The Middle kingdom : a survey of the geography, government, education, social life, arts, religion, &c., of the Chinese empire and its inhabitants

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1

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t

THE MIDDLE K

VOLUME

THE MIDDLE KINGDO

VOLUME I.

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fityn^F^Mi^ ^^1

f*^^WP^W5

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■■■'..-?■

MIDDLE KIN&DOM;

GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, SOCTAL LIFE.
ARTS, RELIGION, ic..

THE CHINESE EMPIRE

ITS INHABITANTS.

WITH A NEW MAP OF THE EMPIEB,

D ILLUaTBATIONB, FIH.fCIPALl.T ENGBAVBD BV J. W. OB&

BY S. WELLS WILLIAMS,

THIKD EDrnON.
[ N TWO VOLUMES.

NEW YORK:

JOHN WILEY, 161 BROADWAY,

AND 13 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.

/•;

. ;

aiDUON NIK, JB..
or cARnHi, chira:

HFECT AND FRIEND
or TKB AVTKOK.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. I.

PoBTHAiT or Kiting.
TiTi.1 Paoi — reprpsBnting
Bhing ehi. upoi

hotiorarj portU. The two chaneteM,
that it is erected by imperUl command.
The four characters iindemeath in the plnel, CItung Kicoh nung-
lun, are the name of the work in Chinese, ■' A General Account of the
Middle Kingdom." The inscription on the right i» Gin cM ngaijin yu
lain kih as, i. e. He who ia benevolent loTei Ihoae near, and then those
who ate remote, Thnt on the left it an expranion attributed to Confb-
ciiu; Si fang chi Jin yu thing cht yi, i. e. The people of the weit
hare sageB.
.^n or PEKiifi, ....

■i Ox.

Tht Chik

135

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

Nim«s ^ven to China — Area, diviiions, and boundsriES — Mountain
tangei iroaad Bnd Id the Eniiiite— Deserl of Go)>i— Yeltaw ri<er,
Yuigtaz' Iciang, and other rivo™ — Lakes and ialanda — Coast tine —
GreatWdluidCuial'F'iveracegwithin the Empire

CHAPTER II.

Ctii

the prorincei — Tabic of their divisions — CniHiJ; tha eitj
of Peking, its diviiion* and municipality — Gardens near it — Tien-
tain — ShahtcItO ; its coaat and capital — Shanii ; Hohan { iti
capital — KiAitonj; it« cities Nanking, Suchaii, Shanghai, &j:, —
NoAKHwuii — Kujcosf ; it> riven and towns — Cberxluiqi ila
cities Hangchau, Ningpo, &£. ; the Cbusan island* — Fuhkieh ; its
capital Fuhchui, Amoy. Changchau, kc ; Formosa. . . •

CHAPTER III.

HupEH ; ita capital Wuchang— HtrxAn i—ShehbI—K Ainim—Si'-
CHUEN — Kwahotdito i its capital Canton, Macao, Hongkong —
Hainan 1.— KwANoal— YuirwAJi

CHAPTER IV.

Their subdiriaions-
productions — Moukde n — Rji
MoncoLjA — Out EH Monooi
CdBDO KOEO-BOR — 1 1.1 ;

its climate, area, provinces, and
igalien — Island of Tarakai — Ihhek
its khanates; Kiakhlaand Kurnn—
its— Tarbagatai and Kur-Kar»

_ _ pital Kuldsbi — Eight Mnhammedan cities — History o:
111 and Khoten— Tibet ; its diviaions, chief towns, inhabitanis, »tu
bistorjr — Ladak ; its capital Leh 151

VUl CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

POPULATION AMD rTATUTICS.

Compariton of canemea* Reasons for admitting and doubting them —
Revenoe and disbunementa — Salaries 206

CHAPTER VI.

HATURAI. HinroaT OF CHUTA.

Minerals, gems, and metala— Zoology ; wild animala — ^Domesticated
animals, birds, water-fowl, and birds reared for show — ^Repfiles—
Fishes — Insects — ^Botany, trees, flowers, bamboo, 4kc. — Researches >"
of the Chinese in Natural History 340

CHAPTER VII.

ukws or CHnf A Aim plait of oovEBNiczirr.

Theory of the Chinese polity, its features of responsibility and
espionage— Code of laws — Emperor of China, his power, charac-
ter, name, &c. — Ot^firs of nobility and classes of society — Branches
of central government— Cabinet and General council ; sii Boards —
Colonial Office; Censorate — Judiciary, and Imperial Academy —
Minor bureaus — ^Prorincial gorernments. 296

CHAPTER VIII.

