakhkhaiJti-fiikiisa tva-l-nnmiiq. A]-Razi seems to have revised
ihis_^^"fl^work. in 579/llK!i."'* It lia.i niauv similarities to ih.it M/ib^hUi,
but IS gtnnally more contisc (brace its litlc] and also includes a
section on Ingir. It shows greater consistency and independence
from Ibii Sina than the Mi\hnhi(h.
— Shaih al-I\ulliyvdl mm hMb al-Qanan. A commentary on the theoreti-
cal ill trodur lion of Ibn Slna'^ Qanimj on medicine; probably urittr^n
around 5R0/1I84.^^
— Attab al-J^afi wa-i-mh. Alternatively enlitleci Aidibj! 'dm at-aUdHq.
tliis book has t^vo p^iris: ihr Firsi ou ihc thcorv of the science of
character, the second on practical elhici in detail. Ils dating is jncer-
lain^ hut appears relatively early.
'" Shihadfii, "Fffhni al-Ghaj3lr to al-RazI". 161 tf.
" Mpiiiicmed 111: Molakhlliai. l^^ V1^-a\ Sha/h nUsMrai, 2, UZ- Shark 'Uvan bI-
h,kma 1. 131-4.
^Mliii al-lbtL TfliiM. 240
'" MiL-iiiifnii:d ill Miikldil^it',. fnl ^■^7a.
''^ \)?\Uii in iliH^ aii(liiiT''i iv^lr^plinii r^fMS 1510. I^iden Uiiivfr^iry T.ibfiirv
'" Ihii al-'Ebrl. Tmlkb, 240 The Mabakith \i mi'iilirnn'fJ in Sfiarli nl-QanUn, fol.
22b. -l-^b. 'T\:\i Idllcr ii lui^itUuitcd iri MoLalti/it, 2, 2Ja, 2, 409,
l>JTHOUtlt3TlOr< 9
— Shdih al-Lhd/dUua-l-tmihTh^t. App^ri'ntly \\ykti-i-t 3.rot.m<:] 52Q/ [ 1S4,^'
this work presLintii a criliral fonnm^iUdiy on Ibn Sina^s philosophy
Till: lifgu fii-niim irh sdll uii^jubliJu-iL
— MunazdtQiji hilad mn unm' al-nafir. A foU^flion of aiilohiographi-
cal arrouuL'b of several dehales on theologiral, philosophical and
jiiristif ihpmp'i, ill u'hirh al-RazI participated during his traveli^ in
TrrtiitioKiaLia aroiiiid .">Wl2/l IR(i.
— rtiqadM JitGq sl-Mn.dmtm wa-l-mii.\knkiii. A ihorl heresiography
ImmediiLtely altei the spflion onjulio/n, al-RazI roiirludfi ihe book
\r) alTirining hiri i-rihodoxy,
— Afithdsml qfkai ai-mniaqdddimm wa-l-muta'ahhkhmn... A fompendiiini
of pliilosophifal theology, and one of al-Razl's mosi infliicnlial and
widely studied works.^^
— A!-Arhif!n_^usifiat-din. Another of ai-Razfi influential toferti Morks.
Iniernal evidence .sugge.sis tliat Ie was written after the Alstha.isal.
— Luitab al-Iihdral. A critical ahridgcinrnl of Ebii Sliia^'i al-Iiliarat
mo-l-lniibJhUI, prnbahly -wiiften in 597/1301 '^'
— Manaqib al-lmam ai-Shtif^x. Authored in 597/1501,'' this work
Ls a defence of al-Shiifi'l and the Sh^tfi'l school, appareiillj against
Han^ critics-
— Laivtuni' ai-bsynnat ji (fajiff) nl-asma' wn-l- iijat. A wtitk on di\'inf
names ajid atEiibutei.
.^■|
-■ Mfn(ioiii-rJ 111 Mulia\isl^ ?0? .^no, bmli the Alabd/iilA neid Jhe MaltfcMfiai act
inemitJiH'd in Si/arh at-!\harat. f , 15'i. Il was laufhl in Bukhara in 5fl?/J IFlfi [i^t
-" 'VYii.- 'ttif \i 111 f II I in ucni ill ^lana-a'a!, S? Tlio -ilnb^inh, Llif .Klulakhkhn' aiiil
Shntfi al-MiajM, arp menlioiii'd in Musiaiamt, fiO.
'■''' CI. Slkiliairlelt. 'Kivjiii al-<iliazali lii ahKa^i", 171-7.
■'^ Thi: Tafnr i^ inpinliniied iit AjMui 4?!S. Thi^ ^us^jf^ls ihiil al-R.azT\sTole ihf
^r^'jl^ iirmiid .'>95 -600/ 1 199- 1 50+. afipi iiariiiiif ih; Tapr.
" K:ilib g*.l*.Lii, J:a^hf^!-.x,^,r<t<. I. <14.
^"- Mtniujiii'il in Taf<-tj L"j, Yy. 12. II
10
INTHOU LOTION
— AI-JgIt u;Q-l-qtidai This witrkLs dediriilcd lo lli*^ |ito33[rm of di'-Sliny
and human rhoire, and discussp'^ rauoniil, Jifriptuml and It adjlional
evidence,^'' Iiri nnunus mij^^csi didi k Udi wiiiu-ii ^\.v ci Uir .siagr.
— Al-Tafnr al-ksbii^ or MafaSih nl-^mvb. Thin liiigp foinnipnl.aiy on
ihe Qur'aii was staried around 595/1199. Chapieri l7-3fl were
authored in 601-^/1200-7.^' Reports ihal al-Razi did nol romplfle
ihi^ v^'ovk^ ^i]d eIjeii ii was coiTiplftLd Ijtrr by ruir of liii^ dieiriplr^i;
appeaj to be unfouoded.
— Mo'ahm usa! d-dfu. iWn concise y^oxV on koloin vi perhaps ai-RazT's
liisE wurk in ilic j^cim:. 1e i^ < It'ailv iff Idif .iinhiir'^liip, biiE wliciln-i
i[ ^v:!'^ written i'ipfore or :ifter rhe rf^inplriioii of rhi' T/if^Tr \k iinrlpAv.
Al-Safadr \^iilcs that it is the kj^t of ai-RazT's smallt^r books.
— Ala'^htn actri al-fiqh. A work on ^sBl al-figh^ whirh ii; shorter Elian
tlie MahiUl. The iwn Mt^dhm works appear to be part^ of a. larger
series.
— Asrar nl-tanzil ■"ft-ff^i^'-^t nl-ta'wiL An unliiiished woik wliirli exam-
iiica theolof^iral [hemrn in tlie h^i^bl of Qiiv'aiiio atatnncnts. ll appe ar.'i
lo have been written tiher Al-TafsTr ai-kafiii, and is sometimes referred
lo in later sources as the Smaliet Commeistarf on the Qiir'an {Ai-Tajsu
— Ai-Miiliihb al-'ahja mm af-'ilni til-\ldhi One of the lengdiie^t of al-
Razfs philo.'hOphica] and theoloe;iral works, and in niaii^ ways die
intj.'ii interesting. Books 1 ? were finislied in ROli/ 1207, soon after
die eomplelion ol tlie 'iaj-^u. More than a )par laler, in E>05/l!?(J?i-9.
books 3 7 wcrr appdvcnily riiii.'ihrd over a period of h months,
■■' AlllirtLij;h [futlrsihed ai\ hoot 9 oJ ihe Matahb, (here is mucli fvidemre lo ^tiow
Lliil llkis is a *;fT>afale book, lli ^lyle rffTi-r^ from rlial of [lie Malafib. Il k nnl li^ii'd
ill Jl^ InilJal plpif iAialalii/. L, lil -41. Thnn- are refereiieei. lo ir ebew'herp [I'i-. .SVJui'^
T.'yuid aJ-liihii^, 'i, Vi; l:i ichgi bipltoi.i li^l i ivrpik r-iklill<r] ^ni-Qiitla' tLH-i-fwIa'''- al'Q^if|T,
Akhha>, I9?' Ilm Ahi U^aybi'a, 'Vm, \ 44^ al-fijf^irli, Wafi, 4, ?S5). Alw. many
niaiiTihcnpls ol llie MalMib do iioL irfclude il.
^'' Tfl/kifn 9. \11- For deliiled daliiffi of various parH of llii^ work see Mieliel
LagJHie, yij£^f^, .il -7
■^ C;f. Ji-iiiikf, -MalSlTh il-Chayb", ?53 -90; "Qur'Siiit Com mentaty" , 4fi7;
Ljgaide, !ndi\, 57 IT.
^ '■ Al-Safjdi. I-I"J/J. 4, ?.'ifi.
l>JTHOUtlt3TlOr<
u
wliere^'i bnok B .seeni.s to be unfinijihed and is midaled.'^ Yei ihe
latter date is piizzlin;^, since Dhamm kdhdkai ai-danyG (lie low) is dated
railici; bin icfcis lu i\\si cis^iiriis in buuLs 'i ami 4 uf ihr Maiiihb. One
pspl^ii^ilinn i? lli;il hnoks ^—7 v/pre wrilten in fiO!?/ 1 l?07, hut were
later revised in 605/I20R -9. However, if ibis is the rase, then why
was the Matoiib not tinished befbre it was re\i.'i(^d:' The quesdon is
signifiranl^ .siiire an earlier daliiig nf the Matdiib will give greater
\vciij;hl lo Dhamm ladhdftai al-dttnya.
— Shark 'Uym al-hikma. This commentary' on Ibn Slna's 'Uyim nl-
hitiDsa was appa-rently autliored atler the Aislatik.^''
— Ri\ninf nhiiiiim Indhdhni fsl-dtimH- A ^hovt ptbiral ufii'l: fiiii^hpd in
604/ 1 20R FoL' iLs exceptional inlerest, a crili<al edition of this text
Ls inehided in the appendix, and the work is exaniined in delail in
Chapter IV below.
''" IJaIr'* Jtf i;i^'eii ^1 ihtc ^■iid of oach bfn^k. Bool: 5 h- nrhl da"*''! in ih^ primed
I'dilioii, yi'l ihi' ^Qllu^\^ tdoplirm iii MS Chetler B^'Jlly Ar 3H4 (fnl. l4-7ajddlfe
li in iiOi/L2nii
"''' Thf Malalih i^ inL'iilifiin^rf in Shaik ^i'yUn al-kibnii. !i. IDO The di^russTnn
n?ffrn:il u> dj5]ii?dri iil bcxik 7 r>f rhi; Aieialtb.
CHAPTER ONE
AL-RAZrS THEORY' OF ACTION
Ai-Razfs earliest, .sEiiellv Anli'^irT kalam workii w\\\ Inrin ihe ideal
jitarling poini Jbr exploring bolh hii; classical Aibh'ari baekground
yiiU [tie dim lion in wlik It lii^ iliifUglii develop;, ilitf i-fiuiii. Coiive-
nipnrK\ a romplerp Mtetcli of ihe varirnis nthfr pfiMiiinii\ anri ti'eiidii
in liis inlellerlual baek^jroiind i.s presenlerl in hi:; litter unrks, where
he will normally begin his eiiqiiirv into die nature of human action
by oulhning and seriiunmng eurrenl and preerdin^ opinion!;.
In Uiulal-dai, aJ-RazT arcfpLs the coinnioii kaSam tlivinion of rnr^trd
ejii^tent^ into ^ilnin^ 3nd ;irridpnl^, mainlaining rh:ir hiiiiian jio'wer
[qndm).. or capability [ishUld), is an acficfeQl tlial mibsisLi in the atomn
of the human body. He ai'giips, as do previous Aiih'arls, that power,
being an accident; cannot endure for more than a single moment,
the ininiinuiTi dieirrctc unit ofliine.' God dirr.ctlv cri^atc;; the power
toperrnrni an act within man, 'a$ well <\'< the act itsHf, which occurs
at his bodily organ.s. He institute.'; and preserves the habitual order
{'ada] of neatfd thing'i^ such ihal certain tvpes of human action fol-
low unifoimlv from certain ty'pes of hiinjaii power .^
At this earlv slage, al-RazI adheres to the classical Ash'arT doc-
trine of acquisition [hash)., \^'hich attempt? to e.'itabli.'bh a Eink {ta'atlaq]
between the power ol the human agent and hii; acLs, for the purpose
of affiiming re.sponsibility and obligation. In Ash'aif occasionali.sm,
the causal link lietween the human agent and his acts is severed by
the doctrine thai only God^s pre-eteinal power [qudm qcdlmd) bring:;
.substances and accidents into exi-sEence, \*hereas human jiouer, hein^
tempoi'alh' originated {Imdithtiy cannot produce any elTects. Yet, in the
doctrine of acquisition, man is said to 'acqnire' the act that occur!;
C;f. p^t:;kgf firtiLi iVii' Xlah'iil. p. 10(1 iiijii
14
UHAl'IT^G ONE
3l bis fimbib by vii'luc of po'^'bps.siisg the poiver thai reliite.'^ lo il.^
Thi' mniakaitimiin debdteri whclhi^v pouir exists bi^forc ihe act, or
.sinitilLdHfuii^ly vlIiI] k. In iht aEiJinbi. plivriUi i]f s la^rhiijl kuldui, if
;in immohili^ ob|ert \r spt inio niolirtn, il ■will \it} iinmohilp ;ir tinip /,;
iiiirl mobile at tune i.j= i^+At. where At is the i^mciUest unit of lime.
Now, if ibe object is moved by ii human be ing, will the hiinaan pother
in^'ojved in this fhaiioe rxinl al I or U The Mu'taziJa were almoiit
unaiiimnus nn x\\c foriiiri': ihc cfTrct imolionj occur? immcdialcly
iiflet" thf cause (human power). Man. thereby, produces his acts.
By coiilriLJbt, Ash'aris [incliiriing the eiirly aJ-RazT' ni^iinliLined that
power and action are siinukaneoiL'i [dl-nlila'a ma'a l-Ji't-^ Utherwiie,
if pcuMT 1'XLhl'i Al l„ hill iiin. ai 1.^, whr.n lift Ji L Lakr'i plate, eIiitc
will no longpi' he ^ raiiMP lo pi'oHiice ih^' ''ffi'cl — wliich, ihpy :irgiiPf|,
in inconceivable.
The .same analysis of humciii iictioii ran be found in ihe A-tuhns^al^
which al-Razf wrotp m a fairly Later stage:
Pnwcr is an accidcni; sii il dori no! litii [Ijtr ninit than one moment].
Tf il prjTcdj-Jh ihf iifl, il ^^-ill }><■ impri-^Mfilr If'ir ihf iiurnl] Id \ti- fAjuhit-
of ill tin ji For, at dii- mojin'nl ihdE pchwi'i (wiili!, the act Viill Lie niin-
exLstL-nl; and ConlrnuaJ non-csistcnrc canrmt p<i3r<ibly lie iiJi cilii<'r[ ai
p'uviT (nnn^tfur). Mjin-ovrr, al ihc mnmcnl action occurs, ihrrc v-ill
he ni> pciwci
The classical inuftikiillimiii! also debated ^vhether a particukv in'>t£ii]ce
of human power may relate to opposite iCLs^ or a siogle act nnly.
Al-RazT writes in UiHi sl-dln:
TemjuirjUy origiiidlid povvi'i n'lati'M l<i one cihjtil ofpovicr [ma^tlST)
\i.c 'in*" art] imhr. An (irHing Hi llii" Mn'n?.il.i, il rrt'iH"'' fy ftuniiiil'-''
Morrovrr, aitcirHing to mial of Lhem, lE ri'lali"^ In dilTfrent [ohji-tts
ol povvci]. I.e. ihjim' [hal arc not <ippiJM'ii. "1 hj^v .■^a), ""I'l'mporally
Jiriyin^lj^ poivrr rrliiH"' lit .in infiniCi" niinihrr 'ifihiiivln nf p'twrr .it
iUCCCMivc nmmcntfl".
for A.sb'arTs, only one^ specific act could follnw from a .specific
instancp of power. The accident of the poiser to inovr my aim will
exiit in iny arm at clie lime of motion and will relate to that .specific
^ L'^al ai-f/iiL fol ?!^I.Oii ihe rhnriiie <if acquis iliiiii, -vf- D^nn'l Gimarf:!, Uifmey
ik i'attc '^wmijjfl, li^ II.
' U.Uld-di<\. fol 22?: 22'>.
IB
act only; it caAinot relate to ihr omission of this mm'eme lit, or to a
difTpreiil 3cl. Conlraiily, the Mu'lazila argue that thii vievv- kavei
no I'ooin for free ehoiee in the agent.
The e^rly :[I'-R^:^i ^Iko rejecl'i the \lu'laziJi ary;iiiTH?iH th^-i llip
oerurrencp of the agenl^s act in iiccordanee uilh his intention (ifniif),
or inoli\'e (ifa'i), proves that it in cauj^pd !iy it This rkim, he objects,
in Linderinined by several hnes of argument. Foi example, many an
aei v%iJl mciir ujnlidiy uj, oi wiihuut, [lie a^Jeni's inu'iniiin siuh as
the :ifts of the sleeper anrl the iinau'ai'e Xloreover, ifonf nrcept^
that God is the creator of human arts, the ahove ^[u't,"Lzi]^ conten-
tion \*iil implv" that God will be neressitated to crpate the human
act in accordance Mdth the human moti\T.' A precedenl to al-RazT^!i
rejrc ikni of ihr link Ijelwerif liiLiiiaii at liuii iiiitl iiioLivaLiiJii t an
alrenrly he found in :il-Shahra'^rJinrs [H. i47/ ! 1 S!?) .X'lhnvnl ^i-fsq^nm,
which belongs to the classical Ash'ai'I tradiiion." We will return to
tilts problem below.
The cEa'^sical Aiih'an theorv reproduced m aE-RazTs earliest worku
roLiliimcs [q Ijc a major iiiflumrc on hini. allhon^h \\\s latf:r tlioory of
human aclinn will become hJslily ecleclic. In later wru'ks he provides
a fullei' account nf other contemporaiy' chicories of action, elements
of which he t^ill incoipoiate. He ]\s^ the follo\%ing four positions.^
(1) Al-Ash'arl and most Aih'arf'b, includhig al-Barjiham and Ibn
Fui-ak(d. -104/1015), maintain that God i^ the only rffcctcr imn'alSttliii)
of human action. Al-RazI notes that whereas al-Ash'arl denies that
human power has any effect in human acdon, al-Baqillam Loldi
diJt ihe act\ attribute of being obechence {f^^] <Ji' disobedience
[m^^iyd] depends on the Lunian ageitt's pouer, though [he act itseJf
is created by God.^^
(2) According lo the Ash'arT theoloi^iiLn, Abu Ishaq al-Isfara^nl,
human aclion is produced by the combination of di\'ine power and
human power. He repoitedlv argued that though human power,
in comrade lo divine pim'er. caimoi produce atis inde p end rutty ,
it may "efTerl with assistance {piii'Tiy^. Therefore, when divine
■ U.ulal-din. Tol. ?03--l-
" Al-SlulifLiaiJiiT, .\'i!iSiiil ai-uqdlhii, JB)-^ ipurilii^lttd di XihSyal al-iijJ&ii].
''Jaiir. fi-l'i: Arh^in, 227-^ AMa^:.a/, 45^- BatMn, l,?[6-7; Ta/Hr. 4. S7-S.
'" Cf. al'Baiiillanl. TamhU. 2>ili. Cf. D. Gimjiel. Tfihuei d^ I'attf hDmBin,
!12ff
w
UHAl'IT'^G ONE
powi^t" fnmbiin'.- (o human pnwer, the lallev becomejh eflpcdve."
{% Anothf^r ibeor^' is ihal Eirlion orcuvj nefessEii'ih when power
and iimtivr tuiiiljiiir in die dgeiu. Thi- iiidjiirkv ui'ih^./ftUltiifa.^' Abil
l-Hii'i:iyii a]-R:i.^iT ilie Nfii'iiiyili, aiiH fl]-Jii\v:iyiiT, ;ii'p variihK' givi'n
ss llie main proponents of I his view.' ' Al-Eazldiscus.sfs whether the
conibinalion of pn\^<^r anct mnliviition rlleirK artioii; or only coiisti-
luw^s J fonrlition for it. The latter vipw I'i .supported by llie /alaufo.
who hold ih^l the- (!)rigiiialor rr£ llic ^voi'lrl is a iicci^iflitaEing ratieic
tind that this romhinalion produres prepari^dncss {uli'dad}., whifli
iillows the Acti^'e IiiteUerl to hiing the act into being. It is alio a
\iew held !iy those vho maintain that God is a \'olinitarv agent, whn
(lii e^lly iitiiLes |k>wc[ , iiitH-ivdliiiii diiif titliuii in tiuiiJiiii'^. wilhoul. aiiy
inrrrmediation AURs^T ;iiHfl^ ih:ii he iicfeprs ihp InM \'ii'w, ihoiigh
be will also attempt lo syndiesisi' bolh positions.
(4) Most Mu'tazilTs maintain that humans art with autonomy
[iitiql^l) and choice [ikhliv^r), arguing that this iii known ihrou^h
refleccion (rm^nr, or infereiire yi^liAldl). Howe\ei\ arriivding in Ahu
1-Husayn al-Basrl and his school -mem her Mahmiid Ibii al-MalahiiuT
al-Khiiwaripjnl |H. 53fi/l l^H;, \>;f- have immediate [daffirl) tno^^ledge
that we pi'odnre our acts.' ' Ai-RazI objecLs that this contpntion
conlradicLs Abii l-Ilu^ayii's vicv/ ihal liuni^n f[rl]on \^ determined
by the cnmhinalion of power and modve. He writes:
1 ^m f^lrc-nT'iv pii7.yl''fl liv Ehr wiv Ki' iirihnE'h^ 'iinii il I iin rlm^lv, hnth
[his vijtwdin! ihr vicvi' EhjE [lit jlI lif^pi'nds dii maivqiif'ala] [he inolivtt
I'l'hf lalltTj diiniJimt.'v Eci an exlmne di^tcrniinum •^isulKU.-ii' fi t-iiibr]-, so
hjiwwcmlH he r^Concilr wilh it such :in rxtmnr qadArism'
.fC(
:ording to this di\'i.iion, human action \h hroii,e;ht iino bring by
di\ine power alone, human pemer alone, ihe combination of binh.or
hv di\'ine power, with the comhinalion of human pou'ei' and inoti\a-
don as a precondition. ]n what follows, we v^'ill see how each theiDrv.
to the CKtc|jiiO[i of dl-lsfdiri'iiiT's, (.oiH-ributcA tn shapuig dl-Rdzl's
' ' Cf. al-Slidhra'^laiil Nihdyal nl-aqdnm. ?•!: D. CJmiaiPt, Ifihriri de I'aile humisn,
IIH-'l. ArtYjnrliiig lo il'I|i {Maa-^lf, ft, 147), ihis arnrinis vvilli aUsfaraTiu"^ vifw
'- Cf. Salman al-BudCir, -^J^'a^iyyal Ibn Siiiaft l-jir. li'i f.
''' III /ff/wi, 4, Hii, aljuuayiii"^ work al-'Aqida at-jvizsmiyya \s ^rciTied.
'\Jiihr, \2-Arba'T<i, '22fi
17
later theory of action, whirh lip de\pIop'i as he cniergej^ gradually
from his daj^sical Ash'arium lowai'dji a liij^hly erleclir stance.
TJie Tlieoiy of Human Adion
Ai-Rasfs later theorv of human anion has two main salient themes.
On chr one Liisiid, h h^Li d foiiircri] in co^Lno2on>, sprrifir^llv in
the f|uesrion nf uhriher huminii arrs crime in(o iieing hj human
or divine poi^er, Miis being the cardinal problem in cla.ssical fialdm
discussions of human action. The .^^o-called problem of 'the creation
of acts' {khaiq al-aj'd(] wili be examined hrielly ni the last .section of
thf proiifnt tli^ptci'. On ihc other hand, al-RazT\s ihcoiy of aftion
has a psychological coiicern (more pi^rtiiienl to his ethic'i), primarily
with respect lo the nature and mechanism nf human choice and
motivation. Related lo this is the question of whether the human
agent is dftermined {mujbai}, or has free choice [m>iklitfi\).
The nmst important of al-Rcizrs ialrr (lisciii<sioii.i of huniEiii action
call be found in the Arbn'm, the Ma'fiUm. ihe l~qf\ir and. most impor-
tantly, the Malalib.^' Hf: also dedicates Kiiab nl-Jabr a-a-l-qadar to
di.icusiiing destiny and human choice.
AJl LhrM- <]Lscus^ions revolve djound a simple, key conteiiEion ih^
vi central to ^l-Razi^s taler theory of hiLnian action: th^t action ii;
produced wben human power and nioli\'ation combine. Once this
combination occurs, it will act as a natural cause, which necessi-
tates its effect In what follows, ihe T\^'o elements vAW l>e examined
sepaiaLely.
Power
Tiebatp o^ier the nature of human pov/er {qiitirn) ha^ a long hiFtory
before aJ-RazT. The Mu'lazila differed on tdiether human capiabtl-
itv is mere heaitli [yikka'- and bodily fitness (lalaiufi), nr an extra
accident that subsisLs in ihe atom.s of the human bocly"^ (Jlas.sical
Aah^ari.i took the latter \'ic>^'. Al-zVsh'ari maintainccE tliat ^'health i>
tbe soundness of cnnstitntioii, filnesii is the absence of defects and
" A>ba-i>,, U2-5i- 22'i^^y.. MaWm,7R -^'^■. M,iiii/.h, S, 9-7^.
IS
UHAl'IT^G ONE
obsliiiflioiii, and power is an aspect thai h addilioiiiJ lo thai",'''
Slid ihal 'Vapahililv is [he sanif as pnwei, and Lii iiii areident lliat
(LiiiiHH MLbrhb,iljv ii^i-U] [liuij MihfiLsLs Ifi ilii" llvr diiHii (j/iiffia/ fitiV)-)" .^"
Arf nrrliiigly, ihe difri^r''nfe hem^e^'n llie lip^illhy pevMnn and l]if di^-
abkd one i.s ihc PKistence ctf th<^ altrihiue of pov'pr in tlie former
and ils absence in ibf lallpn
In his lali^r uoi'l^j, mosl. iiotably ihe Ma'aiim, aJ-RazI rcj^'cl.s [his
common ^\sh'arr nolifni, ihal hiiin^n p^wcr is n.i] afritfc iiL, dire fting
liLii nitinsin al al-Ash'an .specifirally. Hnm^n power^ \\e will ai'giif , is
not ail accident thai nece.ssarii^ precedes a particular act, but is die
litiies.'i of the physical organs and ibr: halancc of the humourij.-'
Ai Hj wlidlhfi^ a paiEitulcii iiiM.Liil ivf powrr may piudutc only
onp acij or difTereiii type^ of aciioii; In* wiite*i'
Ahii l-H^^^n Hl-Ash'piT iav^ ihiiE pcivvi'r rl'ifs ncil nO^lr I'l i>p|iiiJhiEj-'i
In m^' viitw, [f ["pcuvi'r'] n'fcpi t(i ihc IjjIjlicc uf hiiniinir^ ind ihc fil-
avs5. 1)1 iirgjiis, Lt vvill ritljtc [i> bcilh prrldniidncc dnd <)mL^r<iiin — this
B krunm imiTK'diiilrly Hnwi-vrr, if il nuMn' rh^t "nl(-:s^ Ji Hrnsivc
and prcpondiTdlmji nn>1ivi- tdmlfincs l<i powi'r, il 1*111 nin prciducc
Eht tfTccl, dnd that Vihcn [his (.^iiiibriidEion otcurs il wil! nut rctdli^ lo
oppnsilrs. (h'-n ihi;* indrcr! i^ lrn(\-
These two iniprpn^iatirnis; of the sitatpinent — neither of vi'liirh i.'i
intended by al-Asti',irI ibltow from al-RazT^ib abandoning the defi-
iiitioii of power a.s an accidenl. '^Fhongh. b^' 'powi'^r' he normally
ii'fef^ lo the balance of ihe humours and pbyj^ical litness, he also
UACS die (crm iii thi' srrciinl riciirif abtivr. i.r. as rrfcnin^ lo atlivc
power, which is the combination nf potentiiil power and motiva-
tion. A.S such, af-RazT will presfr\e the traditional Asli'arT doctrinal
formula, ^'Capability relates to one act only'\ often presenting it ^ls
tlie accepted Sunni po.sition, despite liis untradiiinnal re-inteipreia-
don theieof.
Ako in the Ma'aiim, he ciles al-Ash'arfs vie^', related to his defini-
tion of power, that capability \i simullrLneous with action. Powei\
rtelined as physical fitne:;s and balance in humours, is not an accident
diiil dppcf[i\s ill die body al one moment and dLsappcars at ils riid.
'^ Tbii Furjk, Miymnsi!. I f 7.
IS
Rather; it may exinl conliiiuouslv- before, during and after die act,
dioiigh it 3(1^ as a raiise onlv when il eonibines with niotiviition.
Tlic oiV, ihfAf^km-. is piiKku.rd by die ( mill; in alio ii uf piAvi-i and
moriv;irioii| rather tEi;iii rlie inei'e [iresenrp of power Wh'^n this rom-
binalion occurs a 'complpts? cau.se^ [ma'aOiiInf (ansm] emerges, \^bioh
produces (be effen al esiLCtly the same iQ'btant.-^ Al-Razi concludes
thai if Vapabililv' deiiotci power, il will indeed exiM before action;
howi*M'i\ if il dLnotivs the romhinatioii r>f poui^r anti Tnolivir^ il will
be .liiniullaLieous \^ith '.'iti/ia] action. As such, lie aiTirms the traditional
Ash'an formula, Tnapahilitv and action occur simu]tiinpou:;ly\
,\]-Razi'.'b aiiaiysis o]' human action is in agreement with the ckisical
Ash'tiiT Main (' with renprtE \xi its dHJiiLisrii and ik i d^ioiialLsiii. ihifuj^li,
ep^niiiTilb^ il coiiMiinteM a verv diderenr rheoi^y On tlie ocher hand, it
i^ mainly on account of it^ atomi.'im and occasioitalLsm that al-RazT\
anah'sis of action contrasts with that of Ibii Slna. with which it in
other\^i-se in general agreement. In the Alabakidi, Ibn Sina, foe vihoni
liine is. a rontinuuni, is cited criticising tlio^e who rlaim ^'ih^it power
is simultaneous \suh action '^ thev will have to accept diat "someone
who is .sealed ls incapable of standing up (i.e. it Vr. not pos.sible. in his
constilntion, lor him to stand up), uiilesn he does stand up' .so how
f ould hr stand upl*'^ In rcsponac, al-RazI argues that polciili.ility
[quwtvd] i.s 'the principle of chin^' and esi.sts .simultaneously willi tbe
change it effects, ivberea.s power is only a con.stitueiit of potentjalitv
and exists before ibe act. He adds, ' If il is possible to interpcei ibe
claims of tho.se people in the wav we explain, what need is there to
attack ihem and to deride their rlaiin?!''-'* Agaiii^ however, al-RazT
mu.st be a^^are that he doe.s not merely introduce an 'inteipretalion'
of the Ash'arl claim, but a fundamentally difierent theorv.
'' Ibn t^ina (H/iJd\ Ilaltivysl. I, l7(J-7) ailnhule^ this vLew lo ""spirif aiicienls,
indLidiiic Gharlq^^ ti/c.y znd "'wnii' people whocanif wry lone ^kfl*'! Iiim'', prob-
ably III lelerf iinr to Aih'ait. Thi' ro fertnn? lo llit 4-lli-^rrl ceiilui'v Ri- MeQ.ifiau
!n:liri£j| iGh^iLiiLm) i.i ulu/t from AiiilolUi'i Attfifihw/ti (I^C.^). Ihit Rii^hd [Tufii'
ma bdd al-labTa, 2, I 124—6) cooimenK' "Nniviiiav^, anionii^ flhe followeis ol| nut
relii^ioii, chl^tieti' \k upheld by the A.-ih'arl^^ and ii I.s avlesv ihji roiiiradict^ huinau
nalurt, with rei^prcl lo liolh bfliefi and acl^''. fScr "Metarian Srhnol", RE1F\
-'' Mabakth. 1, ?i?.1-^\ c{. Mahfmha^JfA] I59h-I60a; Ibn Sna.i/ji/fl'. miilyyaK
1 . 1 7f.-l.
20
UllAl'IT^G ONE
Modi'fftion
Afrnrdiiio to al-RazI, che produrlion ijf liuniiii iirlion ri^qiiirfs the
conibinalinn of power and a preponderator (Hiitiajjih)', power^ on its
oun i'l pa.'bSive poti'nli.ilHy thai \*i1l produce an etlert only when
proiiiptfd by ^n rMcriial facior.-' Since liuniaii nets arc contin-
gent, and since n nonexistent contingent wii[ require a cause for
its existence to preponderate {idmjjaha) over its non-existence, the
occuiTence ni the act wiU be Lnconcei\'£ible without such a ciiuse.
(iniJ tiec i-ssiiaieil bv it. Al-RaiT u-jctLs die vir^v dial ih<- laiisr will
meri'ly iii^ke acliiig more piobable [aidaj than on]|i;si<:ii; for tlie Iwo
probabihtie.s will be cither equivaJcnt^ in which case no change will
occuv^ or not equivdieni, in which case the preponderant posiiibility
will pre^'aiL"'' As i^oon as ?<'tmg preponderates, the act will occur
instaiitly.^^ Al-RiizT suiTnnariACd the ai^mcnl in ihc Alutakfikfm,-.
O'l ikiil llii Aii.1 uj St"uit(> 'ill [Sal/jcti to] D111//C Dc/ir/i/\/mlii/i. IbiiUiiJi
capdliililv cirlier hjs Lhc: |M>(tntidlLEy Eci prriduc c oppci.'viU' [iicii], or mil
Thi' Islicji [tii-iA'] :iiTii>un(s Ec> iht dfiiinidHidii of i:[>n]|iiilsii)ii ijiibf].
Ill tin' fitrniLr [vicivT, lhc prcfdiii lion "( i>nr cff ihi t^vo [tiijiimLiU']
olijccli <i[ p<iivcr (maifduT] Ironi [hiiiTun tapjc ily], Ki lhc: c^'ittusiDii (if
[he odii^i, will eilher di'prnd on j prrpoiid<'rj[c>r, or n<>l. [If rmt,] lE
^vituld folfinv tliJl 'iii\: <>£ ihi" mi> p4>:=^Ll>li' Eilt? rimlivCE prriJintdt-riUCE
ot'l^r lhc olhcr vvilhoiil a prrpinidcraEnr.
[II dcliiic" [Icptndii 1111 d prcjii)nili'r:ilc>r,| ih&l prcpnniJeralor unll bt
priiciii'i'd ln' L'llluT ill'' 'ii-rviinl iLirid I hi' jbirvi- diiij un< tiuQ will ri"-appK'),
or God Then, llic prcxhidiciri tif Lhal i^ffctl, whi-n thjl pn'pdiiilcra-
Kii cici^iirii, li either iicLi'ssary or nciE i'hr ldElf:r is inconc rivjliU'; Inr
nllierwi'':' \lhi- elTfi-t] uymld [im\i' iIh' i^tarr' 'yf eqiiii'^lrnfc, ^'I'hiibil
leachinir llii' state (if neeismtalion — lA'hich wi' hjvc ri'fiiled elsi'vvhiTe
The fcn'nuT dniduni^ lo 1 cunpuLviuii '''
Al-Razi repeatedly argues that to deny the principle of prepondera-
lion will be lanE^uiiount to denying Ehe oEisience of [lie Creaior,
which is proven inainlv on the h;isis of this principle
The prepondefa.lor in question Ls idenliljed a.s u'ill [irodti, mashfa),
which acts as a decLiive will [imdojarjiif!], of iiichnation {nmyljozi't]-,
'''• Matahiih. I. ^R3; \Iu!ak!ikha.<. fnl. Hifla.
"-" AlQtxilmf,. y. "iHi-T; cl. Juiit, :i:5-f
''^ Jab,. 24
'"' MaSakiikf^:,. fol ^49ti.
21
since ii will ingress ititse iin eflect.^^ This will orioinair.'^ from a final
cause ivithin the 'dgc-i'tl, uhirli is his Liilrntioii, or ohjerrive. Al-RazI
wrilCAs cuiLinieiiLiiig vn Ihii ^liid'
How cxcrllc-nl is ihi' ShjvUi's sa'^dn^ ihin (he fmdl rjuw is dn at livr
c 'Ausv f(ir ihc I'au^dEily (if ihi' jc Live i dus' [al'illa al-^ka'ijya 'lEa^fSiltyya
h-'ilhvyat al-'illa al-fa' ilujm]'. For the Itvinir bn^m*^ iiia'v Iw dbti' to move
right or liTl. Thtrrfori', hcfcirr iht prcptindcr.iiic c cifdnc uvtr thr
olhiT, IE Will bt dn jH^-nl in |K)tcn[idilily. If i( imd;j;^in3 hcTicfiE in rilln:r
of iht [wo ni(i\t'TCivntf, ihdl imji^mdlion will lirconnran fffwifnl cause
fuL Ehm piiiitiiiJalELy bi^coiiiLiig dii denial cduz^ fin inn- irJ" ihc iwo
ni(>vrnic:nls.
In al-Razi'^ l;Her work^, the nolion of 'motii'e* {'f^'< da'iyis] htfome';
central lo hiii dLfinissions ot human aclion; and lie rlf^vou's a len^^thv
section to this topic in ilic Ainlfilib.-''^ l^his marks tile eKteni of hiii
deparliire under Mu'lazili andJ]7J]f?/7ii:inuence from his earlv Ash'ajl
slaiiff^ in U-m} al-din, where, i\^ we saw, he cate'forirallv rejertii the
Mii'lazilT notion that motivation plays a role in action.
Al-RazT deHnes 'motive' as "'the preienfe. in the agent, of Ihe
knowledge, conviriion [or beliefs i'dqdd) or presumpdon {zui^) that
he hiii ii pitptmdrrant ddviiiila^r {iiiasliiha riijiiid) m jirrfoi niiiig a
particnlar act which dierehy brings about, in die agenl^s heart, a
decisive inclination to peiforni ihat particuliir aet''.'^ Converjjely, a
'molive^ can lie ihe knoulcdg;e, oon\icdon or presumption that die
agent has a piejjonderanl disachantage {ma/iida', in an act, resulting
in LI derisive aversion {nafid) from performinij; il. The latter type ii:
2\\.^i termed 'deterrent^ {saiif})^
Knowledge, al-Razi maintains, is a stronger motive than hiUief,
since ihe latter, no matter how firm, uill always remain hab[e to
doubt, ' Although hclirf on the ba.sifl of uiiciiliral imilatioii (Uiqltd] ■will
often ronsritule a .stronger motivation in some agents dian knowledge
in others, thi.s is due to the interferfnee of other motives, such ai>
^^ AUihakih. 1. S\l-^:^. U: Mahsi<aL 1M: Mr. ?;i' 41.
^ AiatdHi. 1, 7 1?: '\hd jl-Jabbir plt^'lip^llly rltdiciUrf a V-M--V. it- ihf luhjcft fi
iinilivalioii, which \% not Ino^vii [o have ^uivivf^rl {nee Ihn al-Mal^biiiki, Aiu'lamaA.
51U].
^^ MalBliii, 3, 9
■i^ Mtiielib. .1, r4-6.
22
UHAl'IT^G ONE
LabiL, .liocial fustom, elimI an agpiil's espt'clal-ifin ofpraiii*^ ov heinTil
in foii.'iequf lire to his arls. AL^o, each of lliese ihr^i' types of cog-
iiiiivr fhliiErfh (kinnvlrdgc, brlirf iiiiU jjichUiiipEJiHi? iiKliidtr^ moiKrs
iii;ii vmy wiclely in ptreiigrh; henre, the prp^iiiiijirion rh:ir relie*; on a
iiiig]p infornianl's account of an evenl. generally consliEUEes a weakrr
motive \h'An {hat whieh rdies on miillipli^ aecoiinls^ ubich, in turn,
consLitnles a ^veakev inoli\'i' than witnessing the event onc^self.
,\l-Rri7.T dLilingui^shf^ hirl^yrrn 'objtrtivf ' {gharad) whifh v^ ihc fin:)!
eau-se of an act^ i.e. die desired benefit itself, iind 'motive'^ which is
the knowledge or belief tbit reiates to ii.^'^ This is pspaiided upon
in a section in the Maiddb eniitled, ^'Tbat nothing but con\'iction
diid picMiiii}H.i<jii [.^j^ .) hiis dii n'Jfrt I ill n]iJEi\dLjiig jceJihi", wIk'i <: hr
;iddre^^Fs ^.ruiie ■v^'ifle'^pre:id iintions For inrr;inre, ir is k^ivA ihai
one^s mfld\e for performing an act is its Ijeing beiieficiiil {mmifii'fi) and
iidvantagetnis [mailaiid) in itself, while the motive for omitting an act
v\ its being harrafid [madond) and disarK'antageoiis [maf^Qdii] in itself.
Such ftaleniPiiLii, lie avgiie^, should he treated aa melaphoriral.
Tin' ;i( E i lu'Liiy ln'rudi^i^il ;ij]cf ^oi>c] \.s Jicwr j c ;iui.c (i>r lln' jucnl'i
performance: thrri^ol. Rdlhcr, \vhiil rffi-tts agcnry [fa'diyya\ li the
agenda knovrlcdgr thiil ihi" acl in quealion mvolvi'^ antAi gcH>dnc\s
and bpnrfit.'"'
SimilarlVj ii is not God^i proiniie and ihitai as iuch thai inotivaic a
helie\-er''i act^;, hut ihe knowh'dge of whal afterlife ad\'aiitage? and
f[i5iad\'aiitage.s may foUou' in coii.seqLieLice.
So does knoivlcdgc, al-RazT asks, motivate action directly, or
dirough die interniejrhatioii of Vl'iII {iiadd\ or mcliiiation [rnayl] (aversion
{Juaahiya. nafidj in ihc case of a dctciTrnt)? According to ttir lallrr
\'iew, which he accepts, knowledge will still be the .sole determinant
ol' motivation, ?nd may be referred to as the motive in ihis sen^e.
This\ie\v wiil explab die process of prcponderation bettveen niuldple
coiiviclioiii csisdnj^ ^iinuIiainriJiLsly in ilii: mind, ■which |ii{idiiii: only
one i^'ill, or iiirlinarion, for action AUE.ri7T gi\'eM rhe example of one
who leave.s his home in vish a friend, but ihen I'emeinbei's that he
hs^ to attend lo something iinporlant al hnmi\ in u'hich case he will
"MirfH/^fi. i, la
^\Miilshh. 3, IR
'I Matebb. i. IQ-20.
23
have two ronllifting mrnivei^. If he finds Eiiniiieirronvinrecl that the
henerits ihal would follow fvoni viiiiting the friend and rn' turn ing home
arc equal. Jit- i^ill iiuline lo iieidirr tliDke (ffin Juii and \vil[ leniaiii
ill hi.t; pinre, iinfleridi'H Jinrl lurking mjiW In :irr. TEieii, if it 'rtrnirs in
hi;, niind^ {waqa'a^ Uietinh) that one of [he m'o heiiefils preponderates
over the other, he will move immedialely in iL; direetinii.
Aeeoi'ding to 'Abd al-Jahbar, a nioli\'e is the knowledgi^. eonvirtion
or priTsiimpdon ol' wh^t ii cithci' nirnallj' ^aod in iteiclf. or hi'nrficial
to the agent, ihough he aecepLi that moil human artion is directed
towards tlie Jailer."''" By contrasl, al-Raa mainldin.'b ihal the consid-
eralioii of personal henelil is ihe only ultimale baisis for all hinnaii
iiioEi\aLii:rii. Ill" aij^ue.s llidl il i.s kiiovrii iimiirdiaEely ibt-l-dniRtii) ihaL
hiiniJin n;iriirp {lnh',Jilrn) i*; miffniihtedly infliiieH tnv':ird? ^nmelhing
that it finds desirable in it^^elf, and repelled fiom sonielliing eke
that is finds undesirable in ilself.^-^ All other things are Jioiiglit or
avoided ulliinalely for the sake of one or both of ihe.'^e iwo things.
He addf,
If we: ihcn i: |in [( mpl^itr jnd rclurn Icf ourM'lvrs, ^n' wWX knfivv th^b
thi: thiiiiji Ehat in stiugiil m. ilaclf ii imt uf twci Lhiiijji, j^ilhcr pli^jsurr
{ladhdha] or jjiv {mixSj), and ihai ihr thaig ihal id avoidrd in itself i^
ellhi-r pjiri or ijrzi-f {^'hannii'; All ih^il I hi- 'x.ciimnci: !if v.hlcli l^'sidd to
pleasure dfidjiiy i^ miughl for ihi' '<akt rif dncillii'r, whi-ri'a'v dU that
thr CKrurrcnci- (jI \thich Icdd.'v Hi pain acid sirii'fis avoided liCi^ausi: (|l
jnitlher. Tin- ivoriL. 'jiukI [khayr] jnd ' iidvantagc- * [i>iii-liihii\ ri-fiT lo
all dial k 'viJuiihE^ whi'ilii^r in itirlfor fcir ihr sdki' nl armthtT; ^vhilf
thi' vvchfils Vvil* [yitari) and 'diiadvaii La^-' {maf^udd] roller t(i alL ihdl i^
^vnidrrl, nhethrr in It^rlf (ir }>trrHiii" iif iinnlhrr.
Sfrkin^ plca-iurf and avoiding pain an die two simple, primal in.iUiicts
which underlie aJl human moliviition.
These two primal inslineli ennstilute the riidimenlarv eleraenli
for ihc calrulatioQS involved in moie eomplex motives, as follows.
Harm in general, which is avoided in itielf, is of ihree main types:
(a) real harm. \^'hirh i^ the imniediiite experience of pain, \b the
negation of benefit, arid [c) the npealion nf\^hal prevents harm {daf
daji' ai-darar). Benefil in general, which ii soughi tor if^ own sate, is
2'[
UHAl'IT^G ONE
lAao nf ihrpf ty]>rs: (d) real benefil, which is the imincdititr^ experi-
ence of plciisure, (b) the preveiuion ofharin, And (c) ihe prevendon
iffuhdE iiiijjrcle;, beiiefii. Suiiir uf [liese t (jiisUEuie gPiicidlk' Mrijii;^iL-i
inr>liv['? lh:iii olliei'*;; e.g. esperrin^ h;irm i? 7t Rtrcnt^cc mriti\p thjiii
cKpeciiiie; the negalion cfaii equal heiiefii:. Moreover, t^'erall moii^es
\'ary in strength according to whetlier ihey are based on iino^ledge.
conviclion or piej^umption.'''
Thr £i^fm*i< niiiid vvfi^h? the \'^yimi;i [id\'iintagr^ and di^'<i[dv^ita^i^.'i
it conceives ^idiin an acL If the agent then helieve.'^ ihal the art will
he piireiy advantageous, he will be conipcUingly inoti\ateft {mstljti'}
to perlbim it, and ^yill ix'rtorm il hy neoeisity. If he findu il purely
clisdil Villi liii^rouj, ht will inLiil. il.'"' IlifUdvei, if he believe^ ihaE die
;iri in\'ok-es bnrh :idv^ni;igpniip and rlisfldvanrni^eoii^ ^I'^perr!^, lie
will be compellingly motivated to perforin or omit it. according lo
which of the two choicps he conceives lo be preponderant. If bnth
are equal, he will abi^taln from acting {lau-ii/qii/).' ■
Ail tlip m^tivp^ and di^lein'iilt: that inniieiicc the agent ^( a i^\'en
situation will ^add np' and ^:;ublracl' in an otter complex calcnlation
within the ageni's mind. E^^ual ronflicdng motivational 'cjuantitirs^
w'ill, as il were, cancel each other out, leaving, c\r their end pmdtiet.
only a .'iiiiglr 'n^uaiitiiy' ihai i^ETcLs action. Al-RazT liini^clf iisr^ inaih-
emalical laii^ua^e to dei^crihe this process; he \^rite& that if equivalent
opposed motive.^ cancel ciich othpr out, "thp innaiiiin^ qnantity
[lit. number^ \iidad z^'i'^\ '^■iH remain as a pnre Jikdiif] motive for
siction.'^'"' Such calculadve processes ollen in\'o]ve multiple stages.
Siippo.se chat an agpnt, in a given ^itiiilion. hai; to choose lietween
move than one course of action, uhen he expects that each woidcl
'" Mutsiih. \. 2'i Al-R.ii7]'& ii«f ofllip H-i'm 'rompelling inrttivalirin' iUja) foines.
diiciTllv fmm ili \i^t bv Mu'lazilTs. 'Abd jl-|:)bEp^r sff mn lo Ih^th^u' ihi? ti^mi friim
Abu lJiL->liim III ;I Lihhfl'T. !■> drinnli ill". pELrlic u liir ■■a-.i' r^f iIl^- iiLlLnlii?ii dl £lc(, Mlnch
ilic d(i-iii fmrt hjnii-firvimiallv forci'd lu cltuiiit: {Aiu^hiiT^ 1 1, ^^h\ \2, l?H' rf.
K-ifh.ird I'raiik, "'ihe Aulrmoniy <^l ihe Human .^i?nl m [lie 'l<?afhine f*' 'Abd
Eil'Gdbliar", 340: D. Giinanl, Tlieorirt lie I'mti hamaiii. iifl fF) Afc<^rdJnfl lo 'Abd
dl-JiWiar, vvlipii llii: dkjtiil is ^iili|efl lr> only niii' .-^ulTifii'iilly Jilmtn' inolivi', il will
bf- ini|iij.-.si1ilf fill luin rrh acV tii diiv mli'i \va\, ii .-.utli. lit- ^ill Lu ^crmipcJli m-lv
nsorivoliid'. Mu'lazilr*;, ihi'iefiire, vit'Wi:d f<ynpellincnsolLvaliinii i^aii <'<livine ra^^
urnfiirez^fiilalne ol human irtiDii in ^;i?iif^al. Al-Kaji ^(fniTiili^i-s il In mdiidf ^11
huiiLaii an inn
^^ Mslshb. 1 26;>t^ 22- ^:i.
25
lead to variotm advantages and disad\'antages His mind would first
assess each po'^sibl*' coiir^;!' of artirm individually bv 'calrulating^ thi'
'nuni.'i' of its f^p<?rted advanlagi's and fli.sadvinnTage'i.''' Tlii' ?bprond
stage will be lo llnd ihe final ^iiin of the ^iinis of ^11 ronepived codrsiefl
of actiDii, which then pmHiices the ^^'ill ihal motivates action.
It ivill ije injhtruf tive to compare aURazfs tbeoiv of ino[i\'alion with
ifiniain influence, viz, ihe vifws nf .^^oine predouJ^ Ba^ran Mii'tazilTs.
TEir n]ifsipriiineiu arc 'Abd jl-Jabljdi. AbQ l-Husayii dl- Basil, and
Ihn ^ibMalSbiml ^^^
Arcordin^ to 'Ahd al-Jabbar, the aiuomatic process of 'adding
up', described by al-RaTl, does not take place Rather, ihe agei^
may choose between separate motives ihal inlluence hiin al a given
.silUfLliDii mil l.h.Jt (cjiild iJiily Eiiake sirLiie iliu]c:i:s uf ac.tiuii iiiirir
prpfei'uble to liiiii; or mnre likely lo he prr formed {pii\lfs\ Yi'l, though
motives^ aceoiding to 'Abd iil-Jahbai, provide die agent widi a sense
of the various possible courses cf action al a givei> situation, thev
are neither necessaiy lor nor elective in, his action/' IJiily when
the agent has one sufTicirntly .'<lroiig inolivc VitIL he be toinpellinglv
mnEivated to acl iircnrdiiig tn it.
Ibn al-MalahiniT criticises 'Abd al-Jabbar for the view thai the
agent mav act without motivalion, and asserts that ihe function
of the molive is akin to [hat of physical oi^ns, viz. i[ constitutes
a ncresfljuy condition foi the prodiiftioi] of anion by ihr efficient
caiisahty of power aJone/- V>'liilf inoli\'i's make one act more likely
[fiidS'f than anolher."* the agent may choose frr'elv anion.e; hi^ various
motives. According lo Ibn al-MaUhimT, motives do not aiitomaticallv
produce a single will, or inclination, that then motivates the agent to
act, as al-Razi maintain;:.' Rather, when confronted is^ilh a iiiiinher
ofmolives (which consist of knot^ ledge, convictions or suppositions),
[he agent may choose a course of action acrnrding lo one or more
of ihein. Ibn al-MalahimT can thus plausibly contend lliat a motive
^'' Thi innuciKi iif AImi l-Huaavn aiiH llin ELl'^laldhiniL uii al'Razi u iifplccJ Ly
Ihii al-Murld(|a [Taboqat, \ ly).
-'" Lll. K.. Krank, "Auliiiioiny ol Xhv Hunuin AgeiiE", 'i4h-'i
" Ibn al-MilahiiiiT, M^ion^d. 510-1.
-''■' Ibn jl-MilAliiiiiT, Mt/loK.itd. fil4.
^' Ibn .tl-M.tlIli»iiT, .\},/!an^d. 5-10 il"
2<i
UHAl'IT^G ONE
makps (he orfuiTence of an acf more likely ihiiii ocher.'^, bul dops not
iiecfisarily delermiiie il.
Al-RrizT |K'iiiL't ifui ci (UK ijl iliffemice beiwctn ibc d:ieiiLii:ri uf
:ii'iiini of Thii ;iUM;ilriliiTr[T Ani\ Iii*, m:i'ir["r Ahfi l-Hii.tiavn' ilip l;irrpr
holds th,"Li "ilie aci depends {mawqaf) nil dip motive", viherpas the
fnvmei' holds iha[ (he motive doe?^ no( nepfssiiaie ilip act, but make.s
il inorp likpJv to orcuv.'-' Howpvpr, it sf ems thai Abu l-Husayii does
not .stalf rsphnllv ihat ihc inolivc npcr^sitatrm ihp act, aei al-RazT
(riticises him Tor ^lll>■il\^ away from admitdng this obvious implica-
tion to bis po.sititjii. One may wniidi^r here whpther there \^as indeed
Auch a diisagrcement between Abu 1-Huria.\"n and Ibn al-.Vlalahiml.
as al-Rdil ildinis.'' In hi^ work fl-Atu'lii'tiini Ji ix.\iil at-dlii. IIjii .il-
^f:ll:^hi|■|sT dr-e'f not seem t<i refer ro thi.s point 'if divergence with
Abu l-HuSiiyn; vet he dite.s point out another relevant disagri'enient
with bim of which al-Razi too is aware, viz. tbiit Abu l-Husayn
afTirins (he role of will in human action. AVilK affording to Lim, i.s
pvodureH by motives; for ^Svhen niLiii knovv: lliat ^ thing coiit^ini: a
prepondefcLtit benefit, he will fmd thai his .self seeks it^ and he will
find [his si'ekiiig {(aiab) to hr as though produced by this knowledge
;iiid tollfiwing from it".^^ I'he iininediaie motive lor miction Ijeeomes
Vh^ill; or 'inrlination in the heart* [mofi al-qiili).'" Tlicrcforc. since
Abu l-Husiiyn msiiiitains that aftion preiuppo-ses the piesence of
motivation and that ibe presence of a single moti\'e in tbe iigent
ill a given moment will fompc 1 bim to aft in iifcordanfe willi it. it
.shoiikl follo^^' (though Abu l-Hiisayii appears not to admi[ tbis) that
the emergence of a single will from Tniihiple piiirti^l moli\'ef; vill
coii.stituie a defisi\e wilb Al-Razi art;iies thai Abu l-Hiisa^n uill
\\cL\<: to adinit thnt motivation neeessitates action. As such, he may
appear justilied in affusing him of inconsisti'iifv. '''
In die .Vfiif^hb, a.l-Raai includes a section on tliLs victv, ■wliich he
altributes to Abii 1-Husayn, entitled ^'On uhethiT tbi' production of
'"' Acc"rdiiiii lo Wilford Madilun^ ("T.ai<: Mu^uzQii". 2.';41, ie h uiilikdy ihai
JLiu iil-M^nliiint nuntlilii^ hii niLi^lc-r'd lhcfhr\' fn ttiljkmc lUally
^' Ibu al'Mnlihiml. .Ma'fuiiiiid, ?4-Q-l; jI'Rjt] nif ntirtni lhc\ieKi of bolhiTillinr^
in JWflffi'ff, Irtl. Jli'ij
^ 11.11 al-MalJhiiin, .Mti'ia>na^. 2il
■^ CifL Abo 1-Hus;iyii^iln'(^ry^r anion, ff Madfluiig "Laio f.lu'i^ii\ii".2r}0-f]:
iiiid, t^ceiillv, Merlin Hf 'Di-Lnmll , "-Uiu 'I- H li^ jyii il-E^^rl int t2"d^f Vohlvm"
27
aclion df^jjend'h (Sawaqiiq/a) on mod\ation or not", and aiioth^^r on rliat
the produflioii of the afl.^eqD]rp^ 3 molive.^' The conclusion oTlhp
i\V[) .sFtuiJJLs i^ T-liJi [lir ail uiTurs if. aiii] uiih Jf, iti luoiiM- iKTurh.
Hp ihi-n in^'liifte^ Miiniher seftioii enriilerl "On rlemoiisi'vatiiii^ i\-n\.t,
ill the ocruiTenrp of niotivation, ihp produftioii of action beeoniea
nerejbSary. and that no prohability remains wliitLifiever", whicfi U
directffi ai^ainsl tho^^^e whn fkini ihal "t^hen niotivalioii oernrs, ihf
prodiiflion of aclion brfomfs mor<' likily, hut dmr^ not rriich the
level of nen^s.'iitation'',' I'i?.. Ibn al-Miilaliiml.
Al-Rli^i, therefore, niaiiitfiin.'b thai motivation is nol only npces-
sary ibr action, it neeesjiitalei aelion Hf addresseji ■lOine objeclions
based tm ub.sdrvdLiini^ iirdp|idii'iLdy uiiiiiiilivaEi'fl at is. With fr'i^jictt
lo iiiicnntifinii^ arlion [it- :iigi]e^ ih^il the :\c-i will not nrr iir unless; th^
agent inleiidji [qasidn) ix. The spenimglv purposeless act of moving
one's finger white engroj*ed in deeji thought is in fart purposeful,
since it will involve a slight, thniigh o[\en imconsrious, benefit or
iieii^atini] nf h^vin. For iiistaiitp^ the rnnslinnt immobilily of ihe finger
may raujie tedium, or the movement may be habitual, m ivhieb rase
immobility uill eaii^ie unease. Even in the total unfonseionsnc^s of
sleep, tbe sleeper may have imaginations ivbicb motivate bim to
do sonic acls, suqh as turning from sidr to ziidc siid talking. Ibr^c
imaj^nalions maybe rlreams. or maybe produced by physical pains,
resulting, e.g. by prolonged sleep on one side. Similar PKplaiiaiioni
of the aetion of the sleeper are advanced by Ibn al-Malahiim in hiii
objections to 'Abd al-Jabhar's cnnteniion that man may act widioiM
motivation; snd hy Ihn Sina in his refulatioii of Mii'l;irill viewi; on
aulonomoius human choice.''^ AbRazI accepts Ihn Stna's diiitinction
between imaginauon and the agent'.i aviarenesii o^ that imagination
and hLS remenibefing it/'' It n po'isible. therefore, that the agent acli
according lo an iinron.'icioufl mottvf, or a cmiscioui motive that he
later forgets.
" MafMi, S, 55-&D.
'•^' AfafMi, .S, 42
'■■' (.1 ll5fL al-MalalilniT. Aitf Uitiiaii. i[it-i: ILin Sma, Af-i^^d' JLii-l-^dm, ^%
M^iirklunc, ' Lalf MiiliJila^', Ibl.
''^ MQlshii, X 42--3; SImh d-hhsm!, 1. IRi!-9; Sha^ 'Lym d-hik'is. Z. 4!!; Ma-
/aUJcli,/-. tiA. IRlij; cf. Ibn fjina. l.layal. 2. 460.
2fl
UHAl'IT^G ONE
Ako, many Mu'lazilu, inclufling 'Abd al-Jabbai'. will define vain
iirlinn as iininolivalicd anion/'" Yd following a common fshq/ivif-w,
dl-Rd/I Jcfiiirs V(di] (Hiiuii ('ufml/i). not as uniiioiK aEm] diiion^ Lui
;!!; lion -riti fin :il riflion, whirh ]<; iTHiliv^ili^rl by llip iiTiagiiiatifni. und
in oflen Tinmnricioiis and related to triv'ial ends *■' Hente. die seclion
in llie Aidbdhilfi entided, "'On dpnioiiJitriLtiiig that there must be an
end gfiaya] lor vain and loituitctus 'jnzij] [action J ".''''
,\l-REi2i eUso fommirnL'i on die phr 111:1 iiicn on ofhrsiution {tataddi/d^^
which the Mii^tazila ciie n^ a -iign dial the ;igeni h^ui fiTc ehoioe.
Thev claim, he wrilej^, [hat ohiigalion (itikfi/j k inconceivable when
die agent i.^^ compellinglv motivated, and conceivable only when he is
lie^jiani aniiriiir a niinibc-r uf (iinfiiiun^J nmiive.s {mafiii-Jtldiil ul-t/ua^I
'In !-ji'! ii'^i-i-fi/ff). He rei^jinnfls hv ;irgiiing thai he.kiinlion 1^ due
to the comjjlexily ormentiJ proces'ie.'i. Motives are in constant and
ibubtle motion in the agenl's heart, since con\inioiis are momentary
and "'quick 10 clisappeai' and alter". '^'
Nalural caiiKs an- ronatiinl, (iJiiLinuim;! and unc'hangin|ir The iiaunc
4lf Vii'.itiiiiT muiii]]'' Irimi-r f liiiriwIrri'iE'H \p,- ihril tiroEirrlT liv vvliu-h
it pnkdun'ii ln'aling, :ind ni'viT chdngc^ .. in conlriidi.sliiic lion In Mif-
unldfv [ikliliyaiff acta, tor that tviiich pr<iclucf;3 mcivrnirnl Icltwarci!''
IK ii comlimah'iii iif pmsiT 'Ani\ rhc Tn"ti\-<- fnr IcfVward nu'venn-iir.
Thrji' muLiv'ca aic quick Ut jllcr iiiid c haiigc- Thus, if thr mdiivr lc>
lurn riirht crccurs in ihr cajidblc [jgtiil] s hrdrt, ihdl c (iiT]bindlu>n v^ill
prdi^nrr' rii;hE%viird ni'n-'rnn'nt Thrn [h,il mnti^^c i1isii|'|K'ir'- qiin^kly
and i\ rcpldi^i'd hy thi- motivt Igf Itfu^jrd movcmcni. Thii coinbina-
lion now prcdurca tcltwiircl movtmtnl.'-
Hei^itation, thus, occurs when ihe a^cnt has a preponderant motive
to perform a ccrL^iii an al one in^Eiinl, and a prepondcranl. motive
to abstain, or to perform n di^erenl act at the next inslant. each
*^ In lliii^ neii^c, vjhi Ji^lbit ^^ill be mcniiciivalili' in Jim ^-^Jalalllln^'^ iheruy
HjEaclwiii (allhfiin;}i he drnf-^ uif lite "irTin), nivfu hii imilfiiifr 011 llit iiupit^iliiliEy
nf uiinirtiKaEfirl ai^iion iVf. Mudeluiii!. "l^ii; Murjiila", ?t!^I, uijIi-!^ lii'i:l<^fiifei vniii
aclioii J'* injiioii iliai arror*, nm inili ihf nioii pre|jruiji(?miii '.au'lfl nuiEivf ih'-
afi^iil lia^, bul Willi a much we^kfi diif .
''■ Stiatk sl-hharal, I, tFlFl-3' Shs<h 'Uyut, al-M'na 1, 4I-1j ci ll.ii SJiiJ, Ta'li^st,
'^^^^, l-ll; Lka-si, 5, -l-.SCk.
^Mab^kdi. I. ^31)- T; cf. Shatk ^ Ujun d-hiks^a^ \ 42-3.
^ Msielib. 3. ?6-fl.
^" MalUib. 3, ?7;cf. 3, !5l-3.
" Reaiiiiig 'yu'iia' in^le^tirl of^jwflifjf.
'-Jo^ ?i^;ff. Mal^kh. 1, ?7-P.
2&
ronstiliiting a coinpflliiig motive. People rail nne who Ls geiier-
aJly hesilani and iinderided 'dhU hudau-aC, siiire, at one moment, a
tei'iaiii dtl will sreni [baiSd) m liiin lu U' uf prrpoinltuni brmrfii,
ivliile^ at anolh<?i' TJirimeiir, he will rnnreive annlher nft lo he ^n; fhiii
indcfisioii may bp due to hii nature. ALiO; the ageni may perceive
sonielliing th^t may remind him of, or im'oki' in him, ii certain
knowledge or conviction that motivates him, uhereiii; perceiving
AOmrlhiiig else, one infuiiciil. later, nuy invoke n diffrmn foii'victirm
in hi.s mind. ''Considerations of benefit and harm air many and
virtuiiBy coiintles'h; the greater tlie mind's leekoniiig of them, the
greater the perplexity and conliision'\'^
A!-RazT presents various iirguments against Mu'tazill chiim-i of free
human choir<'. one of the mo^l iinpiu'lanl of \uliifh iipe<i a^ follow?.
The combination of pouer and motivation either iiece.s.'iitates, or
does not necessitate, ihe act. The former pos.sibihlv will Ifad to a
type of determinism {jibr), since the agent^ motives cannot reiy
on other motives ad \njinitiim, but ^ihoiild ultimateh originate from
motives tliiit God creates. Al-RazT then fontinucs with an argument
od kamimiu., viz. that die latter poii sib il it v will entail that when pouer
and moti\'ati(in comhine, action may or may not lollo^^; In other
words, if we imagine thai a given .situatinn involving an agent, who
has to make a ehoice, is repeated a number of absolutely identieal
times, the ehoiee that the agent makes will follow sometimes, but
not at all times; Le. it will oceur randomly, "It)' pure rhance and
loi no reason"'. 'Ihii; \^ould le.sult in another type ol deteimuiipsm,
■whereby human aetieii Li dricrmined by pure chanec.'^^
Having; demonstrated that the comhinalion of motivation and
power determines the act. iil-RazI diseusiics ihe only preceding stage
in the prodiie lion of human action, viz. the emeigenre of motiviition
fmm (Ogiiiiive riian-ri. Bv aL^iiing ihaL boLh jia.gea are detrnninlstlCi
he prove.i; thai hiitiian action as a whole is determined. He writes:
'^ Jji., 43.
'^ JffV 13-4
30
UHAl'IT^G ONE
Miln fincli< in himsi'ir thai unli^^is liit waiil'v Id iii^l lie ivilJ ikiL hi- dblc lo
art, Ami unlrss hf wilTd li> db.sUiJn hi' will iniE hi- ah\v to jli.s[ain Tlidl
Vi'ill I'v JiciE dm- lc> jniillicT will, Foi iiLhf'rt^'tt:, ihk %.i>ulfl i^iildiF inliiiiU'
H:grcr<s. Il is ihui^ (I'lldin ihiil Ehcisi' vvitls g(i back t<i a in'tr.s.'vLir^' %^1
ihdil iicc.Eir^ in ihr hcdrt vvilhciul wiil. And if ihdt decisive will occurs
D] ihi' hcdrt, thv iiti^Lirn-ncf (if tlii' Jin will uniiuublc'dly br iicci'ssdry
Thc'n^fcur. ntillicT Eht <jc{urrrnrc of wiLI in ihr hciirt n (if ihc- person's
|(HVIL iJlfillJi], mn l^ dll' (II I UILtllll^ 'if lllC dCL dfn'l lilt OLIUIIIIII I' (jf
vi'iH in his hciiri (if the ptTMiii's |iiwn dobni^] A(J is ihus Ircnn Gud,
And man is ccimpcllcd under the ^isc of a viilunlarv agcni.
In one pliice in ihe Matdlib. al-RazT is roiifronli'd wilh ihe qiieslion
of wiiat deif I'lnincs thp nio[i\"e, i.e. what makes a pariifular mntive
(IE inir nioiiii-iu piriioiidrrrfiu (iLtr uUii-i iiiiiiivrs." He ic-ripondrh didE
Cod hi'iiig'; moiiveii iiiin heing; and ic i*i rhii^ Hi^ will rh;ii nialLe^
fhne molive pre ponder =i ill ovei nlht'r.'i. El^cwlifre, he qualifies this
hy di\'iding moli^f.'b ihat iippeiir in ihc agent into motives that die
agent him.self eaiiJies to occur \pi-iqa^ al-abd], and inoii\e.'i that God
initiaie.'i [ibdda'nM- in his henrt.''^ Tlit^ forinei' lypi? i^ posijible ivh^'ii
die a§ent waiits in reino\'e a partifulai motive, or inclinadon, from
his heart, iiiid then stf \\c.s to do so 11' anyone exmiiines himself, he
will Jind in luniself this iibility to change or eliminate moti^fs — aJ-
R.a£l tixaLs [his ai an iiidifipuidble, rirJf-itvidtiii. (i^uth. Moiitrs ihai arc
hmnght in(o being in the hparl immcdiiitely h\ Gnd inchide niolives
diitt motivate the ageni to chiiiige other inolives; olhei"uise^ if the
appeiiviinre or ehiiiige ol each motive required (Uioiher motive, the
chain of motiveib would continue ad inflmdim.
AJ'RHzf also argues thai molivea stem from the agent^s. cognidve
states , which aje determined by bolh internal and external factors.'-'
'"' Mamqib al-iiiiam d-^i^l 122.
">tr. 2Jt-9.
''" Att/li/iJ/, 1, Gl 2 C;r. A>ba"i^. L?7: ^lin-lbiQli"iLi and dcjm:] i^o bQck tc, an
jiii^ljnjiion and j iiLrtiivdiinii ih:ii onrurs iu iht' lifiiii, I'iihiT hv God's irvarif^ii di
b\' a ]ii?iivi;iily ?^\iiv {■latali khijujuiJ". A lliiiilv pt-istm"^ choice lielwf pn Iwn klfiiU'
cal |:^ljsj^e£ of wjti?r placrd in ffrml nf liim rf:liei on ihesf heavenly cauvs {mait/mi/!
ila l-aibab al-Jalakiyyd).
Xlii ikvLI nijy iXsa play ^ in\rL in huinaii 1110 liv^linii , by tpimrbditie ihi: lij;iii1
of tilt jjleasTircs a^iDridled tvilh a pariifuldi' disoberlionn^ llial he is olhirrvfise fnr-
gelful ol". All ani^fl may [i?imiid him ill llic happliic^.^ associdled is'illi a particiilai
obf difiiK Bolli, hftW(?vi?r, df|>i'iirl on ihir psvtliolotiiral pri'parcirlnpii of lln' asi'iil
for surh iiiflueurps [Ms^lib. 7. :i?5-1]].
31
The niiim internal ones are: (a) variations in the essenrps of human
souLs;"" (bj variiLtion^ in teniperanre; and {c} phyj^iognoniic varia-
licuiri. Tilt iliicF iiidiii rXEi'iiLdI fdiluis afc: (d) lialiiiUdLion; (tj ihr
PKpprr;itinn of fei'i:iin hi^iiffiK or harnT? from :ifllierine; to rerr^iii
beliefri; and (f) tliporpticd training. These .six. fartorii will dcterniiiie
ihe agpni'.i rharacler, while acridciital [ifhfaqv external riinimslanfes,
perceived through the senses, will aet as more rlirert faclors in dip
prrjdurlioi] of nuilivc;^. All lhc.'<c avr fai'lor^ that ihr a^rnl \vill
liave wo control over.
In Kilah al-Jabr, we fmd a lengthy section containing proofs for
the view that man lias no power tvhaLsoever over the contents ol hii
kiiciw1rd;^c. Even n-ligiifuri brlicr ajiil (hribehef are jjrsjdiiclrh, inn. of
the MgpnT^ choice, hiil purely of fJod'.s ci'eative powei. A nniiiher
of arguinents are advanced.
It is first argued thai all acqnired (mukSsmh- knov^iedge will depend
on self-evideiiE {bedtht- knowledge that the mind know.s ininiediEiieiv
and liponlaneously, nol by choice. So, aE a given moinenl, 'all that
is necessary^ for sflf-e\'idein knowledge to entail ^iccpjired knowl-
edge either e^ii.sts within the agent, or does not ed.st. If it exists,
that acquired knouledge will come into being iminecliately, not by
choice. If iiol "nil thnt is, ncfCH^siiiy' csi^t^, something will still be
needed for the appearance of acquired knowledge. Thai ^something'
ca.QnoL be .sell-evident knowledge (which is alread\ as^nnied). Nor
can it be acquired kiio\^ipdgc. in the case of the first bit of acquired
knowledge. Al-Raz] .seems to imply tha.t it can only be- divine, rather
dian hunian^ ^vill j'since an agent's wifl depend.'i an his knowledge). It
follows, he concludes, that self-evident knowlecljje i.s not produced bv
human will, nor arc the first, second and follnuing bits of acquired
knowledge.
A!-Razi'a second proof Li as follo^^s. Knowledge Ls tithcr ronccp-
rion {tnsQivum^ or assertion {lasdiq), the former being apprehension
[idifik) uithout jndgenienl [hukni), and the latter being, according to
al-RazI, apprehen.sion with a judgement of fact. He tirsi argues that
c<)nce|i[ioii:i aic- iitu dt i|iLlr(:d. F<jr if I liv lo ai f juui: a loncepLiini, I
will eilher have awareiie.^;? {sku'Qrj of the e^i^ience to be conceplnali^ed.
"■J This i] disfuii^ed p. 1 13-20 h^a.
Jahr, lOl-lO' cf. ^fioT-j, ?^.S-7' Tafiii, 54, I7Q
S3
UHAl'IT^G ONE
or not. If I have awareness, I wH] already have roiiirepluiill'ied it.
If not, mv mind wnll he hepdir'is of it, and thus rannot j^eek it. Jf
iL is objecU'd ihiil the niinti may be iivvaix of only some asppels of
llip e^^eiife, hul not of il fomplelely, the f;aiTie :ii'giinient ■^■ill Lipply.
lliDush 'iiwarenes.s of essence' will be SLihi^lilutpd with 'a\%'areiies.'i of
ihe unknown ajhpefs of the essenre'.
AI-Razi also argues that if we examine ourselves, we will find that
<on[ep[iims haw lo be: I'll} drilvi-d fioiii sen^e peieepiion, ur fb)
ha^erl nn kelf-evident ronreptionS; siirh n'^ aiir lino^k^Jedgp of pjpa'iiirp
and pain, or (c) constructed by cIie mind or ihe imaeinsdon from
die first iwo types, whifh are not ac^nived. Conceiving something
beyond ihejie will be impossible. I'herelbre, eonceptioiu^ eannoE he
en (iiLiretl.
"1
H^\'iiig dcninn*,lr;ile(f that cnnccplion.'; nre not TLrcjiiireH, :il-R:i7.i
profcedj to prove that no knowledge o['asiiei'tion fan he acquired. '^^
Each statement of an.'berLion, he argues, will require two conceptions,
\iz. of subject and predicate. IXow, the presence oJ thcie elements m
tlic mind ia cidicr flufFiriciit to produce an assertion, vihich ^-inll ihii^,
he self-evident [liuch as knowing the concept^; of 'one' and 'half of
two';: or not, in which case the resnltant asserlion will be discursive
(rifii^tiii'! knowledge [aufh as knowing the conci'pts of ^^orld^ and
■temporal'; since the presence of both m the mind is iiisufiicient
for coijcludiug (hsu 'the world is temporal), in th»" latter case, if all
diat Li necesiiary, for self-evident kno\^iedge to email some discursive
knowled^e^ is pre-^^ent in the mind, that di!bCursi\'e knowledge uill fol-
low nece^iisaiily, not by choice. The argument then continues along
t!je same linpib as the fust proof
AI-RazI provides three more proofs in support of his contention
'thai all the knowledge and ignor^uice that occur in people'.^ hearts
and minds are Prom God, and are brought into being by God".^-^
In .showing ihal the agent hai; no control over, or choice ol^ his
kiuivvkili^i;, jl-Ra/.T loveis all pjitri of the Jieory ufbutjiaik aiihin in
^iTirnution of absolute determinism: the acquisition of knov^Iedge,
the emergence of motivation from kno^yledoe, and the emergence of
•^Jabt. IO.'>-7.
"^JflK I OS.
33
arEion from the combinalion of molivatioii and power.'^'' For 'Abd
al-Jabbar, by rnnlrasi, knowledgp that deiivps from rcilfclion [nazai]
Ls griirtdlly iim di:U'riiiiiii:;d.'^'
Having ni'j^iipfl f'^r the Hptpmination of hnniMn arl'i on t;iri§plv
logiral and metaphysica] gi'ounds, al-RazI i.^^ farpd wilh [he acrii-
gallon that hp treats human moEives an natural causes. He rephei*
that motives are distmet in two main ways. Fir.sl, natural eaiiscs are
rrniliniLouei ^nd uniform, wlirrtas voluntary actei £ivc in ronstaut
motion and rhanf^e, and iheir effects are thus iinl uniform or ahvajii
pri?dirtabk\'^'^ Serond, naliiral causes do not have at^arenesn, knowl-
edge or eoniprphensioii of thpir fffeclS; uiiUke voluolary agents who
aiP d-waie uf ilicii di-t> ciiwl uhusr knowlrdgc of a pu^sUjlr, piu.'ipec-
live aft mny iKelf he part of the ranpp that proiiiiri'i^ il Wp^ iherp-
fore, dpseiibe the an as being "voluntary' (ikhtiydit), and the agent as
being a '\'oluiLlary' aoeiil {mskktir), because the act will occur on!v
when the ageiu conceives it as lieing good {IJiayi). Tliis etymological
analysis rpinovp.'i ihe pmphasis in the \%-oi'd ^jkhiijai^ from 'rlioofin^',
or Yhoice'. to the olher relalfd .scii.se of ihe rool kh-y-i. \iz. Tinding
something lo be f^ood nr belier ihan others'."^
Hence, for instajice, to the objection, "If man were destined, send-
hrg piiiplirEs, [rbli^atiii^ [iieii b^ ( <iiiniid[ida and pmrhibitiirn^, and
afterlife pimi^thmenl and reward nnuld all lip pointless'', he rpspnnd'i
diat bolh ppople^i; obi?dipnce and diiinhpclience to divine eommand
and ihpir afterlife consequences are included in destiny. There is no
end to, or culmination of, destiny, at whicLi point the injustices of
this world are resolved, and juslife (as conceived by the Wn'tazila)
is served. Rather, as one may be destined to ha\e a bad day todav
and another bad day tomorrow, which will only add to the badnesii
ol" today, Let alnnr compensate lor it, one may be destined to have
an infinite number tjf bdd daya in the afleilifr.
In their crilici.sm of such a deterministic view the Mu'tazila had
1^ Cf. AM<i^ial. \^-7- Atba'Tn. ^Sr>-?.
"^ Srt- D GJrriikrei, Hilmtide t^ain !amak. 4R ff ■ Madeluni^, "Lnli^ Mii'l:i/ilii'
"^ Jibi, 2r>; cf p. IK <ufiia. Thm ^mepoiiil h m^di- by Ibii ^slifa' ff. S. il-Biirliir,
Wazn'iyyai ibn Mntr fi l-j'H\ 1>7.
"'' Cr. Z-^j[iflnjr, '^m: Mam^b. 7, 129. Ibu Siiia (Ta'/iqaf, 5?-^) givc^ a similar
dbiriiiiTlLoit belween iialui'iil c^luspij and ^alubt^trv ones, and adds that hiinian acQ
'rVilL iinl 1^^ 'h'HilQtilary ttt t'li^lLly.
M
aUAi'l-KR ONE
yei another litrong objeftion. which iJie^' based on analog^" (fiyajiX or
'judging the uiiobservahle in areoidane e with ihe observable^ {mdd
id-^ha'ib da l-ihahiil'i. iriiiLiiidii diiiuii uu 111^ milv wiih ihr (-onibhiii-
linis of powei' and iiniiiv^irinn, the *;ann? should }>f rriie 111 ihe c'A<;e of
divine action. Conspquentlv. if all ihal is iTquired for God\s agency
{J^ihyya] existed tvoiii pre-eleniity, tlie wodd would have been pre-
etemal. tJtlii'runse; il not all ihat is required fbi Ciod's ageiiev exii^ted
ffoni prc-elmiitv. .'<mni:: ofthot would liavr foiiif into bciiij^ al ^omc
poiiil. That wonld ha\e required yei another eaiise for it to come into
being: that eausp would have required another cause; and the chain
would continue ad mfmiiitm. I'he argiinieni concludes that al-RazT\s
(leirinihilsni will hiive uj apply iLni\'i:i^dlly, 10 IjihIi the 'ol>.M;ivab[e'
[ihah'ii) and ihe 'iMioliMprvahli'* {ghn'ih), and ^^'ill iin'^'ir:ihlv lead lo
tiie \\f\\ that the t^oild is eternal and that God is a nee ess ita ling
cause {'ilia iiiupbo), rather than avolantaiy agent. This. al-Ra/I states,
i'h the .strongest Mu'tazilT argumeni in thii; contexl.^^
His iinniedi^lp ve^prm^e L'i thai rejertinf> deterniinifim and jffii'iii-
iiig free human choice will lead to a more heinous eoiiiieqiienfe.
viz. denying the very exij^te nee of the Creator. For that position will
undennine ihe main prool'Ibr His existence, which in based on die
csinliiigcnry of ihLi ivorld and its need for a pfrpondcrator to bring
ir into being However, iil-RazT recognises ihal this rounlevargiiment
in unsati.sfac lory and he promises to return to thu^ topic later in HiiJb
d-Jabr to elncidate the clilference between the obieiTable and the
tinobservable \^iih le.speci 10 tliLs is.sue.
El^iewhere in ihi^ work, he replie.^^ to ihe .^lame objection by proper-
ill!:; a distineiion between liuniaii will, which is temporally' oritfinatecl
{haditii) and thus in need for an originator [muisdiik), and divine uill,
which is. pre-elernal and uncau.'ied.''^ bu[ this does not .solve the
pioblrni; foi tbc Mii^laziJa may argue thai a prc-ctcrnal divinr viill
tliat is totally uncauicd will necessitate a pie-e(ernal cieation. [ have
not found other places in Kifab al-Jabr \%here (he main MiL'tazilT
objection is addressi^d.
Indeed, dLifi ijiipliLaEKfU uf llit^^o/^ inllucnce diat ai-Rail mEio-
'"' Tln' '<^h^rvablp ^wtji'ld' {'Siam d-ihi^add] — in fniilri*;t lo 'llie uiioIkc ivihie
vorld' i'almi al-giiav^) — al-R^l ^'nifs.i^ "all thai rflait:^ 10 hodii?^ Jiid b^^dily [limg^
...; for one ohii-rvcj llieie ihiiijis is'ilh one's ^iii^hl" iTcfsi', I, 275).
■" JfTir, l5-ft; Xr*j'^^ 230.'C'f D Giin.ucl Tfikn'f, ifi I'ncli fimiain 14-9- 'il
35
duces into his iheory ctf aftioii appears lo be oneof ihe plafc.'b where
his synlhcsis Lel.\veen_/fl£(ii/fl and kalam proves nio.sl rliRieiill."^ e.spe-
iidJly ihaihe liiiil ii- fdte well-crh(£Lljlh]iri] (iLEkisiii^ ui" ftdMifti. How-
evpr, in the i\iisinhh, hi!^ I:i^t m:ijor \^'ni'k, lie *;olve*i llii*; prohli'in,
alongside other prtihienii relaiing to divine aciion, by adopting a
highly unusual slanre^ a?^ foUnWh.
In all uorks earlier ihan the Matolib. al-KazT Afiirms the foinnioii
Siirnii doclvine tlial will iei a real alU'ihiilr of dRiiic cuiHciurr that is
dislinel from ihr Jllribnles ofknrtwledge and po^ver; and he loj-atei
divine choice tikJihyni', in this attribute.^ Thus, the aitiibuie of will
'eonsists' of Ijoth the ability to choose one of ttvo possible options
fircJy and ihc at Lual ( hiiicr.s Ehfiiirhtlvri. A3-Rdzi irjr( l> llir \ii:w'>
of Moine \-tii'l;i7]lK on divine irt'ill, *inrh mm rlw RaghHrirli'^ Aiid Abfi
1-Husayn l-Ba-irl, who argues that, unlike human uill, which is real
and produced by motives, 'divine uilT refers to God's motives only,
which aje ineludefl in His knf)U'ledge.^'^
Howpver, al-RazI defines ■^will', in animate beings [i.e. in the
'observable^! , in terms of the inelination [mayl] that follows naturally
from motives, and he thereby CKeludcs the nolion of choice from
it. As such, 'irada'.. as the mere natural product oE motives, beeomes
decisive (/tf^JfJEi), just as ineliiialion i'i decisive {moylja^^im'i, and lotaliv
contrary to fiee choice. Therefore^ if our knowledge of the divine
attribute nf \yill depends on qrta^, wherebv the unobseiTable is judged
in aecnrdaiice wiib the obser\'ab1e, a clear implieation will follow.
A!-Razl an'ives a.l lhL> in a seetion on the nature of will [haqiqaf til-
iraddjj in his diseus.i;ion of di\iiie attribuie.i;:
All ivt- knaiv 1q ih^" mi:jnlTig (if 'will' dnd 'avemiim' {karShiyi^ i? the
inrlinjlitin nf lh<; ndliirjl fli:!piiihirif>n ilab') lii iiUdinin^r btDi:fir;> and
i\\ inc linalLon ic> dvuidinjr liarmi. iMiitt this i.^ ini^dim'ivabli: in rela-
tiiiiL Ui Odd, it will hr inronCCi^^blc lc> Eifliim the niXioan of will and
aversion
loHi
im.
07
''-' Si'e Mddcluiig, "larp Mii'iaziia", IZ^b-?.
I4i; Ms'dli>i\ 'i-i. On i\\sx ihir clas.-^if ul A*:h'jrT inilinii nf imd^ iiieluiie*i thnia-, ^ef
o.g ;il-BjnliHridi, U'ii!, 10?.
^^ L^l aUdiit. fol. 54^; cf al-ShjliraiiaiiT MMysi i/-aq//dm, ?^S If
"*■ On AIjU l-Huiikvit's pn^Liion, iec aL^o Ibii al-MalOltiml, .Mu'lamaii, 240-1;
252.
^' Xiaialiii. ^,1715 Henri , Ike dei^^ iir>i Ilm \vill' aitirmg God's posiiive aiiribuie?
[Maiahb. 1, .S|
36
UHAl'IT^G ONE
God U no( rompplliiigly moli\atpd (and. llierpby, iiol a neressitat-
iiig caunf) bfcaust Hp dof^ nin ha\'e will, i.p. naliiial inclination
(rtiiiyl), whkh Lullim^ fujiii iiiuUvriLioii. As wt will ml-i- Iil lIii- iirM
fli;ipter, :il-Ra7T akri iii:iiniains thai GoH^f aft? are not nioiivarpH
Therpfore, whilp AbO l-Hu.'bayn roii.'bidpr^ "cfivitif will' lr> reftT lo
nothing but God's inoti\{'s, id-RazT dpniep that God has either will
or niotiviition
Thi^ Lijihjy unorthodoK later po'iitinn hriiigi< al-Rri?J into confliri
with majn.stteiim Suiiiij iheolo^, uhifh atfinns d red iiiid distinct
divine attribute of u'ilL-'^Yel it is an inipliralionnrhL'i theory of action
dial he iccepts sincerely, not j^iinply tbr dialeclical consiiinpdon lo
addie.ss wluE, hi^ admits, i^ n ^Ikjii^ Mu'uiiill iLriiiiiiicnl.. Slriingfly.
hy hi'i denial of (he divine attrihiile of will, nl-Ril'/T does not seem
lo locate divine choice in any other attribtite, though he .still alarms
dial God i.s a volunlaiy agent.
Having reached a con.sisteni position as regards human and
divine action, die charge of iiironsiL^tenf y he direct'; al .\hu l-Husiinyn
becomes more tenable:
AIh"! I-Husjyii vvds {■ciiifuij'd iin [vvIii'IIkt ihi' |m>dii( turn ol ac licin by
power lE^'pcnd.s on nmliviilmiij. \\ lii'ncvrr hi' iltiTiEir'irflH'iLh ih<: fa/diifa
on (Jicii Haying, "Wliv did Gcfd siiiglt uuL d ipi'i ilit Lijrir, i-ithcr thdii
a preceding or Mice crdinn one, Ici cri'Jitr ihc wiirlil*'* hi' Jiavs, "Atliiin
di)i'^ nij[ di'pi'iid on nnjlivaticm. ' Whc:nr\'<-r hi- di^cinjrsL's tsilh his
cuiiipE]iiiL>iia III! ill] ullt(r iitnlU'id, he sdv^ '^4 li<»iL dc pciidd un inirli-
vatitin, iind prcpondcralion %vilh(iul a prtpondcratdr is srlf-i:\'idc:ndy
mtd [i( eiv ahLc' * .
"" Ibii 'Ijvmiyyii 'JSi/'ml. \^. \2h: cf <i. ?45J wth^', ".VI-RazT rlLMrm.^e!. ihe
prrtbli'in (if ubll lit ai-M-ilafii al-'Alivi\. and ^ll"o:^l■^ lo di'iiy fG»?ii\| will. For he
ir*;iE iin^ibl^ In in^u^f llit sr^ititkritl of ihp fflUx^f" isinj^ iIli' prinripl*; f>f hi'j rnm-
paiiioiL£ of Jahnii? and Hu'lizilK "i In? ran off lii ihcir i-ido "' Ihii Tavinirya also
ilrilii dlti <i L^iiik 111 14'rLiLMi^ lIil: uitiiiiiiii ijul foi^^jiil lit lIli Aiatiilib (IIjii 'Alril
id-Hadr, ■UqUd.'SX)
^ Jabr. 12. In a lalei i:piiode of tliL^ debate, JLii Tavmiyi'a {Mmh^, 1^ I 1 1; cf,
Da'\ }. ^"Ifi'i adiipis thh ar^menl, but dlrectj; il al dl-Ra^:
Whenever . nl-Ra^T and Wp follower*: dfhflle wilfi Mu'tazilTs na iiifllleis of
de.ilinv, ihey .. hold thil rme of the "hjefl^ of ihi' caparily of llii? voliiiHiry
B^f ii[ tflii 11 If LiiiiiiHi fEilr. oitly Vf/ a cfunpL-If nicpniidoialtjf Win iifM i llifv
debalc Vi'ilh ihe fala\ifa on [he i|m'.Mionji of llie nralirjii of ihi: u^otld, ihe
allirnsalioii ol" Cod'^ clioice and Ihe ri'liilnlton ol [llieir iiollmi ol Gori heiu^j
2. nece^silJliit;^ caii^e, ihey fnllovi' [he iviute of Mu'la^ilU and lahiiii^ m .-.aviiic
ihal one of [he objecls; of ihe capaciu of the voluiilaiy agent ma^ prepomrler-
alE' nriL'^r the- ol^i^r 'rvLlltiLit :t prfpondi^ialHir.
37
III actdilion Hi the main aigumen) from pre ponder anct', aURitzi uses
the iriditional ar^iiuent for pi'f^df sdnalion fLnni God'^ prc-elei nal
kiiowkdgf uf dll i^\cnLsJ'*' He [rraLs [liis ji't-lijiu-iu diicl dial bdrhcU tm
ilie Theory cA' inmiv:iiinn a^ lii^ tu'n j;rrrinij;ei:r iii rli]^ i'pg:irfl Oiip
'clpver' Mu'tiizilT even r^'porctdly iLdmiUpd thai these two ai^uments
iire "the enemies of Mu'tazilisin".'^'- In KlSab al-Jabr, hotli receive
extensive lirripliiral biieknig, \^iEh evidence from ihe Qtir'an, the
hudith ^nd thr i<l^[f inriit^ of fomp^iiiom and rcli£;iou;i schn]ai'i<.
Witli llie (ombinalion of ihi'si' iwo nii^iii drgunieiiLs, one primar-
ily /'j/tfl^, the otlifi' eonnnonly Sunnl, a]-RiizI eoneludes llial man,
though a voluntary ageni in tJie sense of acting wich awareness, is
uldinairlv i cuiiprlletl. Hr wriEe.s, ''Mju ii i cfnipelles] uniJi-r ilie guirir
of a vrthintni^y ;igpnr" {inniil/srsjs ^Urnl iiiuiJit/ir\\ "\lan m fompclleH
in hiib choosing" {asudlar) ^ ikhiv^'anhy^ and ''The acts of men (K-eur
by compulsion" [waqi'a 'ula sabil al-iilliiaij^'^ He does not shy from
affirming his deter miiiisni in the most explirit teims; e.g. he writeSi
"Ailirininp deleiiiiini'im in ineiicapable" [pl-qa^-l bi-l-jabr (a^ni]-, "There
is iiothino in exislenee but deternii nation" {ma Ji l-wujUd Hid l-jabj)\
and ''Mail is oomjjelled in his willing" [majbU} 'ola i-iraday
It was almost unprecedented in ^uiini theology that such an uncom-
proniiiiiigly bold and ny^lfmalic dcCcniiiiiiAn] ijahrj bf fiHinnrd. given
the pioblenvs it creates with ceipect to human reiiponsibiiily and
Yi?L lEpiiTaymi^'yj hims<:lf then relie i-a arj^menii ^iiuilarlii ^l-R^E'^ iir cnilm^iit;?:
Lhp po£ilJ4^ir lif Mii'liiiilis and QinJ^i'T.'^ uu liumaii fi'ec choirf: iDar\ I, !i29).
^^^^FAa7/j. ^43-4; ,VMa^.d/, 47 I; .l/j'jijfli, 'A^-^-Jahf 4Ji-fi.S.
"" Spp, p a , Jab', 14 f, \vlipie h* sp^^^ nf mai'ti/tif al-A^i rea-foi'/tfil <j!-^i/i».
'"" Jufif. Ill-'^a? AI'Ri^ tl jrillei liii Kerteral mciliudE^liigv in [ll'^Iilll^ U'lili
-sniplural c\idf ii:-i', Eiifrf lii' is dear alxiul iheir Ijeiii^ i^eiierjllv le.i^ miirlLii.i\i' ihau
falLoiial evidence ij/ibf: 113- 1 lilj. T<^ ihr- objeclina ihal llii: Qut'jii ci^iiliiiris verier
ihj" niniiH-in hc-lh llu^ vtpiu if rlie d prprm in ^ilifhVi nf ^cH aviH ihil nf Frpp clti^p, hp
.-.lale-, Ehil Cr>d's ^peeeli iiicUniei. bi-th I'vpliiril Irulh (tiit/Tt/s) anri iiiflaphor {tiafSz\
iiiid -HI' .iliiiuld liy !■• M'l lilt: IilliJl llkiil ]il^ lieliiiiiJ llir IjILm liv iiLlcipitlAliiiii
{ia-wi/j Qab>, m-V,.
Thii STnii. T/li-i/iU !il' Ii'? AI'R.^:iT iTVr/i", 15, r>4l ;ihr» r|iir»ri?s ibis: ffvim a defence
of predelemiiiiL^in bv al-Gha:^JlT {Ihya', 4, ??')).
iifxw Gisd Iridfi-ifl ['Vfii elinici' i^ frum Gorf Mams ennipfJlf-d in lb* fbiii>f.in^ ihal
be bii {mudtar/ fi t-ikiiHyai elladhi lalin)"' iW-'R.im't slaEeinenli lell a .ilirtnt intp^rl lui
some lalf'L aalbiir^ (e a. al-I^faliani, Ka^inf. 4, ^3 ■%: dl-TaftazauT, Skink. 4, 2<i'Sl
""'Jfli.,41.
la^ Rcflp-if tiv,.H- Jj^, 4.1i^d*Ji/rt, ?, ?17; fJt^fq, liil 4fia.
38
UHAl'IT^G ONE
divine juibtire. Acrording to al-RazT, surli clliicdl problems should
lint detract from the truths of nietdplivsirs. Nonp[helesjb, he argues
ilicii RevrlaLKHi dcfiri iioi call (ivtiagr lirlii-vrrs to lielirvc in an ahi^o-
Imp flcU'rmiiiimii liecause of Ehp HetrimeniaJ efTeri it fonlff li^\'e on
iJii?iv faiili.'^'^
Npvpnheless, al-R^zI often assumes a npgadve view of the desig-
Hellion ' deter inmists' {mnjbiin, jabriyya) and uses it poleniifallv against
Jahm Ihn Safwan, Hiiiiayii Ibn Mtihanimad al-Najjar, Dirar Ihn
'Ami and ollieis. '' In .some plaee.'i, he disdngnidies belweeii dif-
ferent 'detennini'^mi', of^vhieh he accepts one and rejects others.""
Elsewhere, he argues that he is nol a dclerminUbt, iiiiice he maintains
didi iiidii ails In aiiordante Viidi will (alheii ii is ukiniaiel) deiri-
minertl, u'here^i.q Heleriniiiiiin-iii'oj'ier is lo liiilH |h:il inan ^ct<: nol in
iK'cordance v/itli his \vi\L
Despite his explicit deierniinisin. ul-RazI admits, in one place in the
TafiTi, one orhLslati^r works, that iLie question of hiiinan desdny and
choice does; not have ao unprobleniadc and conclusive .■iolulion:
Thi'rr ii ;i r^^st^'rv frin} 1ji FtkL^ lvmk'I; vii^ th^E |ni>\ij]|f the ('slsEcriiic
of Cnd comju'ls oiic tci iiplmld ricli'miiiiLsm [/«/"], ... whiLt jircivmi;
prrifihci^^ i^onipcla one In iipliciFd [huinjn] auicHKimy (fjudro) ' F<>r if
QiLiii doi'n mH dj-| jiiEoiiomrius}y^ vjKjI u^c iii lhci"c in ^rjidinj' pidiih'iti
und in rcvi'alin^ iicripLiiri's'
Indc'ciJ ihcn' 11. i-vtn )\'t dniitlicr myili'iy Ucrv, whirh iuqidiscs aH-
viz. ill ill if wr ri'liiri] lo niund prinictrili.it iiLiLurr jnd primiirv inEt'flrf E
iai-'aij/ al-aii'!i'ni\, \\i- ynW find th:il ■wlu'ii ckisIciicj- and iiDLi-c'xinLciiri'
art (in j p^r in n-lyliin lo noQU'lhing. ntilhc:r will prcpinidi'iaLi" (ivit
fht- cilhrr v.illii^iil ii prrpimi!j-r^il'>f — "'hn h Ic-^ds In drEmnmusm Yrl
wc: also llnii a s('!f-<'vidf'nl dislnnliiin hclwi-Cn \iilunljr^ movi'iiii-nti
and mDM'mriiii! bv (omjiuliion, and a '^['lf-<'vidf'ni crriitiidi' in ihi'
giJiKlncs!' of praisf: ami the b,idnc5;! of bfjiiii' and in c timmand ainE
proliibiliiin; ind ihis fr ads En ihv dtH^lnni' of ^hi' Mu'lJiik.
Il iii as thfiugli lliii, ijuc^lion falls in ihr sphcii' ol (iinlididiilion {Ji
hqiinz al-fa'atud}. m rcjjlion Ui bolh imnu'didlr anil di-ii uriivi" biinvl-
cdgt, in rclalion lu jirocEaiinin*^ dn' jiri'alni'ss {fe'^im) of <!ji>d, vvilh
i^i" Cf. p. Ii5 itif^a.
'''' r^^dat, \0^-f.
E i; \\' iiipmids lo Mu'lEizilT!i: "Ifyc^ tnr^ut, by ^dilointini^m', 'Ac ntccrsurf
eiilailinfnE of llii? iifl from eIil- ocniiifiifc of moci^aliim and [hp iiiJii-oririiiTpnce
cl dezlfiiviil^', [li(;ii .. ihia is our poMLiDii" {\iliaya. IVjI Tllz.).
"KMamqib 127.
' '' Al-R-Jzi ^rtiiielmn-.s mws, ^/judr/i' iii ihi- Mu'lizili .-.o iisi' Hi denote both ihp
aaenl'^ fhr>Lc« ^itd Itt'j power.
3^
rrfcri'ntr (c> Hi^ poiviT Jini vvecioin, in rcldEidn Ui ii|>1](iMing di^^inr
unilv Jnd cl(:iinlhr<>p(imiir|ihii^ni [tanzTfi], aiid in r<'LiLi<in Hi jtrijiriiryi
pmi)l\ .. The qufulifHi li thus diUicull Jiid tibsLurc. We [iray (.iod
*^clc- Qs t<i Inilhl
Eliicwherf, al-Razi writtri ihiil whi^n no soliilion for a pmbleni seemii
10 prcpondpi'iLti', "we will leave [ihal problem] ciLpti\"p 'in tlie sphere
of roiilradiedoii^ [fs haiyiz ai-lo'^intf)" , i.e. \iy siispciidiiigjiidgenipiil.'"
11 ^eeiii.ib th^l in ihe above pai;?3ge fioin the Ttifiii. al-Razi conleni-
plated taking a .■iceptiral stance on ihis problem, wliirh [as we will
sec in ihe Iei^^^i chapter of the prei^ent siudv) could have ritemmed
from a wider seepticLsin ihai appeals in hi.s later \^s>rks.
The Theme of Ike Creatfon of Human Acli
Wr shall now Lurii brieJly to ilie cjuesiion oT ihe causaliiy [hat under-
Mp'i ihp hiLiTian art, i e whelhei' the ^rJ !■; prodiirerf hy hiini:in or
divine power — this beina the eisence of tlic early kal^m problem
of the 'creation of human acts' [kkafq al-afafj. To niiiinliLin that
huniiiii power etleels the act will imply an atlirmation oi .some Jbrm
of naliiral c aii^alitV; whifh clas^ifal ,\.'<h'"arl& judged to br coTHrarv
to divine omnipotence. In eontrii.'it. thpy miiintained thai human
acLs are ercaled directly l>y God. and that natural imiformity lelies
on a habitual order {'adi)^ maintained ultimately by Him, rather
than on properdcs diai are irihercnE in phvsicdl objecii, including
htini:in beings In oi'der Ho :ivnid mieqnivof;il derri'nimi*,iT[ ^ind lo
affirm religious obligation, they theii attempted lo bridge the gap
that consequently appealed between man and his acts, bv de\'elop-
ing thf docliine of 'arquisiiion' {knib]. According to al-Ash'arl. God
crcatca ihc agcnt'Pi act as well as the choice by which he 'acquii'i's'
bodi it and its attribute of being an obedience or a disolie die nee.
For al'BaqilianT, the agent's pouer itself eflects the^e iittributes of
action and thereby the agenl'.'b acquisition thereof.
HoviT^vcr. ihc later Asli'aiT ihrologian al-Juv,aviiT diparLs in hi>
late wnrk nl-'AqJila ui-J^lz'ii'iijyi with the rnmrnen A^h'irT position,
and contends that the human act h produced, not by divine power
in M>iliU>iha<.. ffhl la.
iO
aUAi'l-KR ONE
diiTftlv, but by ihc ageiu's pow^'r alone, piovidcd lo him bv God."''
He llins di'bCards the nolion of ^acquisilirm^ which he roiisidi^ri lobe
''a niric wunl, (Qui j>uii:i£iii^oii, wiiLiom n-ftH'iite luriJiy locdiiiiig".^ '^
A]-JiLw;i\'nT IS rht^n ri'iiiri'^pH hy ^I-Shahi':isi7iii[, a fbi'^^iral Asli'arl;
for implying a form of natural rau^alitv, VLhirli dpliacts from God's
fusiiiipoleiice."'
Turning lo al-RazT'.'i early works, wp find that he adht're.s to the
rlasiiif al Asli'iirT di:nial of iiiitiiral fauaalily; lir foiilriidi ihat die
agcnl^s power does not eKL-itentiate the acl in any resperl, though
both are ordinarily conromilant. He thiii I'eiertSj not onlv alJiiwaMil's
later position, hul also al-Baqillani's dorlrine ol' aequisitinn on the
gmuLid lliiil \l dikinjivledf^r.s eIic rlTi-[-T.ivTiies> ofcu-iilrd [Hf\irr, wliicli.
^I'RlvT rthjerts, arrord'^ lA'iiii ilie Afii'l;i7.ilT po'iiritHi.
Yet, from an early ^'^tage, he \^ill also abandon tlie doctrine of
arriLiisition, whifh he acecpled previously. He finds that bolb liunian
choke and anion are ci'ealed by Cjod directly,"'^ and that 'arqiiisi-
lion' dor? not refer lo aiiylhmg real, hul in '*a word without a referent
{iim k-la muMfmm^^'. This eclioe.'i zin objection that was frequendy
levelled again.st this doctrine by many critics ol' the Ash'ari.s. including
tlie Aln'tazilaJ^' by conti'asi, aJ-RazT argues, liie (.^iir'anic expie.ssiitn
'lca<!/' refers co nothing but the cmisc qucncr^ of act-s for the agciit:
!^rniii''il[i*n' drnntrs \^'h^l irun ^lE^rix? hy his jvwn djiinif — sCi it is hi''
'kaif/ and hi;, ' mukta-^ti/i' — on ihc (undilioib th^il LHliI uu'o(v(\'< ri'aLLsing
d bcncl'il or prCvtJiting ii hdrm. A^ r<uc.h, one Jdvn ihdE prorn;! an" 'ihc
inTjiiisili'm I'f '^)-,Lnd-''o', :ii]d ihal 'h<- aj^qiiircs nliuh itr htlh"', 'iiic c it
icfcr! to profil only. As fur ihc tliiim? i£ c>ur felliiw dsiiiiialts [a^habuiiii)
ihat di-quL.'vLliijn' ii inlcrmcdiim' bttvvrrn dcti-riiiinisni {jabr) md human
iiu(on(iin\' [khalq). ihu appears in iht nld liOoks of katam.
He does not iind the need to re^'^ort lo thi;: {apparently oiitdatt'd)
doctrine since he considers thai his model of human action does
Hihiii'\ dt I'aelc husmiii, I4FI-5
"' Al-Jim'iiviir ■VJ^^m/iK^, '12
' '' AI-fiiialir,iilSiiL, ^ih^sl at-aiidam^ 7JI-F19.
'" .'\i«^a'',ai 171.
iiV.W^ff>. M. 91b.
'=^* .V/w&a^sdi 47L); Jabr, 2&0-1
'-' Taf^tr. 4, ^t7-Jl. CL 'Aiid al-JgWiJi, Mu^tit. K, V,■^ fT
1^- TqfiT'. .'i, m?. (fiimnimliix on Qur. ?l?021' tf. Taf<T>, \. fi9' 12. 157; 17,
110.
41
not lead lo the same pmblem.'i [hat ariie in the Ash'ari mode] of
ardon.
Hfnre, in [hf^ late hltab d-Jabr, he cites a Mii'tazill ars;umeiit
from Qiir'aiiif evidpnce for the \'iew that man produce!; hi^ artR
iind a^ain^t the doctrine of arcjiiiibiuoti. The Mii'tazila coneludp, he
notes, that "bringing the word 'arqiiiibition' into thii .'bubjert is pure
faLsifieiition [ntakd al-lazitliy. He replie.s, referring to the contrary
virw ilidL Gih] (trairi and dinermini'h nU eveiiii:
It JM nci^csiary tu hdrnicmiihC bc^HviTn llit tvio jiiisiliinis. Wc aay' Thr
cdml^in jlro n of pti^'i'i xiniJ ni'Uli-jllcm ["fftct? ima'aihihir] Hii di^l Jiid
thr crcdlot (if llii^ KimbindCitiii ls (iod. rx-illcd. 5ini;i' ihi^i'ciinhindEicm
implies [iimialiim) liir cmtc iiimiLr (il liir acl, iht alEnhutiiiD [ill jcta lo
humjn Jc^nL'^l (vill In: n-al. Sinct" llii.'. combin Jlion in't-i'''<il Jli';< \iiSjih]
thr occurri'nci" tif ihcsr Jtl5, li ln-tcirru's Irui' ihjl d]l is \yv(i"'.\''^ ih-c!\-f
jnd drUTminalmn. In Elim way, the (onrradicljon htE\vi-i'n riilmiiiil
rvidj'nrr ,md ihf!' Qiir'^mr cviHj'ni i' dis.ijipcar!' Knr^v lli^it ihn v.- Inir
arntrding tci my po^iliihn in piirhc uldr, j^ I hcild duL the c ciinbiiLitidn
of ptiwrr ,ind nmlh'iilmn iinptirs ihc act An for ijnr \tho doc:^ not hold
this, il will br hiird for hini lo ,ic<-<pl ihr'sr' vrrsrs. ^
Far fiiiin defending iLie Aih'djl puriiticm^ .il-RazT presents hh po^iLitm
iis 3. siuperior al tern j live.
Yet rrufiaHv- he Jipeins to ronteiid, in thirh last passa;^e, that the
acL is caused by the ronibination of power and inoiivaiioii. ratlier
than by the agency of God diri^cilv. This would come into seri-
ous conflict with ilas^ica] A.'ih'arisni, %\hi[li afOims, noi <jiily God^
alwoliire delermination nf all lii^ingS; hm al«n th;ir He rreacps ihpm
all direcllv: tliey sought lo affirm both ffoS' and khalif. Thi.s heg'i
the question: doe'i al-RazT, in (he relatively late JiifJb nl-Jiibi^ onlv
allirm qoda'^
ITnjiii^h he rarely difictisucs Lhe prciblriii of ikaiiu'^ cauiiiJiEy dir« dy,
there are indifations in these l^ier work^ ih;ii ril-Raw inilc'ed depart^
with the standard classieal A^h'avT position on [his question. For
instance, in the course of his eommcniafv on Qiir. 2:22, ''[Gnd]
sent down rain from the heavenji and hronght forth iheremlii fruits
for your su.'itcnaiicc", hr posits the question of whether God ercatcs
fruits Jnllm^inf! rain by sustaining [he habitual order of created things,
1^^ Jtfi., .'ifW-l
4.2
UHAl'IT^G ONE
or whptLer He frfales tlie iiiherr-nl nature's of water and I'ai'lh iiueli
ihal lhe\ proHure growlh in vegetation oure tliey ronibine. Al-RazT
Vhi'iio [liai iilihuiigli CiiMl h inilcrd rd|i=ilj]c urcrrdiiiig [lii^ie fiuiis
direfrlj' •^ihh/f/i'^n'i. wiilifnir ;iny intermeriiniion (ii\/i^ifii), ihir f:irr Hon*;
not ronlradifl His ahiljly lo create them tlirongli the intermedia-
lioii of iiiLlural processes. 'Later^ mutaktilhrnUn, he adds, appear to
consider ihese t\so view.s contradictovv, though ihey lack evidence
for thi.i conti^nlionJ
NoneiheJess, al-RazT appear:; to deny lliat the effect is ixistmtiated
hy these nalural processes, inekiding those ihal underlie human
action. He doe.'b so undi^r the iiiUiience of "the majority ni' JalQ.njQ'\
who Ifold Eliai,
jl [hi' Gcciirrmci: tif pnivcr ivtih nifi[iv-JlL<tn, ciimpfetr prqjiirrd-
nr-^by {i\is'dad i5mii\) fiir ihc prchduciiDii (if ihc :ic E wilE iic ciir. Y<'1 ditui'
phyz<u:dl capatilic'^ do not hdvc [he ahihiy to eNijItniiali- jinJ I'ffcc E
|dii>Lhiii,i-]. \\'ln-ii I ifiiipli El |nvjjjn.<liit:ss (iililii.', ['si^EriKi; luii^iidteb
frrim Eh<' Bislitwcr (if fbrnjs \ivahib al-^uivsr} uprin ihcsc e&ii'nirji, aiid
ihia' lii'( Mvnv {'xinEinl Thui, ihr (x^c uirrim' of p<>w(T ,incJ iridliviiliEni
piixIiK I'^i iFEiip]* li' uiriiiiiviliir^^^ n'ltilc CJiLilCiiLf dixi uCl'iiriCELcr (liii\ulj
arc frum the BcsLuwi'i^ uf Furms
While I'ejerling (he_/^A^/dorlrines nf enianadon and the cnsmogoiiir
intermediation of tlie Acti\e IntelleetJ al-RazT accepts Ihn Sma's
notion that phydcal objects may produce die preparedness for die
occurrence of an event in Lhe physical world. The event, however,
ivilL he hrought into being hv God dii'Cfilv. He wriie^s:
The combm^tiun af pOwYir jnd nioltvatiDn ncC^ai^iily implita [tttal-
lamd] the occurrtnc<' <if i\nr act. \vi hnth die aDtfccdinC [malzi^^l and
lhe (on;!cc]4icnl {{S^nii: ocrur hy llic |K)%v<'r (il God -Sumtarly, dlllicujiih
sub^I'Litiir and iiccrdcnt urt- cone DutiEiim li'ininISs^iman), ihcy comC lc>
exist by fht pci\^irr (if G<Mi a]i>ne.
As ^iich, all created causes including human jjo^^er, are in I'eality
mere conditions for the eEFiciency of divine power. Thev act^ not as
eJficieni causes, bul as material caiLses, in producing human acts. In
'-■I Tfl/}", ;>, no.
'^^Jalr, II Cr. ihn STiii, .¥fl?j7, Hft fT
'^' E.je;. Aijfi*fJfl"j;ru (Ar.], ftV, [Fei'.^, 74. On IJiii Sliia'.-s nnlldii of ihe cnsinoj^iiic
mie iif thf Acti^'e IiHellecl^ c(. Htrberl DavJdaan, Aifara^, Avktiiia, a'ld Avrnaei, on
httllKt, 74 ff.
I-; J-ri-, ! 1-5.
43
ihe Mabdkilh. al-Razi miiiiilaiii-i llial all ci'oal.pd b{'ins;s are broaglil inio
being direrlly by God; yel, wlierea?^ snine ibiiis;^, f iiii be exisleinialed
OiiJy liy viiiuc- uf bi-iiij^ pifsriihlr, otlitrfi will itqiiiiir [lie pieseiitr uf
somF pi'i-'p:iriiig {pa's/i/fj farlor'^ He slrp^pep^ hrnve\'pr, rh;i[ lliniigh
tluE is ibe manner in whieh pETecls ?re proclueed orffiiiEirilv, it tiopii
not conlrsdif I God's volunlaiy iigenry, iiiiice He is in principle abk
to suspend nalural order and lo creale etlects \^i[houl any preparing
caii^r^ ^s. for ineHiiiicr, m dir caso of piYipln'tif niiraf]f'<
Later than hkab d-Jsbr, m ttie Maiilib, al-RazT sumnidrLses hiii
pa-iilion a'^ follows;
Or Explaining Hon: ifip Srivanf is an AgrniL Wt hold ihiii ilic ( DinbiiiAiion
ofpit%str drill d sprcihc nmlivj' unplk-i! [iiiii'.faL^im] ihi' Dn^iirrrnc c ol Ehr
acl- Our siiyin|j ^Inipln''' rrrir^ In ii drnnmimllr ihrtL li^ f (UTiTiiiln ('iflr
maihltiiak) lii thdl comLi million hi'iiig a [ir('p:ii-ii\i" cause {^abttb mu'idd]
lor tht ncciirrcnc e ol (hiil atE and lis being dn tll'inrjn c auai' (^fl''fl&
mn'iffi/iiii) F'lr 11. Sincr line {"cislrnlr^rrir iif pnwer anil nviliviilKin
is Gtid, tKilied. and sine c il hda bo;n prgvi:n ihji thcK cunibinjiidn
imjjlif'^ ihi- CKCuirrnn: iif the act, ihr M;r\'anl ■will htionn: a real agi-nl
{ffdIJs l-hfiifiqny fcir ihe rfl<-cl<-r 'tf rliMl iif! is his power and nmhvHtn'n
All man^s Jiifr ivill ihus occiii dicciirHing (<> t!<jd*^ decree. [Sol as miic h
js an aloin in ihc heavens or the earlh will I'scdfut ihc i^hjin of Coci's
dtcri'e iind prrdi'slinalnin \.\ihr\at t/ada' AKak wa-qadniUi). 'i hi' di'nion-
straELOi] fc>r [hn is ih-it il lus been pro\tn ihal ihe [iri-jMnidLTaiiei' tif
one of two dlieriialives dcpcndnun llic prcpundrraliJi ; iiiid iE has been
provpn thai ihdl pn^ponderdEor is [pniduceil] by God's ai^ncy.
Thu; pa^i.ijage, howewr, is not entirely clear on wlietber the act \<^
broiighl into beine; by the combiiialioii of the a^enl's power and
motivalion, or by divine power. In any eajie^ iJlboiigh al-RazT'.s \ie\^s
ill this resperl deserve a eioy^r fKamiiiation than is po'jsible in ihp
presenl monograph, v^re celii safely coiirlLide diai, in bis later \vork!;,
he accepts some ibrm of natural eaiisalily that \!i al odds, Ibiida.-
mentally, with ihe <:la.ssieal A.sb'an pnsilion. He establishes a real,
direct, uniform and jordinaiily) neeessaiy eonneetion between the
r\riit dnd ilfi natural cause. A.s su^ii, aii act will ijc prifdiurd; in a
real senne. by its human agent; and there will be a real and direet
link between ihe internal slate of the agent and his action.
^^^ Maba^isli. 2. 507 -ft
'^^ Ri'ddiiiQ 'mUfid in^ir^d id "mawiigih'.
44
UHAl'IT^G ONE
,\1-Razi develops hLs theory ofaflion under llie influeiirp of variniis
murres— _/fl/sflj?^ Ash'ari and Mu'ta:silT - hin he puis fciilh a unique
.solLiiiuiK Aliliougb ln' Loahiiriltisd nuuiln-rcff iciuidl A.sli%uTdu(idiii-s,
lie fifri'n pre^iTC^ their fnrniiilair, alniosr rveed^l, evprei^irniM^ villiniil
inufh of ilieir dieoieiieaJ content and detail. Whether his po.'^ition
on the prohleni of human acts is e.'bSentially Ash'aiT or^A^was a
matter al debate among later Ash'arTs. Civile debale is fonrluded by
Miihanimad 'Ahdiih (d. i^l^A/ 1905), who rnnQik^. "With [al-Razl'.i]
esplication, the position of the .Sha\kli |al-Ash'ai'i] unite.s with ihat of
ll'if faiaufd. ... and ihe position of the Imam [al-RazT] is the position
of rritirai investigators i)i3tf\aifq\qy\*'^*
'Aliilulf, Itd'hiya. 70.
C;HAP TER rwQ
A1.-R.\ZI ON THE ETHICS OF ACTION
Miifh of cld^^ir^l kaltim reliite^ to the ^ocalled piYiblem of "jiidi^eiiienti
of g;ofidiiesji and badneriJi' [al-taksm wa-l-taqbih), whirh^ accfiiding to
ihe eaflv a3-RazT, is the sourf*' fioin whicli moti hcrcticiLl dortrines
{bida'] spring.' 'IJiis eiifjiiiiy has an ^'.'iseiitialiy nn'UiPthifal ronferii,
as il invc^lij^.Ufs isMirs such as xh.c naliirf rjf innralily. moral rra-
soriiiig iLiiit moriil Jangiiagp. In this cmilcxl, niosl muSnkullimUu will
fofus primarily on llie Eicts of liLim=iii agc^iiLS; uhicli peilaiii to the
more acffi^siHe and fathomable 'observable' le\ei (nl-ihahidj^ on the
basis i^f which [hi-v will iLirn atn:"k|n u) dLsruaii iLie 'iiiiob.sciA'able'i
divine \i-\-p] {i\i-ghn'iii'i In rli'i^iral Asli';ii'T kulnm, diis iiielaelhif ;il
enquirv usually introduces the linger^ llieologieal disfussion of divine
jiLhtire - nflen iiiider dip rubric^ jiidgiiig [arts] as jn^^t or unjusl^ {al-
ia'dii iva-l-tajmi) — which also includes the pioblnn of whether God
is obligjalfd tn prrforni fci't^in acls, ihr problem of 'God causing
pain to the iiiiioceiit' (represpnt^tive of the \^'ider problem of evill,
and tbe problem of 'itdvantiige and the most advantageous' (to be
diicusiifd below).'
Clah.sital Aih'aii kitldm eihiOi is ibcii Lomplemcnied by a ciosely-
linked euqnirv inio norm^ilivi' ciliics n'irliin the ^icienre of Jhe prin-
ciples of jurisprudence [a^Ui d-Jiqh).^ which seeks to e.stabliiih general
principles foi deriving .'ipecific rule.s and guidehnes for hmisan con-
duct. As ihe ia.sk will require an appreciation of various fealureii
of ri^vcalrd scciptuit, ihii disciplinr will often include a theological
component aimed at an ethicai analysis of divine command (to the
exclusion of divine action). Among the other main ethical themes
commonly di.scu.s.'ied in mfd fil-Jitfti for llieir norinati^'i' pertinence
' jVli i-hf |■^lh^ r flCLUli raay be omidfi cd, r-. i^. ancct aiid Saliii^ vjTiq^ b^' arguinn
for liji ^LipprLonl^' In Adjin mtd arliiig upon il in hi-, n^fu^l In pro'^lfan-, ib. said
tn [fc ihf Iflferunii^T' lor Mu'lmili <^llin^ (al'^lsalitEisiJiii Mikl, 1, H>-ii; al- Lillt,
^ E.J. Uwliil.-Dinj€A.1^.\ rr.; al-Kivi al-Haria.,i, UiaUl-ISn. Ibl. l9J^li IT; (\
jil-GliLLEa]I^ /jflijj, IfO.
46
UHAPTEk T^'O
are the probl^^ms of 'thanking the bi^iicrafioi^ and 'obligating tiie
impo.'bsilile' iboth in he disniibSed l^^lou'). '
Tlir rjiain'>ld.v <jf die ildssicdl i'iuUikiiifimH.11 ccHniiiLirtl [O \rc. w]id.i we
will fta^sifj' :ii^ rlii'oric^ nf rlic cthir*; of ^irrion. Thcii' fnni*; nii artion^
as opposed lo rharacier, is diip pai'ily to historical factors, viz. die
I'arK thcolo,e;]fa] debate.s from wbirh rla-siical katam pinerged, and
die legal intliienrc on lhfolog\'. Yei, more immediately, il relates in
fraliiriTS ihal arL niorr iiitL^rna] lo the di.iciplinr of kalani lEsclf [in iLs
classical fonn), especially its focii.s nn die nature of divine action,
and ibe common notion thai human nature is essentially physical
(since, according to cia.'isical katam physics, created beings cnn^ist
extliLsivcly iff aHiiiiii ainl ac ficieiiu). Af, autli, liLiiiiajis air iiicnally
cElfFfrentiatt^fl, iini in any ejhSPiiiinl armhiires {y\7. of toiil or oluii'^ir-
ter), but in tlie values and mei'its of their acts, VL'hicb will eventually
he reckoned by GorL
The mutfikiikmiiii advanceil iheorifs of moral ontolnj^, epistcinf)lngy"
and language, tarkliiig qiK'SiUoii^surl] as the naliiro of inoraj \'aUie, die
meaning and reference nf moial terms, and the grounds and criteria
of moral reasoning and judgement. Most inipoitan[ly, il Mas debated
whether moral ^'alue teimj^ reJ'er to real and ohjective attributes that
arc iiilrinsic to acts, and Vi^hcthor or not moral judgrmoiit.'i may be
discovered or established by die inean.'b of unaided reason al-aql
d-mit.UaqiU). These two questions define [he main oiitlines of die
clas.sical poj^itions of the Mu'tazilT and Ash'ail .schools, which form
the background to al-Kazi^s ethics, li is noteuortliy that in eihical
dieory, as in mosi olher .^iubjecls, al-R;izI pay^ almost no alteiilion
to the views of die Maturidf school, despiie his famiharity \uih its
dieology [as is clear from his debates in the Muiiaza}at). '
' Cf. al-THfl, Ds'' ai-gawlal-qsbifi ii-i-taf/nn i.va-l-laqbVi. a eoni|n?iidiuin i^i kahiii
ethu's
lit cmttc itiporuiy ([hiccl pitjioaoplty j dLilJnclL'JLi i^ nDrittall^' iitudc bclM'Lcn
[eloloeicji ellikal llieorJi::s iiid dj'oniological ilieorips 7Tie.¥ hairV rnrrhei sutidi-
xi^ioiiN, "Illy ^r>ini' ^>l wLiirli aif: H'le\aiil in llie piesi'iil ^mdy. ITit InlJni^LnQ af
biLef rfi'linilinnsL
I \" Ti'li::"l"|e:Jcal tlhif al ilieoni:^ dcfiiii' I'lhiral value by leferprif^' io ioine. final
Eivo niajol rypf.'i'
(a} (.iiin.srijui'im.ilisE Ihi^oiii'^ ileliiiR eUki^ral v^Vuv in lenr? nl llii' iavourability,
o[ in^iuiVK'nl^ilv £tf lln? conscquencf:^ llul air Ji'l jiromolis |cf. ^Coii^queiilial-
iim', /?£Paiid P:E,.
[bi Pi'i r>-c[iHniii^l llt«oriei, orethifc oFvirmf^ define t\ie unaA m ifladcn lo an
AL-JL\i.l 11^ Tilt. li'nilCa Cjt AOTlON
47
77if Historiiiil Backgrouitd
T!i£ Aiu'taida
Mj'tazilis hold iLat ethiral values are real iittribiites of arts in the
wtukl ijf ifl)j('( V^^ iiiilr]]t-inl['iH.J^ [jf llir Mibjri l.i\t' jinlj^r[iii'ril.ri, Jrc;i-
sioiii;, pmodoiij, (n roii\'enEioi]'< of ^enL'; rn' ob^;en-'pr^;Wh filler hiinian
or divine.^ This .sLance is a type of ethiral realism, or obipcti^ijim:
\'alue jud^empiit. according lo 'Abd al-JabbHv, is relalpd lo Jiome-
thing aboui ihe act itsell' {ami ya'udu 'a\E [-j\'t\ vaUifasat bi-hi). U'bp
Mu'tfLiila dl^o maintain thai somr rlhical Lviilh^ nvc knowablc bv
unaided rpa^nn^ nthpr^ bv rhc aid <iJ Revel^iiion ' The mind I'erog-
iiLses some ethical truths about arts \n [he same way it recognises
ijon-elhical facK about the esternal ^vodd.^ This knowledgi' i:<w\ be
either iinmcdialc [dn'tUft} or discursive (jju^aif).^
Tht Mu'lazila prci<rnlcd \\y(i distinct sLaiii:ci< ns rc,?;ards the natiiri?
of moral value. The Baghdadi school reprpsf ntecl by Abu I-Qasiin
ai-Ka'bl [d. ;? 19/ ftSi)- -upheld a form of eiliical absolutism, accord-
ing to which the moral value of an act is a real attribule in the
essence of the act, wliich Is unaffected by the agent'i circumstances,
ohj^cli'ri' nolNJii H>f iLlo pn' ffnir lion of hiintan njlure [cV Th. Hutk^, Pnf^etmtiurt^
'Perfi?clit)nism\ REF^ad EE)
(?) DfiiiniJij^ii ^ i]ii'ijrii'i ueaicL-iiain dLis ds goiid ru'lidd.iH JilIullc^, ri'^atd-
If:^ m sfuni' I'nifiii <)f tXwvv rrm*fr|ueiit.?!i [ff 'DrfniP>l<>Eif^l Eiliif^', REPj. Tliev
haiT furllii?r *;ul>divLii(in^, mcludiiifi llie folloviari;^ \\i<\:
Ja) F.rliiral Ti'aluTn, nr nhjirrivtm. rn^ar? i^thital \!i\\v a^ iiiiiiTi^ir m ari', ifiiL'
nehlift willftl bv aeeLil^, imi redurihle in nrtii'ialiinuil iiirlLriatifnis (cf. D. flrinL
Afth^a/ /ifT^j^ii, 'Mij[,ii R.'.bLj.-,iLi', Riir ,iis\ i:i:,
-fhl DJuiiki^ rriiiniiaiid ''lliic^ rest on rhe iiiii!li:, ba!.ic iiuii'lflf rJiJi^ral priunph'
thai an ncl m £imd oi bad if aitd mJy il, ,iiid beeaaif, il i:^ Lr^inmainled oc piohib-
iled by G-^d Often, "finxid" and 'b*d' are *ind tn ffl^fl, n]^|M'Clively, rnmniaiided
ciT piv>lijliilrrl iW Friiikeiia, Ethit<,. ?Jp; ff 'V'riluiilatisni', flfi/', P. Riioney, Diii'tif
Copfiaiid AltfM'lily,. [I^^v■^'£■l, if ath^Jiii cfniiiiibiiid ilii fuy liiiifi oblii^aiicm 'pii afn-ilifi
frtn^etiucncf^ ol atts. il Viill iMfoiiif luiidamuiilaJJy a leli:ftl(^i!ii^al llifor\'.
*' tJii theMu'LaaillrfluEarirpii nl A-sb'arl I'nluiilaf bsni, iff George Houraiii, hi/niif
Raiianal\sai. 97 !!.■ 'Al.d idJaliMr, MmM. fl/l, LO?
' 'Abd al-Jabbar, .Ump^ii, fi/l, .ifi AI'Ra:^! ■lum.i rbe mn' Mii'iizilTcibifal^xiiiiioii
aido ittikiiv i.f llifir lilhi-i crilici, by itfc-rc-iiff lo IhiIIi ihf ir naliil mid ^pi.HlL inolrhcif al
ilanci'^i "^^|]'laKlli^ rlaim \a] tlial die bad is had bv vinut of somediiiig ihal ivlali^
lo II {//m' 'a'lii ^iy'jj. and |ii| tliat reason eilliei kiiov^ llial a.i|ieel aiilinfoinou^lv
(iifianlfa bi-maWifaiiti'i or iioi" IJxitiavE. fr*! I9;ib1.
* ^Abirl al-Jabhar, Mii^hm. li/I, IS.
1 ■At-rl J^>b],ar, Xh^k,^, li/L. 63.
48
UHAPTEk TU'O
or the art's foiisequeiifes."^ Hcnri^, lying and killing are bad and
prohibitt^d ab.soliiH'lv, wbatcvcr their (ircuni.'ilanfp.s.
Till' Basidii Xiiiidzild (ihe ld.ici and iiu-re widrrhpredd branch
f>r \lii'ta7ili^ni) rpjerr rhi^ prhifal :ili!;olnii^ni '^IIn?y rr[;iini;iin tliai
ethiral judgement depfiid.s on the aspects (wajh) iipoii u'hieh aru are
pt'rfrfrisicd. Inflirling pain, for iiiiilancp, Li bati only within certain
■iem ctf nrcumstanres, e.g. That it neither ii'ads to a greater be neJlt,
nor nv-^ilA a grratci harm.
In Mu'lazjlr ethics;, the fuiidamenEal ethical prineijiles are universal.
in thai thev are imniiitable and apjJy equally to all agents, including
liuniau^; and tiod. Hence, .Mii'tazill'b coi^iiider Cind to have certain
ifhlii^dtiijiis l[>\vdr[f^ huiiituis. vvhitli Mem ficmi IIii> rfh.seiidal jiistiie,
v/i'iHrun, heiiericeiirf (ihinv) rniihFiilne^?, etr .-Vrcoi'ding rn *AbH rI-
Jabbai'. allhoiigli God is a vnluntaiT ngf.viX Eiiicl has the po\^'i?r to per-
form holh good nvid bad acts, il is incoiieeivabie foi Him to perform
die lalter, since He Viill ha\'e knowledge of theh' iiitvinsic badnej^s. '"^
God, ihiis;: art-^; for the wellbeiiig, or adv'aiil^ge. {saiaf/, mfidahisj of
humans, never in contradiction lo it. The Ba^hdadf Mu'lazila look
the moi'e rindicid view thai God is obligated to do what i.'i most
iidvantaoeoiis [ailtih] to humans in some respecls.
As io all drontological theories, account hii^ to be made: of the
eonsfciuences of .some forms of action. In the ethirs of the Ba^rans^
diis appears, tor ini^tanre, in their theory of 'aspects', which often
liike.H account ol con.'iclerations of lieneiit and harm that follow from
acts, though they maimain ihal an ael's ethical value remains ulti-
mately inlrin^ic. Wroisgdoing (;ff/wi iii\'oh'ei;, anionjj; olLier aiipeets, the
delivery of liarm lo another, while heneEicenee involves the delivery
of bcnePl. Yet ttieir respeclive badne.ss and goodiies.s are .somehow
intrmsic. and not due to their actual consequences, which are often
subjcelivf.
Bpnefit [isf] and advantage [mldfi] are defuipd in terms of .spii.stial
pleasure {(adhdha] and joy {^timi).^ wherea,s harm [damr] and disadvan-
tage (fmUdj are defmed iii teruLS of pain {aiam) and grief \gkampt). '"*
Theje < iJiiriUiuic: die piiiiiaiy deinenLi fiH moid i oiiiplex Ldkula-
'^' Abo RasliTd. A/jiJV/, "iSl: rf Rpmbiri, Btfou Rt'.tluikn, 14-1-3
' ' 'Abd al-Jabhii, Aiiig^lml, (i/l, 7i-iiU; cl. Hi>ui':tn]. hlamii. Raticnalism. t>'i-+.
'- 'Abrt a]-]abhai, Miis.hn\. H 2^&: cf. Hrmraiii hifime E/Hiu'iali^m. G2-JH.
1-^ 'Abrt al-jabhar, Miiafun. li/l, U7-ii
'* 'Abd iil-Jiibhdr, M^hrti. M. 31 IT.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa Ot AOTION
4-9
lions of henpfil and harni; as Iliii al-MciIaliimi writes in hii^ book of
definilions. Kitnb at-HudUd (quoted bv iil-Razi):
Harm is pain Jinl vvhal is akin lo H, such a;i i^rit'l, the tcifhS (li h^^nffil,
cfr ivKiil U'adfi lit (llhi'r . . BLncfil is pttzi^uii', JM\, ^vtul \.s ^ means lo
them, dnd whai v?, a pirri'quisili' fcii ihnii. Gciltl and sil'M^r art t^iain-
plrs of Eht 'niran^' (ma'adilij. I.ifi' li dn i-xdnifjk' of ihi' 'prtTcqiii.sin'
i'jiu^ahh'H'f 'L(Il\s' itIiu-^^ Hi prtvlzntirLi (firarc'J i.<inii:[huiif fiuni ^:nlL■^nl'
iiilo rjcislrncr al the oixurccnct (jf lh<' clcU'rmiiiant, or to ni^gdliiii"
(j^iii) IE aflcr ilf ciiciirirnfc. ..
Il ffill'i\^'* fr'in^ ihib* JK'i^roii ihjt harjii'^ ^rr elf tc-n Ey|H''i: [nj pJin,
ds uith lu'dlmi"; \E\ l^ncl. 3i in iht tdtf <if sviTdring; [f] |>n-^Tnlion
(it' plciiiuri', ds willi pic-^^i'iiriiii,' ,i nidn Irom caliiig iiiorl or i^lrrpmj
"r'lth liii ivifi'i \il\ prt-vt-iHum orjuy. J" i^'ilh prt'vt'nl inu .'.inTir^tnt' frdm
mri'lni;^ \m Iti^^ci! i>nr.s; [f] iii'iidtitin i>f plrdsurr; [/] nc'-alnjn of j<)i'
([the IjsI ElvoJ die (li'ari; [^ pri'vi'iiliuii <il ivhai IcMii;! Eo |>kdsuri', as
wilh pr<'vrnliiig<iiir frdin rarniiijj; [/] Jici-ahfiii of wlial make plcii^iirf
pci5sil>!(-, j> wilh usurping 5<inn'(iiK''s m<i[n->'; \i\ ni-gaii(in i>f vihal leads
1(1 jov --.; Jnd [/] nrgaEhon of nhdit maki-a juv possflilc: '"■
Unlike mnral jud^emfiil, wliirh is objerti^'p, ronsideiiLtioii.'b of bfiicfit
and harm are age nt-rel alive {idoff}}*' 'Abd d-Jabbar clearly dislin-
guin'ilicfi betwtcn llic two atanrts, nifiiiiLaiiiiii^ i\\c\l an act can be
bolh advantageniL.'i and had. nr di'iarlvaiilageon^ and gnod Hpiire,
tbp inHiftion of harm ran he good, as in the casi' of a dest'r\'cd
punishment inlliett'd in an art of justice. And if a famished person
gives food that he has to someone who is not in immediate need for
it, that acl will be advantageous to she latter, but not good."
Despite the luiidanienlally deontolo^jiiral pthirs oi' 'Ahd al-]abbar
and other Basran Mil tazila, their analysis of the teleologieal dimeiv
ibions ol human action were a major inlluejiee 01:1 ai-RazTs ethics,
which 15 othcr\vi;>f dianictrif alJy opposed to their central ethical
doctrines.
TSf A ^h'am
Ckhsifal A'bii'arls have two main diflleiilties \vilh Mu'tiizilT norma-
tive ethics and tiieir analysis ot t!ie naliire of jnoralitv and moral
'^ Mhaya, fol I94b-I9.'ia [hii nl-Malahmirs Kit^i al-Huded, ap]iari:iilly in^ii'
eKlanl, in akr> inf^itlii>iLcd in anolhiT uijfk "I hi', llit t'a'uj '({. i^dilnnal iiilm. to
"' 'AJid d-Jabhar, Mu_^m. 14. I'i
I'' 'Ahtl jJ-Jobbd., Mi^,.li, 1 ■!, 'Jfi.
50
UllAI^tlEk TU'O
l.nf)uledoe. On the human, 'obrier\'able' [pvel. they mainlaii:i llial
nbjmivisi eihifs will undcrininf ihe .status of Revfiaiioii as die .■lole
LtLsi-s fi]i Irj^isldiii]!! Oil ihr Mipiii-.sriirhory, 'uiioljscivdbli:' Icvrl^ \i
will ;ipply M'li;il AMh';in"F hold to he purelv liiimin plliif';!! norm*;
iiiid dudes to divine anion
A.sh'arTs^ ihen^fore, reject [he moral obJectivi!im and radonaliiim
[latiiiri al-'nifl it'n-laijbTtibh] of ill e Mii'lazila. Moral lans;uiLge, Ehey
inaiiiuin, drx:^ iiol tcTcr lr> any rral propfrlirs i>i'arts in ihc rxlcriul
world: for goodne.ss iind ludneri.'i dn not have anv objefti\'e reality
ill all. Unaided reason, therefore, may provide knowledge ofmela-
phvsieal trulhs (e.g. that ih? world is created, that Uod exists, and
dial prophei V i.s time divabk), bill, it will iirvi'i pntdivr moid] U'lillis
in afts and ihinij;^
However, if this is tbeease, then wbat does mnral language refer lo?
In answering this nielaethieal question, Ash'arTs di-itinguisli betu'een
two flasie.s of moral expressions in ordinary language.
The fir^l fla^^ includes expre^^ioii^ iLial iiia.y he .^aid to Liave moral
meanings, or aie sometinie.s tised widi innral senses, when in fart
they have non-moral lexieil meanings (whieh m=iy indeed refer lo
.some objcetive properties of ae ts or things). Tbebe expres.sions are
particularlv irlfvaiit to aiiaivALiig tbc meanings of rsprcssioii^ iTlfitiiig
to divine attribute.s, wliieb are normally interpreted on llie basis of
dieir lexical meaning.s. Some-- -including "justife', ^injiisliee', "wrong-
doing' and \vi.sdom^ (hikma- are said to describe the ^wrfection or
imperfection of acts. Ibn Fnvak writes:
|AI-Ar<h'driJ inainldiin-d Ihdl^ in iirdinary langu^i^' \il(a^ al-lngfia),
di-s^i riliini; an act iis 'injii;^ti(-r* {fr"r'r) <ir "lATCingrliifni;' is nnt c cjngnirnt
[c> <lc\crtbin^ i[ as 'bad' {(fab'ik) For ihi- IrsicaL meaning of ^jaivr' is
'clcpjrlujr frchni thr nchrmiit .■^randard aiLd sundanf nii'asurc' al-^u:8i'aii
J'7V7TPrt al'in^'^imn iiii'l-b'"fd al'iiKiinim}, be lh<' d<-ji,irl<T r'bhf^atrd [iiMiknilnfi
or not. 'fhc Mying, ''The arrcivv 'dcvirtlc-s frcim' ijaia 'aii\ [he lar^t,*' if
it niE^i-n'.^ il, l! ahvdv^ ( omidiTfc! IJEc^rit lis missing ihi' liiri^'l is said
Id br ^imvi' in ihr lilcral stnst, allhoiLirh lI i.^ ncil an act hj' one i%ho
F olJigali-d^ HI oni' Vrho ls pn>hilhiU'd froni iL.
Also, tbe lexical meaning of 'justice' is "balance [i'tidal) and eqiii-
librinm '-litium') in e\en'diing, i.e. that there be neither exces.s nor
'"Tfl/ifr, 7, !4U' il-EdijhJidi, U^HUI-lTui. 202- i.
AL-lLVi.! 11^ Tilt. liTlllCa Cjt AOTlON
51
remi.'bsiipss in it". Abu Ishaq iil-Isfava'lm goes even further by mter-
prpling 'good' anrf 'hiid' in the same manner:
'Jui^licc* iM to |ni( ihiii^Ejih in linir ii[>pr<ipri^iL(' pidct"*, dnd ihis ii thr
fujiiliiiiiriiliil ^^ ]!-;< n[ 'j^^iriliic'^^ (fiaj<ii\- 'iiLjLL^Liii ^ is EO iiuE lliiiiU^ in
olhtr ihan ihi^ir jyiprupriali- pldH^ti, jnd ihis is ihc fundiinn-nldl 'rnsc
of 'bddncs'(^wi/0-
Ash'aiTs aecordingly intcrpi'el divine names^ such a.s Just' and *Wlsp',
ill non-moi'ai scnse.'i^ mainly as related to perleetioii, or iiiasterlv
ptoduftion, ('//katii) in God';, rrcalion, ^vliirh orij^inat<:s from IIi>
knowledge, power and wisdam (whence ^fiifinin'].-^
The spfond elass ineludes expressions [hat undpniabl\ have moral
senses in ordinaiT languiige \'whereai> iheir lexical meanings do not
seem lo be at issue). However, A'ih'arls argue that these expresiioni
do noi refer in iiitfiiiMf ^(irihuie? of art^, but lo ihc ^^ubjecti^'e Judge-
ments of individuals. Ibn Furak a^ain writes:
[Al-A^h^dri] maiiildjiiu'd ihdi ihcrc L'v<mly<iiic nciisc- fur 'bjd' an<l ^^^lod'
in llir rihisiT^^rtblj' lliiil ivhdl in bdd t iivTndc:!! I<ir ihi' iiiipi'rf(:cti<iii dnd
hdi Ml HidE Li ii':iuUz4 JM fill iriii who doc-, ii, diid didi Uic ^(loil dUid wise
jcl is fhosc'i] bei^j-usi' of dii- hi'nrf[l dnd pfrfecticm thsl it results Jn
for one who duv^ H. Thi^rc is ni> gnjiiiid fcir ihi' Aci's pcrforixidni^C Or
cunis^ifn, In ihc cfhi^TVjEih'^ \t\it thL^ Or Its lifci'.
Ordinary moral language, thus, is eonipletely agent -re laEive and
reducible la ihe beiiefii and harm [defined in lerrriA of pleasure
and pain), and the perferlion and imperfeclion, of the individual.
ScHuelhing is good for me if it provides me wilh some sort of ben-
eJil or perleclion, bad lor me il it resulls in some nort ol harm or
imprrfcclion for mr. Il lhllo'^\'3 from this position thai if what one
wills is recJised^ one will consider that to be ^ood; and vice versa. If
this will is depencleni on the perform el ncc of some ae lion by another
person, then one may ask or command that person to do so. As .such,
'correct' [sfoi^ft) '"Lna\ mean 'agreement \mait-qfaqG) \v\xh command",
or 'aHj.inmenl of wb^il is willed Usabal at-niarad'^ ".■
'" Fro LIS' ]?. Tiaiil^ Gnatioti tuai t/ic Cosmii Systmi, JVl, ^lli fioiiif itkr^dilii^^LLirhiL.
-' ,\l'CiliazJili wriEP5, "^Thi? Wise' (Hh/lTiii) ]nfaii> lln' kiiniver lif ihe i^alilipi
of [hiri]^ diid ihe nni^ capable ol freglLiie; rheni perlcclh arrrtrrfiiig lo Hli viill''
{Ql^^irvo. 90: ct. Iqtt'.M. VtS-W Ihii Furak, Muiariad, 9li-7i.
'^ Ibii \'^(A\i. MapiTMd 141-2; tf. 96-7.
- Ibn Fiirali, -Mu/amid, ^
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□llAJ^tlEk T^'O
Aiili'aris are [hpii challenged m explain \^hy people will ofirn
inakp moral jiide;emenls and perform arts tha.E are not sfll^feiiU'cd^
biLE d|.jpc.ir dliruisik. If a kiic iravn-llfi in a (IrrinTE iiiiiieh auori.'i a
man cr in flnini;il who i^ rfving ci( rhif^l , he will help him, even if
Uie lra\'eller is an atheisl and dof:^ not expect any \sorldly benefit
from this help. Gla.'isiral Aiih'avTs neirmally pxplain such acLs as being
motivated by 'generic j^vrnpathy' {nqqii jm^iyyfi]^ a purely emotional^
.subjf ctivf nioli^T; when oni; !<ci?.'i anolhrr man in pain, out ■uill fci'l
pain oneself and may be motivated lo help.
Al-fVbh'ari repoitedlv contrasts the second, sabjertive cfass of
fKpre.'ision with Ihe former, pseudo-moral rla.ss:
Drvribing schnictbin^ dii 'ddvdntaj,tMius\ 'jdvaaiagc' or'mGsE advjiHa-
E['<nii L^ ncfl iikin lo d^^'^^ll^l[lJi il i\s '^vimc*^ 'correct' or 'irui^' ... IDif
V<iii ncil a'c llidE (hi' I'cirruphDn ai bodies by miilddu'^, diae^ses, dciilh^
rai-
ls h
arxius narniJi m
th
rdrturr in firf, jnd ihc iic turrtncc of pdinaand va
p rcfLiIi-d [o vi'hi.11 1^ Irui', wii'- siiid currc^l, hsil ii^nol jrl\'j n Ijij^cinii:, inii.°t
ini\'iinlj|ii;oiis iir adviintagi' fur ihr agniE itr ibi' ulfjet E c>f dctmn! Had
dc'sc tilling ihr' thing a'v "ackanliigcoua' dral 'ach-antagr' bcclitqiiivaltnl
[(I dcivcribln" il js *^ii!'', ll \^oulcl hjv^' TcilIoMrd ll in ri-lsiliijni [id^fal
ii'a-iiiiab). sitih ihal [sunclhint"] %%ill hi' An advaiildgc: for \'i'htitv<:r iL is
wiac^ or ivLvC ihr whenever il k adi'anlagrciii^ — -which u labr,^''
HoiAfver, ibis Ash'an analv.'^LS of mora! e'^pre.'^sion.s only describes
llie psychological motives that ibey conimnnly express in the mun-
dane realm of ev*?i'vday language .in the 'obsierv'able', as ihey ^ay),
but does nol ascribe any noi'ma.li\e. prescriplive aiitborilv lo them.
This is why classical Ash'aris attach lilde importance lo this .SLibjec-
dve sense ot valui? terms, and Ln\'oke it .solely in theii relutauon of
Mu'tazill clbical rcali.-sni, us docs al-Kiya al-Harrasi:
Wit say Blame aiLd piaiz<c rely on cnd-s ighumd), i.t- Iji'iiiTils iikI liarin^.
Scimi'lhin;;^ nijy ln' fiimd lu rrlalinn Ici Ehi' cniiv oi (ini' piT.^cin, .'vii he
prais'ii ll, harmfiil in relalnjii to Ehe cih!.^ rif anolhrr, ^ii hi' ii^nsurcs it.
Pill II iLsEiiLti:c- , ... if 1IILI iidiiiiM^ ii iiuii .itrouE llii* iiLiiililit) iif lu.s VL'iTe,
|lhal man] wWl ^iraiiht him .., whereas the wdtrian aill i^eniiLiri' him.
WhdE is LIE issue LviifiE Ehis^buE [\'alin' J!ii(gi'nn'nEs| wilhiiiLl ccin.'viili'rjliiiii
of I'nct^, in Mhkli c jW yoiidjii'Si ziiid l>ac^^^■^^ wifl Jiof bi' L^:.i:nLijl [let
acts]; for only Rrvcided Law makes [jcIs] goud or bad.
" Cf. Ibn FOrai (qurnliii^ al-Aih'arri^ Miganad, 14-?^ dl-Juwaynl, Mt^Omt^ya, ?7;
iil-G]i,izJlT. Ii)tkM, 171; Mam^/S, 1, 59.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
53
Aiid-Mii'iazili dialcrtif aiiide, clasjiical Asli'aris do not s^lo^^ imprest
in developing their aiialyii-S nf ordinary inoiml bngaagf. Their real
imcreM (uf whis h rfl-Hdii."LsI irfris) lirs iji [hi' Mipia-iiiutiddJit- sl^leus
of Revi'l:ilion, whirh ;iloiip ihey rpg;ird a'j tlip source for rliilie^ and
rules of conduct.
Relying, often implieitlv, on their aforementioned inelaethiea] view
that \aJue eK]ires^ion'> eniild be understood in rehilion to will and
romiTianH, Ash'ariA develop a dLvino fommand (or a VoliLntari.st^J
theory of normative etiiirs. As sueh. they argue that the lerhnieal
defmition-S tliey give to value expressions are not entirely independent
ol their uses in ordinar\' language. iLough tliey will also stress that,
unlike human eonuiund^, divuir tonunands die not inoiivaied bv
piihjpcnve iiirlinaiioiis;
Aeeording lo Aiih'flrTs. morality is 'Legaf (ilmi't): it eoii^iits of the
adherenee to rules of fonduel, including duties and rerommi^ndations,
thai derive from divine preseripuons. "The bad is bad by ^'irtue of
the relalinn of Giid^i^ prohihid<>n lo it [fdtrUuq nalty AUafi 'tmh brk'^ .
AlJuwaynT utiles^ "' '(jood^ is what die La\% presents praise for one
who does it"; '^ 'Ohligatoiy' \<L-aiih) is that act that the Law presents
a categorical eoniinand lor [perlorniingit]"; " 'Good' is not an attri-
bute addiliQiial lo Lavi', Vi'hich hcromrzi kiiown diiough il; radicr,
it is the same as ihe l,aw'^ pre.'ientation of praise for one who does
it'
?H
And, according to Ibn Furak, ''To selv that our aequi.sition
{ka.^b] i'i "good done by us^ (hman miima) i!i equivalent to sayii:bg that
it is commanded by God'\^'^
Revelation, therefore^ i? the iole. or priinaiy, lioiirce for moral
knowledge. Most inslantes of Kin;; are bad, not intrin.sifally, but
becauihe tiocE prohibits them. Some types of lying are not bud, since
Ljod permits them. It He decides that i>ing i^ gnod and obligatory,
then so il will be- All that humane can, aiid .'<houLd, do ia to inter-
pret revealed text;, analyse t]:beir prescriptions and investigate how
lo apjJy them [these being the concerns of ihe |uri.st mainly).
In later classical Ash'ari theology, we lind .signs of a gi'owing
tek'ulugitdJ [lend, which appi:arA eo be a di::veJijpnicnl tff eIjc eailiei
-■ Ibii FiJf jk, .V/u/orrdf/ EH-.
^^ Al-|uuavni, In-iad, ??J!j cf. Ibii Far^k. Hitda^, II; i\-MatA\v^i. Ma0m. 4^
-'' Ibii Furak, Xiajarmd ^S
■il Al-A.^ly^a.T. t^^\ 170.
54
UllAJ^tlEk T^'O
Atibjectivirit analysis of mora] laiiguiio^'^ under HlioLt_/flI(fiyiiii(iupnte,
Thi.s ircnd is hinted at mosi viidiinpmarily in al-Jiiwapil's latf work
ul-'AijTiia iil-J^lzHviij^ir.
prhr LDiTi'c [| jpprtiiiLh [in ihir c^m'iti<in ofi'lliic af ^dluc] Lv In c riii.MdET
only cmr cxti^llrnl, drcisivi' jnd loiic isr prf^misi' dial mil (Ta.'j; ccmfii-
in>n Troni vviihiii onr ii'lii> LincEi'iiiiiincEa it. \Miai Ehc 'folJowcis itf whiri!*
(fl/^/ jr^-i?^'fifl'j ninsidcr li.' In' g'niil in itsctf, iuf h as lii'lirf [in (icidj and
ihankinj' [hi- Ln'nr^fiitlmr, i>r Imi! iik ilirir jtich as Ivini^ dnd wrun^jlo-
ing, can iinly ^pply '^* -- ""i' who li liable: let harm and bfnrfEt. Tht
n'alilv "T bi'm-fn, pk-a^Eiic ami ^oin)^' [htiiiim] is dit ^cnaiig <if Trai
from jjain^ iind tvil;!, and <if rdmlbrl rriini pliamircs.
Al-Juwavnl kcre floes; nnl m<?iH]r>ii any '^Legal' d^liiiilioii^. of 'good*
?nd 'bad' alnnssidf ihi.s prinripli? Aluo^ al-Raghib dl-Isfabanl |d.
piTjbabh ca. 503/11 10), normally close to Aj^h'aiT iheoJogy, ivrkes,
iiwd^x fafsaji -Ai\6. Sufi inlliienri':
Mmiy mat^katlrmun [\iz Mu^iaziLTsJ hi>ld rhat iru(hliilrK\'^s is ^"cmd in
pi-!farf^ A^■\^\ lyiiii? Ii.irl ni f^i-rncf Miiny fol^iifo Jii't Siiflis huld eIhC
lyinj^ L\ liad ln'Cdusc ill il> rcninrLlicin (ii the harm? ihdt rrsutl from il^
and ihai IruthluLncss is ji(nid liir ihr brncfila ihat rriull Irani it. This
ihc gciocE in i,iiod brodum; of the ln'iiHlts ri-lalrd m it^ and Lhc bad la
had for iht harm thai is ri'LdU'd to it, which prcpondcrairs cn'Cr ihc
bj-ncfit ihat follctwa from il.^^
Tboagh thi^ i<iaidncnt appears in a'woEk on ihc science of character
{aUilaq)^ not kaldm, it is nonelbeless iii.';[rufli\'e.
The mo.sl significant development in pre-RazI kuldni towards telfo-
logioiJ i^thirs is introduced by al-Ghazill (d. 7)^7)/] Ml), who wiiles
III [be IqUyHd.
Conicmrng iht 'gtmd' {hsian\ its range of mtmings is such ihjt at Is,
in n'latiiin (<i iht aijcnl, drr ilividi'd into ihrrc diuLsiiuis. The firsi is
Sir [ihi' ari\ lo lie a^ci'abli- iicafa/a) lu him, i.e. llidl il fils [la'aindj his
end [ghaiad]. Tht srcund is for i[ Hi lonlrddii-l {iiafari\) his end. Thr
ihird IS fur liini nci[ Ui havi' a puipiisc for cilhi'r |X'rfinTninir (ir cjmil-
linj^ It. This chviiinn is <"^idcii( Eo the mind. Thu'-, whdl is agici'dblr
rci lh< duc'iil i^ c iil]< (1 'k'^iid lIa r^i a.-, lie i^ luiil* iiii'il^ \hu<iOii It k<iiiaJi\\
and rhi'rr is iiu ini-anini; fiir ils yoodness (Jihtr [han its a^^ecmcnl lo
his purposi' What (Diitrdilicts his puipost is {■jJlcil 4>ad': and ihi-rc is
^' Al-|iiiva>ni, J^i^amlvvn, 2Gj d. 4'j-fi. G Hiuraiii'^ ar[ick, '^Jijwjyrirs nitiri'ini
cf Mu'laiiii C'lliif^" i->:ainmi?s llm Irsiidd only, hul in^l the .^tzamipa.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
55
nci mruniiLjii fur iin badin-i' <it]n'r ihiin \t\t rcmlrdcliclinii hi^ purpose.
Whal TU'Llhcr lonlidcLLC'is imr j^^tccs [with his piiqi'>sH iii i\ilU'd Vain'
{'ab/ilh\ 1 t. Ihiil Ihrn- ii no bcnrfil ija'ida) in il dl dJI '^
This marks; ei crucial lurn towards emoti'.isni. which jl-Ghazall
ajdvances as an iJiprnalive to Mu'lazilf elliiral objecti^lstn. He iire;ueR
chaE all nini'al judg^'iiscnB are redurible lo ihe ■iubjecli^e consider-
alioiisof splf-interp.iit^ v\.z. agrpemein ajid coiilradiflioii to fhf agent^s
cikI.s. Tbr>r cw'i^v iLUJiiiaii:]y from i:iL]oiii:>[is. iiuliiitfLiinifh {iitm'l) ihal
cnnsirii ofi'sliinalirin {ir-tihiij and imagitialioii (khqy/if), and ^lem from
tbe nalura] disposition {lab'], rallier ihan reason.^* "Goodnei^s and
badne-is. for all luiman beings, are expre.'bSioiL^ of reiaEive thingii
{arfit idaJT) thai ditTer according to relatinns". ^^ But ivhy tio humann
somcliniei perfonii ^ppari?inly allrui.slic acl3i? .\]-GhazaIr e>;p]ain-i
that siicb acts are motivated, Jlrsl hy generic sympathy (ihe standard
Asb'ari explanation)^ and second, bv ibe agenl being acciislonicd to
.'bOme arts dejipi'ving pi aise or blajne.^^
Witli Lil-Chazrill, ibii flubjcdivium i^ not rr^^ardrd r^olrly na a
dialeclical nolion thni serves to lefnle Mii't^izilT etbical rciilism. but
it conatitiiteji the grauntis for d consequentiali'it nDrmati^e eEliici
tbal cnntiasls willi the classical AsL'avT deontological stance. Tbe
consequences of acts become tbegroLmdH for moraliEy, on uhich the
Legal ^uthoiity of Re^'eladon will real. Al-Ghazali, dierefoie, writeK
of three i^enses for the expresjiion 'good':
[f^l Siinii' use iL Ech <3<'^i*rndEi' .ill thai ai;rfTS with an rnd [^harad\
wln;(h(T Liniiii'iiidErly iir in the dislanl fuEiiri'. \b\ Sonic !hpr<-if\ ihaL
to wKat ao^cB *vilh an Cud in iLic hcrrflflcr^ *%-lufh izs lvIieiI RtvCJiltd
Law made acmrf [ha'i'iaiia], i.i- il I'xhorled thi' pi'ifdniidiiri' llirrciif and
pnnniH-d R'\^:ir<i fcir il. Thii is iht ti'i^hnu alseiist {i^iilii}sj <if ciur fi^lkiv
a^sirtmlr'!] iaihohiina). ...
[c] Then' is j lliird lechnfcal sense fcir il ll nijv be sanJ, ^'lln' ac tiiin
of God, i'Ndlti:d, is gcmd*', wh-jEcvcr it may lie, Jiid lh<iugh He h.is in>
Cnda- This ivJI mtdn ihal [Hiii uclioiil fsiJi rc^uJt In iicLlh^r fonfir-qu^'iic
fjiT, ncir bldnie on. Him, and Eh-jt He aql^ rn His dnminiun in vhich
He hai no ta-sharcr.^^
■'■' Al-Ghazall /^flifff/. If-^:i:f Mmia^, l,5l>-ft' ^^rfujijitf, 90; Hourjiii, "ChizaE
on thf ElhtH:i of Ai' Lion", eip. 7I--1-. (Jii relevjiil ^(:flinn5 itt Mivvr i!l-'\!in ^«e MicI»^h>I
MarniLirj, "■^I-fJhazSlT rm Elliical Premises"
■' Al-GhazalL Iqth^ii, 17?-+.
■^"' Al-Ghazall IqSkM, ll>4.
■^'' Al-GhazalL Iqli^M, I 7C 11".
56
UHAFTEk TU'O
The third sense ii clearly rrlaled lo ihe fir.'bl [wo. AI-GhazalJ then
goes on to give the Ash'ari dermition of 'wisdom', in teinii^ of the
})tTfcL-[ion iif knowledge diid diiiuii.
The infliipnre nf ;i]-fihri3Slh\ I'liftiinenr^iry roiispqiipntiali'ini rm
later miiinsli'eiitn kulam was apparently hiniled. We find cUssical
Ashman voluntarisni being defended hv al-ShahrastaiiT, who also
rejects the iLeory ol nrotivaEJon enlirely. ^" 1 hijh same stance appears
£i\'io ill zil-R^/.T';^ railicsi Lfilam Tvoi'k, L.iHl nl-dlit, vhcrr lit iviiifm:
f^UlJini^ lis y<nnl III lEin Ifiii 1l> ;s|jhli Ii^js. IiiiIi-(-(I, j luIi' i iiii iiIlS (vi^ ■'uinl-
htSa^ bddncH, iiblii^Jlicin, prcihihilion, n^cnninn'iidalion {nudh], ri'pri'-
hi'iisibili^v {h^ahiydj :iin[ prrniinMliililv) rtly nn ihr sldHlrmcnl:! <>f ihr
Liiw=iv(r. 'Gcmd' IlS M'lial R.^'v^'J[cc^ I..aiv ifri'^sciiti prjL^c fir cfni' whcf
dura il^ jnil 'bat!' in i^'hal Ri'vi'alci) \^\\ pri'^cnln blaini' for mu- ivlio
d<ic's II. . Gnodnrsa t tin' ii-inn^ an tht Ldw'i prcscniatiiin of prainr
ri>r iiiK' i^ho doCB [an ursj.
Des}iiLe dl-Glidzrdi, deoiiiolugitiil ediu.s I'einaiiutl, uiuil al-RrLiT'-, [inie,
riie [lninin:iiil li'eiid in knlUm among hnlh \lii'rji7ilT.'^ niid Ash':irT^
Yet. al-Ghazalfs approach sijinals ^''^'^l^^i' edertirLiiii; ^diich \^il]
lead to al-Razl'i definitive devclopnieiiLi in kQlam elhies.
Etkkal Vake
^\hei'ea^ al-Razfs eadiest knovn hiidm work, Usui al-dlit, pre.ients a
[la^.'tK c\\ Ash^arl theiJiy i>f \iiluC: wc eiurouiiln a nirnr ^nrjihiMK aU'd
ethical theory in his later works. In the Muk^isal, he defines tlie
central value terms as follows:
'CcKicTin'sn' (hii'iri) and 4>adin'ss' [ifiilih) may he iiiEi'ndri] Lri refer In \a\
a^n-rdhililv [pmlaama diid disAgrerabiiiSy [munofaFd] U> iSinpcisiEinn [tab'),
and lo [^1 .'Knilc'thlng brliij' jn ultikbulr: elf p[:rf!'i-tlini iw zrnpi'rfnc lion .
In lliesf IvKi neiLses, ihey ajv rddundl ['aqlt) [c iini^cjflumn].
Thi'y nijy al.'w:) Ih; inlcndcd l<i refer Ki [f] some ihinjr en (ailing ri'vviiid
or p LI rii^ h m^ rtl ^ :3iid pmi'ft' [maiHi) i»r IJ^im: {dhatniij Fiir u^ ibk ^rnsK
E Legal \ihaTi\, ccinlra thr Mu'ldzila
These three definilioni; lepresent distinct ethical stances that al-
RazT, as we ^ill see, eventually develops into a coherent teleological
^'Mul^'^a! 47fl-9.
AL-ftAZ[ ON THt ETHlCa Ot ACiTlON
57
olhifs. We need to analyse these ulaiires separately, stiirting with the
t\^'o that relate to the ethics of action: tlie sjbjefti\i.'it .lilance in llie
prr.sFiil sefiion. and Liie 'Lrj^dP fiid.nce fuidicr brkm in ihirh diapier.
The perferlioni.tit ■^rniirF, whirh rplale*; irt ^inriliiJle^ nf esspiife and
character, will be the focus of the next chapter
I'hf eailiesi account ofal-RazT's suhji^ctivLht dfEiiiifion of value can
alieady hf found (alongside the two other deiinilinns) at a shghtlv
l^lcr ^[ajff ihaii I'^.tHJ al-din, in his rafly kalHin work tlic hhaia:
\'Lin ili'^ii?n j[(^ ihc ^vc>rd 'ccmd' ffiniawj liir vi'haL juri^i'i ^vitli his ^'nds
{wafaqa ^^haiadaK), and ihi- uiird 'bad* \qablh) Icir vvhiil conlraditL'v ikMlafd]
his ends. Acmrdiiigly, d thing may ht giK>d in rc^ldEioii [i> oni' pi-r3i>n,
bjcl in r^'Ijlkin [if ^iicflhor
This same vieu' is advanced in later wnrks. Al-Razl writes in the
.\iiilakb. '^Whal we iimHpr^l^nd bv ^gondn''^''' ^nd 'badiies?" t nothing
but benefit (m^nfu'i) and hmn-i (nmdtiriny'^^- and in ihi:- Ala'alii}!, "There
is no meaning for [judging acts as] good or bad {iohsTn it-a-taqbih]
but the acquiring ol benefits and the avoidance ol" harms'.''^ The
samf: apphc^ to other vnJuc terms, .iuch azi 'gnod* [khayi), ^adv^iitagc'
[ma.\laki)], 'evil' (iharr) and 'disad\antage' {mqfsadd)}^ Moral judge-
ment, therefore, is subjective and reducible to self-intercsl. As the
\'alue.'i of acts are connected in dit'ir coitsequence.s for the individual,
whether pa^si or rx|3ec[i:d, they are rotJipleiely iigeni-ielaEive. The
same act will relate differendy Ho the ends of different agenJs; it
ma\' resuh in favourable consequences for one person, for xi'honi it
will be goofi, but unfavourable consequences for another, for whom
it will be bad.
Thia analyMS of moral judgr men t. winch appears from the hkdta
onwards, seems initially' to be a borrowing from al-Ghazall, wiio too
defines va.lue in tei ms of agreeabilit^' and disaoreeabilitv to the agent\
'ends'. This Ghazalian influence higlilights al-RazI^s incieaibinglv
psv^ hokigita] apprgarh in riliita, adioii and ilie theory of human
nature in genei'al Al the e^ii'ly Flage of the hh/sr/i, however, ni-Ra^T
Still adheres to the classical Ash'arT theory of action, which lacks anv
significant psvchological component
By contrast, in none of his later works do we End moral value
^8
□llAPtlEk T^'O
h^'inj Heriiipd willi rcfprcnop lo 'end', or 'objertive' {gkafsd. Wilh his
ill freaibi ugly psycliologira] iheorv of aclioii^ hi.s approacL lo moral
\c\h\r will icqLiilr (Irdlrl prhVtliulifi^kal icfdiVlUf pcriiLUi llidll ihc
notions lif aj^'eeiiipiii nv\(\ iTi'^agrei'iTn^nr with piirt;. Tn the Xfnffi'ih^
;il-RazI points out thai ^hile 'end' refers ici the external, 'objpclive^
sEate of affairjh that ihe agent attains or expects, 'moci^e' liai a fi\h-
jpctive; psyehoiogiral veferein."^'
Thii^, ill jVtftayat irl-'uqu!, a.'< in thr ahn\T paA'<agc fi'oni the hliihfi.\sal^
iil-RazI wi'iles ihal "^ciodiies^ and badnesi mav be intended to
designate agreeability [mula'ariia] ai:id di^^^agreeabQity {miinafsm) to
dispo.'bition^'.'*" Later^ in the Aiha'in, he writes,
"Wr knc>\y thjt^ viithin (nirnf^lvcfl, soitic things arf: agrccablj' (mufa'tfn)
Icf !iiir c[[:.tiiniliini.s, jnd IKliI M^[^^' <iw dl^ J^r^^' jlflo \'nuiiafir\ to iiur
dii<pi)ihiLiiin^ Plrdsurc [lisdhdha^ rtiid vvhdt Itdda lo it arc dgrrcabli'. Pain
and whai Ic^dcl^ to il arc dt<d_^n'c-ahlc.
Benefit and barm, iheretbre^ are ukiniately defined in lerms of die
primal sensations o]" pleasure and pain that the agent exijerienee.'b;
or cspctts Co cspcriciicc.
Ai-Razf fonsideis pleasure and pain tn bf real {haqtql\ ihubHttf
plienoinena that aie among tlie nio.st immediate and self-evident
ilemi of human knowledge Tliey have simple essences and cannot
he defined in terms uf anything else, nut even (as Ibn Sliia defuirs
iheni) ill terns? f>f our perfpplioii [idiak) nf \^'hat is 'agreeable' or
'disaareea.ble' to ourselves.''"
Therefore, al-Razi maintains that the notions of 'good^ and 'bad^
are Vationar, in the sense [hat they reler lo mental perceptions ot
-■iomc simple, inEcrnal acnsalions (in roiilrasl tn tln'sc iit>cioii.'< being
essentially Legale defined with lefcrenre to Revelalion). Yet, tbouo;h
perceived inlernally by the mind, these sensations do not stem^ijrrE
die mind, but from the agent's natural dis|30silion Hob'), i.e. nol from
reason, hut de^iir. Al-RazT frci|uendy cballtiiges ihe Mu'iazila 'lo
shoiA th;it t\\f ^vei'.sifln lliat nne find*; witliin hirr^elf [tnwarHi had ;icls]
is rational, rathei' than ori^naling in natural disjjosition [tahftf^.
Ai sueh, al-RazT's elbical rationali:;in tahim ol-'aql wa-laqbihuh)
*'' .\ihsvQ. lol. 19'ja.
^' Arbkii, 24li: rf. ,Yfl/i, 19-20; Ms^slmi, ^{.
"" TliL'; ii diifus-^ied in more delail, p. I5G fF. iiifiii.
AL-ftAZ[ ON THt ETHlCK Ot ACiTlON
5a
is at odds wkh Mu'tiizili ethical ralionaJism. Rather thiin a reiilisi,
fognilivLit ethics^ he appears in present what in eonteinpoiary phi-
lijMjphy i.s drfhiLiibrd ni, diu-ini-u^ bi dieort ufcEhks: iiiuul sULrjnciiE^
mpvpiy eyprpss n^n-r:ilion:il iiif lin:ilinnj; ;inci iisipiil^e^---Fen?^lioni
of atttciction and repulsion towards eeriam acEs and (hings — that
emerge from oiip's niilural dii^position. Ill say. Lying is bad'. I will
mean. '1 hate lying', ov 'Lyin|i is repulsive to me\ In his cruicism of"
Mii'tazill cthifal rralisni, al-RiizT writes:
TJ iIh ;H[Li-[iii-iiL, 'BiiiiiTu rii[ i (ifi'Jti i^ uirufl , i< frrrcd Iti Fllnn: (lH rn.c]
btin;r liked h\ ihc dinpodilirm jnd d(\'viri'd l>y ihe scli \nafi'.. since it
c (iiLsliluti^s J i^jusc lor dir iKturrrnct iif bciii'fits, ihis w<)uld he true
a.nd i-(irmL-t. Wi; do mil dliTJuli; wil}i v<ni ih.il kncfti'Ii^cli^c ctf its ijiUkI-
Dfss in this itnM' is immfdiale ALsu, il Lh(^ sldH'ininl, '"WrEinfidfiiiig
1^ hdd", rtfc-rrrd tu its 1h-idj^ hiiEfd by the dispitiitiun dnd drtcslcd in
thr hi'dLrL, iiiii-c lE (i>n^lLliilt"^ :■ lyusc for ihi' ixi-urri'nci: iif i>Eiinfi, ^rkT
dnd -iCirrcPYs, ihvn rherc ivcjutcf lie itii dL?|>uli' in dfjl kiiinvti'djiic' of iW
hdidnj'ns in ihia sonsf^ iji iinmi'dLili-. . (J<iodn<-ss and biidni^ss beccmic
inlerpreErd [imtfitii/ii] ihriiiiuh tii'n''lll iinci hiirrn^ iint\ ^ dv^ nl ii jr ^^d
Someone with "a sensitive disposidon and subtle hiiLTLOurs'^ will
tend tn be eharitable in his conduct and atiiiudes. By eonU'ii-'ii, d-
Raal adds,
I saw One of the giraltst (irkini"s, vihti was ulteriv iiJlhlf:s^^ and ■vi'hosc
SEtU' pltii^urc wiip lo Wiilc h killliij^ and piJI^ei:. Xhi' nutri: liruliJ th<;
fcirni (if lorEun' he wa[ih<-d, ihi' mnri' compLfle %v<iuLd hi' his jij^ and
thr jii\-idl rxprL'ssiciii mi his faci:.^'
For such a person, killing aLid pilhige are goofl, the more bnitiLl
the better.
Novv, we saw id ibe previous cbapler how jl-Raa concludes that
allhuiniui motives and value judgements are rooled in, and reducible
to, the two basic sensatioii'^ of pleasure and pain. He contends that we
know [mmediatelv (bi-l-dafUiti) that we seek some things and incline
lovfardfi [lieiii tiiid die iepiLl^(-<l by ciiLiers. From ibrsr iiicliiiaciiriia,
our vahie Judgements are formed. He po^^iis the question of whether
these inclinations and lud^ements have, at their core, some primal
inclinations frinn which they ultimately emerge, or not. If not, then
cither infiidte regress or circular interdependence of inchniitions on
=■"' Mai^M. S. S47.
^' Maid/ii. 1, 'LiiO I.
60
UHAFTEk T^'O
rarh other will folkiw, both of uhicli arc inroiiceivahlf. Therefore,
ll'if-rc musl. be .ibOmelhing thai is i^oughl in itielf and another thai is
LfLicd ill iifhdf uluiiid-u-lv- He- loiuiiiuei,
Hjvq]!" iru'dirdU'd jnd invi's[i|L;jlc:i! (SB^mmiia/na iru-bahalfmn^], \w h:i\T
Siuiiit imlliijij^' ihJE IS iscmslft iii ilsc'lf bill pli'asurj' diid jit>', or the prt-
vi-iiln)ii (if pjin -iml jj'ric-f jnd noLhini^ Ehjt is hjttil in ils<-lf bul pain
and j^ritf, or iht' prfr^rnlidn nf plrMssirc wi^ ^PY-''
AerorHiiig to al-RazI, that we do maiif value judgemfnts iiidepen-
dnitly i^ a iclf-L^viirlriH and inarguahlr lacl.. However, a-i the triir
nature of valine can only be discoveri^d through ralional reflecdfin, our
knowledge of it is not immpdiiite, bui discursive. Tor <he Mu'tazila,
hy conliaiit, bolh the truth of moral judgements and the essences
of moral vakie!i can eonstitulp inunfdiatc knowlcdgp. A Mn'tazill
may ave;ij<' rhal all rational men acrepl lliat lying i^ bad, and thai
when anyone is a.sked lo explain ihis stalemenl, he will affirm that
die hiidncss of lying is inirinsie. Al-Razi rejecis the latter rlaim and
aigues tiiat ^In generally acceplrd convfnlion {at-'utj al-'amm al-maiti-
fiHi), ^vhat people mean by clic cxprciiion 'r\'il* (shait^ is 'pain and
what leads to it' ".^' Yet^ in itself, this ron\'endonal usage doe.s not
constitute evidence for the inimediae^ of ttii^ kno\^iedgf. Indeed^
he arcepis that some people uill make value judgements, believing
(^vroLigly) [hdi vaJut is iiiirinsii lo di ls.
A melaelhir^ th(^r>ry of mora] judgement and molivalion of the
.sort that al-RazT ad\anfes it often described a.^ an egoism, or. f^iven
lis empliasis on the priinacv of the prudential and pie asure-sf eking
motives, a hedoni.sm. Yet, al-Razrs theory' doe.s not amount to a
crude hedoiiLini: for he oudincu a hierarehy of di^ieiions of pleasure
and pain, which (at we will see below) differ aceording to uhich
pari of the person experienres them. Joy' is a n on -physical type of
pka.sure, and 'j^rief a non-jibysieal type of pain, whereas the expres-
sion 'pledsuit' Is ollcn used naiiifVily for puicly physical ^jlcajuic''^
He enniinne.s:
The Ijpriflit tliHl {•/ ^<mghl Ffir il-? lyiy-n ^rilij' ii- rithtr plr^^iiri" nr Jnj',
and the barm ih^I i^ avoidril in ilihcif is nlbcT pjiin or J^t'f. So il is
intersaarv Ki invtsti^ait wliic U u ';(rniigf:r' pk^-i^urc or jriy, pain rtr grwf
''■' E.g., .Vd/., |(l-?0 .Ifanclited p. 1 1 1 irt/w)
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
61
Wl- 3JV lliiil iJii.'v vdrn'3 friim ^oul Id stm!. There arr thfj^r wh<j jirtfer
biidili' pti'asiirr, vvhilr oilier^ pirftT jov-'^
Wherever al-Ra/J speaks of 'plciisure' and ^p^iin' as ihe primal baseii
f(j[ iiitriiil (lEEitiidcs. lln'fir hlnjiild Iji: iiiitlc-iMLJinl a^ irfiri liiii^. iiin. lo
phy^inl ple^Mires anH |"ijiiiim only^ liiil to ple:i';iirf ^itd p:iin gfiier:il]'^
re^ardlesis of [heir Cype.
The same procesjie'i mv] fartois that govern nioliviLlion for action
(iiirludiiig the agent's internal dlsposi lion and external eiieumslaneesj
^Lsn e;o\'erii the making of ihoi'dI jiidgpnicnt?. Vov iiisilanrf. hiiim in
divided into [u] harm proper, or 'positive' harm, [b) the negatioii of
benefii, and (c) the negation of whiii prevents harm; %vhi]e benefit
is divided into (a) beiiefil proper, (b) the prevention of harm, and
ic) ilic" fn-yaEJiHi i]f ■wLat uirMriiL^ briiefn. There di i- aLu [Eryierrh of
-K^
S'
barm snd benefit, and eon.'ierineDlly nf goodness and badness, lyino
is generally considered le-is bad than wiongdoing, since it nornially
results in mQder harnii than thase normally re.snlting from the latter. ^
A value judgeinei» on a certain act uiU depend on a pnideiilial and
pie a 'iure- seeking falrulalion ihiit orfurs in the agent's mind "*' Thiii
notion of a menial ealciilation behind motivation and valne judee-
inent appears lo Ije horroued primarily from Mu'lazilT dibcussioni*
ol the theme of advanlage and disadvantage. '"
j\]-RazT infoniLi us ihatboth A.sh'ail'i and \hcjata^i/a rcjcrl Xlu'cazili
moral realism.''^ \vhifh indicates thai ihemain inflnenee.f on his later
ethical thouglit are not simply classical Adi'arls and al-Ghai^ali.