APMUflSTRATION OF THE LAWS.

Character and position of the high officers in the government, Chang-
ling, Ho, Sung, Lin, Kiying, 8lc. — Emperor's responsibility — Edicts
of officers— Their agents and modes of extortion — Village elder-

^^hip—Erils of clans — ^Popular manifestoes— Prevalence of banditti —
Judicial proceedings — ^Punishments and tortures — Style of officers. 353

CHAPTER IX.

BDUCATION AMD UTXaART EXAMINATIONS.

Nature of Chinese education — Schools and schoolbooks — Primary
books — Deficiencies and results of education — Examinations for
literary degrees — Mode of conducting them — ^Efibcts and objects of
this competition — Influence of the Chinese literary gentry — ^Extent^
and objects of female education 431

CHAPTER X.

Origin of this langutge^-SJi cluws of chiraetera — HodM of wnng-l
ing them — The two hundred tad fouTteen ndical* — Six atjlea of
writing — Mode of printing — Metallic types — Sounds of the Chinaie
Unguage — Three dialecta uid their peculiarities — Grammu' of the
Chinese — Mode of atadyiog the langusge 43S

CHAPTER X!.

Catalogue of the imperial library — Five Classics ; their names and
character — Filial duty, and eiajoples of it — Four Books; their
antbors and charuter — Notice of Meacius— Confucius, his life and'
writings ; interriew with a boy — Dictionaries of the language. . 5

CHAPTER KIT.

Historical works— Si'ma Kwang, n historian— History of the Three
Statea — Philosophical writings — Chu H! and his disquisitions —
Sicred Commands of Ranghi ; and veraiGcation of it — Stories of
the Rationalists— Novelfr^-Story of Li Taipoh— Poetry of the
Chinese — Ballads, pasquinades, and dramas — Prorerbs. . . a

4

L

On my relum to the United Stales froiti China, 1 found an unex-
pected degree of interest in the coiiimunily regarding the pros-
pects in that empire for the extension of traffic and intercourse ;
and in many circles, a still greater desire to know how for the
recent changes and openings were likely to advance the intro-
duction and diiTuston of Chriatianily among its inhabitants. A
residence at Canton and Macao of twelve years in daily and fa-
miliar contact with the people, speaking their language and Gtudy-
ing their books, it was supposed might enable me to explain ports
of their polity and character not commonly understood here, and
give such view^ of their condition as would illustrate their social
state, and encourage to greater efforts in evangelizing them. To
reply to these, and other inquiries respecting their geography,
population, arts, cusloms, and science of the Chinese, 1 delivered
a series of lectures in Utico. Cleveland, Buffalo, New York, and
other cities, the proceeds of which were devoted to the manufac-
ture of a fount of Chinese type then making for the missions.
Having gone to China under the patronage of the American
Board of Foreign Missions as a printer, this object in lecturing
was in keeping both with my station in the mission, and the gene-
ral subjects of the lectures, in which I endeavored lo take a sur-
vey of the empire and its inhabitants. The inquiries made by
intelligent persons guided me in the topics chosen for lecturing.
The sequel need hardly be told, nor are the lectures here referred
to as an apology for these volumes. Others, far better able to

XIV PREFACE.

judge of the necessity and usefulness of such a work than I am,
strongly recommended their publication ; and one pastor said that
if I would write them out he would get his church to publish
them.

Two objects have been kept in view while preparing them.
One has been to embody all the topics treated of in the lectures,
amplifying and illustrating some of them more than was expedi-
ent or useful in a discourse ; so that those who heard the lectures
will find the same subjects referred to here. In arranging them,
the same order has been preserved ; and in discussing them, care
has been taken to select whatever information was.most authentic,
important, and recent ; trying to reach that difficult medium be-
tween an essay on each head, which would tire the general reader,
and could be found elsewhere by all who wished to investigate it,
and an unsatisfactory abridgment, too meagre to gratify rational
inquiry, and too short even to induce further research ; but whe-
ther I have attained this chung yung, as the Chinese call it, I am
not a judge. If on the one hand the volumes seem too bulky for
a general inquirer to undertake to peruse, as containing more
upon such a subject than he cares about reading, let him remem-
ber the vastness of the Chinese Empire, much larger than his own
Republic in its widest bounds, and whose races number nearly as
many scores, as his own country has units, of millions, and he
will not, perhaps, deem them too large for the subject. On the
other hand, those who feel greater interest in the character, his-
tory, and institutions of the Sons of Han, will pursue their in-
vestigations in the works of the French missionaries and savants,
and those few English writers who have entered into this branch
of knowledge.