As we \^'i]l see bflot^, he aho adopts Ibn Sma's \iew tlial moral
statements, such as 'Lying is bad\ are widely -ace epied (nnn/ifmrf^
.'itatement^, co lis dtii ting lillle more than convrnlioiial beliefs, not
items of knowledge. "*'' It appears that, in his ffihafi works, al-RazI
makes aiifilher, related borroviing from Ibn Sina. He contends that
statements that have value terms, such as ^good , 'noble and 'base',
as predicates arr I'Ji.sriilially rhetorical {Utatabtj Value ^itatrmcnts
teL us noticing about the reaJity of the things or acts diey describe.
^^ MaiQlii,, \ 24.
'■'" Cr. p. 4-fi-9 iapm.
^^ Maimi), S. 2K9.
■■^ ?<■<■ ]i K9 kfra
62
UllAPtlEk T^'O
hut, whfii usi'd in r^'ilain conteKl.. thev only iiim lo pfrsuadp [iqn^
common peciplc.
Mi'idl .sEait-mnui. iXwi^,, i^iihri cxpri'sn rmcjiioiis, or rvokc [hnii
in ;iii aiirlipnfp^ in ■whirli ci\^c thej' ^^'ill he pvpsrriprivp. As fliirh, ilip
seemingly faclual, desniplivf sldtement. 'Lying is bad^, \%ill be tan-
lamouni. to ihe im]">erative, 'Do no[ tie!' Tbis sEanoe, wbirh ai-RlzT
adoprs toimlbn "Sxxm, is reminisrenl of roiileinpoi'aiy noii-rognilivi.'hl
inoi^il ihfoyirei (bodi <?moiivL'it and pnrsr Hpiivieii). including iKl ^io-
callerl "Bno! Hoofab!' approach to moral expressions. It is inteie.'itiiig
dial al-Ra/.T takes it to bears more iban Ihn Sina doe.s, whom be
criticises in bis di.'iriLssiun ol' tbe llienry of emiiiiation Jbr using sueli
d vdJiie iiiiicnicnl aii a premise:
Hi- .suites in [hi' Book i>f Dfinun^traiion of llic Shifa' thai if yow fiin! ihi'
kinnvh'd;^c--sc:<:krr isjyiD^, ''fhi'^ w iiulilc; ihal is luisi"*, Ehi'ii know duE
hi" is confumd. Sci — m^ guodni'ss! [lajfa ^hi'rt] — h(i\v due:-; lie dlloiv
hiniM'lf licu' m jsf ihis rliciuiitdl pic:iniz<i: in ihc pn--ii:ii( iciciiiilic
iLsi^ussionJ
iCt
Rhelofic bj? il.'i appropriate places. Bill discussions of objective
science ^re not ciinone; them.
AI-RazT's viewEb oatliiied .lo-far con.stilute a de.scriptive metaethica)
llieory. But what kind ol normative elJiics cJoes lie arl\ance!' Most
immediately, his moral siilijccti\'i'<m forma an ideal framr.'wcirk for
a self-centred con.seqnenlialist ethifal theory, ibe ^'iew tbat an act is
good if il sei\'es the agent'.'i ov^'n inlercslii, bad if il coiili'adicts them.
Yet al-R^zI considers it superflnous to piovide reasons for such a
prudential iintl pleiirtur<^-ar<:king nininaLive sJaiic^^. He i.djtrh i[ for
gr:inlpd thai ^11 r^ilionnl hiiiii:in being.i [indeed e\'en animnts) u'ill
.seek pleasure and avoid pain by their veiy naturr.s, and uill know
immediately that they ought t<:i do so. "Avoiding barm as much aih
possible is rationally iinperati\e {matlntji i-'aqif'S" As siicb, a basic
.■iclf-ccntred consrqucndalism (a so-called ^ethical cgoisiin') will follow
immediately from psychological ej^oism.
Yet al-Ra?.T's normative etliics is more complex. Firstly, while
this basic sell -centred consequentialism seems lo concern mainly the
" Reaiiiiig 'i!mi iufXead of 'mians.
^^ KearliLig yakhhtit mslead ol ^alila.
'''^ Sha>ii al-hhars't, 2, 50; c{. 2. 5-3; 2. ^9\ Mahahifh, 2. +3^; Km Sma, Sr,i/a\
Matsii/. 5, 131.
AL-JlAZY ON THt ETHICK OE AOTiON
63
muiitfane, private splipro ihe bii^rardiy of pleasures iiiiff pjins that
he elitborates allav^'s for a pcrrertioiii'it ethic^^ that goe.s beyond thi-i
iiirnre Mid I'rldEe.s v.' Jir ^upid-niLiiiiUiic-, puvaic .splicie (tlir riiibjetL
of ihf following rh^prpr). Xi\n movf iiorni:iri\'p ^t^nre*;, borh lia^i^H
oa al-Raa^s core self-centred eniispqiieiilialism, are preisentetl in
hi-s writings: a roiuviirludisl stance, relaling to ihe mundane piibiic
sphere, and a Legal stanre, reialini^ lo both the private and pablir
.'<phrrc.'i. Tliceir Ljit two eit^ncLei will he OL^inincrt in ihr iwo rollo\\'-
ing sections.
Revaffd Laiv and Elhual Valirf
The speoiid sense of value levms that al-RazI lists in works later
than Uiiil ai-Mn relates ti] Revealed Law. He mitially describes it
as being a 'Legal' {ika/fj ^en«e, in ronlras^l. lo dfe two other s^eiifes,
which are 'raEionaV tlsqlv. In the lifiorn, he pi'esents the siibjeclivist
and pfrlcctionist definitions itf \'aJiie terms, and writes:
"Gemd' alarj drsigndtra whal the agcnE is ncil prcfhibili'cl inan dcrin^
Whal 1^ p<'rmt.sibk {mubahf is good in Ihis .';tii.'<(\ The iamc- applicn
Id [lie '.M'f r'f Cciil
It dki) ilesigikdEirsvvhat ReveiJcd Ljw mtachi^s praiae (jii^rjaj^lauddticm
(i?'iJrtj) and draert {iilikifaif) of reward for one ■who does il. Clonvcisclj^
'InH' i* vvhdt RiTf^dlrH T.iiw iirt;uhi"< bl,inie {ifhnmiri}, drrisinn {ih<iii<!\
diid desert ijf puniahmtni for one who docs it, Whal is permissible,
in this sense, is not good-
Know lhj[, jcrotdin^ lo [hi' dni^liine rif ihi' upbohliTS of toilh, ihesr
last Wm senses do not c (imlituk' allnbiites for ^thal in good or bad
Rjlhci, [[icv aie puietv Lhe relaiiciiLS <if iln' iliMLOui.'t of RtveaU'il Ldw
tG il [muiaiTad la'adnq khilah al-iha/ hi-hi]. Thi'n'fore, if |H'nnisiion [iilhn]
foT [ptrfomiing] an acl is presented^ il will hv di'r<cnln;cl ds 'gOcxi'; if
piiilnbilLoib fujin ii is pii^S'-nLed, Ll will lie cli-si nlied ai 'biid'.''^'
This distinclion between the two delinitions of good' concerns tbe
seDse in \*birh G-od^s arts are said to be ^ood, though not zm being
'comnianded by Hini'. In the Alah.^nl^ al-Razi prefers the former
definition, g^^i""!:; pi'iiii=ifV to the notion of ^bad'. which is defined
more straightfoi \vacd[y thaii 'good':
\\\- medn hv 4>ad' i^'hal is I.L'gallv pmhibilvd (iiiaahs'unh %f\a'^«ii)\ and Irf
'ga^ii\' wltzil 1^ iti»t Li't'^ly prc>h]l»ilc'd. Ini:ludc:[i lit [iKls dcflniEi^inl ^"ill
-■^ /^Ji-i. fol. ^^h-^la.
64
□llAPTt^k TWO
^f^^God'a acts, and llir dc 1j tif obliijdCrii jirtnK — be lhryol>[ii^aE(iry acla
{jfio/ififl^, rci^dmnirinltcl dtts \fRi^fli^ir/jrir| i>r pi'rnii.s^iblc jc In [iimbahaij — da
w<;ll iLS [hi- acti itf the unawjrt, the ■Ji'cpcr and ^iiimjl;!. Il is mon'
a|fjmipridtc' ihaii nj'^ing, '"Thr gcjod is \vhal lih Legally p[Tiiiiltc:d'\
iinct il fijIUnv^ frinn il ihat Gctd's acls an' nol grmd.'''
NotwithstaiiHin^^ thes? dHinilions are e^scniiailv iniaiKPS ctf the
■sdiiic 'Lr^dl' fi|i}riij.ii \\ U) v.iliLi", eIh" ilifl'ncm r* bring ijiil\ in iliadil.
Tbiis, in hi^ r^avly wnrks (iieirirc llie Mn'/ilim), ^I-R.a7f foiiliniips in
adhere to the \fjliintari^m of flassieal Asli'^irLsm, reprndaced inosl
ti'adil.ioiiall\' in Uiiil ai-dln: value iJi defined in [ernis of divine <:oiii-
inand: 'bad' is wlial (Jod prohibils; 'obligatoiy^ is wbal He eom-
mand.'i fategoi'ifally
The ernlial ethieiil pinhlem ibu? remainF^ ibe same as tlial of elas-
sieal kalens-. u'helhei \h.? foundfllioii of moralilv Ls divine eomniiLnd
or unaided reason. AJ-K.azI writes in ihe Arba'in:
[There Js] disputf civcr whj'lhcr the- mnna lion of wmw: j.ds to iilanic
in ihi? iTctrld jnci to piini?hnn'nL In lln' hj'rLjri'T. jnil (hi: ciniiii:!--
lion (if (ilhtrs Eo pr^iiihC in ihia world and tn n'w^ird in the hi-rtafliT,
arr due to an alEnilutC of thf atl ilscll or, ronlrarily, purely ta ihc
iiirliri'nn 'n I 'if Rt^'Crilrd Tifiv "* lliiiE j'fffrt, or ihr ji [dirr'Tn'Ti ( 'if lltn^C
feiniM'li'dgeaLiU" in il.
Mu'tazrli:^ ijiy ihal the i auars ol" these judgrnients jtc atlnliulr^ in
a<-|^ ihrmsfK'e!' Our [Ki^'^ition is iha! ihry iirr puzcly the judgements
ihukm] ol Re'.-ealed Ldw.'^"
Tlip enniniaiids and pmhibilions of Rf\ealed Lau are pre.iieriptioiis
dial relale lo ans, bin do iiol unveil any red moral alU'ibules nf
diem. "There will be no meaning to 'badness' but a speeitir rela-
tion to the diBcourse of Revealed Law {khitab al-.iha/y ,°^ viz. being
forbidden bv it as unlawful (nishy ol-ta/irim' . Al-RazT then addrei^ses
a main Mu'lazilT ohjeelion:
|Obje( licm:] ''Hjd goiidiifss and hddnrspi irnl Iwi-ri knoviabic by n'dson,
Il would hjvc liticii nnpcissibU- lor !i5 to kimvv thi'in jIIit K<'vi'ali'd
Law prrsenlrd ihi'm; f(ir ii'^serdriQ {iti'/fig) must hr pmrdi'd hy con-
rejilion {layaii.-cciii\. Th(-r<;fon', ihe b^st (if goculnts'v and b-idneis must
be knowdble by n:aaijn."
•*' Mah<(i/. 1/1. I^Rl ef. Xthaji/, ri.\ I99b-?n[)[., ^■hi'ic ihi- prtiiii ij; made lit
replv lo a Mu lazilE ob|ecii<m lelalii^ lo [he sanit problem {cf. 'Abd al-jahbar,
M^M. fi/1. 107).
'^Atbdbi. 24r>; d. MahyHL 1/1. 159-60; Ahliaui/, 479.
i«>jy,jT|.fl, f..\. 5Wlb
AL-ftAZ[ ON THt ETHlCa Ot AOTION
65
[Rcpl^"] \\r i!<> iic>( {■laimtlidE wi; Ji^cjuirf: (iinccpliclnfh <)f thr I'SiirniXN
of jrumlncjii and bjiliif-i\ rn>n] Rj'vralr'd Ld\^ — whu h may rnldil ihc
rmir yiu ri'fi'i Eti. Fur wv may say thai 'ijblii-aliiry' is vvhal (hi; Ldw-
givcr fornniands ihc prrformani^f ihtTcuf jnd fdrbids us froiii nmil-
tinjii TJiis much is rcind'i^^i'ri bv us prijir In our ri'ixpliiui nf Rtv*-Ai-d
Law. ThiTflurr, in id^iin" llial ihcsc jud^i'nitiils ln'ciimi' dffirEiscd only
\yy Kt-vi:^}fd Ljw, wv do no! imply that thty titc^oinc mlclligiblj: by
Rr\('dJi'c] Liiw alniiit.'"^
toliowiiig riassiral Ash'ans, al-Rri^.f aiialyi^es tlie notion of 'obligation'
as ii^irtl in ordinafy languai^f b^' rffoiviifc En \^ill and command
'command' (ami) beinjj; defined ai> "rfqufstinjf [ihe pcrlbrmance of]
an act vei'baJly b^" way of supprioricy I'alJ .idb^l fl^EjfiVflV'." Tbii
miicb is undei'slood by liiiniiLii.s independently of revelation. Tlie
fai E didE a lulir ia tonuiiLinded if. G<jd iii iE;.rlf roiisULiiirs iLi being
a Hilly rather rhan a rfrrtjin Eol' iis obligatoi'inei^ 'Ohlie;aicirv* Miinpiv
mean.s rommanded bv CiodV
There is nnthiiig .slrikiiiglj original in this voluntarislie notion of
ethical value, except that the ^Legal^ definition in juxtaposed with
two oshrr dcfinidons. In al-Razi's farly workti, this jiisiapo'<nioii
appearib to5;er\'p the negative piirposeof sbo\vin!» thai the Ij'e;al sense
is independent of the two other senses^ iuid hence noii-iational. It iii
non-conseriueiiticibst; lor the sole fact that an act is commanded by
Go(I vrill iiiaki' iL gimd, rr^ardlcis tif it^ c-i)iisr<:[ueinrs in ilii^ vsorld
or the hereafter Al-RazT wriiep in the MfihiHl:
Xh"' <-.s(-nrr mF i>}Jl["^lririn''Jh'i \fil-/J^ hrr'imfu J-?tHhlijhlir[! -aI the lirii-
hibitioii of innilling ihc acE Tci I'sEabhsh (his, it suffitts ihdE Llainc
follows frcim cmiission; ancE ihi'n; is iio nci-d far jJuni^hnn'nE lo fiiJkiv
frciin liinisinjn
[| IS slraiigi' EhaL al-GhazSli discusses ihis prrihlcni afEiT sctulmisiii,^
the d('<iniLinn siivm for 'dhligalory' as 'punishable if (imiLU^d' and
staling; ihal il is brtU'r lo ^ay rhat '(iblijjjEor^^' i^ 'li'ailmi; Iej blainc-
wurdiiiic^ss if omilli'd' This is an adrnissicin by him liiat f\l/ib}i.\hmg
the i^yifMLf uf ifi' t'f'iigtiitin diie\ 'uicdtficxid \ii\ puniyhimiic^ hit (ImU the ili"<cii of
blame m/ficf^ in e<ttiblnh \L 1\ii-n. hv says ihaE tUr essi'nc v chf obhya-
tion is f^stabhsht'd (inlv Itv ihc preponderance- of tht pertorinaniH' [cif
thr dLl] inLi If [ I ] is-iii 1 1 1 dnJ nii-M4#iLiii'iaiic c ls j<[ili-if.d unit chiifLL^li
|jiinishmr;nL. IJoubllcss ihis is iin cjbvious tciniradictinn^
■" OLijr^CLLoilLA'^u, ful. 199b; Rtjilv ^V\Mj'u ful. ?00b.
'' Afalii^l. ]/?, 22. ^Cnmmiuid', jl-Rail nt:imlaii]s, f^nnrpl he deliiied Ji '^coii-
vejini! \ikfibar] llial the pum^hmi'm of ohl: who ninil^ [the acl] h viilli-d'
■^ .\MM I/?. S4n-?Lrf fll-Ghazali. Mu^ltfi/^. I.fjii: I. H3
6G
UllAJ^tlEk T^'O
The iimisiLlion of iiicoliPfiMK'P nsidr, al-Razi here clearly objeftj^
to Eil-GhazalT's rnnseqiientialinl iipproiifli lo Li'gal nl>ligatioii^ iiud
favoiii's rlas^ical Asli'arl dennl.olno\: specilifally llie vipvl l^ikeii by
al-Eacjill^nl, iJial ^ibligJtioiL should nol b'' ba.'ject on llie desert of
piLniihment.
Ai al-RazT bfcomes increasingly eclertk and iiwiependpnl of ira-
dirional Ash' art thought, lip becomes more aware of ihe problem-
tiiir jfamrr (if iliis iO-i dlled 'LrjJiir iioiioii of value. If iliere is iii-
cogni^Liblf link belweeii the standard, non-lefhniral ineaiiing^ of a
cerlaiii ^aluf expression and ils lerhiiiral definition; [he lattfr will
j^eera arbitrary' and unjiLslifiablr. Why does 'good' mean Vhat Gnd
coniniands^? ^Vhy^ for instance, can we not define 'bad' as 'what
Ginl ( oil II Hindi* ^ And liow do tve drii\c al oljligii1.ii hi from v^ill
niid roinni:inf1, hinn;in or divine, wilhniil refoiir';e lo C(inscqiii?nl
lewai'ct and puiii.shnieni''' Ari^iiably, the fact that sci'iplural pre.sci'ip-
Lons are made by an absolutely superior being neither means, nor
immediately entails, that they are obligator^'. But iithiii obligation
has to be rmiibliihrd b j^ aiiothrf divine eoinniand *Gbr^ My coiii-
manr1'?f\ 'Tlioii nught (o obey Me!' — then wbat make.i obedience to
diis fommand obligatory?
In his later works, the Ms'alim and the Mslalib, al-RazT uill aban-
don dennloJDgy in favour of leleolog^". As his later motivalioiia]
p.'<yrholngy leave's no room for iion-lclrological aclioii, hf adopts a
dioi'ou^hly CO n.spquenlialist ethics of anion. One crucial prcmLiie will
he introduced into ihe prudential and pi e as uie -seeking ealeulalion:
dial afterlife pains are by far the severest of eiU po.'isible pains, and
afterlife pleasures are the ino.'bt exrellent plea.'^tire.'b thai humans may
es;perienre. Since ibis-worldly pains and pleasiireA are comparatively
mundane, the nio.'it rational course of action for the believing a^ent
will be lo seek \\\!i own per.sonal salvation by aiming to a\'oid altei'lite
puni^Jiment and alliiin afterlife reward. The former aim is prudon-
ualh the least the agent ought to do, since, aecording to al-Rail,
minimising pain is move crucial th^n maKimL*:ing pleasure.
He, therefore, abandon.s the distinction between rational' and
'Legal' conception.^ of ■\alui'. and writes in the Aie'dlmt:
Thciiis^h jScli-nii^htrv priividts a 'yp<' ^'f plitaaurr, rca^oD pnihihitii
{manda 'i\n\ il. Aiid it pn>hihils il only bi'c ju.'vc (if ils ccmvirlion (hal lE
^vi]] conni'qucnlly rt'^uil in i^^^iltr jtaLU ^iiuL uni^f Ihiiv ^hiriLH l}tLiI [he
AL-ftAZ[ ON THt ETHlCK Ot ACTION
67
modc^ <if |^<i(Kljicis, ludnts;!^ siicf imiilc illini^ ft:ir diid dtr<irc: {iBrghib
wa-farhlbj aih pri-( isi-ly as %ri; hjvr <k'scTilicci ...
Xh'i'ii" u^ho viovv y(i'idn''L'i :ind b^Hn'-?T Ji' lit-n|j }LisrH On Rcvj^^lrrl
Law (hi-haib al-'ihaf) dffinc 'hd.d' d^ 'Icdding tci puniiihini'nt if diini''.
Il may Ehcii be said l<i Ihi'iii' Yin \Xi\i .114 cfii IhdE n-jiion iStnidinil'v ihc-
jililiuHlJ^rinr';'' 'jrtijSh') fif iivjildiii^ |iiii[i-.liinpnt, nr H'l v"<i rl.iiin ihriL
this (ihligdiinn L^an be aflirnicil onK Irv RrvTalciI Law* If yiiii hi>[iJ ihr
lormfr ihrn viiu di (i"pl ihjl ^udnc-ss Jiiil lidilm-s^ in Llic Jiliai'iTdijir
Arr iilFirmrrl liv the j 1 nl ui'mtnt nf rf^i^'in. If viui hitid IKj" l^llfr, ihrn
it would ncil btcomc obligdlory upon one: tci avuid thai piiiiii^hnicot
Csc<"pt bv incitliiT ii}jlii"aln]n '\'h.v?, [srt nndj (jhli^aticin ^till nuMn llir
^Ui rfiv'JirMi nf rii 1 n 1 ■:}] iTH 'Ji ljh , ii'hirh iiill ri'uiill in ^n Likliitilr ri'jT-rs^
of punish nirn[ih — vvhii^h is dhsim!. Thfri^fiirf:, reason dtirji A^ffAc judgc-
nicnls isi i^iKxJm^s.'v dnd badnc-ss in the obsttvdlJr.'^
As such, to speak of rategories nf value and of ohligalioii a.s heing
iioii-ralional, bul 'I.,egar, does not make spiisp. Revealfd Law [aii
represriuiog divine < uniiiidiid] Cduuoi dcriiic ublig^Liion as .sucli, liui
provid(^.i^ .uime grniind*; {y'v/.. pr^'^f I'iptions, :ilorg^ifle prrnni^p? and
ihieals of aflprliff con.se^jueiiresX v^'hich the mind di'lihrrates upon.
Al'RazT WTilcii ill tlie Mafahh:
Thi'n" i^ iifi nnjmiii" Ici 'bddin\''s in Lht Lrjij] sens*'' \qfilih \hai'i\ I'sctpt
[d5 fiillijvv.'vj. Ri'vcalc'cf \.A\\- U.-W:. [lhi' djrriii], 'If wiu ^■x'rfiirin sue h-dnd-
^uih ^n lid, vuu ^vilt bi^urnt' p u hIl^Ii ^ilrti; for it'^ Su \ysf mind Ic UlS him,
"'Ouylil 1 lo judiri' the avcfidanit of punL^hnicnl iilJii-aliiry. (ir imj^liL
I no(?" If [his Liiindj jucJj^'s lE ds ^uch, ratioiuL ^(Hidin'i> and bddn(\s\
^vill bi. unuiricil. ir IiLS iitiiLii dcii:^ itirl juduC it ^ z^uch dirn lie ^vili
need Rrvcdlc'd Ldiv Eti ribhi^dEc him Eo j'^yiid puni.shnn'nl. Th<' ]aH<T
case vvill be ihc aamc as tht former, leading Eo infinite: n-gie\i — which
is abjuxd.^'
Al-Razl. lliercfore, ai^iifh foi a 'ralional' notion of rehgioirs moral
value, u'hirh irUe.'i on n process of rationaJ dclibeiation^ iiifoinied
by Revealed Law. That the hutn^n psyche ultiiiiatelv seek;; pleasiuve
and Eivoids psin '^is e\'idpnt through pure reason [ikabil^ mahd al-
'iiqUf), whedier Law {at-Simrtd) exisls 01 iitH — reason judges lorw^
thiug.'i good, others bad''.' ' ^'el moral value is 'riLtitfual' only in ihp
sense of iieing based on inieriial perfepdoos, grasped and reckoned
68
UllAI^tlEk TU'O
by ihe mind, iiol in the sense of being ralionalK' intuited, sa tiie
Mu'lazila maintain.
Al-Rdii iliiL^ dliaiLiFiJiLs I Lii^iL al Arih'aiT MiluiiEaEJ.sLii s aiit^cjiii ally.
This follows from his more fundanjenlal lejeetion of rliissiral kutsm
tfeoinolfjg)' altngciliei' in a bold anrl H^'fiiiitive way, in which aJ-
Ghtii^all before him shows litllc interest. Esseiitiallv, moralitv does
not 1on^i^^ i>f iioii-.nubjrt live diitli's (iiid lulrri uf i-omJiii. [, wlirdicrr
based on inlrin^i^ moral ruialilies of arts, or nil the fominand of a
eerliiiii lawgiver. Riilher. thp measure of moral valne becomes tiie
subjeelive interests of the individual agent, though Rp\"ealed Law is
lein.sEaietl a;, an ohj^-i live sijune foi nurnia live judge men [i.
One iiiJij' ■v^'oiifler, how<'\Tr, ^^'lirther ibi.i^ is t\of mei'ply :i non-
U'aditional route to whal is fundamentallv a very traditional .stance:
a classic^ Asb'ari divine coniniand elliics Is it nol \oluiitarism in
consj^quentialLst garb? And doeslhis slance not lead to the ivaditional
x^pw ih:(i noriiifliive eibirs is pvariired solely ^^^ifhin /I'.nl ni-jiijfi, pri-
marily duough scriptural e.iegesis?
This is very murh the conclusion that aJ-Ghazall reachejh. Tlie
priinarv sources he accepts for establisliing rules of conckict are ihe
Qur'^ii, ihe hisdith, foiisrnsn.'^ aiid the method of analogical reai;oning
{ijiya.s'!?'' Though ijiyas will norniiiUy rely on rules prescribed ^^xpiicillv
in one oi' more specific .itatemenLs in ibe fiist two sources. al-GhazalT
inamtains ihat il could be hiL.sed aiso on more general ^^iidelines diat
pre (li?rived iiidiJcliveU" from the wider body of scripl
ure.
J7
These
concern the objectives {m/iqiad) oi' the Law, which serve the interest
i)f humans in certain general way^, namely, the preser\'ation of reli-
gion, soul^ intellect, ollsprmg and propei'tv/" Vet al-CrhazaU contends
ihat this; form of qiye^ may be applied only in cases that fulfil certain
Strict conditions, nameh where a certain course of action \?, {a) i"heces-
sary {dar^nj for preiier^'iiig one of these five central objectives of the
Law,'-' (*J universally {katlT},^*' and ^t) beyond doubt. Conventionally,
Tlt<! iLirlhod ofr/riak uivcrl\ta llkt rx^iiiitztiitn ofii nartitiiliii i it-r-. ti» ivhLch ii
scriptural ruliiii; applies, n-illi llip aiiniif dflo rmiinite; d I/'^dl e'oiiin! \ilia sha/ijyif}
Ifli ibf applif abiliEy ol ihi' ruling lo llkat ca^e. 'i'hii gnuind mav llicu be uaerl lo
eMublJ^li liirrlier ruling*: rm ncher, ^secrindary' cawa, on ^liich no Trriplnral nilin^';
can bf found, and vvhifli ^\\2rf llial Eiipecl vvilh ih* ori^^na] case
'" Al-Gba^m, Mn'.ia.JS, I, ?!17.
'* 'I'liis 1^ fonlrasrcd lo :n:ls IouimI arii'anla\;einui merely lor ■^en'ini;' a off d
ikas"]- n" Tor iiiiproveineiil IfsJim) Jiid ^'niJitlli^inenl [ta^vif'i i'al'Glia^£T, .\la<tti,//i,
I, l^i. If).
Al-G IkJLZJLli [Alwlaj^^ \, S^S) twci Kite CKOiupIc □£ aa'riii^ iWc entire Muslim
AL-lLVi.! 11^ Tilt. li'nilCa Cjt AOTlON
69
egliibli'jhiiig a ruling by ihi.s method iii nnl snid lo be an in.slanre of
qi}d\, bul an applicalion of ihe principle of *unsuppoited inleresl'
Affording ro ^il-Oli^izrilT, where -a roiirse of artinn may serve an
iiileiest thai .scripture neitlier endoises nor vejecti, and ihat fiiils under
none of {he five <3bjecti\T^s of the Law, or fails to fulfil the roiidi-
tions of unsupported iiiterestj no Legal ruling in rehition to it niav
\fc. iri<tahli.'Jif d, a.i ihi;^ would rori'Sliliite iiiifound^^d Irgi.slatifni. For
al-GhazaJi, thirelbre, guiding human iic lion in aeeordance with the
eonsequence.s of actE^ [i.e. the norinalive principle oiud^h) munt be
coniplftelv suhjjervieiit tt) the jjrunaiT .sources of Repealed Law — viz.
dir QiLi 'ail and llir hai/iih — mainly iji ihr aldXriiiriiEs l.ln:y iiiakc:. ajicl
peroin^larily in ibe centrpl ^nlijeclive?' of ihp T.^liv ihal are derived
from iheni induclivelj\ Even then, ihis apprnarh may be reverted
to only in exU'aoLTliiiiLi'ilv severe circumstances, and. is a form of
iurtcpendeni Legal reasoning [ij!ih3di, it will yield conclui^inns that
iTiiiivjuri^t^ vvill haw good reasons; to qiie!;tifiii and rpjecl. ll appears,
therefore, that though al-GhazalT -itiuls with ii tekolo»ical nietaethics,
hi.s normative ethics of iiclioii is fundamentally a. di\inf command
ethics^ nnl a consi?quf ntialiMn.
Al-Rji/.T lakr^ a very diJfrrciil nomialivc Hlanrc in hii work on uiUl
at:fiqh,xh.e MGhuL He maintaiiiii that ihe aspect (ljii?.^ of 'convenience'
{m\nin\abti) iii an act \ull constilute a ^'iJid grnund ('jUn] thiit may be
used in '/ij^^ {al-miinf!\ab/i dulll ni-'illivya).'^^ <!>on\'enience i.s dffmed in
terms of lienefit and harni; defined in turn in terms of ple^isure and
pain."'' Beisefiu;, according to al-Ra^^ ran be:
L Worldly bciicfitu, which divide into:
(a) Nece.ssnry {damrt} benefit.^ (vi?. preserving the fi^e objectives
of fhe Law: religion, soul, inteUect, offspring and piopei'ty).
crunniuiiily u'ho ii alUckf-d h\' an nivarliiii; amiy, in conlrml In ihi' caii' of ^vinj
Llie livii ol i Innilfirl riLunLrt'i ol" ini;ii, ^^Jiirli will iml Vic tA imitrii'sal coucpiil
"^ Gf. Hauraiij, "(Jlia^jir', H4— 7 On thi> iioDcm of 'uiisupporlpi iniere^l', ^i'
Mnh^nuit^d Kamali, Fiitf^Ie^ (fMmik jariifiiudfiiF, 2^1 (T. ll istomnirni lo Ir^ii^latf
^'la^/aha inwxitliC !■. ■puhlEC inli.roil' Yc-1 ^mai'it/' doc^ mil uifiiii 'piiblw', hul 'l^cli-
iitjC ilii' -.up^ion nr^npiiiriil o^iduifci''' aiirf uideftl, ai ihis noiicin h tlaboiaifd bv
fULLil!,, ll nninkalJy c<^nccnis liolli jjulilit and prralp Ivpfs '^1 iiilei'Kl
1^ Al-Ghazall Ma^Uisfa. I, ^10 -1.
"^ Mafiyiii 111. 247. Gi. ihL^ ^ee p. 97-100 hfra
"' Mah^itl^ 2/2, 2lfi; K\^h\f. 51-i.
-JO
UUAPtlEk TU'O
(b) Benpfils Elial are needed {h^n), but do iiol reach [he level of
iiecesTiiry (e.g. allawiiio property rental) ^''
(c) Ckjin})]i-iiieii[diy [jrncfiii (luh.iiiiy whicli are ncillier iieces.^arv
nir nc'Cflpfl [(^.g. pi]hHr monlir^^)
1. Religious and olher-woddly [ukkiatd] benefits, flei"ved by spiritual
and moral diseijiliue,^^
TliL Lawgiver fiidor^r^ {^rabatd) ^<:imc fornix of fon\rnirnl jctirm
and proicribes [algha. abtala) others. In qiydi, if a seiiptiifal ruling
on a given aet iippears to serve a eertaiii benefit, enmiiiemurale
rulings may be estahliJihed on olber ^cxa ihat 3ei"\e similar benefiL^^.
^Vliat, then, of convenient acts that the l^awgiver neither endorses
nor pm^ribcs:' ^Ve are refprred lo ^ ■iiib^equi'iil di^cii'SSLOi] in ihe
MahmU on unsupported interest.
So wf tuin to a chapler, presented after discussing the tour pri-
inarv Legal sourrer,; on other types of Legal evidence that jurists
have dLspuied. The firsi Eype regards ihr 'uiiginal .sEaie' [ti\l} of ans,
Al-RazI writes;
E;irlv In (hi^ hitot, vi'i ^holl'^'ll (hill no iiilirtULS [la hah'i) [jpplv Ut ^irlL^l
bj'fori' iht Ldw |ii i^jliiblLshcd], ,ind virc r<\sp<indc-d to Ehi- (ibji-ciic^ns
Hjf cijipimi'nls."'' Now wr. ^vani E(j shiiv>, uiiin^ Lcgiil i-^^idcnri', ihdE rht
oriyinal iliiEi' f'lr bmr-fits [maRfa'aj lii prrmi'i'iion {idhiij, mtd f'lr harui'^
it va [frosi riprmii {man').
The vieiv that benefits arc oiiginallv peiinitled is implied in tlie
Qur'anif vpl'se^s, "He treated for you all ihat is in ihe earlh', and
''Good things ai'e made peiniij^sible to yoii^','"' and by analog)' with
die cdfiri uf bfin'IiEiiig from the lighi of homcoiit ctWs lainp, iuad
resting in the shade of his wall — permitted acts thai benefit the agent
withoul harming die other person.'^' This evidence onK confirms
die pre-seriptural eondition of arts, where no Legal rulings appK '^
"- C;r. ii-Jui^'aviii. BarfiQit. y. y?:-! II.
^MohiUl. 1/i. 220-:i: rf. KaM- ^'i?-^-
"'' MshiUl. ?/?. 22fi-:i0.
"" cr. Ma!^.^t, f/i, ?o^ n:
"^.IfdM/. 2/3, iSI.
'" Qpr. 2j29j Qui. Ji'4. rXoie ihai ihe forma verae refers eo Ihe acT of cccjlioii^
ralhtr lliait rli\iin' command.
^ Mahii^l, I/I, 20g-5l
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
71
If no Legal ruling is prpsenlecl in. or can be inferred from, j^riiplure
wilh rfspect to a certain art. it will retain ils default, pre-sfi'ipltival
liiriniijiiLilkv (ibCihd).^ in svlndi use one will ha\e d dioice in pti'
ffumiisg il. A.t; rpg:irrls pprniiMsible {pmhah ;irrs, the role of Rpv-
elation is lo eoiifirni [taqm)^ rather than alter [teghyli), their defaull,
pr<^-scriptiiral slate/'''
On the olh4^i' hand, the vieM' that harms are ori^iiallv pmsciihed
LippLars to i'fi<i on eicvipluial ri'idrncf, rallirr than on ^omr pnr-i<ci'i]j-
tuial^ default fondition.''"* It is inclif alfd by the [mdilh, ^'No barm ■^hall
be iiillified ot refiproeated in I.shini'\^ As such, bpnefiu^ are piima
Jade permissible; harm.'^ are pnmajticie prct.'brribed. 'i'he seeoiid Legal
mctluK] thill al-RAil ili.st ns.'ie> i^ 'the pirjiHiiipLiuii iif the tuiitiiiiiiEv
of rhe iniri:il simile' {i\iiihfih fs!-h/ifj, wliieh he nrrepT? n.i i\ valirf Legal
prineiple, fonfirniing Uiat unlesi; a spedfie Legal inling abrogate!;
the original j^tate of an aet, this stale will pei'sist.^'
Yet he goes further when, after rfi'^eit'isins; olher Legal methods,
be examine!; the priiiriplp of unsupported interest (utadiha mti/mia),
ridng;[he views of al-GbazalTand Malik Ibn Ana.s (d. 179/796h one
of the earliest proponents of this prineiple. Again, this eoneerns aetn
on which no riJiiig ran he established using sppcifif evidence from
the Qj.ir'jin, thr hadlth and standard qiyas. Ilr provides the follow-
ing division of aels with respect to the benefit or harm they involve:
(1,^ puiely beneficial acts; (2) predominantly beneficial jcts. (3j acti
that arc equally bcne[icial and harmful; (4) arts tbal lead tii neither
benefii nor harm; (5] purely harmful acts; and [ftj predominantly
barmful afb;.'^'' Nece:^j;arily, the LaiAi will ^aimtion the fir^t two types,
will not sanction tbe third and fourth for being vain acLi, a.nd will
not j^aiiction ihe last two for their harmfulnes.s. Al-Razi goes on to
endorse thri; principle lully:
These: mlia, oudint'd in thrsc tix ilivt^ion?, arc kntiivn jlmcial imme-
diiittly ihi-l-Jmiiraj lo be ihc ri-licicin ihul ihi' Tirophtlji [rsillcd to {diit
^■^' Mafi^iti 1/2, SliO.
^^ j\l-R.azi'^ dhovr ^laiE:inent on rhi' ^ofijiii^ ^lalp' ol" hiinitful art; rrmldiiii.
iinmialive, ik^I ih^'ijrflicjl.
^^ Mah^itl 11%. L4K fT. On hihhab d-Ml. si-e Kamali. Pnn^pU% of Liaoiic Jaris-
72
□llAPtlEk T^'O
al-ai^iya'< and iht (ibjj'c live iif rl^vcdUtl laivji '[til^mtuj'.ail mm al-ihaia'i').
The l^ui'^iin and ihi' jriP^WiT indii^ali; (lul. nonn'iinii's csplic illy, M olhrr
rimr^ an ai^'ciunl nf nili's th-il :\rr prc^Tibi'd in Jtfjirdjncr with whiit
WC cHillinrd.''^
TliLS priiifiple is supported b>' ritltonal and srriplural t'\if]pnfe^ iis
well ii!h by the consensus of the Conipaninii.s^ who did not adhere
to the method nf Von temporary jnrms^ in analysing llii' conditions
fff qiydi. "Raiher, they only eonsidpred Ijenelils, because [hey knew
llijl ih*^ ohjeclive {maq.iHif- of re\'ealpcl Ieiws \^ la sprve benefiL^*'.
It is thus "dreeptable to i'pIv nn'' thii prineiplp in jtirisprndenc e.
In contrast to al-GliiizrilT. al-RjLzT i^ndorses it unreseruedly without
laying down conditions tliat limit its appljralion. By thi^ principle,
it will become posi^ible tn go heyond the default condition of per-
ini^^ibility, byjudgiiig aru; lo hp ohligalor^. rec
funme
ndeH {maiid!if>j.
prohibited, or rep relic iisible {makmh) purely on the liasis of Iheir
consequences.
So, ii scripture doe.s not prcsenl an explicit rule in relation tc a
^iven act, oihcr iiortnaiive nirdnjiLs diid pioieduics may apply ixt tt."^'
Yet jhe inn^H iniportnnl nre ronNec[iJpnri;ilit;l, and ni;iy be ^iinimjiriwd
an foQovi.s. fl) If the act is beneficial, it uill bp finma fan^ permillfd;
if harnifjl, it will be (ntmo Jont pro.scrihcd. Cl) A ruling on die dct
may then be established hy aiiiLlf)gy witii an existing icriplural rule
qn another ict, if bolli lead to similar coiiricqiieiiccs (jjiov'idcd lliaE
rlip scripture] ruling is fnrnid to be rnnin?cled [n lh;ir r on ■sequence),
(!i) If the act leads lo a type of benefit or harm that .icripture dnci
not addres-S directh, then a ruling may still he estalilisherl purfly
on the hajbLS ol the act'.'i con.sequenccs. Ihe last nonnatiyc principle
is eaaeniially ngn-acri plural [despitr ch<? contention thai ifiipture
sanclionn it in princijile).
A]-Ghazalr la\s down extremely strict conditions lo the principle of
unsupportFf! interest to the extent that he lism it among false norma-
tive methods: whoever uses it i^uncnticallyj will be acting as la>ygi\er
[ffiait isiadahafa-qad iharra'a)-^^^ This .stance practically resulif in a
"" Maiiiul, 1f\ lib
"" Si?i? Mukid/. ll\ 124 (T. .\I'R^^L fejecl? sfuni' of ihe iiifthiids ln' lisl^ hcif.
AL-JlAZI ON THt ETHlCa Ot AOTION
73
sfandai'd divine command tthirs "^'^ By ronlrast, al-Razi endor'^es a
thoroughly rniUbequcntialiiit slaiire inhi.s u.0 al-/ufh, whifh he riparlv
lia.'>rs 1111 hi^ jjhiUjsiiphk ;lI and UicijiugiCfil mriarJik.s.
Aloml Obligation
'^Thi- di-itinrtion hLtwfdi Htc moral '^i^' ^nrl ^oiight* \vii^'i rfro^i!<ird bv
das-sical miitakallinaiit. The Mu'tazila cniitcndcd, not oiil\' [hat aefh ran
be inlniisicallv good (fmiin) or bad [qahih). but aJso dial unaided reason
knows (^.someliine.s iinniedial^lyj ihal human agi^nts aiT ohligaled lo
piTfurni M>iiii" ^irifd dt L'l. wliii h EJiuri tcniMkulr duties {u.^jib), and lu
oniir ?ome ii^irf ;irr?. On ihe oihei' hand, thoiigfi A^h^arTt; ipject
objertivist conri'plioiiri of niora] value entirely, they often dfrlare
that their most seriou.'^ point of conientioii with Mu'ia^ill eihica
concerns hou moral obliQal.ion> could be esiabli.^bhpd bv iinaided
rpa!;on. Ej coiilr^';!.. ihey maintain th^H both vaJue judgeinpnt!; and
obhgaEJonn aiT estahljiihed bv divine coinniiincL
Acti thai, according to the Mu'ta^ila, constitute "ratinnar obliga-
tions ineltide some that seem to alfect honc but the agent. t3iie it
obligated- for inslaiicc, to omit vain acti and ^clf-iiijtirv. Ho^vcvcr,
moibt "ralioiiaJ^ obligations that the Mu'tazila afErm concern actn
that eisentially do not serve the iiitei'esis of the agent himself. Ijut
relate puvply to other creatures (espi'fiallv htimaii being'ii, or to God.
Tliese iiiciucte the obligation to 'enjnin good and forbid evil" {Gi-ai^a
bi-l-ma'riif wa-i-ntshy 'en 1-m.unkar). to diank di^ lienefaclor {sbukr al-
mtm'wi).^ and to omit Mng, wi^on^doin;* itnd wroii;*fui killing.
The deontoloiTica] view that certain act.!; consdlule duties on
acrount ol their mtvinsic moral \alue is rejected completely m a
self- IT yarding corarqucnlialiim of the type dial al-RazT upliold?i- In
]ine with classical A.sh'ariim, he maintains ihat tlieok>jjifa] reflection
{'lozm) and thankbig the benefactor are not obligatoiy on the agent
prior tn the leceplion of revelation.'"' Notwithstanding, we find that
'"^ Un^upponed inli?[f^l ui^ of courit- di^uru'^i^ed by ndier pre-R.azJdit juri^ti
.\1-Ghttziili 11 pailifuliii'ly rt-li-iaiH finri- hf j|1|icjt^ In tm chi- fifpl Anh'aiT juiul lo
]i[ft<-iil a fdiiif'jLif iiriaLil mfljflliii:^. One woulrl fifjifrl hnn \u dri'elop a coiise-
»^iif iiliiilist imrmiiUvr ethici. Yel Itr dru'S iioi
'""' 'The obliaaliirinf:^ of ralioiijl spi-ci]Jiiliiiii !■< hi^ed im R<'^elarif>ii i.anl^Th
-/i
□HAPTEk T^'O
d-Razi indeed use? [he term n-djib in a iion-srriplural sense, viz. that
i[ is ineuinbenl nn ihe agciil to iivoid harms that may afferl liiin.'^"^
Al-Ghdidll uji» Lifherh 'u-'ijti' iii EhLi ^l-ii^c; (iruigi- Iliruiiiiii Eitin^lau-s
][ as 'pnidenlialiy neeepsary', and explains thai it is ''predir^hlc of
an art^ when fmni the Hliinirlpoint of self-inlere.st its perfoimanee is
preierable to its oniissinn in a defisive way, i.e. when severe and
(riUiiii liariJi \.:i tile .ly^-nL is lu Lr rspei ted from ojni.ssioii <if ilie
^cl".'^'^ H*^ then nnre^'
Any l}ic<'n' ifi wliK h iibh|;^jEion i.' ri:kni-cl fnlirL'lv !'► 1 1 if iiiE'ri-il of [he
dgent is ntgdidi'd 'A'?i anafvuinj <jbli^^alnii} in a [niidi'iilLal, ulhcr ihaii
ethical, \i'ay; or rJlhi-r as loldElv iuh^liliiliDi^ Iht i^cmctpt of obb i"dlnni
wiEh .1 Enrrtfl-^ diirrj-i-iil op,-.'"^
Tor hoth al-Gh^LzalT and al-RazT, duties arr imposed on huiiinn
agents firstly by scripliire. Yet their subji'rti\ist approarh to Jj'gal
obligation m=iJ;es it an ei^sentialiy private aUair, based on ihe agent's
desert ot eon.'ieqiient reward ov punishment in the hereafter lor
lii^ iirt'^ and QiTLL'isimi.'H. A.11 ,igrnt\'i ironlra^-Tnliini of dir precepts of
Revealerl T-iw will be ronlvary onfy m his o\%n intere.'^l^, ei^ it may
iLifiir afterlife pLinishnient on him alone in eon.'iequence But why
should one then blame (dfiamiim) someone ehe^'b contravention of
Ri:veali:d Lavi ulirn ii does nol affccE him pci.sDiiidK?
We iinrf thai, in eonlrast in a rommon trend in rlas.'^iral taljim,
al'Razi doeji not relate the notions of 'good', 'bad^ and 'obligatory' to
die agent's desert of praise •rinidh) or blame [dkamni) in this world for
Ills acts or oniissiurLs (iiialcad of, oi alnn;^sidr, his desert uf afterlife
foiispqiienriN). Praisp and blnnie are ihem^ielv'es irts in their owii riglit,
performed hy e'itemal obs<^i"\ers, purely by siibjeetive motivations
on their pari.'"" As such, tbey do not roiiititute cisential aspects of
il:ic mora] value of ihe act praisetl 01 blanidd.
Yet, having rerogni'^ed Re^'el^tioii as a source for norms, the
agent will arcept its presrriptions, inrluding dnties [hat relate to
other hiiirjaiis and entities, while being in themseh'es of no ^lorldly
consequence to the ageni liiinself. Some prescriptions will obligate;
or encourage, the agent to direct praise or blame at certain acts
I/I, 50r> ft; cf. ;il-rufi, Dai', 'JEtJ- On lliaiifcing ihc hcuefattor, ice £■.■5. MafL^ut,
1/1, 19S-2rKl.
'^ Ma'alnn, JJ&.
'"; HoLirani, "GliazJir, 71.
"" Houriiau "Glia^^Jir, 73.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
75
performed bv olher ageiilii. In n lale v^ork on riiiil al-f\qh, al-Razi
explains lln' ^tateinenl ihal elii agent dpser\'ei [utahaqqa] praiJie or
bUnic (U'i "lii'i being in a .siaEi- fui wlik li ii ^^'ill \ic j^u<nl \jvfi.\uiiu la-
h/i\ i\\i\i hf be pvai^erl or bl:iir[eH'*; anH for itii art to be 'gonH' in
this sense, it will lie commanded bv God.
Similarly, [he obligadon to 'enjoin good and forbid eviF becomes a
stnetK l^gal nbligcilioii (meoiitiast to most Mu'lazilli). " ^ Countering
difir virw, al-RjzT wrilca in nhf vers c.aAy Uiiil al-dtn:
Our vicM" El ihiil ^:nJl^i^lllg icmd and J'orlnddme ^'vil jn' Fn;i(k' cfbliyj-
ttirv by ( tini<i'nius [s^nsB^]. ... AI-JubbTi'T siiid ihdt lln^y ayv Iznoivn Eo
be oblii^alorv bv rrjsiin Alfu Hdi'hini idici ihdt if there is any harm
IJiliI ri'Ijtc:; to th^' .i^rvjiiL lit aliimdoninu tln'm^ ihrtr i»bti['^lii>n will
he ralnjiidl' if ihcri' ii im lurni m dial, llirv will Ikzconii^ cibligi^lori'
li^' lexiudL itvidi'nce dlcmc.
\\<: ri-lv fin iht c onh':[i.'.(i'. itf Muslims, pri'ir lit iKi-sC <JT>pi>lir:iibs, In
c (ininjrniSiiig ihe enjtiming of i^ijikI dnii n'lLvuriiii^ ont ■mIio jbdndoit
il. And we have dlrcady ri'^hpcindi'd to ihc Mu'lazila as regards
Siidjn'mfnl^ jif CO'idnfU'i and }ndnr^i^'.
He {hen ciEca flrriptiu^al .statementa ibal afTirni this obligalion- Ai
expeered, at tlie earl), elas.sieal Asb'ari stage of U.iai al-dlit. al-RazI
compleielv rejects even tie priideiidal notion of wajib, suggested by
Abu Hashim al-jiibba'l.
In one laier objei^Ettjn i.u Mu'u^ilT nioraJ realism, al-Razl appeals
to both tbe Legal and prudential notions nf wa^ib. Folloivimg clas-
sical Asb'arls, he asks: If one hides a pi'ophel IVoni a mob that in
beni on killing biin. t^ill his hing to die mob about the ^'hereabouts
of" the prophet in order to sa\'e him be good, or (aerordnsg to the
Mii'ta^iila! b^d? ' Al-RazI argues thfit ihc man ought to lie lor t%vo
reasons. First, Mjslim.s Lave a con.sensus on the nbligatorines.s of
.■iaving the propbetVi; life; one ^vbo ran do tbLs only through lying will
be obligated to lie. Seeoiid (a point not made by cliiisical Asb'arls),
since Uiai mob ib likely to kill that person because of his hiding tbe
'^^ Eg. al-Zamjkhshiii, Miiihdj 11 R Cf. C;iink, V.aim'vindnts, Right . 135 (F
"^ UiRUt-diii. frpl. IT? CJf. hha>i{S"\. SQIi^: "rjk|ChL]ntig iltc jsomtl and foi birfdin;
ihf e^'il, repoiilaiice, judgineiiDi of unhehff and dj*;niiliileiie«, and the imamale,
are all Legal mafisr*;''.
"^ M/fJi'fl. fol I97j-h. Cf. jl'ShalifjisidiiL.\VMi'jffl/-tfflfl'flffl, ^7?. Wjd al-Jjhhar
{Mt§}ml f'!\. !i4?) arj^eii iLi^ii even inMifh siiuaiiiii^ IviiigTvill 3ill br bad, and rhai
Hnn« oiiLjihl to u^e iit^inu^l I'^rt {u^fid) in^lE^d \ci Hihinani, Lila-iic RatifnaL'"i, 7!!].
IS
UUAPtlEk T^'O
jjroplipt, il will he prudentiallv obligatory on him to lie.
The Mu'taziia^ howi^ver, aigiie thai not all objbri\'able buinan
brhcivioui cm In- irilmrd nj rhrll'imr[r>i. Rdiln-i, ilir ubhrivaiiiHi of
Imnian hehii^noiir ihowii th:il Imman^ orten liiiH llipir[^i'l\'i'i, rihIigateH
10 act allriiislifallv- purely Mitli the purpose of heuefitiiig other.s, not
for tlieir own benefit. Doe* this br'ba\iouf not prove tbat humans
Vfiowi through unaided reason thai the performanre or oniissiion of
cerlaiii ncl^ i^ obli^lory? Ri-jcclin^s; llii^ \Iii'lazilr c >^kiiialion: iJ-
GhazalT explaiii-i this behaviour aj^ being motivated 1i\' simple piy-
chologieal factors, mainly generic wmpathv-"' desire for praise,"-''
luibil and varioy?^ diiiijo.silioii!^.'"* As we saw already, al- RazT too uses
llie^c expldiulkiii.'i v[ huiiidii iiiiilivalittii and iiioial jiidi^riiriil.. DuL
does he go lieynnd [hi'? basic einoiivismr' Twn i'p]c\'flni dii^ciifl^ion*,,
in Kihsyet al-uqal and the Matfiiib. dejierve especial atlenlion.
In the latter work, aJ-RazI devotes one secdoii to a crucial Mu'tazilT
dLibtiiictioii, namely "'the divisiffli of motives inio uhal is a. motive of
need {dSsval al-hajti) and \^'li^l k a moti\'e of beneficence (da^\ytit al-
ih.ifiii^\ \yhich steni.s fioin the agent's w'Midom {hikma). i.e. knowledge
of moral iriiths. He writes ihal ^'ihe meaning of ^nifHive of need' is
llie pursuit (o deliver good and benefit to nnese li, and the mpaning
of *nioi.i\r i:>r wi^'idom' is ihc pursuit lo dc3i\cr good to odicrn".' '" Al-
Ra/.Tof foiiri;e lecognise.'b only the former, subjective and self-centred
lype of motivation^ to the exclusion of the latter, attruistic motive of
hencficcLice, which pvesuppoj^C'i that the agent may act principally
and purely to deliver hfnefit to others, without any elemenl of self-
inleresl. This would aiiioniil to moral r>hjecli\ism ''^
He declares thai diere are two main 'i^tations' {mfujam' at which
d:ie Mu'lazilr viewi nn die motive of beneficence may be coiiiesli'd.
'i he lirst is metaphysical, and concerns the \iew tliat moral value is
intrinsic lo acts ■which tvill be ihr subject of the follovin'siig r<<:ctioii.
Intcie.sliijgly, the second station concerns the question fif whelLer
having knowledge of value judgements could motivate tiie agent
lo act accordingly What cniiceriis us at diis point is not the criti-
ii-i Al-Ghizari. /j^^a/, 170 I
I" AI-Ghi7arT. IqsisM, \1\: 174
' " L;I. HoLiiaiii "CVhazJF'. MS.
"' M^mih.?,. ^.i-11. C;i. 'AM al-hhbjr. Miit^hnT. 14, 54' 14, ^Jl.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
77
cimn; but the ^Jlernalive PKpliinadon ihcil ml-Razi provides for the
phenomenon of henprieeiit tinion. Ihii^ will provide iiiiii^^hi into his
£L})[no,u h uj litHi-Legcii ul)Ji;^d[ioii.
He tir^i flfFirm^ hii^ rrnsimiinipnt rn his nwn theory nf value:
Wi- KjLt ?}ii»Ur'n IKjE iH^ntfll I? fctuulil in il^clT, :ind ihdl ItJEin i> avoided
in itscF All lliiit Iciida lo pnzpiinderjnl beiit'Tit Lv^tHid^ and ihcrr is no
ollntr nn'jniiig Id ils iriM>dnL"Sii. Ml Ihdl ii'jd-h to jirrpundcTiinl harm is
li^, Aiiii lln'iT I'' uii nfh'T Fiifriuln^ tn il> li^dn'":''.
The ^h^'t,lzila. ho>^'e'iTr. poinc out tlial ivr knoiv hv oiii niiiid^ tliEil.
arLs ran he Ijoth bad and beiirficial, or hrnh good and harmful. Al-
RazT lisis fnur sufh caj^e.s thai ihey cite, (a) Though die wrongdoer
bei:iefiEs fiom his wmiic;dning, he will scilE know that wrongdoiiis; is
bad. EL^^evhere^ he ciies [he foLLowing Mu'tazih aignnifnt:
rhouj^'h HTcm^lcunir t, hiirmlul Id ihc rint wroiii^fd, il lif'in:liE! thr
%VKingd(HT Thr r?.t:fh]\\'hrncnt <if JLi;;lif<' ivill br'n-'fil nar individii^l,
bul hdrm anolhi-r. Prtvmg d dcposil L>act will ln'ni'fil (he n'cipii-nl, but
hdrm ihc ^■ivcr If the^t rases ace jiidgi'd by [he LLiciinalicin or aversion
in the disp'sili'ni, ihr wr<inH<^'i''r I'ill judge wrongHoing goud, whilr
thi' iJin' \%Tongi'd will jiid;ri' vvron^^iJuinj^ luil.
However, the Mu'tazila maiiiEaiii that this is not the ease. They also
rite (bl the case of a highly eloquent poem, which is composed well,
written in fine ealligraphv and recited beiLUiiftillj^ but which couEains
blasipheniy. The mind (<t/(^ uill rerognije that &uch a poein is bad^
despite the pleasure that will be found at ihe level of the nalui^al
disposition (in^') iri reading, and listening to, it. ""^y.sn, {c} though the
liar benetiLs Ironi his Iving, he will know; by unaided reason, that it
is bad. ft!) One ■who fiiid^ a ^i(k blind nian on the verge of death
in a de.solate desert will know hv reason alone thai he is obligated
to help, even where he e>:pects diat hiji help will only burden hini
and not benefit him in any \ijay (e.^ lie may experl iie\fi' lo meet
him again for his favour to be returned, nor to he prai.'^ed by other
people, ^? no niher person in present, nor to receive afterfife reward,
as be uia^ be an atbeist}.'^^
1^1 Maya, fo\. 199a.
'" Cl.'.Wjflhw;. I/I. Hiy
* AJ-RazIeiif.h a^imilar Jieiinninl fmni 'Abd jl-l^brn':^ Qiir'aiue c^^nmeitlaiy
{Tf^m, Hi. ???).
12
UHAPTEk T^'O
AI-RazI, lioviever^ rcmtends Ehat these obsei^atioiis arc in fact
rxpliiinable from a foiisequenualisl. .^^landpoml. and hf ddvaiicps
luo lines of reasoning. '- ' The less iniporlaiil nf llie two Ls ihe ira-
cLitional A^h'^ri t^xplaiialioii, bv refecpiife to die moti^'e oi" 'generif
svmpalliy'. \\hii:h hp here appeal lo only in rflalion to the exiniiple
ol' the hlmcJ man in the de.seil. Man is created (jitbjta) such ihal the
advei'-se ronditions and pains hf obi^ervES in other humans normally
(jiodiii (■ ri 1 (jiiipiiriil]le p^iiif wLhiii hini^ iiiuiivaihiy him ti- hi:lj].'-''
Conlra^linj^ lietwefjii dn'ine mprcy and huniinii f ojiip^Jii.'iiQn, al-Ra^T
wriles in hu^ book on divine al[vibiLli?s:
SoiTic scirt of pits' (ra'fa) has Ici appi'ar in the- ^trv-anl's hf^rt for him
[cj del (iimpjM-iidnalHy. If one c onli'nipljtr.'v [thil^, he \v\\\ finii] ihdE
[ht imlv tiiil ("lut^ySd] llir scivdiiL idii liavc Ls Lo dvtil [[lie pjiiii ljli-<-i1
h>'] ^rni-ric wmpalh^ in hipi hcarl. In trahf^', hi' will he c nmpdii^icinalf
rdVi'ard-s iilhirs only in tirdtT lo rid hiinM'lf (if the pain ihal s\inpa(hy
piuiIuLr> Gild L txalu'd abifvi- Lhis iviiipdEliv, ajiii Hi.' enripdiiiiifji
[lakma') iloi-; nol rrly <m iE,bul \v\\\ rr'Ey nn pure fdvjnir and bE'nefici^ni r
Wt' v.-\\\ siipporL (hi.' itilh .'diiii' exaniplea.
When a falhtr dGcn i^cid [afiiana) lo Jus rhild, hr" will dcluallv be
diiinj^ iltiiid Hir himacff. Ftir if ihr willbi'inj; {iiia^o!iti'\ i>f Ehal cliili! is
undirminecf, thv fa.lhc:r\ hi'art will bi' pained If hir i\it<-^ i^iod for ihe
child, his ■wcltbein^r wili be preserved, and the pjin will be negaled
frcinj (III' fdEhei^'i hi'arE TlnTclbrc, Ehr falhiT doe^ gcMjd f(n ihe child
only in (irdiT En ri'alur Elial ciiii f(ir lums.df
When a iiidsier dtics gciiid lo hi' alavc^ he does so only in order ihdE
|(hi' ■'bi\'i'] may hrnefl< him, si' ihiil he g^ins him jircilil ami 'ctihts
hull. Thrrcfdrr, ihc ma.'vler's end d1 thai bcni'fu cniic im lln' piciriirc-
meni of j^>nd Foi himnelf.
When man ac<s jirncTQii^ly ,inH |>ays his alms, \ir does sc> only tn
gain fdmt' dimoni,' pciiplc as a irenrroiis dnd niihli' j>rrsl>n, or tu allain
n'vvard and cii dpc puniiihirirnl in Eht lirrcafEiT. In ri'aELty he docs
HO"d f(>r hinis*"lf jlniie.
Surh enioii^'e; psychologiral cspJ^iations attribute arts dircrily to
simple motives in the agent's psyche.
Yet^ ill the Atifnlib^ llie main explanation ihal (li-RazI advances
for benelicent action is more sciphi^tieated He addresses [he rtr^i of
1''^ Atil3/ib, 3. 63.
1^* Mam'h, 3, 69' .m^va, fol. l!lHb-|()9h.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa Cjt AUTION
79
the abovp Mu'la7ili pxaniplei^ as folbwi;
Were ihi; A^nini^ocT lojud^^'c: lATcingdciiiii^ S^n**^? 1'^' ■v^tiuld ht undbli: tO
jjvrri wnm^omg bcin^ done aiidin:<l him HL'v lilr viiiuld Ik' iii]|K'n[lrd,
:3nd hii ivtallli liilhli' Hi p^Qndl?^ Ic ivill dni.' In'fctnn' 'ili]i[jJloiv (in
him [vBfibn 'aiayH), in ( cn]z<id('nng tht hcurfita of hi^ soul and wtallh, lo
judge lire III i"i!i)iiig had, in (iidtT Eli-il his ioul and property Ih: prrarrvcd
frnin ;inniliil^lii*n rtnii di'lnini'iil "-
.■\]-Razi acrcpts chfil i^vf n ■HTfuigdorri \^'ill ^^fiifrEilly coniiidcr \nong-
doing as such lo he had. Bui how uoulH ihe agent's imeresls be
undprniiiipd by his denial of such nnrins?
Al-Razi's response lo thr JiecondMu'tazUrpxainpk ihen itUioducpR
\hp mnsl. crufial notion in ihi.s disnussion. Judging the bpaiidful,
blji^pheiuoiii; poem 1^ bf good, he argues, will be ronlr^iy Xc ihp
'advanta<ffs of the world', or public uellheiiic;, {'nmolih.. or flsadahat
al-'dlani) in various wiysJ^^ Firj^E, if surh biasphi'my were lolerAted,
Ciod\'b fommandu arid prohibidoiis would lo.se their inlhience on
proplr^s bfarHi, leading to bloodshed and nn^reh'^ {al-har} wa-l-mtiij).
Second, God is the hj.^hest of all beings and the most beneticent to
iJie needy Itbla-sphemy against Him were dlowed^ it would i:iot be
possible, as al-Rd.?T puts it, to use the aid of virtues (fodd'H) in averting
haiinri — wbii:h coniradie ls jiubliL wellln-jng. niird, ht argneA in the
AiiliiH! that tolerjitiiig Mifh jioenis wniild lead tn the degi';idation of
the viituods, which would be contrary Lo human ^^'ellbeina^ "^ All
three {non-Legal) grounds for judging the poem bad ai'e non-deon-
tologif al: the badness of blasphemy is in no way inlvmsif .
ThiiS is ill clear conlraAl lo ihc rlasaical -\.'<Li'ari approach, vvhcrcbv
the blasphemous poem would be bad purely bv God's prohibiting
bkspbemv. il is also noteworthy that iil-RikzI does not approach
lie dJio api flkj of llic cudii of llii- ^vorJd^ (/tn^am al-^alam] (MaJital, l/l,
IJpU; ^Y^yvu, fol. ?OCj; Tafih. fa^'i'mX "rhouijli t\i^ falaiifa u*;i'rl ihii L'.iprf-^iriii in
a o^iinnli^^cai seiHif, il u'as vi'irlcly ii^ed in wlefYiice Eo social iirdir, whifh i*: Ihc
sense dial al-R.a/T iiileiiirbi Ic^ al'Mawardi, Adab. 2, 24? If.' Miika^vayli, T^dhih.
12?; al-Tauiildl, Haivamsi 2:i3: 310^.
1^1 Elif%.luit {AUlii/ib, ^, ^31), he refers it, ihii dLicu^ii^n' "|W:- ^lalod iIulI[
wroiii^rinie lhiiui;li bi'.iieficial^^^ llie ^%Tniiiid:jr'i', li I'SLieiiiiily hjimful lollie toiidi'
ticm ol llic vinirkl \!vaif at-'atiwi'i For il'w^'vi^ereto (Urij^i' wirtiiei^loinfl: giiorJ, bLr>r>il^i'd
and an^cliy wiiuld pii'vail, and im om wouJd Iru^t one's ^ou^ and partner The,
is one nf die jijieale^l harms.."
so
UHAFTEk T^'O
diis prohlom from his own Lpgal Mandpoinl.. despite its iipplifcibil-
iLv; ^'i?.. lliat the iigpiit find:; ihf. pceiTi and its recitation deplnraWe
.sijlelv lii'taiLse ujlciiiiin,!- and iiijuyini^ 'u ivimkl Lr iiniUdi'v ui ]iis
fn^'ii ;i fieri iff heiipfirs.
His rejbpon.'^e to the third Mii'tazilT example follows a .siniilsr line:
&ic- liar beiiefiiib from his lying, but knows [hai lying i^ bad, since lo
c\\\(i\v It would eoiitradicl human Wi^llbfing. l^'iog uould undermine
die basn fi>r niurh of hiinian action iiiid piii^uil, rendering them
futile. The per.soii lied upon \\'ill ^vasle hi.s dme, or in some easeji
inueh of bii life, suffering much anguish eonseqiiently. For this rea-son^
lying contradiel'h human wellbcing. whereas iru th -telling pi'eser\e.s
(iiid adviiiK cs il
On the fbiirrh \1ii't:i7i]T exainple (the hlind nijiii in ihe desert),
al-RazI ^srites:
Anrnn^t! die itiiiditicny eHjI canlribuEc Ici prcdfrvini; human vvrllbi'in^
E inculc aliiigthc dc:sirc [iar^ib) of brncficcncj: amcmgpeojilt, vvilh (hv
liijpi' ih^il ii'ci-c- llif llki' (if th^il i^Uilc Li> i>L(ur tti hhc EiJtnl] hiiTiM:lf,
ihity %vi>ulcl Jtl CDiTipaihUiEinaH^lv toward him Since ihia di|fc(.l was
fiiiind Eo serve puliht wcllhcui^i^ petiplr e\'id('nti^- Lcmf^.ntcd [ufalnlia) an
[(■oiiiidiTinj'] il j^x'd jnd [(.ilii^ictiTinj"] omiCtinU il IfEid Sinci' |H'(i|i[i'
hii\'e tH'CDiiie ajiunlnmed lo ihii! CDiivcnlLon i^tiWi], j^^rerd upjui i[,
and adhered lo il ihniu^injl (heirlivi^s, ihi:ir stiile;, Wa\c uiimLM^ikdldy
hccJim*" well-C'<ta}ilislit;d in tVu'ir ln-JirU and minds '-'^
We need now Ig look inio [he iiaturir of ihis link ihai al-RazT iiiake^
het^^een moral norms and piihlie ivellheing (a theme thai dne.s not
appear in elassiral knlam). First of all, it is elear that the preser\a-
don of iofiiil Older and \^ellheing reqnire.s a general aereptaiiee
of these nonns. However, it is not immedialelv clear, widiin a self-
renired consequentialuim, how anv individual would be moiivated
to contribute to the pre.seiTatioii of .sorial order by accepting .such
altruislic norms For (h(?se will be of no immediate benefit to him^
but may delimii his iVeedom to lurther his own interests, or may
even dLsadvantage hini.
Al-RazT appears to hold that vhluaJly every individual (inelud-
iiig i^rongdoeri; will be aware of the fact lha.t il is nol in their o^t'n
'''"- Ma^dtih. ^. lift; MaliiQl, I /I. L70; cF. 7"a/"J-. 16. 222: Lymg "uiulerminc^ ihc
vnllbi:!!!!; r>f both ihe wnrld and the ielf^.
'^^ Mislalib, 1. fi9. Conlrasi llii^ lo ihe Ajih'an exg^laitalion ihrrntjih gcrirrie
fyriiipjihy.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
SI
inlerpsE [nor in anyone plsp'ji^ that iiiiarchy prevails. Frnin this, the
^llf^i^■itluaI will realise thai the preser^'ation of snoial order uill serve
hi^ own imeieii (alcni;^ wiilf ihe iiiierttiis of inlicr iiirinhf-is of sodeiy),
and will thus Vic nerepsary from ^ prudenri:il jhtanrlpoiiu Al-Ra?!
writer in .\ihavQi d-'uqut
If the ivronirdijrr dcclirt^i \affa} ihdt wmn'^dcuni^ vi i-tnid, scimc'dnr
elsc: wJl iidiin vvrcni'; hini. Siiki', in hit n:i(urjl disptiMiKin, he hjtcs
thill an[ii:ipaE^:il ^vrc>ii|'il<>] n'', iind ^Erti'c iiEl lliaE li^acl^ Li» »liat u h^ltd
in ilsrir haii-il in llic iidluTdiE c[ii<piiiili(in. hTiin^tjdtiing \^ill irnlttd be
hdlrd [ly ihi' tvTcin^cicr. Thi' unic rtpjjhi'- lo al! cilhi^r [ccinimi>nly-
xLccppl'^d mijrEJ Jiormfl.
And in the Maml^h:
The iAToni"d<HT kninvj [hill if hr wvn: tti drrlare ihdl wrnnjrrfjiin^^
is i;(HnJ^ hi' \i'(niid h.\\<r •:t^-arv(\t-(\ ih^l (i(h(T< ma) wmnji him Hr
would then iin iiiii|;"i'r h^ivi' ^eiunl'^ fi)r hiinsi'lf his yirojUTl/ -iiid hi^
fdmilv TIirn'f(>n\ ?in(r lie knoivs ihjl jiidgirn" \^ri)n;^'i!ijinj^ Hi be j^iiod
will (jpj'ii IIk' yiili's lij |ijiii5 dnd yrii'l u|jc>n Jiim, he will unclouhlrdh'
jlkI*^' wrcini"diiing Ici \\v bad The i-Lme is Irut in the rjie of Knni".
A.S for jinl^inir ln'ni'fucnc c and \d\'ing [lie pciiir from hdrdship lo be
HTCKid, il [i.e. lln; ii]iii"c:jry'in] wiL! hi' gcKid ■aim: il openi l\u- ydlea lo
ln'ntTiis diid i^ods.
The individual will realise Ehal thf preservation o{ iocial order
requires that e\en'one. iiifludiiig himself acfepts siifh moial iinrins;
foi [o driiy ilicir v-alidiiy viinikl iimiiediiLErly undi-riiiioe iheit geifcral
aerpplanrp An the la^t passage indirnlet;, ihe very aet nf pronnime-
ing innral jiidgemenls beromes itself a good act by virtue of its
favourable rooserfuenres.
Tlie agent tfiii^ find'^ himself motivated to consent lo moriil iionns,
1%-hifh will hinder hin libertv lo further stune of his; iinmediEile inter-
^
^ts, bill lAdil also preserv'e hh more fiiiidamenlal interests from heinj?
undermined by olhers. Ultima telv, ihe inotiv'adoii lo an benffirendy,
ill accordance with tlie.se uoims, h, neither altruistic nor based on a
flcnsc uf duly '^Eenniiiiig ffimi the d^diil'j knin^Iritgi' of ihe iiiEiiitAic
goodness of beneficence, but is a self-eenlred, pnidentiiil motivation.
In Rush! Dhamm d-(adhdh(!L al-RazI i^rites that ''a human agenE will
attempt to procure benefiE foi others, onlv on the conditbn thai such
82
UHAFTEk T^'O
" l'(6
H*' alio writes:
Li^lp will bring bcnefil lo him
Whal L^ ioujihl bv thi' animjlr; bi'ing {hayawaii) vi pltaiurc: only^ whiil
is d\'Gidt'd Ls pain onlv. All tlut [[-acLn l<i iIk' .itEJinmi'iiE (i! plE-anurr,
dirfillv fir indin'i Ely. i^'itl In- jiifljrccl irnnifl liv Frln' iJidi\ii!Ei:il] All ihiit
lr;icli t(i p[im, iliicctlv Or indirc-c [lv, will br judgi-d b:id Vi\- him
EsjnipU;:< of ihc Icnmitrdri: liJial |iitt\', Fiiirnrsi, ju'vlicc and n-JipitE ftir
jyrjrmi'nK; Fr^r if ;!cnni-(iri<" rW- d(iiT< rho;"- ■hinj,'s rci hini^ \iv \\^\\ fiiiH
ihj'ni pfi'jsurdbLf^ and ^ill bcnrlii from ihrni. Thu'v, fcir ihji rxp<'c (I'll
hi'niTil., |p(M)[jk'] cjjnui'nl [lanada'a) Ki hulding ihrin gnoci
Example:! i>J' ihc IjeIjt dri' ihr hjdni'is.'v iif wn>niiil<nn>i: ifir nr'[:r>-Dnc
triOw5 that if one ■wcrt li> jurfgf it S"'^^' ''^ niiglil br wroiijrrd and
niiglil i'N|H'ii<ti» <: pain liJiiL'^iEf TlincJciu-, Qu'ifplc] cciiisciil lu lioldiiiji
it bad in ordiT Eo a\'oid ihaE ["xpt^^lc'iS haiin.
'AflPL'' people agvoc upon (liftilafm) or consenE to {itin-Hdt/ U; /^ma'iij^
ihesc inoraJ noims, the foiiveiilioiiatiiy oi these nortiLs will be for-
gotten:
[I'hj' rca-^on for ihe -^tnl's atttnipEj Eii aavi: [ihi' life of the hlinil man
on Ehc vtE^i' of dcaEli in a di-!olaH' pl-n c] rs Ehal nnn^c prcipU' cdii.s'^nE
(jj^uir'iil Ei> ( onsidtrin.Ef aiich rcatuf tci bi- j^iictd — as il c<inlrihim'j Eii ihe
hi'm^riL i>f ^L liable iiorld [fia^fBhai baqa' al-'5lani\ — [ihi' ii;^i'jil| gnn-v^ up
ate rpEini,' lluE c riiLsc^n^u^ {i)ma"j, bi:t<irni-3 habctualed ici i|^ and ni-i^^r
hi-ars anvlhmy thai contr.nlnls il Thjt [dinvrnlidn] will brmim- fiki'
dn a prims pn>pciMEicin \qiidiy\'c\ au7ivali)yit\ [for liimj.
All implicil sofiiil agr^^fiiit^ntlies at ihe hiiekgrotiiid of widelv-aerepled
moral conventions, which i-; then, as il were. Torgollen'.
Both rlasjita! Ash'diJs dud al-GlidiElIr niaiiktaiit [Jiat rndiiy moral
iLorm^ are mere habitual sociaJ coiiventionH- AI-RazT take^ a ^tep
fijilher by provithne a rudimentary' aeenunt of the snc lo-psycholo^eal
pi'f)ei'.'iS by whicli norms iippeiir ancl are .suslaiiied. Jn i^horl, 'nj ihe
iiidividiiEJ realises, out of fear and prudence, the necpi.'bily ol" having
LI widflv-accfptcd set of norm-i and duties; (b) people, thus, consent
to a convention of moial norms, (c) which Uien become perceiv'ed
as ohjeclive a'lilhs, mainly through hahitualion. Despite the many
'^♦Mflmr.j ai-tfiSidh^. 17
''^' Nihaya. tol. \mh;cl ^.\ 19Jth.
'^' ,\'ihaj'it, ftil. Lll^Oa. Hi foiil iii lk- s^ "If ivf auumc iIielI [ihia act] Li pc-rffurncd
\n ^<^iiieouf ivhd ha^ never heard any [m^^ialj tipiiiii^n^, llie cuii^f- [foi lii.-, iirl]
\>\l\ be Ihi' pam cdUiPrJ in lii^ tii:att b\ eeiii-ne i^Tnpdlhv. . II \^-f a.i*;miie thai iL li
pi'ifomseirl hv one v.lir> e iioL |]nelivaledl ihu^, \w dii iiol ifiepi ihjE, in ihis ea^',
hf uill frtii.sidfT re^ue jtfpferiilile Ui the diiiisiiLiii thereof Ralhfi, Iiom' cua lie be
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AUTION
S3
seemingly ahruisdc acts observed in everyday human beha\iour,
die underlyinj^ motives at work \^ichia human nature are neressariiv
irlf-regiinling, iirvt-r fLliiui^ur:
ll brc<jmrs I'vidcnl ... (hal ihi'rt i'v iiii ('Mdcm^i' fcir any l>p(' of molWr,
in the iibscrviibfi', I'XJi'pE ihit one \i>u [the Mu'ldzihi] ttTin *lhr nu>livc
i>f nrtd' (da'rfvjl ai'hdja] As fcir whdl \thi Iititi 'ihi' incHivi' (yi bencfj-
c cncr' JE^ I'xinlcnrc' in ihi' i>h!hef\'abU- har^ ni-^'i^r h'-'n fiinvcn.'^'^
Ai'Rrizf advanres this rudimentary utihtarianism as an ^illernative
to the Mii'tazill thfoiT of biniffimicf and moral oblig.ilion. In die
final fhapter, ue ^\ill see Iiow he baj^e^ his political tliouglil on tliiii
same utilitarian siaiice.
Objeftipm to Mi^lai^ih Etkics
Cla.'bsieal Ash'arl discuibsion.s of t^ihirs have two primary concerns:
negatively, to refute die Mu'la/.iJi view that value terms refer to real
altribiilrs of act^; and |JOfliti\civ, to pro\c thai Ri^vralrd Law aSonc
has mctral authority at the human Ie\"el and thai ethical \'aliie lermn
I'efei' strictly to its command and prohibiiion. Al-RazI tias a different
pa'>iti\'e concern, a.s he abandorL'i ihe volunlarism of classical Ash'iUTS.
And dmruglL hr rhiharci dicir in-jjalivisl cciiicfrii, ibis ihrorrticid leap
in lii.i; ihoLigliE from I'oluntarii.ni to foni;er(u<?iHiali^m dcniEiiifErd ^
commensurate leap in the dialertic with ^h3■ul7.ill ediical roahsm,
especially ttial al-RazT commits him.ibeir to a inorr thorough and
objective critical method than that of classiral kalom.}^''
This development in:iiLifos[A most immedijtely in his rriEicisni <>r
the Ash'atl school's failure to recognise and address the dominant
poi^itifin in the Mu'iaziil school. He wi'ite.s iii the Maiahh\
A Gredi inanv <jf ihi' folhihTrs of .-Vbu l-Hdsan iil-Ash'jri, may God
have i]n:riy tin his stiiil, n'liilcd ('(tiii^al ration ill LMn hy raying: "Had
killing be<'n had in rpiscnt<' {h-iihatih), tvTry killing woiild^ ncc er<siril)^
ha\T lif'rn had, am) killini^ Ifv ^vay of hfgal puni.dimcnl \^ififild havr
been liad. H-ii! heni'lil hern j^niMl in es^em^e, tvTtry btni'fil ajid plei'vure
would hiivi' h<'i'n i^ooil; so fcirrii<-ati(in iind sodomy wdiild, neccssiiT-
ily have been gtmd This rgI being the tasr, wx- know ihat claiming
I'm See Shih^eh. "Fi-om al-Ghjidri lo al-Ra?i", Ifi4-Q.
81
UllAJ^tlEk TU'O
rhi- ^ijik] [(I ln' Lfiod m csr<ri]c'C -ind rhf bad lo \it bad in pascnc c ii
a raise: rLiim"\ "'^
Mu'tuEilT^ [lirn na^- 'Tlik jrj^mtnl does niii a^ipfy lc> i^lidl wc siy.
r<ir wi' dci nut ^-iv (h.il lln' gnod is g<ic>d in tWhi-nct and lliaE the: had
b boil lit i:^^:iLi.<. RdChi 1^ vli say lliiil Lit' Uixjil id ^ueii! njir m.i.4ruiLE
of asptcl^ (wn/h) ihal ri:ljtt tii il, Jinl ihc had is bad on acctiunc (jf
aspcrL'v [hat r<-lali: tci it."
Al ihlf primly i\jih'iiriE aiy ihul trJcplEinEitiitii M'llh ri:li:ii'iicc ta Jdpcttt
E nf^ilhci c (imprclicnsihlc (mo/hSm) ncir {■(mtftivahL' {ma'qS^.
W'v will htn; I'xpljin [hac aipi'c Is such [haE ivhal is inl4uidrd in
ihc-rn m^y tir' nlin' f iiiTinirhi'Tnl(''l. Wr ■'.iv ... M.in iTirtv iv.iiiC I'l tyilf
a pailic ular mcdicini' Whal di-Eccmincs ihitl vvJnl is not the csscnci: ni
ihal mrdic iiir, huL ii i (iml>Jiialion of lliinj^s, iiirliidin;;^ ihi' ciiTiirrciKr
ol (.criain humours iii ihc bcjily, ihi- uiiavaiJabili(y oi ulIici mcdii'ini's
and ihc iippc:arar(.c^ tiF s^'mptoms iif illness in ihc body The comhina-
liuM I if l1li\'si' ^l^ilr^ (/id^ wjII eiiimIui r eIl* wmiL «r Eiikc IIjiiE iiic'diiiiii . If
ytiu feiiov this, kinnv Eh:il (ln'ri- is ["Lolhing Lu'Ei^vv eIh' lunar ^phiTC ihaE
will necessitate aiEything by ils cisriici; \b-dh5iili wa-li-'aj-nifi]. RalhcT^
nttr^mttuli'in Eiiid di'li^riitiii^iticin wiEl im ur Jl ihc tumbumluin of sl^l[:a,
asprrls and (<indiLniiis
Mu'laziUs, thcrc:lbrc, say: "W'l- ilii mil -.^a) thai ■whdt maicc-^ killing had
F ^jilrlv il'^ I y my tilling R^lln-r, ivhiil m.ikj"^ il m* i'; llir 4'riinhin^lu>n
of a niinibi'i ol ihm^^s, njnidy iln bc-injr jn oci'iirrini" pain, mil for a
pr!:\nc>us ti/TLncf, niir f<ir a subsrcjui'nt c timpciisalion i^iwad]. Anil sci
fiirlh Vi'iEh difl i^o(ni and had ihEniis.''
Il thus appears ihal [hi>if' tvho Wdvc rcliid on [his argumrnE [ch rtTulc
llic iLdiiiid of Jit ^Iu'ej^iI did iioE kitiiM llririr p^r^ilririi djicl diJ iiciE
adilrrss jIL ihi'ir I'U'ws. '
AURii?! himself apppiir.'; to hp sware of nhp rpnlrai Hiffprpiire hetu'ppii
l]:ie ivvo Vlii'tazilipo.'iilions from hi:; eiirliest ihfoloiJifal uork, whfre
lif di.srini^iii'ihes bpiween ihf eifiiral aiisnliitisEn of eajiier M^u'idziliMn
fini] Ebr Eiiiiii" sogiliisticdlrd tbrory of asprt (s [Irvrlijpcd by Laltr
Mii'liizills. The rnnge and ("|ualily nt nbjprdon.s he aduiinrps iigaiim
dip ihi^orv of aspcfls uill undergo immensf progress, froin the often
inpical Ash'arT-ityle arguments in his earliest woEks, to the sophis-
LLcaict] dialeclBC devckipr:d in Ills latdE vviiik.'i, iniisi hnpuiiaiLLl^ in
Mihaya! al-uqUl and the Malahh^ nn ■whirh the pre^ient serrinn will
fnru.s.i^*
'■" Cr. EJ-jLi^^aynI. Inhad. 2:S^-4; al-NhilawjIlI, Maghiii, 41 ^l-GhizJU. Ma^lUffa.
\,^li iihRli^hil'i ^l-I^liilidiii, itl-Dtiai'^s, ?72^ Ilmuiaiti, Iica-u:i n'ld Tin^lia'i, llH 1
?4<i-.SS;.*Mji.fl^,47()rr:JMiui, l/l.n2--7; I/I, K)9-2I9; A^artiiJ^^, UO-S' Ta{<ii.
pa\'i'ii Cf I^E-vitt Ri^iitli^il^ Brfutt Jfai'luHuii, 1^^— 4: and SKvmtojk JiicL^fhii, "The
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa CJt AOTION
S5
Al-RcLzrs obspr^alion is rorrcrl: fbssiral Arih'ari rrkinsni'^ refuli'd
inoslK ihf ethical otilolo»v of what Ls virtually the primi[i\'p ethiral
(Llf>uliL[iMH uCilir Bci^tidQtll bidiidi ofMii'ldiilLsni. This is uiir d]su til'
Ai'(ThA7Ji\i\ f rilirikni ofMii'tiTilT plhir^;, tv'hirli im iint rniiffaTsirnT:il]v
diiFerent from the cias'iirai Ash' aii f riiie ism J '''' Yet dip. Ba^^raii brjiicli
[wlitch, unlike the Ba;e;hdadr btanch, siill enjoyed s eoiisideiable fol-
lou'ing in ai-Kazis time"") did not present a clear ethiral ontology,
but an flhjfal rjii^lfniologv the Ba^raii^s liad murh move tn ^av
on the nalui'e of niir kntiwledeie ot moralily than on the niitiire of
morality iLP^clf Despite ihpir denial that ethiral value ran be pinned
down metaphysifail) amid ihe various 'aspeets' upon which the
aci latr.'i [ilai_c^ which dcEnniinr Ils mural sidui.s, ihr Ba^aii^ will
in;iint:3in th;ir ir ha*; ;iii ohjecrive reflliiy oiii^iiHe tlie mind'? p<^i'rppiioii
thereof. Thev v^ill therefore, dismi.ss classical Aiih'ari cibjectioiis as
irrelevant, not only since they constitute an outdated criticism of tbe
earlier Baahdildr school po^^biiion, but move fundamentally because
they relate to ethical ontology. On hi.'i pni't^ :d^!R.azI vill addres;'; die
ethics of die Basians by de\elopin^ the nietaphvsical line of criti-
cism and, moie iiujirntanlly, by advancing tvhat seems tci be the first
epistemologicil criticism.
Etkifal Metaphy.sic-n
Ono interpstiag argument concerning the metaphysical status of
ethical value can be found in the early hkdia:
The dUribiLtr tli.ii |lh<' .Mu'ld'zila] rtlali' i^oodnesi anil biidncis to is not
ihi: ael's bting an dccidi'nt, or creoU'd \nmhdaih], or H'jnjKirjf [hJihth],
oi exL<|tnt or will, in lMO%^[^'d^^', tii p^j^vcL.'*' So Le L\ an u]inli'ndrii-d
atlribute i.\ifa n\a)huln]. Yel il Is unac ccpldhli" t(i re^drl la affirminii ihis;
for affirming (ine miidenliiled attnhute eannol hr more an^cptahlt
{aiul3] ilian affu iiiiilii a llijid ajid a fourdt, and aci ou io an LLnnJiy of
atlrilmtes. However, if such an aElribute is mil alTirnu'd, ►! will be
ini onccivablf ui a.MTibe giH>dEi[\^s and liadm:ss to iE.
Aklieiny of Do in us ai ion", L9I-4, bolh (^xaniiiiiiit some objfcUoDS to Mu'laziB
ethk*; in ihe A/uAia^.
i^i Cf HoKfjin, ^Ghiiari", HI (T.
'"' He WLiles Ehal llii- VJii'lJ^rla L-Mi^riiit at hu time are follnwefi of either Ablj
Hashiiii al'Juhh^l ia Abu l-HiLsavu [fiitf-id/H, 42'.
1*^ Cf. 'Ab[laljjhbai,.lfjdi*flr; ft/I, 77 ff
'■"^ On tlLJ.i aii!Linii?nl iid i_^nvt>iii!iiim. which al-Ra/rl^lerronMrler?fa]lariou^, sef
8G
□HAFTEk T^'O
Thin bi'iii*^ [hi- cast^ tlic ;^(ioilin3;! iir b^dni'Si of things Ls n(i[ clue lo
the fisii^iu (' cif eIu" j.tL, or U) an JltribiiH' cdni'OTnildiil lo il ... TlnTf;-
fijrr^ it mu^l Ih; in dltnbulr cif iht igrnl. Yrl thin rtilnbLitc rdnntiE
hi' [j] ihi" a^^i'nt'! hiin;r ,i knowtT, foe kncHvftcE^' fcillows fruni vvhdE
bi known, hill dcii'n nris jlTc-(.( Lt; nor |&] his hdving piiivcr. for ptivviT
oiilv cITixEs cxinli'ntialiny [lit iiEl which docs not vdi^' jmiini" i"ix>d
and lidd [ac En]; mir [f] hLi h-ivini^ will, fcii ihdi woulil mdkc^ \^ roii|jj;ful
killiiij^ .. ij;cH]c] if Ehc di^rjiL inU'inti'd Ie in lii' *iociil.' '''
III olhpi words, il we as.'bUmp thai the pfrr^^ivcd ediiral vafiie of
tlic act is real and nhjrfli^f^ (hrn ^vhal cxaclly in Ehr nature of this
ifaliEy? A]-RazJ argue.s ihat il Ls in fan imrea] and iiiconreivabip;
beyond lh<^ agcnt^i .^^ubjertive judgement, no sign [othar) of etiiifal
\alue <:a]i he idfiilificd ^^liatsoever.''^'' We .ire unable [o perrei\e or
(iniJ 'goudiifsfh' and 'll£ll^n1:^s^ cjUL'^itlr I'urielves. Alon^ ilii.s general
liiir f{ fi'iliri'^ni, he .Tdv:inri's :i immher of narrowipr ^I'giiinenli;
ii^lating to specific arts or situations.
'One such argiiinpnt relates to the act of lying, defiiii'H as a siiiie-
ineiiL {khisbjii) that iii roiilrarv to a true slate of afTairs.' '^ Al-Razl
argucn ihiit iiiicc a statement^ a^ npncch, con.ii.'its of a nlrin^ nf din-
eretc ronseriili\e sounds, v.'bal exists of il will hp the single sound
only, never whole woicls or phrases. Slrifdy speaking, ihe spoken
word does not exist, .since wiien the speakei utleri^ a sound, Llie
.touitd iiiEcrcd iiniiirdidEtl^ LjefiJiT Ie will tease tn csLst [though its
pfTert in the ininf! <if rlie li'itenei' jiersisrs) The vpi'hyil lie roiild he
eaeh individucil sound [which is absurd), or the total (pmjmn'] of all
die sounds of the stJitemenl [but ibis lolal does not existj. Therefoje.
■jntiuthfiilne.'is^ [katitnbind} ajid 'truthfuliies.s' [^idtiivyd] are not real
and objecdve {thubu^ atirihutpi of sipeerh. Yes .■io me thing thai doer's
not exist rannof baue an existent attribute, or be the ei'oi^nfl {'itld)
for that attribute.
in the .Nihaya, al-Jiazi considi'rs ihe possible objection thiit .iipet'eh
i^xpiT^^CS the inf iital judgfnirni of the sprakrr, which, .stfiftly -spcak-
ing^ is the lie. He replies that if this ^menial judgement' refers to a
belief [in the mind of ihe liar) ibiit is contrary to truth; it will be
ignorance, not l^nng. On the other hand, it could refer to the stale-
ineni wiihin iLit self, which could be willed; yei the Mu'iazila reject
'*' hhara..U^. ^4-a-b
''^'' M„mib..Z, 291: \ ?>''A\<L ^, ^4^.
AL-lLVi.! UN TIJfc, liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
87
Ihe notion of 'spefch within the nclV (kafam <ii-iiaf>), a doctrine upheld
bv Ash'ii.rTs, relevant maiJily lo the question nf ihe uncieatedncjis of
Tn ihe M/i/^tif), he rile^ ;innthpr po^Pihle Mu'laziEi roiinler-^irgii-
menl: ihciX, ujthin hin own consftquentialiiit Trameuork, hf himself
admits that speech niav be judj^ed as gond or bad — does this not
eontradirt his argunipiiti' ,\l-Ka7T rfsponds ihinl he dofs not evalu-
ate the aft o( sjK'akiii^s; in ili<clf Rjthci': iiic nuruningei ttial Ij-ing
produces within ihe listener^ which do not conimunifate lo him a
correct understanding of the true state of affairs, may motivate him
to act in a way (hat is disadvantageous [p.g it'lutile or harmful] to
him. For ihh rrasun, peupk- ^lill jEid;^c- lying as siith ui Ijc- bad.'"'' A!>
piirh, roil seq lie nlialisl jiiHgenn'nl dne^ imt fnce thij^ ^inine Hifiiriiltv
as deontological judgement, since it doeii not concern llie act itiieif,
but ics ibuhjerlive con 'sequences.
Therefore, while [he ethical objectivism of the Baghdadi Mu'tazila
is rt-fulahle on jcfoimt of the ediiciil ontolo^ifal flainis that ihev
make, the ethiral objecli\i'bm of the Basvanib is refutahle for theii fail-
ure toju.stify thcii rlaimji ontologicaJlv. An regards the metaphysical
statu.s ol' morality, il' [he ethical ontology ol the Baghdadls is false,
the rdiicH of thi; Ba^r-in^ appears utterly nonsrufliqal.
Ethiral Epiifeinology
Nonethele-is, al-RazI gi\es his opponents [he henefit of die doubl. He
I'ealise'h that Mu'tazilT ethical theory is most serioiLsly chalk'nged at the
epislemological level, which becomes his priniaiy focus. Thus the last
t'wtf sections of Boi>k [i of die i\!aiiilit\ [hiiiodiH td by aJ-Raif*^ above
criticism of classical Ash'ari objections co Mu'tazilT ethics) pro\'idp
an account and a refutation of Mu'tazilT ethical epistemobay
He cites the common Mu'tazilT \'iew that the knowledge of somp
eChicaJ truths is immediate [dariirt;, thai ot others Eicqiiired [knsbtj,
or infereniial {i.\tti!la^-y-'^ Fot the latter lype^ the Mu'tazila rely on
arguments ad homimni {ilzom) and purported pnwifs [ma jara majm nl-
'^^ AI'Ba|illjiii ',!'\<irf, \S?t) wi'aez: "Real speee li i*; llie niearnng{fliij'i^rfl ihali'xiMs
irt ihe aeJl, aik^i lia^ s^ns {aif/d'a} ihil indieaU: il'\ t ^ vecUA aiiri ^^rilleii np^eeh.
'^^ Mamb. S. VA:i-&. if. S, S49
88
UllAJ^tlEk TU'O
iiiidldalf' ?''^ After ciling several j^urh arguments in [he Nihnya, lie
writei, "Thpy have other \^ideiprpad argumein.^ dial ^ire too weak,
(IikI Lhrie i.s no ii^e in leuiuniin*^ [lu-in."^^' hidced. wr need uiily
tn p>L:iTr[inp [h** rli^ifii^sion liiirroiindiiig rhe vipv.' Jhst come elhir^l
tnowledge is hnniediaip. '-^'^
Mu'tazilTs argue Ihal knowledge of Jiome ethical truths is immediate
and sell"-evident [bmiThTj hy citing iiumemiiji example.^.'"'" 'J"Iiey point
oul dial all ratioiiikl beings havr immrdialr kiiovvlrirlf^c. c.[^. of: fti) the
goodne.ss of thanking the benefactor, (h) the dcserl ol blame for one
who throws a brick Ehat injure.^ another pei.'bOii (and that die thrower
of the brick , ral lie r than the brirk ifielf^is to blamej, (t:) the goodnens
Iff hrl|]iiif^ [111- diiihEV hliiid ni,in in die deceit, and {dj Lnuwled^c
f>r rlie gnnchit'CF of lri]thhilnecF Hpiice; any ;igenl rnnfrmilerl with
a ehniee ben^'een irulhfiilness and Ijing, where die coninecpences
([his-woildly and olheiivorldly' for bim personally of bolb ehoiees
are absolutely equaJ, will necessa.rilv choose tiiithfulness.^^*'
Ill ahRa:?f*i; pai'lier i\'ork'i, Liicladiiiff the hhHra and J^thdyat al-
'\iqul. he followji a iradilioiial .Vbli'arl critical stralc^'. ^%hicli is to
deny ibat elLiral judgements could consdtute immi'diate knowledge,
for instance; be rejects the above Mu'tazill argument that every
agcm will prcfci lo tell fbo truth (jvcr Iviiig sinrc his mind will knnw
immediately ihal lying is bad and iruth-lellinjjgood. He argues llial
diis claim cannctt be established, and thai it is in fact conceivalile
iJiai the agent would clioo.'j? lying - there is no evidence to believe
CftheL"wise.'^'
In this earLy stage, be Eib;o advances; an argument under [he indi-
lect influence of Ibn Sina I'appajently, at thi*; eadv J^[ae;e, thronoh
al-Ghazall): that one can distinguish between immediate knowl-
edge and conventional beliefs through a mental leap. According
!=■* Nihaya^ fnl. IQ3h.
''^'' .Whaya, fol. ?00a.
'"" ArgumniiB liir ihe oilier view ire di^cusied nij Mufahb, 3, 34^5; 'i, 3^5—
'^' Cr. Houiani lila^ii- Rativii(s!hm, 2^ (T.
'"'• l"hLi ork^uitk.itl II mad.- h^ \\\-,t\ al-Jabliai {Ma^tml, fi/l, IJtf K, oap. ?I4-
"■' Ufiil ai-SnJ<.^. ?<i:-^' If*]. 2^~r, htiata,fr.\ :Hb-^^a; .WjAtb/. 1/1, \^-\:J\itiaya,
M. 30 111. Cf. M.. Maimura, "A Medical \rciinieiil Toj' the litlnusic Value of ihe
Mora] Afl", i?ip \1'i-l . an ("Xiiiiiiialinn of lltLS Mu'la^ilJ arfifimenl and some c3as-
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa Cjt AOTION
S9
to Ibn Siiia, il is possible to coiireive mriiliilly, l.hroii;qh a process
of abiblriicdon, of ii piisdne sliili' in uhirb one is detadied from iill
d.i:i[uiiir(l dlsposiUuns^ iiuLicriij ceiilI Ilil liir.LiJoji^. li will []irn lir iuund
that while the minrl lia*i imnieflinri' tiio^vledge of llie riiirli of the a
prhti [qw^q^ pro])osilion, ^2 is greaipr Ihan 1', and will nol be able
lo doubt lis truth no matter how haid it triei^ to, il will easily doubt
ihf truth ol the propoMlion, 'Lying is bad', whirh, Ijv contrast is a
mcrf widflv-acfrplrd sl^linTH'iil [qadivya inaifihUid'.. In othfi wordei,
.such mora] propositions are beliefs tlia.t .stem from .social conventioOj
and do not conslitute immediate knowledge.
In anticipation ol\such objections. llie Mutazila advance a similar
argiLiiu-nt; that if ^^r iniaghie a riiiuaiiun hi wlikli Uil- agciii iri tuiii-
plerrU frei^ frcini sncinl cnn\'enlinns nnd ■;elf-cenrred in cliii anions, he
will still reach these ethical triitli-i and will choose truth-telling over
lyuig. Intereslinglv, in jV\haysi al-'uq2l^ al-RlzI will respond to thin
argument h\ &;oing further ttian all previous critics of the Mu'iazila.
He does nol onl\ object tliat il i;: in fatt pos^'iible for die agent to
choose lyini5 in the imaj^mecl situation and thai one who exaniinen
himself will lind thai the statement ^Lving is bad' is a mere con\'en-
tional belief, he also CKplaiiis why the argument is lunclamentally
flawrd, as fQHo>vrt:
[The Mu'LazilT] sayis, 'If ^ac di'<u[ni; 'Jinndu) ihc alio\'c: ilatc, wc will
find our.'velvi-;! c frl.iin liIuhiI prrfcTrin'; Itiilh-d'Hmi" rivjr hiiiy" Wc
sav: \Midl vii: flnii ikiw williin (lutiii'lvj's c iinnoL hv usrd as <c\\f\v\v-<:
for yout toiitcLklicin. Fur fnim Lhc linic wc: ■wtrc bom li> tlic: pTi:z<';nL
wc hcdril ntilhin^ hul affirmation!* lliat Inilh-lcUim" is ;iikii! and Ivini"
had. 'fliii.'v ihi' badiu'^s iif lyiii;^ and \\iv gcmdiicii of I ruth- 1 fill nj" Ln'rainr
rdotcd in our mrnda. Thlii dLipo.siEid n \hay'a\ bccjun' cs IrHintly (inn
and cnlrcjn lu'd, such thai allhiiiii^h w<' may aaaunic- iht lii.'vajipi-aiantr
of EhtM' diipoiiLdons, th^y do mil di\appFar by that mere asMiiiifiriuii RiilhiT,
thcy rcmiiin, dcipili' cfur a^sumpliitn. Ha th^'v w-'.-vt Thcr^'tirt^ ^vith
this as'umjjliiJii, i^t ]iiH^' [niEh-ti"llinfr lu he preferable <jn-r lyiiii^onh'
biciiuM' our nciinul dispi>3ilic>n5^ ivhith remain within us dispitc our
adiuirip Em n, will clcScriliini; ihia prcfcrcnr;!. H^i^vr'vr-r. if iv^' pjidil milBa
who Ls Irer frimi ;ilf the-ie diupmilinns, \\v ivill u.iA know whether he
will preliT good ijvit \iAf\. I'or we ati' unalile Ki grasp auth a jtaEi';
iohat zie nrr capable nf doinp a unh fa assipue "ut i^eyj lo ht Jlie fiotn ihow
'^^ hhsra. fol ^^-A\ MhSyQ. fol. L9Rh; cf. al-GhazJll, MTym, l49-^0' Mie^la^J^,
I, 49; Ihii Snid, i\Mmi. I, IhJ7-Jp On al-dliazali'ii boirrnviiiB fi'om Jbii SiiiJ iu
this regard, ^e \\. Marniura, "Al-Gh^iiali dii Elhkdl Ptemiie^", S^.i: Hourani^
90
UllAE^tlEk TU'O
diipoiifsom, ratlifi than fu make rhi'm actually fice finm Sfiffi Thi' I'xprnciici'
{iajriia) oci^uirini^ dl Lhi' ^i.'vuinpljcin (if bcini" frrr [frcini dL^pusitions] is
nlln-T ih.in ihr' I'xpcricTH c circiirrin'r.it licing Inily Irrr [friini Uicm] Wr
CKpi^ricnri' ihv liirmcr cdiv, lhou;,'h vAiAl ls rcindiicixi' in ciur |iurp<i!c-
p [he tdlLcT ThtTi'fori"^ ihLv [Mu'tjzili] argumcnl in AiliJ'."''
Mu'lazilTs may |X)sil!bituiLtions in wliirh an as;eiil acts morally vvilhfii it
dir iin.rifi"rciici" i>f iiiiv ("uiivciiiiijii^ sji si'lf-triiiictl iinn.i\rri. NtJiic-
ihelpss, ihe :irlii^iJ menliil leap irquirrH ►o rnnrHvp of the i^iliiiL-
tion posited ii^, according lo d-R^zt, impossible. Tlierefore^ even
ir one scrutinLses these ethiral notions in lliLs way, and still iind.'i
dieni indubitiible, this will not pro\¥ that they ironmituie knowledge;
ininu'diate or olht^r^isii^.
Clearly, this stance will equally undi'rniine Ihn Sink's method to
distinguisli widply-ieceptcd .slatenienLs from statpments of a priori
l^nowledoe. Al-RazT cites thr^ method in his wv^ latf work .V/jdrA ^tJyim
al-hikma: "If 1 aintitiic {Jaradd) rny^cM ai if I have ju^t brcii created,
lia\c ne^'er interacted wilh anyone, and have never seen anything,
and il' I a^^sume [qaMarfi] that the i^nucnce of cusLoni and hahit iij
wa-'ofiti) is omitted froni inw'ieir^ thei:b when 1 present to my miiicl
l!ie iblatements '1 \!i halt of ?^ and 'Lying Lib^id', 1 will find mj mind
rertain \jaziii} in relalifnj lo thp former, incapahl*? oL' Jiidgi?nienl
{mufowoqqifi in relation in [he latti^r. '' ThiS; al-R^zT here leplics.
is "a very weak argument'^; lor thi? individual's Labit, custom and
rhajactpr trails may make snme common bfhefs as indubitable wilhin
the flcff as d pnan kno'wlrdgc. One mav ncruliiiisr I'xaLiipkft nf both
ty'pe.'h of statements and fmd no difference in the selfs certainty in
lelalion to them. Indeed ''ai he objects lo the Mu'ta^ilT view), many
chacactei traits and acquired habits and notions cannot be omitted
nn:rcly by anAimiiiig ihc uiiiLssiun. "
In hu; Later works, therefore. al-R.azT puts lesf emphasis on deny-
ing that normative jiidtipments eonslitute immediate, or .self-evident
(b^f/ihfj, knowledge. [By contrast, in lii.s \ery early l.\iil tsl-din, he staies
'"^ \i/^ffiifl. foJ ?niii
'*'■' Sh-n!! 'L'vuN al-bihna, 1, 199. "rhp arj^menl orifliiidllv li ui ihr' plural' "If
^f fLUuni" iniiiflvfji ..".
"" ^mih 'f.j'Wfl at-hskma, I, 199-2(10. Tins in.irk.', a rrurial (ii'tr-lrtpirn'iil in al-
RazT's epiilenifllftg^' ^(■iiprallv. iiol rmlv m Jus cUifrjl ipLslfnioLii^j^' !\i \\\' \\\l\. -^i-e
ill ihe final fliapier, liii ciiiUfiiinyi iltm ii i^ ofieii iiii|iii.-i.ibk' Xf tli^iiiii^uiNh a ptwi'i
knou'ledi'e froui rniiv<'iilir>rfjl lielitzf Mill tiJiitiLbulc lo his arrival aE a niixlerale
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
91
ihat ihp priinnrv fonfcni in the conlpxl of ^^thirn should be to vi'fiile
tlie Mu'lazili claim ihiil oiij^ kno^^■:; soiii*^ nioi'al truths iinmeHiiLlclv-""^
Thifi Idlrr riiiiidl dppmdL li will iinJr<'i[ sUii liKLiLi-i t im.stqiLi'iiiialiriin,
in whirh he rpjerti onlv I tit' Mu'tyiyill [lipnvv of rhp mp:iiiiiig^ of nirir:il
judgpincnlS; not the view ihal iheae judgi'inenls may conslilule nelf-
rvidpiil. knowledge. Thus, thai the slatement, 'Wrongdoing is bad',
in iinnierJiateJv true does not email that wrongdoing Ls inliinsirallv
bad botiiui<c ii \s wrongdoing. Onr .■shoulH aeik: Why \s thi^ ^laic-
ineni iriie-' Ls it berause wroneidoing is had in iLself? Or because of
annthpr reason, e.g. ihat it soineiiow leads to hdrnL''
This transition in al-Razl's elhies in evident in an argument be
|jn:finiL.s ill the Aialdlili. He fiiM [■Ju'j iln' (Id^rhiidl Arih'dii cibjccEicm
thai self-eindeiir knowledge r^nnot he Hispiited by rf[lion:il people;
yet both Ash'ai'T!i and ffilanfti deny that afti^ are good or bad in
theinselvei. "■' He then oites Abu i-HtLibavn ai-Ba.srT^ who re.'ipondu
lliat though denying immediate knowledge ii^ ineonceivable for the
mullilude of people, it i^ coiireii.'ab]e for ^iiiall numbers of people
(o deny it. All rominon people (eoinmon Ash'aii^ infludedl hold
ihiLl lienelicenre is good and u'rongdoing bad, whereas .specialist
Ash'aiis, who deny this, are Jew in number. AI-RazT retorts that what
vi at ii.'<ur i^ uol whrlhcr [he niiijoriLy of pcopk make dsc* judge
nients. but what meanings ijqfiii) these judsements ha\'e. He liirn^
Ahu 1-Hu:;ayn's empiricd argument against him: that m tact what
common people .'eomninn Mu'tazilTs induded) refer to bv ethicd
value term.s, in otdiiiiii"y language, are benefit and harm — conira a
handful of specidi^i Mu'i^^ilJ^;.'^
The main ]K)inl of contention is no longer whether one knows the
truth of edi if al judgements iinmedialelv- but what coneeptious ethi-
cal valje lerms reler to. Al-RazT, therefore; goes beyond the classical
A-,h'aiT prco^'cupaiioii ■vvidi denying die ci'utli of ctliicaL Matcm^n[^ of
asuent tov^ards analysing the value conceptions that constitute these
.statements. He pie.senLs a more sophislicated critieism of Mu'lazili
ethical reali.sm without undermining his own corLsequentialism.
"''1 V'/}/ uf-Jiii. fol 2'rA
'^■^ Malahb, !^ li.il. Thu: ar^uini'iil can he found in elI-Rj^i'^ oailv U<,iil al-dbi.
lol '1^2. al'jQwavrn, Infitiii. y^!l-'iU; al^iSliilawalli. Mu^iini, 4'5; ai-<^lijz,ili, Mn\ln}Jo^
I, 57. Cf. Honriii, "Gliafiair. ai-2.
1^^ MaiahK 3, i'.l-?.
^2
UHAPTEk T^'O
Al-Razi's masl ihorough rrilical analysis nf value roncppdnn.s
ran be found in thf beginning of Ills disnij^sioii of elhiri in .Vifinynl
i/l-'uif/~iL Hi' rxaminrri lIu' lU-niiiuoiis i]i=n ihi- Mu'uizila jiicsmi for
ihf fpnlral elhif;il VMliie rrmi.';:
Alu'i l-Hii-?iivii siiy"''; '^'B^cP I'' u'h^l mil' who ih j-:irLiE]lr <>f pj-rffirming
it dind whck knijvvs its bdclncia maj no! |K'rf<>rni [/ana ia'hn anyEfBloh).
Our sd'vnn^, 'Hi' may nol piTlbrm il', is knciivn h\ ri'jvin Jiid iloi's
in>l rf-ciiilr*' rKpl^niilmn T hi* i-ntriil'? ih^l lii- n'lH clrvnT hFiirnr liir
pi-rformin'T ii Ie is aho defined as whdt ha^ an aMrihucc ihat i^ {'fTrr-
ih^i' ivilh rrspf'c I Ki rhr drscrl [nt'Jiqdq) of bldEnc " ..
In dc^fining 'giiod', lit says ihdt lE t ''M'hdl (ini: ■who li c apahll: uf
pi^rfcirmini^ il dnd ■whd knciwi lis [moral] status may perform*'.
AURazT asks: \Miat does saying, "oiif "niav^ [la-hiiy or 'may not*
pt'rforin a pardrnlar act", mean? Il could liave a number of senspji,
iLifluding: (1) permission for, or prohibition against, performing; it;
(2) f :Lpal>ililv or inability lr> perform il; [^) a rfi'tain Jtlnbiiti? of the
agent, as \^'e iav of a hod\ that it haji [Iti-hif] the atliibules 'hlaek-
iiess' and 'motion'; (4) the aft'rh hcing good or bad, whieh entails
lliat the agent may or may i^iot ppi'lbrm il arcordinglv: and (5' some
sore of pcrniisiion or prohilrfition dial incurs from iinaicffd ira^oii.
Yel Ihe lii'sl sense uill u'sull in a divine eoniinand notion of moral
\"alue. wbich Abu 1-Husavn dofs noi int^^nd. The seeond and third
are obviously not intended The fourth ii^ a tautology. In the fiflh.
if rational prohibition is other than the agenl^i desert of blame or
piiiii^bmenl {^ in the second definiliim)^ ihen u'hat is it esartly?
^\'bat el;,e. al-RazJ =idds, rould "la-im^ here posdbl^ mean? This nu-
cial elemonl in \bii l-Husayn's definition appears meaningless and
lenderii the vvliole deliiiition meaningles.^.
The thrust of iil-RiizT*s argument ia ihai rights and duiics depend
on the moral .status of arts. One would normally answer the ques-
tions. "What may I do.="\ 'What ought I to do?^ ^'Wbal ought I
not to do:'", ele , by reference to what is good or bad, but not \iee
verfhiL. Ti) rtay tliat die bad i-. whai one may nui do pifiUppOM-ri ttidt
one fcnniv.t; wh^i one may not do and why one may not do it. \et
linouino 'why one may nol do it* is to know wby it is bad; ai-Ra^'.T
"' .\'ilioya, fnl. mJb-iy4j; c\.Mah}iil, I/I, \.yi-^: iil-Biai, Miiia)nad. \. ■■Sti'i-
69.
'" ^Ln-fni \i difficQll In trAii!,lpre iiiln Ern-li^h wliili- pJ^::^fr^■lllli its various ^t'li.ei.
and oititiil ^liHnni^. 1 rtitd 'ntay' pt^ffr^bl^ o 'It^f llbf rigltl In', ot 'u H^tLtlkd Ih>'.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
93
points ouE that Abii 1-Husiivn ffinimiLs rirciilarity bv iiifluding the
ag(^nt\ kiiouing llic goodness and badness of iirls in ht> deriniEions
ofplhiral value iiTin^.""
Al-Razi difii liii'iis to die Ferond (and more common) Mii'lazili
deHiiilion of ethical ^alue. in lermi^ of 'desert' {t.s(ikqaq) of praise or
blame The term 'i^cdhqatj", he argues^ Li derived fvnm 'haqq , uhich,
ill Ibii al-MaJahiml'ji boob of definitions^ is given a number of ?ense!i
depriidiiiiJ oil tcHUrxi: (v) die texii dl iiiraniiig of ^lui'jtf is 'whai is
irue and ri?jl {ihabilf; fb) in the coiiventifnia] idiom of oidiii^iry u^agf
{'arfi, it refers lo correct belief and truthful iitatement; (c] in reli^iouii
Legal convention i'mf ol-skaV]^ it refers to each circumstance of the
agent thai will make it good for him to produce a rerliiin act. The
TiiiE diid Ijfii ^t'iiM'^ I diMii>t \i<c iiiiiriidc'tl hv 'dt'^ri e' in tlir Mii'iiiiilT
defin]r]fni^ of 'gonfF and 'h^H'. By inrerprcriiig 'deseri" acrnrd]Tig r<i
die second .'ieiiiie, goodness will be deilned in terms ot goodne.ss, and
Abii I'Hiisayn wiB tall again into circularity.'^'^
AJ-Razi concludes thai despite their claims tliat the conceptionii
of moral value trnni arr iiclf-rvidciit and known immcdiatrlv to the
mind, the Mii'tazila fail lo define them. As their notions of ethiral
value are iiicomjirehen.sihle, theii' ethical realism as a wlinle will
appear profoundly irrational.
Whence; his main criticism of Mu^lazili ethical epistemology in the
Aialalib and Sfraih 'Ujiiti al-hihiifi. Though he accepLs tliiit knowledge of
the goodness or badnesn of .sc^ne acti i.s indeed immediale, hi' arguen
that a stalement of as.sertion (tai/fiq] will require prior conception
{(aidWKiti) of both its subject and predicate.''' If the vvord.s 'good'
and 'bad' in tbe sEa.tenienLs, 'Beneficence is good^ aiicl 'Wrongdoing
hi had^, refer to favouiabienes.s Qiid uiifavourahIe]ies!i to the self, iheii
^ 'Mid al'j,ihliar dr-fiiif^ *l>jd' ^^ *%i1ial [hf ^enl d<'iprv<'^ hlanie lor' (MagiiM,
f</[, 7; \i/\,2(< 7) iiiil icitfl:! tk-ifiiuis il ii 'whal [lit- jef-ul ni ay nrnl pttfoim' iittcc;
fa) ihi'fY an? had arcs lli,il one canir^^l avoid ppiltimiiiifi, e.g. llic dcli of llie child
and the slei^pfv (ihf^i: Furthpi liiglilijiln thu jnibn^Qily ol ilie fphfa^i;, 'loyia Isliu ti\<
jnifalah"i\ {b} kiiowkdi;!- thai ihe aernl may iiol perform an acl i& mure properly au
eiilailineiil {{.a-l-lahr\ of il; bariiii'i^ irf al-Ri^r:, ohjfclion)' and tt) lEii^ di'fiinlioii
"ili»L"s mrl uiivL'il u'ltiiL [llti: j(l| is \iittl ijli lLiloiijil itf, diiil iI'K'.h iiuL iJid\i itUtiilujii
to lln^ judgemeiil {Jmh'i] coirmerted Id il\ \\i llic deserl nf Llaine.
"^ Maya, M. I9ia-b
1^' Cf MuhomL HI; Mulakhklitfy. fol. lh-3a
9i
UHAPTEk T^'O
diesf conceptions arc iiidptd splf-evi<J''iil and known by tlif agent
iinniediatcly. However:
If pEu't^izill'vl iiilnid, lit'hf'ni'fH^cnrc ln'ini^gucnJ and ^^TiJiigdciingbfinj;
bad, iomLthlnj^ other [h;iii iht cmidcrjlifn cff ln'ruifil Lindhann^ ihtn
ihat is not concaved {miila^awivoT'i, lei aliine beini" asserted {tmiyaildaq
bifi',, iir ihi" a^'vcrrlkin of il hewing 5i:lf-e^^dcnl.
It is the coiireplion of value tpvnis^ surh as 'good' and 'bad^, lliat
in ai issue. If one e>:aniines thpse fonrepiion.s^ one will be able lo
loiicrivT of eIicjii in liiins of jiled^uie Jiid jiaiif, !)iil, as we ^dw.
iioi in ;iny ohjerrivp p<?n'je. Thi.'; key friiiri^iii of Mi]*in7ilT ethif:i]
ifalism lapture.f the cs^eiilia] dislinetion betv^een the ellural theo-
ries of al-Ry^I and the Mu'lazila' il is "the stadon of truth that
die intelligent critical invesligalor ought lo contemplate, so that die
U^ulli ill ihis Eopjf betiiiiiri iiidiiifrsl. Eu hiiii'\ Insli in ii\ely, ihis
rriticism iinmedialely folloM'^; hi'; dismi«al of daiisiral A.^b'arT vefula-
dons of ahsoliiti'bt elhicjh as being misinformed, and it iinii:>diices an
account of his own alieriiati\'e, viz. his conseqiiendalist conceptions
of ethical value
III another ft [■gum nil, al-R.azf r.xfLiniiics the roiirrplion <n£ the
subject of snch -ilnlemenls as 'Wrongdoing is had\ He quotes Ahfi
1-Husayn's Gimrai a\-adiUa^ '' on its definition:
"Our niasEtT^ \iam' said: Pdiii\hi'((>nn'g<icxl if lhi'yhii\T ci^rlain junifi-
lidn.s. Tln'sc include |1] dial ihvy ]•»■ di-seru'd; [2] ihat ihiy [U'jd [(i| a
bfiiffit [hat prrpondiTSilci ctvcr tln! pEiin^ R] thai ihi-v invdlvr u^^Tting
a ^rtiiCi'i harm; [4J (hal ihcy h<; suppcised lo [Erad Ec>] hj-ntfil and fhe
aviTlinj^ i>( lidirm' [^] ihal (hey Lie pcrfcirmtd fen [he purpctf'uf rtvcrlinj^
[harmiT; :jnd Eli] ihjt lK(!y be- ptrlbrmcd Iw v^'^v of hal>ll, or ihr-y
bt I'onsidcrcd as pcrfornu'd b^' cnhi'r [Chdin iht imnn'didilc agent].
S(i, il" piiin has any ol llic.'vc ctindLri(in\, il unll l>c:c(iirn' go<>d, ralhu^r
ih^n ivriniijilitiiij; If il has nonf, il vviB \ir i^ rifliirditiniT Xh^rcfort, mjc-
"^ Maialih, 3, ^47-fi; rf Shark 'Uym al-hik»ia. 1. 30U I. ?37.
"* Mamib/^, ■i4K.
''■ The ediliftn nf llie Msidlib haa al-Qadat. instead ^ al-Ghutar.
'" This ^'I'lTG lo foiifern hiiin deeded at othfji, u'Eii-ieii^ dn? tbiid fniidiiirni
concffin liFinn tlintH-d al nrn ii-IT
"^ All (^xjiiijjli' of iiumlirT li is oifc wlin pJdcc-s an infanl mio snrnv. .Mlhoueh
tlie pam iullo nxl h^ llif Liilanl Irnm the crJdiii'i^ lil Ihc snow wilL be cilln-T citai^rt
li\' God iminpriijlclv or spneralfd frorfi ihr folrtiieis of ihe ^iiow, ihe rfz^ponniliilily
for ihi' pain vi'ill \ic ihil r>f ibi' buinaii agent God'^ pn3er\'[[lioii of natural h^il
'rVLII Jnllll \l^ ffOOti.
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
95
have ri-!htrii:ltd vvnuii^doini,' Id bfini^ [I] undc^itrvc-d hjrin, [2] [not
leading lu] d pn'pundtTdini bcTirfii, [cu ]. "''""
Only after knouing a\[ these complex details, iiltpr a process of subtli'
(Uid hpct idlifir'il s|ir-c iilal.ii>if, %vi]l ^llu■ gia^|> lln' iinJijik'x fuiic rpLium
of "Airrtngdoiiig Houpver ;iURji7T ohjeri^'
XliC fftifakalliiiiin ari' UTt^nLrnouf cm tK:!! wln!rii-\'tT tn (jv/ledgt c>f the
principle [silj is dia umvr f^fl^^fl, lE will be: incoinmaUi: fchr ilrriva-
t'wv. knowliMJ^c (^/} l<> be immedidlc-. Kncivvledgc <ii the it3.''i-iict ol
i.vr(i n orl 1 1 iiiu i-? iincl'"ihl''dli :■ prliif itili." Itiv Ln f iivli'dji*' ihiil it i<: biid.
Knowlitd*^ i)f ihr cssfnte tiF wrcingdjiing can only be alEiiined thmugh
this jlj'finilKin Lhal oni^ itIik iif iiivfsliiijtiiri cdn conci'plualL'^t Iw ihr
mrjin'v iif inlrie.Kc \periilalniii Sim^r tni'wiejige r'f this pnncipli- is
disturiivt, il viill be im ontrivablt fiir kinjvrli'dge thai wrongiloing is
lijd to bi- self-evident.""
Ill Other wovris^ il follows from the Xlii'tazili claim [thai such ethi-
cal sldtcEiicitl;] iiic self-c^^idrjillv iiiid IniiiicditLti'H ti ur) thai onr
who siptes, 'Wrongdoing is had', wilhnul having a conception of
'\^TOiigdoing', will effectivelj he saving; ^Wrongdoing, whirh 1 do
not know what it is, is self-e^ideiitly bad'. If the conception itself
is unknoun, then no attributes of it can be self-evident. For self-
pvidfjiil iUi:;erl]on rpfjuives only tlip presence of the Iwo roiici?ption'i
of siihiecl and predirate in the mind, and will follow fmm iheir
presence immediately \^'i[houl syllogistic inlermi'diation. If at least
one of these ronreptions is not present in the mind, the truth of
ajiy AtalcmeiLL iif aA.^itinik lliat iiivoKt.s bulb tiinnol pnj.sibly be
knowii self-e\idently.
The Mii'tazill LrLa\ then modify his position hv ronlending that
the badness of wrongdoiifg t^ill be kL"io\Mi immediately hv one who
already conceives the essence of vvrongdning, not by everyone. This,
according to nl-Razi, will be to :idinit iha.t the badness of wrong-
doing; is not sf^lf-evident iiniversallv for all rational humans^ as the
Mu'tazila originally claim. And indeed he reject:* even tlii^; niodifii'^d
position. ^'^
Laady, al-RazI aluio cites the Mu'iazill argument that "whcu \vr
1^" Maidhh, S. !5.i:^; cf 'Abd iil-Jahbaf, Mu^M, H 29It On Mu'ii'ill \i,-hr., on
how lln; inllirli4^ib ol pain Lii?coiiies tpad, cl". M. HTcnj:J:irk. SujJ'rin^ m Ifit^ Mii lti?;iliie
"" MaiMh. ^. S.i4; rf . . Wfd, f.>l. l^iRb.
9G
UUAPtlEk TU'O
l.no\v [the act] lo be wrongdoing, wf wiW know iLat il i.^ bad^ even
if^^e are hepdkss t^all olhcr foii-side rations; ibfrefoie^ ihe ground
Ciflii) for this badness hm lo be WTongdoiiig"."'' Wrongdoing is ihc
qi'ouLid \niiiqladi\ for the badne'i^ of wrongdoing, liiire "knowledge
of badness Is coexteiiibive (^aVrl, bolh affiiniauveiv and iies;ativdv^
vilh kiiowli-dge of [ibe act] bi'ing vvrongdoing'\ '"'' He objpf[s [hat
ihe coneomilance of two notions is nol evidenee for a direct causal
link ''iltiyyii) btiwecii dirm. Lndrril, the f^rtjuiul of die I'oiu i-niiiariLr
f>f llip rniirpplioii-k \vi'oiigdr>iiig' mid 'li^d" nuiy bp something oilier
Uiaii 'wrongdoinji' itself; e.g. sensations of pain and pieasnre ivithin
[he agent's e>:perience of actual instances of wrongdoing.
God and Eihcs
III llie bpginning of his discussion of ethics in tlie Aiotahb.^ al-R^/.T
wriicfi:
The Mu'ldzild and the KirraniLyya aiT un^Liiimiiui cm Ihc d1lirmalu>n
of clhic^l r:ili''n,ili!;ni {lnk''i> "l-'^ijl irt-f-nqhTbi^}, whilr \hf fti/n'/fti and
the Dc:liTniinii<E!i an' iinanimoua on drnyini^ il Our pusitiun la (hdl li
-applies m hunijn beings, but docs ncH ii|fjfH' In Gud.^^^
The uhiinaie concern ol al-RazT's katdw discussions of ethics is
the fdjicaL stains iif God'ii acLS, more .so iJiaii tiuman atti. Yi^i,
as mentioned, the analviiis foru^ies more on ihe isioie falhomaHe
'observable^ human levcl^ hi'fore finally movin,?:^ Lo the Sinob.serv-
able', supra-liunian level. In Chapter 1 , we saw that al-Ra?! develops
c\ theory of human action and motivation, concluding ihat di\uie
action caiincit follow from siinilar pixircflscfl. Aa iuch, hi.'< vic'vv of
the ethical cts-tu? of divine ;iriion is iik o\'eraII ^gi'eemenE with the
central Ash'iii'T doctrine that no co^iti^'e ethical iiide;enients can be
madi^ in relation to God, and thai He is not under any obligation
lo pei'torm, onnt, command or prohibit any acts. Previous Ash'arls
based this view on [heir anti -real ism iind voluntariain: *good' and
'bad' refer not lo real a(tribnle=; of acts, but to divine command
^'^ Mali-fi/^ I /I. 17r
AL-lLVi.! 11^ Tilt. liTlllCa 0¥ AOTlON
97
iind pmhibition. AI-Razi^ b^ contrasl. base.'^ il on bis anti-rcalijirn
and consequcniiiilism. '^"
Tlie P'oblem qflkmn^ A-Jot/vafion
Tlir iinj(i^'r w |ii:iTiiriii (Ji^ (jniii d crii-iiiti ai L ivill iiliiiiidH-lv imiflvr
^n eKpeclatirm of ^ prii'pnndfranE bcnern <ir li:irm^ and heiif e of ihi'
expencnce of a picpondcranl pleasure or pain. Aecordiiie lo al-RazI
and riassical Ashan.H, siiifi? God does not expfi'ienre pleaj^uie or
pain, it wifl be inconreivdble Ibv Him to be subject to prudential or
plf (U'<iirf-MLrkir[g foiihidrralions. Ili^ ^<'Ls Eind c OTnniaiids, tlirriTorr,
caiinnr follou' frrun iiirilive^
Moreover. ^^Jioevet arts for an objective [^liamd}, i.e. witb a. niorive,
will be sei'kiiig to be perfected [msstabnal] by it^ and will be imperfect
in biniselt, however, Ciod is ahi^olulfly perli?ct. ll may be objeeled
dial though pfrforniing nr oiniltiiig an act n'ill hr on a par for God
Hini.'belf, He mny perform the iirl for the Ijeiiefit of buniaii.'b. Yet,
since iil-RazT denies that beneHreiiee can in iLself constitute a modve,
be simply reiterates that if ibe perforinance and omisi^ion of siicb an
act are absolutely on a. par for God, He will not have n motive to
perform it. Ochini'^^'Lic, it would follt^w diat, bv bciictitin^ huinaiiti^
God uould aim to perfect Himself '^^
AKo, al-Rail rejects the notion that the objective of divine action
and command is lo realii^e the advantage and wellbeiiig of hinnans,
because God is able to create plesLsure in hmnans immediateE^'. It
follows that the intennedialion of W\r aclx and rommands \%'ilt be
superiluous and vain i'abath]}'^"
According to al-RjizT, t-rod mav choose to benefit i^nine, all, or
""' Thi^ R-tiieral ^^allf^' diii-s not app<^ar in be enlirply iio^pI kf al-iJu^va^iii
J^^oi'iiyva, ?li-7; .il^GhaziilT, Iqti\ad. 1 7+ -7; Ibii Siiii, Riialtt ft l-qeda' j^n-l-qad/n,
BuL al-Razi''; Iff miri'iLil i^ much mure rifwlrtperf
'"■ CI. ,iHiai:|illiiii. laiiftid :il)-l
Kfio/n^wu 111 -^; Ma^slw^, il7-S; Msleilh, ■!, ^90-1 Al-Tu^T 'TuMi^, ?05) cftmini?ife.
from ihi' jalivifa, bul \i^^fi il in a diffcreiil fruilc^l. ALi'j, pan of ihr bjckgrouiiil
In rhii dofltmi?, Ihnugli ol ^tdiiiirliiry inipoTldiicf^ i^ Jtiri ^iiia'^ vfcvi' thai lii^jlier
cau^.i iii?vcr acl fiir Ehe ^e of loii'er eiitilies frf. Najal. !i0'1--8; ■!?(); Shif^'. IlahivyS),
?, ^9^-.i; 2,41-1-5; Lharai, \ IJO' l'i4-5).
92
UllAPTEk T^'O
iin liiLinanri. He may rnmnmnifale lo ihem ihe courses of jftion
tliat He chfioseii for Him.self, iiifludiiig rewards and pimisliinenls
|jiiimJrhril fui Imiiidii dt is diid iHJiissioii.s Bue His shijiit- will he
;ih^n!iiri^ly frep and nt-itiipi rlirerlerl ;ir eiid'j, iior tiilijerl To mor:il
giiidf^iine.'i. His act?, and coinniiinds are not leleolfjgical, thougti not
vain eklipr."''^ A]-Razl seems lo reach a poini where clie naluve of
t[i\'ii]e artioii bernnie.'b \f.-\\ inucli an uiifalhonialile mvsterv. We do
iiol imdcriilaiid ^vliy Grnrl aflei and finiini£Lndi<. Nor dct \'-c uiidfr^laiid
how God chooses to afl and lo command, eftjx'ciaJly lliat al-RazT
will denv clip divine attribute of wi!L
In one kal^m woi4i, he write;;, "It is inconceivable for God to do
-Sijiijclliiiig for ail objccEi\i', i OEiira liir Mu^ld/.ila ami iiioM jiii LiE^'".^
Thi? rerpvprirp lo jiifi^c^; Hr^iwn miennon |o one of ihe isio^ii ppri-
ous problems that transpiiT frnm diis doctrine, which concerns tbe
lelatioii of divine eonimand lo human uellheing. h iheie an elhi-
cal rationale in divine roiiimaiid? And how could this doctrine be
recomriled v^ilh al-RazT''; foiej-oiiig roiilpiidon that Revelation serves
biiman ad\antaoe?
In J^ihUydi al-'uqUl, he nolej^ ihal despite this theological position;
mo?bL di\ine commands do in lael accord viilh hnman welllieing.'^^
The rcEidcr is chcn referred lo a closer tiTaliTiciil of thr problem in
bis work on the prineiple.'b of juri^prudenre ihe Mahal, whirh we
indeed find in tbe contest of eslablishiiig die principles fof the Legal
inelbod of analog^' [qiv^i).
AI-RiizT considers three definitions for die 'Ltgal ground' {tlla
Jia^tyyti)^ cPDtral to the melhod of qivHn (a) it could fiomeho'v be a
cau.'ii? [mu'aihthir. mUJib] fni' establi.shing a ruling, or (b) a motive [d^Ti
fni' it, or ti) it could meiely indicale (miiatnfj \l. He rejecLF^ the first
lor a number of reasons; e.g. that revealed rulings are (iod a pip-
eternal, iineaused speech, ■which ta jiqi affected Ijy any factors (^'iuch
ss the intoxicating property of wine). He rejects the second defini-
don, .since God eannot be morivaled in His aetion and conimand.
He then accepts the third dplhiition for the Aground', as [he aspect
(iifu.ifj ijf the act, wlmh Juulijojis d>.d ratio [Milmb) kn iiidicaihig [bat
'^' Mati^iV. Ill l7<f-90' ff. die ijood conmifntary hy jM^fihanl, Ali/n/; fi.
283- lot.
AL-JL\i.l 11^ Tilt. li'nilCa 0¥ AOTlON
m
a piLitif lilar Ij'gal jiir{gcini'n[ ^pplit^s to the an '^^ Thii lasE noiioii
of the Legal grotincl L> nnn-lLcolngifal; a gi'oiinii teflji us snnu'lhing
about the contenls and impli(al.ioiis of .^ripluval te\Vi, hut iiolhing
about llieir iinuvre. StripEur^J ruling-; pri:>\'it!e knowledge oriiiiinaii
conduct, but not of divine nature. Tlie Prs( two definitirms, bv con-
trast, rest on iheoi'ie.s of why God commancf'^ and prohibits ceitain
acts, viz. iliat God is either moiivaled or iicceiisitated to establisii
sfiipuiral riiliiigrh in llie finni in vvhi( h wr have ilu-ui.
(irnuiid^ ^re nf ^e^'ern] ljp<?!; Some, fni' insrarife, :ire ■ipecified
more or [ess explicitJy in scripture, where it is staled ihat a ^ven
act is fonimaiided or prohibited for the sake oi'(miri ajli', or for (li-),
a certain reason.'^'' I'liese arp straight! onvard scriptural indications
iif I iiliiig.s, which Tli iln- iihij\r iErfuiiiitJii of i]ie Lc^-J gmuifd ci'iily.
Hov^'evpr, ^inother, mrtre prohlem;itir r\']"ip incliirlps groiiiicts Ktw^H rm
the prc\'iou sly- discussed principle of convi^nience [fiiint^\fibi\), \^hich
concerns ihe consequences ofacLs. Al-Riizf dedicates a lengthy sec-
tion ill Ihe MatiJiSil to esLibliiihing the validity ol convenience as a
I^^fll ground widioul iniplvnig llial il is based on divine motivii-
ijon. One may avgue ^s follows" God e^tahli^ihe^; l/'gal rulings for
humari benefit; we obsen'e that ruhiig x serves benefit j^; therefore,
ihe presumption [zoin) that 'ruling t is established for the sake of
benefiL v' ^^■ill follow. Obviously, the most prohlematic part of the
argument Li the pmnLic, 'God r^tf[hli.'ihi7,'i Legal ruling;; foi liLiinaii
benefit'. Al-Razf notes that jurists absolutdy reject expiainin,^ 'Jor
human benefit' as 'iniii Ihe objet Sine (ghnrnf!) of ieali:;ing human benefit',
allhough l>oth phrases have tlie same meaning. There i.s no real dif-
feience, therefore, between their position and that of the Mu'tazila,
who proclaim eNpliciclv hoth chit God is obligiied iioi lo perform
bad acts nor (o make bad commands, and ihal He Ls motivalcd to
dehver advantages lo men. Jurists ai'^o asseil that ^'although God it
not oliligatecl lo consider [human] bi'iiefits. He does what is heneiicial
fui Hi:* sti'vams only [HiLoffavuLii {tuJitdduC) ^id beiit-fiti'iice [ihBh)^
Al^Rizi fti^f < ihi i-uimplc of linrtiu^alnit, ivliirh is llic rolifj for ihc dcjcil <i
|juui^linierir. Tlit lint bi-lu'een iirl and piniLhiikriil i^ hj.sr-d on ditiin; noiitinaiLd'
"Whcinv<'[ you itr. z nsaii lomifaliiii^ tlii-n know thai I Ifavi: made il obLii^alory
{aiijabla.\ ihal h<? be piinLslied". So &>iiii:-aliori nioii'lv iiiditale^ llic applicabilily oT
punthnif 111, hul doe^ iiol faow il ^ialaiii. I /I, I 'i9-4€^.
1^^ Msh.il, ?/?, L^l ft
lOO
UHAFTEk TU'O
rather than ohligalioii {a'ajoby^ y^ In rpfuling nhi.s argument for die
validity of the priiifiplf of ronveiiienfi'. al-RazI argues al length
agaiif.si iliifh prublriiLdEk prmii^ in jjiLiiii-uliii; Ibr GimI\ icfniiiuiiiJrt
^nd ncif r:innfir be ^iiitiitI ai liiunan bciieJir'^
In the Mah.0, he presents ihe following ailernative theological
hasis for the vaKdily of the principle of ronvenieiice:
Wt accept thai tiJdd'i, dcts and iulin|i^5 arr. no! explainable bv motivc-s
ami (ibj(i:l.i\[.s. Ntvi-i Lheli'ss, \vt a^Mi L Ehar ctiiivtmciic t pn>^'i(lci a
ha''is for ihi' pri'suniplion tif ^rimralj. Tbin is so. ainre ihr (niMEion
of Musliniii L! ihjl ihc mlation of ihc sphcri's^ ihi" risinir dinl felling
of ^-ijii.!! (■]!!! tii>n.i^ Jiid llii'ir ptrdldl[:nc i upiin llii-ir form;. LincI tuiniiiL'i-
ceiKf, an; ncit niii'ssjrv' {wa/ib), Iml llul nine e Ciud, I'KiIleil, pn'ij'rvi'3
His cu-itfim (a/Idj by iunlainiii*^ Llieni iip<in d umf<>rni jl-ilf, ihcrt will
[indiiii}>lr'[ly fiilliHrHL' t\ii- TtrrMiniplioii ih:!! <lii'i iri'iEl n'miiln U^nmrnitv
and iht day jfltr liimornhw ujmn lhtz<e jIlrilniEes. TIk' ^anie i'^ (rin' in
[he ca5r!< uf i\n: tdii cif ram al ['inda) [ihi' fDrmatKin ofj humid i luuis,
ialialion -ifter eatini;, qiiem^hinHj of ihirsE after driiikiiiL;. and huniin^
frciin tciiiEacI vvilIi lire Yel isicm" (unliiin piTsiiils c<jntiEiiJ misty in ihiii
iiiiiiiLiri, LIic'iv Lvill LL]]<Eiru]jt< cll> TuUirw d piv^iiLitpliciii, \i:it;iiiu I'li 1 1 r-
lainLv, Ehdl ihi'y will |>erntiE in tln'ir nornidl e<mrses imiitha}]. In nhcirE,
l\n- rejH'Eilion iif one ihin^ many limc!' will enldil Ehe preiiimpliiin ihaE
wlii'nr:\i'r il ot ( ur^, H \vlLl cliilv occur ac (ordinu Ici iprcific iifiprclii.
Tlierc'fi>n'. when we esaniiiii' revidli'd laws {vimra'i'), we ^^dll find
lulin^ and hen[:li|:« ttini-oniil:iii( jnd rn&rparaliU'. I'hii, in kiKiun alliT
|j-x ri m I n inirl ihj' \ririniiJh ^■jn'i K ni ti-\-i"aU-i] Iaw-- liidui-lii^rty XKrn'fnrr,
knowing the iKtiirri'nc e cif eilhiT will i^nEad pri'suminglht iii'( urrenee
of the other, and vier \'ersa, withoui eiEhfT being a cJuse {mii'allithirj
fiir [hf rather, or a nmlivi" f<ir it ThfTi'6>re, convenience is [^'alu!]
evidence ftii Li'jrdl grduiids^ ihouj^li it ls denied alrnulutely that God's
luliiii'^ lody Ijc CrLplaiimUe l>y mccjur^r Lii itlfjcclivTi.
Al-RazT fompaies divine roniraaiid to divine action: the Law to die
rrealed wodd. As one can detect a divineiy-susilained unifttrniitv
in the bfha\ioiir of created things which is empirically qiialifiahle
and quail tiliablp, one ^vill Eind a comparable luiiforniity in scrip-
tural rulings. Neither obseivation, accocchng to al-RazT, will entail
that GoJ i.s motivaled or necessitated [lif^ietiHy inetapliyftit allv, f'l
elhicallyi. That 'icriptnral nilings generally serve huiTian wellheing
does not entail that Gorl commands foe the sake of human benefit.
whether oni of duty or favour. None Ehe lej^ji, this observation uill
|^.lifl&^ii ?/2, 2S7-4fi.
''".*Yfl&w/.?/2. 24)1-71.
'^' Mf>l^i}J, 1/1, 'J4ft--7
AL-JlAZ[ ON THt EraiCE Of AOTION
101
allow human;, lo dpri\p general telfologi<al priiifiplos induclivelv
frnni .^rriptiiriil ruling!;; lieiicR, che validity of Lpgiil qiyai using the
priiioipic of ronvpnipnre.
Ohientimi to Aht'laT^ilf Thedo^iai Ethia
The Mu*[jjiil^ developed higlilv elaborate doctrine? on the elhi-
ral eoodiiFss of God's acts (inrludiug rrealion. ohli^jalins huniann
[takrlij] and aflerlife reward and punishmeiiE), v^hich they niainlain
to be fogiiizablp. I'heir critic.^; confront them mth a wide range ol'
ar^uim? iiLh. nir>^llv iinsy.slrindlic ;>crplita] and topical exu-'i that lakf
the form nf analni^ieal. p;ii^;iblr-likp and Mi[iialion:il nri^iiinpiiK n/l
hominem (iliam). These were commonly ni^ed bv cEassieal .■Vsh'arls (the
best-known bfing al-Ash'avT's own ihiee hrothers pioblem, which
he advanced against Abu 'Ail al-Jubbal'''^), as well as ihe Jaiisn{fi,
most noi^blv Abu Bakr ^1-Razi anil Ibn Siiiii.-^'''' I^i it i<iinifi^ hprc
to provide some reprpseiitative example-i of the argumenLs that al-
RazT uieji.
One ai^ument in the Malniib addresses the Mii'lazLll notion of
dh'ine beneficence [iii'am, ^ww}.^' Al-Raa argiies that an Acl is said to
bp an act of biinpficcnrc only whrii thr iTcipicnl of biniicflt haei prior
need and desire for it. A dos; will find pleasure in a bnne, but haa no
use for a preciou'^ necklace. Vel benefit in connected ukimately to
the recipient'!; consciou!i experience!; and is subjectively measurable
in terms of the amount and i:[ua]ity of die pleiL!;ure experienced, or
the pain alleviated, rather than in terms of exiernaJ things, which
one can iiccumuJate imliiniledlv. Therefore, ii person's potential
for experiencing pleasure will be delimited bv piiychological factors,
which are in turn determined bv the nalure and extent of his need^
and desires. t>ne cannot experience pleasure uithout having prior
need and desire for ii.
Yel need and de!birp^ al-Razf artjues, are imperfections in an entilv
and in themselves banns and sources of pain and anguish to it.""" If
'^^ Sof iny forlliruming urln:!'- on llh d'tEili: between jl-A^i'ari and al-Jiilihjl
on this proMnn, Jiiil r>ii :il-Ra^r.i u^e ihoreitf
-"" tip. Jbn JiLiia, Knal^fi t-qaiia' wa-t-qaiiai , IVnin ivliirh al-Ra2i i^einslo borrow
oiii; arcLi]neiit {Matdl^, !S, !517;.
"" Ma!Shb.^ 3, 29^!-^-' ff p. l5Ch (1 i^fia.
102
UHAPTt^k TWO
Gnd creates man wilh numerous imjirrrections, Lhe n heslows u^jon
liim foinmensiiL'itl.e plcasuirib, then (airroidins; to Mii'taziil plhirs^
lilt wliolr jJdiL will apjH'di, ;n Ijcm., fiiLilr {'iiifUlfi- ami ilnLs !j;hJ ^uid
iinwi^p^ I'ailipr ilijin hpjiprirenr; for ilif \lii'ta7]]:f liolrl ih^ir ;in :irt
of beiiefLcence will inviiKe beslov-ving a pifpoiideraiil bcnefil upon
ihe recipient. 'Iliey cannol argue thai God may bestow upon tlie
indRidual benefiu^ ihal are grfatec than the hiirms cauj^ed by his
iicrd^ and d''sii"i:i; f-n" ihc iiiaxiniiim bene (il one may rrc I'ivf will he
conimcii'bUrate wilh (never inoie than} his needs and desires.
Another argiimeni put forwiivd concerns the Mu'lazill doctrine
of the goodness ol' {iod's oblig^iting [inklff; men to pertbtm certain
m. L^. How tail ihc Mii'iii/ila juridfv ^iisnTs sjlfligariiig iiirii Eii kjiow,
prni'P niid lli:ii]k Him, whi'ii lo ^irhii'vi' ■^iirh knoi^ledge is eslreniely
difficnll and practically impo'^;.ible for most men' \Iorcover, tind
Hini:>elf does not benefit when hiimiins know, thank ^md praise Him.
Nor are these arduous acts necessary means lo human henelil; for
Gad cziti delivei all Iji'iiefit? lo all hmnan^ witlioul them. Therefore,
hv Mu'tazilT I'thical standards, nbli^ating hunians will be futile, and
hence h^d.-^'^
A[-KazT challenges the Mu'tazilT iiotinn of oliligation alio by relec-
ling to (Jod'h pronii^r r>f afterlife rc'ward for rpbrdiiuicr and ihixal
of punishment for disobedience. When a man obligale.s another
to do and omit certain acLs in return for benefits he bestows upon
him, he will be considered ^ vile and lowlv person. However, when
diese acts and omissions are beneficial to neither person, but ma.y
I'e^ult in pmii'ihnienL or reward!; for the obli^^ated person, tlie obliga-
tor, accovdino to \hi'tazill etiiics, ^vill clearly be a wrongdoer. The
Mu'tazila eannot escape mjking the same Judgement in relation to
Gnd's acts.
Among the more aiialo^^iral problems is one [hal al-Razi cilc-'i
from a debate between Abu Bakr al-RiizT and Abu 1-Qasim al-Ka'hi^
die Eaghdadr Mu'tazilT^ who wa.s reportedly unable to reply to argu-
ments pnt to him on ihj^odicy and ihe natave of di\'ine justice (iu'dil
''^'^ Mamlih. X 2^5-13.
(iin ihe bidiie^i of fuiile nrrinif j^ie'irdjiig lo Mu'tii
Lehman. "'Abd al-J^bii ^itd llt« C'Hic^pl nf LT;^1« x^nt^s" -
fill. 50 ?b.
'^" (iln ihe bidiie^i of fulile nrrinif jneordiiig lo Mu'tiiziH <'[hirs, see QJLvei'
AL-ftAZ[ ON THt ETHlCa Ot AOTION
103
wa-tajiiffi)}'^^ Abu Balr iil-Rdzi iirgiips Ihat if a man teachen his son
sv^iinming, ihni obligates hiiii lo j^v-ini iKTOns a ri\Tr. knoviing that
Llir Mill will iLficfM' Uf quit rhWitniuiiig in tin- iiiiikfir iff ilir livci and
drown^ lip \yi\W bp inron^iHcrate nf rbi' vvpllbpiiii^ f\' hit; .tijin. AI-K:i'hT
sppnii to replv that tbe forrerl analogy [mithai] for thp GoH-man
relationsbip is ihat llie fatlipt" lias many snn.'b, whom Lc rommands to
ri'oss lo iLe otlipr baiili m order lov pach to attaii:i a benelil, liiiow-
ing ihai only some will chofjiir to (irown. Yci, Ahii Eakr al-RazI
retorLs, ibu; would be the rorieet analogy of tlie God-man fflalioii-
ship onlv if it fulfils a number of condition s, e.g. (1) ibii (he father
is not responsible Ibr thpir ioilial iiperl lor thai henelit; (2J that, W be
knou^ Miili iruaiiii^ \\\nt \\i\\ iIiuom- lo dro«ii. be will hi- unalflr Lii
pKrliiflp Them frrmi ihe rrtnini:inH; :iiifl T^^ thai lie is igmii';inl ofrbi*
fact lliat llipre %^ill ullinialfK be gredter o^'erall harm Uian benefit,
since only a minnriiy will crc^^s safely. ■^"'
Miitazills may respond h\ afiirniing that God crealej^ men with
frpp will and ■"ivc;: iheni the abililv lr> helipve and do i^ood before
He obligates ibem. Hovtpver. al-RazT dp^'elnpi^ Abu Bakr al-Razr\
problem and ronlends that beliet'er.s and diibelifvrrs are not given
eqjal opportunities; tor people vary psycho logic ally and in dieir
ciiTuiHfltanrca, tvliirh, iindniidblv, ■wih aX least make some outcomca
more proH^ble tbnn olhers. Moreover, whal wonld the Mu'tazila .^^ay
of a disljt^licver who .suffers p{i\'ertv, blindness, calainilips and painn
in this life, only to find bimsclf in the kHvcst pit in iicil afti^rwarcLs'
Did God somehow' intend to benefit this man, ak tliey rlaim?
Filially, al-RazT defend^; the d<ictriiie of 'iibligatiiig what is; aho^'e
capacity' \taklif ma la yuitiq], v\'bicb utterly contradicts the \iew that
God is motivated lo benefit liuniam^. He aigues that il \'i conceiv-
able tor (iocl lo obligate humans to do uhat is abo\e their capacity.
For instance, lie obligates all htimans to become bclicvera, yet He
states in the Qur'an tliat lionie [most notably Abu Lahab, an enemy
of the Prophet) will never believe. As such, they are commanded to
'^^^ .\tamk S. :^IH-?0;4. 419. On ihr- tkbiie hHw,'f ii ahKaTjT iiiri Abu Bikf
al-RazT, ff ihf kitef!. Rs^^'ii. IG7-R' KEabdi Mnliaiilbefili Fiiwf-i-Ra)^. ^\-b. On
al'Ka'bT, .100 "AItu 'l-l^ai^m d' Bally dX Kj LiT", Eiityil\/pe:ii/tJ Iimiica.
-"' Tlir>iie:h Abo B.iki' d'Rj^i'i rwed pfoblpni n primaf il^' lojiirEil. il alsrj ^mpjuirii
lii£ d4?i]idl of <i^il\ ri;^]n>ii^ibilit>' Inr Ihe gieal lAil^ aliuiidiiil in Itii:, vvrnld. SLiirr
He loo acceptu ii lypf ofelhiril <^b|i?rlii'iim hf: dooji iiol find any iQslifJcalioii foe
the acl of ciT-atiiii^ surb a bad world thai cnuld makr Ll a good aci fil Ibr a good
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
lOS
After al-Isfaiatni; his student al-JuwaMii advniK'fd a rigorou.s defriice
of tlif A'ib'ari position on this pvohlem, which al-RlzT develops fur-
ihei iiL hifh Ijirt uuiks.
In .NihUyfsS il-uqul. he cite.?, the tr:irlitioii;il argiimpiil:
[GckI'^] spcpth fultii'^tH [iiS'pn) In Hij ?L"lf. I^y'''S i^ incontclvablf in iht
sprcch of ihc a-If [kulaiii al-naf^'] in ihc c aac- of one ui \^'li(im i^iKiidUicc
is iiic (infi'iv:ib!r, imiic a stdlriiicnl \kliabaf) will Mil>iisl in ihc ■'ttf in
iicT'*n!.irii r u^lh Lno^^'l rH uf, Vr| ignnryntc K in nuirri v^ihl C m rc-lrf[ian
1(. God.^'-'
But coiifd one who is not i^jnorant Lave an uninithfiU statement in
Ilia self [khabdf nafsanf]? Following al-Isfaia'rm, al-RazT responds that
when one knov%'s somptliiiig, it will be inconcei\'ahle tor him to have
an unlriitlifiil sl.ilr nifiil in hi! .iclf ^boiil il. One can racily imagine
an unlrulliful wjftd/ .■statement fe.g. the English staterat:nt 'The world
is pre-eteiniir, or iLs Ariibie equivalenlN Bjt one eatinol imagine
having an uninidiful staienieni wiiLin the setf [i.e. the non-verbal
'.sLJicniciil' iLiai the \trbal Ai(LH:ini:ni rxpres.sc.s) a[)oLiL M'liu-iLiiig that
one kno^vs [hence, if I know ihat the world !■; teinpofallv oriij;ii]ated,
I fiin state, "The world is pfe-eterndl\ without being; ronvinrcd in
The more serious piolilem is: rould one who ha.s a iinthlul iiate-
ment in hli sc!f not produce \Trbal lies? How docs one know that the
stiitenientsof ^?i«fi]fiff ibfripluredo not fonlain untrulhi' llieredoe^ not
appear to be a neres'^iry link b*^Eween knowledge, or ^^peeeh within
the self, and ihe irutliftilness ofi'erhal speech. Whi^tever I have in
my mind^ 1 can .sEill ifiut/.ir: lo uuer a lie; and ao can Gifd if He is a
vnitinl;irv ngenl. AI-RitT here reppnnHp tli;ir rhe problem of the Inith-
fulness of God's speech is similar to the problem of the truthfulness
of the messenger.-'"' He refei^ us to his discussion of human aetion,
where he cite^ the ^'lii'tazili argument that it God crciited human
arta, infliiding bad onca, He might create iniraeles at die hand;! of
impostors as well as messengers. Al-RazI cites al-Juwaynrs lesponse
diat if one knows that the pioriueer of a supernatural event on the
hands ol the claimant ol messengership is tiod, one ^till have an
ii]iiiii.^Jiai.t kinjvvlctli^i' thill tlie < Uliii.tni js ti uthfuL For iloiilft i"iiirr!>
only into ^vhelher the event I? a divine ;iet, rather Hi^n whether God
714-
.^fli^. fnl. nih; cf. m\i-Uf>s\Mi^^^at 4^4.
Jfrftaya, fol. I:15h.
106
UHAPTt^k TWO
ci'fiiles il in siip[K>rl of ihe irulli-H'fler.-''' Al-Razi adds (o alJiuvayiiiVs
iirgumpiu, that though tlif latter ronleiilion is iiiducdvf. one uill
tiHjw iifh Qiiih iiiiiJK(li.iU'lv cLinl ui[li (cudiiiiy; fui tht- ujUEiaiy pi-s-
pihilily (lliat Clorl ereale^ niii'^icle^ ir The lnurl^ 'ifnn iinjiostni-) x.']]]
he no improbiible tn thr extern of heing inroiiffivahle.^"' Howevj^V;
his aeeouiil of ibe argument Lii brief, and seems to refer the reader
lo al-Juwayiifs books.
Al-Ju^vayiii argiif.'s thai a inTfA^ary condilioii for a gi^iiiiimr pro-
phetir mirafle Ls that il be iniinediali:]y preet'ded by ihi"' prophet's
proflaniiilion [hal he tuU perform the following mrraculou.'b ael to
prove his ine.'^sengei.'ihip. Mu'tazilT^ objeet thai .^Jih'arw fail to prove
iliiU GihJ winikl iiiH [ leciiv. iin h iiiiradeh di the h^nd.s of iiiipi-riiius.
Tn I'pply, ^lUJiii^'ayiiTprnpopf'; the follo^viiig antilogy. A person [■lainis,
ill front of il royal assembly, to he ihe king^p spokesman. He then iisks
tlie king lo break his habit of remaining seated, and (o stand up in
conlirniation of hi^^ eliiiin. If the king does that, liLs uniLsual act will
confirm the cl^inn and il will not r>frur lo anyone in the audience
HycH the king .i^tood up in order to mislead them.
However, from al-Razl's point ol view, this coneliLsioii will only
provide con^'irtion beyond reasonable doubt, yet not certainty, in
tho tiuthfiihicH.'i of llif tlaiiiaanl of incHJiciigcrHliip, ■who supports hLi
daini'i i^ifh mpcrnatnral acts; for the ^imiiltaneily of ihe rlaim niid
tlio king'.s act could be roineidental. TTie king eoiild hiive stood up
for an unrelated reason. /\]-Juuayni neither addresses this possibility,
nor attempts to stress the eonchisiveness of his conclusion. Al-Razi
doe^ Bill he fonsider.i; ihal though thi^ possibility is coi]cei\able in
principle^ it is aetually impo-.riible: ^'Thus, ronf]usi\'eneis {d-qaf ws-t-
jfl.;;?^) may be reiili.sed^ though ther<' ma\ be this p<:issiliilny (^«n^)''.
■'^ Mii'ra7ilT H^lju^flifln: \ihilvii. fo] Flfia; al-R^zi'n reply J^haye. fr>l 92a-b Cf.
"* Al'Raii I .'(jiIqiu'l "II 1 cliiif nn '-.yc^ foi a monwiil, ihcit opr-ii ihcin^ 1 will
knoiv for ferlairi ihal GfA t capablr of Lumiiiii ihc vi'alU into g^\d diLriiii; ihal
nsrnni:iil, mid ihf.ii, vvlii^ii <^ppiiiifB my e>es, ri'lurmiifi llipin a^ ihfv w-eif. 'Iliis
pf>^uhi][ly will iinl uiidi:riikiLie ihe imiikedrale kiiowled^p ihal ihal rlid niil like
plan- The ^anse i.i Inif r>f all fUiioinarv eveiil.ii . TlieTefiire, ihe possibility of
lliiii^ fLiid ^:^'£■ln■^ ■Jipoi 11114 l*^"! I^" *' iifimEil Lfniraf.i [maiaii-hd al-'ailivia'i dff.H nul
DitdeiiniiL- llii' immediiile knowl^'dgi- ihal ihey will crmlinui? upon their courses"
'''''' Al'Juu'aynr, inha^. ?75; ci.A/biiai, 3l7;.l-/tfM&, S, 61^ (where al-Rjzi dues
nr>l f"iisidt'r il lo !>;■ a slnmii! ai^^nie]il).
AL-lLVi.! UN TUt liTlllCa 0¥ AOTION
107
Perhaps this coiirlu.siveness ciiii (hercbv rearh thp te\e3 of certainlv
Tlir obviiJiLs link ln-iwcc ii iliih digiiniciu fin' hitw a niiiark |>iovr!>
me^ispiij^pv^hip and prnving ihf iriilhruliip^s r>f CoH's spei'fh is jhat
thougli it is iheorelicallv ronrei^'able for God to mislead men (in
j^pperh or aclion, bv rrf tiling miracles alihe hands oJ' imposlnrs) this
la a tri\'ial po^sihilitv: it is aclually iiironrpivable that He would do
so. The diyii^l of [l]ii< df fr iicc scrni^'< [o be thai Iving iei ;m fxli'rmclv
li'i'-'ial, louJy and ignf>ble act ihat mi agent would retort to only
because of his weakness, and fnr ubich be may be viewed with
conleinpt Lying cnntradict^ Grid's iibsoliue power and majesly,
aJTmiifd bv Asli'diTs, vviilujiii briiii^ (oiiiidernl iiiiiinsi^allv [jdrl. A
ppnpihlp pprschii, iherefnrp, inav donbl whelher n fei'l:iiii I'laiiiiant
of messpiiof rsbip is a iriie messenger nf God; bo\^ever^ once he has
verified that he is, he will not have any doubm a.s to dit vexacity of
bis me.'bSage, i.e. of both God^s upeecb [hat he communicales and
bi.i; comiTiiinicatioii thereof.
i\l-JnwaynT develops a rather complex defence for the triilhfnlneii
of messcnoership, partly Ijecaiise be rejects ihe argument that 1^'ing
is incrmceivaliie ui divine .^^peech since ii con.siitutes an iinjierl'ec-
tion. He con^idcri this to admit a ij-pc of cdiical objccii'visni.'' Bv
conlrasl, al-RazT fully endorsi-s this .stanee, which he relie?^ nn in hiii
laler works. He writes in the M<ilia\\fih "The stalemenl [Umbtii) of
Ciod is truthful because lying is an i nip ei fee lion: and [inijierfcclion]
in incnnceivable in relation to Got:].""-'^" And in the Matdlib'. "That
lyiiig !■! inconceivable in relation la G<>d. exalted, is; known iniinedi-
atelv- since it is an attribute ofiinperfi'ction; and rhuinan| primordial
iialure testifies {ihahadal sl-Jllia) ihat attributes of imperfection are
jnconreivable in relation to God, exalted^'."'
Thus. iL^tiiinin^ to the early jVili'a.iT argumeiil, cxprci^rd b^' al-
Baqillanl. al-R.azT maintains that lying implies an imperfection of
es.sence in the agent^ though, a? an act il is not intriiii^ically bad.
This solution, from a pcrteclionist aiigle^ to the problem of cli\'inp
uudirulrics^ biJUgri u'i to ihi: siibjizii of Uic in:xt cliapti;!.
^'^ Alduivayiii, lnhad.279.
'^^1 MamKii.99-\QQ.
GHAPTLR UHREE
AL-RAZT'S PERPECTIONIST THEORY OF VIRTUE
Perfeetionbm
Refening lo ihe roii'ieqiiriilialisJ and Legal senses of value terms,
Ibn rayiniv'ya, one ol" al-RazT's most oiilspokeii ciitics^ writes:
Thc:rt arc Minn' u'liu jnirm d ihird sense fcii ^jrcKid' and 'had', and
c luim lhj[ iKr'r^' ih uii^iLiiniilv 'tvor it, ^'l^ tin' jrl'iv bi'ine Jn yllnbuE--
ckf piTfei^liin] Df Jii allnbulc nrirnjjtrfj'clicm Tliis ^<'L]-h' it:is nut nn'ii-
tiiinitd \yy ihi' mrijonty ol early mukdcattsmuii m thk tcmlcKl, bul was
mrntliinr-d hy ■:cirnr liilrr (^lt'i^j ■'iic h ii'' ^I-R^tT, whfi tniik il friim I he
faia\ifa.
Al-Razf is indited the first theologian tn juxtapose these three defini-
lians of vnlue terni.s in such a .suecincl. manner. This appears in a
work as early as the hham. uhere he wiite.s ihat 'good' and 'had',
.. atici [ii'si^iuti; dttiibiEli's tif |>cifec.til>n [kamai] and in][x:rft'c|ic>ri inttq-^an).
Su it I' PJid, ' K.n ( iivlc'djfc ia tioiH^^ i^norunf ifl b^id'. B'^ 'pirftCtlon',
wc mrjii thai j [hiiii^ has JiiJiTii'lhiii^ il is siipposl'iJ In have ivii/ud \kay
h-ihay' mm <ha'iuh an yakiiaa icih\ij, vnlh rcspi-c [ !c> Lis .'vptiiiei, typt, or
t:ist:nc<^.~
Tlie rhdiiir lisiiiig of ilir llirci: di'TmiEioiiri i^ jImj ftHiiid in his later
works.^ Though il is unpreredemed in fclfim to list these roiitranting
definilion'i of value lenns in this Viny, this third defiiiitian seems
related pai'tly lo a sease that elassif =il Ash'aiTs reeognised in a main
ela.ss of \alue terms as used m ordinary language and sonif techni-
cal conteJEtp. NoiieihelesiSs as ive have seen, ihey explained ihis sensp
a.s being deseriptive of iion-nifiral facts about being.s, and often
appealed to h in explaining divini' attnbiues, sueh as jiistiee and
wisdom.' Thus, Ihn 'ia\ini)ya appears to be right in his remark
dut irlJs eIiii^J ilefiniiitui irpicseiiLs nJiiLa/i inWu^iiLv.
' Ihn ra>T[ii',yd, ii^ftjaj, 2, H14
' M^ra.iQ]. i^2b.
^ E.x- AM.af. I/I, }5^:.mayiijr,\. L9Sa; ^riaT^, 24U; MwAaisai 479.
* Ste p 30—1 'iip'a.
no
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
Earlier llian ihc Lhara, in Ihul dl-Din, ^iI-Razi afri^pL?^ the above
claibSiral Ash'an ibtaiifp conrerning ihis claims of valiie terms, as u'ell iis
(la^'tkcLl A.sJ]'an vulunitirisiii ([hi: dij( iriiir Lh-ii vuliir irinis sijukt lie
defined (iiilv in levins nf divirn^ fruninandj T^lirnii^h *;onn afrer\v;iid*i
lie abfLiidoii^ the liitter dorlriiie in favour of eonsfqiientialLst ethirs,
t]if- eniplia'iii in both tlie LhUin ^nd ^ihaynt al-'nqul b on acts, Vi'herf as
die third delinilion nl value teinis^ in lerni.s ol peili'ftioii, whirli he
Xvi^ia, remains iinconni^nird to a moral eilaufc. 'rhii< i;; due to al-RaEi*^
acreptanre in these early worki of the fonniion rlassiral ki)iatn doe-
Q'ine that the ei^senee of man is purely physira], and ronseqiieiilly his
rejection of bolli the poiisibiiity ol'htnnan pertertion and ihe nolion
Iff iiiLelkE iiLiil plrasurr {Uulhdtui 'tiijlijyu).'' Aicoidiii;^ to IIjil Snid, iiidii
e^ppf ience? lliii pleanin- nl n siipra-rorpnreal level npon ^iltflinnipnt
of theoretical pi'rlectioii. In.stead. he presents a.'ioteriolngyronsi.sting
of a creedal approach tn kiKiVLleclge, an etiiics of action oriented at
duties and rules of conduct and a purely physical nolion of Iniman
leiiurrertion in ihp liereafter. Man onghl lo have the rorrerl set of
hehefs^ ouciht to act in accordance with ihe dictates of Revealed
Law, and .should expect aflerlife rev^ard or punishnieiu accordingly
as proTnised.*^ E\'en lo lrj\e tjod is considered an attribute ol action
[fifaljl'/). viz. Ijcing ohcdiciii lo Him.'
A< a later siflge. al-Ra/i abandon.^ the physicalism of classic al
^larn and adopis a complelelv new theoiy of human iialiire. As we
.shall see in ihe fnllovvin^ section, he will inainlain undct fuhnji and
Stifi influence, that man has an unphysical ioiil and may experience
inlellertual plea.Kure as; well a.i; a spiritual aflerlife along'iide ihe physi-
cal oiie. Moral and theoretical peifeclinn become real possibililies
and viable human end?. Tlie conneclion het^veeii the dnctiine of
tlie separate, rational soul snd perleclioni.st ethics is underscored in
Ej-Razf'> minor woik. Ri^alu ft l-nafi^ Vihcrc, lie ViritcSs comniciiling
on ihe iiaiiuh, "He ^vho knows his self will know his Lord": "Had
'■hCir in tbLs fiaififti referred to the ph^'sical body, everyone \\nulrl have
knoun hi.s Lord conipletelv''.'^ This view^ which al-RazT attiibule.s
11- iiK'M 'tiluiii'V and mulakuKii'iUn, is then cunu^a.'^Ei^d wiEh the view ui'
the Jblaf^a and Siifii, \'i^. dial ihp soul.
^ U.ai nf-D^n. Inl. :■!')[ II.; i^f/attr. IrJ. +i:ia; .■YtfiSi<^ fol. L^4Wa; •Zfi'ib- 2f>^b.
*Cr. Sliili,iri^:h, "From al-Gl.jian lo al-Riir, 172-3.
' r.W oM>jfl. fol. 24\ cf Trt/rr, 4 2'^\-l: ^. IR-9
" Ri,d/dji f-naf., f.il 2a' cf. >^,, 4l!
Ill
. Is iiciihir thr phmn^^il Imdy nor ph\si( al, }jiil t a s|ririlual iubsunri.'
Lhjl cmaEuUt^ (in Eliii frjmc, diiijiiidti^s il, ditd uk'3 iE ds jn instriinn:iiE
tn acquirr sc w^lirc^ :ind knfrtvl(idi;<'. Oncf il pi-ifc:cts its subsldiicc: hv
thi:m ,in<! Innws ilslxinl ami ihi' ri'^hti' nf Hes crirj-turi-i, il will bcLonir
jin'piiri'd [Q ri'lurn Eti Hi.s prcstiici- dnd lc> ln'iTimc one rif HLv iuijii'K
clcrndlly luppv'.
TLif biglilighis ibc link hpiween the nature of the Boul and the
purpose of its coming into bpiiig.
AI-RazT frcqiieinly (ivgiipib that, as wilh pleasure and pain, likewise
perJertion and inipeiterlioii are simple primary' hiunan end?^ that
air floti^liE ax ii\iiidcd in llieni^clvf^'i. The tivo l^pc-i of motivation
iire not nmlunliy I'xriiisive: "Th^l pleasure i-i liked in ilielf does not
eonflict with jierieelion being liked in itself. '" Indeed, in KiMh al-N^i
wa-l-iHh, he argues that both a.ve muluallv eKpljiiiLlorv
Wc kiii)w ^pi>nMnc:iiu^lv [bi-i-badaha] thai wc like 'ahahbdj inic thing ditd
ili^itk^ [katiliiij iiiiirlliii XLrn-fuif, n-n my'. Brllicj lln ii- Ifs uiic lliiiii
ihdl vi likci! m itsrlf, and iintiEhrr ihjt ij' dislikni in ilsclf. <ir . cdc h
ihing IS [iki'd hri^dii;!!' il ieh'oKtu ;!iiiTu^lhin^ tl^c, en dinlikcd bj'causc
il ln■^■o[v^^' .iiniiitliuii^ iJXsC.. 1 hi hiEl^T divli.l(in ii absurd, ^int<' il >vill
k'dd (ih ciEhiT Eiiriiii])^ n'i^r<':!s nr i^iii uliirilv. ...
Hdviii'i ri"lU'< [I'd and mcdildti'd ibaliafhna ifn-la'immatjia), ivt havr
fjiiini! nnlliinir lh,i^ ( ilJi he <aid lu be litr'il in il'^i'lf irxt rpt plc^surr
araJ jiH^rfi'Jliim. In rcaliEy, then- a, im ihlftri'iici' Lu'Ewii-n lliern; fur
whjl lii pl(';i^iiriit>U' ivill brini^ ^[bcml tlit piTfi'clion itl .^liili: for thr
exittrn;iit fif plrai<uri' ikamal hal al'nmllmlhdh , and wlial ironEhLiluH'i! An
(aipcci oil fH'rti'i tiiin vi!l lie |>h'a.'v[irab]t'. Htiwtvi'r. we n'ic-r Ki wliM
IS physic alh' pk'asiirahli- 'pk'd5iiff:\ and Id ii'hdE is spinEually p]i'asur-
abk- *jKtrfi-\ Eisin'.
AJifi^ wlial i.^ diitikfd iii iL^cIT k^ piiii] diid iiiipi;rrr clltin. lu rCidity,
ihrre e no diffi-rcnce br'liircn ihcm, as explained afrediK'; for pcr^c-
liiin IS liked luj" lEs own sake, in lEseif, tjna pccfiLEmn {m<thbiib Is-dhatik
hi-dha!\h nan haylhu aina-ha kamalj, and iinpc rJi^CliOn lA di^likt'd for ibi
own sdke, dncl in ilsrlF, qua imprrrcrluin.
ir
Thus, from the ps^fhologicaf and metai^thiral standpoints. al-Razi
considers plea.sure and perfection to Vre two concomitant sides of
die same coin. The perfection of a ,gi\'en a.^^pecl of ihe individual
Ls dii objei live fediurr, vci it lesuks in Elie sLibjciii^r expriieiue of
pleasure.'* The fitter, in turn, serves to perfect iSie ■iiibji?ctive 'ttate'
" Risslaji [-mj<. fnl. ?b.
'^ .\fl/"v. 19-20. Cf Moiatit. X 1\-%: \ S4S-9.
'^ Qii lltf itaitLif nl nlE<A<«Lirf atii^ p^tii, v\-e p. t^4i If ixfiii
113
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
fff ihe individual , which appears to refer to a sense of gfaiirifatirm,
fulfilmpnl. Of happiiies.'b.
Hinvcvrr, he id^ij (iiiiiriid^ [lidi die r>;peririu'e of |jlrd.siiie iri iio[
le^triripH Jn ilip perrcpiirm of siibjertive npper r? of pei'fpftinn. He
writes:
Indiirtmn mdu ali-s [h^ii prrfrctwini.'v kivf^d in il3i:lf. Thtrcforc, i( ^hciulcl
hr sdid dial a[\ llidl b nittn- pi-rfcii ii'iH hi' iiiDrc dc:jifr\'iii*^ iif bcuij^
l(rvcd {an-la hi I 'nakh5hn}3\ I hc" iiio^l prrd [■! cff iIiirUlS is Clod, (:sallcd^
Ml Hi- is ihr uniihl dcslrviui^ of bcmg livi'd Thi' ptrrf'plirm (if whjl is
lovi'd, '/Mfl bc^iiig loved, rlFd^lii jjlciisiiri'. And i^intf: ihc pirc rpEicm i>f (hi-
li[tiini^[[ iinal fiir ih^' Tmi:, !'Njln-d. is rnori' j>!'rlc-c[ ihzin I he |H'rcr|>lii>ii
of lln' phytic ill file ulln'n lor their iibjj'c 1^ chf pcni'ptidii, diiil miici- ihi'
True, f:KilEi-d, is Ehi' hkimI pirfci^l b^'iiii^, \hv plitasiin- n'siilliii" from
P'='
lU Him '^■|]l ln' mort' pi:rfttl (liLin :il! iiIIht pica'iufi'?
TluLS, |Jopii]ai ^HJiii-s iff hidvi" limirri Viill iii\(jki' ;■ J^n^aE snisc tff
Fidmiralinn ;ind \c\'f in peopled hcnrl*: wirhoiil thorn romviiig ^ny
benefit Rom ttio'ie hprotii. Al-RazT also eriticL^s Ibn Stiiafbr iniplv-
ing dial man may seek to know God in order to perfert himscll
(rjMjHflfj; and respoiidj; thai man may love and seek Co know Gnd
in Himsplf, radiei diEiii for the ■,ake of aiuiiiing i?;reatpr subjective
perferlinn. as he may Ijcfonie heedless of all other than God, inrliid-
ing himself. Already, in ihe lhyn\ al-tjhazall dislinguijiheib between
sEibjectiv'e pertectioiis^ which are normally df sired and sought by die
(ignil Qul of riclf-ie^^iirtiiiig iiiutivcs, and '^i:xlrriidJ' pciit'ttitmrh Uidt
the flgeiir oppreri^le.'; for iheir o\sti snke, not for tbp h<^neEit itiat
he gains from them."'
Ai regards siLbjerti\t perfections^ ^l-Razi argues (bat an entity
can have aspects of perfection tliat pertain to lis being, attributes, or
acts. The perfection of an entity in its being implies^ (irsE, that the
entity exists netes^sarily by virtue of its e.ssence and is self-sufTicirnt
in all re.specLs, iind second, that it is completely unique in its essence,
ihcretdre, God alone has this t^pe d'perlecdon." Human beings may
oiiiv perfect aiuibulcM of dicii^ souIm, viz. kiio'wicdgc and power. As
!■! Shark 'Uf^ al.hik.^. ^, 167-fi; cf. Tifilr. *, 2^1-
It v.:
'= Shark aJ-i^MrSl^ 2, IOJl-9
I" Al-Ghaaan, fiya', 4, 297-:i0fi
'■.■Vrz/i. 31-2; \i\; Ta/i^i. 4, 23?.
113
for human scia, they are said to be perfect or impeifer! on account
of thi'ir foii.^eiineiices, i.r. tlif resulLint pleasure or pain.
Al-Rii^l'.'i i:Api>'ii[iutL uf Ju- irLiUoii l)riwrt'iL pi'ifrsiiini .iiid p]^a.suic
^Iriw*; him to trp:jt llie f<sn.';<'f^in'nrinli^l .inrl perfhr rifnikt *il:inrps at
two aspects of the same teleological ethics, though ob^nously they
have to be reconciled at thi' norinalivp level. In a late \^'ork, he
eonte^tualLses tliese two moral slance.^^, as follows:
'I'hi' ihing'-! hc'ini^ ,i"<jod \k!<Bj'f) l'< ilut tn riihtT ih-il ihini-'ih csscnci' or
acl3- As fcji the gocxinrss (kfia^Tn^'o.) ihat prrtdins tti ihr ihiltg's ts^rncr,
it riiiJv me ins ?li^il i( arEiially hj-, cvi-it p(Tli:c tmn uin! majri^ly '/alall
thill il ni^'v h^ivc. I'.i-il ■» i^h?! f-? Jiinlriirv En eKit. .. A' fnr (hi' irini-liirsn
ihdl ptrEdins Id acta and deeds [atfiar], ii mi'and plcaaurt and joy. and
wbai K a means [ati.'.Ilfi) In boih or i:ithcr of them. ''^
He, therehy, makes a sharp distiiirlion between hLi ethirs of aetioii,
i^hic^h Ls a riiiLijecdvisi (■(iiiicc^in'iiEiahMii; and lii?i peifrclioiii-si rtliicii
of rhjii':irrpi' Tn ihe Inrtei' outlook, \';ihie jiidgemenl^ :M.';*;e-;'; ^■<perl.'; of
an entity's e.i^spnce with I'l^spert to an objective notion of th(? perfect
essence thereof Mornl perfectionism posits an objective notion of
human nature, such that something vi s^id to be 'good' if it serves
human perfection, or coiii^titiiti?.^ jn aspect [hereof Before turning,
in the following section, lo iil-Razfi notion of liuman pi'rfe^tion,
his theoiy of virtue, we sliall consider two theological themes uhere
his chiiractcr-nrienled perfeclionisni contracts markedly and funda-
menially i^^illi the (la.'>si(a] Kolam rni})li(L'>is on action.
The first concern!^ hi^ Sufi-in^^pired interpretation of Qiir'anic
allusions to the bflie^'ei's' love of God, M'hich he contrasts with die
doi^niatism and diitv-oriciited Legalism of die majority of die maSukat-
liinuii. The latter argue that lci\'e^ heing a tvjJi^ of will \iradd'j._ Ciin only
relate to contingent things. '"Therefore, if we say, 'We love God',
we will mean thai we io\e to ohev God and seive Him, or that we
loA'e His reward 'And beneficence'. This will invohe praising God,
worshiping Him alone, having correct hplief [I'tiqsd), seeking Hiii
reward, and fcarin^s; His puninhnicnc. ^' Bj contrast, kiiowcrs i'onj)
maintain that bolh pleasure and perfection are sought and loved for
'" TaJm^A, 5^5. Cf J<.si'pli Bell. !j,,-i Tln&ty^M (I; 1^{\, ii. U.
'' Taf<ir.A, ?^?;fi. 1^)
114
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
their own saJ<e. Thpi'flbre. oiip may love God in Hiui.sdf and for
His own sak*' [fi dhaiih iva-h-dkstdi). whereas Joving Hxs servifp =ind
icwiUtl luiisLlitiics iiii iiifrriur kvel of lifVt.
Plciuun: Iwing kivi'cl in ilsrif dcn-v not c cinniil vvLh fii'rfi'ilidn ln'injr
lovcii III ilihcir. Thii Ix-in'z tlic: i^air, w aay Thci^ii; whit inl('r|in;[ Icvi'
{mahnbhd] of G(n!, txdlEi-d, -a^ love i)f ohc-dicncc- {00] li> Hiiii, \)r lovi-
of Hiii riT-urd, kniiw ihdi plrj^iun- !■< ki^Tci frir i(!i ovvn sdki', but iint
ihjt pi'rfc'ciidii i\fov('iJ fur irn i}^^]! sdkr Ai, liir kiinvi-cru, vvliii nuini^iiji
thdt Gfjd k lavtd in Hinnrlf jnd for Hia chivn sake, ihf'v have n'j]iA-ci
(hdt pcifcciiuii ii' lovnl fifi Lih i»wli z<iikit ^'
God is the mosi p^^rfecl being; in Hi'^ iieces.'ary eKisteiice and self-suf-
ficicncj- and in I li^ attribulr^ of kno'v^'l^dgr and pr>vvrL\ Tlic grc afrr
die knowledge of Gtid thai one (illains^ the more will hii yeEirning
[ihiiu-q] and love of Him be.
Similarly, ihe elassiral flmtfikaHimmt inlerpret God's 'lo\'e' for human
bciiiga ill Eeniis iff His will {iidda'j lliaE lei^ard {(fimi-ab) be deti\eiTil
lo ihcm. In l!ip T~qf\ir, ;il-RayT ^^^I'ilp^ ihat thev" ^re able lo support
diis inteipretatitjn only be arguiny thai since there in no evidence
to afRrni love 3S a distinrl divine allribule, il ought to be denied.
He replies, 'In JVifidvul at-uqiit, we have shown ihat ibis method is
vetik and vacuouB {ia'ifa saqildf^A^ By 'dii^ snenbod*, be refers to die
avgiimeni ad ignotaiitisnt — that if .soinetbine; bas no pronf it should
be negated — wbirb indeed he rejects in the .\ihayfi.-^ By co\-nv!\.s\., be
asserts that ^'it is likely diat tbe ln\'e of (Jod, exalted, foi thf servant is
an aLlribulc ntbcr than His will di.iE reward br delivered Uf llilll'^
The second ibenie ir the question whether angels or prophets,
who are tbe best of mankind, are superior [afdd). Most pre\ions
Sunnis [^^itb the notable exception of al-BiicfillanT and Abfi 'Abdullah
al-Halinu) and ^ht\'i maintain that propbets are superior^ while tlie
Jata.iifa Eiiid ^lii'lazilisi hnld ihal anj^els; jre superior.^"' In mosit of his
writings, al-RazT maintains thai prnpheLi^ are superior, [bou2;li, in tbe
Aibdln, he seems undecided and more inclined lo the opposite v-iev^;
'^ Tafm. 4. 2S2
-' Tufiir, 14, l'^2.
'■^ A'/j J|i,T, fol. (ii; cf. A. SliJhidfh, "rrrpm al-GlumlltQ al-Rau", H^5.
^^ ArbdT'i, ^>J!. 3ii Ti^Sir, ?^ 315-fp, he ivriEeM llial llie majority of ShTin loiilfiid
tlifll arnjel^ are nupi^riof
^A/bn'Tt/. :ir>Fi-S4: cf. L'^HI al-i&/. foJ. 335l Mafiaisd, S3\ n. Kfiom^Un. fifi-7'
'J,knu, lli; ^]fii Taffit, 2, 21i IT, whifh jji dnecllv inspired \n al-Sliahra^ldni, i\li//il.
2, Q 44; a^L- p. 137 fl d"^.
lis
While much of the evidenee gi\'eii for bo(h \ieM"s Is Qiir'aiiic, the
most important rational argument for iLe siipeiiority of pmphpts k
ds folloWfi. HiJiiiJils liiHt Hum: ecu uuiIjIclikcs iliaii dfigd.s: [hcv dir
;i(nirt<'f! t^ith ^ippptilp; ira^ribilily, forgelfulnp*;^ ^ni\ fthev iiitei'ii:il
motive.'^ for dr^ohfclience, as well as the corruptive iiifluerife of the
devif and externa] causes of doubt. Therefore, ''it w'ill be harder
[Gihaqt^ [or humans to lie obedieiil [toCJodJ; and \\!\\.<\X is more diliieult
Li siiporior."- Angf l.i do not SLitTrr fnrini ihr ianir ihotlffniiiii^s a*
hiimaiis, uhifh afleel Ijotli thi'ir will and knowledge, so they perform
good acts effortlessly out of their perfeetK good and pure nature, and
on the whole have a ratlier ea.sv Id'e. Vel, typieally in actio ii -oriented
cdiit.s^efrcjri and liardsliip ale die main ciiiciia fm iiioial supctii-riiy.
'^riie gcnerosily of ;i poor ni^iii Hrni:iling a sni:ill *iack of i^'he^il inav
be much inori' praise^^orlhy diaii ihiil of a \^'ealthy man donating a
thoui^and pieces of gold. Al-RazI explains .superiority {fadl'^ here io
terms of the size of the reward {l/iau-afi) earned.^''
In hi': lalejit is^ork*;, he luvnii away from thui aclion-orieiiled slancp
to a character-oriented perfertionisni^ and conlpnd.i that angeh are
.superior to prophets. He writes: '"Knov%' that the mind of one who
knows what an angel ii, and what its attribute-; aie, wiW not allow
him lo delve into thiin qiicislion. Yrl most people think that aiigrh
are bird.s ihal fly in the heavens! So ihey delve into this f|uestion.^
The es.sence and attributes, rather than the acts, of an agent become
the primary critei'ia for supcriorily, which no longer rel'er.s to the
consequence.s of acts, but the 'excellence' of the agent, his intriiisk
worth of character. "' Resipondiiig to an argiiinenl for the superiority
of prophets to angeLs, al-RazT writes that angels posses.s perfection in
bodi power and kiiowiedge: "Yel 'excellence' {Jfidtia] ha.s no meaning
except thii. Thu.s, since they are -iuperior to men [m these respects],
they Vi'ill be inorr rxcrllciil tliaii mm/''' In the Arbdiii, he rccordi*
the following argument for the .superiority' of aitgels:
Angcli* are free froTn iippj'tile, irai'c ibilitt; iniii^Ji^liijn i3nd rJlimHlidn
— atlrihutcj which dc I -a"?, rliit k ■m^iIs frciiri ihc nuiiifeiildiicin of ihe HjihiT
of Gild, CAaluti. 'Ilitri: i^ im prrfciliiiii except by ihal maiiifc'stiihcui.
^^ Axt'O'm, :i70' 37L; Tsfiir, 2, 215; 2, 2?A.
^■^ MafMi, 7, 405 E' ff. .i;/j^^, 101-?.
■^^ E.C Maim, 7, 414' 7. 41R
■i' Mar^iib. 7, 4i0-r: cf. 7. 421 IT.
116
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
ancf nil impn^rfriliini <'xi('|>l bv tin' iiiEi'rvciilidii (if llut veil. Sinfi'
[aiigclsj iilwdys CDnEE'iiipldli' iJie! mmjircslaliiin, whiti' liumjn scmlii
an' usually vr^ilril fnun [il], \n- ciinc iuilc llial ihi'if is no tunipdnsin]
hi'lvii'i'ii [hcF piTfci^lnjii-i iind human piTf('i-|iiinz<
T<i say ihiiL fcrnc v ,khiilmd) vvhi'n ni:iiiy itbslacJcs an; jjn'si'nl is mori'
militalivc iif MnriTiE^ ihim stx^in: unlhcmE cib'vljcks li fiinc ifiil {kaiam
kkoifoitj. F(ir the bulk iif ads cif wurship dnd ijiicdii^iirc drc inli'iiijj'd ftir
llir ii-alLsaliifLi tiF llfdl iiia]iifi'>Laliini. Tlii' iiii'a^i'i diid Elu- fuiElirr liiiLU
oijsladi's ihi' ri^jliiatum of ihdl uianili'sLalickJi l'v, ihc: nmrc (.DinplcH'
will ihc pi:rfccti(in dnd 3iappinrss be.
The coiileniplalive itfpiJ replaces tlie eajlipr vohiiitarLit lieiid iii eJ-
Raa's earlier llioiigbl, uhirli ^wefi primacy lo the notions oi' volilirm,
cLfoiii', cflJjrL. pidi till-, n'^jjufiriiijiliiv and ilc-^riE. Tliuri. cidlii'rtiK i: n>
rhoftlogiral fvperl^ ;md piTfirtriTiing ael^ of i^<ir^hip hfrrmip inea.nS;
railier than i?iid.'> in ihifmjieKes.
Mumaii Perfeciion
The qu^'slion of the 're^ilitv of mail' [haqiqai oI-iimh) is one thai d-
Razi loiind Eo lie highly pioblpmaiif. He arkno\Uedge.s in his laie
ii^ork the Mufalih that il is a dilcimna, aliout whirli [he scrdiigest fael
1-; that iiomethins; so rinse lo lis could he :;o obsrure.^'
In his eafliesi works, he accepts the common classiral kalam view
thai the essence of man is purely physical. 'In Un' human hod^'^'. he
writes in the /i/jdra, '"there are core parin [ajzd' a\iiyya) that will neither
cpase to exist nor be replaced; ihiji is; [he lealiEy ofiTian"."'^ Slightly
later, in .SihavQt al-'/iqul, the reality of man is liaid to lie nothini^ hut
die phyiical body {hadhi}! al-bunya, kadM al-hadan)?-'
Later, under phiioj^ophical and ^uli iiilliii:nce^ he rejects thij^phyrhi-
calisLTL and advances a thorough criutjiir thereof, in ffivoui: of a
duali.sm of a phy.'^ical body and a separate, ralionnl and iniphysical
ftiul. He often refers to previous Sunni scholars, and sometimes lo
other.s as well^ apparently to illuiitrate [ha.1 thi.s la.ter doctrine i.s nei-
dier uiiorihodux iioi iiTaiioiial. "' The pieiieni fit^cdoii vvill I'.xaniiiic
^^ Arbdm, ^?--l; ef MsMb, 1, ^fl2
'" Al/ifo!ib, 1. 41-2; A-,rarn!-laaiii/^ 1 40- 1; rf. p. 1^1] oifta.
''* M^-a. fel. fl^h-ft^ii; rf. U<i,! aJ-din. frjl. ^51 ff : .*Miu^, I/I ^i^ifi.
1.i
■Ui
Aj/jfliiff, fol. ?j2b.
In thfi MibtUiilh [2. 2^4 32; 2, :i45- S2), he muuWaa iiiat the ItiuiULii ao^A \e
11
ihh liiler psytholog)' brielly; onlv in so lar sn it beais on his iheorv
of virtjp; a closer study of hii psychology ajid epislemology will be
lefi for fLiiun' .sLUilics.
Al-R.ri:'.T gof!^ further in I'pjerling kulnni ]"ilij-*iir:i]ism by maintaining
thai, essentially, man is thp ration^] .soul alone [which is my Imp lefer-
ent when [ usp thp expression T'l, wherea.s the !]od\ is aeridenlal to
it. " III itself, the soul is an iiilpllfct (1717^. and is referred to a.s 'iioul'
[?(d/i) iviih rr.spfci to iti< rLhiiion (o die phyiiftil bo(Jv- Tlic body,
on the other hand, is the locius of the no n -ration a] aspects in man.
The uFiim^te purpo.se in the rational soul'.s connertioii to the
human body is that it uses it a.s an instrument [dia] Ibr acquiring
kiiowlrtfi^r diftl hem 1: for dlEauiiiig pcifrdioii. It irlaiiis this pi:rfec-
tion after death, wlieu ir di'pni't^ from ihf phvMjral woi'ld, ^vherp ir ii
ill a .stale of esLrangenienl(>^Au^ftfl) and returns to its primordial realm
[u!ati!!iii\li]^^^ A soul thai lia.s perfected ilself to a certain extent in thiii
world inav eonlinue lo increase in perftrtion in the atlerlife.^'
spparalf {mti)atrada} Iroin rLe hody, liul limrLi Ihii STna'*; pmnf* foi thkweak [cf. Sbaik
TtKbi/i"} He allrjtiuli-i. lliii theory of iho mul lr>: fa) tlip falaAfa. (Ii) nn^^l Sufia^
ftj sfjmi? JSiiniiis, vl7 ^-<jEi^2dli |oii Iili view^ on llie ■^ouL, cl" "l"nniilli> Gi^uiotQ,
A!-(Jftff^I<'< L'i<,{irakabii' Ducti'mt tifllie Stis/, e^p 1 17 fl".|, ^-Rat^hih :J'lnfiliaiii, and
A\m 'AImIuIIjIi al-HalTmi |d 40!iyi0t?i, fdj ^nie Mu tazjb, uz. Mu'amiisji Ihii
■Abbfltlld. Pl.^/J!30) and Abu Z.iyi al-I J nliii^i 'd. l^?/fn-ll,^, {.y lomi' Sliri.. via
ahNawbakhiT !d. r/i. S0C/qi2). Muliiiininad Ibn al-Nu'inan {d.4l'i/Ut22j anrJ thi'
AkliharT!!^ (f) AbD 1-Hjy?ain |d +07.'/ 1 015-7) rrom [he K:ii rfliiil^'ya, f^ Clirtilaiiit
jikd fli) n'iiiariiaLiniiJ-^^ (.\if<atti^ fol ?ri2b; Alu/iaosl, 'i'i^: Atbd'Ti/. 2ri7' .'l^ni: al-Taq^\
6' 7"fly^j■|, 2\.¥y,ril,js^Bi,^'i\.Mal^kb, 7. V^\cl Dm.faii Matdoiiald. ""ITie Dfv.'l-
rtpiiicril of rliH Wf Ji (if SpiTir in I'^lim"^ M. Maimtm, "Soul' I'^l^kinir Clonr^nl^',
Eivychfioidla qf RrOsji/m].
I.Ltiti, lii;iiiLi:til4'i\ i]]i:]iuiiLan ■iiHil lubc hFiilti-r Gie phviicdl boily itui i^i^parair.^
liUE "a -^ubll?, luiniiieireiit pliy^iral &ub^laitc4- thai esi.-,t^ iif ihis body" (M-falim.
i 09: f f. Arbain, 26li). Thi^ vw-w wi^ hfild Liy jl-Ni^^ain fd. ^il I /!14<i; {rf. al-Aili'ari,
Af/v/Uf'fl, ?j ^11) artd fnine A'^b'arin, inrluHitiij 3 1^ JinvEiyii T {It^liHd, IISl. AI^R^m
allribiilc^ tins v'v\y' in Tliabil Ifm Qurra (i. ?R9/Wli (Ti^^i, ?[. 4J).
FiiiLiIly, LoiLi lilt' TafiT' (21. Jl'i iiiiwitid.i. Ii<! ii'vi:il:^ lo hLs ritrlifc vit'tv llml lltr
ioul i.i icparali". In the Af/ztalib, hf presents hi^ inosi tlintiiLi^li rii'fu.sijoii of Hi<-
^iiiijecl, lefulmg pmuf^ fni llit dortriiie by Ibn -Siiia, iVlLskiivayh (d. 421/10^0^
iiinJ Ahn I'Bavatal (T, <i!i-!19) ^nrl iirlvaiifing ii iiimiifi-'ii ver^inMi "f nil'' rifThii
STria\ ati^minziiL'; [7, J7-6fl) and a refu^atkm of physLcalism {7, EfH-i^Ji cf Rivdla
j: /-/«!/•, fnl ?ii-l]n.
"•^ .\qf<. 11 rr.
■■" MahakSh, % T21
■'^ E.fl H!ksnata(-t'iasi:i.f':,\.^\.^:Rii^aJi\-ti3fiA':,\ 21.
*" /^j^ffjf dZ-i^ffitJ. f-il. a4a-Sfia.
<i .V*, 111.
iia
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
Following Ahu 1-Bar;ikal jl-Baghdaiii and 'lalisinaii .lipecialitsls',
iil-RiizI maintains thai hiim.iii sniil'. x'aiy in [heir e.ssenrc.'i.''^ Hf cnn-
uaM:^ [liLs vlt^v Lo: (u) AhQ B.iki^ al-Rail's x'lvw, folloviiiig Plauj diul
oihpr aiirient pliilo^-iphiTK, ili:ir lmm;inu :iniH ;niiir[;ilM Ihvt p'^^piiri^iHy
idpmicaJ iouts, but rlifier only in their various phyiicaJ niilureji; iind
(b) Ibn Sina^ view^ folio^ving AiLslolli?, lliat animal souk arp physical,
whereas humans have psseiil:iali\' identieal and iion-phvijcal souls,
but vary \v\ ihcir ethical pi'opnlir^ due W van;itioii'< in thriv bodily
liumoiin^.'" Al-Razi advances several iiiduclive' arguments, whieh
mainly sugg^'st ihe independenre of the eapaeitv for pi^reejition and
character traits from bodily condition s.'"''^
Bin do pdrLiiuldi liuinan souls fall iintler a hmited nnmher of
rypen, or Hoes e;irh soul h;i\'e its nivn di^linfl esseiifp^ Tii his Incer
woi'Ls^ al-Razf adopts the fnrmer view, apparently under the infln-
enee of AhQ 1-Earakal and laJJsman speeialisls. He writer thai the
.souLs of the moving planets (and perhaps also fixed con ■Stella lions)
eire ihe causcf^ or .■sources, {'tlla-^ inabda'-, n'A; mis'diii\ yfinhif) for liunian
.soul.s (foulra ihf faidxifa, for whom the producer ot human souls is
tlie Acd^'e huelleet).'' Each planetary soul 'luSi kfiiikaf>i- hajh a distinel
es.senoe, whieh determines the essences ol human .souLs originating
froin 11. FalLsiiian sprfi.Ji^ti, al-Razi irt^ritcn, rtfrr to thcac bravnily
souls as 'arehet>T>es' (or Vomplete nature'>\ i\hif tfimm), since eaeh
possesses a s^et nf qualities {iifa: kkas.\a) in a perfect way, u'hich then
manifest iinperfeedv in the human soul.s il produces. ■"' It will he to
Uieni hkf a father is to his children, pioviding them with a-ssLsiance
during tlieiv live.s, aiid ^ffecdng their characters and acts.'''
Since a certain plan elan' .soul mav be "magnanimous [hnn), nohle,
\irtuous. and distinguished in ils apprehen-iion and good act.s. while
^'^ Cf. Atiu l-Baiakai. Miilabau 1. ^i!!!-94
*^ .Naf'. a^; MsbaMih, 2. SK^i; Mi^aUikfiB'. lol. :snb-^l4a' Mtihunal, H^; M^/Mb,
7. 141 3. Cf. [Im Sinli. .VdfJi, 2^1; Sk/^\ T,ihr\y^-at._ f. \m.
^MalUib. 1. 145-Jt.
'-' Malsht. 7, ?EJJ5-7. H<' LejFcl^ Hie whole nation or Ihe Active Inleilecl \piiin/i
^ A!-S\rr almskiam. 111.
Phi ud'>-M j I rUr. a royn'ai-uljilivf of ^lalisraan ipiiTolifll^' , di^ua^'H Vimjilclc'
iiJlQiY',' ill Ghajil al-liakT»i, IR7 (T Lll. ipff lenci's lo rJECiiiNion'* of ihj^ iiolii>ii in itthfi
piiiTijry itid si^toiidarv' ^urcfn in Hie German itaitsljiionofilm iturk {'Tuanix" Dii<.
^lellky Wii'iin Vnn F^titdu-MaMtl, I9hI, ii. I). Bv c"iilrail In al-RazT, jl-Huhiavvardi
{A. .iJiiJ/l lyi) [Havokil. f'.Tl ccaiz^iirr^ iiijnkini In lijvf i single arclielyjie {libS tamrn}
llfl
another type maybe vili^evi] and iitupid," these same fharacterlsficR
will appear in their respeftive human sctuls. bolh b tlieir es.'beinreii
dJid ill ihi- rllrs [s ilirv reirJM- fiiMii Jii'iii in ihnir Ih'tri. This iri ulu
twn titrangcrp may mcpt aiiH imnifdiaJplj' I'pt^l <^illier ^iHiiiily nr ''ninitv
toward each olher, depending on the types of iheir souls. ,\1-Razl
adds ihat while this model is merely a plausible h^pcilhesiib, it :■>
veritied empirirallv by talisman ipeciahst'^.''"
Oi] the baeiiM of hiei ihrttrv of t]ii' vari^iion of hiiniaii ^liiil^ al-RiizI
.sometime!; expresses a iisycholo^ieal delerminisin with respert Eo
htunaiL character, to the extent that change in character traits appears
unpos.silrfle (this Ls to be di-itingiii.shecl from his .standard metaph^siral
drleirjiiiiii^iK willi i t'ripci 1. to hiiiiidJi di Eiuii). Tin: (hiTrrciiirei ainirii^
hiiLiiaii .souls are akin ro <hn.se di;ir ewi.sl ^iiTiojig riiffereiil :inini;il
speeies: donkey.s, hoise.s, wolves, lamb.s, etc.'^"' Many people with
malevolent trails have inhereiiUy malevolent psyrhological essences;
though they may morCifv their behaviour; their essential naliircs \\i\\
remain uiichangeablej
undcr^ij llic maKiinum p<i:«ihlt di'vc ipliiic:, ht lAoulil nnl dtparl from
hij rnjli'v<hh'nl Jidluri-. RalhiT hr mav ln:[;Onw-, ihruui")] dim^ifilinr
anil ;idnic>nilii>n, iv'ich llt:iE hr »'ill :ivciii3 lhi»^i^ lI' Ei: :ind rtirl pi'iform
ihi'in. Ni-vi^rlhi'k'Si if hi" Eh<'n j-bdiiddiij hii^ m;lf to its iirigindl ndiuri',
il wilL mi^lini- m ihal <'vil. Ah(y, hu U-inpi;ramrn[ m-iy chanj^t Irnin
vviirmlli lij i-otc[iii-::i, fr'im ivt-lnci^.'. Ui cf i^vjh' ■.(, ^lihI viri' vrv?:i, yCt what
is i onroniilanE to hl.'^ inbiim iidtiiri' vviU n<H c hanirj'.^
Ill one plaee, elI-RIzI av^e.s that since Uie essential trails of human
soiiLs can be neither elimincited noi modified, '"one who is happv
{sa'id} will not become miserable {\liaqT', and \ice versa'. '^ How-
tvct, he acciiM to maintain such radical rlhiral dcl.rrinint.'iiTi onlv
in reliiHor to the extremities in the scale of human psychological
excellenee: some individual.^ are doomed bv the sheer ba.sene:;s of
their souLi. whereas others are hles.sed by the excellence of theirs.
Despite ills iniLsience that allering the essence of the human soul is
'■^ Td/;r.. Hi, laS' l^. 1!0; l^, W^-Msuat, 7. H2-H- 7, ^Hf^ 7- 7.272:7,100:3,
l%;K, \4'i;^\Jifdim. \\':i;Sh<irfi'lf)-^}/al-h,lcrm. t2^4;7abr.^'t-b-Ai-Smat-msklim,
I L0-4-. Cf. AbD l-Biiakat. Milfn/m. 3. 3JJS-^4.
*^ Mala/iK 7, 147-R.
^".\fl/"f. aO; tf. Jair, Sfi; h'ama!iyia {Ar.}. ^t*-!; <Pei.}. Ilfi
^1 75/ir^ !4, L44' ff Af.>l^r\h. I . fiS -7
120
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
iiiipo.'bsible, al-Razi Mill roiisiders iE po.'isible (o fiii'llier [he p? rferlion
nl' those in the middle leveL of the srale lo the extern permitted by
die pdiiinildi (-ifhriK-e uf edch soul.^'
Al-Ra/i :tdnpik Ihn SliiTi'^fli virion nf human psjT[io!ngir;iI fafiiltipP;
whifh is ci^ follows: (a) vegelalive faciildes^ whirh serve the functions
oJ noiiiihlimf lit, growth and repfoduetion; '^J iininial faeiikies, u'hieh
are either molive (iiieiufling ihp appelilive {ihtitut's anrl the iraseilsJe
i^liadabyj, or prrc(:ptivc [dii:: fivr txtfiiul sfnirei, n.nd die imif r facLilln^.'i
nrpei'feptinn); and (c} human, rational faeiilties, viz. the iheoretifal
iiitelleet and the practifal inlelleet^ wliieh allovis the mul to govern
die body. '^ However, in contraHt to Ibn .Sliui, iiURrizT nicLiiilaiii'i tfial
hinh die |>eii"e|]dvc and aiEive animal fcHuUk-s are iiiii hiidilv (ind
physical hb]i AYf pnvpjy fiinftinii^, or Jiiri'ihiirp^, ofthp r;iiion:il *nuil
ilselt. t>n the othei' liand, the vegetative faeulties are phyjiiral.
These attributes serve both die souJ dirertly, in 'wa pursuit oftheo-
reiieal perfertion^ and ihe ivellbeing of its physical body. The soul
acquire;: kiiowiedgi? by percpiviiig parlicul^ri; dirinii^li il*i varioii;;
altributeib of perception and e'ltriLCtinc; absti'Eirt roncepdons from
diem. Sflf-evident [bornkt} knowledge is aequived v/hen the mind
leeognises conneetiorm inimpdiiitely, in either atlinnfition or negation;
among zionic of dic-ic ronccptious as soon as ibcv become piTscnl
in il On the bn^iis of 'j^lf-evidenl knowledge the mind may then
iiiTive at disc ursi\e •na^ait) tiiD^sledge of odier eornectioiis bet\veen
diese acquired mental eonreptioii's. A.H for these attributes' serving
man's physical weJlbeing, this itught to be aimed at preserving the
body in a lilate that allown il lo liilfiJ its e^iseiilial fiiiiclion a^ the
iiistrLiinent that the soul uses to perfect itself 'llie allribiites of d:ie
soul serve man^ physical ^^ellheing bv allo\ying iriiUi to recognise
what is henelicial and lia.niiful to hnn, and to se^k the lormer and
avoid tlic Iflitcr.'^
Accoidiiig to al-Razi, man experiences pleai^urc mainly when he
attains greater perfection in some stibjecdve aspect and perceives this
^-A'fai at-laiujl, S^?r9.
^"' .Vt/".. 74 7' Mahah\/h, 2, ?35 IT. Cf- Ilifi Slna. Uu/iir. TahHyydl li. 1? fT. FaiLur
R.ali]iban, .\ucei.ita\ P<j'tka//tj^
''-* AtubahilTi. y, HS;.'Vo/^. 77-!!; 2f- ci Abu l-B^rakar, Mi{fiibfl>, '1. Vr2 lh\s
-SEaiirc hai ^ prorfiund iiiigiaci on jl-RazT'i i?pislfjiit)lft^'. eo he I'Xiniiiipd Lii a
fulure -iludy.
''-''A^/79 SO.
121
iillaiiimenL PlpiiJ^urp mavocfur al the perccplioii of a rhiiiig*^ in the
^r.3\.p of the pei'fpi\er towards ii more pevfeet ?late, and piiiii mav
oernr at the fhanj^e towards a less pprfcei siate. Yer neither will bp
eMpLTieiiced Liflev the ^late berome^ stable AI-Rjzi ^peaJ;!; of ihree
main siibjerlive t^pei^ of perfection lliat prodiiee pleajiure in man: (aj
the perteelioii of the iheoretiral ajipect of ihp soul; fb) pprfections in
the phy.sieiU body, espeeially by [he gratification of its appftite'i for
nourishinriu .iiid oiiiion' and fi) pt-rfriEiinis diai nun adiii-vrs in
his :i';sof initio II i^'idi other hiini^n beings, e^peri^llv iii the .illiiliute
of power [qifdia], which is related to leadership and social status.
When thejie diree types of subjective perfection are perceived by
tliiee [brnii ot human perception. Ilivee types ol' pleasure may be
cxjieiii'iitr^l. {ii) liiti^llrc lual pk'a>,ure Ls rxjierinicrd v^hni dn' latioiial
.soul percei\'es JK avcvi ihforerical peiferlioii (h) Seifson,' pfr-asiire ii
ei^perienced when the external :;ensi's perceive die gratification of
bodily needs, (c) The perfections thai m^n attains in his association
with other human beings are perceived by the inner, 'aniinaf liiciil-
lies of perception, and produce a ^yp'' of plra^urr that al-RazT rcfcrit
lo sometimes as imagii>alive [kbnyjill) pleasure
When man has awareness (ihu'ar) of what u agreeable [tiula'ini; and
what is disagreeable {mstnq/i} to him of the last two tj'pes ofperfecdon,
his motive attributes will determine liis conduct: his appetile {ihofiwa]
■will n]oti\atc him lo Acck die former, ^vhercas irascibility {ghadabj
will moti\ate him to avoid and rejjel the latter."^' With respect to
the lirsi, intellecliial attrihute, man may acquire a sense of veaining
[.■\litiwff lo pi'o^re.s-i in this respect^ as we will see Nonnally^ engage-
ment \uhlighQl' in anv of these plea.sure.s and the fornxs of acli\ity to
1%-liich thev Lire tonneirled will le^id to the appearance of di^po.'iition';
that prevail over [htt^-la 'ala) the soul and divert man from pursu-
ing other engagements and from developing different dispositions.
This is the ca.-ie, al-RazI argues, .since the.se faculties of jiei'ception
ari^ dllTrrtnL aiEi ibiiErrh iff the one, uiiiiaiy iub.^Eante ur the .soul.^"
The rentr^ hiiin^Jii predicament \k ihiis; that "the greater the heavt^'i
preoccupation with odier than God, the ^realer iLs depvivadon from
^^ Cr. p. \zsSmfta
122
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
inlni^iiSmg thr lights of God's majpsly.'''*"
In riiipporliiiQ hi'- theory of virtue, al-R^zI refuleji foiunlonpliirf
I'Smmi) hfiUj[iiMii.'''^ Wilh irj^aiil lu .sciisoiA' pk-iLsiiith, In; in-iiiiijiiis:
(^) thai rhey ;ii''' 'rrnitemjilibl''' hoth in llifinielvp^ mii\ in various
Other concomilam lespectSs''' and (b) dial ihev arp inferiiir in intH-
Ifcttial pleasuivn.''^ This general hiip of rpaiioning Ls apparently bor-
lowed from Ibn Sliia, although al-Raa proceeds to sapporl it with
in \f ry ffifiVn^nl ^r.t of nrs;iiiin'iil.i<, apparciidy dr^^viiij" on n v^nttv
of sfiurcfs^ including Aljfi Bakr al-RazT.'^"^ For instance, he argues
that sensory pleasure is not real, but is merely [he alleviation of
pain and thii.'b cannot constitute a ground lor human happinej^s'^^
lie dlssj aij^urs dial rhriisui^ plfdMiieji (uilOjcE vvilh liuiiLaiiiir^'i^ as
Mirh, wliirh ip purely iiilellcrHinl: when niMii hecomei; pi'eorrnpied
with them, his lYLtional faculty will he obseured and he will descend
into besiiahty.''^
Noneiheless, most humans are nalLvally and originally inclined
lo ?en?orv plea^iire?.''^ Unlike die Ui-'o nther ivi^e^ of ple^.Kure lliefe
pleasureih are produced by the pcKepdon of peiieetionib ibtricdy in
die physical body, by the gratificaiion of cerl.iin bodily needs. \et
die perlectinn of thej^e physical needs is extremely iran.si en t. sa they
ivill rccjiiirc con.ilanl graliliralion. And ibc: plraf<ur<: rxpcrirnccd
in tliis perpi^tuai eycle of physical needh and gratification thereof
strengthens [he -lOuVs attachment tn sensorv pleasures.'^ Therefore,
it is more appropriate to .speak of the m, in the moiYil context, as
.sensoiy pleasures, rather than aspecK of perfection. By contrast, :i\-
K.azl nonnallv di.^icusseii ihe two other lype.^; of pleasure priniaiHly
qua perfection.s.
He argues that the main subjeetive attribute.'^ that constitute
1^1 A'fi/i. 9fi-l07.
^'^ Ct^in^nn: MaMhnk. 2. 44l-?.arLi5 Ibn Sin^. hMrtrt i. 7-10. On Abil Bakral-
S-^jVi n'fulalioii of }iediJiii*;iii, si-e hLii Al-T\bb ai-rUhanJ, 19 ii.\Al-5^ra al-jal\ofi)0/a |in
iHl^^ Jf^-.^',\ lOI-?' SladHt ■,'}^ J'ilimi-,. 17' rf. f-iafni Fakhry, lirhieal Tltyr,",-^ 72-^.
** TIil: i^ fi^.m^^'-d ii Iriigih, p. I ifi (T. iifis.
^A'tif. ya-9
56
.\afi, 105; T/i'/bih, 44-^; Taf'.ir. 13, ??0.
*' Jv'afi fMS), fol ll'ih The pas.iiage is missing ftoni ihe pnor pruned pdilion
iff Iftil
123
perfrfdon? in the riHionaJ soul c\iid ihax Immaii.'h sfpk lo perfiTl in
themsplvf^n jit two^ \'iz. kno\^Iedge and power ."'^ Tlip Uiller allvibulp
coiieriiLs ilic ioul's iiivulveiiii:ii[ in iltc i-.x-intial pli^^kal wiirkl dnd
maiiiff^l!; in v:ii'imi^ w;iy^, Ruch ;ii the inHiviiliinrM poiver over iiinni-
mate objects and other luinian beingji — tlie "pos^^^en^sion of wealth'
and '^of hearts^', respeetively.'''' One furthers his power o\'er other
human hein^ piiinarily by altaiiimg statui^ [fd/i) anrf le^dei'uhip,
which Iradi! om- iiilo coiTipr lition wilh inhfrei. ,\]-RazT arguc.i th^l,
initially^ tlie iiidividiJiil may liave littlr di'^ire for ihejhe pleasures, but
may easily berome di:;powd to seeking them through habituation^ an
he begiiLS to experience ihem. Onee the desire and disposition are
dfifLiiird, llir dcj^Lers la vi'liidi die iiidividudr^ piiiArr tj\er ejiEcrnal
beini^s ns:iy he fiirlherpH ^^'ill be pnHle*is.
Though al-Razf acrepls that power is a real peiiectioQ in the soul
and lead.s lo tlie espeiienee of pleasure, he nonftlieles.s censures it for
various reasons; e g. if is uorldly and oeases Mith the .soul's departure
from the hodv. leading lo !;evere paiii in ihe iioul, ^iid il faili; to lii'ing
alxtui true happini^ss. By conli'ast the aiuibute of knowledge .sumveii
the death of the bndvand leads to tlie soul's expprieiue of happinesii
postlitimoLi.siy Moreover, as with the pursuit oJ. sensory pleasures,
whirh vrvolvc around the iiidividual'.s physical body, involvement
in the external physical uorld al?o constiuite.s an en^^agement of the
soul that disti'aets it from fuitheiiiig its attribute of knowledge/
The human good [kkayi], therefore. Ls ideiiliiied wilh perfecting the
spiritual attribute of knowledge, to die exclusion of the soui^s engage-
ment in the physical l)ody ^iid the e';temal woild. The soul ran be
directed either to the his/her, divine realm, as ui ihe case of ihose
who are spifiluallv advanced and iruly happv, or to die lower, physi-
eaJ u'orld; which is ihc case ot those who aie completely engrossed
in worldly plca.'<un7.i. En the middle, aomc aouIs coniiandy akcmatc
attention between the upper woiid, whirh the> approach through
piety and ^\ovdiip, and the lower world, in which tliey manage vari-
ous worldly affairs. '^ ,\l-Ra?Jadds thai die scienie that i^iides to the
M J^^ 'n-, Vi\-, Maldl-b, 1, 5lit>, TaJ^i; I?, 171; 17, 21P Cf. il-GliaL- rLR, Ihya\
'1 Afl/"i. ?4--5.
124
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
luglifr level is the science of .spifiturfl di-iripline [al-iiyQik al-rUhemyya),
by i^hich he inpaiis advd.iii:fd Sufism/^ Thai which guides lo ihe
iiilJdk lc\'rl ifh ilii: .stieme of (hdJiU lei' [ilm iil-aUitiii^}^ whii li is ii fiimc
Flfiiientarv Hi*iripliiip thai He'ifrihp^ flie t^aj' in vvhirh the Ji\'eragp
person niiiy acquire or evade va.i"iflus character triiif; (khulaq).
The science nfchajacter concerns the pursuit of mcriil virtue, Le-
\irtije with respect to the non-rational aspects ot" the human soul. It
dlows one in pufgr hi^ soul rvom 'wh^t should not be' (>na ta laiib^ght'^,
bv delachino ii from it'i inherent ph>'ni<al eny;agcinents/'' Al-R^zT
prcseiiLsa pr^ictic^il ethics of virtue in the second part o{ Kildb Ql-J^ofs.^
which he also reJers to <\}i a book on nkhtaq. Three main vices are
dLscusiicd. vii. [he love of weakh, ihr \u\\: ofsEdiuri, and hy^iocri^y
{riyii\ for eneh of which he prerci'ilie*; holh ro lire nip) a rive {'iliiii\ ;ind
pcaclical {'umalt} therapy ('ilaj].'^ Contemplative theiapies consist of
menial meditations and exercises that produce a conviction within
one thai one ought lo avoid these vices, t^hich ptochices a sense of
lepiilsiiim and detachment from theni. Pr^rlical thel'apie^i coiisift of
re commc neb lions tn adhere to certain formi of conduct, ubich loosen
llic iiidi\iduars attachnieni to the acliviticii connected to these vices
and promote contraiy dispositioiis in the sell'. While these three vices
arc related to rngaj;rniriil.a in [he external world, aJ-RazI secni.'i to
consider his preceding discussion on censuring =;ensoiy pleasures lo
provide :;uETicient reasons for turning away from them: perhaps these
may be vieiA'ed as contemplative dierapies ibr ihc soul's engagement
111 the physical bodv.
In hJi; theory of virtue, al-R.^/T placei; greater empha?is on ridding
die soul of vices, v^'bich it acquires hv its eii^a^ement in thi' physical
world, than on engendering positive moral virtues, other ihan ihose
tlial should I'eplace these \ices This feature stems from his detini-
tion of happiness {sa'ada'j purely ia tcrmfl of intellccEual pleasure,
^v'hich liYLiispirei from theoretical perfection. In this, he follows Ibn
Slna, who maintains that ihe purpose of ihe soul's attachment lo
matter, and of ils having a praclical inlellecl, is the perl'eclion of iti;
ilieoLiiiial dspt-L-[, wLiicli alone Icdds uj luppiiirsj."' For Ihii Slna,
'-■ On \pinlual discipline, ^e Shatk isl-LliBim, Z^ 1 1 fT.
'''^ Mamb.l, IIL
'^Si'e,Vd/i, fl4' 121; 141: 147; Hi4
'" 11,11 Siii^ Kh,]^\ T^hr^jyai. i-,. ■M- 41; ff t, l!!4-i>.
125
practical (including mnraH de^elopiiii'nl may only rerlure the misery
[sfiaqaiua] ihiit Lhp soul pxpericncej^ in its attachnipnl to the physical
world, iiiirt ronsliculen only a prerondition, rathet llian a cause, for
h^ppiiie^;; " Therefore, fn roiilra^l lo ArifiEinle AYtcX inJ-Frirabr, he
fOLisidcrs dbbpositions of inter inediafy' [UiwQ^.mf] to be "ood only on
arrouin oi' their elTicary in puritjing die rational soul from its physi-
cal attar hmeiiL'i/'' For neither arls nor ebaractei traits, according to
Ilin Suia. 1. an he- goinl ui virtuous liiEriiisii ally.
Thi-i is a *iiaiicp di;ir al-Rii7T ;idopr^ Hi? piT^eiir^ his definitive
discussion of liap]iiness and intelk'ctiial pleasure in the Mulokhkha.^J^
where he \vriles with respecl to prarlical perfection, in the section
on eschaiology:
VirludU! charac Err Ir^ii^ d" nul pnxiiicf hajjpmitaa; for thrir objtc tivc
is ihiil lh<' sinil dors injt bi'c tmii' Rrinlv allai^hcd En llit hiiify. Their
cfTi'c I Eh <iiily thai the scful dcifs mil [n'l^iimc n>rim'iitfcf ',mii' afiiidhab'y. as
fof [ihr atuinnicnl of| happiin'ss. \\hv\ lio no( ha\x' aiiv cffi-tt].
While bad charafter leadi^ to torment, virtuous character \fi only a
condition for happiness, \^hifh h attained through theoretical per-
fection. "I he liappiness of someone who is advanced iheoveticallv
will he inipaiicd by bad [radf) charartcc awaits.
Al-Razi presents a hierarchy of human .'lOuL'; according to iheii'
ihporctical pei'fection, the happiest being soiiL^ thai have reached
demo IIS trativf knowledge, followed hy uncritical imitators (muqal-
lid\^ who po.sscss corirci lieliffs and will be in a siaie of weHheing
{salapia) frcim torinenl. - Only dpnion^lrative knowledge arlrLiiiablp
throujih metaphysical enquir\. vi'hich provides inunnlahic knowledge
of eternal truthii, connibules towards the soul's theoretical perfection,
to the exclusion of other ficld'b of enquiry, uhich provide musable
knowledge, such aa ibc (li'<ciplinos of language, Qur'aiiic rxi^gcaia,
"I Ibii STna. ^iifn\ Itaiayyal, 1. 4:iO
'^ Thi.-, dffmiriveiitiis in al^ evirlfiil friiin hi' referpnfe^ in l^ler vvink^' Shark
"' Cf. MtbShiHi. 2. 12li ^.•. Uin STii5, hhSml 4, 7 fT.; ,.¥^7^?^, 120 J.
"^ MiitatJiUta'y. fol. 'i?7li-'?2aj. After llie iciuIN fi'p,ir^lir»iL friiin ill-- body, (ienicpii-
jilralii'e krfrtwli'dnf will lii?i:omtimmi'diiil[' {dariithiirid u'lll bf pc[fefl''rf c\i'ii fun her
126
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
jurisprudence and iriidiliotiii •'af,hbiii).^^ For this, "in order to acquire
dubcursive {nazQi^/ kno\^'Iedge, one needs leiiriiiiig ((s'allum), assLstaiire
fnHii uEliers, and rrlLiiiir oil ihe [ raf[ uf [tlisiEii'^ivr] proirdiict-ri {al-
q/injiii /sl-iinii"if' , i c. logir.
Yet, in most of hiii workj^, al-RazT de.srrilies a levef higher tlian the
demon.'bti'ati\e level, viz. thalof ihase raie iiitelleets ihat ha\e a lipeeial
ability to allEiiii kiioivledge ■^vilh little etlbrt and diseiirsive relleftirm.
Thf^r iiiEfllfcl.'^ arr unique both rjiin-iililativi'ly nnd qualitaliscK': ihcy
(ire ablo in romhiiie confeptinn.s to appiphond more primal^' pii'inise^s
diaii normal, and they are then ahie to combine the.se premises to
arrive at obscure conclusions etibrllesisly."-'' ThuS; those iiidi\'iduals,
Vi'ho hicludr proplu-Es and iiiflini', wiU rcquiie iiriLhei Iriiriiing iiur
the iiiMriinipnl of Ingic lo ;iltaiii thcnr['rir;il ppiferlion AhRa7T hei'p
appear!; iiifluencr^d pardy h\ Ihn Sina's notion of intuition y^flj^^). He
wrile.'b that though all human souLs are naturally capable of attaining
discursive knoiAledge quickly and inluitively wiihoui any piirjhUit;
ihpy inrc hinderi'd by their engageiTienl in governing their bodies
iiiid bv iniaginatinn. Because of these hindrances^ they uill depend
on thought \Jikr] to arrive at diiicursive knowledge.
Rftunung to al-Kazl's idpntihcalionof happincs.s with the cxperi-
cncr of intellectual pleaiurr, ■which he adopts from Ibn Siiia, \*e find
diat he nnnethele'^s rejects his proofs for the [Tosiiibility of thi^ form
of pleasure ^uid its superitirily to other pleasures. '^ In ihe- .Mnldkhkfiaj,^
lie goes on to explain his ov.n approach to this que.stion:
""^ .\qf'. 131 lit thp foJIrnviim ehaptpi, %vp ViiU ^ee llial ^l a laler slagi? in Eibi
career, ^1'R.Ji/T will fh^nsf (hi'. ;ii^efrflneiii willi ipiperl tr. Qiir'flnie exepii'si' He
ii, aflfr all. iht aullinr of niii' of llie largest and rao^l oiilslayidiit? Qpi'JnJe rom-
iiif iirarif s of elD Imi'-.
"* sl.rar al-ti>u:l/, 'iSG
"^ A^>ar a!-la>,^T/. 129-:^^; rf. A/aMi, 7, 230; M/a/^"^ in-4.
"'^ Sfiarb al-l<Mr^. i. \57.CL IhiiHina, hMraf. }.'i9Q-5- Eimiiri Gutas, 4'-i,-cmii
and flit Arhtolfiiun Tmditim, I J3 (I ; "JutuJlnn iiid Tliiiikiiii!'^
E.e. [Imi Siiifl drfiuri lli.il iLwc pIcaiLuc i.illif p^-i t rpl ion of llic ajrcc.ahlc-, ihc
nitire ^iiiEfii^' ihe pficiplioii iiid ihf 'in^lili'i' rlic r>b|ci:t <^f ppici-plieni, llie mure
pfrlfLl will be Ehe pleaiare liirf:lli^[:lujl penejiiioii rti'lvti rJctper nmi llie r^-^eiicei
cH thirties ihan do oilier fomLii <^f perteplirm. God, Hi^ allriburi:s, llii; aiii^fk and
tlie co^iinfi'i a^ a vvlkok aie noblei' ihau rtllier obfi'cl' ofpercqiliiih Tli':ri'lr>nL-, ilie
inlf Lkclu !i3 pkiiUii ihal rf.^iill'n firun ptifuviiii; ihf-iii lh iiuiiLiirii \i nillifr pliiniiri'^.
HnwfW]'. il-RizL n; jeers defiiiiiit^ plf :i.ure z.-i ihe p'rtTpUnn nf ihe apeeahli' |ipp p.
Id4- MJ iiifiai, Jiid points oul llial ^inei' Llie nalurr and oliji'ds nl inlelleimalpf retp'
Eion are dillerenl ftom Ebn.'^p (if^eitor^'peicrplieLi, ihere imo tvideiiee llial ii shi>iiid
jimdure pka.'.uip in ihe preeiverl.V/uiiiAAAak, feL 'i5'?tl-'i^^ia■ rf. Shaifi 'VvH'i ei-f/ihia,
^, 1^5 fi.; Jbn I^Tit^ Uia'dt, 4, 1 1— 2.'i) Ibn ^iitil aXi-o araiiev ib^l llf^uvh anafl'^ do
127
Wl- d(i nc>( cic-ny iiitcUi^r.tu^il pU'dnurt'^ nor ihrfl il in rum' iiiltii:!!- ihdn
cnlnT [|j[i;j3iiri'i] Bill [his is mil ]>ni\abli'bv l(ij^i< ■"! pitnifs. [S'lincihcli'ss,
mil j11 (hdi {■aiiiml be prci\<'d la ihis wdy sliiiukl hr rcjcttrd. ... Thr
only v-tiv tit acrrpi i( vvilh ccrtiiiiily is lo cxpcritnci' il. Tht mciir onr
IS fk'tjc hrd fr<im iiliv^ic-il alEachmtnls, dnd thi' nuirj' alEractcd hi' t
to ihcdlo^iciil kiiDwk'd^c. Lhc i,"n'dli;r will hi.'v share iif il b(^ (j(id hd.'r
brsliiwc'd il ufhin nn" niiintfinis (inn's, in biilh sfti-p and wjlu'Rilnrss,
afitr riiv bi'Ucf in il .NEii'ii^iiflH'iiL d tUid ili> siml bi'i aim' iimir iilEiiiu'd
to it.
Howi'vcr, it STtnt ihal [he fala\ifa provided (he aldrtinf^iilumi'd priitife
iriity ^1^ ilrii'i lives lIikI aIh^u. li\TLS. I ddd l<r IIils dJiil suv.
Pl'rfri^tujn is .'^ciuj^hE ftir ils tiwn ^akv — [l}m is known] Iry induclion.
For in every cngJi^rnn'iiL, Ix' il nobli: or base, one ivill love {htibbj what
lA pc ifrirL 111 il irjciii iLiiii ivIr^iL ia liiilic ifri I. \a llic li~ve]zs iif iK'tfi^ Eluii
ari" nijny^ ihi' levels (if kive Km dri' miinv And as lln' liii^he.sl perf<"i (ion
IS thai of Gcid, txdhi-d, inH-nv: Icnr ui!l bi' for Hun dloni'. Intcnar
love iiill ihi'ii rt'i^uk in tv^-ci c o n-ivPcul iv<- ^iLilr^ hr't-dh-^.'^rn's.'v \rha/la] (if
all buL the bi'k>\i-d, and funlm'r ph^iLsiiri^ in p<n eiviiig lln: bcdovc-d.
Tiiduiilion indicale!, ihis. Lin^inj,' God, ^'xalteil, inlf'ii,tly vi^ill undoubl-
rdly Ttrctduc e lln"?i' Iwo HjICj. Xhr pc'(>n]i' ii£ I 'ii>iiilu ji | e.'.Ttrnciic c
(^sfha/i al-dhawij: call hirtiltisnfjs (if jJl tmt Hirii ^jjiniliilalion' {^na').
. . hitcnie lovc will ihua be ri'sr'rvfd Icir tj[>d alone I'hc hitarl doc»
iTil (ind (r^iTiiiilliK- f^r^'pl in Hi'i ri-nn ml ii^ n c r [jH/tln)
Whal [hi' dilellanli [hink, thai kncHvhdjii' of any intclli'cliial matliT
tan be d cduse lor intellc-ctual pirasurt, ii lalst. Kalhi-f^ pU'asure Only
ri'^nlls frniTi knmiinj^ Criid, rxiilled, .ind frrini bi'ing innnT'^eil in fnvini"
Hmi. 'rhi'ri^forl', ainct hunian inltllfi^ls alEaiii knuvvl["d\"e i)l CSod only
by kmnviii I" His ac ts, |he grcairr [he kncnvledgf; cif ihrni, and iht more
c (ini[j(ele iht prriTptnin (if His de^isjn, ihr ni'irr eoinplcle will loving
Hiin jnd Ending plciisure iii kiving Him be.
This Sufi-inspirpd nmioii of tlicoretifal perfertion contra.sts uith Ibii
Slua^ib riliLiicc, which aJ-RazI oullines in tlii^ earlier Muhahitli:
Cdni^eniiiig [he eN.li:nt of knowledge a E i^huih this ha!ipineA.s isallained,
ihi: Sliaykh aavs 'T c ainmi I'xplitdie Lliii nidlLei". Iltiwever, in ilic
Mubahathat, he Ls tiintcnl viilli the inU'llec lion iif separdt*' siibsEjnc es
{mufdisijaf) In the Shija' and thi' J^ajat, he rtinsider^ it lu lie ihdl [he
iiol eal or einpLiljli\ lln^ir 3ali' i*; Miperi-u' l<> ihjt of hfisl?. A1-Ejzi ri-l<^r[^ ihil llik
is a liiijlilv rlH'loiifil m^gumi'iil diiidr^i.!^ on the i^i^umplirm lh:il ju^^rlh csjJfrLi^ncf
plca-iut,. {MoiaiJiUi^.^u.] ■^2.'ib f.a; Shfl, al-Lh^fal. 2, ll7; tf i\,nSli,L, I'l^al, 1, 10
Al-Razi dcci'plM Ibii Sliia^^ irguinenls i^.irli^'i in Xlab^ilh. 2, 4?li-7i.
"" MuIafifiklia^,io\. ^2l>j-b (alwquoled hy al-Bursa^vt, TaiiafuL, \2'i-'3)\c\'.Mi3!im^
in^.
"^ Cf Ibi. STiia, Siiifa' Ilahwyai, 2. 4?9.
^ C(. Ibn STiiJ. Muia/willi3l. 197-S; 210.
12a
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
hiiindn sdul -icrjuff*'^ Erui' cnmcplinjiii iif dllm'|>drdti'pnn]ar\ prin£i|>l['z<^
a.s!i('it3 lln'm ^podii^lif allv iind cI<:inniii.lrjtLvi;ly, kn(>vvr< the findl c au^i'i
fiir imivtTSd] Tnc>(icnii< Id llii' cxchmon (if p,irlii-iil:ir iini'^, f,il.h(im& ihv
Birm of tlic rnlin'tv |(if bcinij, lln; nldlii^ns Jimiifi^ its vdriciui pdrts,
and the ordir thdl inilidEi-ii fnini ihi' Fir-il Prim ipli' to the tcnvi'rmiti<E
cxLslrnl^ in il'^ hitrjrjhy, iindrrz<lyncls pnividi'nci' jnd tis nuniii'i, :uic[
ici^o^ists hciiv lln' i-j](ilv ihdl Is ^upi'nor Ici all k dLMinci in it;! i'xlsEi'ii(.c-
mid iriic'iK s.-.. luiw 1e kiiLiv^:^, vvJEhirul any iiiulEiplJiLilv <ri Llidiigc^ vvlidli^ii-
cviT Ln'iiiir ditribuli'd in n, :ind hcnv <'Ki;iErn(:! aw rtljLcd la it.
Atl^iniii^j; ihcflr co^iition^ ■v^ill rrqiiirc the inaMlrry o£ both mrt.iphvs-
irs (inrl physir^;, \^'liirh implip^ ihiil ni>|y a philo.'ioplipr ran nlliiiii
dieoreUfal perfertinn. By ronlra.'it, a] -Razf maintain n ihat happinprr-S
may be aEtaiiied only by bioviii}^^ Goii. whereas otlipr mtelleflual
piir.'bUils mav distract fmm this end. One ouglit to,
„. view His rrcalurrs quJ ibtir rcquinnii a prodiicf^r ■whi> ptiAsc^sti
llic dU] iIillIi'^ iif I K' I fi'f L iiiii , ^uii.r kiiimiiii' llinit iik ^iiiv irllii'i ii'^ii^ c t
Vi^itl oppc^ai' \ihc mlaiiiinrnl of| IHls hjyipinrisa I Iijvt Ir^iriil thii iutni
Human souls niav arquire a seisie of wariiiiie; >shaivq) inw^irds know-
ing God by becoming a\viii'e of His being and by conlemplaling
sigiiis ol" design m His creatures When the love ^i^hq; iitihahbd) of
God bctomci f3tab1ish(:d in thr hrart, llir liLayl will be repulsed
by all eke. Yearning, al-RilzT PKplain^ transjiire'; when man gains
some a\sareiiess of God, btit perceiyes Him neither fonstanlly nor
completely; he ivill then desire to attain purer and more coniplfte
aiid ronslanl knowledge of Him. In ihis world; man's knowledge
of God will inevitably br obscured to .sonii: c xtrni by the dL'ilorting
\eii of the imagination, which uill be lifted in the afterlife. Yet man
will not attain complete knowledge of Grid in either world, since
die degrees of knowing God are endless. The journey is thiu end-
less, and ihc degrees of human perfeetion are infinite — no human
being has ever reaehed eompletp kiiouledge of God. If niie uttains
complete knowledge of an object of knoviledge, his jeariiin|D for it
'" M/tbaliM. 2, 429; cf. Ibii Sma. SlttfS; IlOliiyySI. ?, +29; ?, 4-:5-f>; .\j*5i, 3^1.
On Ihii Slna\^ vieii'5 on this questioD, see Yahyd Mirh<^l, /jt dntinif dt Vfiamme,
4<i-7. II. 7[i.
AL-ftAZl'a l'L,KI'lHn-|O^JISl' TIIL,(JUV (II' VHiTUU. 1 2S
will ffiLse: yel, aJ-RazT poinis out, atlaiiiing grpat^r kifowledge of
God will only increase Elie variiing.''''
Pfttfihety
One may wonder, ho%^rvTi, hovv al-RazI coiiccivta ihi' fflalionbftViTcii
Ehk perferdoiii.'bl stanrc and revealed religion. Defining goodness in
term.'i of spiriiiicil perEenion does iioi seem to square easily with
defining il in terms of adlierence to Re^"ea]ed Law, unlli leference
lo ilir afirrlife reward ii may lead iif. This pii'blnii is addcesied
nio^C dirpctlv in di^rii^sioii'; of llip naliirp of pinphery.''''
Al-Eazi's Tradlfmiia! Apptoack io Ptophny
From his earliest wrinngs, al-R[izI follows the traditional Ash'arl
approach to proving pmphecy, whirli reiies on mirades; whoever
flainrs to be 3 prophel and pFrforms nriraclp.s, under certain eoiidi-
linns, iii ^ true piophel. God ordiiins; propheLs and ■jupportsi ihein
with mivarles that prove their oidinanre.'^-^ There are then lenglhv
di.soussion'h of what qualifies as a trup inicarle and of the ( onditions
that should be met in the character of thp claimant ol projihet-
hood^ and in ihf roiilcnts and circumstance ^ of [he claim that he
mflkes'''^
The divine origin of revelation and the truthful nes'h of a given
claimant of prophethood are recognised from his perfornianre of
miracles, evidence thai is nut es.seiiEiai to prophecy a^ Mioh. l>uL
'estprnar la it A partirular claim of prophelhooH may then be
scrutinijied 'internallv', not in order in prove its truthfulness, but
^i 7afsTr. 4, ?l!^-t' NaJ^. 5-9' Shaih al-hharal. 2.. IflO
^ Only rflevanl ^pt^ci^ <^f his prciphn-liJi^' will bv f\^inicici\. (ilji lln; iiillillibil'
ily cpf piunhr-U, J^..^ Ijl. 'l-n'af al-n'ib^ya' (■-{. t^vlau, Tictt/o^' and 'Thfui, 172 h). Ou
prciph^lic miracles, Pijji-cijlly ihf: Qiir'^ii, sff J^'iMyal al-i]ai ji dimvat a(-i'i^^
'"'' IiL A^li'ari [liecilng^', priipliec^ u ''.■^Hiilidicd liy diviri'' rmliri.iiiri', laElii-r lliau
anv chaf arlerislic.i of [he pfophel hiiiki^eir. Peuple Leciiani-if a pi?[s<^n's pruphflhfKnl
only ihrnutli mirjclcf. Iil rme place in the TaJ.ir (iJi, 1 IC^, al-RizI wrilcs thai
"prfhplncy i-. n/H scanii- d (muE'didt^c)". El^fMihinc: in llki' Tufiit (l!l, 5li), hc: HloHa
ihal llic iikailri ls mcirc cniisplf^ ihaii pif^piiiTV LttEii^ eilhi-r a *^ifl' \iiha\ m»a^)
Itolii ticid, j^ llie pxruerici \isMiyyiai\ oElJie SuniiL^ niaiiUJiii^ oi' iK lolLriwin^ Irrmi
properlics of die piopln'l himself, 'a:, !i"me Muslim ftlU'iija iruiiiEain"
^'' E.g /Mifl,fcjl.4lib-.ilb;A7*d>v? fnl. ?07h-?S:ia' .IMji^a/ 495 (T (wlieie h.-
t*f."ij lo ill* dn^cu^siiat ill ill*- yihaio/-, AibitTii, ^02— ?tt: Ktiai'siin, fi4
130
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
lo ascerlain whplher j^ome of (lie flaims iL makes are plainly fiUse,
iihouM Lhpv ronlradicl ihc fpiliimlif.s of unaided reason (e.g. thai
dn; wtH'lil h, iiriH|i'Jial, dfid [Iml Gud i;, ijifc).
Tn many xvorks, iI-Ra?.! wW] ilien fle\ori' liinij; perrfon? lo prnv-
ing pi'opherv from miracles; and to refuting objfclion.s advajiced bv
/aianfn. adieists, follnwei'i nf otiier religions, and seeplici^ r)f various
sirfs. Even m the Alataiib, a very tale work, \\c deleiids \h\}i proof
Ei^s;iiiii^'it J loikg lii<' of ohjoctioif^':, hiiiiiig ii on both ihc prrniiiif that
God is a. free a^enl who creates all eyriteiits din'ftly and hLs rejeclir>n
of mora] realism.'^' The former itdflresses the ohjettion that miraeles
iire uoiipud, yel pcrlectiv natural, events^ uliieh are raused. e.g., by
die peiMni^s psvn lioloi^JL dl i|iLa]idi-A. lii^lirr i du^e^, oi lowri ^|iirits.
The l:itler prinriple I'eljite'^ Xa I'arion^ objcrli-iiip, e g rhal ohhg:il"-
ing humans ((aklif) is morally repreheiiiiible. and thar re\'elaLion is
.superfluous^ since nioralily is kno\^able by aulonomoii.s reason.
This iractJtioiLal A^^h^arl proof competed with an inlliieiitia] Jd^^q/^
dieory ofprophery ihinl Ibn Siiia developed aiirl arEiciilated. Acrord-
in^ to this theory, apiophel u'ill have certain psvelio logical fciculties
diat are actiialisi'd in a more .superior way tbaii lho!ip of tlie ci\fi-
age perShOrh. He will ba^'e a perlect and inlen.'bP imagiiialive lacully.
ii'hirb will rcccit'c intclh^^iblr foriiii from |hc higher hcavcntv soals
and present them in the form of imagery, s^ well nf, a perfect inlel-
leetual faculty, which, by its eoiitacl uith the Aclive Intellect, will he
abli' to arrive intiiilivelv" at eoiiehisions from premises without the
inedialion of .^bVllogisins.'"' Revelation \wafiy) is the emanation from
diese higher csni^es; to the pmphet\'; pwrhologiral faculties, and the
'mcs'iage' {nmla\ ui die result of this contact/''' The angelic imas;e
seen by [he prophet also re.'^ulli fiffjii ihis contact and is formed by
his imaginali\'e faculty.'""
However^ thi.'i p.svr-hological model only zihow.s (h^t piophccy i^
possible. Ibii Slna iben aj.^iies that the appearance of prophets is
ueceiisaiy for the spiritual advancement of common people, and (fol-
lowing Ikbwan al-Sata and al-Farabi) that prophecy ii al.so a socio-
poJidcdl ii[-»i:ssii^. Only piopliein ari: Cdpabk- uf ULiiuduciitg Idv^s
''• MnWib.R, 7-100.
■^1 (Jl. Ibii bma.AliuiJI. tf4-7lij /Midi ul-nri6aww^S. 41-7.
''^ Ihii Siiiii i/h/ial nS-nuhawaal. 4-7
'"^ On Jim Siiij's ihi:i>n' "^ jirnphccv, ft:f Y. Miclioi, Ln ifilinle dt I'hiyiiBiit, I lit
IT.; H DavinrLoLt, Alfarabi, AiMnuia, anl Aheiror' vn laftlteil, H(- fT.
131
that organise huinan life and assorialion, and are thus necessarv for
human wellbeiiig (^atoh). Therefore^ he eone liidei^ dKiiie providenee
I'uiqya'. \\i\[ nck-trs^uLilw pruviilr piupIieLs fui mankind J"'
np^pile hi.'; e:iylj' A^h'^ari.tin, :i!-RiyT st'enis rn nrrepi tht^; theorv
of prophery in ihe Mabdhiih, oiip of liis earlie.'it^^^iT^ work^; where
he often foUowji Ihii Sin^ eloselv. His disnj.'^&ion of prophecy here is
generally paraphia.sed from Ibn Siiia's works, indiiding thf nolionii
of ihc apprjranci^ of ihi^ prttphcl hiing a Jiocio-pnlilirnl iicmsity,
ihe sppfiiil ps^'rholo^eal iiiitiirt^ of Ehe prophelj and thf process of
revflaiion.^'^^
However, in (he latr"r Aliclakfikfini and Sliaih ai-hhfirQi.^ al-RazT lotallv
rrjrc;l.sllni Sliii'^ llienny of piupLin: y. Ai^tfinM tiis p^yihulij^itdl eipla-
nation of ''jiipETn:iHir;ir pi'PiiP [inrliiding iiiiinrlps, ihp vH^iiial perrpp-
tion of angek and the rereplion of revelations), al-RazI argues, for
in.slanre, ihal.'bUfh ei.'ents could have odier nalural explaiiiilions. "^^
Aliio, against Ihii Sina's teleologiral explanation lo pmphery, he
preseiils the foUoiviiig ;ivgiiinent in Sbaih al-ldifif^t
WTiiiI \s ihr iiJL lilting cff ycmr i;i>'iny, "Scncc rn^iHtl!' In ihL^ >*-(frld ni'td
d Lnvyivfr, his I'sialciicr will h<: ncn'issdrv {wSjiby} .. !f yiii mttdn [hjE
il Uv i)ljli|;idU)ry on Gocl to treatc d.nd rKi^lrnliatr him (dih lln' Xlu'lazili
Siiv, "Cctnipcii'iLitiitn i? 'i>l>lii"alj>r>'' upitn tnod*', 1 1'. [hjl if H*' doi-i niH
dthtfi il. He: wiU dciirrvc bidinc), ihi'n Eliai \sW\ i^<) dgaiiinL wliiit [he
^ifii/flcldim in Hit lirr<t pldce.
Hi>'\\'\t'r, if v'u un'aLi ihiE liiii'i' llii' I'xijtcni-i'ijf thi' prophi'l }irin;m*
j1h>u1 ihr ijrdiT <if [hin world, jnd sincr il h-i.s hi'cn firo^'cii thai God
13 Ihi" .!<>urtc cil t:\Cr)- ptrli'tlirin and i^ood, il wilJ br in^rcs.'vEir)- ihat
Crul <-,3iir<c-' lh,u jicrson to rdmc inin hnni;. then (hi'v ron is falir. For
wc nd^: N"l all lhat it nupl advanragrous [a^lak) lo [his ivorld \till
hjppcEi nid'SEanly in lliii! wuild. For lidd ihc jjciipli' of llin woild
htcii iidluraily di:!p>!^cd H> i^fHidin'^;! anii \ir(in-z<, ihal ivriuld h-ivi' ln'cii
mort dnlvanla^('<iii.! ihan ihcir pn':,i'iil condition; yCl llial t no! the
ca^c^ TTn-rcfDri:^ L[ is Lonc civdHi' liir [lie: I'siaiencc of ilit prophci m
"" Msbmiii. 2, 3?:^-4:>f Ihii STiia, ,Sfli/J'. imhjyst. ?, 44L-2 On prophfiir
p>fhfJiie>'. icr Mabaiiith, 2, 4I7-2+' rf IbiiSlnii AJ^rd^^jJ. ??5-40.
could bi' dni^cl^, fiifn, ut heavenly Ijiiriifs Oi. afrru'dnn In .jl-Rii7i':s \if^^' [hal
itii' e&tiici?zi 111 liinniii souU iliLVi:r, llic prviplipi fiinki luvi a uiiii:|nc p^yrhftlui^ir-^
pnn|jertv' lli^l wnuld tiijlilc liiiii Id perform ninairles |On flai^^icil Ashiri ftl:pie<>
ijftus to falmfi cowcmumv.- of jiroplifirv, i,e^ ^J. Mdimuia, "Aviteniii's Thi'^r^' ci
Ptopliety itt Llie Liclil of A^lk'^rili' Thechln^av", #ut. L6r»-4i.
132
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
hi' inure jiJtanla^i'OQii ihan his non-f^Kisli'iicc, ^rl for [no prophrt]
[o f:\vT cxr^i'.
If hf mrant ^iiimclhinji cIh" ihfii lhj[ tmi-hl Ici \n- cxpldinrd, no ihal
wt mdv invcTiligair ils plausiliililv or f^ilsi-hcKid.
The argunn^m uinicTlinei aii ppisleniolngir al \yeci\ineas in Ibn Slna's
teleologifal proof oi projiliecy. Ai^siiniiiig thai [his u'orld lf^ ii:idf{'d the
lnTil of iill possiblf worlrJjh. thi^iT i.s no wiiv <if asrerlaiiiing udfiln'r a
cert^iii hiiinjn advantage, no inaller hciw urj>eiitlv needed, ^^i nen^s-
jiary or not [ndeed, we am i:oiK'ei\"e nf other posiiiilp worlds dial
would be more ov lesi^ dd\aiita^eoiis to hiimaiiB than thi-S world [e.g,
a world with more or fewer hnin^it dlnes.se.'b); yet we ^^'ill Ije unable
to jiidgf iin\ an ncrcusai'v. A vvnrld in Mhicli prrlrrl lawgivers, rarh
with a pert'erl psyrhe thai would pnable Idm to receive bnnwledgt^
from above and eommiinirate it lo hLimiins in a way lha.t would
iervf their inteiests, is, dcrording lo al-R^zT, perfficdv conceivable^
as indeed are otliei' }iosiil>lc vorldri in which human wellbriii;^ is
f:ilpTed Jisr in n more perfert manner rhMJi in rhii; wni'ld
In ihp Mittakhkhai, al-Raa pre.sents orrdsioiiiLli.sni and \oliintariiin
as thp coriprt altin'nati\es to psyfhobgiral and ti'lf ological approarlieji
lo explaining and pro\ing pi'ophecw He argues thnt the only way to
proving prophrcy is bv afEirmiiig God';; iinc on ;< trained will and Hi^
iibsoltite omnipolrnce, and usin^ tlie pronf from muraclei; alone. '"-^
In this Jd/ifi/i' work, we are [hu.i referred to ki)inm.
On itiE Fiiiuf iif FritpiKcy m iltr Afu/ntiini
At a .litrictly theological level, al-R^zT and all classical A'bh'avTs miiin-
tflin llial not all of God's roniinand.'< and nnn thai afTftt liuniaii^'i
are aimed al human advancage. Howe^"er, in il possible that Jt lea-st
y>me of His acts are aimed al linman ndvantiige? In some of his
earlier works, al-RazI jnst^ers in ihe aflirmiilive: il lf^ eonceivahle
that some divine acts are perfoiined for the .sake of humaii advan-
liige. However, un^ded reason has nn mean'i to arriving at more
detailed kno^vledge beyond aflirmin^ this possiiiilitv He wcite.s that
''it is conceivable that [God] sends prophets tor the sake of a benetit
diat we do not knoiv".'"^
Vet, as Vi^: aaw in die previous cliaptcr, al-RazI jnaintains that
133
iiI(hoiJs;h it is inroiK'pivable lo afTirm modvps [lienre piirpniies) for
God's iicLs and commands^ il is oflen possible to study [he coiilemii
ofitvrdled ir'iEs .iiiil ii- iciir^iiiM', iiuliiriKcly, dsj>cr[s llii-iruf ihdL
pprv'f cei'r;iin liniii:in :iflvanl:ige*i Sufh iiirliiftion i^i ri'qiiiriTl in jm'is-
prudence; esppcially in the method of i/ijoi.
In thi' M>ika.\^at, al-RazI take.s diis same approach in responding to
the Barahima, whn c^i^^*• That prophecy is poiiitle-i-s; for our luind-i ait
ablr (o know l[if gf»<id^ llic b^d, ihi' bciu'licial Jiid tlir biirniful. widi-
oul the aid of revelation J If pi'opheoy agree.s wilb this kno^vlcdge,
il will bf siipprfliious: if not, it uill he urong. ""^ Though be would
normally reply to such argument hv rpjectiug ethical ralionaliiiiii
aiui d^si-i EiiiiJ iLidi G^hT^ m ls aiitl fcmiiiiiiidi fdiiiioi be jud^i-d ^'ihi-
cally, liei'p he rhoosps ro cire esamplf^^ of hou' bnm^ins in fjicr reri'l^v
two main Ijpe.'b of great benefit from re\elELtion. First, it conlirins
knowledge tbal unaided rea.soii jnav attain. Foi instance, vbile ibe
mind may know that tlie world requirei^ a wise maker, propliets will
be^r further u'itne;;^ lo this and make belief iii il obligaloiy: this if. a
^eat benefit for liiinian^b. Second, revelauon provides knowleds;p
that unaided rea.'ion cannot attain. Al-RSzi cites spveral examples
that people have given lor this type of knowledge: e.g. {q} kiiowledge
of some diviiir atlributrS; surh as hrariiig, .sigbl and z*p<'cch, (b) ibc
organisation of j^ciciel^' and the reduction of disorder throujjh lejjal
svntenis. and k) knowledge of poisonous jil ants [\^'hicb would other-
wise require dangi'roiis experimentation)."" Some exiiniples ysuch
as the lasf are ones that ahRazl himself does not accept The thrust
of this general arj^umenl is that indeed there do appear to be manv
benefiEs from re\elation. Nonetheless, he doe.s not su^^est thai anv
of these are necessiuy aspects of prophi'cy. or i:c\\\ be relied upon
ill pro^'ing prophecy.
Ill thi.f ianic work, he also cites thr follo^vhig proof of prophrcy,
along.side the proof fiom miracles:
The sjfcond way tci prciving iXir pr'iphery of [Muhiiinni^dJ^ peiif<" he
upon liim, iii the: infer<:ni c [D^fidli!) frnin his i^hdir^n liTlraiL^, ac ts, jihd|jri'-
nirnta diid i:urdu<t. AlEhtiu^h i:ath ill" thc.sE' alum: d(ii:> no* indiLdic
'"^ On Ihsin, cf. arlide "Baraliimj'', Ef-^ Nnrmaii Caldef. "The Baialiini,iJ
Lileran (JousIeliiI anrJ HiiiloricaL RealKv".
nn MtJiai^al. 514-9-
134
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
prnphi'1'^, Elu'ir c (imbin£[lii>n h known, wilh c t'ltiiiiilv, t(i hi- fciuiid unly
in prijphrl^. Thii^ was llic prclVrrcjI \\-a\ iif dl-Jahiz dnd w-Aii mloplrcE
by al-tihjzdJi in his buok (hi- Munqidh.
Al-R^al, in ihe Muhmsai, dce^ not endorse this proof from ihe fliar-
acteiisticn of the olaimant of prophf^thood, and llie \h\ed h^-vii^iXR of
pix>pheq' are not given iij suppoi'l of it. Instead, lif writes:
Whsl uliould hf: relied ujxin [al'-mu' lai\iad) in [pro\'iiig] lln- nn-asrni^r-
sliip n( Muhiiniinjd, |>c:ai-r ht upon liini in lii^ pre^ciiEdiln)!] ill [(hi'
mir.irir iiJ] llir Qiir'an. AJI Qlhcr apprcjat hti may bf cilpd aj com-
p]iinL;ntiir^' f^ticd'ncr.
Al-RazT liprc jjrpferjh the proof from mirarle.s, but ihowj^ some inter-
est in leleologicd approaches lo prophecy"-^
Tlie Teleologtcal Approach lo Piophccy
In ^^ftrks later Ehan the Mahas^ai, probablv from the Tfl/izy onwards.
^l-RazT adopli a proof of pmpher\' akin to that Jttribtited to dl-Jjliiz
<\\\d a]-<jhaz^lT. whicii he will now eonsider lo be superior to ihc
piTio[' fLYini iniraelei. In the Ma'alim. he iiitroduees it as follows:
In ihc: ffial mellnjd [lo pr<iviiii^ pri)phi:c v|, wr prcive \\.\\<c t l-iiinanl^Ji]
pr(jphf:thoiid Ihrcmgli inirdcL("v. Onct hLs pn>|>ln'lhijc>d is aliirmed, ^vc
Bi^r thr Iriilh nf his siiymgs ,ilid drcds fr(im ihi' iiflliiniilir'n. As fcir
'ffiia [accchnd] niethctd wc shciiv ihdi dU ihjt ht prtscnis in speech and
action iiic: Eht dcfds of |>n>|ihi'L'^ therefore, he ■viilL ncc ensarilv he a
iriilhful and mie prophel, who is wni by GodJ'"'
And ill ihn? Maialib:
Thi' M:c(ind [miilhcfdj ii tij say: W-t knOiv initially ivhleh dnftriin'a drc
Ifui' jnd wliH^h d( Es are iiirn'cl {^amab]. Kncuvinij these, if vvr we a
person tjIFm^ people (o Eruc n'ligi<in, and if vii scx' hij spee<h luvinji
B po^vCrful liffccb In dl\'i:rtinU pi'csjLi? fram fjli^'hcfocl Ki Irulh, ivi" ^'ill
ledlise (lidt he is a Iniihiii! pmphel, ivliom il is (ibli^dtorv lo follow
This melhod li mori: r-itiondl, and levi'cr doutrls igrrunnd it. ^'''
"'.V/v&J!ifl/, 491: cf Tfl/Sr, !52,4I.
in FfLiiik Ciiiird ("AL-GQaairi CfnicrptorProphcc/', 106) nolci ihal lltin ptoof
j^ rfjfcleti lit ihe Alithitpl. However, ihe ohjerlioii that 2l-Ra?j files m iiol \\h nvm
III A/(fWj"^9:i.Cr. Taf-Hr 17,114-7; \%9R-Mda!,t>i.9'i-^:Maid!^,R, 103-35:
Taatif,^ '14 fT.
11^ J-/flfJM,a. M)5.
135
A!-Razi refers to this method as "ihp proof of prnplierv li'om the
prophi^t's ability to perfect iho'^p who are imperfect {tnkml! f/f-naqisin)".
HiiiiicLii pel fee [Jul I. ai wtiidi hap]]iii<:sA is =iiidiiird, i^ rejlised in
ihe perfeciing nf rln^ indiviflii:il\ iheorerif:il and practirnl f;iciilrips.
The perfection of the practical faculty invokes tlje acquisition o^
a disposition imalakd) to perform good acts, which draw one away
from sei"Lsorv plcasiirps towards llie hereafter and a spiritual mocfe
of bluing.
Al-RazT posits a hierarchy of human souLs: (a) the majority of
people are imperfect [naqii); (b) the tuviivs' h.3.v^ both theoreiical and
practical pprl^ction. hut are incapahle ol' |jerfecting others; and (ti)
piupliL'tii art' pri frt I in Ljuth lespecLs, diiil aw cipdhlt uf pci fe< ling
ih-i.se ^vho fli'e impi-rfpcl There ;irp also infinire degrpt"; <if perfeclioii
and impei'feclion, \'arvino; in weakness and intensity; thc^ awliya'
vary in their degrees of pr'rfpction, and prophets var^ in their capaci-
ties to perfect others.
The di-Minclion beiween propheti; and au'liyd' in both qujhtie? !■;
a matter of dfgree: though a wati inay perfect some people, only a
prophet will be able to ]3eifecliniJtitude'i of people. Hence, pmph-
ets are more perCect ibaji ainiv^a\ the wsil is peri'ecl and complete,
ycl [hf prophn^l will have fib^rpliitc pcrfcclioii {kainUl inuliaq], and 'will
be 'Vomplete and above completeness (tamm ive-Jan'ij a!-(isnidiit''\^'^^
However, it appears that ihcie are cases where propheti and im}in-d'
from difTcrenl times are equal in their ability to perfect others.
Al-Razl's proof at once attempts to prove both the necessity of
pyophecy as such and the irud] of a parliciil^ir claim of prophethood-
He argues that this second proofof propllPC^ is superior to the proof
from miracles, since it is a demonsU'ation Uirning on the question
'why?' {burhan ai-(\-md). Il relies on understanding the f^ssence ofivhat
\r bring proved, and ihowing tliat it b true by virtue of tba.1 c^'i^rncc
itself He writes that ^hen we know the essence of prophelhood to
'" AiffaliM. nil.
ftmg /i/-l/i"iapi' ii llii? iliiiiij Ijeiiig pafi'Cl iii a rerKiin wqiecl and prnvidint benefit
'"' ITiJ^, ahRlizT wrilci, i^ ihi- mf:jniii|^ rtfllip hadilh, *'Tlic .thrtlmi nl'myconi'
inuiiity aie [ln' like:^ i>l lilt pmphpls ol Ihi' I^rjelllea' {lafiii, L7, ILii; rl. ly, yjli
Hnwevtr, he iiuke^ il rliiir ifiEil i non-prftplieL nevi?r iparhf*; ihe level r>f anv
prnphirl, and lif cnEJCL^ea iIuj^p who plain? Ali alM>^e ^oine preivmu^ pfophpls [Tqfiii^
S^ Gft; d. Laa^ami, ?50-l).
136
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
be the pprfeftion of iinperfecl propli? by a perfefl ptrson, we \id[[
he able lo judge whe^lhrr a parliciilai' periion b a propliet in fsseiice
or not. Bv eonua-si, the proof ef prophetliood ihroiigli niiraeleib is, a
t[emm]!;tralion iiflhe fan {burhUn til-inna), vmce. il involve^; our l:iio'h\'-
111^ die raiisp from one of ils efTecLs, Hifhout neee.^sarity kiioiAiii!:^ its
essence. We may know that the prophet is given a high statu.'^ by
God' yei we will not comprehend the nature of that slams. '^'
Jti i[s niiisL gnirrdl and Ijask riaim-woil,, iViih dieorv of pnipheev
cli';i\^^ on n miinhpi of nifliienff^ Tii the Miiliiii^if, al-RA^T M]"kerifie*i
al-[abi? {d. !?5r)/fi69) and al-GhazalT as iwo previous exponeiiLs of
this proof of prophecy. Al-Jahiz indeed appears to be one of the fir.st
lo advance such an approach to prophelhood, albeit iit rudimentary
fiJEiii. Ill Lii^ Iliij'^f ul-uabuLt.'ivti, he pruclainis iij [kTfiid jjniphct y jj^aiiiM
ohjeriioii^ :inH ro Till gaps di:ir ^rc Hiit\ noi lo lacl: of e\'i[fenfe, hut
to the absence of a sy;,temati( analysis of e\'idi'nce.'-^' As well as
usino the argument from mu"acle.s, al-jTihiz argiie.'b that since men ai'e
created impertert [x^tm] and heedtes.s ol their o\vii inlere.'bts^ it will
he ncrcisary dial piophcLs br Hciit to g;iiidr thrni, so dial projjir do
not liiive any excuse {(lujj/i) against GQi\ on the da'^ ofjndgement.
The highly Mu'lazill character of thiji a|jptoach is apparent, .since it
effectively places God under a moral inspei ati\e to act in the inter-
esl of humans. ,-\l-Jahiz tlien \srite'> ihat a prophel fit to guide and
perfect othcL\i %\ill have to be MJinconc with both high moral trails
and excellence in conduct.'-^''
In contrast lo al-J^hi^. \\'hase main concern lip.s in moi'^d and practi-
cal aspects ofhunian lifp^ id-GhazalT, in the Mititqidh.^ I'niphasi^es the
role of the prophet with respect lo humaji spintual and theoretical
perfection. The proof of prophethood, for him, fies in evide]ice of
the prophet's success in peifecling multitudes of people who are in
a slate of natural ignorance. ''^^ This proof, he Viriles, is superior to
'^* Tapr, 17, \\S: MitQlim. 94-.'i; Maiahb ^, \2^. On ihr-si' iwo t^pe^ ofdcin-
mnslnln^ii, ^et- al-FiiriSi, Rwlimi, If'-. Ihii ^TiiS, ,NaJot, Ifll— 4.
'''" Al'j.'bliii, //f^"V, l'ir>-7. A Qjir'Jnic rtfcn-nct is implitd (Qui 4 Ifi5).
'-' Aljjjiliz, Haja,, l.i(i-7.
'-■■ AI'tiliA^ali writes: "11 you TinrlriMELnd uhal il i^ Lo be a prophrl, ,iiid havp
dpvtjliid iiiufli liiiif lo ihe Jiludy nf llif Qur'au and llie irarlLtioiii, you ^I'ill arrLve
ill iiii Liiriihedtdit' knowli'dj^e of ihe far! lliJl IMulnniniELdj, peate \tt Qprm hini^
fj ill ilif iiiclLOil er^f^ of propVirllKmi. C'^nvmcc ycntrtlf oi llial h^' lr^iii£ fnil
is:
the proof from mirarlesJ'^-^ IntPi'^stinglv, al-Razi al^o inrticates that
he iidopLs the dislinftion bft^ieru the prophet and ill? n'alifroin an
uiispei ifiril wijik ljy jl-Gh^Lirsli. Ati'ording lo Uiiri iinnicl, al-Rdii
wrile!; the /i\fiSi is [he pevfeer man {nl-imnv isl-knini'i who i^ ]iie;i|ir[hle
of pcrfertino others, while iLe prophet is the pcrfeel man who at
the aame [iinc perteets OEher^ [al-insan al-kam'd d-mitkawmd . Al the
otlier end ot tlie sperlrum, there are those who iive 'aslray' [dall), or
Nolwidistaiidin^ die infliii'iice of these two earlier dieologiaiiF^^ later
roiTLmentatoi'.i note that al-RazT adopts his later theory of prophecy
from tbe fdosija?-' Ar-w*: 'iaw, Ibii iSTiui indeed eoiieeives the prophet
d-s a peiMJii of high jpiiltiidl iiaiure, whose rsiriieiu r is net risarv
for (he re;ilisa[ion of hold rhe perfer lioii of ^or]el\' ^inH llie spiiiliial
perfection of the individuaL Yel the spiritual role of prop h cry in
relatively minnr for Ihii Sliia, uho [as we will see helow) inainiainii
that the prophet'^ immediate purpose ii; the praoticah rather than
die theoreliral^ peefeclioii of hum an] ly.
i\l-Razfs later rheory of propheey also has much in eomnion with
al-Shalii'aslani's disruiision of prophecy in al-Milfi! u-a-l-mhai^ in uhich
he showed particular interest.'^'' A]-ShahrastanT writes lliat prophecy
IlvVi^iI li^ 'jjhI !ihoitl [fie inlliienri' nf Hj^ti I ir^na I priirri'*; niii rhr pun fir^li rm nf iVif
heji'[. . . When I'tiu have iitacit Irial ci iheie iii a ihrm^iid in' f^ev'eral ihrnii-aiid
iit:^Ldi]4 f ^^ you will anivi! ^i ait litiiiiecJLdit kitirisltdi^ In^ymtiJ dU liuubi' {Manijidfi,
149' ff 144-5D; W MtJiiEi^rmiert' Wall's iriii^ldlioii, ii'llh iitodinr^ti'^it Failh tii/d
P<acli,-t.67].
'^^ Al'Ciliii^ilr. Mim^»lh. H!l-'ifi
'^^ TafiTi, 19, 9h1. I ha^f not fouEid iht, disEmelioik in any ofal-Gluiipirn workfl.
Tit clrnfil icfiii' lij l:io ai-lii-H/n ol-I-aJaiiiyjn (c£ It ff.^, wltiiii al-Rii^r rcfii'd la
expres^V in a dilFen ill et^iilexl [Tq^Hr. ?l, Ii9)
"' L^^ ^Hji. ^^liiif-^gi/- 11, 5fil (ri-feriiisi^ Hj lltr Al/il^/ift): Ilin Taymiyta, Alajmit^
4. 99: Khwjn^aiT, Rau'daf. 701 Iquolinfi an earlier aulbor, in refeieiice lo the
Mdaiis'i .
'^1^ Sff p ll4.f^.j.A]'ShahrELilaiiT(,WiVj^,2, 9-44;i:f. ,V/*iJ^j'fl, I'JO 2} nicii^iiUQlrs
ihi^ niirioii <^pi'qjlitty a.i rharnf rlie ^HLiiiafj". proplieiir iin^iiniliptr'*, t'lin rail lo
Etie rtluin lo liiimaii prriiuiirlial iialuri' 'Jilrp\ ami iiic lejire^eiiled m hi^ lime liv
^al lea^l soine) Muslims. (E-Iywlien, he refers lo Islamic seels that have deparEed
from aI-i\iiUa al-Hanlfiyya, 1, 3li|. Tl^ey elpfend prophelolnj^' as i.u alleriiali\'<' Er> \\it
SjIiuu 'If.iRraliirni n^f ^pitilual c-nlirit.-i {\u!i^'i\yyal) Tlif-ii aic iIlh: Inn iii^iii fii-c-'t
ihal exisled al the liini' of Ahraliarn (I, 2!iO'i. The rlL^eus-ioii i'^ repre^riiEed a* a
suinmaiy oi debalei llial i>feL][ri:(l [iilueen liie Eivo flrnup^, yifl il v. cli^at ihal Ihe
aullifir IS nil llie <ide ol ibe 'Hiiiiafl" |cf. e.fi. Heime( Tnsmeijislos is iinl Sablan^
"t^d fdrhid'", 2.44:Ahiahamivfuie:,Siiliiaiiism.2. h^-.cL.Kihataial-aqdsm.^^lf^-'^;
■ii-i—'iv ^itd \.\\itX. te^Y^es^ nif wItvLhet ikf ioit»]i:|^n< Lhc dfli:!!^'^ tpjJ <\e nrV, lh4-
13a
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
invoives twa per fer lions: llial the proph^'l is perfecl. in liiinsHr; and
dial hf is apeifcrler (mn/mmmif) nf olheri. llie prophet ha.s bolh llien-
leiiral and prartifal perfpftion, as well as ihe abililv lo peifert olher.s
111 hfilh L'ei^pecL;. '^ Tlip pmph-'lology prr^eiilefl by rLl-Shaiiia^tJiiI
here manifests eleai. albeit mild. Ismatlf underloues.
Al-Jiihiz. Ibn Sliia, iil-Gliazalr und al-Shahrastani all conceive
of pioplieey in lernis of attfibuteji thai aje esjieiiiial lo the prophet
himself, dJid aigiie [flat the rxlsteniv of the })roplii-i in iici-e^sdry liy
\'irtiie of ivhar he i? ;iiid dctfk Riii how floes nl-Rii/T conceive of die
necessity' of proplieihood? He writes in the Motalib:
Wc havr ahciwli that p^rfcc Iwfn Jiid imprrff'clnjn jpptar m vjric^ua
degrees jn<! rli-,para1r Ic\tIs jmuiig ptciplr. Thrrrforr, as ivf arc alJr
[O ft'- iiiiiividuiil^, vvIli» liiivi Ji'iklii'il L'iral iiiu-'iliiiIev Lu 4 ^ELIi: iIikE
bi'dsis in im}ji'rrrctnii], slupidilv JinJ h('('i3l('s^nc:<s^ .sicniLrlv, m\ rln' i^icti'
of prrfrcticm, [here 11111 hdvi: (c> c-cisl prrfrc I and virluous mdivKliidits
N^'|■^. iiiJiilv, [hiTi' will ^'^L^l ^iinonu [htm jn inilivnctiia] ^vliu iii lln' mi»:it
ptrftct and virluous <hf lhc:in. Hi: tstII ht a.L ibcla^l starts uf humanity
and ibc firit slagcs of angi-lhcmd.'^"
Earlier in this \^ork. we find a brief, milder form oi' ihe argtimrnt:
since represpntalives of ail the lower human levels exist, it is highly
IJiiilj.iblt {ldyai/udii\ thai ic|i[eseiiUiEivr.s i|f the ino-^l. pcifecl levrLs
(^XISl
[■w
CiidQusl^, al-Razi then ^pi^R niueli fiirlher in eKplicalin^ ihis
luerdrchy ot [luman peifecdon I'hete uill ha\e tii exist one pei'tcet
person in e\'cry temporal e^ele {dawi), whom the .Sulls call the ^pole^
Ell giinif-itl^ diivf [firl al llif SdliJAtki ;kir- Itta nrj^n; ^^i Itc docs luH Qdmit thb, aiucc
llii: Milal Li ini?aiil m f(inliiiii Luiliiaarl armuins "f rrii'di fL Hi).
"' Al-fihilird^imi M,lai,2. II H. VA. Xmsmt-xiqdai'i, Ai,'^^. \^\\irich'.- i<-^-i^
only i<^ [be prni^hfi'^ piTfprrlnii, iioi liii ahiliiy lu perfc-cr oili':r'<.
'"'" Cf. al'Shabriiii^iirs bnffaccoLiiii of l-,inJ'iliproplien^li>gv'(Af^^a/. I, 19:1 fT-i- On
hifl lantd'^i^tn, Jif \W. Madrliiiii-V lulLoduclnirL In lin Mu-Hro'i/ a\-fatsftfQ (? 1).
Ill rme pliirir, ^^Ra?J '^xj^laiii^ pu^hi'irv in Ifcin.', iikiis lo jl-Slialuj.ilauT's He
^■■nlri llial Xwo woriirU f^xi.ili Llie l<>Vii:i noikl and llii' ivorkl ai ^pmlual iifimji
{'mhQ"iX^Q^.- Thers nerpuiarily Kosm uk the laElPi a lieinii, "lii? jncelir in«'«?nHei
{al-ra'ul aZ-ma/akP,. ivlio is ihe liifh^^.sl of jII hi'liits in il, aiii ihi' obeyo ri im/ita^
mtftit lliLiii. Stittilaily, llii !■-. will hflM. Ii^ <Ni3lj in llii^ loivfr .\''.il£l, nnc: ii'lio i?
ihi' liLahpsE iiid (lie one obi^ed in il. I'iz. the ^tiunian mr^eiiger^. Thi foriin^r will
Lie llii; wurce fn^fjo'ifr;!, ihe iQEler ihe mauili'^lalioii ^^flfl;ftJ^j ['iajur I :Jli4' ci A\rat
al-taaii/ 11 n. Cf. al-Sbalirasi^ni, .U^i^, 1. I'Jl
i^i.l/rpfdri&.!!. 10^: if. U?GI
13S
(quib)}^^ Hp Wil] he what ii^ inlcndcd of ihis elcmpnlal world {I.e. the
final cautf of ri'patioii). dll oihc^r creatines beiiiy; intrnffctl arcirJeii-
lally {h-l-tirad]. In each ^roup ofrvfles (ijcrhaps in eajh Uioii'iand
ye^vs, perhapi; more, or le^;;^. llierp will he tine prriion wLo i;; ihp
most perfert of all those high inHividiitiljb, who will he ahle to perfeet
others and present a law and a ines.'bage, viz. a prophet. Al-Razi doe!>
not explain how he arrives at these conr5usionS; which betray Sufi
ajul lMii."i'ill, i^iJii.sLit iiiniieiii i-s. to [jc aililed lu the rxpdiitliiig Lsi of
iiidiieiif e^ on hi^ Ehenrv of piophery. it appi^ar^ ih^iE in formiilaling
his lekologieal notion of prophecy, which hv tiis dnie seems to have
hecome a rather com mo iipl ace notion, he draws upon a wide and
eclectic range of .somces.
^PoEeh' dinl *[\H:leri* ariitlr, hoiv diir^ the virvi thai llie piophel
i'ppre*ipnts the highe*;! le\'pl of perferlion in the hiiniitn ^perie^ iinpiv
that his existence is necessary? Al-Razl's argument is akin to an
ajgiiment advanced hy al-Shahrastaiil, \"iz. that each co^bmic hiprar-
diy will, necessarily, have actual representatives of each posjiihihtv
il i^oiilflina, froin tlic aKioiulc highc-il lo die iihsolulc lowest, frgni
lh<' mo.'it perfert lo the most imperfecl."^ Both arguments are (hen
reminiscent of a proof of prophecy that Ibn Sln^ advances, \'iz.
"^ Oil lliii EiiUJnii. [ f 'Kuiri, EF. Til,' SIiIel hi- jdtLn "-^H liim ll" uirdlliiili-
imd'iUm', iiiiam' and ihi' Unrd (jflhf a^c' {iahib al-^anaii), Jiid say ho i:,liid<ifii [^ia\b).
AI-Ri^r-i iiiLfijirf Cilk^ii \i nfM?rrlii:lp¥s ln:ri;lii:iil from ihi' IinainT pniiil of vie^',
^linrf he refirv, nm in^ ihi' rwcllib imilni, Muhammad al-MahrlT, bui lo members
of a liiii' of Sufi poki He uiilf^'
fllie Imaini^] an? fiirri-f( ni [cheir] de^ripUfiiis [lif rhifi jperfecl pfrwii|. Fm
;.i]ri.i' If IilI>. ] 11 J 111' of ilir 111 i|K' iff* III HIS iIljL jri: lit irllitii^. In: Li t'\i:iiiLtl //iD^yatu)
frnni iiiiperfpcliiiiLh. He L', the ^\osi\ of Elie afp' hffiu^' thai individual iji^'haE
in iiilriidcd ill i[^i:lf ill llial a^e. . He is luddeii' '^M'/i) from pi'nple; fof
pi-nnlp i\c- nnJ tnrnM' rliaC tf^^l i niHiiiiHrl ml i'^ "liP h^H inH nin'^l pprfrrt H>f llif
penpli' of iliar cyclv I vvould ahn add th^i iliai indi''idLial prnliiJilv dot.s iim
kliir^v lliiil ]«• is l]ji' lic'si 4jl lilt: |>i'ii[>]<' uf llbil i uIl, Uh lliiiu^li lii' kjioiis Im
m*n i^iait, lie vi']l iim be able iii know die 'A^u- of oiliiTi Tlu'i'efnii-, mhprs
do iioi kikow K'jhii ihai Liidi\idLial is, iiid hi' Aml^ iim know whn lie jcally k
(Aijfj/ji, fi, lOR' ff. I, 5r>0i.
AL-RSbT liert avguen ihal i miiin faclmv afFe^liitQ this; hiiiti^n hipfarchy is rliiviiilf,
ihi: niosl perfecr |jeople bem^ llie iiLliaE>il.inl^ of Iiaiisb^ht, \^'lio will produce ihi'
lii4>M E)['iTi!['i prison iif liiA liiiii' CiillIiE iJms Lit iI riaiiii Hi b>' lLii[lsi:ir Llir i'i:iLCVL'e[
{rutgitddii, of faiib il ihe end of ibe (>''' reiiiurv A.U.? Cf. Tony Sireei, "Life and
Works", llJi.
I'i' ALShahi-aslaii], M,^l, 5, 1 1 ff.
140
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
lliiil sinrp there is ^i hierarf hv of possiljJp human form.s of ^lerrep-
lion [if/rok], iheiT \^t11 have lo appear artiiiil iTpre.^eiilam'es ofeitch.
The prophei uiJl be llip liunian heing in ^^hoin the hi£;he.'il t^'pe of
perception ii ;:irliiali?ed nioi;! perfeftly ''-"*
Yet, iil-RazI ini.r<jfluces a subtle, but cruciaJ, inadificaiLoii lo Ibn
Sma's jjroof of prophecy. For Tin Sma, the nfres.sily of prophecy is
onto[ogifal, and rests on his view that for a. property to bf potential
ill fionie [jeiiigs, ii inu.si be ai iiial in di Irajl inir udu^r beui^. In ilie
rase of prnphecyx flie humeri p*iyf hologiral propfily in qiieslimi k
intuition {fi/tds).'^^^ This is not an ai'^uinent that al-Ra.:^T iraakesJ'^' In
contrast lo Ibn STueL's ajgumeni from metaphysical necessJLy, iil-Ri/.T
points out eicprpssi^ that hf. bases hL?^ view that the appearance of
jjrophei^ is ne^csruir^ on jikElii tiLiii (nlwiia"), which i>, ljF a lypr eIlje
prc>\'idek compleie rerr:iiiiij' (i!-qnl' si/s-l-vnqsii). He argues rhai
Iron] obiei"\ing naliiral beings, we recognise a hierarchy of beiii^
xh'AX constitutes a co.sfiiologicai order. When we consider the hier-
arrhy of "elenienlal objecLs', we lind that its main divLsioiis (viz. tlie
iTiinirriil, llir vcgrtfitivc and the animal) arc roniiccEcd [piultasil], .inch
ihiil (he highest species in the lower division \^ very similar to the
lowest specie.s in the higher di\i.'iion. The i^ame \r iriie of their sub-
di^ision.s and further subdivisions. Therefore, ha\'ing found, through
ohservaaon, actual repiesentati\'e.'i for each level of pos'^ible lieinaS;
except cpnc level, ■we cenchide thai that Irvrl too inuil hfive ?ionic
actual representation. In the ca.se of the human species, which is
die mo.sl superior subdivision of tlie animal type, since we find men
who are verv cb.se lo beasts in their characteristics, we will expect
tlial some men who are verj' close to angels (die next higher form
of beings) in their charade rLilics ■should exist. In them, both the
dieoretical and practical faculties will be so perfect and intense that
diev will have acces.s to higher knowledge and he able to jjerfcct
other.s. They will po.ssess angelic properties and he detached from
'"'^ llm Siii^i, lUihat al-'nibiutwa\. 4-2-7; cf. M. Miunurd, "Avicenna's P&viliolnei-
eal Proof r>f Puiplnicy''
<]f. M Mjrmiiiii, "^vicenii^'fl P^yfhulocLcal Proof of Prophecy", 51^
D Giiiiia, "Iniuiibn and ihiiikins". 29 IT; F. Giiffel, "AlGazaJfi; Coiictrpt of
Pnrjiihi'cy", Wl-'h.
'^'' GrifTel ("Al-Gazali's; Coiicepl r,f Proplii;cy'\ I l2-!i) jeems to su^ipe^t ihal
al-Rj2i u^e*; ihf ^aiin' Life of iitpam[:iH Ji Jbii Sliii
HI
mattei and have ronlrol ovf^i it, whirh uill pnable them to perform
miracles. ,\]-RazI writes:
[Such A pcTsan,] vvhci la the mosi pfTffd of lh<i^c pirfcct jnd ihi' best
of lliird iiiiizsl \'ii Lull 11^ niLil kirirvlc'd^c' dtili; ^ \\i\l ]n iiE LIli' riiriilici uTeIk
5U[H'rn:il hi>rizon {ofn't) of huminiilv- You hsvi- mnu' Ui kniiw thdt ihr
I'nd (ifj-di^h uptc »':< i'^ (.onim fi'd li> (hi' Iics^iluiiii^ of ihi' niort sujxTnir
apt'cil'i Sint:*' llii: anyi^lz^ an ^upc:ri'ir Co eHl hum^in ^p^'|■n\s, thi' I'nd of
huniiinily h'lll ["' ccinnci^lf^d Ut the lir^inniiii^ of dn^tlitlhinn3. Simc vvc
havr nbown llul [lidil oidn I'sinl!* m ihc hij^iii'i<[ itjjir\ tif humaiiilv, it
brcinTic'i^ nci-o'iiar^- ihat he ln' ronn^' ctiJ tii ihr' rriiJin <>f uii^i'lji und
thdl lie bt in ihcir niicLil.
Since it rf^i'^ on induction, nJ-R^/lX co'^nifilogir^l esplanafion of
prophecy is of a lower inetaphy.'iif al order than Ibii SfniL's aigiiment.
Rather, it appearii more reminUbCenl of one theory of propherv
prf.'bented by al-Ragliib al-Isfaiiani, who nonetheless does noi use
il [If £i pyoof cri piviphecv'. ' ^^'
Likewise, al-Rii^T's nodon of ihe necessitv of pmphecy coini'ii.'itii
with the Biighdadi Mu'tazilT view that prophecy ii^ necessary because
God has to do what is most advantageou.'b [aikih] to hnman beings.
A comparable moral coii.sideranon is also hinted at in al-Jahiz'i
argiimenl -XJEhoiii^h al^Ra^f? proof foi the neref?ity ni prophecy
starts ivilh an objective notion of the human ^poA. and reache'h the
conclusion thai there nece.ssai'ily has to appear =i peison or an e\'ent
wLose puipose is lo sei"ve this good, i[ does not implv moral assump-
lions ill relation lo God (e.g. diai He has lo do and command what
!g good lo humane), ll rallier ce?ls bodi on the above induclion from
the obsei"\ation of natural beinos and on a conception of the nilure
of the perfect human being who has angelic propeities.
Yet the latter conception— Ironi which follow.'b that the jjropbet
aikd hLs message mu^t hzivc ccnain c^sciiCial c[ualilie^, Viliich ard
known by aiiioiiomoii.'; reason — i'; al.«o prob]eiTi;ir]c when sel agiinst
the background of al-RazT^s earliei' iheoln^ For it will imply tLa[ a
prophet will necc:;sarily possess theoretical and pi'actical perfeclionn
and the ability lo perfect others in both lespects. ^iich a view in
rcjcctrd csprcisly in die cla-s^icaJ Ajili'ari notion ofiirophccy, which
onJy allows for some condilions that .should be fulfilled in a trne
^'^^ Maiabb. P.. 107.
1411
AI-Risluh al-Iiriluiii, Iti^aial^ 120-1.
U2
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
})rophp[, bul ill themselves do not prove Ill's prnpliPlhoodJ^' Thus^
c\ true meri.sage will iinl foiitradirl certain tlieologifdl trutlij^ that
cire known lo reason (none of whirli are morali, e.g. nionoiheLFbm.
Pf<iphr?fy ina'^' llieii be proved llirough miracles only. By rontras;!.;
in al-Razfs later prnof. the style and ronteiiL'i of a nies^^ase and the
character of the <:laim£Lnt of prctphcry may thcinsflvei constitute ifa
prf)oF. \Joreover, thfise qualities of both the prophet and his message
iiK ludc iiioidl tmr.s. Ill ihis insi.uu v, jI-RTl/T dr^iily ilrpdrL'> fidiii ihc
classical Aih'arl po.aiion.
Frophec)' gdA Human reifechon
So bov^' does thp pmpbct peifect olbers? This question viill lead ui
into one ot the ino-it important aspeecs of al-Razl'.s later thnught.
which lie.'i al ibe background of his PKegetical approach in his great
conimeiilai} on ihe Qur'aii, the main manifestation of the prophet-
hood of Muhammad.
In some place.-^, al-RazT si'enis iti prespnl the dew thai the prophet'.!;
ability (o perfect otliei.^ hes in the prophet's soul itself, uhich 'Vina-
iiateii ligliUb upon the AO\x\fi of those who are inipeifect ' and thereby
perfects [heiu. ' ^ He vvrhev
'["he: soul 111 Mulianimail, pcjct be upon him, waa b pitwrduJ, himi-
niiii', |nirr jthI r,3di,iLii smil. Sji if Miih^mniirf! Mifiplir^lc^ [G/'d] an
Ipcviple'sJ behalf ... tflf^el^ of his .'^picituii] pii^ver will I'manalr {Jadd)
upiJii ihi'ir .'vEiuls Thi-ir scjuLs will biTonii- ilCiiEriinaled h\ lliis, ihrir
jpuilA will bccjiiin: piinrn^d ^iiiil ihcy will be (r-in5f<ir[ni'd frtiTii dark-
ln:3s inlo li^ht. And Inim c Drpon'alily inKi .'^plriluilllEy.■'
This notion eehoe.s an earlier, coninionjilacc gnnstic vieiv, which finds
expression, for instance, in the works of Ikhwan al-SafaJ'^''
Vi't to sa) tiiat the piophet perfects others doei not reler mainly
to thin notion, but lo hvi rff^icE on other human hoiii^^A through his
C!L al'MELV/arcfi, A'ttjui af-nabauu'ii, 5(i [T.
1-^= TaJiTr, 17, Llft-7
'** Ikhw'^ii Eil'Sad (ffffidW, 1, ^47| wrile, "If coiiiplele aiirl petfi:c[ iouls leave
iheir lindii:^, llwy hetdinf iiivoh^iTl iif ■,up}iorliii|^ [ta'yidi impfiffcl \i-nh ^ttachi^d itt
mallei, ^f, ihjl lit* laLler lienroiin; cnnipli^l^ Jiid lli^ foriu"!' Iiecmi* ii^rfipcl".
M3
teachings, guidance and cxhnrtalion. '''^ Al-RazT cxpliiins [his in a
crucial section in hi.s discuj^sinn of prophecy in tlie Malahb enlidrd
"On [he manner ctf ihi.s invilalion [da^it-a) lo God'^, whicli tbllous his
eKplaii^iifin ol how the prophei t perfect iii himself At the begin-
ning; of Ehis section, he notes thai ahIioiie;li [he essential purpose of
prophecy Mi to perfec[ penp]e by directing them towards iiiatters of
reiigiotis concern [tfm], viz. .'bpiritiialilv and the hereafter, t]ie prophet
will (J'lO hr icqiiired lif address soiiir iii.jiii'Es of iliis-woildK (<in-
rem [dunyaj, ^iiice thei^e too ^rp ^ipect!; nl the human rnndilion Hiii
subjiequent discussion, however, coiicenlrate.s on thf former, other-
worldly conceni, uhich has three main componenLs, or functions: (aj
ii metaphysics! component [the 'past^), corresponding to theovftical
peifri Jem (b) a MJtt-iiifloi^ifdl tuiiipimriil [tin- 'iiie^ent*), <[H]e.'ijx:nid-
ing to pr;irrirnl perJection^ ;ind (f) nil c^ichalrtln^cal compoiipnl (rhe
'future'), corresponding to the final end ofman.'"'^
With respect to the first component, the prophet has to teach
certain doctrines, which relate, e.g., to the world being createci and
ihf Cicjilor'.'i cxiHrncr, prr-ctcrnitys attribute;!, tf^iiisci'iidciicr. etc.
However, al-RaTfargiies rhnl <\. prophet should preseni neither kalUni
nor falsqfa in aflimiing iiiid explicating these (mths. The style and
approach ot this first comjjoncnl in an> effective prophecy should
necesSiU'ilv have two key feiiturei.
Firstly. ahAlvact Eiitd complex thcoSogical analysis mn] dLakrtir
will pio\'oke the audience to advance objection.s and counter^ir^-
ments, leading to a descent into di.sputation and .squiibhle. Thi'^
would complftelv undevniine the ^uin of prophecy. \^hirh, insiead,
relies on a. balance between demonstration's {bwhan) itnci rhetorical
[k}ia0bij arqumeni!;, ti^hich inculcate fe^r and desire {leighib u.'s-tai-
fiib). For ihis leason, in all of his later works al-RazI maintain.s that
an effective soteriotogy will utiliiiP a mixtuie of demonslrative and
''"' Atafdlilf. a. ] 15-20; cf. 1, flO-4. Thk lueliliglit a m^iif liinerenfv bpcu'een
ihe iheoijes lifpropln'cy nf elI-R-JzI and Ibii iinj whrt ls iiiflueiirfd by il-FJiabT'i
riiipliJii^ fi\ iho Hntiii-polilicLiI aHii-fl of iifophi^ry Ont of llio iiiJiii iifiiiH of ihi
]iffi}>ln'K for Ibii Sliij {^iija\ UahhyaL ?, 441-^' hhatat, '^. 2?fi-7j, i^ iii jirnvidi'
liiii thm ^^'ill nsjiiiLiaiii ^cial oi'dti aiirl wellheiiig. Jor al-R^l, %i1fo, as ue u'ill
Set 's 3 sacir>-poJJlica! pe},^Lnisl, ihf prcjiliel adi:lre.i?ei purely iiocial inallei'^, ni n.c
immediate n4evjiin? lo n^ligioii, onlv hecaune llii-y are ULravoidablf, iiol because
itipji itttif-cl\i<(\ \i ;m (iin:l lit ilsi^lf.
UA
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
ihctarifal aigiimi'nis, to the eKchision of dialectic [jodd)^ whirh niiiy
be left 35 ii la^t resort.
Ill ilic lu^ii rhrciiuii or Sfuiifi 'Uyiln ul-hikniii, lie ^■oiii})aie> i-lipunic,
cli^fl-'fiir :inr( Hpnifni^ri'^r]on Rberorir, he :irgiie^, i'^ niorp efFeriive
dian denioii'hlralion on common people, who are pprsiiaded hy argu-
miMils ihal u!bC wiHely-arcepteH {ma^hhoffit) and Eidmitled [mo.\d[iii}idf)
premi'ies,'''' more so than Isy those baiied on a ^/?i>ri premises:
I'hr igntirjncc Jinl mi^^^Liddih^c iri ihr dcniCr ol' Inilh uiiivnMch such
a Icvi'l \^rrr hj- will ltiI fliy fnim drnyinir t riliiinln-''. YrE hr tL'ill nfi[
hi: able to dtny wkltly-actcplE'd tn^licfa. Fnr iint wh<i d[:nirs ihcm will
\}v, Aby il %v<;rr. in coiillii'l \tirh rrnnil pi'cjpli' in Ihn wjiriJ, vvha h will
TiiriiLr him !■! 1 1 rn'fii }>l r Iti xirts nf ilrlrimrriC riiiii '■^il^imilr.
Rhfloriol di.'icour^c pirsupposc-, liic lislnifv^ coii.stani and rrvri'-
encial afoeplaiire of the orator's woids. HoMever, if one u.se.s die
jianip Aoil?b of pifinises to diseusibp.s opinions [sl-qll <L-a-i-qal]^ he will
beeome ii diaierticicLii and v^ill romproniLse tlie halo of reverence
assuULiied wiili ihrioik ,'"'''
AI-R^bI dm? argue? thai ihe art of rhetoric ifi superior to dialeclir,
.since ^'dialenic persuades iieitlier spei^ialisfb nor eoinmim people^
whereas rhelorir per^i^uades rommfjii people". Dialectic fails lo per-
.stiade common people foi' Ehree reason.^, (g) Dialectical deduction.^
are subtle and hcvoiid the mindft of cominoi] poople. (b) "When a
common person becomes cornered b\ a dialectical deduction and
iniabie to i^eply. he will explain that by his ignorance of the reply,
not by the sirength ot die argument", (c) The dialectician a.'^snmes
a ccini|ictiti\t: and aj^gif.ssitc Maiic^i:; liicierore, "if tnic bdievd.s thaL
;iiiorher tries lo subdue him and pKpo.^ie hi^ we:iknei^?; he will he
moved lo refute him and not lo he persuaded by him". Al-RazT
continnci:
liidcfd^ die ^irl.'v ihat prcividc air<c'iil [iqrar) arc drincm.'vtr.iEKiii -ind rhi'to-
riL. Dj^mrjnulTJEichn fjicivicics iTrEiiinly fur ^pj'i^idlLvlj Rlu'lorii^ provirfi'3
pj'rauaisic^n lor rcunniim pi'c>|il[:. Crnl, ihtTcfcirr, .'vdys: '^CiU mill) dn'
par]] of ■^tiur Ijird vvrlh wisdom {hikmd\ [yv. drmiJii^lratioiij and kindly
i:NhiJilaLk>ii {man'i^u hityatidj {i.e. ilii^LtiiH) ainl aigur {jddil] \\\i[\ llntiii in
ihr hf:st manner". Ht nicnlic>ns diaLrclii' af[f:r ihtsr two aris, since
'■^" On lliefl' pii:ini:,f¥, ^-t: ILjii Snia hliatd^ I. I^Jiy []".
1-^ Shad, 'L-mn al-hhna \. 22^.
'^' Sha\h-L»lia!-hik<^, I, 22.i-(i.
1"'^ Que IJ^'l^S.
145
ihry aini al p<i;!ili\i- pfTsiiasion, wlitrtMii didli'Ciit aim;! a1 rcfiildEioi].
Thi' first iws) jffiiviiJi' \\hi\i shmulct Ix- (jiw |ii?fl&fli;^D, Jiid [h<' LhJid [n Fur
Lhr nc^alfoii fchr vvlirtE ihuiild ntit br [i r. of opinums].
AI-RazT mainiams [hat [hL^ ineilind, tvhicli combiiies demonstraiioii
and rhetoric is exemplifii'H in the ftjiilfiit and literary' style of tlie
Qur^an.
In ihe Matstib, lie then explains the ieeoiid feature nf prop^ecv
wilh irfhjiix I. E(j iVii tcfgiikivr iiiJiiipuriii^iit in ii i nn iiil pisi^'ia^r:, vvliit li
de'ei"ves to be filH in fnll TW^k p^'isage. in my view, is key inwards
fuUy appveciiiLing the author's esegeticai approach in the Tafso.
ll IS iiM:oncti\'ab!f: [la yaiiizl fbi" ihc [prciphc:!] lo prcicljiin purr dran-
llin>piimi)ipbLiin [ian^ih makd); '- fui lhr: bcarla iif moal pc'tiplt ii'[iulsc
from ac ( I'Tilinj? suth (^Tipciivititjn If lI w^tc |>riic liiitK'ii, i1 \*i>Liiil CEiui^r
thi' avxTiiitiii [nqfid) of irnjul p<'(ipk' Irum lE. Rjliirr. il will bi' \\v( cs-sari'
IckT hrin lo txpljin ihdE [ticdj, mtisl IraantcndcnE and high, is rxiiLEcd
a}xi\t' i^un ililud:- lc> L[:mpc>rAl thini^.'. ynd n^Jimhlaini" lo rctnlinflrnS? — ^a
He, (WiilJi'd, sav^, ^'N-iugliE l^ a^- Hin liki'in-st'^ eIh-ii, dfli'rvvardj, Hr
sdya, "Hf IS the bubducr {at-Q^hu) o\-vi His srrvdnEs";''' "Unto Him
g'N>H ivird' ii" rn^l'^i ^iii3 ^'Thr Bj-nrfl'rnI i'' ''*l^}ill'?hrd (in thr
Tlirjjin-". Hr shi>uM pujhibiE ihtin from in'^^i'sEigjtin^' Uu'm; cEi-filcs
jml Inun ivjjhng mio Ehcar auhlk'lH's {datfd'iq], cxi't-pt lor one wJio li
highly ml rllijicnE iind .iccinnpli^liiri, ■vim^f. by hisprofi>iinH inlrlligi-nc t,
hr will ( omprf 'hf 'nd lhr n-aliEirs of things.
[Thr: prophet] diso slmwi lo Ehcm inan\ hein^ a produc tri [of ac Is]
and an iisitnl, rapjblr of Emth aiiling jnil oTniEttui". ind i>f bi)th i;iiod
and i-\il; and he d(n;s dial lo ihc maximuni I'xtcnE [hala^ha]. Rir Vi'crr
he to prcicnE lo Ehtm |njfc- dittcriisinisni;'^^ ihr^' wiiuld jbandon it and
no! pir^' any allitnlion Eo ir Hr di.scj I'splain-! Lo ihcm ihdE allhoiigh
things an" such, nil is by God's dccrtt and dt'Ecrniiiidillun {qada' wa-
iiada')\ Mr Jiirl l\i:ii nf hiulIj iLI ^ii utum in lliC Licn^Q-^ ^iid \\iC C^ItL
will rsrapc' Hi.s knowLi'cfi^' Jiid nnlgi'nu'nt. Hi- lhi-n prohibit!' ihcTii. in
thi: sln>ngtsL Lciint, fiom \^adiug inlu ihi'si' subllrln's' fcir eIm" nalurcs
of mo^t mCn ^rc ilbcij lu Uic'lSi; hi dl Li:i zs.
In ^orl, iht hcfll mcihod lo taLL people to strv Jiilhuod to God is tht
''-•' Sharh^Uy^ al-hikma, [, 'l^J.-^. O". Ibn V.\i^\,A, Fad al-maqHl, Vn ll.
'^^ Nol^silh^ldiidJnj;^, aJ'RazT niamlami. llial ciKiilliiffi Gud abii\'e all ispcfls ci
^iniilarjiy lo fieaied heiri;^ is, ilii?<nlogicalIv, iIk^ fon'?i:i prtMiioii Hi?iice, Bflci 1
1^^ Qiir 42jII.
1^5
'^' R.f^dtrtg 'a/jai/, inslead of ai-AJ\aj-''.
146
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
mc'LlKnil iliul \vi\s inlniclut fd hv llii' mauler i)f all pr<iphc'U^ Muham-
niiid pciici' lie ujKiii him. I'or ht pnxJjimif lijjcl'ii j^cdlm-n^ {fa'z'"i}
in ,i!l r<'^prc f^ tn ihr miixEmiim ('^^rTll, m ii ^I'niTii!, c'-^ni nr iativ ('it/t?
sabil al^ijina^j, dnd pnihiljils [men] (rum wadm^i inEi> dcldiL^. So hi'
pn\'vcnl!h, 111 alfirmin;;^ <3irjn[hfi)j)cirnnqihL'Hrn, His ihjyin;^, "<!icid li^ ihc-
SrEf-'iiFfirirnl ami ymi iirr llic nrnly*' "'' -^iid if Wr \\ -ib'^^lnli'ly *rlf-
julBcii^itt^ il \v\\\ Lie hh^otk civablr Ehjt He bt ciiinpiisilc of pjrLs; it
fiilkiw^ llial rir Ls noE spAlijJ, Ehcri'Icffr, il will br iiii^ond'ivaliU' Ihdl
H<' cxisl' 111 |>I,HT iind sp,irr- Hr iiKd sl^irrs, ''Naiighl i-; a;; Hi'; !ik<--
ncss". If Hr ui'rr a bjidy His rs^hi-nci' wimlil liatT bctn similar tii dll
budii's, 'ihnt.v vi'c nidiiiEain [h-ic -ill biidics jrr abkc [in plivMf-Jliiv]- He
[hrii juT'^'nEc! ni;iny M^li'mtnls ui .iflirmali'iii l.'tlitiAi). And ln" dcicv ihiil
rci ihi: maximum cxlcnl. This is in'ccssary ftir wtrc He noi lo prc^ciiE
im^h sldEi'mrnls^ Hr ^'(luld iiol hjvi: rstdblishcd [<Jcid':!j rjjr<trncr Ibi
Inosl |>r<iplc
Aliti, hr' gofs lO ihp nidxiniurn rxlcnl iii r&ldhliz^hing His knciwinji
afl iilijcci.'T of kiiitwU'djrc, So he sdys, "Wish Hini arc ihr biys of [hr
iiii'j-rn; nciin' l»n He krmws lln-m^'^ -iiid Hi' <i"y^, "'Crnl kno^v ihiit
whith rvTry fi^miiti' bi'jrs dnd ihjl of Vihich ihi- i^inibs falE shcirl (if
c(im[iJtlii)n^'."'" He llitn doc-s mil rspldiii v^'hi'lhcr He kno'A's bv His
cr^iTiic r i'v by [an .lUrihulc iif] knnwkdj^j'
In many \Trsri, He dJMi rxjiEdin.'v thai nian is an a^i'nl, a kniiwfir, a
proilin cr, d tri'aliir and dn cffciUT. Hi' llii'ii sbiivi's m all iilhtr vtrsrs
ihat all f,'(iiid iind evil i-; fi^i'jn <^.(id, i'x,il[(ii Vi'l Hf drn-r< ncil explain
now ibc'ij- {\Mt i;oi]l['ntioiis may hi' riTdiicilcii; fjIJut, He macli' i^n-
cral ['ala iizilf al~gmal\ bf:lic:r m bcnh abligalory Hi' aliJi rxpldin.'v ihdE
mithing whal\iim'r {■'{■apri' the- i\'-( n-r nf i'lfi, cxalli'd, iind His \^ll,
judi^enn'nl and dclrnTiiTLition. He Ehi-n cxjildinij ihal [God] ni'illitr
Yi'ilk iiiir |M'rforms v^'rniii^tiiiig, vdinni'ss or riililily.
Th<Ti-forc-, tUr mrthr'd [iafsqa) <if (lur Pr<ijihH in lii'' invilalion [da'im)
p 111 picirlaim Gild's jircalni'ss in a\\ {■onci'U'i'd n-sptc.Es, dinl (<i prcihihil
Vi'adinii iriEci rxplaininii whcEhrr ihr'sc ifspn^ls cnnnicl cir ncil. Fiir il vvr
iay, 'Bdid Ji^U drt of ihc dijrTicy of mrn, dnd ari- c rralrd \*\- Giid'\ vsi'
prcjclaim Hi> ^cilnrss wilh rcspii [ Eii po%tc:r, but ivi; d(i ruiE pmrlaim
Tiis gri'aiiitss tuih rcspcii m wisdom. Anil if ivt sdv, "They ar<' nciE
from God,'* wr prorldim His grcalntss wilh respect Ici wisdom, bill
vi't do noi pmc Idini His j^rainrss wish re'^prtt lO p<iwrr
As for ihe Qiir jn, il jmnLunis God's jrn-aliK'.'v.s wilh respett lo hcitli
power and ivLsdcMii tii^'i'llnT GcjnciTDini" ihi: fornn'r He adys, '^Say,
"■' Wlueh IS ;i major |iriilileni in classical kaSiim. Cf H. Wolfson, TTre P^toiophy
\r
al] is frcin] GckI",'''' i""l rfni(-i'rniiii; iht klfcr Hr s'^v^, ^\\'h-Mir.t:i of
gcKiil lu'Jdillii ^Tku il Ji! Ifoiii Gtid, ancf vihdlrvtT tii" ill tii'ldll:! you Ll is
frnm thyscir.' Hi' ihrn jir'iliiliiK pciiplc ffun iviidiiig mUt ihc invTs-
lij^alniL] iif ihis cjjiinii'l dnd cliininiisinii it. R.alln'r, w\iAl is cihlig.ilorv
upon lomnion p('ii[ik' ('nie.'mw)i) h dhsciiiiH' bi'licf in prcicljiniiiig Gjid'ii
ip"L'alni'ss in bchlli povvir jncJ wuvdcim. S(i, iu n-ality, whdl He ^IdEcj; is
moat ccirrtirl. Eir a univrrsjl invildliiin 'da'wa 'aitimsj tci God bccumci
I'fTcclivc only hy ihh nn'tliod."''
"1 iiei'florc, for prophecy [o be uni\"ersal ami all-piirninpiisfiing, and
lo rlFfrti^Tly ti'^iieiform Hii niiiii\' pcoplr: a;^ pr>.ii<iblf, ki appr^arli
.shniikl liAve. ttip follou'iiig main rhariLflerLitirs. {aj !l .should =i\'oid
esplifiilin^ sfiiin' .subjecls in un^'qiiivoral and Jbrmal theological
terms, which will go beyond the ineiiuil rapabilitiej^ of most men,
who will fiiul i[ Lli^hly pii-blrnirttii and ivpiiLsi\r. "Piricniiiig piir<^
de;iiiitivnpnirnirp}ii^m to rhr pulilic yiiinhiirj i^ inpfFprtiv; iliprpforp,
it is necessary lo appeal to a niitkllc \^ay lietweeii presenting anthro-
pomorphism (ladbih] and pre.senting pure depnthropomfjiphism,
so chat [the prophet^] mesiiage be accepted bv tiie public^'. "''"^ (b)
Rfvrlaticm should have a holistic approach Ho the cognitive a^pccfi
of religiouih e'vpcrience, by providing a comprehensive and simple
expre.ssion of ihe main divine attributes, iiiclufling po^^er and wisdom.
The Ijelicvei' should recognise all these attribute.'; .sumraarilv; which
will lead liim ti> j^hirif) Gifd in iiU tlit.se le.spri-Li. (cf The proplictic
message sliniiJd itieii prohibit roinnion penpip from 'delving deeply^
iiilo these theological cJefilps and siihtlelies, which uould only cause
<^iiJlision in their heaits and undermine their unquestioning accep-
tance of llie message.
Ha''in;> disicuAned thp fii'^t main component of prophpc\, which con-
cern.s belief, al-RazI then briefly e>Lplains the iecond main component
of prophecy, \iz. soteiiology. which concerns tlie actual furthering
of the theorencal and practical perfections ol human beings."'*^ A^
the iii.ijoiily of hh-ii need guidance in.i/iHilj Lo tlieir goisl, jimphecv
will piovide a detailed, tangible and practiciil path rn the reahsation
of human perfection, mauily through acts of worship, both external
"■^ QuT. 4'7i!
^"^ Malalili. R. 116-3.
'^^ Mafahb, R. l?4-5.
I6S ^J/irdLb^ S, 119.
ua
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
and iiilprnal. Il Jihouk] alsn prfsfiit these wilbin [he framework of
ci law dial makes llie piivsuil: of perfeclion obligalniy upon men.
An [frtliti^ [(J (il-Rd^, |i.iri uf [hr mi'^siijii ifC the piii|iliri js m iiirfkc
hi'lief 111 prnpbrr'^ ;iiifl prn]ilii?rhorn:f ohligaioiy.
Ai regavd.'b the third component of pvophery, al-RazT doej^ not
describe il in detail^ but only nientiniUb that il relates to e.iirhatology.
In die Ma'flhm, lie contends thai autonomous reason may onJy realise
dial l\\i- afterlife i^ foncri^ablrh anrl ihnl. llif only way to know of it
and of what il involves with certainly i.s iLi'ouoh levelation.
In ihe ciLiie of the message of Prophet Muhauiniad, aURa/i refers
lo ils approach as a v^'liole, especially its cognitive concern, as liie
Svay {Utriqdj (jf iiui Piojiliel.*, oi llit 'wdy of die Qur'aii'. Tit" aii^Eies
rliai if niip e>:r[miiif'? rlii' efTirary of vjii'imis religion*; in pei'fecring
Liinians^ oni^ will Jind iLe prophecy of Miiliammad superior to other
pcophcriesJ'^
In his commentary on Ibn Slna^s 'Uyan ai-hikma, wcilteii in the
sanif; lale p^Tiotl as the Aiatahb. ^J-Ra2i mid pi lines one of hui m^in
inspirations foi' liii^ theory of the perfeclbnLst eflicacy of prophecy. He
conimcnfi on Ibn Sina^s vie;^s on the definition of human perfection,
the division of philosophy into practical and theoretical pans, and
the divi^sion of practical philo.inphv iiilo politir.i, economics [lailbTr
Ql-mimzii) and ethics. He writes:
Thf ^hiykh 'pyV *'T~hf prirn^iplr^ (iunh/ii^ lor thfsr ihrcr :[fC rrj-rivd
frciin till' divine Law [til-iharfti al'\la!is)}'it), dnd iheir ulliEnali^ drvi'iiip-
Ow-nlii diR' jltscrLbf^cl liv ihi' clivint Laiv. .."
IiiUifpiitatstiir. ... The pniii-ipk'\ frir ihcsr tlirci' iicn'iicc^ srv rcixivx'd
&CHI1 the divine L:iw, for the ultfi'iitivc: [maq\M} of isendiiij^ prciphfls
»i men is to i^iide nu'n Ei ihr" Jicircecl: mode and imis! JilvjnEd^^j'ihua
piilh <if jctum Sciice :ill posmble forinis tif rti^lLiiii arc (^ncDiiipjsM'ii in
[heat ihn:e siirnccs, il \liLiutd he vaid ihdl eIh' prc^fhei^, cm \vh<jm bt
ptjce, were mily ^eiii ki hidiLdie fJn'fffl Ehe piiiiLijjleis foi ilicait Ehutc
icient^s din! Ec> delineale their perletlmns
Then, on tbeoretiral philo^opliy ;ind perfeelion^ he i^Tite^i:
Tfi/ 'ihnykh ntys- "The princ ip[j-> fniir iheiji: dlvisicins ni thr-Cirelical
philiiaophv are received Prom ihr ^^'^ldbliihlt^l of llie divine ri'li5^>n
[arbdb al'inilla af-ildhiijai Ihnjugh inltnidEicin [fmbih}, iind timy ind.y he
"''' Ma'dtim. \U.
"<' Maldhb.S, 121-?; cfM^Mm. 10^^.
MS
acquiird in ihcir jxTf<'clion by ihc rdlicmal fat ulty ihiijuj^h jrgumcn-
talion {f/it/jaj "
f^lriptsialmi: Thi' Shaykh sidlts thai holh the prinnplr* -ind ihc
ulliiiidli' Ht'vi'fnpnLciili, <il (he practital scu-ntts arc- rcc^'ivi'i! froin
thi" ('MdiblisTn'ij (i(" ri'V(^jk;cl l^ws [mbSb ai-%fiara'i). Wilh if'j^drd Lu thf
pniKipk'^ Lif [hvsv ihciircEiciil ■w icrnrc-s, hi' mi'nlmn^ ihiil ihcy (cm drc
rf:rrivcd fnini the riEdbliahrr.'^ cif rcvc-dlcd Ijws. ivhcrcan their pcrfrc-
tiiiiis Jiiil ulLJiiidU^ divclupiiii^iiLv iiic t'SEdibliblii^d by iln^ riHicriial f^t. uIlv
throuyh argument dlitin.
He: dj'scrihcn tin- ihfTcrcnc c iH'lwcim iht t\^ii in the: \M)rkll]al he c-nEiE[c\
Lhr Aiihii!L-iyya. lie .sdvi^ FLr J^i iv^'lvc i i^ "Lifij/iiLi-(l H* li]^-ll<- [[ii:[f|f[r|
t(i dlFirminir ihc csistriK-i' iif Gocl cxjkcd, His htini; Irdimccndcnt
{mitna^aH) civci impc'rrci-tiiiii5 dnd tdulls. ami \i\5. bcini" ditnhuird by
ELl' iilliibEiEi^ ijf ih' I fc'i: Lici i] iiiiil lIic iI^x c L^ irf iitdjc'Lslv A^ Ten Oird
ncil hnni^ spatial, ind nciE rKisliii^t; m Iih^lIkiii i>r piJi<ilii)ii, |]h\m" arr
ncil dmcinj^ whiE he has to (■x]>lii\Lti; [famfi]. Fcir suth IcipHS art diiKini"
thri!^ iii whlrh 'hi' \<Ai^. <>£ [nit^l nicn i-anniH jrrivi". Wen' Iii' lit iiinic
ptopir Ec> ihdE, il vvmiid rtpiiht ihcm tv-im dcccjiling his iii\nEdlinn
[de'iva"/. Unddublc'dlv, ihtrrlbri' il is iicLTasary Gir him lc> br cctnltiit
vjlth lhj[ inyniTUTV (miifl'ia/) liivitdliim As foi minulo dt'Inili, hi' ;hiiuld
ncil cxphcdEr them, bul shuuiii dl-icgalc- [tafjiidj llitin Itj the- miiid:^ (jf
inU'lli^rnl nii-n. . }^^
According lo al-R-izT^ while rfvciaiion is dip source for boili Ehe
general prinfiplej^ and the detail? of ihe pracliraJ science.'b, and con-
fieqiientlv for tliif meiniis to realising practiral perfertinn^ it is [he
5;otii'CP foi only the iuilial stae^'-i t>f human theoretical peiTertinii.
Revt^latioii should pre.sent a minmial and concise [mujirml) creed for
men, which is neressaiy Ibr their theoretical perl'eclioii. as well as
'pointrrfl' and 'hints* that turn their altrnlion tnTit^ards furthering
their lheolo.e;ical knowledge without providing a co mpi'elipnsi\'e
theology. Be\'ond these basic sta^ci. theological knowledge may be
acquired primarily bv CKLra-ie\'elatoi"y means. ^''
Thla seance cuiur^LMs hliaiply iviih the clajhkaJ kulUiit approatli lu
theology. PrevioiLi; mi!t!ski\ll!miin viewed dieoiogital reflection (na^arj
as a foiTD of action, to which a ruling may apply, vii. obligatorLne.ss
(iL^jab]. Al-RazI di?scribes ihis x'oluntari.sl view of theological knowl-
edge and enquiry in the Mutmiint:
''"' S/ia7fi'l7fim til-hiii-is, 2, 19-21 (E madt nrncli u.'^- (jrVdhyj MiLfinL'ji Iran^la-
tjrm ofEhii pjiSAje, ''A MiinJlik ThprtlDe^^^'^ CHininifiH^iry on AMffnita':^ Rnala
ASaivipn", \i4-)\iL Ibii Siiia,.,lf/ftjayyv?,y7 -lO'^' llf>-3 Qii th'' ihenryofprnphfcy
prfceiitcd in iln? Aiili//iii<vye. sit Y Mifhoi, Li Dc<,imk dt I'i/ammc. ^(1-41.
1^1 Cf. Ihii Slii^, Shija' mh\yydt^ 2, 4i2-3; M. Marinura, "The LlaniLC Pluloso-
phcrj' Coitci pliiTpit of lalani'' ^S Q.
150
CIlAJTHK TIIUlL,
Till' c timnKinly-Jc (.tplcil i'x.plaii,ili(in ciF ihc illtli^jLjirincsii of rjlunidl
icflcrlLDn in [da fchllcnii;]. Ivnoivin*^ ticid, I'Xidlcd, isjihlii-aUJi^^, aiicl can
only br dilljin<:cl [hriniifh ri'llfclidii. Whdl is ^ basis fchr a i ali^i^onrjl
obli^^alion, and (Ah \viEbin ihi- c apac ily iif ihi; Jibliir^itui a^c'nl (miif,al-
lajj, L'h ciblig^Lliiry, a\ will be I'Sfifainfd in ihc [sdvncr uf] ihf priiK.Lp!c-s
of jurisprudtni^c
Having ibe correal freed is Legally obli^^atory^ in |bc fiiine way thai
pt'rformine: rprlain acts is oljlii>aloiy. Arrordiiio to fla^sifdl Ash'ails.
ihi^ nl)lia;al.ion ■li.em.s purely from divine cmnniand. wherpiis the
early al-Kaid' drparl? wilh Lliis view in lavour of a eonsecjueuliiaJi.sl
notion of -Lrg-il obligdlion. The lallrr liiif of fir^inirnl. is lined in
iJie Afufussiih
Pmh/fiu: Th/ ohltiiiriinnrii <\f "it/n'/ii (fflerl'ni f< lii\f^ on snipfme. fnntrn the
Xlu'laz.'slaand 'MiTiF Shaf'l am! Hamifsl\\f.Ya\iA' . t!)iir ev'icli-nci' is' [[] [C(ld^'^]
saviTig, ^'We wdiild mn jiuiiL^h uiUil ■vvr h,id srnl a nicisengc'r" '' ^ [?]
Since ihf ba.sis tif oblijialiDii is [afU'rliS'] r(-vvard and j)iinisliiTn;nl, and
anfi' noni' nf food's ads can hi- [mlirallv] bdd, \h.v mind alonc^ will
bf: unable H> niaki" cdndusivt judij^enienfr wilh ri'spctr to [dfterLifi"]
reward and psiJiislimcnl. Tbus, lE will nol br possibli; tti dmve [liy
miCoEinmdus ic^i^iii] al the obLigiiEormi'ss [(if n'lln iKin].
Ill flassical kalam and elassical tbeology generally, ihcologiral knowl-
edge is neeessar^' in as iiinch an il is ineumbeiil upon men to know
ccrialn iliiiij^s dboiii God diid Hij lelaiioir in His ercaiion. He Is
vorsliiped fuJly only is^lien ibis knowledge [or beHel) is combined lo
eoriTet anion. Thi.s .stanre wna the main moti^'e fnr the eonipilalion
of cieedi yaqidd'. A.i surh. the main fiinetion of Rc^'elatioiv a.s far as
helie^ners are eoiieernecL is lo rommuniirale knowledge ol ihe foriTct
creeil and praetice lo ■whicb buinan;; mi^bl to adhere. Re\'elation ^f Ls
as a primary souree for all types ef dieolojjieal knowledge, fxrept
wha( is required fnr pritving the verafitv ot Revelation itself The
problem thai all theolngian^ iiad to deal widi \%a.'i to harmonist' what
.seriJi to be luriditiitig [lieologii al jsrieriioii.s in revealctl iex.Li. Msj^l
mtiifsk/silsmnit rhoone to interpret ?ome ^t^temenls meTaphorie ;iliy
[ta'wll]. Howi^ver, in his later u'orks. aURazT maintains diat tlieolos;ifal
.■statements iii revealed texts pro\'idi: only a minima] theology .since
tlifir prnnan" purpose is solerioJogieaJ, valher than epistcmic.
'■1 Quf l7'Li;rr. Qiir. irtiirH, «hich iil-RjzI ciif;^ ebewhere.
151
Arroi'cliiig in iJ-Ra^i, the ppvfectionisl. ronrern of leligion^ whirh i^
its reiilral and ultimale obj^rtive, is conrilant thmiighoiil thp lii:;lorv
ofri^vrdkd ri'ligiifti. Thnefuir. ihi;, diini-iisiuii in cinli p,Liiuul£i.L
prnphpfy \<^ never ;ilircigarpH liv a ^iilm^qiiein onp Hp rlf^frihp'i
ihis concern as bf ing reliiied lo both the pvoflamiiiion n^ the grf iii-
nei^s {ta'zvn) of the iiiitiirp and staliiri^ {ami) of God and compaHJhioii
{shojaqa) tciwardi^ His creatures, wliicli. elspwhere, lie explains ai
rcfirrriu^s; lo iLic pcrliTtiiig of [hf thcorcliral and piacl]fiil faciillic*
of the soul, re.iperlively. Apail from lliis pssential ronreiii, other
features of a revealed religion are conti^xtual \a-Gd1).^ and may be
abrogated by a subsequent re\'e1ation according to changing hi^tnri-
Cd] cut unirhUiiices.^^''
Siijiiitic^nrly, nfter prc^nriiig \\\<: Inier ihprtr\- of pvophpc^\ al-R?iyT
tolally rejects a cmci^il pai't of Ibii Sma'.'i theory, viz. his ps)ch<:)logi-
cal explanation of revflaiion.'"
^''^ Maidiih, 1.1^{\\ Tfif^ir, \2. ^^ 4j 20, \<H: Lji/f-^mi\ 1 7D. He- nfieii miNiiifne
tha. ta'^m diid <i/ifaqa an.' .ipctified in ^ Im/filli. nhifb T \\a.\f bi'pii iinahl'^ rn find
lii^fanrl 'Alul jl-Qjdi. jl-JayljnT(H:l. iiftl'LlJifi)|J^i/ft, LOfi) ri(e> .i a^ ain>n-Piopli*.|ir
aphoibuni "Giiiiii lie^ iMilirf:!^ iif iwo wordsi al-tn'z/in h-amr Allah 'fl^^ ma-jallo,
lra-l--[fa^aijal\ ' iitS fJtiitiih" . Al-Rii^l urilt:^ llidL jII lltill^:^ i^lroulll \i\'. vb^U'Fd Hl tit.i6.'%
frealuTC*; and ii ^11^111 for Hi-i ^lll^-lu?*:s :iiid crL'ilue^s^ and z^hoiild niiiyiqupiilly be
i^iwii due rt.'^pi'fl. Lkiiig fifaluru, vi'liicb ^'jrpfiiente henefil and lianii, should
I^H^ rrL'alfd viirli Dvpal nunpa'.^^.lrm^ p.q. rliiviiioh filiiil piply aiid i^iijfhiiiiiiji gnnijl aii'l
forbidding evil {Tqf^lr^ 15, ?4).
'■"■ MalSlib, a, 124. Cf. dl-MSWdldl, .,^V£7»f a/->,ubuii.uia. 'l2 Al-R5iT il'|ilLi'i ln'
[hi^ to iii aigunipnl ^gain.-.! lln' pr>!z,iljjljly ofjinniihpnH' iiiadi: fiom ihi- ^zrav per-
fiiCEifuiiil nolioii oflbe liiiniaii good eLilI hi' uti's lo fii^lif^ relij-irni' ah^umiii]^ ih^E
revpjipri n4Jgion ^iiit' lr> ■'tr-'i- hiinian per^flion, one rplisii'in''i iihro^lirtn of >
prevLoui one is uiyuslifiable For ihe laler religion vi'fll abrogale ciElier ihe juTfec-
tionLiI a'lJtrEfl of ihc pftvLnu.i one, llii-ii^^y cuLilr^drr linq 1I5 pLupcpic, --t int- 'S'^iil iqI
delail^, in uliieb r^^' erpjl liarni:; vi'ill follo^v fioni Irivolrms rliffereiieei iMmalih.
R, Jp7-9i AI-RazT il-m aco-pli ibf lr,idiLiiJii,il Ju.-.lillcdiioiL for abri*;^Uoii from ibe
foiTuplioii nfprevioic. telieioit iAIa/d/ib. R, 121-2; cf. Ma'alint. 10^— t).
" MalMh^ H, 127- '17. Thu=, teveljlirin ii iiol j cwi^pfjiieiifi? of rhe p^chrjlogi-
Ca\ QlcuIiio^ of llii- piiiplifl, bul c^lT'^:ll£ll on liii lic.iiiiij- (jntl'i spoiclt diri-c(ly, nc
recejtiiig il vm (labriel, \>\\o ifl? 2^ an iiLlttiikediarx [Matahb 7^ ifi9-9; 7, 421'
111 conlra.sl 10 llin SLLiii';!, Llif-f>rv. '*li<;tebv llie iniageiy llial a|>pi'jr.-i in ^rripliir^d
tews alfms parrl^ from ibi' piophel'^ family of maaeiit^lioia in iK iiKpriclioii wLlh
thf ArlLve Inlellpel and llie beauenly icuh, Jitd partly fioiii rlie propbi'l's ouii
judeLniinl ati'l inattipulaliH-hi^ of ihr- friim ^iid cmltiil of .'.'■ri|m[ri'. jl-Ri?T rrnti^td-
er^ b<jrh ihe form and roureni of .scnphii'c is rompleielv di\iiii-. Gahrir:l ](veivK
l^ii'dii]i: rcV!4al]r]n in exjcllv Hie ianif lorin lie com mini ie dies lo lln' fmpliel
ITo/i^i, 27, IJlFl]. f:f Tufar. ?. >?■ "Gabiiel ln'arvlGod^ spn-cli in llii' liL-nvvn^. and
biYiQghl bl iicA>'n nnle llie Pi'i^bf-l. ... If H t ^aid, "How did (idbi'U'l bear God's
jjptH^cIt, witfii a'b lyn^ecii, ac^Hnrdtita 10 vhxi, i^ of iti'illttr l^lli^c^ it'ji 'jouiid^*" \i"-
153
CIlAlTHK TIIUlL,
Before ronrliiding the pre.'i^^nl rhapler. we should consider ho\s'
ihia perferliDiiiini in al-Razrs laler ihoiighl. relate.'b lo his ronse-
t[iLi-iiiiiil]si eihiCi di ilu' iKJiinaiivr li-vd. Alic^ily, in lIu- Lrgiiniiiig
nf this fh;ipier, (ve navv liov lir pypl:iiii^ ilie I'clatirni hetweeii tlip^e
two lekoiogieal stances at the jnetaethieiil le\pl,
Al-Razi rfnrs not develop a unified iiormati\'e discip[iiie thai fotn-
hini'ii the difTereiil normative stances ihat he ron.'hiders Eo be valid,
nor doLS he prcsciil foiiipri'hcii.iivf ^uiddinc.i iini lo how ihren' niav
he applied fnn.sL^tently and s>sti'malicaQ>\ The relation between miil
d-fiqk^ vvhifh represents his normad\e ethici of action (including the
general consequentialijil .stance), and hnth akhifiq and nyado.^ which
lepir^ein hi* rEliic s iffi lididt H:r, rriiidiii'i cm ihr wliolc mic Irdi . Tlir
following IS yT hi'ief inlerprelalioii of hov^ ihe diffei'eisl nnrinative
Stances b al-RazT'-S later thought relate to each other
It i.s first of all cleai that (in sharp contrast Mith al-Farabi) he
considiT^ the perfeciionist stance to perlain exclusii'cly to ihe private
lealm. Thu!;, the furthei'ini^ of human perfection i^ ihc ohjecEi\'e of
d:ie disciplines <i[ nyUda and akiilaq., hut cannot he an objective (be the
art of politics. A^ we will see, this owes partly tn the gipat pesMniiiin
uith which al-RazI regards man's iocio-poliiical condition.
It ifl al^o dear from the foregoing thai he aiialj-^fs prophcrv frnm
a teleolo^ical standpoint: he considers Revelation to serve more than
one main function, including j perfectionisi puipose. He otulines
a Sufi-inspired ■hOteriolcgy, in u'hich the Law {.\kaitd\ is the inidal
stage, aimed at 'purifjing the exteriors of people from whal should
not be {ittii !a ji-nibtight;'"i then the .^piiiltial p^lh {tariqd) i^ a more
advanced stas;e aimed al "purifying souls from corrupt heliefs and
\'ile trails^': ihe tealLsatinn of truth [fiGqiqn] is the stage of theoretical
perlection iil which truth nianiiesls in the hearLs of :;pintual men;
and prophrcy t/iufmwwa) is a ^tagc reserved for the fleet fc>v, in
which the soul hecomei; aljsohilely ]ierfecl such that it may perfect
diose imperfect."^
Bay, 11 could ht llial God created for hms a lii'.uinc for His ^pefch iuid p'ovided
Eiim with an ^]ilIjI\ lo fxprtsi. ihal t'Hiiiial .spifcti. Or ]l fouli Li' llial God ete-
filtdj n\ ihf Pirsoi-vL-i Toblfi, El Vb'riline in lln ' xenl t ompniil ii-ni jof lln QLii'iiif,
vi'hicli (Jatiii'l ihi'ii I'erfrt and iikemoiBed Or il ould bi; llial Gi>d rrfjled di.-,liiirl
^r>uiids, lit lli]i fxafi roinposHioii, wliirh ^Jibn^'l llieii recfived^ and lli^l Hi: llicn
iri'iili'd for liiiii iieffMsaiy knowltdg;e ih^l rliis ib lln? exprei^sion of (hr mi^aiimp of
llijt .lenial spi:i'r-h."
I'' TqfiT,^ 17, 117.
153
Yt't aJoiigsicle scr\'ing ihe other-worldly and ^piriliialf^nd of man
[din), Ri'\'pa]ed Liiw iJso spr\'ps mallei's of [his-woddlvforifcrn [durtya],
whirli icldir lo dn- advdiiiage mui VLrlll]c-iiig iff IjihIi ilir individual
and the psili'viial i^'orlH, psippfiallv ^r>riet\'. Al'^n^^irlt^ Rp^'e^led I_aWj
the more genera! norniiiiivr cniiseqiifniiali.'ii cdiifA [especially as
embodied in llie primriple of nines trieled inlere^l) wiW also apply lo
both lliese worldly, mundane spherej^: the private and the public.
Tahle. How thp main iioimjtK'f jppioai-hfc (cfjunsn^) applv to llif privale and
piihlir :pl^''te^
ClJILH'lJLII IlLELtl^NIIJ llEIUIIflLlllC
phvsif ill ^rollhtiiie:!
Pi:ik'<LiiJjjiEJii l.iLiTirj^iEiLLLLilLUir,
^pil'llLlill WI'lllK'illl^)
PrLvalP ^pltf re
Wellheiiig nf ihc iiLrliL-idual
HL x\]Ai \-Jcif\A aiir] llu'
Tii-f-'afli^T
Eslra-rpvelalrtrv
neitTi lhi:^-u'r>rldly pii^'iici-
wellheiiig.
- Pi^bciital nhif i {akfiidii).
- Rjliimal rellffliiiii (w[*fl^.
- S|)iTilii,il i:ljfi|jlirn^ ^iJi-ffi/rtl
All '4J?rw lo perlj? f I ihi?
iiidiMdLL.J Inilli lltciUilJErally ^\.n\
pr^bflifalh'
- Rewlalinnj ^rve* uorldly
f^hlff (phen? public vvflibeiiig."'-'
- Ulililiu'idii|Mili[ics: si^f^-fs
publL: ^i^kbiliiy ^iid
'^^ Se<? p. 177 mflfl.
""' Set p. 176-7 rr. mj>a.
CHAPTER FOUR
AL-R.\ZrS L\TER PESSIMISM:
COVIMENTARY ON RISAUJ DilAMM AL-LADHDHAT
The srieiice of character i'ilm al-GSddaq) concerns both the human
souFs dllribiue of po\^er =ind the seiiJiory appeliles of ealing and
CoUnjfli aspects of the souI^s, ajisociation with Elie phpiciil world,
including the phy.sica] body and ihc c?[icrnal world. On ihc othci'
haod^ llie soul's inti'ihiite ol' knowledge^ is perfecdhli' by ihe ihealo^-
cal sfieiiees and spirkual discipline.
In his main book on practifiil ethif i^. Kilab nf-.Nfif'i wa-i-ruh, al-RazI
clLicusies i\wu lypci of niuidl 'ilfcrapy': (d) Vonlcniplaiive' ihcrapy,
which involve'*; dp*icriplion!; of Kmn;!!! vicp^ ;iiid rpa^on^ foi' whv
ihey oufiht to be replaced with virtues, as well as pre:;ci'iptioiii of
ci contemplative, intellectLiiil nature; iind fh) practical therapy, ron-
listing of" practical prescriptions This stance vppresenls a lovni ot"
inor^l oplin]L'<m: moraliI^ i^ bjsLd on a ralioiiEil .■science, and moral
perfection is hninanlv achievable. Al-RazT, of coiu'ie, wa'^ likewise
an episteniological optimLsl, as he inaintaniecl that metaphysical
knowledge is hnnianly actaitiablc through the exercise of rational
reflection.
However, in ^ later ellii^'al w^rk, Rii^tuf Dhu/iim fni!hiihiil nl-^iinyH
(Cctisif'fi of the Plea^ufes ofThi'. W&rld). written in S0-+/I208 to'^ardi
the end of al-R.azr'.s life, a very dilTerent stance emerges. This work
(which is broiighi to attei:ilion and puhli.shed for the first time in
the present volume) consists of three s<?ctions, rcJadng to pleasures
experienced in the main facultic', of perception in man: (a) sensory
[hisstj plca.'biirp, corresponding mainly to the phy.sical appetite.^ of
eadng and coition; (bj in]aginati\'e {klmyati] pieaijure, coi'respondin^
tn the puiMLii of I ule {ii'a.\a) and sin ial ^tdtu.s ijH^t,-, ami (' J i[i»:lltrLiial
['j7p/j^ pleasure, corre.'^onding to inle llectn;il pursuit. IVorrnnlLy, the
first two are the chief domain of the science of fharacter; the last it
.■ier^ed ultimately by theological and philosophLcal learning. Hnw-
ever, in Dimmm al-ladhdhdh al-Razk's stance in thi.s regard Ls radically
diffeienl. For not oiilv doep he offer no prescriptive moral therapien
widi rpspecl to the first t^'o forms ol htnnan acti\'ity, he argue.'i that
156
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
lliey preiem tilti'rly iriT.holvable nioi'til dilemmas aiicf ilia I. intclli^cliLdl
pursuit iupvilablv fulniinales in slalcniaH'. I'hi'b work undpr^bCores a
picriiuEiiK ttl iiuji (J ,Liid dpia[<f iiLulcfgii dl prssiiiiiriiii iii ilie Liier slaj^c
f>f lii'^ rafpT A^ w(^ will ^ee rciv^rd^ rlif^ pnrl ol ibr pri";**!!! rli^ipti^r,
sl-RlzI ippeiuih lo p'opnse nn iilleriialivp soteiiologj', which c nipha-
sLsei spiritual di'^ripline and giiidaitop through the Qiir'aii.
Dkamai ai-lndlidhat is. fiisl and (breniissi, a moral, rather than a
lliiromiiral, lrx( ^vrillcn in rr^eipnn.io to a question pnl to the author
by .someone who is unknown to us. This rhararlpr i.s rcflerlfd in the
slylf and the forms of ai^umeiit used, which often =ippear rhetorical'
Moufthekss, as we wih see, the iiitegrilv of the main oonleulioiis in
die v^'Oik ifh iiin [■<mipioiiiiscd. Iji vilial fiillowh, ■wc will i">jiiiiiie die
\Hewi pr^'seiited in rhiM rpKt; a^ well n^ dieir ri]ll<^i' and wider iliTtreri-
eal baekgi'ouiid in al-Razl's thought generally
Tlie JValnre and JL\tenl of Sensory Phasate and Pain
Al-RazT starES the Jieetion on sensory pleaFhUrti in Dhamm al-ladhdhai
hy recalling ihe ptemi.se that human action is produced by either of
two priniarv Tnotivc.s: ihr avTrdng of pain and die flecking of ptcasurc
[no mention of perfeetion is made Lere'. However, he udd^. pleasure
in in fact marginal m the fiveriill human :;ensorv expei'ienee himce
ino-Sl of the lime man is pieoecupied ^ilh averting pain.s. Though
garments and houses protect huniiins from a I'ariety of banns, they
form lilde more chaii 'Lesser pviLi', finre in tlieruit'lve;; thev are soiirfes;
fni' pain and disromfoi'l (e.^. by tbe ,^arment'& wei^sbl), rather than
pleasure or benefit. They are akin to fouUtasting medicines taken
to remedy illnesses.
Of all human sensory activity, only caliiig and coition flccin to
pr<iduce real pleasure. Al-RazI ibiis makes ibcj^e l"wo bodily functions
die foeu'i of thii section^ inlormino die ipader fmm the slsirl that
he aims to draw attention ^'lo the vilenesii, ba^seness, degradation^
and ■^iniililuiic Ed igiiol^e Iied-sl^ that dn-v in^iilvc". He \vriEi"i ihdt
die juslifiradoii that pnetj; and orators adi'aiice foi tlii^ a^se^^inient
may be summaruied in three basic points: (a) these pleasures are
' Bv rimlrasl, ai-.Naf\ wis-i-mli ■'!^1 J}. "a book on the *;fn'iiff <if rliaracler. wrilten
tr^ii.'bient and (b) iin^xlrirably inix^^d wilh pajii.s and detiimf iiLii, and
(c) vile people have a giraler shiirc of ihem ihiiii \ii'l.uoiLS pt'ctple.
Howri'ri, lie iioierh, lliLs irdMiiiiii;^ pie.suint-fh [li.iL Uiougli [liry uu^liL
to hi' PV'oiH'^f] fnr lIip'jp arf idental feaEiire^; tlio^e ple^iMirc^ are eveii-
tially ^ood.-
Bv tnnlriLSt, xhefalUnJn iirgiie llial. sensory pleasures aie inherentlv
coiH.rarv in the hiiinan good and human hiippine.'^s. In this regard,
two diilinrl. prr>poi<itinii.i arr ad\aiicLd: (a) ihal ihr^r jjlrasin'Cii arc.
real, bill esseiiiially base; and (b) thai they are not real, but ai'p mere
relief from pain.
As mentioned; al-Ra::! considers the ibvmer proposition and argu-
inciiEs till it Ei> hv rlicloi irdl.^ And, iiidet'd^ many iff tlitt di^uiiiriiEs
he li'^r^ :ii'e akin trt xhc ihvee he atirihiirp'; in poet*; aiid orarors For
example, he eiteii ihe induelive argument diat ob?ei"V'ation showii
djat all people hallou' ascetics and despise indulgent pleasme-seekers,
whifh will indiealp that human primordial natme ijilid) atteits to the
ha.'ieiif?? of the?p pleasures.-'* C!)lher arppjnieiit? emph^i!;i.';e thai the
physical pain.s aiid ailments that result from eating and eoitioii are
jjeveve, numerous, long-lasting and otieii spread in more than onp
organ in the human bodv. Uv contrast; the pleai^ure experienced in
raling dccrcsiscs sharply after ihc firsl morsfL or Cv/o, ^vlicrcas coital
pleaibUre occurs only duvinjj oigasm, which is "as diough an ii:istant
[ai-QU slladhi la vt!iiqaimiuy\'' And so forlli; many of lliese ai^^unents
are commonplace/'
In what follows, we shall forus on the latter, possihly dfmonslrative
proposition, that lensorv pleasures, "thought lo lje [re^lj pleasiiires,
are aclually nol pleasures, but little more ihan relief from pain".'^
Al-Razi argues that the experience of sensory pleasure pre:;upposes
the existenee of prior needs {h^jd} and appetites {ifiahwa]. "1 hiis. rl"
one ■w(:rc to offer jcvicUcry tg a dog Eind a boiir to a mai] iinthcr
\yould Eind pleasure in the ohjeel offered, since neither would have
- Dhansm al-ladhdhsl. (i.
"' Sti? p. Ill iDpra.
* Cf. .A'j/'i, Hit lO^' .\Ialaf,b. 7. gtk? 202.
-■' IMiamniai-lailidMl, 1 1 'ITik i.i an arjiumi'iil fium wjdclv-ifci'pliid beliefs, which
ul-Kuzi will coiisidi?[ if be iioii-d<-nioiiMtali\t, but rliclrtrir,il (fl. p Jini ]l. iuJta].
'■ Ut?^npj t'i-isdJidhsi, U.
■ CI. p. n2 'tifytn
158
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
desire fnr it. Also, the grealer ihe hunger, or the longer ihe penud
of abslinenci^ from coilion. the c;i'eatei the pleasure expenenced at
^i^iailTudiiou --\%likli iiidkdEeh ihdl ihc exinu of plriiMifT (lt|ii:iwls
rm the e^lenl of the prcrcHing urge.
Yet, fliher p^rts of the text seem non-foin]iiiti;il wih respect to
diis vie\s; e.g. the slatemenl, "Thcie slates are either not pleasures,
or, if thev are jTleasurfs, they are pxtri'mely base and most \i]e^'.'"
1( is nol rnlirrly clear in Dhonim al-kidhdhat lo ivhiit rsH'iil al-RaxT \^
committed to the vieiv that pleasure is uiireaL This ambi^iiiLy appears
to stem from the rhftorical style of ihis moial text, ivhich i^as written
'vitfi a \iew to persu^ido Uie reader into shiimiing sensory pleasures;
icstliri lliaii Uf diialvsr ihe iidlure iif plcasiin' ds Mith.
In nnv ra^e^ ;iURriyT ronrhuHe'; \\\\-i ■jeenon hv itafing rhe glohal,
'quantitative' assesimeiit that pain is predominant m this world,
uhirh is closely related to his 'qualitative' view on the nature of
pleasure and pain. He ^^rites: "Whal prevail over the people of this
Vr'oi'ld are angiiujh. allliftioii and grief, whereas pleasure and good
are very rare'\
But does al-Ra^'.f truly adhere to such a pessimistic slance, or i.h it
merely a ploy that largely serves the rhetorical pui"pnse of a. moral
tcxE? Ic will Vic instmctivr to rj.plorf hifl trcatninit of ihcir chcnir^;
\']z. the nature and extent of pleasure and pain, in his philosnphifal
woi'^s, t^hich lie al the background o{ Dln\mm ol-bdhSidi.
77ie yalaie oj Flea.mie and Fain
In the Mabdhilh and the MulakhkJms — two relatively ea.r]y fa I iafi
■wcjrks — al-Ra/.I opcn.'^ the hetlioii uii pleariurc and pain b^ quo-
dng Abii Bakr al-RazT's definitions of pleasure as "departure {kliujii})
from an unnatural state^' (i.e. towards [he natural slate)^ and pain
as ^'departure from a natural state^'. The only two possihilitii's.
therefore, are the natural stale, which i.i neutral; and unnatural
stales, whirh ^le oomparalivelv had. But ih^re cannot be a state
superior to ihe natural Jhtate. Fiom this, Ahu Baki' al-RazI arrives at
the view that "pleasure is nothing but relief from pain; and there is
" Dh'Mm al-ladhdhiir. l.i.
''- Mabahilh. I. ^H7 L\L I*-iin tJ-odmaf,, "Raar. PL,^tlnilrhgy " , 3t H".
not a pleasurp thai onurs bill after a. pain'^/'^ ii view [hal he aJso
atrribiiies to Eaio '^ Al-RazI reports:
Sunit dcnv iht I'Kislrnu' (if pU'Jsurr, vk. Muhammjr] Il»i Ziikiiri^TJ
al-Rja. Hi- chiim:. shaL llii: rc:iililv orirk'ii^uir is iiolhinu lnH lli'z iicyii-
tion nf |jdiii Thii^, ihi- rfdlilv tif the pie aaurt found in cJiin^t iii>ihiii,i'
but ihi' m-i-dlicm of ihi' pjin uf Iiuii^t; dnd the rtjlUy oflln- ptrjmirr
fi»uiicl in driiikini' ls nirthini' Iml iIil' ni^gjlion ol iht puln of ihirsl
IS'IO^I falaiifa ami ii\ulak\dhniiin r4tji'cl this cljim.
In the Mshakltk and ibc Mitlakkkhas, he rejeets this view imH cites
rxiimple.'i of pleasures that caiinnt be explained in lerms of a return
lo a natural stale frnni a previous unnatural .litatp, thus appe aring to
be real. One .itirh instance in the enjovnient of a plpas^uit sight that
onr dor.i nol rrnifrivr of brforchiind, which, hr argues, rr>jiti\idifti
the rlaiin ihat jileasute froni si^jhl h due lo the negation of the pain
oflonging. '" The ehange in ihe itate, al-RazI argues, is iii raeloiilv
accidental to pleasure, riither di;m essential.
He then tuni.s to Ibn Sina^s dermiiions of pleii.'iure as "perceiv-
ing \%'lial is; jf"reeable {idiak al-inMla'imf , \%-hifh i.'i the I'pali.'iatifln of
pcrfeetion in an asppct of the perceiver, and pain nfi ^'perrei\'ini5
what Ls disagreeable [rimiiajif\ How"e\cr; is pleasure tiiis t\pe of
perception, or a produei thereof (which, be notes, h i^uggested by
Ibii Sma in ai (easi one pLic e)? ' *^ Al-Raa^ ai'gues for ihe laiier view:
"We perceive, in the art of pacing, drinking and coition, a f^pecific
.state dial is disdnci from all other psvcholoy:ic;d sl£Ltes'\ the .same
lieing irueof ihc^ perception of pain. Therefore, asseniory percep-
dons [kvisiyj'at].
... the C33i;nn;3 (if pli^a^urr and jtain arc- pen eivcd Js apntiii, acHf-c-^ijii'nt
rDlicCplian^ (lafaivu-itr mc'iL-a^ badikT\. Indited, COnt <:iviii e tln^m is EUnone
thf clearest, most cvidrnl ind mo^E ijiLontrjivmiblc < (\yniliinis But
'■' Ahu Baki jl-Razi^ cxrrji:i£ frrjni Kilab a!-ladhi!ha in Raia^il, 14fl.
" Atiu Bikt jI'Kjzi, I'llmKuf'i 'alaJaUmi, 17 Uii \h.t Plaiomc backgiouiurl lt> ihb
viei'i', Jiec M FatJny, EUiiiai T'ifvtia, 73-U
1^ Hhsrh sl-l'.im^i,^. m. cL MaMlb,^, 417.
HrnVhii'tr, j^bfi Bdli] al-R^zT iRa-a'i/. ISS^ accuci ihal looking at ucLallraclLvf
fare¥ piuduce^ borfdom iiid ihii^ a di'pifluii' lirnti thf: natural ilale Sp«ifg i
plp^ani fact afltrwarcli, ^vill rrnly iiiliev'e iliai pjio.
'^ Cf. Jbif STiia, Shifr. imnyai. 2, ^^9; 2 424.
'" Cf Ibif STiiJ. M-Adwlya sZ-qalbiyyn, 22&--9.
1^ .Qo.h i!.hi>ii.'i!. 5, RS-g
160
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
r!n' purpoii' nf dcfiniiicin and d[:z<4:rip(i(in is Id dcliiif^ whal h uhifurv
wid} vvhal hi iilciir.-"
Just ais .stalpnieiils of assertion {i^jdiq) rHatiiig In one's sensory experi-
fiic^di clii iicn irsjuiic (It-Liinru^d'iiLkjii^ vlir ( oirtrjiliuiLS [iaiOAVU-ui) lliry
involve Ho not reqiiii'e rlpfinition Ht^iifp^ llip e^wiire*; of plpacure
and pain are known without definition."
Evciy raiion^l bciiii", incited tvpry urnsr-iKrc rpd^'c bi'mi^ i}ia\'A\}, prr-
cc'ivc? [plra^Lirc and p-iin] in tiiii'Sflf iiJid, nt(.i's.s:irilY, ilificTiiiEijEcii
bi'hiTi:n IxieIi jnd ln'UvE^i'ii llu'in' dnii cisIk r ihiny-s. Wlul ^s iicf is indi^-
Eiiiiilhlc. TliL^ 'vJkiws lliiiE lln' vic-vv ofEhoiii- \tlni inainljin fi]<arhiiR' Lci bc-
ihc- p<-rci'pluHi (if whdt l'v jjJT''i^^hh:, and pain ihi' jutc cpttdn <if vvhal is
difl^iSff ''ibl f ^ 1^ (ei]m' F(ir tin- ( i>n( ('plKuii^ * pIi'iii'Liri' lLhiI 'p^iin* jti- more
evident diJii [hi' cc>n(i;plniiLS ^dgii'i-jliilil^' jnil 'dndi,"ri'i'alii!ily\'
Al-RrizT also rites medif iil evidence^ which sliows tliiil though some
physical ailmcnls are sensed hy thf individual, ihey do not produce
pain. This bdirates that pain is not simply the perception of an
uiiiidtLii .il fhtiilr, iiiid that ihc lallri iri iujE even a sufTicieiil L^oiiili-
tinn for jinin
Objeciiom to ^feoplalonut Jlieodicy
Disf Lissions of the nature fif pleasure and pain are often pertinent
to more macro-level questions regarding cosmogony, the problem
nf e\Tl and the assessment of human existence as a whole. Perhaps
dip iiio*n ^blrikiiig e^amph' of i;ufh a link tan be sppii in Abu Bakr
al-Razi's conekLsion thai evil in prevalent in this world, which fol-
lows from his notion that pleasniT is purely relief from pain. This
conclusion \\ not expressed clearly in any oL his surviving Korks,
but Li I'l'porifd 111 thr follo^^'iiig hostile accQunt by Maiiiioiiidcs [d^
GOl/1204):
[He] has ■wriltrn a fdimoiis hciok, lA'hiih hr haj rnlillcd [ihr Ui)hi)ysf\.
H<- filli'd it with ihr fnurmily r>f hl^ rivinp* jni! hizh i^noriint notions
Amdii^ ihcm there ii a injliim ihdt he has [hL>u5^hl up^ luiriely. dul
[here is metre ttil [Ilui ^nid in what exists; if yiiu compair m-m's
wellbeiii^ dnd hii pb'dsun-i in ihe tiine sp.in cif hi.s widlheini" mlh ihe
pdJii^, (he hi'd^y ^ufli^rings, the LnTuniiEie.'T, dn- [tariiLylic dlHii.diiiis^ ihe
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160
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
r!n' purpoii' nf dcfiniiicin and d[:z<4:rip(i(in is Id dcliiif^ whal h uhifurv
wid} vvhal hi iilciir.-"
Just ais .stalpnieiils of assertion {i^jdiq) rHatiiig In one's sensory experi-
fiic^di clii iicn irsjuiic (It-Liinru^d'iiLkjii^ vlir ( oirtrjiliuiLS [iaiOAVU-ui) lliry
involve Ho not reqiiii'e rlpfinition Ht^iifp^ llip e^wiire*; of plpacure
and pain are known without definition."
Evciy raiion^l bciiii", incited tvpry urnsr-iKrc rpd^'c bi'mi^ i}ia\'A\}, prr-
cc'ivc? [plra^Lirc and p-iin] in tiiii'Sflf iiJid, nt(.i's.s:irilY, ilificTiiiEijEcii
bi'hiTi:n IxieIi jnd ln'UvE^i'ii llu'in' dnii cisIk r ihiny-s. Wlul ^s iicf is indi^-
Eiiiiilhlc. TliL^ 'vJkiws lliiiE lln' vic-vv ofEhoiii- \tlni inainljin fi]<arhiiR' Lci bc-
ihc- p<-rci'pluHi (if whdt l'v jjJT''i^^hh:, and pain ihi' jutc cpttdn <if vvhal is
difl^iSff ''ibl f ^ 1^ (ei]m' F(ir tin- ( i>n( ('plKuii^ * pIi'iii'Liri' lLhiI 'p^iin* jti- more
evident diJii [hi' cc>n(i;plniiLS ^dgii'i-jliilil^' jnil 'dndi,"ri'i'alii!ily\'
Al-RrizT also rites medif iil evidence^ which sliows tliiil though some
physical ailmcnls are sensed hy thf individual, ihey do not produce
pain. This bdirates that pain is not simply the perception of an
uiiiidtLii .il fhtiilr, iiiid that ihc lallri iri iujE even a sufTicieiil L^oiiili-
tinn for jinin
Objeciiom to ^feoplalonut Jlieodicy
Disf Lissions of the nature fif pleasure and pain are often pertinent
to more macro-level questions regarding cosmogony, the problem
nf e\Tl and the assessment of human existence as a whole. Perhaps
dip iiio*n ^blrikiiig e^amph' of i;ufh a link tan be sppii in Abu Bakr
al-Razi's conekLsion thai evil in prevalent in this world, which fol-
lows from his notion that pleasniT is purely relief from pain. This
conclusion \\ not expressed clearly in any oL his surviving Korks,
but Li I'l'porifd 111 thr follo^^'iiig hostile accQunt by Maiiiioiiidcs [d^
GOl/1204):
[He] has ■wriltrn a fdimoiis hciok, lA'hiih hr haj rnlillcd [ihr Ui)hi)ysf\.
H<- filli'd it with ihr fnurmily r>f hl^ rivinp* jni! hizh i^noriint notions
Amdii^ ihcm there ii a injliim ihdt he has [hL>u5^hl up^ luiriely. dul
[here is metre ttil [Ilui ^nid in what exists; if yiiu compair m-m's
wellbeiii^ dnd hii pb'dsun-i in ihe tiine sp.in cif hi.s widlheini" mlh ihe
pdJii^, (he hi'd^y ^ufli^rings, the LnTuniiEie.'T, dn- [tariiLylic dlHii.diiiis^ ihe
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJaMi-Af ItlLXMU AL-LAUriiU/,! T 161
wii'lc lu'dnl'is, ihi- !Jirrci\\-&, ind ihi' i dt^niiEic:^ Ehdl bc^niJl him \<ni fiiid
lh,H lit csisn-iic (' — he nscjns llii' <'x.i^[c:iiLi' of iiidn — L^ a piiJiishiTH'iil
jnii a ^Ti-dil I'vil inflic Hi\ upon liim. Hi- bf^gm tu sup|KirL Lhii Dpiiiiuii
by indue Eivi'lv {"xainining these miafortiincs -
Alni Bakr al-R^zi iidvaiifcri a throdicy that jiij^lifies this stale of
alTairn to ^^hirli we reliirii further below in this scrtinn. We shiill
first examine al-Razi's rhiefeniiefi'ii, uhirh is Neoplatoiiist theodicy,
parlimlai'ly qk acK'jnred by Ibn Slna.^^
The exislenre of e\il in ihi^ world, whirh pinansites fmni the First
CaiLse, whirh is ahsolutclv good and \^ho.se effect should rflso be
good; constitutes a serious problem to Nfoplalonist cosmogony Ibn
Sliia irieh li> diiiiiiiisli ihr leiilily diic] diiiouiil (jf evil in ihc phy.sital
world (which he foiT^icfeiJJ lo be ihc be'^l of all possible wnilrls) and
the cosmos iLS a whole: hi^ conlcnds that il only appear?; in the sub-
lunar woricl and only affects individuals for limited periods rather
than whole species pprpe[uall\\ He also dislingiiishizs between what
is evil esifpmially and what is ev'il ^iccidentally 'Ihe rormer type
ronsisLS of imperfi^c lions in piitities (e.y;. the absence of sight, life or
knowledge in a huiiiati bi^ingi and is hence fun danien tally non-exis-
tenl. Accidental evils include acts and evenLs produced by qualities
ihat con?ilitiil<: pcrfccdona in cheii agcntfl or cdii-ica (c-g- thr quality
of buriiin,^ in fire'i. and that accidentally cause harm to some other
beings, though on the whole iheii' good outweighs their harm. If the
entity havmecl has pci'ception, it mav perceive the liajin it receives;
and Lhis |>erct|iiiuii will be its experientc of pain.
According lo Ibn Slna^ the qualities that may cauEe harm to some
eiidtie^ accidentally are bi'oue;ht into iieins foi the sake of their seiAin"
the gi'eater overall good: the cosmic order. Nol to bring them into
being would con.stitule a greater e^il than tlie fvil thev may cause
179-FlO' jl-Iji, Moa^q^f.5. 117; TlmTiyini\'ya, Maimii\ fi, irtJl. In a ifcti^a on Abii
Batr al'Razfs ernnioi^oiiy. dl-R.Szl ijuoi.^ fiiiif scEniiii^iliai [he ivoilrlii 'fuir <il r^'it
(Msrahb.4. 409:4,411].
'^^ .Wflfij^M. 2, ^I9-2:S' Sharh sl-hha>ai, % 7R (F. Cf lliii Slni. iVj^', i^M'i^', 2>
355-11; 2. 414-2?; Ma^at. ^Sl^O-i^; l^hi,aK 1, %<S^ n". Ikhi* Jii jl-Sjfa, Ra:a\l. 4, lO-S;
cf SIkains Iiiiili, Ibn Sii/^\ Thevdiiy. fii H Aiivoiii' vvlio rfiirL, al-Razr^ accnuol ti
Ibn Sma'^ iliffidify In ilii: Atebahidi will fniifliiilp ihiii he coniplecrlv accepii ii,
e>:cept rhal ihe la^E feu' Lne.i hini al a difTfTenl Planer, and refer ihe learlcr to
eariier dJ^cu:.^ioit of ii'hfillirT Gfhrl li a iiece^iilatiii^ c^u&f ctr ^ voliiiblaci Ji^erfl (cf
fililtrhn fiviin l\\i- ^iul/'khLhiy, n lit?— !< mjin)
\S2
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
arridcntafly. And \^liile an a.brioluU'ly good being PKisls (viz. Gotl).
pure[y^ or piedomii}anl.Jy, evil lieings aie ini:oiiffiv;ib]e. This appeals
Uf lilt Ni^opLili'iiic ill" Liint dfai dxi'^Ecni'd i'v i^oikI, .iiulnoL-rxiMFiwc
pvil; :i!; Mifli, :i ihing r^imint^ al once, psi^r :inf1 he piirnly r'vil
For Ibn Slna, therefor*^, *^vi! mny he abuiidani, yef it in unpie-
vailiiij^ (ntfiilli], father than prpiiominaQl [aktimrt;.^ in thp entirely of
heing.^' Or, as al-Razi reporLs, "e\'il is iiiiprevailing [magtilub] iind
good lei pi'rdoniinjnl {gkdliby^ .
In refuting this tlieodiey, al-Razi starts by ohjectino to die Neo-
plalonic as.sofialion between good and existence, and belT^een evil
and non-exisienee. He writes in the Muttikiikhas:
On that thf KxisfenI is Cotid, anil thf yoi-Exi^lrnl EuiL This is d gciierally-
lii-ci-ptiA{/'ia-Ji/iiira i'ia^6aJti) juTmiiic, vvhirli I luvi' linindnif one i^itiptfrt
with d dtnujnstrdlion. IniU'^d, dii'y iire ciidv ronli^iil ivilli n'l'^iiif^ an
an f;v.iinij>k', viz killiiii' is ncH evJ in io fiir ai il is priicliufd by ihc
H['!'n[-v cif J kiflri, j>r }ii' vlrLin' itf tin' ^^■i"^|n>n ln'int' iiiliini>u.i, or ihc-
kilkd piTSdii's limb ln'iii^ aiisci^ptiblc Id iiijurv, Iml ^tv virluf tif ihr
dc'p^irluri: ol iiif. fmm die iKxIy' lhtrri<irc, cmlv thk ntgjiitin is evil,
wln'H'a? nK oshcr, ri'jl j'.prcl? jvt aitcid. ^im kntiw lK:il ^'samtilrs jrr
in^urticu'Lit in cMdhliilHni,' M'icnlific prtmti-s.
Al-RazT romplrlelv di.smis'^e.'i Ibn STna\ rnitoIoi»ifal notion of !:^ortd
and evil, wLieh ni^my odiprs accfpt iinnilically. What do 'good'
and ^evil', he argues, mean in the propti-sitioiB- 'Good is existenee^
and 'Evil ik non-cxiMcntc'? If 'cxifilcnrc* and 'noii-csiriiciicc' arc
predicate's in these proposilinni (rather ihan simply rxplanalory of
what 'good' and 'evil' mean), then the eoncepliom of llieir subjects^
\iz. 'good' and 'evil', will be reirtuired. Vet, al-RazI argues, Ibn Slna
fai].^ to defme them."' Also, in his eonimeniary on 'UyBn ai-hiksim^y^^
find the following argumenl that highlights a similar failing:
Minda jmil bn^artj hcroni': p^rplcitil by ihr ub unduncr^ of pEiiii ihty
wiliiL'ss in this \Mirld. The ju.sdfu aliiin thrfl ihr falawft! adviinri- fur
[his t thjl pltasicrt ani3 lirncril jn' nuirr [widcspn'adj (hiin pjin and
hjmt, and ih^t ttlB minor iinldiinl of pUin ctcCorii bccju-ic- il ii Lntpos-'
ahif li> ri-dlisr chosi' |>ri'priiid(Tan[ l>ciir(iEs c-<ri'pE vvilh [Jn'sc niimir
hiimis. "i"hi:v say '■Omiluiifr n gn'Jl i^tmrf lijr the sake ol a liltlc tvil
[But ihis is] a propcx'vilion, m uhii^h ihc sulffctt ls 'cwnilring d grcal
''■-< Urn Siii^. .^'aja!. ^?fi. Cf. Y Mieliol, Zj /^^finre de rhommt, (i!i-»-.
iri]<nl fi)r (hf sjkc (if U litdr f'\ir, ,iiid lln' prrdicdEt Lv 'j ,i"ri'jL i^vir.
If, bv 'j grc-al i-\i\ , vvhu^h la lln' prcdic atf I'ht'y] nn'aa '(imiEling a
girat gdiid', the pri'thciiltt of the prO|>iisiliiin wiJJ hi- idc^iiln al lii i\s
z<uliji'(.l — vvhicli niiikcs the iliiUini'nl mfanini^lrts Or, ir[(hcy] mean,
b^ ',l^ryl evil', 'gri'.Ll pjin'. Ehi'n thu MaEi'nii'iU ivil] mraii 'Omildng j
gri'al ^iDcl fur the s^iin' of j litlli' ivii is a ^iri'dl pjiii'. Hciwcvi'r, this
is (ibviiiusly dlhsuril; for hail lhr:si' ihin^ niil i-xistrd, pdin, pleasure,
i'\ lI and luppiin'^i mjuki iioi Lavr ik.i iirird.'"
Ill the Malaktiklias^ Iliii ^ifiias vieviS iiiid aigumenK in this regard
arc di?iirrihrd as 'noiiioii^i::' {jatnmat, lit. ralamil]^^).-
CJiip may wonder, howrivei, wlielhpi' ihi.s re I'uliitioii does not eome
into conflicl \axh jl-Razf s own dcfinilion of '^ood' and 'had' in termii
of p.'bSenl.iai perf^'odnn iiiid inipe rfprlioii. This does not sepm lo bf the
Cdse; fiJi, c\!, wt fhdw, he dues dttrpi d. |H-ifrt LbnirhE drriniiioti uf vjlue,
hut only one that takr^ lh<' hiiisiTLii pfrrek'er a^ il^ piimarv rcferenrp
point, with i'e:;peft to the p^'icepdon nl' i^ither a .'luhjeelive aspect of
perfi?f[ion, or an ohjertivp iisperl of perfection in iiii external entity.
To say thit the courage of a given epir hero is 'good^ only refers to
the p<?iTrivcr*i lovr of. and altractioii lo. tliis quality n?- an aspect of
perferlion, but nnt to thi.s qiialit\' beint? 'flnieho^v intrin^ie iillv good,
e.g. in an oiitidogiciil sense^ irrespective of any perceiver. Yel^ for
al'Ra?!, e\en subjective perteetion is nol at Lssue in the problem ot
e\il. Iiialrad, hr appeals lu hi.i olhtr nocioii ofgtujd ajicl had in terms
of the eKperienre^ ofpleasure and pain He wriie?:
In Erf'n'Trillv-.i'rrtilrrl ffinvrnliiin [nl ' tirfixl -' nnini il-m/tihlt'/i', wh-A< nrHpic
mran Irv ihc ('X|>rf'A'<nni \-vi\' i\lmrr) is ^pdin and ■vi'hal Icadi tci il* And il
IS known iiiinii'cfiaEelv ihal pain is rn^al {il'^)Mi\ — Ibis l'< nuL liispuEcd hy
sensible mrn. liidrrd, iarime tvm c liiim rhal pleasure is rhr nn're r<-lief
fifim pain; so ihcy consider il ujirfjl Thi.s liein;^ [he i^ane, lE hei^innei
lAaiii'nE thdl \thal pi;c>pli; mran by thr; ■vvcircl 'f\dr is ri'.il, v^hercas '^gc>d'
may refer lo Ihe non-ridBlcnc c <if pain, ... lyv lo plr^aiire.
By afiirining ^vhat 'good* and 'evil' mean in ordinaiy langnage, al-
Ra/T foiintei's Ibn Sina's ontolo^cal and eo.'^mobsiiral theodicy \v\x\\
the very human experience of suITering. This is what "minds and
hearts become j3erple];ed by'' and cf>n.'ber{uentlv what any altempted
Jieodicy i^uglil. [<j addrrrsi. Ihii STna's ihrodii.y Liiritly tircimivents
the reiil problem of evih
^^ Mukkk^i^'.. fol ^501i.
IG'l
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
AI'Razi, iheiYforp, ivonderii wh\ Ibii Sina aHfm}>l.s <! thendirv in
die first plafp, givrii thai lip i.^ not a moral vi'aliiht and tJiat hi' does
not (uii.skLi-i Ihc Crraicjr lo be ci vuliLii[ai\ iij^ciiE, in whiili idsr Hr
fannot hi^ morally rp.tipnii^iihle for Hi*; :irt^ Hi^ introiliif rion ofllip
lermPb 'good' and 'evit' into the cfiiiieKt of ontology Ls i^upprfiuous
[fudnlj and iiiapl. Instead^ he ■ihoiilH have left the allempi to Justify
e\'il ill this world to those fbr uiioin it is a real pmblein, since they
adhcTf lo thrill? two dofirinc^. panic ul^i'K ihf Mii'iazjla.
Now, on pain, Jbn Slna writ<"h, rather anibigiiou.'ily, thnt "though
pallia anrl grief are real propeitieii, rather than unreal ('^am-, they
.wem to be in the same situation as {talba^ti) nfiii-esi.'itent lliingi and
ioiptifriLioiiii".^^ He retogiiirhes thai pain, as a psyi holi-gkal |«'ucp-
noil, 11 I'pal Yet it i^ n ppi're|ilion of soiis ''thing iinreal, \-\v. inipei'fer-
tion, and .should thurh he treated efferlively as another unreal e^ih
Alternatively, he could have iiiEended lo say that, though real, pain
iiliould in the final analy.sis bf created as a mere iniperrertion in
man Jn either fa.se, Ihii Sina maken a ver\' c urnory disiini.'isiil of pain,
iwid disreifarcis the mdividuars experience of suffciina, Instead, he
approaches [heodicu uitli a purely oiitologica) conception of evil.
By contrast, al-Kai^I aflhms the reahty of pain, a.^^ a real, simple
find primary prrcrptioii, which in recognised ininicriialcly and ran-
iLot he exphined away Having made a clear disnnclion het\veen
iJie perception of pain and the perception of iB ohjecdve cau.se (e.g.
iiijurv in the body of the experienl of pain), al-Razi highlights tlie
jbUbjective experience of .^bUlfering which is brujJied ajiide in Ibn
Sina's ontologic;J Jinalviisi. Moreover; for al-RazT, plezLSure and p^in
define the most fundamental conceptions of ;^ood and e\'il. And it is
diis subjective e.'';peL'ience of pain, rather than the ol:f|ect]ve imper-
lection perceived, that ^ evil and that any theodicy should attempt
lo justify. *
Al-RaaT goes further than defining evil in terms of pain, to coiitend-
^ Uiii Sina Nq^S. ^IV. Sfiifa'. llahr^vas. 2. 419
^^ Cf. Ibn Siiii, Af-lifiam ila fti-ad 'ffm Mam nl-iu-jUm. 10 ff.
■"Thij cttriE-ijiin b.?tjinL influL-iilial Lifui- il-Ttawi. Al-SliTrazi '.A. 1050/lfilO)
{Hifciiia, 1,^1-1 c\Xf^ al-Dauiv Jii L Id. 50fi/l'i02i .iituin^ ih^l ihi' I'sisHfiicc! nf pain
cnnlr^^iiru llie \i^w Ihjl evil is imri'i'Msli^ril. jU'Wurazi tlL'ler[(j£ iriii ima's dellni'
litrn nf paui a.« 'perceiviiie the disafireeaSilf' and ai'e'iei ihaL pain Ji in;vi?rihelfi%
Diirfal, 'i\v£i- il Ji an in^i^rnce of tnovi'ledj^f hy pr-t^eiice {ilm hadn't) vnlh ils <Ji^f:l
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJaMi-Af IHL\MU AL-LAUIII}II.VI
165
ing thi\. i^vW h indei'd pre^'aleiil in this world. The \"iew is prei^pnled
mosi ddiiiJliM'lv in -Sfmrh ol-hkatoi. u'hirh iil-Ra?.T ronsidpr.'b to contain
Ilia niuhL i[mi|UrliriiiKc icfLiEailuii nf Xci'}]laLofiii iliriulu y.^'' In
compavi^on tn hii eni'lipr workt; llip Mnhfihith and x\\e Xitilnkhkbni,^
he here seenii more favourable to Abu Bakr iJ-Razl's denLil of the
reality of pleasure, lhoii5;h he rlocs not accept it. He wiites that
even if it is conceded that pleasure can he real, oh'iei"\ation shows
that nta.-it pLraMivcs nrc iinroiJ and thiil iTal plH::iL.'<nrf ■< arc cxlrrmrlv
rare, whereas all pains are real, hfi does Abil Baki al-RazI hcfore
him^ al-R^zT argues from particular empirical examples from daily
human esperiencp. "^ Heallh is merely die Eibseiice ol' pJiysical ail-
incuts and paiii, iiiid i^^ iLieieforr", iioL plrasiiiable. Ealiuf^^ th inking,
coirion, \\e;ii'iiig i^armenr'^: dwelling in Ih^iiki^^, and e>:ppriencing
a cooling hrepze on a warm day, are not plea'hUrahlC; hut inprdy
alleviate the pains of hunger^ thirst, coital cle.sire, cold and heat,
respectively. He adds;
\S'hat is prtvalcni ovit ihr c tiiidin<in.'v (if men li^ nihcr pjiii oi the
rrln-J Tr'UTi p.iin, wln'rriij^ thi' (m ctivnuv til<-^i-?iir[, i^'hu^li i<: vn rvi^ri'nh
phi^niimi'iiDii \kayfiyya ani^iiifiiyii) (ithjT ihan thf in'^dtiini ,>f pjin, is
c-xtrtnirly rare, as if a driip in jn (icc-anj such a^ fiiidinir pie^iurt in j
sijihE, .sfiund, clc . llial i-, iJiiki]c>\^n iHfurc liciny inTci'ived. Aii fiir pain^
thrv iiri' unHild^ ihcugh icunc an" I'xti^i'ini'lv utMTi'^ nuc h as illnrsacs,
whilr fHhtTPi arc niild, rt'hich arr Ehinnrj ihal one is prciictiijju'd with
ni(>M ofhiih Liinc, surh as iiiHicliiins, anxictii^s, fear, dread, \liym'S!i, aiiiicr,
pjini lliac iK{ ur al hunger, tliirsl, ivi>rt[ing in Iradi^s and pri>fi'!i!,nm!,
sincltiiiiii pungcnl sinclLi, iiM^elJiig iiiibeLJIi^a seeing iiclicius sighls, die
harms ( ausr^d by Hii'ii, Ifpi's, fici' and anis, as Vitdl ds all othrc ihin^
thai an- I<m> nunienius l(j rcciiunt.
IF il Lzs jinrvCii EIliiI udlna dcC prT poiLiician I MiaUf/) and thdl real
plra3ur<;s jrc unpn'vailini" (ma^lSbl, ami if ihiist few pleasures wr.Tf
ihr pnrjiDSi: of Lreatioii and I'xislenliaEickn, then, gii^n ihe Crcalor's
kIlc^^vli'd5C of |hd occurrence ii{ numcrnua pEiin^^ ... |3ie prCva]i:iit I'vil
wituld lit for ihr !,ake (if an unyjrrvailinir ,i"iiiicl If heconifrs evidrnE
ihdt whal [lhe_/ij^f^] tlaim, viz ihal gjicid is pri'[>niid('raiit in ihi^
witrlil, {a f.tluC Ij"I it mjt bt ^^id thai ih^iuyh duieiUve la \*'iii['iipre ud,
hcallli li prcviilpnl Ytii \vi will silv [hat wv hdvc shown thai hraJth
is d ncin-cxislenl slate \htHa 'ailainiyya], uhn^h is man s being Irci' Ircini
""^ ThPTefore, ln' umils llie rJL'<CLis^iffii iii rJii? Maiiaoal {■^lA) and simiDiv v&if.t^
ihe ifadei tc Slioih al-hhmaL
"'*' VX. MdimrtiiJd(^' fii,iiii:iii, p. IftO-l >apia. On ihis kind nf aipuinein jgaiiia
166
CIIAPTHK I'OUH.
biilli pk'aiuri' Jiid p:iiii .. Thcrcforr^ rc-nu-niing in nan-cxLslrnc i- ii
prt'ftrdbk' [tii-fituja' 'tilt'i i-'adaii awla).^'
\n tlif l^iarst, Iliii Sm^i also roiisidirs evil in human nature, having
(xpldiiirJ (-\il g^'Lii'idll^. Wli^ ±vv liuiiiaiij piccliiiLLiiidiil.lv i^iLiriaiil.
nnri under rlie swEiynf desire and irasribiliry? He ^rfjiie' tb^r hnmiiiis
fall into ihiee main 5;roups: (a) ihose who are advaneed ihforetieally
and inorallv, and will experience great happinej^s in the hereaf-
ters :b} ihosp M'ho iire not advanced in ihese resptTLs, but aie in a
incdiofve stale, and who v\'ill ha'.'e a neutral oiitfome Mtila.mti'j whfre
lliey mav expenence some happiiifss in llie hereaftei" and (cj those
who poi^sess evil traits and will experienre mLsei"y in the hereafter.
While the two extremes are rare, ino.sl humans Tall into the .second
yrusip. Ifvic con.'iidcr che fir^l \.\\i\ group;,: who \iill he ^^vcd {najdij
from tormeni, we will find thai ihey rnn'^titiile the ovet^vhclming
majority ot people. Therefore, for Ibn Sma, evil in human nature,
too, is uiipre vailing
However, al-Ra^ arguea Lhai, as with pliy.slca] iH-allli, the 'iieiiifdl
state' denotes the absence r>f bnth pain anil pleasure, and, as snch^
is not ^ood in itself and eaiiiiol ju.'htifv crealinn Yet. he ronlinues^
e\'en if lliis jiistitieation is roneeded, Ihii .Sliia's qiiaiititalive prem-
ise eaiinot he. For while it is the case that mo.st human souls are
devoid of bolh triio and false opinions, moat ari; nol morally neutral,
hut fhararterised with ii wide range of moral vires, surh as riesire,
irascibility, and attachment to wealth, material things and status.
''■ Sliaik al-hharat. 1 RD-f; ef ArWin. 2^4- fy. Thii I'ievv i^ pchoed m vai^iuui
places in al-Razfs wnlLig^; e.jB;. Taftit, 19, 71 (iiieEiifL lajJify.
1 behold thp scenes of llti^ penciling worlc),
\\.- 'I'loi^, J-, if [iit^hlciiiiii^ irpains
\v- 1 1 iL, iKJ iiK'iL, jil:iji>:LlU] liLlJ liiiUiruuli
Cf Taf-T,, 17, US:
PLiyaic^ pliiKQii 1 dii iiitjI l.t:il Sfp thr: prco-tf^r ihic pkaaiirc Ffpund in llLiirt. ihr
gTrtalf:r aiiirl more .ie^e rf [he sortruvs th^il le'iiill [rom ihe ftai' ftr[hi:if i]i:^li:)ii.
Al-ft]aarn [Sai)! ai-iand, "iV (ineEcfj *^^j)\ lln"-'^ i^ifl: "liidecirl, gi'iel al Ihe liimi'
iif dealL i^ liiiie-. d^ miifli as hapjiine^s at ihe hnui uf birlh". Tt ik well known
iLjI ihr happiiie>s llial occuri al llie linie r^flhe birth oFa child is nol equivali'nl
tf, llii if'u f ihjl fhCif^ ar 111 dcalli.
1«
Itiii STiia hhi^ar, \ -^16-3
Indeed, bcith llir virtuoiL'i and llie inoraJly neutral, rombbed, arc
"a^ a drop in the ocean" ^''
In bifh widri dA:.es.siiiriiL ofiln- liLinian rondilion and hiri emkifiiii
lif Neo|"il:i[onir rliendify, al-Ra^T onlv a^isi^rt^ ih:ii nm^t ple;ifiire? ave
unreal, speeifically in relalioii Co worldly pleasures. YeE he avoids Abfi
Biikf iJ-Rlzf s rlaim ihal pleasnL'e as surb i'^ unreal; which will exclude
even die po.ssibilily of spii'itual pleasure."^' Tor ibis rea.'ion, be doeii
not arrivf at gliibal jicei^iimi^ni. .V ihc end oJ the i^rc tioii on [hfodicv
ill Slmrh ai-hhardt, be eoiicludes on a bigbl^' personal nole:
As for me, ihoiij^h God has hcfltowtd wrlflfcing (firiTjjja) upcin mr in most
c onditiuiis. so ihal I am as though dtstiiiiit in Ehis friim mosi [pciiplc:],
if I ^fi hatk lo mystlf and nimpjri' ri'al {haifii^i; pfi-jsurcs [i <c. cxc ludin^
unreal \'ad<iim] oiic-il (o pains, bolh cilirnal and intiTn-il, aM wn have
lisitd^ HT will Hnd pleasures so ^vrclchcd in ciinipariioii lo pains. Thii
bring !hi- ca^i;, liow iiiLiUl sui^li pU-a.Huirs, in ii-lalicjn Hj llir^i' pabi^,
bt di:sirab!c:! Wtrc: il no( for ihc: i^ral aflcrlifc pli'asLirc^ [ban wc loni"
fjir, lE would lidvr been bctl lo havt rrniaini'd nun-cxislcnl.
The po.ssibiliiy of spiritual happiness i.s the only exit fiom de.spair.
Yet this ciui only be a solution to a veiy human problem, rather
dtai] a pixiiiijc for a Eheodicv- Al-Rriil woiilil aii-ac ilial ibc pcjs-
sibility of ^^pi ritual plen^iire slill doe-i nol make erealion rationally
justifiable. For dious;h God is eapable of neating; liitional souls in
a male of eoniplete perfection and liappinesis, without attachment
to inalter, He chose lo create hnman beings in thii physical world
with all its miser\.
Al-Razi ibUminaries bis .stance m the passage that concludes the
Mntakhkfiai^ as follows:
Wilh rc.'vpcc I lo [hv I'lcmtnt^ [i v thr ^ulihjnjr ^vjfrldj, \y\- do nol
arti'pl ihdl ihf good is prtviilcnl in ihiuri. For ihi; gocud, dcronlin^
t(i [oirr] |m"M-nE (onvcnli'in, ts plci'^iin'; and wr dji nnc a(rc-|>l that
whal pn'VJils in thv wiirld of jicncralion and riirniption is |>l<-dL'vurc.
Indrcc!^ ihi'rr atv iomr who iri'c-n drnv [ibi' ri'a]it\ i)f| pliMsurr ptr
sc and c laini ihai it has no rcalily [ma'na] iithci than the: nfjraiion of
pain Acrordini^ lo thii, tnriA'^ no sIjCi' i^-xjuH c'm>I bul citbcT pain iir
icIliT fiiriii Li. Paiji j^ nol ^ifod, and ii.^lii.1' Iioin U h unri^at, ^o ll loo
is ncrl ^ood.
*'"l"his !■ mjplii?.i in .^j/i, 47.
'1 Sliflrt, ol-ht-a,^!, y, m-1
leB
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
Siinn' Llii'ru^oiirrivtd [ihlald) E(i find (.i^ts ^vhf^ri^ plcasiiri' was afiirmrcl
wilhoul invcilvin^ii n'lu-f Frjun pdin. Hchvu'vrr, aii^uiriinii such c asc-s arc
viilid (thjniijli rhi'ir vjlulily is iii f,n I qsn-'li'iniiblr'), lh<'y -ire tayv
As ^iirh, il Afiv?, iKiE ln'cumi' Iriic: eIiji i^imd prc-vdils RjEhrr, jjdiii
jiid ihi" n<;jrjri(in ihi'icul pri-^ml, ivhiTiMs p]i'd.^uri' is riin' Tliui, ihcir
uri^unn'nE will l^Ji^kfirc, since evil l'v prcvdli'iiB {gfidlib)'^ or, if ncilpn-va-
Ic'nl, il v^on J pdi [wish j^ocid]. T\ns bcini^lhc rds^, Ici milidEr crciilion
Vi'ciulcl be fitlicj- liioli^h ('.afafi] iit futile Vabaliil
\Af, i(i[ Il>ji -SmikJ^s i^ljiii] Ehjl '^'paraliny i^cnid Etditi ('\t1 i^ nol pcfs-
aiblc', ■wt SJ.V ihar [his jjrcMip[H)3<-s Bht dc-iiial of divine chuic c. Olhri-
yl'Lsc. FGiifl] ]^ < jjii±Ii1l' iifi !"€ uLiii^ ^11 iibjf't r lSui h [Ii^lL il i^ [ii#L iihi'ii il
F Di'E'dril fur a bcncfil, and nol hell when it bt'ctiirirs hjrmliil. Know
[hdt di'hvi'ranc c frcim these: amfusions is postiblr (iiilv by ujjhuldiiijr
uiLi ^rj E"<r < liiiMi^. fiiT llinE ^lUil i^ U iici'c ijrLiiluij' cdusc, iii ^vliiili i.ii;iC
ihis \th(i]i' diijjiilc will hv nuMifu'd; or [b^ ihal did is a viiliiiiljr^ i'.y^'n'j
alonj^idc (h<- di-nial iif i-lhicdl rtdlism ',al'hu\ti a.'a-t-<juhk), and ihdE "'Hr
cannol bp cluCBtiDncd for His iidfl'*, ivhirh 1' I hi- c li'jr Inilli.
If oiie wcic il) judgt Gitd uii arcouLii of ilse iiugiikiidc ofcieaiurcfy
suffering in lliiih wofld, cinr rould onh rnnrliidi' rb:il hringing llii*;
world inio bf ing wa.^ a .sorely rynicdl iitidfiukiiie;- Al-Rai^T i:i]jjnlaiiis
llial llip only slaiice thai will not fjfp ihiii fblTifuhv ^^ill be one in
which Goct\s frfe rhoif? i; affirmed and moral realism is rejpcled.
Cod crc?a[c.'< what Hl vvi.iho^'i, and Hi.s arti cannot be judged mor-
iilly. As such, any allempt lo advaiire a working theodicy will lie
fddle.
For [his reason, al-RazT also rcjerts Abu Bakr ai-Razfs iheodicy;
in ubich hi diicnipis \.it rrlirn' GinL 'A'hci l^ alfscilutch gcMjd^ of
ie^]Tons]h]]ilv for rbi? nikeudilp i^orld v^'here crpatiire^ only ^iiiffer
Abij Balii' al-RazI argiif.'i that if ihis physical world were created by
God Vihy i^oiild He censiicp it in revealed religions and wacii people
from becoming attached lo it^ Rather, llie coming of Lhis world
into being ii the? respoiifibility of the Soul, which, out of itj^ sheer
*' I e. ihe Nfr>|Jaronii: ari^nie iil ihal since- the wiirld is prpdrtminantlv $.p^^,
iiftl tn crcale il wouLrt have Li^i'ii batl. tiotl llius creales Ihu' wiirld neceLsanly, ■.ince
He Ls ah^iilutely crtftd.
*"' Hi- fxpldni. tills more clearly in the Mab^hilh [?, .'i23,i- "flaniinij thac nccura
aTlcr lire n in>l nc-cr.^Halftl hy fire. Rallti-c, Crnd cbootf^ lo liTlIEi- tl miinr-dialfly
aflf:r ^^aq'iba) coiitaci with Hrr If ihi' ciccuitciiri: cirhiiiiiiiiQ jflcr contact vvith fire
i^ bv llie choici' aiir! vnll of God, e\alii:d, chcii He can cltoa^ to crtaii: burning
vvhen il is ijcjod, and nc< to create it when U ii bad"
''Qur. 1\:%?..
igiioraiifp dedred to attach itself to matter.*'' Ever since then, ibe
living intinifestation.'i ctf the Sctul in this world .suETeixd. c\nd they will
loiiiinur uj rhUirc'i liiiliI iIil Siful's iiiiiuii widi iiiatii-t fiiiallv ctascrh.
Onre ihe Soul i^ roiii|"ileielj' liherati^f! from m^iripr, ihe ivnrlH will
disappear and evil will be no innrc . Yi^l, having witnessed the result of
ihti union, God ameliorales the physical v/orld and insert order and
various comforts into it. in ai; much as })ossible. Fie also iiitroduecii
reason, ■which nrr^T s ir> rmaiic ipalc ihc Soul from matter, gradiiiillv
as it advancejb ihiough mr tempsvchosis.
For al-Razi, the answer' to thiii view is .^straightforward:
Thi' ar^unn:n[ for ihis ductnnc rtvolvfs jround [ihi' \ivw thM ''as
tjod ijj mi'mluJ Jiid he net it ml, bir iJUjiibE no! In COmniil jn 'Art
ih.il \^fiiilH ]i-Af\ t'i priln rind hriiTn'^ Hmiii'vit, if WrV i-'inH"nd ih^t
mijul rdiiunjham is fjlsc. ami ihal He does whalcvrr Hr |>k'asf:s,
and drcrcrs in |whi(ln'vi'r mdnntij He wLlts, this position will be
tumjilfltly inv,ilidat<'d
There is ncithi^r a iircd nor a basis fov diccidicy, even if one ivprp
to accppt such an extreme pessimi.'ini as advanced b>' Abu Bakr al-
RdzT. God's acts need not, and cannot, be justified morally.
SiiiiD-Pohdcaf Peisimiws
It transpiies from the foregoing that the \dew presented in the first
section oi Dkamin nl hdhAhal coiirerninq the nature of pleasure and
the prrvalenrc of .sufferiniJ in this world I'epiespiits a genuine stance
to which al-RazT is rommitted, especially in his later philosophical
wntmgs. ^"et, as a moral text. Dhamm at-ladkdhdi employs a rhetorical
form of discourse and pa\^ Ir^s attcndon to rigour, exactitude and
the overall persperlive. The snme is true of the second section of thin
work^ which deals with what al-RazT lemis 'imaginative pleasures',
i.e. pleasures experienced within thr faculty of imagination in con-
nection [u Ehf individual'^ uivuKemriiE ui the txieiiial wurkl.
Much of the interest of this !;econd i^ection of i^iiiwjn ai-ltidhdhHI
**' Fiir Atpu Bakt al-Rj3i, Soul 11 orn- rif llic Jivo 'H:Iornali', ihc nlhor^ bcini
God, mailer, space and liine. Cf. hia Ai-Qawljl i-qaiaiiia' al-kkain^a in hii Ea.ia'il,
*^ See Xhishb. 4, 4li I -1 9. Cf. Ma.wan Rashed, "Aliu Bak. .'U-Riai etle Ka}am'\
41 -(J.
^'i Malalib. 4, 419.
170
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
lies in its being one of the few places in which we find glLnpsej^ of
al'Rlzl's iiocio-politieal ihoughl. Again. \^hal. we tind in this ^ee lion
ih ntji a ron]]]k'U;, ui i-vcn ludiiii Hilary, ^uiiif-poliiii ,l1 ilii-uiy, liuL
^ moral ircatineni of :it;perr'; of rhe human sorio-imlirirnl ^'onHiiioii,
fnniiing especialJy on the subjeftive expefiencr , which is nonelhelp.ss
a cruficil par{ of al-Razfs socio -potirical thought.
77ii; Onginal Staf^ of Human Sousl J^'alnre
Iniuidming Uiis sriiind rhtCLitm uT D/ii/irttii id-iiidhilhiit. al-Ra-^T ■iiairs
dial hi^ purpoj^f i^ to ?[io\\ (a) that the plt'aiure'^ of I'lili' and hii;^h
iblatus {ri'o^Q ifii-j/ifi) can only lie aceonipanied Viiih s»real hiirdship
iind severe paiiis^ and (b) thai these pleasureib are in themselves
\ile ;md um^orlhy/^ Fnr these contentions, twenty argunieiiLs ?ve
advanced.
The fu'st argument Li most iiistvLictiup. Al-Razf wi'ites:
Every man d(\'vircs th.il he hr.i (inii's ihi" ruliT ovvr iilhtr^, :iiid ihjl all
cliv fidl^ iindtr hL'r diiinin:i(uili, rf>nlr(i[ :ind p<nviT. Tiir in-iii's hi'inji
diJimndnE tivi^r ihr jJlhtT And \n i:fiitc livi' conlrol avvr hini Is iin jElri-
hute iif pcrfcc dan: dnd iilEi'ibuCi^'. cif ptTfrc lic^n arc jir^ircil ftir ihi'ir
own sakt. Oni'^3 Iji'in^ dcimin,]t('i3 bv Jntilhcr diid Liiidcr ht toiilnjl is
an ailribLitr of impel lite Ili>ii; diid allrjliulcs iif iinpt^rfectiiin ^rc lidU^l
in thczmsrh'ri. Tlien'ron'. ihi' njEiiriil di:<pit^itii)n (lab'] uf cmc h |HTr<i>n
drives hini to he [he ruler river the olhiT iind in cfmErci! iivir him,
and lO {1l:si|]1ow l}u: u|hc~r Iritiii bci;c»inj]]y d lulci irvci , diid (.unLnilSci
of, him.
ThiTi-fore. thr seeker cif the atBainintnt cjf rule for a parhtuljr man
p th^l parlii'uhir man ^iloiit', ^vhi^rrEla ^ olhi^ra j(;i:k lo andt: nitLiii' chaE
rule and Eo olihli'rate il. Thjt sini^le man is ihus the iiiily si'eker of
ihr dLtlainnienE i)l EhaE luk' Itir himsell. .\s fcii all <idn'r prtiplr^ Iroin
casil !cf \ST:pt| thry all acck lo umlcniiliie il, Jic-ysitC il, and itblltCratc it.
Hj'iii^e, rin the ciin' hand, ihii-'e ^v]i'> srek Id riMlisi' this aim i iiiiiKiE hi'
ii:wi:i in minibi'r, lor iheri' i^annoL he fi'M^er ihan i>ne, vvhitc, on ihi'
othrr h^utfl, ibo^c ivho ^Cck In undnrmm!' :3nd nc-iiJH' il jrr vt'rv ureal
in number, for il i\ i'\icfi'nl thaE e\r'r\-chne iillier th:3n ihdl cnii- ■^viM vck
Hi nc^udle ihai rule and (u iLiHJi'rmmc Ehal persons supreirudH/'"
The same argument is summarised in the 7~/ifsii.''^ As mentioiifd,
al'Razk holds thai huni;ui iiaiiire speks to acquire attiibutes of per-
'^ Dh/i>nm al-kdhdhaf, Hi-7' ef. ,.Vd/i, M^.
^1 Tafsi,^ Lfl, 250.
fpclioii for [heir own ■^akc aiirl [o avoid atlribiiteib of inipi^rfpflion in
llieinsplvpi. Tlic perff ftion nf thp iiidi\'idual^s allnbiile of power iii
rcalb^ed by fiinhning his dnminalion over exEei'iiiil pnliliP'^, esppfialJv
other huniinn bcingi;, ^nd by miisimi^iiij^ the conlrol ^iid iiilluence
of olhfrs over him.
Inevitably, the self-regarding motKei^ ofdifTerpnt human lieings
will come into ronnict, as eaeh attempts lo itdviiiice his own interests
at Llir i-xpcn^c of others. Morrotei, Vath prrriun Viill h^i^e liis iiwii
rh;ii'arTey iraic.'; (Uiiilnq), and lii^ own di^pniiiiion^ (/■^^Ti ^vhnr i? good
fot thiii person is liad for that person, nnd \ice versa". This eould onfv
lead to enmity and disenrd/" AI-RizI argues tliiit, fiindamentaUy,
every man will be involved in a eeaseiesji strjggle ol' one against iill,
(ijid all agiiiiifil uiir..
Vel ihi^ view of liiini^iii ii^iliire irt.'ill f:ire rhe ■^nme i^nipirinl ohjec-
tion that Mii'lazilT mnral realists advanfe against liis psyeliologiral
egoism: viz. observation shows that people do in faet assist others
wiihout e>:peeling any heneht lor themselves in consequenee '"^ Thus,
multiiLidci of people ni^Ly niipport a niiiglc iiidividuaJ in dttaiiiing
leadership for bini'^eir, ^iarrifirin;; tliHr own lives iind t^eallh in ihe
course. Al-RazT replies that tliis happens only \^hen (wo e ondiiions
arp satisfied: /a} tliat one be hopeless of altinning ihis leadership for
himself; and fb) tliat nne uses surh assislanee as means to attaining
.■some: benefit for hiinacll, whir h othfr'wiftr would iiol have been pos-
sible. Whene\ev aiiy of those allies finds it opportune lo turn against
the leader to seiz<' jHiwer for himself^ he will be moti\'aled to do so
without delay
By ihe same piinciple. the gieater one's effons to dominate over
others, or the greater his dominiilion over other.'^, the greatei will
he the risl; of detiiment ihat he will face.'*'^
Thf^ inori' pri'anuriihlc 3 ihmii, ihc jircaliT ihi' di^Mrc lo .icrjuiri' il and
III idnniiialc oliMt:ic[i;s from i(. Whi-n (i(hi'r\ dlEain U'adi-rship EhaE %^'ill
bt one of ihit grf^iiU'sl oljild<-k^ Ircini my dHainniciH ihtrciif. So thf
desire m clnnindtf: Eh:i1 uhsiaclf will be ihr grcattsi <if dc'su"r\. Thc:rcfoiT,
^' cr p. 7un. ijdj^fl.
^^ jyia'^m af-fidtifJMf. 17
172
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
wliiitMT aspirc'i ic> iilLiiiii li'aclrrsliip vnM iii\-i[i' |ii:<fpli' lu kill hini :un[
wilt mc rtdihf' ihcir inliTcM in rli^^lruyinir Ami I'liniiiiJlins^ hint ""
H'ith re^pert lo any givi'ii allnbute, e^pr^ individual vtili be supe-
liui, ('[[LidK 1)1" Jiilriiin hj uiliti^. Supri lurity lu ifilidrs iik n givrii
prrriiiiiri? \vi]\ inoiiwite [hein to iinftprniiiip ir as miirh ar pfTj.tiiblp,
pilhpi' bv attpnipting Eo eliminale il. if it ii; a destrnrlible altribiup,
■iEifb as power, or by altemptino to ob.snire il if il is an indpslnirlible
tiHribulp. siiirli as knowledge. Eqiii^alenre to nlhfrs m a piivLieular
^llyibutp ^%'ill lead to a siimilar otitc nnie, ^iiii'e uiiiqueiie'if {'^ahdaiityi'a-^
(qfanitd) i.s an allribulp nf perfection, ivhik sharing an allribiite with
others isaii attribute of iinperferdon. Finally, though by inferiority,
one escapes the active and de[ei'mined eninily of otliers^ one uill
hrciJiiir lirdEed dr^|]ic -iljly, as aiiv I'lliri \ile and kuT'lv tiling. Tlii^
t^^pe of lelation is not nnly nyniptomalir of hiimaii inleraelion, hnl
is a univetsal principle:
Physicians r^cn .sdy thai Tvhi'nc-vcr a pellicular iirj-an lu'Lonics weak,
iironi^rr organs will send all [ihrir] refuse to it- On the whcile, rhe
ditntLiia tkin of lltu ilronj oviu" ihi' lv^'llk is of ihi: coiic itntilEirat^ i>f ln'inj;
{iTiiti lawa::jm al-ivii^Bd] Sis il hercmiea c-vii!c-n( rhal ihenliHr (if man jlways
lulls III ijur cif ihi'sj- thrf'i' tdlcirones . l lii-ri'fciri', llit <"cnTii)redl life
CHpi
E nCvci" dis^oriatcd ircHn sOrrOi*, gi'if^f mid htarlbr(! all.-'*
RaiTiv ducts die psyc holii^Lcal fg<iisni at eIic [nitri' t)f (il-RjiTs ethics
rerpivp siifh pr'innniirpd e^prp^Mion. He dp'ifrihps hiiinan n:iMirp i*.R
heiiij; niotivatf^d almost tincontrnllablv by tlip pndlens dii\'e for power,
domination, nniqtiencs^ and the elimination of competitor.^. Those
who do expeiience the plpaiure.s asiiocialpd wilh power and rule \^^l]
hpcome desirotisi ol esperienciiig more; the more thty expeiienfe,
dip greater and more urs;cnt ^vill the desire become ''^ Moreover,
since man finds pleastue only during a change in his stale, but not
atterwaid.'i 'As the new state settles, he will continue to ieek more
difd will nrvttr frel coiilcntcd in any aldtCf cvrn if he "wrrc to jJifS'
sess the treasures of the heavens and the earth". '^
Given this view of human social nature, al-RazI concludes that
tlip great harms that resuh from ihe hninan social condilion and
die brutality of the ceaseless siniggli' and competition will guarantee
'' Dhamm a\-l3dhdhS{, 20.
all, both mlt'r and rul^'d, opprpsior and oppresfled, great paiiis and
drlrimenln. Human social I'sislcncis aji oin^ farel. of man^s wrelclied
wijildlv rsiMtinr, is iiu'ii dpablv a lilt iff n'd.sclrrhri siiifr, Eeiiriioii
and inerrilp'J!^ ^iriij^lp fn prevail ev^rlc Hptrimenl ;ind siir\'ive. Tlip
greaier the struggle^ ihe greater {he risks of detvinieni. and death,
and [lie more \'iolenl the likely tiiilcome.
l"he following j">assage^ whif h appearji in ihe Ttsfiiif as a romnientary
on the grading '^PLarf he iipiiii v"ou' (<//■ iafamu 'ftlaykurm, 'pia.caxa a
vivid depiruofi ot the original slale of human nalme.
ThiTc ia nij diiul>l that iht world in a holhcd fcir cvib, dririnic-nl^,
c alinniliri! and [crri>rs. Sthchlan* who in\Ti[iiia[c: (he- (ib^curc: j^pf^zts of
huiiiiiii tlidraiLci [afJilQij] difli'i mil v,1ii;Llni via- uri^iii i*f ihr iiiiSyrr (if
thi' aninidl [ai-ni! fi /ibiflaS al hawifdiCj is ^tmci iir r-\'il. Scunc say ihjt ili
<>ngin ia tvil, ami ihal aH liumju indivi[IuaL'< arc as th(iui"h in pcrfert
ni'K rEEic'iiE i>]i LIii.s.
Wi: nia'> tDinpltmrnl (his by dddin^: Iiidi^4^d tr\t:n aD animah aii;
as though in pcrfcrl agrCf^mcni iin ihia! The c-vidcncc- ic> ihis Ls ihat
^vlii:iii\i r ii m^n tic-s ;iii(i[Iht nun ^■hiini he d(ic:i mil knoM miininc
tdiviirds him, he will be dm en hv ht! nd^iirr tci t:ikc' ^e"^J"d JCainsl hun
and Ui pri'parr to rcpuliic: hini Hail his nalurdl dis^josilion [iof'') noL
tc^tifii'd iIiliI tlti.- 4>rii'irtil luliirr "I ntLirt i^ rvU, pnmurdLil mmd i/ilrfi
ai''aqlj wciuld iidI liavi- in'crssiulcii iht pr('pjrarn>n Id n'pul.sc ihr evil
oflhdl (.^tinrr. TIkt I'vx-n say EhaE (his fi'atun' a|>pciir.'T in all aimnal^
for i-iTrv ^nimdlj w\ii'. h flitil.'. -iciiilhrr LuiirnLiI riiiiniiiu LinvjriL. il, \-A^
rsfdpc iind take giianl dgainsE it. Sci, had ii In'i'n tvideni in iis iidlural
di3p<tMiiijn that the Driirm^l nalurr <i( (his (.iinurr ls ^<)Od^ it vicjuld
h^v*- n I'J'e'i^i I il "-'I II E'> Xiiy i-'hr-rr il wa>-, for llif ciriiriinl di'^pfnicifin
of [animal] naUirc motivjlcs lE towards desiring the alCainniml f.\i the
gciod- -- ^4) wr knuw Elial (he original itaEe in \hv aniniiil u v.wV
Thrrcforr, ive say: .\vrrrinj; rvil is Tnurr imporMnl {tihtimni) than
attaining giiod Thcs Is incJii alid by a niimbf^r <>f aspi'c.ls Frrsl^ av'crl-
ing f-vil Livoh^ts prcsemiig llic original ilaEr, which h more impcirtant
thiin att.iining mrnr Srcjmd. Hclivrrinj; the gjiod lo rviTybjidy i^ n-il
wiEhin capatiE^, whtrcis alislaining from hdrming dnyliodv is viithin
tapacisy, sin< r; llic former j^ ai^lion, whiTcaii ihi' laltrr ii, ibsErntion
Third, if t^dl is n<il averted, I'vil will occur; and ihis will resiill in ihr
OfirurTenct of pain and grii;f ...; bul if gcmdnrsi is noE ^illam^'d, man
svill rciiialn in ncLlliiu ^oird iioi bad, but in oi ij^liial VM^IIhcLig. ...
So il hecomts e\iii<'nl [1] [hat ihr averting of iriL t mon' imporEant
thdn [he aildiiinicnE of i^ood, [2] thdl ihis world is the hciEbed ofi'viLs,
driiiiiu ills, 1 nIiiiiMlirs .iiiiL afniirliinLS, ^lui [31 llul dii' ^iiiiitiiL m di^
<>r]gin of its crcaled narure ani! [he [lei^eisilvitf primordijl disposLlion,
IS a s<inri-e for i-v\\. Thrrefore, wlicn a man reaihcs dnolhci man, thr
uto^t imriiri'lant (ini^icli'rEilioii viill bi' li> iiifomi him lHeiI, m rrLiELiin Eo
himsflf^ he IS in a slair of pcjcc, security and safety. So, it has become
174
CIIAPTHK I'OUH.
cnn\i'nlnnial(^i/?/a/r) ih-il [llic (cuncr] shiiuld iniiialt ihc jirrtling, whitl]
F Ftii him 1(1 say, "Ptac c ln' upon y(iij["'''
Trom llic foregoing, iil-RazI .s^'cm.s to roncliide that ooorl and jiust
gi>vciiimriiE i^ \-jil.udlly iiii|Jii^s^iljlt'. Jiitl lluiL iiiiUlit^] atliviCy iii\oh('^
gi'pal iinavoi<iabl<' dctrimoiu to holh ^iihjerts and polifiral njfems.
Th*^ ruler u'ill often find himself in great dileinma.S; foieed to fhoose
between two or more etjiiallv c\']l options,''^ For instance, he may
art either hinnhly and henevolenlly, ni dpspntic^Uy and hrulally^
lowart]^ his rlo.'ie asiiofiate.'i; i?ithcr ^^■ay. lie \%-il] li\'e in roii'.tanl fear.
Humility' and bcne\olern:e are bound to ^veaken his power, vvliffreas
hi'iiliility will motivate nlhers lo kill hini^ or to eliminate hu rule.
11' it is said ihat halaiiee [Itiii'a.smt) is required, then, al-RazT argues^
die iidHLie iif EJiih Ijfilfiii^r L'> luikiiowii
ANo, jusi rule shnuld involve a|"ipnintii"ig qualified individuals in
posilioiiii of power. Yel, al-RazT argues, sueh ride in an ideal that
either never occurred, or is exti"einelv rare. Unjust rule, on the olher
Il^ikI, will liiing upon dir rulrr ihe eiiiulEy and coiideinnauori of all
sensible and pioLis; men. A just and viidelv .^aEisifartoiy di*itribiidrm
of wi^alth aho appears lo hp an uii'iohabif dilemma.'*'
Some ot ihe arguments put forth in Dliumni al-hSdhiS seem to
conekide thdt the indu'idual ha.-; miiny good reasons tii minimijhe his
social association {muklidlalil'j and polidral invTilvcmcjiC, or cvpn to
iihandon il nltogelher {firn\-, )'fazilii) However, man is politiral by
itature {madam bl- 1- tab'). For if one -^ere to live in reekision {tqfaiiada)
in a dej^erl, away from the material, moral and intelleetual benefits
of urban life, he would loac LiLs human aiuibuce^ and dcat'end into
hesiiiilify. Thii*!; whether or nnr one heroines mrialLy involved, one
is bound lo suffer ^leat harni.s/ Indeed, even die most rudimentary
forms of social as'ioriation will invohe unjolvable dilemmas: "'Man
may li\e in thi.'i woilrl with or without spouse and ollspi'ing' VAch
option will he a rausc for eiiiEYcriiig detriments and calamilit'^!"
family life isill cause sufi'ei'ing to the intli\'idual in variou.s wavs^
including the con.stant obligation upon him to manage the family's
•^i 7"o/irr. le, iap-3.
^ Dlmi^/ii al-ladkdhaL 24-'i.
■►■ Dh^m'^ nl-lQdtidhai. ^^9.
" Dhan>^ at-lad^idhai. 29-30.
■^ Dhdmn tii-kdMhai, 25-G.
1^ Dfia/'im t-!-I<idl\Jhsl. 27.
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX lilSALAf IHL\MU AL-LAUfimi.VI
17S
afikirs iind to senire n^ lii^^lihood, und having malcvolrnl. iiicinbfru
ill thi^ family. However, by cLoosing [o livp Vhilhoul i family one will
eiiliri iiiJiiUdiii c\l\ tils needs liv Jiiiii^vlf, \>liii-li will iiU'oKn' scvcir
li;irfE'i}iip, oi' \ui\\ rp^nrt ta rplyiiig on ^liaiigprs, :in cijilioii thai irt.'ill
lead to other sori!> of harm.
Man is bound to sufTiT^ whether as ruler or ruled. Man sutTfrs if
be aets, and sulfei's it he attempLi; to refrain from acting allogelher,
choosing lo remain itllr [mti'aUa!}. A nioeit h^filini* i\icl ihal invitr*
eoiitenipliition, al-Raa notes, is ihal, despite this inei^fapable .luiTering,
which is fonenmitant not cinly to ihe Eniman condition, but to animaJii
ill general, every anim^il ivill be extirmely tcai'tiil ol death, and will
tili^'ay^ ^1.1 ui^j^lr iti avijid in poMfJoiir il ^^ iilljsEi ch^ [nj^>iblc.'^
Soiiip oflhe lhenii"i nf [he Mer-ind flpftion nf nhfsnim ni-fn^hilhnf arp
afcin to those pre.senled in a section on 'conlemplalive iherapifs for
desiring slatus' in hAtah af-yafs ma-l-mh.^^ These dierapiefi are ainipd at
minimising one's desii'e for, and ieeking of, higher soeial status, and
attempt to ^olvp si'HTic of the dileiiini^m of the !;oci:il aspect ol human
existence. h\ a way, this seelion of DliQusm al-lodhdhdi lerom mends
ihe minimisation; or p\cii thp Local abandonmeiil, of soeio-political
pui'sui[ and iimbiuon. At the end of one argiimenl, al-Rai^T concludes
that die flcnsibJf person ought not to pursue lradcr.'<hip. In rhomc
places he conchides ihalboth the ptii'snil of leadership and actually
havin;^ il are highly detrimental and unie com mended.
Vet the texl goes fuilher. Il contends ihal il will be inipos.sibk
to reach an agreeable state for the iDdi\idiiars social being, or any
adeqiialp ^^olutions lo its many moial dilpnima!;: even atleniplinj^
lo abandon it, if at all possible, uill be hi!:^hly detrimental, "lliere
is no ^vay (o avert such delrimeut''. "'Man will never heeonic free
Ironi grief, anxieties and sorrows'", ''* and "will never manage lo
avert harm".'' One oughc lo contrniplfilc [he refllit\' of maii^^ ^neial
condition lo discover iLs sheer hopeleisness and lo Ymd oneself ulterly
alienated and estranged.
■^' MJ', l4L-b; H.p. 1:^4 ii^jirs.
'^ IHiamm al-ladhdkai. 19
■" Dh(mn> fll-itidhdhai, 22.
176
CIIAPTHK I'OUH.
Social Ctmtitiel
Had (hp piirpoiie of the iceond rierlinn oi' Dhamm nl-hdhdhat been to
presenl. a cfimpri'hensive account of socio-politifal motivation, we
would have judged the eonrluiiior (that the agent's ■ioeio-pohtiral
in\'o]vfmriH ih based coinplclclv on a cdlrulatinn lliat takers into
a^'fount only hi^ imnifi/liitf iiiterejjis) as fairly crude. Wiial il pi'psents,
lather , is a vdewof huniaii social nature at as mo.'^t basic and iiidira-
tions as lo how this uiew may be deveJoped iuto the foundation for a
fiJMcdgrd sodu-polidcdl thnnj . Tlius, the ar^unjc-iii thai individudls
may cooperate for a non-porsonal raiise each ont of ^lipei ^clf-iiilf r-
est may become a eirotind for a moi'e sophisticated utilitarianism. It
will do ju.'btif e to aJ-Razi to append tlie above cKamiuation of his
notion of human nature uith an outline ol what eleinents cojLd be
found in hi;! katam ^yorhs of a fuller eiorio-pol ideal ihf ory '^
Calculations of .self-iiiterfst may yield more coinple': conclusions^
wheiehy the interests of the social ageiit are often not gained in ajiy
iminediate way We iaw above that al-Razi presents a theory of
(onrhrni in ordei ti> ixplain IhjeIl imnal norms =ind ilir sense of moral
oblipalion iii human beings.' ^ The ■^lieer hnilalily and inspciii'itv
of the ori^^inal. imchecked utate of human association, as described
ill Dhamm al-todlidhdl, will drive indi\'iduiJ.s to the conclusion that
aclfieruig to a set of norms will define the framei^ork to realising a
stale of security to each individual. Tlicir primary nioiivc will he
prudential^ since each individtiaTs life, freedom, uelUipin^^ property
and mtere.sts uill be at lisk from being uiidemrined by others, which
v\ a risk thai even llie opjjortunitv to gain at ihe expense of others
will not make worlh'while. AtcordiiiiJ to al-Rriz.!, icasQii is 1^cl^crdl]y
more inclined lo prtidence than to the pursuit of pleasure.
People thii.'i consenl to a iiormati\'e conveirtion. the convenlional-
ity of which is tijen forgotten by time, a.s it transtbrnr-; into objecti-
fied moral trulh ami as people start treating the.se norirjs as a pnnii
U'udi^. In .-inch a convention, each individual will accept, e-g,, ihat
wrongdoing as lurh vi universally bad. whether done ai^inst hun
bv other; or against others by himself, and that he ought, therefore,
Sf c jImj j\nr[ I.arnhron^ SSa^t and GovunnwH, I JO-7. rtiipEci rrn "Fakhr al-Dm
R.a:^i: Tlii? Di^ociiilion of Ri'liiiinus and Temporal Po^er", wliwh ixaniine^ liii
vii'ws in JflriJi' al-'itlvm and rtlalfs llii?iii ro hi*; liiilorifal conleHl:.
lo rej^rraiii lii^ iiiilurd motivf to liinitlessly iiect hiii own .^^i^lf- inter-
est. A]-RazT iiidirates thai ever)' indi^ndiitil will realise that for suoh
Mnia] ijidei lu entEiiie effrt lively, all oi iiiii.se JiiLlivuliLals. Ijidiitliiig
him^Flt', tihoiilfl :idhprp to ^iirli ^ ron^'Pnlioii.
However, on their own, such conventions rannot bring sorid
order iiboiit. The iiislilution and maiiiteiiaiice of order will require
the combination of a legal code, biisefl on a inoifil convention, with
a trroi^iiieiird i<r>vfrf if»ji polniral power thai will f iiforrr il on pr'i>pl<?.
Al'RazT writei in the AJddliPi:
Iiii'liiEliiii^ an imiin giuranlrts ihi- prr\i:iiti(iii (if hjrin ihdt c^an only
lit prc'VTnlcd tliruugh il: ibitrcfdrc, it id obligaljjrt^ [a^ajib].
Thi: fii-iL [pn'iiii-ie] sli'iii.s fiom dui iiiiim-didn- {dw^iTl kiKiVildlgr
ihdl if a niii^hly dnd pciErnt (ddbit] li'jditr apptara En j. tcmnlrv, the
i iiiiiJirKiii 1)1 Ehdt (.ounlry vvill bccomr rk>3c:r to ^yood (irdrr [ya/ah) than
rf llii^ Iciick'i clid nut < xi^L.
As n-ifdinlz< ihr iii (iihJ [prcmLsr], ^uicc the prtvi-ntion iif hdrni from
thf atlf (ti?j't) is c>bli|^dlc>r>' {ui^ibj, whatever ij Dfctssury fiir ihc prcvcn-
tliin iif llilii haim will llsolfbc abliiiil'n^-
Elsewhere, he argue.s thai both law and political authoriiv are nec-
esiarv' for a^'oirfiiii^ j^Li'ife and disorder. The bi?^l foi'in of law for
serving this end ^vill be n revealed law {jilniifa) that warns wrnii^-
doers of afterlite punishment, wliicli will foim a delerrent for both
the mob [aivbash). who will not be completely deterred by judging
bloodshed and anarchy {haij uia-nmij'j lo be morally bad (on prndrnlial
^ound.'b), and the ruler, who will be inclined naturallv to oppres-
ibion. This exphiins the htidith. "Isliiin aiid political power {\nltQn) are
twin brothers'.'-^
Thf appoiniiiient iff a powerful dcspoc will consLLiiLie a lesser
evil for each indi\'idii;il diaii ihe st^iie of lawlessiie*!''- and is thiii
prudentiiilly necesj^arv. Therefore, iiLdi\"i duals will consent to mak-
ing a compromise for the sal;e of the advantage of over^dl security,
bv accepting the authority of a povicrfnl sovereign. In the Arba^m^
al-RazI Vi'rilLei:
If lE 1^ .%;iid' *".\i ificr^' ;irc iiurh iidviintiifc^ In the iiinroilitiiiCnl of
this IciidtT |ri?Ti), ihtrc: art: also a Viiricly of dL'riidvanta^i'ii: [-.g. [1] if
^^ Mddlm, [34. Cf Mihaisal, ^l'^: Arb&m, 4?7-a' A7jdmfiX 70-1-
■^ Tafiir, fi, 2[).'i: 17, 2Q-I. Tlip fiaSsh is n-coided bv al-HindT, Kati?, al-ianmsl
6. 4-5.
17a
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
[siibn'cl^l ri-fu!ii' III 'hi-y him, c (irriipiion will mi^u'dftc:; |2] lit may
tn'ninn' ^i'-,pinic diiil tifiprc'Sii llirm; JinJ [!'-^| lie may incrcdiir idxdlion''
Hi JitirjiH^hcn his k'ddrrship; s(i hi'rcsnrls lo i^xEriirlLnji rmliry fniin ihr
Vi'Cdl. Jill] pnnr." — ■wt will iiay ThiTi' ii no dtuiljE (IljI such \vriiiigs %^1
ocfiir. '^'I'L i-vcrv raliiinal pcrsiin will kniivi' ih.il if ihi' (lisadviLiHai^'s
prni3ui\'d from ihr imn-i.'xi^Ecim- (if ihv tilii^ytd li'ddi'r an' c onipdu'cl
ki ihi' disddtdnLigi'^ prjidiim! Ircini hia i-xinlcnci', lln'v will hr iiiuc h
j^ii-du-r ^\'hcii wt liin! milIi a dii lidtuinv, tiniaiiJi'iinkiii ^liouFcl Iil' jiivi'ii
Ici [[hv (]iiv^t\(in 1)1 whit h c>|>[ic>n is] ini'pondcrjnl^ liir ihc OEiiii^hitm at'
a grcdtrr giiod fcir the: sate of a lr3M:r rvil \^ a grf-J' fvil.'
Th*' cjiie.'blioii of whf ihpr the eBlahlishnicnl of the inianial.e vi nff-
essiLiy or nal was d^haled from an eAv3y stage in L^blamir hu^tory.
Till' Kli.iU'atiJ inrfinialm-tl ilidL i[ Iri iii-vi:i obligdLOiy. lAhrir^i^, die
Mn'lazilh Ahfi R:il:r al-A^^mm [rl. ?2'j/R40) repfirteflly nrj^iiprl tlial
(inly at iLiiiti oJ strile doe's it become obli^alorv lo appoint an inisin
for the aske of imposing order. The roinmon Ttvelver ShfT view
is that God is morally ohligatfd to e.itablish the iinaniale fnr tiie
sake of human advLiiitago.''' Acrordin*' to ihe roiTinion Sunni \'ieW:
also held b> most Mti'lazik and the Zaydls, the e.^lELhlishinenl of
die ijnamate is jnade ohiigalorv on people bv LegaJ e\idi'nre only.
iioi'mallv fonsensiis. Al-RazT accepts this view in his ea.r]y kfiiam
WCJI
■ts.«"
Yet others were of the view that the e.'italilisliment of the imainate
is known to he ohligatoiy on hmnans hy unaided reasfni: al-RazT
luiines some Mii'tazillM, viz. (d-JaliLZ, Ahfi l-Husa^ii al-KJiaj'yat 'd.
fa. 300/9 1 3), Abu l-Qasim al-K.a'hi, Abu l-Husayii al-Basrl and his
fnlloivers. These lheo1ogin.ns base the oblif^alorinesi of establish-
"■ This inai' imply dkal whpn such disobedience occurs, oppLe^iirjii and CLvil
\*ar may follnvy.
" Readiiip ^klta'aj' inslead of 'dataf. Cf. paiaplirajii; froni the A'ba'in Ln Ibn
'Arafa, Mukhfu-^r, \92.
'".Irfiij'ii,, 42fti ff- J^m/'- 2111 Sivicc ^■{notl' .iiid 'r\i\- in the alaHmcnl, Tlic
oniisiSLOii ft ii i^reaUT v:i>nd ftii ihr sdte of a h.-,ii-r evil ls a iji'i-al pvil', should, in
my o|iiiiiori, [tc urnJeriloorl in lemi^ oi Jieiiuhl ainJ harm liis use i>l llii^ ilileniTin
in this rohle:il ivill nol conrradici al-Razfs reji-clioii of ihe ociftiiial, NeoplaloLiic
-ipii^e iherfof Iff. p. Ifl?-^ '.Dpra).
'" Sfif: al-Ra^T'^ n fulilifhTt nf sil-Sh^tlf al-Muclada in ihifl rt-^aivl {J^k^a, fol.
?<llb--295b;^rfirz'j>^. 4?P ?,^\Mdalim, n^;(f. il-Miirrada. iMaft/^j^u, 409 ff).
"" t..-,i,i nt-fJKi. iiil 41il--yU; AiAaya. foL Jyila-y!llb CI. 'AL.d a]-|al*af. A^upflflj.
ffi, 16 IT
I" Maim<a! :>74j A/liii-in. 426-7; Barafna, 2. 195. Cf al^^hia htikqaq.^ 194-7'
L^ittlitHnn, Slulr. 5!! IT. I lba\'e n'^l fnund anv rcfi^pnce tf [lki» mpu' by al-ICIta^y^l or
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJaMi-Af IHL\MU AL-LAUni}II.\ I
17fl
ing the iinaniiite and their jiLstification of political authority' on ihp
priidenlial iieren-sily of having a powerful rulei wlio is capable of
enfijrdiig sui.Ul ordri.
Al-tih^iy.^lT tnf>, :i[Iherpi to a fnnip;ii:ii"ile pnsirinn \n thp /tjlii^,
though uidi a erufial difference.^^ He argues tha.t one of the objeftives
[maifiiiif) of the Lawgiver k the pieser\'atiDi} of the 'order of religion'
[mz^iis al-ilin]. Hawevt-r , ih^a k po.ssihle only by ihe estaljii.shment of
the 'order of ihr wodd' [iirc^m ai-dui\yaj, whifh 11 ^cliirvablr bv tbc
in.italnipnl of a rerognised ruler. Thei'efnre, die instalnieiil of sucb a
ruler i& "a religious necf s'iity ' [mn dayuriyydt al-shai'). As an appbca-
tion of the principle of 'un.suppnrteri inlerest' [masiaha muuaid).^ this
line of arj^unic-iiL relicri uliini.iielv on t-vidriwe from ritripture.
Ry ron[i':i^r, al-R^i^T hn^p'; hii^ d^ririne of rhe nerf^'^iiy of the
imaniite, not on an oliligation lo serve ihe objectives of Re\faled
Law, but on purely prudential necessity — a slance that Ls yet another
pKpression of his core novniadve rousequentiiilisin. He ^eenis to
drai%' on ihe.'ie earlier Mii'tazili !;ourres (t'^pecially. one pres^uinesi,
Aliii l-Husiiiyn iind his school; in arguing for the necessity of political
authority. Yet in rontra'^l to al-Jahiz, al-RazT's argumeiiE e niphii.siseii
tbe individual's concern lor his o^n safely and intei'psts, rather ihaa
public ^vcUbring; na the immediate gi^oiiud fov obligation.
AI-RazT's 'Hobbesiiin' polilical theory contrasts ■ih^qily with aU
Farabi's Utopian optimism^ according lo i^bich humans associate
primarily lo gain \arious perfection s, and only secondarily lo protect
themselvei from [he evils of the asocial stale. Al-FarabT states that
human innaie na.iiire {/i!f<i} inodvaie'^ man lo interaci and co-oper-
ate sociallv, so as to perfect himself and the conditions of liis being,
with the aim of altaijiinii happiness. It i'i unnatural for humans lo
be inclined to strile [(fighMub) ""^
By coJitrasi, Ibn Sliia aces the purpose of the poliiy to be the
establi'ihment of social order and the maintenance of a basic degree
ofhuman \^ellbeing. Hence, the goal (of the elite few) of attaining
al'Ka'hl in ;i *;ourfe eailier ihiii jI-Kjzl [Josef van Es^e ill's lln^i'i^'U' l>v ^'Klijyv3(
fioitt ii 'ouKi- ihol p [n aph I .Lit? al'RiiKi'.i Aiin't'i: jici- Kla u^'y al' in f£t , I Ifi^i Ihu
'Arifa, MakiilfiiQ', 190^.
■^ AI-tili.-izaLi,_/^JL^fld, •>-.'A-l\ cf. Lambloii. ^lale. Ill) II
■^^y-Fruabl. .4rj: Il7fr.
■" ILii Siiia, SfiiJQ: itHhiyyal % t4l-55' Miriam Caklnii. "Realign Jitd Ideal-
ism", e^. -SJiH.
ISO
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
Iiiippinpss is ronfmrd to the pri\afe realm, and is hoc to be piir'^u^'d
by the an of polities. Government is nceessaiy to realise justiff and
v't uiiEv- siiur ijeut^e aie iiauiifJIy hii lined u> "ii-nriiiln jiisi utiaL
fjtiipf!; itwc [liPTsi. :ind iiiijri^LT vvh;ir they owe oi]ipi'^'\ TlievpFriri?;
di\ii]e pro\'idenre will necessarily provide cireunistanre.'b rondurive
lo esliiblijihiiig government, ino.'bt imporlantly by ieiiding prophets.
Galibtoii urites that, in eonli'iL.sl lo al-FarfihT's politiriil philosophy.
fni Ihn fJTiia, ^'ihc virlufnii< individiial n^placrei llit \4rluoii;i rily as
die hij^hfst concii^rn of prardeal philosophv and, roncomilandy, the
jj.'bt fitv [dl-pmiiiimh d-'adilali replaeps ibp \"ii'luous fit)' as the ullimjte
goal of political science''.'^-'*
Al-Rdj^T ii]i>vi"i fiLiElir-r away from al-Fai Jiln's pcrliiit dl o|iLiiiiisiii. A.s
lie ^l^iti?!^ in Dh/sitim is}-f/siih^hnf, ihe <'Ktahli^hiin^iii of jii*.r gftvernnipnt
v\ so rare thai il is almosl an iinposiiiblo and irralional pursnil; even
if eslabli^hed, il will be short-lived. Political pursuit .'bhould aim, not
al the realisation ol human happiness or wellheino, but al .securing
die ino!;l fundamt'iital necessities for human exislence, vii. a degi^ee
of security, la\\' and order.
Ibn Siiia maintains 'i^gcntrallj following al-Farabl) ihat the polic\ is
eslabhshed by divine providence^ ihroiigh the \chicle ol' prophecy. A
'coiiiraci of thr polity* C^'^ al-mattiiia), to whirh proplr should con-
sent, is dien introduced, as a hnal stajie in the establidimenl of d:ie
polity^ to deHme its general priiicijJes and striiclure. and the rights
and duties of each cf it:; political sirala.'"' By conli'a.st aerovding lo
al-RazT, the political contract itself esiEiblLhhe.s the polity and is the
ino.sl e.i;wiitial a.spect thereof. It doe.i; not merely afliim a previous
political priK:es& (whether initiated by prophecy or innate human
iialtire)^ but is intended to radically alter the previous state. It rep-
lesenls reason curbing liunian nature.
The ci:ntralitv gi\m to tlic social contract appeal's in thf view that
the only grciund, or Vause\ for die eiitabli.shment of the imamate
[iabah husUl /\l-w\Qmti] is the 'contract of pledging allegiance* Caqdat-
bav'a'i, which, al-RazT writes, is the view of Siinnis and Mu'lazifUs,
radiFi thai! desi^^naiiufi {iti^y), or tharactrriridcs pi-iiainiiig Uf the
person of the imam, such as lineage, according to Lnami.s.''' Ho^vever;
"^ Itiii Siiia .WiS', W/iiyj-ol, 2. 447.
"■ Jf^./rfj, 4'*7-fi Oil 'fl^J ,r/-ifl/fl, F-'t ^.g. 'Ahd al->hhah, .iUj-hrii. IJO, ?.'il ET.
follnwing [he common Suiiiii positinii;^^ al-RazI maintains tlian the
pledge ofallpgiaiiff requires Uip ibatisraftiQii of cprtain cfindilinn-i
{ifui/l)^ iiiiliLdiii^^ ilidr.u-[tr iraiLi, in ihr piii^pn-EiviL' iuidin^ v%hkh
will qii^HJy him to fiilf]l ihc Hiirip'^ cif lt':idprship. Nine ^irii'iiinrei; arp
lialed in Mhayai al-'uipih leligiouji knowledge, priirlifaJ wisdom and
coinpetfiifp Id admini'^lriLtirni and u'ar, bravprv, jtistiri^, maleiiess,
Irfe sliilus piibfvt^', reason, and nifmbership ol ihc Qurav^h iriljc.''''
t!)ni? who nn^cts the condilirmei and is gi^<^n ihe pledge of aJrgiaiiec
becomes the Ipgilimale imam^ even thonoh lie mi^ht not lie the hest
living person for the po.'iilion. Res]3onding to die argunieni that a
lesner per.son \mafdul) should never heeome a leadei when iomeone
wkh superior qu^ities iJsdLf) can be foiiiLdH .d-Rri-^ tvrkca:
If ihi' l<-r<\{r pcrnon has the <]LL,ifitici of Icadcrnliip, l>ul is inf<'rii)r in
thi:M' virliii'ii lo aiii>(h<T, dcid if wi- kiniw ihiil wi-rc: k'ad(Ti<liifi Hi hr
bc3l<ivii'd Jill rtncidnTivho is i^ii|iiTirir, [iiirc^'tt Jiiddisiir<!i'r wuiild rriiJl,
%v]n-Jtds if ii 'w lieaHftvi'il lui ihi' iiiA^iLiri priiiini, llic >iri id] < innli-
tichn i^ill lic-LriJin' ordtTly ^n<i die puhhi' i^chhJ will ln" uuaianlrtd,
lhi:n rrdscin will jucfi^- (hjl li'adtTsliip iiughl lo bi; htalgwcd cm [lut
Ici&Ci" priaini. Tin tin' puip^jsi- i>f ijiisLalliii;,: ilif iin9in k Uf pii^sitivc
thr publn^ l"cii>d Thi'rrfiirc , if die iircsrrvdlitiii cifthr public i^ind k
r('jlt<<'rl duty li^^ bcslriM^ing tcadcrskip tti the: Itii^tr pcraiin, Ehcii dul
-.fry.
^'ill h^■ ncLC ia;""- '
The conditioiii^ of leadership are thus not absoiute, but are meanii
Iq an end Al-Razi also argues (hai \%'hile the aseeiic {^aitH) is ulti-
mateh ll^ie inost \irlnoiJ!b person, neirher he nor the juriil {JaqiH' uill
be able to rnle better than ihe political expert {i3yi\), who is inferior
in virtue to both ot' thein."'
Efn.itemofogical Pemmisus
The third secdon n^ Dfiairnn ai-lfidhdhm coneern.s intellectual pleasure,
ivliicb, in coiilrast to sensory and imaginative pleasures, al-RazI asso^
ciates with the human ^ood. However, if his expression of pessimism
"^ AI-IjI 'Manaqif. 3, 34*tl inili'S ihal ihis is llie v\<:\i of llie ]nd|r»rity {]iimlmi).
"^ .mayai.^ ioL. :^yib--yi>^a; lol. :ilHii-^1i:2b (quoii'd in Ifn' ' Xnia'. Mukkia^m,
19^-41; cf' l\m s(-din. fnl. 4^7-fl.
'"^ Arbaln. 4fi0;if Janjr". ?05
Til
Mhaya. fol. ?fl2Li-505b.
182
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
in iLis work Viiih I'pspecl lo Imni^ii sfii.'iorv activity is noi ouE of
tlip oi'diiiiLi"\, and if his pesiiinism with respect lo .social association
is liJj^hK LiiiiisiLdl^ ihr prs^iiniani he rKpferi^es line hi iflaihiii ii-
iiii!^llprti]:il :ifiii'ity i'? Hownr]glir ^iirprKing Al-Rji?!, nf rniii'!H', li;i.s
a reputation for being aii exceedingly confident rationalisi, which
indeed he li\e.s up lo in the absolute majorilj of his works.
Sccpfxci-vm in DliamiTi al-ladlidh^l
He begiii.s ihe jesiion by lEidiiiuihihi!^ dut iiilelhi [udl jilraiUie is
js.^ofinted with the puf^iiiE of ihc ralioii^il (^nqii) ^cieiic*^*;. lo the
exclusion of po.'hitivf {u.o^t, sciences, which are practiced for their
utility in serving the physical dinieiisioii of human existence, and are
dins inferior. Rational sciences either ser\e other sciences, such a.s
Ingic, or have fndi< of thfir own. Thf Inllcr iivr of four t^-pi^.s, \vhii^h
concern: fa) knowing God, (b) knovi'iii^ .spiritual entities {mliamyyB^},
(c) knowing the higher world, nnd (d) knawing the lowei world.
Willi respect lo ihe highe.st of lliese .sciences, viz. theology, eJ-
R."iz] wriies:
Yri, whd has rrac hcd ihc ihrcshdld of ihiii liifiy jirc^rnrt! An<l who
hdi^ amellcd (he dii>riij of llul sai ri'd cuiiiu'iiei'' liicCeci!, (he- >ic'ld of
dll niinilf Is but prcsiunplnin:, [^aiiii\ aw\ cinijri^luri'^ {jsnhmj, -mil Lh<-
culniiiisition of ihj^ piir.'vuil is bul cslintdliihn^ {it'ohnij ^nd imiiiruidlichn^
With this i^eptical note, ^vhirh i;; then .supported hy liever^l argiinienlf;
the tniie is set for the rest of this third seciion of Dhamm d-Uidhdhot.
Particularly noleworthv is al-RazT's lue of the expres.sion 'lii.ibdii\
whicli IS oiten a.ssociateci witJi sceptics, the (mftdniij-i!.''-'
The firiil afgiminil is a.s follows. A drmonslrntioii is apodictic only
if it has apodiclic premise.s and valid syllogistic form. If Ihe premises
are apodictic propositions, ihey wil! be either unniedisteK apodiclic
lytit/m ibliifa'nn)^ i.e. self-evident, or deduced iiltinialeK' from pcenii'^es
UiiiL .uc ilieinrhelVL.s Ljiriirdlaiel^ .i|joiIkiii, Lliumgli init in iimnerhEa^es
"''Oil ibi' hiibpiiiyya, if e \iii F.s^, "Skep(ifL,m Jii lilEiiiiii Ri'lijfirms Tlioughl", I;
15, II 'i. It>ii 'Abd Kiihtiilk {At-'iqS ul-jand, 'I, 4U7] tiilalfi Ihai nin; o\ tin? Iii<,iiaiiayfi
aaiYLiLiJii^rl his pffsua^irtii by .iiiliiiB lluE "all llkiii^.h are Ecrtiicei\'i'rl] ihrouafi
mere pliaiLlasiib iUiwahfiiim.) aud crmjecmre f/jiiijn^." Al-Rii^i, loo, maki:s use of ihe
of rpa-ioiiing. In either case, the pvopoiiilion ■should be subJFfi to the
agroemeni of all ralioiial people. The ^anip should be [rue of ihe
foiiii ijf iliL- pioof Tln'ii-fi]ie. if ii piuof Iras boili cipiidkiu inriEiisci*
and a v;b]iiH ^yllogi^tif fni'm, llipre shniild be no di^^gi'e<^ment nn it^
truth. However, al-RizT iidds;
Hdid ^t)-( iJIcd Mitnn>n!ilralicliia' been in lln'msclvis real iltmcmalr Jlions,
anvimr wIki hi^jr? dnd {■<>n]pri'hi-ii[l3 lhi;m nhouid ai^ctpt ihvvn dnd,
fii?l (if ill], ^ItiJiild n(f( rcjccL ihrni Hit^^i^vrr, miici \\-i- (flfscrvi" thai
whul one dii^imlJiiL c alf;, Mi'uiOnslradcm', anoEhrr dlspulanl ■wJl hear il,
undi'nsldiid il^ but wift rhtii reac b ni>( even a wi'jk |iri'sumpli(iii by il,
wr \^'ll! n'Jiii!' ihiil ihi'^' [hciii^iv nr-r mil in I hiini.i'lvi-;: [!i'nii>ii.ilrali(ini
RjdnT, diL'y 'Acr wtriik |>ri'iiiin('s In ^^hi( b pji-d'iinz<liip dnd scnliiinjnl
drr rcimbini'd Tbcrcftiri', ^iimcdiit will c Idim fhat [his drgunn:iit] ia
^ dtiu'ni'ilrjEidn, jllhcmj^h in it'^lf lE lif imt ?ii
The hctimd and diird ar^uiiiniLs rracli a siiiiiltLr (oikIusluli. AI-RFizI
argues that wheti iwn arginnenls lead to (wn opposing eonrhi'sions,
at least one will, neeessai'ilv, be false. Tliis will be due lo at least
one false premise in the argunieut, which someone \^ill judge to be
self-evident.
This indit ±tvs ibal the mind may judge Ehi' Iriitb of a fallacy lo be
immj-diyi Ef "Iv yip'iduli' . Thi'^hc'lny I he r-A-i-, iKr nilnd'n jiriMTi[mi-i"[Ti*-nl\
AS rr^dTfh scff-cvidriil sljEcmcnLn will brrinric injdinir<dili]c- Thcicftiic,
dll pr<x>fs wUI lie viliatrd [lofiiidii jimiT a!-da!ahC)?^
AbRazT giveji the speeifif examples of two debates, in which i^ach
side clainii lo pioduce conclusive evidriice Tor their po.siiioik' the
ihflologiral debate on anthropomoiphisiii \itiihbik'j and the reduf-
tionism of divine attributes [la'^l]:. and the debate on the nature
of matter between alomists and hylomnrphists. Al-Ra:^T states that
the arguments for each oJ" the two opposing positions in the latter
debate arr very con\'incing and baaed on flupposfdly self-evident
premises. The conflict seems irresolvable; for though e^ich position,
taten leparatelv, appears rational, to accept iwo miLtuallv-exehisive
poiiiticns will be completely icralional.^
^^/rtfl^fl/ji al-indhSai, :i4
'■"' Al'Razl genuinely found ihe deljiie on aiomi^nk anil liylomoqjbiMii liiglilv
pri>hkiiiiiljr In the Mabsiiilh \2, LL— IE}, he Bupporl^ hylnnsoqihism and refutes
almniil ph^'scji. inrluding l]ie fdilarie^ {•Jmblia] and doul^li \<,hakk) thai ili (upprtrleK
184
CIIAPTHK I'OUH.
These three arguments higlJight the view that the mind is alile
lo judge some false opinions as eonsli luting apodictir knowledge,
whith [.AsEs iluubi oil liie vc^iy nuiioii diid po.s'>ibiliiy iif ccHfiiiuy ^l'^
piirh. If \ft'P r:in trii^l" neilher iniiin^f[i:ilp iioi' fli^riii'^h'p kno\^lfdge;
we will be unabJe to afTinn any knowledge ai all' '"'Reason ^^ill be
iiiiderinined'\'^' The seeptiral mode thai underHes these firsl three
cirguments invoke.'^ di.'ia^^reenient {ittamd) among v'iew.s taken by vari-
r>Uii partiLei, fspcriulLy philoiophcrs and ibmloeiaii^: poiiniiig to liic
poor "traek leeord' of rfason in the hLi^tory ofidea.'b.
Al-Riizi's fourth ivguinent is taken from the 'sophists^ mid is one
dial he rites and rejects in earlier worki^.'^'' Il goe.s as tbilow.s:
If wt rcflcrl, ciinUcmpldSe iind [livrntiijali"^ dnd if lollowmi" ihis rtflrc-
llon a cimvidicfji Ll^l^sl:^, ihi'ii oui kno^i'lcdui: ih jI IIii^ c^ln\ll■|lllll ^ iiii-
frilulc^if kntrt^li'djit ciiniKJt he: inmu'didtc •da.7vri)\ fcir lr<i(h fri'qucndy
■urTif oul 10 bt tiintrary to it. If it L\ [said Ici he] dLscursivr (ufl^nri),
il will rn'od LiniilhiT primf; ^ind iiifiitilr recrcfis [\atalsul) ivill fctlloiv,
VL-hidi i. iib.Mird '""
Following from [he ronrlusions of ihe previoiLP argument, thii Jieep-
tieal argument asks lot a particular rriti^rion [hal will enable us to
overcome this general doubl. and to disningiiish some of our opinions
as cciistiLuitijg {.CI tain kiiowlc-^l^, rdthci Ehaii ineic belief^. However,
;iiiy rrilf rioii will in liirn I'eqiiire fiirlher rritpria to justify il, ti'hirh
will lead to infinite repress.
Both ^eepEiral modes, that of intpnninable disagreement and that
of the inJiniJe regress of proofs, have along hiitoi"\' before and after
al-Ra^j, and are both referred to hy SeHltis Empiricii': as being die
two Jii.0^1 baiif .sceptieal strategies. Al-RazT appears here to arrive
jud^rinefLi {Mulaklikhoi, M. ??<ia: al«Q fol 2lfih-226a) He latei adopts iiniai^i
phv'H'ii and rpftile^ hvl'^"S'*n>hi!iin (i' E -^/^flUi/. ?JiR iT.:ArbdTn. 3-17). apjiaifnily
dfdiiratiin; a wruk Hj this subjecl [Rhalat irh^at al-jamha/ al-fard, mpnliniied luAihdm,
:?0 I. (.r. al Z.-»rkaii, l'aLh\ al-Dt'i al-RHiJ, 70j.
^'' Dhuitm <i\-ladhdhff{ l.'i.
"' I Ins IS [eiiimifpiil ol ihf nolioii ill 'xht equiprJIeiife oroppi)£iiiif: pfools' [tnkajii'
•il-i'ddid', Irni llii(, ^pf van F,.is, '^Skt^iliiri^ni", 7) In lliis coiilexl, jI-R ial diie^i not ^rl'ln
li> ui.c Ehf ljlli?r iioiiriiL n'hith iiiiplip^ llie alTinnilirni nf equiv^ciice — soaielhiiii^
lliilj fLi Vb'L inll H-L-, In: in.ty puf^i (■> ii\iji£l
'^^m\<a,[ol L3a; fd. i^X ^'d^ikhJJm'. f<il. Jfih, ,1/jdJifl^idl, \\9- Ma'dtia<. 2i-2:
IhaLq, IdI. 4a.
^'^ Dhom,', a(-tadhdm. :ili
'"' S('>;tu¥ Eiiipiricui Oalhiii> afSfeptkim. I.I7h^-79. CF.Jtiiiallian Barnes. "Snnie
Wayi ill Sci-jjliciiifi'^ 2CiS-lO.
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJaMi-Af IHL\MU AL-LAUni}II^\T
185
iit s;lobal soppiicism, when^b\' people oiilv havF beUers, never kiio\^I-
edge, which li derined in apodircic terms.
Hjviiig pif s<L-iUi-iI Uii^'ii' film '^riiriar diguiiieiiirh, dl-RSiT.'>i.i|ipui[!>
hip flfq'ilirjil ^^ranre with :i '^^iperifir* nrgiiiiieni frmrpriiing ;irEi]:i] ron-
troversies diiifiiig [he main niptaphvsieal .md iheologica] world\Tews.
He Qudine.s ilie following:
1. Atheiridf Mews denj the CKi'ileiire of aprodiieer for the phpical
world, hut fxplaiii its fKLStfiifr iii mic nf dii'ci' w^yy.
(a) Physkiil objefL'^ in this world are nerps.sary in dieniibelves.
(|j) Their existence is pvpponderani lo their non-exisience.
(c) They are lemporallv ni'ifiiiiaied But temporally originated
(Jiin^.s iUj noL ffiifiiin' a ( iiu^c.
2, Snine in:iiiiiain t}i;ii thf^re k mii e^'Jenri^ilU' nprc^nii^iriiig Fir^it
Cause. They adhere to one of two ]:ojbSihle po^sition-i:
(a) The First Cause produces one effect. [Al-RazT sperifieft
most of the_/Sto;yS).
(h) The Fir?t l!!ljii^e may produre more dian one efTeft.
'3, Some mciiiitain that the Creator hiLS choice aiiri considers human
advantage in His acui. They then hdd one of the following \iew:*
A^ith respeet to die pmblem of evil:
(fl) Two god;; cxiit: a ^ocd one, who produtca all good, and
an evil one, wlio producer all evil. (DualLsts).
(b) The wodd came into l>cing when the Soul, out oi'its iqiioi'-
ijice, attae belt iL^elf en matter. All good in the world ii>
from fiod, and all evil is from the Soufs ignorance. lAba
B^r al-Ra7j'.
(c) The SLifrerintf;endtii'eii in this world is not bad^ since God
will compensate humans for it. '^hi'tazilii)
(d) 'Ihe world is prednmmanllv good, and is the Ije-St possible
■world. Not to hd\T rrcatrd it'^^'ould ha\'c been a giTatcvil.
(Al-Ghazall?)
4. Some mainlain that the Creator is a \"olun(arv agent, who
does not consider human ad\'antage in His acts. He .^^ometimeii
dclivt'ift bciitJiLi lo liLiJiiaiL't, soinetiniuri haling. Thr^ fall under
(wo groups:
(a) Some denv prophecy, the afterlife and reiii^iou.'; obli-
gation.
(b) Someaflirm prophecy and religious obligation."^
'"^ mMiiii ai-l^dMlial. i7-y
186
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
If a]-Razi were to remain e onsisleiit wilEi ihf s;lobiil leeplieiMsi implipd
ill hL> picvioiis arguments, lie would arguo tor the in^ibililv li dem-
inifhUaie die uulIi <]f diiv ijf iIu'm- po.siuoiis. This wimld iiii;viuLbIy
Ipjici tf an fKtvi'ine ^igiioslLri^in, u'heiehy evpn rlif PKiFipnrp nf a
creator for ihis worid is not aflirmed. Melaphysifal enqiiirv would
he futile
Ypt al-RdzT iinnipdiatelv begins to iisseiri the "praiseworthy and
hl^ijir\\'r>rttiy aeipffis" of farh poi<U.ifH]. Hr i<lalc^ lliQl llic denial of
die existrner' of die Producer Is "the mosi hemous of all po.sidons,
iiiid [he furthest among them from reason and s;ood scnse^': for the
need of esistenl things for an eJterter may lie proved through the
arguinent fiijiii the i ondii;j;eni-e iff physical olijrtts. AfLcr hrirfiy
ditinis'iiiig these premises; ;il-R^^T notes lh:H ihe^i involve romplev
and obsrnre discusiions- referring the reader to his philosophical
works, particularly ihe M/ilalib}^^
However, for the second, diird and fourth main stances, we iire
not given final conclusions, hut nre s^imply referred to (he \lalahh.
He even stales thai the last position (4b), which he norjnally accepts,
has its ob.'bCjrilie.s and probleniJi. Hence, al-Ra?J rejectn athei.sdc
positions, but pcjintir out that there are many conlb.sions and com-
pile ^itionA to be found ill die invrMigalion^ of other positiotiAj though
his references to his dii^cnssion^ in the Mtitohh seem to siiggei^l thai
some sort of as.iessinenl can be made in reladon to some oi all of
liienu He concludes:
When viKi hdVT" grasped these: lofty stations ind luir, tlcvdlrdprcamhlrs.
and ilJHi'ci Iked wlkdl iiilrk^Lc pioblrms diid ubscurr ubJecdoLis thai itdth
involves, v'lu u'lll reiili^<' ihyl ralE-iiiiin;;] (4:rlai]i knciu'lrdi^r ii< dilTic iih,
aiid ihdt ccmclusft'tntih!! in ejfh lupic, such thdl it btc i^iiic^ frj'e Irom
[prupCndty fin fui Llicr] L'oiiLiiiiLi^iii und COnrudiiHi, la vciy urC- Ad
5urh, ihi.' yeaminc ls se\cn^ the: privation pn:Vdilfnt, the inslrumml
&trhle, and tht gi>iil insuperahtel
Certainty may thus he attainable, yet rarely and nith 'great difficult^''.
In relation tn the almost absolute and global scepticism oJ the Jii'st
four argumcnL'i in this aeotioii of Dhai\tm <il-ladbdkdt^ the Hecpticiiin
expresserl here appears c|naEifierl and restricted. AI-Ra^T then writes,
ill fonckisioii to Dfiamm al-ladkdkni
'''^ mar'„>i st-hSidha\. 40' rf. Malallb. \. 74-^0.
''" VS.Mamib, \ 77-100; 4, S7S-97
If yi)ii ri'c (igjiisc Eln-s<' condili^tii!. si^nscirv pli'^i^arl^d wilf bcc unit vil<'.
dmi ini:i^nali\r filc-a:<un;!. ivili bri^onn' iiltn'ct. A'v ibr JiiEciF^^c.LUdil plca-
:!UJ"rs, tJn'H' will ln" mi ■wjy to jlldin ihi'in, itppnuch lliiTi or rclv
1H1 Ehun B<ir ihcsi' rc^ii^ciii^ \vi: s-iy Wtiuld ihjl wf had n'nidiiu'd in
jjiinKir(li:ii iiiiii-i'xiili'nc<'j Wiivild Ehal %/<' had ncviT m-<]i iIli^ viorldl
Ani! would ihjE [lie s(i\A hjd nc\<-r ln'i^dinc alE^chcd lc> ihis l]i)d\J <!!)n
this ihi-iin' I F,'^;
EnEjnglcnu'nl, ihi' acmr uf mmtiv' pursuit,
M(j>l humiiii cndj^iiviiiir is bul iirayin^;
Our ''oiiIj^ iirj- (-■^IrrinBrjl JV'tm our horlir?
The vicLd uf our world, but harms and luni;;
All ivt'^'i' gdinci! Iron a Iili'Lony n-scarch,
[•A Villi rjillriTiny qiuH^lnkns iind SHyinif;-
Many a inrtn and dyn,L\ty have wt sivn^
Thai all quiikly pi'rishcd and expired;
Many ,1 miiLntainl<ip wa'^ siirmdiinlrd.
By ini'n, whi) pcfishrd, -yr.t iht niounlains
fftniain.
in:
Know ihal afEcr dc:rp pi-nf^tr^tian inio Ehc-sr defiles^ and dcRin^ drcpLv
{idiimiiiuij; m <"cpl(irinij; thf si-c ri-li of ihcst" maEkTS, I have fiiund Elir
nuisl fctrrcLB -ind d<lvanE-i^c:tius [mctliod] {af-afwafi al-aalali) in rhis
rri-ard Id lie Ehi' nir^Ehod ol Ehrt hi)ly Qiir'an [iarifai al-Qur'an], thr
nciL>li' Furqan, ■whah \i tht abanddiimrnl of dtivLng iki'ply. and of
inli'mrn" the CTiiatcin^c of ttn' Ijfird i)f lln' VVcirlils frriin ihr divisicin^
ckf biidn's in \hv lii'jvtn\ jnd Eht I'jrih, and ihi'n prrn [aimiiii" ihr
gcuEiiiiCLSd [<»f GpchI] III Jic iiifuiiiiLuii C^tCat lai-niiihiilavhii fi I-li/^Tni\
wilhoiii vviidmi" inIo dtlaiR
Thus, I ri'did, iin di"dinEhr<ip(iiLnir|^L.^ni {fofu^ili), [Ccid's] sayiiijr^ "God
is the. Biilf-zsuffH-irLiI diid viJU drd tlic ncctly'^ Hi:: .'dyiiij^, "NduuliL
is d.s His likrncs..^','^ and His ^aviii- ^'Sav Hr is Cod, i\iv. Onc'V^^
And I ri:ad, on tin' alhrmatign [of diviiii' alEiihuLi^s] \ithbai), '^Thc
'"^ JiifiSfii /t//tfai'i ai-'aipiS^iiji!. liuerc;iinj^y, ihu llm^ cclioci two toidFWuiIci — dl'
RazT'^ ftwii -VZ^Jitf^ ai-'uip!, aitd al'Slialira^liiifs ,.Vj^a^ d-a^Mm — an apparenlly
embolic puir.
la? Meier" loiM Cf rhf fftllnwiiig Pei^iaii qiiiirr;tiii flirriljiKed rr> him (qiirtred Id
LrarL^|j|i4iii tiy Sey^ed H. ^asr "Fakhf al-Diii jI-Rj/I'\ %i%. wjlhrial reference)!
My hi'arc was iii?tpr di^pnved ol" ^ji?iif!'
Tlii-ff LI IiILIi. nf ih" iny^l''-"if-'i llial 1 tlirf iirpl undiT^laLid.
¥fT ■n^^Tuiv-iwii yi-ar¥ 1 rh^iui^hi riighi ind day,
Vi'i J came lo knrtw Ehat n^tlhii^ is l<i bt kiiiiKn
tJne piftbleni m Iheup lines, hrtwevfr, is iliiii al'Kazi difrJ ill il^e iff ill .sl\I>'-iwo
1^^ Qur 47'3!i
'"^Qui 42'll.
I'° Qui. Vl-2.\.
isa
CIIAPTHK I'OUH.
Bcncliiicnl i? cut^blLvlird un ihc Tlirdiii'' , Hi'v i<dyinii^ ''Thi;y frjr
[ln-ir Lend almvj' lhi;m'\"- aiicC His ;,aving, "LIiilu Him ^Jiod wiirds
asc.fmd''. And I read, an ihal all i^ frrini (Sciil His i-ijyin;i "Sjy^
all ii frjun Ccid*'. a]]d, cm L'xallin^c" Him -Lbf>v(' uhdl li' uijpprQfiri-
iiti', His sd'vin,!", "WhaU'vitr irf ^KJii bi'fall.s voii, il L^ from Gut, anc[
■ivhali-vi-r iif ill ln'f-ills ytiu, il in Ironi ihyni'lf ' AiicE m> tbrlh, Ijy iKii
iamc nilr (^awan).
J ii^iv, riuiii ihr dcpUi iif my liidiE, ami Llii^ iiuiiosi cif my mml: I
cdiiiinii lliat jII llidt is mosi prrfrc^l, nn>!il virliicms, ^ri'ali-M Jiid [rii)-,E
gloiioua pcrljinpi In Ycnj, jtuI ihal Ytiu jrc I'xjllcd alKtvc aJl thai invjiLvjts
diilLiE ui iiiii>rirr< Ili>ii. I iiniQiiii llii^t iiiv Jiiiiid iiiid i iriiiirii'Lt'ii^krii
fall sln>r[ (if J[tainiii5i ihc Irut rciOily of a aiii^yli- a([im i>f Elir adJiTi! of
Yciur iTf'jEuri-n. And 1 rtrnfirrn thai I ha\c: faitrd In jiraLsr Yciu with
Yi'lidL In fbls Ytiu. FiPi i-ulin'li-5 mi <>l 1 i(lii-i tA Liv" Lypcs, llicv I'ilhi'i
CNp<niiid aUnbuErn <if iTiJ|f'nly 'jn/iif), vvhic h is I'satticiir CjicJ jIkivj' ■vvlul:
F indppiiipriatr, or txptiund aEtrihutirs of hfru'lirciKc {iJcdm), ■wIjh h
B atlrLl>uliikL> til Gdd Hi!i ln-lj[g tlv •rrvntitr i»f ihuv Vb'i>rld. Vi:l tin- fimE
invnlvi^s uiigrariouiiitns in scinn' r<;:spi;i-|s^ for if d iiijn (rll;! a kiiij^j
"Yuu arc nOl bfind, deaf, or li'pri)up"s hr will dcatrvc rrpnmand and
CO n fint' nir n I A; for iht' '<L'i-c>nd, il linitli't". uiiyr Jiio u.'TH'i.'. fur jII fhi'
pi-ilti^liijns <if c rr'jEiin's jri' ini|if'ili'c imm in n^latiiin tn ihi' Clri'aL(ii'&
perfection; hence, tKiiiJuiichni^ Ehr Citator^s prrfcrtujD uninir iclativc
iMriliiili-^ tViAt rt-\-A\i- [Hljiil tn j-rciitiirr* invdli^'-'i iin ifVyi' I'niMir''?? .
O, Lcird of mighl' 1 jdmil ihdt I am ini^jpalili' of prdising ^'i>u
CKi^c'pl ir ciEhfr oflhtsi; Iwo ways! And I ditinil EhdE neither btlit Yciur
majj-sty and mif^t. \rt 1 am as ihimjjh ("vc M<iil>l4^ fi'r I know naught
but (his, and I
dim unE
abLc 1(1 find anylhirn^ ;!U[H'n(>r Eci il
un
The beginning nf ihiii slcitj^nn'in k by fiir the most explicitly pps-
.■sunistic statenienl to Ijc frmiid aiiyu'here m al-Riij'J's urilings, ^uid
is among ilie most extreme espre!i.^ions of pessimism that can be
found in medieva.1 Arabic prose. It remains surprising even ai. a
foiiclijuifni lo the pe.'bsimislir trend throughout Dhamm oi-iadhdhGL
And indeed, ibe inlerenl of this suteiTieni, which clearly expresses
il genuine sentiment aiid i^iiiceie conviction of it^ audiDr in one of
Liifi laiesl icils, made paria of it diiiong die imjat frecjucnily quoted
piece.'; of hij; wrilings.
I" Quf. i'J'LO.
11^ Qiir. 4:TS.
II' Qur 4l79.
II' /Wj-i",r,] aU^rAhM'ir, A-^-'i.
No^v, the sreplici-sm preseimcd in Dhsmm al-lodhdhai will inidallv
itppear inronsi^terLt. The first four 'gerher^il^ aigiinipiit-i iinjily a sweep-
i\i^, i^lobdl stepiiii^iiv yei lliey ±n: fullowrd Ijv ,111 cxpitrhiikjii of d
signifirflntlv mildrr aiirH ninre veslrirted sfeplirism '^riip l^itlir sr^inre
does not exriude the pos.sihility of airiving at knowledge in rational
thfology, bill roniiiderjb it to be rarer ant! mueh more diiFicult [ban
normally ljelie\'ed to be tbe ea-se. However, tbese two trends inav
iiol br as conlradiclory iis tbry ncciri. The firi<t [bur ai'^^nnrnts cua.
he seen to represent (riither stelehy) attarks on the notion otVertain
knowledge, hut do not necessiivilv lead In a rejection of Ibe assertion
ol more or less justified beliel Despite al-Rail's disillusionment with
pbilirMjpbieal and ihrtflogieal piiisuii. hi- dufi inn 1 <jik liidi' ihai ii is
eiiiirely futile ;ind that it r^ilh for rhe tornl sn^pf ii^ion of jiirliiFisient
{tawaqijuf). Indeed, his contention that rhe 'way of thf Qiir'^n^ is
superior indicates that the difference is one of degree.
Scfpticistn in tkc Maiiilib
Wc may le.si. ilic abo\r iiiEerpreiaiiun of ihr aeepUciaiii expirssed
in Dhanim al-iisdhffkai bv considering relp\anl discuss ion*; in the
Ahtafib, most importantly its episte in o logic ;d introduction, written
shcjvdy before Dhfimm ai-ladhdhat. Tbe liook opens wstb a section
entitled "On explaining how this science [i.e. tbeology {al-'Um al-
liaifl^ ul/tuia^'oj] is cbc bcsE of aU sciences ab'solutcly'^, vhich clearly
expresF^es s fa\otirabIe \iew of pbilosopbical ihenlogy — hardly a
sign of scepticism.
Tbe following lieciion bowever, is entitled ''On whether diere
is d way f(ir huni.iii iiiiiidA tci altiiiii ccilaiiily {oi-jajim nia-l-yoifiiij in
ihis science, or whether it suffices with respect to some of its top-
ics and questions to accept what is most probable and iipl [al-awia
WQ-l-Qkhlaq).'" AI-RazT beie argues that certain knowledge in manv
(rather than ^sonie') important tlieological questions \s unattainable,
and tbat one sbould be content vi-ith the most probable coiirlusioni:
in tbeni. He advances several arguments for tbls stance.
Tlie firsl line of iirgiimeni is ihcit our knowledge of some items
that should hf amone; the most evidem and immediiiue ohjecm of
knowledge Eo [jui iiiiibd't ii hi^lil^ dubious and pn>blriii(iiii . VVc may
'1' MalabK I, '17-64.
190
CIIAPTHK I'OUH.
l.no\y of them {'ilm), but we <:a.nno[ properly undersliind and ronreive
Uifni (ma'rifa).*^'^ It follow.s ihat rmr knowledge ot'les.'b evident items.
iiiduiliii;J diviiif iiaiiLie. musi Lie iiiudj sm\irr obscure diid prcfljleiii-
:irir, and rlinl oiii' mind*; m:iy only altaiii proIi;ihle hfliff lit ^iirh
cases, never certain knowledge. Al-RazI eonsidei'.s thin argument to
he hased on an indiirlion from numerous parliruljv rasen, of which
lie provides lour illLiiitrati\T examples: knowledge of the nature ol
die ^rlf, lime, ^pjce and |.hf prinfiplc^ of ,e;comrl.iy.
He fii^t armies ihat the kiioviiedoe thai i^ i^ujipospd tft be the clt^av-
est and most immediate knowledge to the indi\idual is that of die
iiiituL'e ol' his own sell'. Presumably^ this tdllows from hi.'bVieK' that one
Knuws iiimirdiaLelv ib^iL 111;, ^rlf esisLi. Yei ihi'i knmvleilge in of die
iirinrtst obi^f iiriTv and nnferlaiiiTy; for many ronflictiiig iheoiie*; on
xhr nature of man and ihc human JhOiil have been adv^nopd, involv-
ing complicy ted discussions, \^]iich lea\"e the mind bewildered. '^'^ So;
how could it be claimed that one Li able to aiiain certain knowledge
of diing^ dial: jre episterairnllv remote? Moreover, a theory of kiio^^^l-
edge .i^hould rely on a nolion of the nature of ibe self, which \^ die
knowec. If the nature of theknowei is unknown with certainty, then
die notion and integrity of knowledge itseifwill come into que.stion.
Our is yrmindcd here of the rommoii virv. whirh al-Razi rxprcsics
freqiLenlly, thai kno^ving God presiippn^^es knowing oneself. The
same argument is advanced in Aii^i ai-tanzU, followed by two lines
of Persian poetiy from Sana'i {A- ca. 5+B/l 152):
O thou, who art iii(.onipi'li:nL E(i know (hiiii' <nvn luturt, hovvwiU ihou
cv'ci tnow Gudi* Siiicc ihou an ilk jjiablc of kuifwiiiji tli^^df, liuw vrili
rhou bctcime j kno^'if^r (if ihr OniiiipGirnI? '■
A1-R^7T then iinder.'^rorp'i Hie infer mi ii;i hie contrnver^iie.'; on the nature
of time, space and matten He concludes, with reference to the la.'it
controversy, which is already cited in Dhoiitm ai-liidhdhnt\
WhcicTci txjmiiics ihat |fr<ililciTi diiil rcalii<i\s ihi' .'vln'ii^h rif each
adt i tvidi:in.f will kiictw ihdt the niijid will ntceisarJy tulminjH' in
"^ Ditlhk dj^liiictinu helweeii 'i&ij and mdnfa, ff. al-Taluiiawi. Ks'k'Jiqf, Wltfrifa';
"^ Mamr>, I, 4i-r>.
'-* CI. p. mi-7 •.vptii.
'^' E.^_ Ri^t/i fi l->ush frtl. 2a.
'^' Aster al-lais^l). 141-?; tf. SanaT, Hudiijal d-hai^Tqu. 61: M Sdplierisoii'*; Iran^-
ptrplj-^ily :inc! lu'wilili^rmcnl and in [hjving to] acitpl vAiM fs prob-
dblc dJid apt.
Thii, induflHin slurvvs ihal, in it alltmpl Hi undcistand ihr nuist cvidc Jit
c>hj<:i-|i of kmiwlrc^', (lii' mind wH] fulminjti; in ulk'r pcrpli'xiE^ dnd
Ijc wilder mens mai/d alhayFa u:a-l daimfia] and \\i\\ han' Ech ai^tcpl vvhdl
is proLidbEi' -ind api. So hciw do \'(iu R'tkun [In- [niiid nil] fdrc ■when it
[drli'ni[i[!i] Eo -nccnd Ut the ^-Jtrs (if Crid'ii grc-al[H'^s^ jnd vhi'ji it Irics
t(i iSi^Im^ iiiLd LiivczrlLgdEioii^ (if llii^ iJdEUJi^ of Hjj [alLiLbuLi:^!'^^'
Aiiolher es.;iiin3le thai al-Ka-^r then provide.s is Irom ocoincli)' \%hifh
is srrn as one of the nioiil r>:af[ and rigoroui ratirniiil di^'riplinf^.
Although Euclid, affording lo jl-RazT conleiick thai =ni inliiiite
iiLiniher of regular polygons may be conceded, he weli; only abk
to actuaUv dpnioiistrate the fonstrurtability (i.e. b\' the means of
<;oii:i}iasfi diul i'Lilri uiiJy) uf five: ihr rqiiilaEeivil Liiaiij^le, [hr hqudie,
the p<?iilagnii, rhp hp';:igon^ and the peiir;idpr;igfin [rhc polygnn of
fifteen ibide'i).^-' Demons irations of the coiistrucliLbilit^' of two more,
ihe heptiigon and the nonagon, \^eie later atlempted by ipefialists in
eoiiirii, bill the consliiK'tabihty of other regular polygons remained
unprovcn. This shnwei, al-RazT aigiic^, that rca^'ion has a sc^^ro
bandicap in understanding some of the most lan^ible, hasir and
prftsuniably rational aspects of the nature of this physical lieing It
\r likely to have an even greater handicap in iiiidi'iMaiiding di\'lne
iiaEuic.^^'^
Al-R^zT :i\Kd :idvance!h the foHciwing ni7[in :irgiinient The fnnrp|"i-
tions (lamii-iviif) thai maybe perceived bv reason, estimation \ittihiii]
and imagination are of lour tvpes: f^ij e^i^sences perceived through the
five pbysica] .^^enses; (b) esi^ences perfei\"ed internally and imiTiediatelv
ill die self, such as pain, pleaijure, hunger, jov aiid anjj;er; fc) essence'!
that are pcrrei\'ed by the mind innately, such a.s conceplions of exis-
tenee, non-existence, oneness, mill tip lie ily, necessity, pos!bibilJty and
iniposiiihility; and (d) essences that reason and iniagiiiation combine
[rakkabii) from llic nimplr oascncrs of ihr thixr prrviou.s typcu. Sincr-
it ^ill be impossible for reason and imagiiiation lo perceive anything
other than these Cype.s, aURazf concludes el.sev^bere that human
'^'' lam jraEeful XfTfr Si^rfiaBrpiilje^fi^r iiifomiiiii; ini: ibjl in fact Euclid does iirit
make iLe cliiin ibal Jii inliiiilc iiumher ol ri'gulii' pdvi^ons may he ffniri'ivfd.
'^'^ Cf. Jan H^i^feiMliik, *'GTe<:k Jiid -Vialiif C-iiistnulidii.s of ihe Ri-^Lilit Hep-
tagon".
1^^ Malabb^ I, 44- fi.
192
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
coiifpplions ciie alf self-evident [badlkt}, none are acquired [kasht.
mukta^ab)}'^' Therefore, if one is io afTirm ihe slatement^ ^'Tliere
<kfes iioi exLil a paimer foi GofP^ one iiri^dh lo lidve a tinn:e|iliini
f>f 'pai iner fni' florl'. He ivill have :i fonfpplirm oJ '^p:irtner' in ^onip
conti^xLs and a. general conception of 'divinity^ (fil-iloh\ So lie will
he able to combine boJh "lo conceive the meaning of 'partner for
Ijocr.^' and Eo conclude that ^'i[ i? iiicnnceivahle lor a thing to eKi^^t
dial ihr rrlalion of whifh |.i> God is similar lo ihc irljtion of my
piuliier lo me''.
Al-RrizT argues that the range of passible coiiceptions diat the niiiicl
may perceive restricts the lange ol powihle iisnertions [tdidiq] thai it
will be able lo malie. This recalls liifh ii^udl iiimoii of 'arnriiiufr as
fnn*iLS|ing of ;i romhin^iHon of roncfplioni wilh :i jndi^enienl {huhii)
in either a fiirniation or neg^ition. Witboul having theii consliluent
conceptions in mind, true and meanijigful slEitemenLs of assertion
cannot be made.'''" In other words, they would be nonsensicaL
In tlie prnfesi' of intellectiial reflertioii {imzni'i- oi thought (^.i'), the
mind \\\\\ only acquire assertions on the basis of other assertions.
^\ hen the mind considers problems ol'a high episteniic oi'tler, such
3S those relaling to divine nature, it will still use the same above types
of cniicrptioii in its dcdurtioiis Yet, siiifi' divmr nature is dilTfixnt
in all re.ppecl^; from die^e conceptions, both 'iimple ;ind combined,
i[ wil] be impossible to make slateinents of assertion that refer to i[
essentially. Tliis seems to render mosl statements on divine nature
as effectively nonsensical. AJ-Riizl concludes:
'-' Mamsh. I. 49-i(h
'^* KiiDU'lfdg'', Jl z,bQQld ha TPfaCi?d, i.'i defined i^ an iipodictii: ^Ealeinenl nf
iL^H^nioit dtiil i"ii4'^piriL4l^ li» ii-jLily, ti' lii-rtzLi itmt'jpiilLilii .iI^Li-iii'^ilI^ iiLty luif
.ililulfi bi'lieH,. Hi pipsumplii^iis, dpjieiiding rwi lEic degree of c oniTf tion one lias m
ilipin '.Muinkhkhiti, IdI. li.'jj).
Mubas^al X-^X. Ma'ahm. 1\.
L.1-]
Dtl divitti: ^lll tbitK i:
[Hi^l es^enee." Abii Hjtliini [jI'JiililiEiT| will sav- ^Btiiic; kiiiiwiui( ^Jalimm'd) and
Lii-ing [irtvierlul {qoAii^a) c^uutiX hf inid tii br: exisieiii <u iirm-CMLMem, kiiovvable
<i[ unkn^^wahle " WoiX ^nz^ible iiipii ,ifl:fi'e aa ihal hi^ ^ivinp is false.
Y<n\ nffe.ii^rily, e\'ery a^erlirm lid^ if lie ^jreri'ded bv tonceplinii. So, iflhi'^f
IUr''> allnbali-^ 3i& nrnl cnitc^ iv^d, il will itol hi^ uii'^^ibli^ tr, ni^inUitt litsl Ixnih aie
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJaMi-Af ItlLXMU AL-LAUriiU/,! T 193
Mincl-i fall i<hcn1 of knovvin^^ Him, and pcurplirins dci ni\t fcilIi Him.
Rjlhcr, [ln' hi^n-!il iiim |f(ir ri'jsijn] is Eh-il if we piTfri'^'f ihc: mfjiiiiii"
of ^prrfi'c tn>n* jni! 'impi-rfi-c doii' in ri^l^ilion lo (iuiwKts, . . wc vvilL
uniliT^EJinl ihc miMiiin^ rif *|HTfri[i(in' iind ^impi-rffc lioii' ds such.
For Ehi' unciinililiciniil [{■(jnci'pliiin] \mutkiif) \% furl i)f ihr csscniit of
the ronrhliditdl {i7siiijay\ad\ [{■oncfpliDiiJ Tii Ehiih \\a.\ ihi' mcdiiiii^" of
'prrfitclickn' anil 'iinpi-rfcctiiin* nidv he pcr(ti\t'd. If ■we pi'nc'ivf tht
niraiiiiii^, v'l' iiwy dec cpE e(i dlfiiiri lIh' di^sii^iidtidii ^pi'ifcin' vviih iiispcLL
tci [tit^r], pro\ndc-(l that we jjuri^i' ihiji di'siynalicm of dM roncumilaiils
ji<ji)c i:ilc'cl to il whi-n il jpplira lo us.
M<jiiL pcopli will Imvc imly \S.ii^ iiiiiili kiioivli^diit "f [CIlxl^s] iridj-
C3tv. With thiii rxpldnalu>n, il Ix-c^oincs rlcdr thai hunidn mindii cctnic
t(i achif:vc nothin^i Inil ihcsc- genfral iEceu'^ cjI kniiwJrdgr, which arc
unriiiii'il iJiily m Lurdinv tcr VLihdt u nig^l prub'^bE* Jiiii -w'.^ I111L itipL
mdc'liiil 1'^'
The sreplifism that al-RazI rcaflics in the Matadb finds expip.s-
.sion hi his iiiiincroiis retpvencps lo 'be^^Tlderment iiiid perplexity''
[al-hayra u:a-l-dah'<hfi]}'''' Tlioiigh his sreiitical sliiiirc, \'ipwpd wid:biii
die hlsiuiy of idra.s gfin:raUy, will appear iriilier inudcidir, it h
indeed ^ radical sceptic iin in the coiitf^it of kfilam ^nd fsLnJa. In
ihe wider Islaniif roQlexl^ it was e;fiierally seen thai no les.s than
knowledge, deiined in term's of cerlaiiitv [qoC, ytiqin]._ slioulrJ be
rontented with m difologicai ctEiesiion.'s; lo ihe eKflusion ol mere
belief and pro'<iin]plion {^anii), vhifh roiitaiii an rleinrnl of tloubt
ishakk, .ifmbha) ,\]-Ta ha iiawT, [or example, reeord'b tlie rommon
vievi' that doubl is a sulT^peries of jgiioraiici' [/"itA/I."^ Tho.se who
fa^'oiired a diiruisive appmaeh did so VlIiIi the eonvietion that it
does provide ceriaiiny. TLiiis^ in his cajliei wtiiks, al-R^:^J wrkefi,
wilh referpnre to melapliv^if^, lliat "affirming lArhat i.'; mnsi prob-
allribuli^i. of Cisfnce. Al^, if an all] ibule is iiol rniiffii'fd, iL ivill hdI te passihli'
to a^£en llial il i^ nol rrwiceivi'il lor our layiiie, " i Ins ]s iiul cinifeivi'fJ", i¥ a
pnn|xi.Miioii' and evfrv prnpoiiiion -ijiould bi' pri-f<:dfil by ihi' uiidfisliiiidiii^ of ii^
^uli]LTl and prediralf. AL^o, ^'hai i^judgi^d lo be unkimwablf u, cii'l llit iiv,eiifp, buE
un iillf itiLilf , iii ihi.H alCiiLiuLf t. aiii^l^d '■•li, and uiitl Lo In iii>l 1:0111 rivtd nlticb
is toiinadiciiiiv
'" Maiabb, 1,50-1.
'^^ Er Mfllffhh. ]. 4?; I. 44; 2. 9fi; 4. IftR: 4, 426. where he almofl fJ.-is^ifie^
himself as. our: ol uhi al-hisvta ms-l-dafn/ia. Cf A. Shihadeh, [teview of Iskfnderoglu^
F<iJJ,> ti!-Di', ti/-Ra?J. llTi.
'^■^ Cf. Frail? RozJi'iilhil. Kioa'M^e Tnwpianl, ■iOfl ff.; R Fr.iiiL, ^'Kiiotiledfii'
and Ta^lid", 4'1.
'^'' AI/l"sLaiiiwi, Kaih,hSf, "ShakiT.
19^
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
abk (awl^ is iii^ipl in apodicdf disfipiiQ^'s 'Jajallffa bi-l-qai'iyvdtf\^'^'^
Therpfore, in the Islamic fontexl; sccplical oullooks that rniinidpr
diviiir Jiduuc U] hi; Li^vutid Uii- ^fa^p ij^dLsi uirhi^r [r=Ls<jiiiiiii i»]iiiiiLlly
lead to ihp Inlnl rfjt^rlirni <if i'iri»^nal ili*-f>l<ig\' ;iiid niPtajihy^irM ;i*i
futilf. Tliis will bp followed by citlifr a sceptical su^ppiisioii of judge-
ineiil {t/iwaqqiifi^ or, more coninionly^ by the afceptaiice of an alter-
iLcilive epislpniology, be it scriptural^ eEhOleric, or iraditioiiEiI. ' ^^
Hoiv'f\fr. ihcsr two oiilconir^ aro not logiraliy nrffssary. For
j^cpptiei.'bjn, lE ha.s been argued, ma^ lie ehararlcriscd h\ two disdnet
feature!^: a ihe.'^i.'b, asserdng ihe iniposiihility of knowledge, whieh
can be eilher global or resli'icled to specifir classes of knowledge;
and A I rt oiniiii-ndaiion [liai one oiij^Eii [if hiiripriid judgement.
These rwo ^r^irpTnpiits, the 'i^' i*.v\d die 'oiij^hr*, are logif;illy iiiHe-
pendcnt of <;acli other, as the theiLi is nfit sufTicient lo ju.sdly die
recommendadon.^ '^
Now. in the Mafalib. al-Razi goes again.st the ciirreni trend by
putting forth a rpstrirted i^feplic^il the^'ii'i: yet vvilhoiil rerom mending
ail aiitoniade .'busijension of judgement. He cnntends diai althouj^h
knowledge cannot be attained diicni'sivelv with rej^pecl to many
dicologicai tjuestitins, theological veilertion may still show thai some
iioii-api:>Hif dc throlo^ital slalcnicnts arc more justified and more
plansible than olhevs When the mind is iinahle tn anain apodinic
knowledge in relation to a given theological problem, it mav Iiave
leasoii tn aflirni, lcntali\ely. the moiil probable^ plaujiihle, or apt
[aivlQ, akhlaq, mhbafi] belief (or eonviction) that il can attain, uhile
rpcojni^ing iti fallibility. Tlii^ po^iidon, whifh al-RazT iidnpts ai thu;
late stage, explains ihp ■heeming contradiction in the third Jiecfion of
Dhaiism fil-iadhiiM!. noted pre\'iouslv.
In the A'lutad/r, one liiids thai this .scepticism lead.s to a .^^urprising
cxprcAflion of ihrological lolcraiicc by a thiiikcr who is notorious for
his debating tenacity. Having found ail rational and re\'ealed evi-
dence for the question of the pre-elernity of the world inconcln.'bive,
al'Razi ^srites:
I '3
In farlief WYirki, al'RO^ refulea chew allernalive approaches m fai'mirof ibco-
liiyicd :iiirl nseLdphydcal reflfctiwi l\iMya, fol. f<Hj-5?b; MtJm^ia!. 1??; l?Ji-7y.
'"^^ Gi^la Snikrr. Sttptirsl Siiaie^ui. 5A\ ci Charlotte Strnij^h, Citetk Skipucam,
4
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJa'Ai-Af ItlLXMU ^L'LAUiinii.vr 195
Novv ihdit tlics/' viirums [)(isili(iii> h^w. hr<-n SMinm'ATmcd in ihis niynm-r,
diui ihdi rhr prdti'iMiriliy Jiid bljnu'^ti)nlr>' aspi'c Ls cif each hd'^T; bccjimr
lAiili'iil, jL IIil* |n>iiil ihdit: whit ^irc pfrpli'xi'd ani3 ln'\^Tftirn;ci (!ri/^f7&
al-kaym ivo'l-dsinhii'i ■will ii-iy: Tln^zhC projjfs iiri' in)l v\v-di and slning
c'luniHrh m dispel {loubE (^frfitA:), preclude i"ic[i>cs iind cnli^hicn ihr
mini) ivilli ihcir Mn'nglh and vividntts^ RalluT, iMi^h LH'trj>'s a dcyrrc
cff ohiJiirky. One- vvhci is mcrrnful dnd magnaninmus iJiould cyx M^r
cmt wild I'lii ill z<mli (It fill's. ''"^
B\ ronti'd.il.. aJ-tiha-'.alT. \^ho emergen out ot bi; bript phase oL" chiibt
with \Try firin crrlainlics, drrl^itei l\\v Jalaiifa to be uiiliolii^vrr'i for
maiiitaiiiing ihal the world is pre-eleriial. The altitude of toler-
ance on the basis of doubly which al-RazT cxpres.'bfjb here, was not
uneonimoii in ihe discipline oT Jiqh; yet it was generally alien to
eailiri Islamit Qirohp^y.
ll gfieM well beyond the *irnpe of the present Viidv Tc roii^^ey hfwi
this seeptiral stance affeets al-RazT'-S irealinpnt of speri[ic iheoloai-
Cid and philosopliica] questions J^ So does the examination of hi;;
exEensi\"e discussions in his earliei works of a widp vai'ietv ofseeplieal
Qudoot:^ jiid arguinenls. We .■should iilso leave aside, in thf present
.study which focuses on the ideas, the (probably wnrlhvL'hile) attempt
lo speculate on al-Razl's circumstances or ninti\e& that may have eon-
tribiited to his reaching llii.s .sceptieism. Suffice it in the lemainder of
the prrritiit .subset lion Eo examine briefly the iiiLeUecLLial baik^Eound
to this p;iitiriilar ■;reptiea[ sl;inre [that in mnsl ense.s in inetaphy.sirs,
one may only reaeb probable brlief, ralher than cei'tainty), uhieh
al-RazT acbpts, to llie extent permitted Vrv the exlant textual .sources.
While his exact Lnllueiires eannot at Lhi.s stage be pinpointed, relevant
general trend? in thifi barkgrnund are idenlifiahle.
The .sceptical ari^uments he refutei> in his ea.rlier works, especially
JVduiya! fil-'uqul, the MuhkkkJiai and (he Mithassil. inosdy advocate the
suspension of judgement, eitl:ier in relation to knowledge a.s such,
discuiiivc rcaNniiug generally, or dLscurriLvc: ifaiiining in fiielapbysics
specifieally. Yel one also Vrnd^ cursory references to the contention
that while eertain kifouledge in metaphysics is unattainable through
clijcnri^ive reasoning, .some vieviS may be accepted oil account of hcin^
more plausibk, probable, or apt than oilicrs. Therefore, iiLsteid of
'■"' Mafddb, 4, 45ft. CI Tapir, 2 ^?-S.
' " Oil ^'R.Eizr£ irealiiiizin dI ihe <|ui:slirni of llie eternity cif ihe wrtfld iiL ihi'
M/nalib. ^? EJi ir>:ampli', ■,ce Muainniet Lkeiideir^lu, Fnk/i/ ai-Diii d-Raii: alio mv
196
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
jiLisjjending judgcnipiit hi these ofriisioii.s, one may aJlirm the lIlo^l
pliiusibk^ views'. uliilearknovsleHgingthal it is noE cfilain, but probable
[mulilisjti'i^. Fm cXdiLi|ik\ ilk- Lullln^]ll,^ argLmiriii iii ilic MuUiUiUiu.).
;iHv:iiireil hy :in im^g]n;iry ^r<?plir flgfliiisl al-Rii^T, prnpn^p^ this it*
i\n alternative to ihe trend of sii.spendiiig jurlgeineiit:
In your prc&rnt book., you iiisptiid lucf^ycnunl (lan'tujtfuf] on nidJiy
qm-^doiii, bit auar ot ihr oppi>!iilion ul pn>nrv {ti/arml al-adidu]. This
LI rt di'i'im rti':i flht iiittlon ^l^| Imnu'dkili' km i^-k' d«^' . Fcfr itrfing, iippiji^td
prdofn uifl bi' njiiscructcd of prniii-,!';!. If llic ininil i:^ cctlain dboul
c^LC ]] [ni'misi' aiicJ iiiublc Ki unilj'nnmt' il m diiv ^^"Jy, ihoui^'h wt. know
iin nn'i3 uH'iy llt^l soini' iiir fjl?j- fiiiict il In iiKimc n^jhU' Eh.il ctnlra-
dic tiiry pri'nlL!t3 jrc aJl Iruc-J. lln'ii \vc will iind lha( ihi' iniiid nukes
ccrlEiin and di;ci:!iv<'jucl*,^rif;nl, %viliuni[ hcMldlicm (ir|>nilidbiliE)' {\kfsmSfj^
ii] rc'ljEicm In [j pri'mni-l, diiipilt' Il lu'lnir fjl.''^ 1 htri^fiirc, i-cmfidt'iiti'
Di du' cIi(.i.M\i' jiidjii'mi'ni ttl llic mind will (■j'jui'. WTiich ivill Icdi! lo
Lmiii'rmJnin^L' fl piiim kn(i\tk:clgi;.
Hnu'j'vrr, if ihc miinH I'v alilr' tn niidr'rininc ilny of rbor<r |n-<'ni>'''^,
iu^pniMiin (>f judiri'nii'nl will beaunc unlrnalfk;. One ihm ciughl lo
ihovi thai some iif ihc: prr iniiici of one: adc; drt pnibjbU' \muhlamal\ — ancf
rhr pnihijl'lj' Hiirs niil pni^Hdr rrrrainry — th n'hu^h t;isr ibrrp \vill }ir
mi m-vd lo susjuTid jiidi^tnicnl tsidi ri'^pct I to il.
We may disrern a twofold inspiration for this alternative sceplici'ijn,
which al-Razi adopts, viz. a nietapbvsieal .scepticUbm among some
inatliematicians, and a cun'ent uhirh originates in anrient philo-
sophiral .'irt'pl.icisni.
The nirtapliv'siral seepticisin to be found ainon?; matbeinalirian5;
finds expreiiiioii iii hreptieal argninents th^il al-RazT uses in his laier
wovliS; mo.'bt notably liis Idregobg argtinieiil h'oni proofs cA tJie con-
sn^iKtability of poKgoiis. Il aluo fippi'ars in arguments he citca in
earlier works, such as the following weplieal argument from llie
certainties of inalbematies, recorded in the AfulakhUmi 'whieh^ at this
rarl^ ^I'lg^', al-Razi rejerts). State me iilf^ like "'I is half of 2" constitute
iiiitnediate ki:iovr'ledgc. Bui philn.sopliers use piemLses like '^ii is onty
with a prepthnder^tor that either the [exisilenfe or non-existence] of
die eontLne;ent ibin^ will preponderate^', and 'What appliei^ to one
lliing applies equallv lo its like", which, they claim, coifstilute imme-
diate and certain kiiovikdgf. Il is clear, however, thai these =ire not
as evident as the proposition "I is half of 2'^ viliich the mind will
'■^' Mt^lfiAhii^i^ &>]. aih S4fl.
he 'more renain' aboul. Ye( there raiinot b*^ degr(?FS of certainty,
since ihe very nodon ol' fei'laintv exrlude.'b the sJighlesl probability.
Tlieieftfre, [lit piciiiiiirri ihiii philiiM-jpliers use ^re hue tctuiii."'^
In the .i^'ih/iii^l :ind the Atffiiiil^ ;il-R7ii'.T u'l'ire^ cT^t gfujp of gi-ri-
metricians [flsitkonduun) v^bo accept ibe ase of discursive reajbOning
only in aiithmelic and geomeir)', hut not in metaphvsic:;, where
the highest aim^ they maintain, .should be lo attain proliabte belief,
rtiJifr ih^ii rritainl>\' This rcfcrrnci? ha,i Greatly been linked both
to an acfdiint of a similar view expressed by .some matliematicians,
t^'hich is recorded in John Philoponos' Commentary on the hsgoge,
and to a report of an early dehate belween mathematicians and
mukikalhiis^it^ rrtoidtd bv abjahii. In ibe laEEei, aiilbiiiel.ii idri'>
am:] geoiiietviri;in'i ;ire ?^id In argiie ibal tbe wiv f^^ kulnm re^K rrn
opinion, conjecture, approximations and deluHions, \^heTeas true
science is natural, immediate, and free from inexact interpret a lions
and equivocations. Simibu'ly, Piolemv writes, in ihe ihen widely read
Almag^ii, tbat of ihe ihi'ee dn'i^inn.^ of tbeoi'etieal phii^.^iophy (viz.
ibeolo^', physics and malheinatics),
ihi' fir5[ (wfi divi-iiiin.^ iif Ehi'dri'lical |)liil(i!ici|iliy ^hciukl ralhiT br
c alltd irin'!,iwi)rk rhan knuwb'dirc^ lhc<ikig^' bccju.'j; of iEi cDmpk'leli'
tiiL'Lfible and uikj^id^jjabli^ iialurc, phyi^ics bcxau-sc of Jit: uii^latrlc aiid
untb'rtr iiiiluri- of iiiaEEcr, hen(t then" is no hnpt ihal philosophers
will vwi-r W aj^ri'd jboul ihi'iii^ and that only ■n^thcnuEicv can pro-
vidq duii' au'.\ uii.slukiii.lik' k]iuivU:Jj^- i»r iL^ dcvUlcrzs, piir^itti'd one
approdi'hfj il riircimu.'Jy.
Tliei'e can be bttle doubt that this sort of metaphysical scepticism,
which cescs on a contra:;! with the ceitainties that the rigour o^
inalhematic; pio\ide.v had a direct inflnence on al-RazL^ "
'" Mif'"!^"!, \'22; L-f. Mah^Dl. 1/1. ?fl7; 1/2. +44.
'■'^ Anion IIljiicii "MLirak-illimiJn and MalliLnifLlLciana", G5— 7?, cap. 7?i Joaef
van Eji^ Die EikmiilimiSiie dfi ^Adedaddm uS-fi'i, 21-^-^'- al-JiihJz, Sin^a. ?>!.
' "' Ploli'iny, Alma^^it. it*. C:l F Jami] R^eep, "Freeing A.'<lrt)iioniv Ircini Ph]'
Irtftjihy, 58, \^'liich rile:^ an uiipiilili^licd m^iiuuzripl of d wnfk hy Qutb al-DJn
dl'Shirl^ {d l\itJ\'i\\). VI vvlbifh Pl<^li;niy'i alj^v'f siEalfmeiH is efhoi?d' "Ailivjii-
oiiiy LI rliL iitpblf'l Iif llif -.c ioiicfji. . Tli pnioff eui- L<'tiiii Iricinc "f lHllnb^J anil
^einnplrt' — ihoui uhirh llifir ran bf iir> dnubl, unlike ihi' prrjofs lit pli\?iii Jud
lher>L<^ifV" I Jin ^rili'luL I" IJr rit)ii|a Biciil|fi lor ^ vfiv lii'lplul rl]^<iissii>n vii' Itail
oil ihjs \ub|i^rl
'■'^ ThJ£ nif l^iphviical ^I'plicLsirf liad a paialli'l am^mi; phvmcjans, v^hf found
cfitaLnly in ^ntpiiicidit In llt^ ^Kclufton of itkcUpltyMC^J ^pcrLilal toti Abu H^yv^
19a
CIIAPTHK I'OUH.
Iiidiratiii^ hh oth^^r inaiu inspirjtion for iLis type of rircplioL'^jn,
he nnte.s in the Alukikkkhtii \h<\i he iT;id ^onifwhpi'c ihai Aristode
mainliLiiii'd ' thai one riinno: atlaiii cerlaiiilv in theologiral qufsiions^
and ihal the higlieiil aim in iheiii is; Ho attain h<?]ief affoi'fliiig to ivliat
iR mosi apt and plaiiiiible". In llie iiitrodiicdon of the Matahb, lie
iLitlicateji tliat lip also fount! lliis \iew attribulecl lo rprlain ^inrient
'imminent philosopher';".''''' Aristotle Hops not seem to have ewpressed
litis virw, IjiLL this i-piri[i'inolif;^ii a\ .si,iii(i' was railici' i-^pinisfil bv rifiiur
aiififiit jj7cpiir'^, inrliidiiig incnihers ofihe Ne^" AraHeinv- -\ffii'diiig
to Cariieades, a head of the Academy^ one raimot attain cerlainty^
hut ou^t not to suspend judgi^inent in ail maltevi when 'plausible';
or 'ptobable' positions may be reached. It leniains unclear, however,
hi'Vi diifi tinid ill ciiKiriLl ri< rplit Lsni itatlK'd al-Rail.
In [he ronteMi of klaisiic philni^ophv nnH ihpologj', hi^ :irioplion of
this :;eeptical stance appeal's to he unprecedented Some discussion
of this position coniinnod after him; yet tc what extent it had been
iil-Ta^'hidl ylnsrS. I, !iFl; cf. R-iiilidi Rj.'^lifd, "Qulii ii .\rLiiD|le", 9) refer? to ihe
ii\i'r3ii in llkdL .Noiitf LniLlriiiiiiiiiii Ji:.i Tiimli \i\n.\\ ^itup^ — iiltysi^jdit^ Jiiil iiidllti'iiiiili'
c\an-i — had lnw,in^i inelapli^.'iif.',' "Tlit oiii- *;lur1ii'H jlllle^■^ jikI hejill}!, disease and
nierlkiiie. aiirf ihil one exjniiiie^ ihf sliii and the iitonii Yet iiiiiie lif ihein w\\\
bin'e aifythinj^ (r^ *iiv i^n ^<^iiU iTilelli^i^l or deily. is ihruiRh lhe« [siibjef^l were
fiirbi<ldeii lo lliem, or IJametvorliiy amoii^ ihan.^'
Il Li ii4»^irLk llul a\-V.li/.\. isliu iviDlF al li;iisL Ivl'i>]iilIJ'M witih^ oit iiiE-ilirijii' , -was
jii.'^jiired alsft hi' llin meiiplivsifal sfepliciyn prnpnunded by phviifiJii:^^ wliich he
niusl liiveimmr arirt? (alllLnii^lt wv hiw liiuiidin^ -I'ld^'iifi? in liKu^rtrb. lr> LVinlinik
i\m iiiflaeiicel. F<^r iiiMaure, in On rlu Dorl'/nt< oi Hifif^oera\t< and Plain {hll-^-. wliirh
al'RiJi read (rf .\'sfi, 1\). CSaleii iinles thai wltefciii one fiiiii, many inleiiniiiable
irli^^C'^""'^'"^ am ana plkili^HHnpKi f\. di^ai^iif tnc it la Jim'^ne pliyiirtJiit!i elI4 oflcn
ri'solvi-dj '111 plnlnsnphiH il is not ^urpri^ing llial nimt disigieeineiil*; lnvf nr>l Ijte n
rf^lved, as tlie mailer^ ]l di'iib uilli ^^nn^il be rlearly fudged bv -in einpitrtjl ti:sl,
and ihereffifi' srnne ^ay ihal llu' imiver^' did iiol liave a becinniiiL^, ellieti lliai il
had, uid again ^onte say ih^l ihere i^ n'llliini^ OLilside siirrnnndiiLg il others thai
llictf la Jnfhiiifl III m;. ^iitl of ihf lain e, ■\orac iay llt^l 'vli^l ^hitlou iiria tl in a vnid ihiil
ha^ nrj Mil>.slaiife in it, nihers ihm il is surrftLiinied bv nlher unit'erirs iLunt^'i'iiu^
hi'voiid ralriilaiioii .-.n ihat clieir number rearliei w innniiy. Sith dtiagieensi'iil
caiinnt be Bellied by clear senw-percfplirm Bui ihe ease i^ lioI the ^me when a
di^iagreenifnl arises anion i^ pliy.sieian.', abrnu ihe bent fil lii hami of lenu'dies applied
Ifh thndii':^; pLv?irt:iiis , aX k'j^L r.^ii junJce bv ^iiipirtH:^! U-vX u'liicli of llivm is Lelpful
and which i:, hainifiil." ;Gf J. Barnes "Snnie Wayi of Sceplicism", ?np).
'" MuisUii^id',^ lol. a-ib. '
'^^ Mamib. I, 41.
'^ Ff>r ^oucce^ on ani.iein .i,cepljfal influences on LLiirnr ihniighl generally,
BPe' D. CJulah;, "PrL'-Plolmiriii PhiLfhSophv". 4Qf>1.
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJa'Ai-Af ItlLXMU AL-LAU JliU/,! J 1 9fl
inlliu'iilial on laler Islainir thought remains to be seen J''' It appeam
to have li^d a profound impact on [bii Tavinivva'ii polemics, who
often arguti iliai xhv JulHufa and [in- muldkulii'rtliii tan iMily ir^ith
prp^miipticin^ not cerlainry; vet; for liim, one ^hoiilrl nover ^etllp for
less than the lalter in iheology.'^^
Efdslemolo^cat Fenimimi and Humi^ii Feijection
hi [he thiid serlion of the inlroduelion lo the Moiohh, entitled "On
wlieEhci diifh .sat inl knowlrdi^r \ii-a\ hr aiEahnrtl h\ om- im' nion- nirih-
ods {itinqf, al-Ri^i conleiid;; tlial there are in fact fu-o appro^che^
to this iinm^iedsje. U'he fust is the discursive^ philosophical and theo-
logical approach, whicEi was subject to his scepEieal scrutiny in the
preceding section. In this approach, one may prove the existence
of God only by deduction fitmi fads about crr^icd things '-' ' TWi^
may yield indiierl knoivledge of (xod's existence, as ^se will ronclude
tijat Treated things rec[uiie an external cau.se, without knou'ing thi^
essence diereof This limitation in the discursivf mode of tnouing
Gud in uiidrt.siored in anotlier work, where al-RSii quotes Abn I-
R^i^:kLai al-Bnghdadi a? fnllmvs:
T\n- Ln"Wi:r nuy tiiciiv the thin\; r'i'icnlijIK - <"■ -- nitn-cs'^i.'Iitlallv
imi'Tifa '(iFBdsy]d\. ... Whtn wc: infer tlic existence iif ihc Nf^cciaary
Eaii^tc-nE fnun ihe l'ki.'vIi-eic e of contini'cnE (hin^i, thLs viill be j non-
c^^i-nliLiI Iyi>'^ 'if li.i[o\'-]cd\i('. Fi>r w}!.!! i; Liii>'r''n of El \^iH }>e ihdE It !■< a
pdrlu'uldr csai'nc.c; whci.se nalun- l'v unknown Bui ut timn' Iwii feslure'r
ol U, ^Tz. the: dependence' ciJ dtl eliit cm II, and \x?, iiiili'ptndtnc.c Irnin
.ill rht A.S fcir eT<s<-nliiil kn('\^-|<-Hg<', ive will n*'! \va\t il, ... nrirhrr of
Itfh [tsscDc c [since we do nol know li(nv Its tisenci; is di^linc i), nor of
^pt^c 1^ of l[ji ctiiicnEit (sincr' It is emit jnc! niiii-cumpositci so lis ctsstntc
dcica not cunsiit of pjits).
The second pudi Lo this knowledge, al-RazI tvrites, i< the mrthod of
spiritual discipline, which allows direct and supra -mundane knowl-
edge of God. If one puriiie.s hi.s heart iind perseveres in lecoilect-
{Fitiich Eraii.',. Vahya MwlirH, 'A'aiiili?.^ Eiili'Uerliiflle*". fi07).
'■■■' Maialib, \. .'i'i-4-. Al-Razi iil^o lejecii Ibn 3lii3'^ cluin chai liis inniiil"i"lc^
drguniHil fof ihf enklenee of Goii does not rely on anv empiric^ pifnii^c^ |cf.
Ihii Slna, hhardi, \ W^y-STj.
50O
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
ing (dhikf) Gocl, bolli iiiuardly and oulvt'aidlv, his soul will v^itiiess,
dii'tftly. diviue illiiininalioii and kiiowkrlgf. "Theifl' are .'itacion.'b that
lEian will nu[ fdilimii in diiail {'u/'J ^aM ai-liif:,il) uiiJr.s'i lir diiaiiis
lliem". ■^' f^Tt:!]!!!^; in other (vni'ci^, m:iv onK' hp rc^iriieft ihrongfi ihp
'mediod of spiriliiaJ disripline^ {ianqal al-to^fiya ufa-l-riyada], leading to
spiriliiiil per[f'flion, rallier ihan ihf discui'iiive inelliod, ihe ^nieT-hnd
of reElcftinn and iiiferpiiee' [Imiqaf ai-nozm wa-l-istidiaij. Noiielhe-
}f^9, profifiinirv ni bodi palhi will allnw orn? lo critically asioss ihi-
l^nowledop and ilalions ihal he arri\es at, which will enable liiin lo
recognise piifalk aJong the spiritual path, siirli as believing that he
has arrived at the end oi' the path ^^hen e^peiiencing verv ptAsertlil
anil Liiifdiiiiliar sliilrrh and icveliilnfjis.
Al-Ra^i''^ Tnt'i:iphy*iical .^ri^pncisTn, a^ \ve ^aw, vp'if^ p;iitlv rm tlip
fnlloTving line of reasoning, in relation lo the epintcniic limilations
of inan: (1) conceptions cannot he acquired; (?) the conceptions
dial humans oniinacilv perceive fail into certain mundane t^pes of
e^^ience^: (S) the r^ii^e ormeaiiingfiil sitaiemeiiu; of ^isertion i? deter-
mined by the range of their constituenl perceived conceptions; {4:)
llirrefore, stalemenis of assertion that humans CAtt ordinarily make
will be mundane and can refer to supra-mundane itpni^^ onlv in a
\'cry gciirral iciisc. Thcrcforr, (he in^ibility to attain supra-nmiidaLir
Vnowledoe is not essential to the sonl it'^eir bul is due lo an acciden-
tal limitation in its range of perception, which is di'terinined by die
nature of its assoeialion with the pLvsical body. While the soul ran-
not atlain supra-mundane knowledge disnirsi\ely, it is, in priiicipte,
capnible of direct i.iipra-nnindane perception, when its ailacbment
to the bod^' loo.sens This is ihe only way for the soul to attain ti"ue
dieoreticid [lerfection.
AJ-RazT thus roneludes that the method ol spu'itual discipline
in the sufjcrior alternative (o kalam ans\ Jills afa. and the lohilioo to
episteniolo^eal pessimism and utter despair. Ho^^' then ihould we
nnder'^land his iitnnerous stalements, in his later writings^ thai what
he refers to as the 'method {tanqd} of the Qur'an' should be regarded
as dir ft ii]>eriiji' alien laiivt xnkitlant and fiiiMifi? He luiisLandv de^ciilji-h
tliis method 'ar one thai involves both ihe abandonment of 'delving
deepJv^ {ta'ammaq) into theoretic aJ complications and subtle ries, and
proflainiiiig God^ gifaliiess 'lo the inaximiiin (^xlonl^ {al-mubalfighs
ji l-ia'ijm). This fiiiHs cxpres.'iion in th<' dliovf-tiuoted conrliision of
Dficmiiii al-taiihdhiiiy'^ drh ^rll ,ls hirh Llsl [fiiiimjnv {Wa^iyvit), (tkiaic^d
nx \u% KicVhfd ^hnrtlv bpforp hi.t; rte:illi:
I Ini^d ihr mc'lhctd'T of kalSii ^nilja/'a/a, and I did not find in tli^in
the pn>fil vi^hich I fituiicE in the i^rc'dl Qur'jn; for it taU^ Id dstnbmg
Jil] gri-atin"v3 [ind m^ijcjlv In ticid, dnci prf'vcii[j (V<ilti il[-l\'iiig di'i'plv
in In [hr nrj-'m np^lion ii.t|}i 'iIiij'' liiins ^rn! (■'iJilr^dc' (i'lT' This i'' uo
cmlv hccaiiar of Our knowledge thai hunid.n minds c'lmc lo iiolhing
diiui lade dway in IhtM' trctachcrriu.s dtlilra and hidden ^^'dv^ ' *^'
The same view aJso appears in Book One of the Matdiih, where
he slaie.S; "\\'hoever ahaiidoiis ohsiiiiacv and fxperiences the like
of niv expd'ienfe will r<?;:[li;;c ihal Unilh ii; a^ I \\-j\-o de*;rribed"'-
Bui whai is ihe 'method of ihe Q}ii''a.ii7 And in \Atsi way is ii a
superior alternative?
For this, we need to re\isit al-RazT's later theory of piophery.
Rcvrlatioii. he argues, will have ^pii'ituailv transform ^livi^ fealuvps
in \Vr. Myle and content that are ideal for perfeelin;* hiim^n souls.
For inslanire. ihe 'method' of revealed religions generally, and Islam
in partifulai\ is to aEtvihute all perfertioii.'b to God and to exhort
pei>|ile Xf} piinlahii His gn:£L[iiess [o the maximum exieiiL — niatiily by
affirming nrii'ihiiri^s of majestv {j^l^l} and henerifenee {skrnni\ — v^hile
avnidiii;! intricate theological problc^niii, vihich may eau'^e eonfu.'iion
ill people \s minds. It will then prohibit believers from ^delving deeply'
into tlieologieal details of the various aspects of God's greatness and
divinit)', ^onie of which ni^y appear irrecontilabli::. Thrir and t^thi'i'
transformiilive features of pi'ophpcy eorrj^spond to al-R^izT's descrip-
tion of the method of the Qiir'an This i^^ described in his Avidf
al-(aiizii, ^here he coinmeoLi on i,^\ 7:54-5^ as i'oUows:
1^^ Gf. p 107 8 m^Fiz.
'^'* iVasifyn, fi40. Einadf murh uif ofTonv Slreel's Itanslation {"Lifi? and vi'firiis''.
1S6-7).
^^'' Msldllh. l,?:?fi. IhiiTaymK'v^ii.YufrjdUiufl^, 5?--3;cf Sys/'. I Ki^)- f>Ojsoin<;iiins
hiehli^liis il'RaTT^ ^ci'pnri^ni by blriidiiia ihe'^f nv<^ Maii-mi-in.iaiid i\\i: irnirlu^ion
<fi Dka'H:!! iiZ-Zn^li^hm IiiomIv. "I liavi- t on Ifiiipli li tl lh^- iiv lliod.' ii( ka/iiiw .ind ihr-
.■ft'^H'iiii cii Jal\afa, and liavi? nor frmiid iln'iii cj|>^ilf' ol ruiiii? ihe ill ia qufiich-
brifl l]ii? llnrsiy. J liav'f lijumrl llio ini>sl. iiiLiitcdi^tli' im-llniri lr> lie Hit mtllirfri nflfie
QLir'iii. 1 read iil alliiiikalinii. [elf ^ee p. II17-H mlim] \'V'hoe^'er fxperisiice? ihe
like f>f my fSLpi?rienrf vvill realise llie like [ifmy ir^alisaliiin.^'
i''i Cf. Matallb, I, 2Hi.
502
CIIAPTHK FOUH.
His idVLii", '%'('rily, Hi.s Jtc ihc: cri'alicm and [he {■(immdiicl'^ (ontiniis
a rrmaj^kiibli' sccn^l. £iiid a |>n>fnurnl WL'^dcim^ ridmcly, ihal if yiu \^i[-
lU'MS sij^'v of [divine] guMTimii^' and ([i";i!!n in the v,iri(iM\ |>arlz< (if
ihi' lii'j^Tiis, ihi' |>ldm't;! and ihc urtli, vciur hedrE wilt desire t(i know
ihi' a^piTli! of \^isd£im in rath iinc of ihc-in in lii^ldit fiiifi mbil ai'[af\'sl}
]| vviil ihi-n in' !^JLd tii ytiu: Hdlt al your Icvi'l, do nciE ventuR' lic^imd
jiiur limits, ncir plunge: wiux mind inio an c-ndii'^s cinan, nm ii-l off
lo suiniimiiE a ^umiiiil-ks^ iiiiriiiiLaiiu iliu desiri^ L(i falhdtii ivhaL i^
dbiJM; your unci<TMjniiini", imagiiialion, mind and isiiu!] ^uu an' ntil
one of ihoae ^ho could atlain ihtst illuminatiDnn Rarhi-r, ddinit ycmi
an apdcilt, liuiiiiliLy, jlkI .sli4?iI^inLtJiLi', Jikil Eiii#<r^iiiL llic [i< ifi-< I Eujjc-sly
and alliniaEi gri'dtnesa of ihe Cri'jtor of these bi-in;ii -iuniinarLiv ('i?/fl
safnl iti-^maHj-. onA say: "'VitiIv, H]s are ciTtdticin, coninjand, viisdom^
iiiii'liL, I'^^ltriJiLi ^^ ilimiiiiurii ajid ^i I'ali lc .s.s bli'j^n] ]ji' (j^il, llti' Liiri<i<rr
ihi' '^■Dild^, H[' who *io\i-rni iilE Ixiilic^s, si>u1s, Jii'ilicr licin^ and Io^yjt
brings!'* Havin*^ alijnd<ini-d wadinff inlii ihiiic di:iaiis and rc-cchjini^'d
ihia crpatjn":^ !iuin ni iirilv^ :il tliiii aIju!'^ \i>ii ^hi»uld return lo vimrci'if
and cOnJidtr your incd|>acit\ and sliiirtcoinin;!. Ther busy ^'oursrlf
wilh prayer and supjilit aiiiiii.
HiTtzin Y\rs iht' ullimjtc U'itI Liftain^bli- l>v ihe spiriEu^llv Lidi'Linn-d
onrs \yi<!/lujiii_ and iht acme at bIic llidughl.s of kinmiTi i^Hii/}, ln'^imd
which minds i^annol venEuri-. ... lb Ehis Giidj CKdtled, allu4J[:s litvvaids
ill'' end nf ihl'' vtrn' in Hi* ■'^yinc" '^Siipplif iilj- yniir T^ird Inimhly
aiid ietrctlv*'-
Hqw hraulJEuJ thev poinEiTS [fuhvih^, conEainc-d in thr grral Qur'an,
ait' . . Tso nn'lhrnl (fiut/) jjcdiri; t<i llie inind or >maj;in-Lli(in i>F ihis
humble person imnkrn), \^'ho is the aulhnr oi tin: prf^sc-nt L)o<ik, whii^h
B beEter, more advaaEagi'ous ur moic alErac Eive [ajdhab] for human
yiii];* ,iinl inlcllrrts Inwdrds ihr prj'srrm' nf Him whn {•: Hr'ly, One
jnd ['jveilasling^ Ehan Lhese ih\ine I'spcisiEions anci Iciliv .';i;i ii'tsl
A di'Uiiled arrount of thii; notion of the mi^lhod of the Qiir'an goei;
beyond llio ^ropc of ihf pix'st'nt .stjdy and will requiie a dedicated
and romprehensivF Jitudy of bolh the Tapm and AmSt al-lanzXl^ in
hght of al-Razi's laEer theory of pixsphpfy
His statement a( ihe end o{ Dhfimm al-kdkdhat, that the ^nirthnd
of the Qur^an^ h siiporioi' in thi' di.si:urs;ive inelhod, and his rilations
of yur'aEiif veisei^ Ihal aifLnn .seemingly irreo one liable aspecLii o!
divinity, .shoiild be Liiid(:rslood as itrniining from his view that ihc
Qiir'an i'i spiritually iransformadve Rational iheology, it seeins^ v^ill
ill many M'ays often ennflifi wA\h this process. Tlioiigh, in places,
"^' A^iii ailait^lL ^j2-!i' rf. ITf^ Tht iarae p<niil!, he ^oei on lo add, irc
high! ii^l'jd ill Qur -t'tW-l.
,\ C:OMMENI.\itV IIX HJaMLAf IHL\MU AL-LAUni}II^\T
203
al-Razi ai^es EhaE Ibis applies -ijjori fie ally to llie levet ofavera-ge
believevjb, who roii-stiuito the piiblir jumlifii). he ofipii iiidicatps that
Uie ninlLixl uf [In- Qjjr'."iii is i-fTci livi- ai =l11 sUi^cj uf liuinaii dt-vrUip-
mpnt, influHini^ tli*' mniht ;idv:inf<'ci He wriie^ in rlip TtifiJi-
Srimrrf .in" "ithf-r [hfnrrlir.il itr th:"Ihm1. I fir irifi'^t siil'Hm*- aiii\
c(im]>li'tc drnf>Tig ihc the Ore lie al atitnrrs is ihc kimwltdiir of God'^
cascnci;, allnljuli'^, ac En. judj-cinciils aih\ iiJinrs. Vciu c aniLol find ihv\if
•'iK-iiii-'' mor*' riimpk'lj' iirn! Mililinn' th^n in |E}ir Qiir'.lnl. Xln'rir^rtiJ-^!
sciences rtinccTn rilhrr bodilv ac ts oi dels cii' the heart, -ilao known iis
'morjl piiritv' and thv 'purific dEicin [taz^ija' tiF Elic ■j-lf Ychj cjnilot
finti [ln'sr (%vc> sc iitnrcs a-Si ^^du ^tuuld in tht Book.
(JchI dtcrctd ihul iiiir whci sludir^s il and hrilds tjst Ici il ■will ^ain
worlctL}- Imiifnir jnr! afHT-worLiify lLa|>[nin-s^. I have iransniiEU'd \'Jii-
cms rariciiidl and [rdn:iinil.l<^l scii'niTS, liul i ]]a\'i' ntiB j^ajni^ci as njuth
rtlijricujs jnil wcirldly hiijfjnn(\'<s friim any cif these tcifnce* as I havr
from »:ivkiig iLis di^i L^iliikc [i.c Qur'Siiii cxi:|i^siz<] . "'^
Havino foLiiid reliige in spiritual drsripliiie and in the guidance and
in^ipiralion of the Qiii''an, al-Riizi dnes not arrive at dtspair. What
Dliamiii ai-todhdhQt expre^sei^, rather^ is ,1 seii.se of utter alienation
[wali.'ifia] ill this world.
'"^ Taf^., \Xm.
506
ai'i>l:nl>ix
2, Princeton University Library, Garret (Yahuda section)
308 [fol. 130b-142a)!-
Title: Kimb Tahifr al-ladhdhdi
DinifnMoiis:24x IH; 17.^ X I l.H cm. :?.^ lines.
Dated: 677 AH (157R 0).
Hdiid\\Titing; naikli.
Abbreviation: ^.
Bej^iiiiiiiig;
L<J-^i ^ ^'^' J -^ ^ lj3j_d> c^jLLJi 0>^j^' -^^ ^1.^^ i^ijL*-Jl
F.nH:
3, Marashi-Najafi Library 4416(3) (foL II0b-129b)i'
Title: .4/-/^^//^^/^/.
Dimeii'^ions: \ff K 20..'j; appiox. 9.5) X HI. I cm. 19- ?2 luies.
Dated: 731 A.H (l^^il).
CopvisI: Najm al-Diii Abii Eakr Ibn 'Alid aJ-Wahhab Dahutani.
Handunlinf^: na>kh.
Ahbieviation: ^.
Beginning'
ji^oiJ,! j^aii Lijj^i i^:yj: lU-^i iLi-vi LVj^ Ju ,*^y^ ^'-'".P^ -^^ r^
„. a>-^l -k;-l^1 i -Wl-^ :>;yJl
- it. iMcClii??iiPv, Cdalo^t of Ambit Mo/iuutipiK ?n,nii. 243^
Al'l'IL-NUIX
207
End:
4. Mar'ashr-NajafiLiWary 286(26) (fol. 247b-255b}:'
Tide. Tcdiifii ai-iadhAhat.
Dimensions: 18 x 57.5; 1 I x IS. 5 cm. ?7 lines.
Dated l073AH.(!6(i3).
Copvi:;t: ShaliMuradFarahant-^
Hand^iTiting: nohHi't'Uf.
Bi'gimiin^'
_Ji ^ '^^ J -^ j_jJ* l-pj-4^ ^^J-^'' uy^j'^i <^^ ^^1 '^^jL^ '^
End:
h
5. The British Library, I.O. (India OfSce Library) islamic
3832 [foL 85b-95b)!
Tide; Kildb Takqn al-kdhdhai.
Diinensioii!^: 37.7 x 14.8; 195 xH.Jrm. 21 Jine.'i.
Dated' HMi:i A.H. llb.i;i).
HfliidivrU]iig: cxqiii^ilc tia.ila'/Tq.
* M Mai'ishr, Mkml owkMa-yr kkam, I. :i2?-1.
" Dann^ iiiirl fopvi^l: .\]ar'i,lii, /'Mini 'iii\kliilia-yr i/ialli L, ^'-^li
*■ P. Slocb, Suhiett Gaidc, ?I7. TIjI' Lilir^iv, 1 was iiffr>nui:d, lia^ iin olhsr lerofil
of ihe MS (di'^])ilf rlif M'fcieiifp in (lie Sabfr^t Gn'idt lo a haiidvLirJileii eiilryl IIit
MS bf^kr^'j ^ui IitHdid CfiEu'i' ^Uinp d^lttta lo L^l^
5oa
ai'i>l:ndiX
Beginning:
juL.<ji^ L.-U; j ^.jnJiiii -^iJ^^ Jiy-i -k^T vL»^ j ^j^> >-^ — '^
.^li'^^lj ^'li^ij ^Ul_/l_, ui.ljjil ^ L^ U JL.J VLJii ^^-1^ ^
i.<£-Ji^ '^ L^^ij jS^ Jj^ Lo_^,i>- ^jJi-Jl ijyj'j^l <^^ ^^J^ ^ijL^J^
End:
The [woodier manuscv^Ls located ^re:
6, Al-Qadiriyya Library (Baghdad] 654(3) (fol, 19-27), en-
titled Ristilat Dhattttrt Ittilhdhat ul-^ttttya.'
7, Ri'asat al-Matbu'at Library (Kabul) 87, eatitied Risalajt
i-ladhdhdt al-matlubajt l-diinya.''
For <hp edirion, MSS 1 , 2 and 3 are iii^ed. The variants amoiig rhem
iii'e iiinnproLiri, bul gpiierally minor. MSS 4 andrr appear to be copied.
or derived fiom. \1S 2. iind do not iniprovi' the lexl in anv way. On
die ntht^r hand, M,SS I and 3 have iniirh in common, and probalilv
have a ciiniinon source; yet neither rnuld be derived frnisi tlie other.
In diiii edidon, the lest is corrected in accordance wilh modern
con\'pntions for .spelling, without note of the original jjicliing in the
inanusfiipts. toi csainple, 'XL' i.s cliangcd ici a,'^'' \jji lo s'>*; ^'^j to
<^L'j^ l_i^ m \_ji \j,^ jiid 0^^ to oL--. IVuiidiLiju aiid sdiiic diaciitiiai
m^rL^ have been added where needpd.
' i. Rjul, AI-Ai/\a' nt-hhai/ma. 3, 11-4.
" P n.. Rf jiiT^nifil, ''■Al-.ihkiirir^l fZ-'Af^bifyaJr A^Mii'^r'i'j", 20-
Al'l'IL-NUIX
209
Tbr (-]ii;,LlcLsgivdiiilu'fi)U"wiiigiklrs in mdiiUM e ip[^ diidkirirXEcinal
1 . Dliamin ladhdhdi ai-danya {Cen.i\ire i>f the Plia.ime.i of Tkn Wotldj.^
1 Ruaifiji Dkamas at-dtmyn {Censure of Thii Vihild}.'^'^
3. TahqJr at-ladhdkai [Degsading Pleaiuies).^^
4. Ribald ft l-ladMhat al-'Piatlaba ft l-dunja (On the Pletuniei Sougfit i^
Tfit, Wu/ld\.''
^ AqiHin /si-indhdhat {DurmGni nf Pl^miiifi).'^
Thf foiiri-h and Fifih liilr^i ajiprar lo \tr rakcn dirrftly from tin rpL^ilc^s
inlrod actio II and cfpscrih? ils coiili^iils .supprfifiaJJy. In my opinion, llip
firil dilf appears most aiilhpndf. Jl de.'jcriljfs the work':; main parEii
and conclusions, ividionl being simply dra\sii from its introchiclioii.
It (iJ.so agiecA wiih ihe auihur's dcrscripLiDn uf dbc scsuiid set lioii as
"the kiTlinn on dip ci'ii'^iive {dhamin) 'if imflijiii^irj' plp:iihUr<"^*\ in hi'i
final note in the uiii'k, preser\"ed onlv in the Bedin MS. The jieirond
ride seems to be a siKirtened version of ihp firsi.
tinally, al-K.azi refers lo the wort loosely bolh a.s a book [htab]
and afl an cpisdc (nj^d)."
*' 'ITif: Bciliit MS; and llie Bai^hiiad MS rjlali^gi]? eiiiry.
"* AI-Qif(J. Mhba,. I9?' al-fiEifjifli, ll'J^. 4. 5.'jS; Ihn AbT LFflEijbL'a. 'Uj^.i. 2,
29
' ' "l"he FrinMEfui MS; <]ie BtiIl^Il Lihf ary MS; and [lit M:tr'a«;lu-Na|ali 2Jih MS.
All, hftwfveT. ^Iiaii' a foinivirtii ^uive
'^ TTie Kabul MS ral^iloi^ eiiiry.
Ibii TnymivT^ le.q ZJa'', I, l.'^^k) Jiid ibii Qayjmi al-Jawziyyj U/lt'o^- 120).
H<^vi'evpr, bdlli jlmitl ri'ilaiiily ufiA rhf saim- iiiaiiuifripl.
" Dliaxuv <il-l<filMli3l, X 44.'
Ua!l c^\J6 *i aJL-j
^j\J\ ^oJl ^
313
AI'l>IENDlX
■> -^^J\ 3^\
tjj^ 'i'^ J jji V .^^S\ <>y^^ L-u_Ji j'^i .j>-Vi -i>-ijJi i -uJ-i
V' f^/^^ f>: J^i .^ -J^j ^rVj ^^-^ y J^ ^^/s -rb-^^jf
JT Ji J^ji o::Ui .^UaJi '^i ^;^4 ,;i^^ 'JSJ-^ .^ijl ^U^l j^jl
^ -:
ji^ Ju^^_i iUjJI ^ ^.y^ail O^JiJl Jl_^^f ^ ^L -UJ .Jai ^^
^ jj^i -Oil ^_. JL4j^'^ ^L^ jU ^,^=jJ,i i-Lt ^ ipo ,^LJb^i_,
'1^1 U^Uij [i\ U :fj -^L'.J^j j^Axu^'^^ ^r- il^Ul oliUi
w
^J
,'J>^
■r 'o-^:^
,-ui.-ai ^j Jl*:fliL; J^
Al'l'ILNUIX
213
J ■
'^ .;;:>-i ^ijUi *u >^ ^, _r-Vi j^i ^ ou,v^ ^j^ .W'^
^^Ujj L- JL^_. [Tit :Ji] lC^^ '^iIlH ,ilU>- ^^ lL^i ^ :li;ij ^
^i^Y; ^JaU SJJ ^. lOjJi ^liu^ jfU>^ ^^ c^i j :L^l'i
la
r^ .■--
"^^jjjl ^j U^l ^IJii'. U^^lj i^U^^j ;^U^^'l _r" ^^^' -^'-^^ ^" ^
^
■^'UiA,
I ;
^^^i:r-
■r>y
■^u^
T'; -u-
314
AI'l>ENDlX
l;1J-1 cj^llil ^ ^"^^l :Jj^l ^^^u
.. -*
iSf il ij ? h IH^^ <-V «
^ jT ^l ,OjJJ iLU^l ^^ ^,^J^^ ^<, ^L^lJi '^JiJ ^'1>- jwi._ -JS'
^iji ^L^i j^'> J^ jUsj /'^-j^ j/\^ ^^\ j^ Ub ^^^ ^-^^
^ '
11
[■
El
El
Al'l'IL-NUlX
21S
^-1^
^LiT^if .^g^b j^.-^^-^C :jUi -JUi;ir^^L^,J_,L:; '*i
^ i^ Oy^^ L^^^ Ja.L«i ^''j L^ 'f-y^ ^IkJi °Jii ^iJ^ lift; ."^Ijl
jiijo LViS^i ^ *Jl._, Lv^^'i'i --^ ^ ^j ^ji-^i ^1^' J J^-^ ""}
j^wJij ^^^ .^Ldi s^ ^ V L^U^'i ^i ^ ^1 jjaJl_, S^:S'1 ^b
^1 ;^ *UJ g Sjj^^L^ ^ L.^i-iJJi J-.^ ^1 U^jii J^i Cti
^ '''U+J L- ^ dJ-jli ^_, .-£ji lL^U la ^j ^^^-ili '''i^ 4'l^j
,;.-^i jj^Ju vijij '''■jai i.^^ <^L^ij 5.UJJ1
JjU- '''^■o^j .lieLoj LgJ*_^.s_ 0L_, L,j1i ^_.I ^^ ^ ,j^>^' ^j^^J ^ ^*
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lT
fa
■^.i-'
ri
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316
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I'
l.i^ Ul^^j_i .^'^VVL U;/ U14U Jj" :^^U ^'^5 L^Cj
tiiniljiAw^ ^^W' ^' W^ Oj-1-!:jv ^^ i_3^ J-*-: Wajl l-^_? , ^^^l^b
C^'IJJJI oJja 0' OjJiit ^^^ _lf- JiJ^ Lii' IJ^j '"V^ J^r^"^^ ^''v^ /
^0
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— r.ViiAi'N -md /hfCfmit Sy^fi- il-GiKt^Ali oiid Ai<ifi^iitn. Hi^i<)*-lhi?rF. 19^?
— "M<vj1 Obligilinii 111 CI^LS^ical Muslim Thfrtlot;^'", TTic 'jmimal of Jfi'1/^ia/ti Eftiki,
Fraiikeiia, WiUi,iiii K. Ht/ti«, i^c\<:^]ecsi^-. 1973
Gal^rrm, Miri^iik. Fohfta /aid Eift/ieace: The ^litkal P!n(aiofAy vJAIfa>abi. PniifelDii.
19%.
— '^Reflli^ns and Idc^iliiin ut A\icf:nna\ F<^liliraL Pliilrtuphy, in Tfie Renert qfFa/ilh^
II. L'J79, Sl^l 77
C^udcl, JjOLiit ^iid Groip'^ C. Ana^aU /'ttiodiieiiti't a la ttmlo^t miaitlmaia: a^ai de
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GianoiiL. Tiiin^iliv J. ^^("^^dfi'i Un^frMkobk DtHtriis of ^t Smi I^-Ldpii ?OrH
Giniarpl^ Daniel TM^fi rfrrfiifi-/jw™jdi^ ni ^^fiipif n^MtuiriTJ^ff, PafT^, 1^2.
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197?, ?fi-^R
l.;rillel, Fiaok. ".\l-(idzali s Cruiffpl ol froplietv llii' liiliYjrJiiflii^rL r>l .\viceniiau
Pi-VchrJnev' iiilo Ai^'anEc Thfi^liiey" in .habii Sti/i/ri'i and Ff/ilu<vfti/y. 14 20D4.
I0"l--I44.
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HciiU'Li, AiLi4)it. 'MuiJkdUiiiiLlii ami Maiht'iiidiLi-i4ii>i: Tiacra ikf a LititiiiVb^r.-.i \<.\y\i
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Jo- HhSw- of R'.f.S .'i.,>',>i-&i. ■?(!, I9JS-I-, I^V-'^lft
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UlllLHJCiHAPlJ\
27S
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E>pi>iemty!t}^\ a\. M. 3[l.i»flrill el a/.^ QsfiJill, l9FiO.
^Vall, W. iM"iili;iimpi'v. Tfir Failh aiiA FkhHc^ <^jal-CJia-aU, Lnisdoii, I9ii^.
W<ilfsoii, Harrt' A Tfi( Fhikyinph of tht Kniam, Cairtbiid^p, Ma^aehuiiain, t976.
Al^iirLiii, MLihiitttfi^f^ Ffklii nl-Dm nl-Ra^i rtui-dirfl'ufi nUcaHiiiimf/i /imJ-fijifitfiw}^
fltirul, lyfiS.
INDEX OF N.A_MES
]
Abi :,IJabMr 21 ii. :i4, 2S, ?4 ii 4fi,
AI-FarabT 125. 130. I4:i ii. Uft, 152.
H
3rf, 27, 2Ji. 33 47-fy, 7') ji m. 77
!7£f, I!i0
^^^^1
11 l2S,9:Sn. ]7?
^^^1
Alirfuh iMuli^iinkad 44
Gabrid 152 rL 177
^^H
Al>i:yhain [^7 i\ I2fi
fulfil [Qd tk 147
^^^1
Alial'BiirjkJi jl'Bii^liriadl R. Il7n.:ifi,
Al-Gluzali L2, 4,:i7 n. 104, 45 ii. 3,
^^H
lift, t'JO
.■il II. 21, .'i4. 07. 01, li.'i f^, Ofi, Ii9,
^^^^1
Aljii l-Hav^am 117 ii. 3f>
71, 72, 73 11. 103, 74, 7ft, H2, Hi. fiR,
^^H
AbuLifiali \m
119 11. 162. 112, i:i4, 136. 137 1 3!L.
^^^^1
,\rfam ■ki 11 2
179, IfiS, lO.T
^^H
Aklilia.i^ 117 11 36
Gliivalh al-Diii al-GliQiT 4
^^H
AI[ 11,11 .Mil Talib 1^5
Clrltrida 4—5
^^^^1
Amiorle l^ii.?S, MR, l?.i. 1^3
^^^^1
Al-Aiamin. Ahu Baki L 7!i
Al-Hilimi, Abii 'Abrliillali 114 11/
^^H
Al-A.^han,AbDl-Ha^n IR, 19.20, )13
11. 1^
^^^^1
A&h'atT:,: A^h'jrinr 2-4, R. 7, fi,
HaiiJiH. 9. 74 11. 105, 150
^^H
11 IJ. 17 I'J. 21. 1^ n. Q.|, ^0 .11,
HanJiali^ 5
^^^1
43-47. 49-57, fil, 64 fi^ 66. I^H,
Al-Harrj.ii al-Kiya 52.53
^^H
73, 7^. 7il-7'i, Jil^-il'j. M7, Hil, ^f,
94. 9fi. 9f, 101. lt^4-^[^7, lOy. [10,
hiibaiiiiya 1 R2
^H
117 If. 36, 129-I!I2, 141, 142. 150
Ibfi al-AHaiil 2
^^1
Al-Biliilr, Abu l-Hasjo 4 ii. 6
Al-BaqLlam 7, 1.^39,40 lift, 104,107,
IhiiFOtak I'J, '44, 50, JL. .i:-i
!bii abMalJhiiiii Hi, 25-2H, 49, 93
[liii al'Mui'larla 25 ii. 5U
H
n4
Al-Biiri. Abu l-Hu^jvi. 2, 16, 17, 25,
Hill ELl'Nu'man, MtiluLtntii^d 1 I7n ^G
^^1
511, -^i. iail-94, 173, 179
B^ialiiina 1 33
Jlin Qjiv^yim al:|iw?ivya 209 n 13
Eliii K.u.sliirl I9ii. y.i" '
^1
ibii SlTiJ 2 11. 1, fi, 9, II, ly. 21 27,
^^^^1
Cami'adi'S \9?,
42, .'^R, fil, a8-90, 97 ii. LJ!3, lOL.
^^^
^^^.^►s il7n. ?6
1 10. 1 13, 117 1.. ^fi, llfl, 120, 122,
124-127, 130-13?, f37-UI, 143 ii
^H
Al-DjtiJ.sT, Abfi Zayirl 1 17 n 3fi
145.I4R.I5I. 159. 161-164, Hi6, 1^3,
^^1
Al-Dd'v^vJni I<i4ii. 34
1 79. 1 FlO
^^^^1
Diripiinini^is 3A, 9fi
Ibfi Ti>iiiiv>'a 36-37 ii. 99. 109. 199,
^^H
Diiai llm'Amf- 3R
201, 209 n. 11
^^^1
Diya' il-lliii il-Rj^ 4
ikhwaii al'SaQ' 130. 142
^^^1
Dualiais i &h
AMifata'inr. Abu Ishaq 4 ii 6. 7. 15.
16, if, 104. m5
^H
Euclirl I^JI
IA^acliL,'^ i:iO It 1 19
^1
Fa/a^ifa I. Hi, ^(i. 42. 44, 54, fli, 7!1
^^H
11 [29, qi, 9fl, 97 11 IKR, 101. [09,
Al^lahiz 134, l!i(i. 133. 141, 1 7li-l79.
^^H
no. IM, 117 11. tr,, UR. 127. 120
i97
^^^^1
u 9fi, 131, 137. IS7. [5!1. I(i2, 165.
J.iliuf n>ii Safii'aii 3Fl
^^H
IBJi, lyj, 199
JaLiiiiz. :]eii. 99
I
578 INUliX UV ^JA.MIES
i
AI'jELvl^iii. 'AM al-Q5du I'il il \li
Philii^Hinos.J"liii 197
^1
AhjllJ, M,,jd jl-DTii 4
Fl^ui IliS.'rjg
^^^^1
Al-jubbal Abii'An lOt
Pmlemv 197
^^^1
AI-jLibbat Atiii Hn^hmi 24 ii 4li, 7i,
^^^1
192
QndivT', ■^7 n (19
^^H
A]'Aii*;ii], Abfi Qri^nii 4 ii. Ii
Quiay^b IHl
^^^^1
AI-jQv.a>m 7 IG, .1*). iO. 53, .SI, lO-l
QuiJ. al-Diu .il-^liTiFLiT 1^^7n 1 If.
^^^1
ii.^Oa, 105-107. Il7n, 36
AhRrii^bib al-ldili^iii ■i4. ] 1 7 11. ^if:
^1
AI-KabT, Ahii l-Qj«im 47 \m. \U\
AI-RizT, Abii B^r H, 101, 102, 103.
^^^1
I7S
11)1. 132, Infl, ItO. 161, t65. I67-1&9.
^^^1
KarrSmiv'n ">. !H" 1 17 ii. ^li
la-^
^^^1
Klij\^iiij I7h!
^^^1
Al-K.hiiv'VJI, Ahu l-HTisa>TL 1 7W. ET^
SabianL-^m r-57 n I2H
^^H
11. ai
Sadi al-Dlii al-Sbiiin 164 n. 34-
Al-5afadi 10
^1
A]-Ma'atTJ, Aha l-'AlJ' G
Sana'i 100
^^^^1
M Jiiiiriikidt-^ 1 60
SaEaii Ah 11 ?
^^H
MalikJhiiAna^ 71
Sexlu^ I'LinpiTifUN 1^4
^^^1
MaHiiTdT^ 4Ji
Al-Sliarn 9
^^^1
Mrg:a[ijii.- l^ 11. 125
ShrilHs 9, 74 n. 105,150
^^^1
Miikju'^vh ? 11. 1, 1 1 7 n ■Mh
.'VI-SlialifLi.^tJi.r I.S, 40, .^li, 1 U 11 ?J^
^^^1
Mu'aminii Jhii 'Alibrirt IITii 'S6
137-139
^^^1
A/uiflti/Amfirj i 3 14-, 4?, 4'j. 4r>, 54.
AI'SliaiTfii-Muiiacli 1 7iS 11 79
^^^1
7'i,9!i, 109, 110. m 114, \4*i. i^n.
ShJltab aI'Diii iihGliuri 4
^^^1
159, 197. 1913
Shili; IniAniL,. Tvvtivf rs 114. 117 11. 3(J.
^^^1
Mu'i^ili Mu'iii^Jli^iii 5. 'v 14-lfi, 1 7-
n9, 17P, IHO
^^^1
IH, 21, ?4 11 4li 2'"j-2a, 29. 13-33,
AI'SininaiiT, AbQjd'lar 7
^^H
40,41. 44, 4^ 11. ?, 4<i, 47-/^0, J?-5fi.
Al-3[iiiniiil, dl-Iiaiiidl 4
^^^1
!iR-(J[,64, fJl, 7^-77. 79. !!0. Fi:i-99.
Sutis. SuHiiii 54 110, 113. llf-. U7
^^^1
lOI-IOt, U4, Il7n.3fi. I31.I3&. 141,
11.36. 1?4, 127, 13H,I39. 152
^^^1
LIjCI. Ift4, 171, l7P-IPfi. IS";. \92 r,
Al^Siihiriwai'di UK n 47
^^^^1
132
Simuu ?. la, 3^.3(1,^7. H4. Itfi. 117
^^H
Mu'lj^ilj. B^^ltd^.li ■J.'f, 47, 4ft, n"f
ii.afi, 129 n 9.1. t7fl, IflO, ISI
^^^1
H7. 102
^^^1
Mil i,i?ilj.Bjirjii 25, 4S, 49, (15.^7
Al-TabJiiJUT 193
Al-Ti^vhldl. Abu Hayv^ii 197-I9K
^1
Al'N^liji, Huijyii 3h3
n. 147
^^H
Al-N.izi:iiii 117 LL ^
Tfkfj,li, Ala' dl-Din 4
^^^^1
AI-N^u'biikliiT 117 11 ^fi
Th3bit Ihn Qiirra Il7n ^6
^^^1
Al-Navsjburi. Alub JiiLiniid Ibn Valiya 4
^^H
MfifipiairniLim Hi0-I6B, 17)1 ii 73
Zaydi^ 1 7Fl
^^^1
NewArjrfeiny 1%
1
INDEX or
SUBJECTS
1
absoluibiii. fihicjl 47-4B, R4-S5
^"itftfij (fn willl
H
dirKjlllj^i'' 3irl](-IiL(FrrOj/fl]'m,m&Fi/if'o| 21-
iiIihqaq'.(\e'!i'Tt\ li:5,51i, 74- 7j, 9?-9'J
^^^1
1,^^ 4Jl-^,5l-fi?,54.j.'i.57-fll, 72.
iiliiMf' al-hil 1 1
^^^^1
76-S3.3I 94-9.i. 47-IO:S, If?.l5fi.
liiilff/i I'cipacily" k^ piiver)
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lii?. UiRJ7l. 177
^^^^1
aci\i.i\ divine 3, :S4-3f;, 45, 4&, 50, 9S-
ffli* (acr|iiisirion] I3.l4n 1,39-41
^^H
9S, iiw
^^^^1
afierliFe ^3, 6<i-67, 74, 110. 14)1, 150,
laiifcuaife, -ihLcal 50-1. fil-?
^^H
ir>7
InveofGfld 113-114. 127-123
^^^1
al-E>m hi-l->m'tiii wn-l-nilii 'mi nl-nipriknr
Iving 'i^.fiO &I, 7:->. fi.i !17, tkO, lO'l
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l\l:s
105,107
^^^^1
binalii^ic al qicqiik-iiI [givn') ^1^ ^L^,(lft
^^^^1
72, 9ft-im. 101 ^t^ft. 1^3
maifdiii al-\harTe ^oli|ccrives rtfihi^ E.au^
^^H
anjiels 1 14-L r<.
63-72, 179
^^^^1
iHnmkm 14, 19, 1F13
rtuk/jfti? muiij/j [LiiiiujipDrted mteresi)
^1
l^ciii^Ql |]f f Qi^vanlaeo]
G9-72, 179
madafiil al-alam 79-32
^1
f^m^aiiiv ?t, :-5y-fi
meia.'iliirs 2. i, 4.i. 50 53. 60, 62, 69.
^^^1
flijiatwr 1 2-^4^,11:5,11^11^-1.13,
73, II [, fS?
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155 --6
niirafl^^ lO.i-IO?. I29-L!S0
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CDssequ^'itlt^li'.tn 2, ■!(> i. S, 5fi, G2, G1,
niolitall<^ii lJ-30. 32-.14, :5B-3a. 41-
^^^1
G0,9f, Hi, I5S. 179
43, 56, 7fi, 73,97-101.111, 121, 156
^^1
i/fl'j (lie iiinti>a(i<^Li}
^^1
deoiiiolfti^al <■ ihici 47 n. .i, 43-49. 5S-
^^1
deflmy 10. 1(J, 1 7, 29-40, 4:i, n9J4i
iirtrnijiivt eihits 2. 2 n 2, 45, 49^ 53,
5.5, ft2. 68,69, 73 11. I0!5, 152
^1
deLi:ilElLlEilij (sec Jri^liiiyJ
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5,4R-9,.il-55..i7-ri5.li9-7^ 94,130,
Hnb)ccl]^''3 cpf the Laiv {sft fratqSfid iJ-iAa-
^H
■ ."jS, IR1-Ifi2, Ifl^, I75-I7R
^^^^1
dKine f runniEiiid f lhjc< (vnlQiilari^m) 2.
ob(eflitL<iii, <?lhiril {iee rpilii.ni, plhirjl^
^^H
Hil>ligiliTi|^ ivliiil i^ abrtvp r^ipiirily ilnklif
^^^^1
110, i:i3.l50
mdSaynlaq] 103-104
^^H
f ^ '
,ililii;ju,iii l^,?Jt,iiy.4H,:>3. ^0,115-67.
^^^^1
H?mmivimi 5n, ^9. 7H
73-!i:i
^^H
epklemolo^, elliiral h17-9R
otfismiijli^in 13, 19. n2
-Migiiiiil ir^il^ f-hf ht Livi :irt it^kLiir^ I7fl— 1 7i
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harm [m disadviuilagi?)
^^H
pain 2^-+.43-9..M-"k2.M, ia-6a,fi6-
^^^1
hedoiiain SO, 12?
67. ri9, 73. 31-Sg. 94-97, 121-123.
^^^^1
156-170
^^^1
ibaha (jff pciiniuiLiiblv, Legal]
pffffTii-hni^ivi ?,4fi-7n i. SV.fi-i.lflO-
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'ilia (Le^^ CH^iind; ^f anilnjjical argu-
16!i
^^H
iiifiiti
[HillliiNilnlilv, \r-ii_^{il'Sliu) ir>, 7fl-2
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