Another object aimed at, has been to divest the Chinese people
and civilization of that peculiar and almost undefinable impres-
sion of ridicule which is so generally given them ; as if they
were the apes of Europeans, and their social state, arts, and
government, the burlesques of the same things in Christendom.
It may be excusable for the Chinese to have erroneous and con-

temptuouB noliooB concerning lands end people of whom ihey
hove had little desire and less opporiuniiy to learn what they
really are ; but such ideua entertained concerning them by those
who liave made greater aiiainmcnts in niorality, arts, and leurii-
ing, greatly enfeebles the desire, and tends to excuse the duly, to
impart these blessings to them. The names she haa given her
towns, the physiognomy God has marked upon the reaiursa of her
people, the dress and fashions those people liave chosen to adopt,
iheir mechanical utensils, iheir religious festivals, their social
usages; in short, almost every lineument of China and her in-
habitants, haa been the object of a laugh or the subject of a pun.
Travellers who visit them are expected to give an account of

" Mandarins with yellow buttons, handin!^ you conserves of snails ; .
Smart young men about Ciinton in nankeen tights and peacocks' tails. /
With many rare ami dreadful dainties, kitten cutleta, puppy pies ; j
Bintsneat aoup which (so convenient '.) eif ry bush around supplies."

Manners and customs, such as met the eye, and attracted atten-
tion by their newness and oddity, tirst found a place in their jour-
nals, und combined to continue the impression generally enter-
tained, thai the Chinese were on the whole an uninteresting,
grotesque, and uncivilized " pig-eyed" people, whom one run no
risk in laughing at ; an " umbrella race," " long-tailed celestials,"
at once conceited, ignorant, and almost unimprovable.

If this attempt, therefore, to set ihein in a fair position by a
plain account of their government and its principles of action, a
synopsis of their literature and literary examinations, and a de-
tail of their social, industrial, and religious stale, just as other
nations are described, tenil to correct or enlarge the views of
any, it will not have failed of its object. I have called it the
Middle Kingdom, chiefly from that being the meaning of the
most common name for the country among the people themselves ;
and also, from the Chinese holding a middle place between civili-
zation and barbarism, — China being the most civilized pagan
nation in her instittitions and literature now existing.

Besides these objects, I wish also to increase the interest felt in

I Besio

XVI PRXFAC&.

the Christian community for the spread of the Gospel among the
Chinese by showing how well they are likely to reward mission-
ary labors, when once they have taken root among them. In
order to this I have gone somewhat fully into the nature of the
government and its principles of conservatism and disorganiza-
tion ; and the religious opinions of the people. The geography
of the whole empire has been carefully examined, and the grounds
i'oT believing that the largest estimated population is both probable
and possible, and its proofs the most credible of any, investigated.
The sources of almost every part of the work are personal ob-
servation and study of native authorities, and the successive
volumes of the Chinese Repository published at Canton, and edit-
ed by Dr. Bridgman. Some may think it unnecessary to issue
another general account of China so soon afler the methodical
and able digest of Sir Joh% Davis ; and I have thought I could
not pay his work a higher compliment than to refrain from quot-
ing it frequently, or even going into many details upon points fully
illustrated in it. Ten years have elapsed since " The Chinese"
was published, however, and the public in this country will, even
if they have read it, take a deeper interest in that people, now
that they are more accessible than when that was written, and be
glad to learn the causes and results of that remarkable contest
which compelled them to open their long closed gates. Other
works consulted are usually quoted in their place, but the Re-
pository is often the source of many statements not distinctly
marked. The illustrations have been selected with reference to
their accuracy, from various sources, chiefly from La Chine
Ouverte, a French work of considerable research and vivacity.
In concluding this prefatory note respecting the origin, plan,
and design of the present work, I may be allowed to express the
humble hope that it will aid a little in advancing the cause of
Christian civilization among the Chinese, and do its part in dif-
fusing a juster knowledge of their state and nation in this country.
If that knowledge shall further tend to induce in any one the
desire to diflbse among them an acquaintance with the chief

XVil

source of our own civil and religious liberties, aDf) encourage
tiiose now engaged to greater efTorts, then will the pains token in
its preparation be increasingly rewarded. To liie many kind
friends in this country who have looked upon the attempt with
favor, and especially those who have aided me in carrying it
through the press, I can only return that acknowledgment which
they BO well deserve, but which 1 have not their permission more
explicitly to give. S. W. W.

New York, Dtt. l»t, 1847.

NOTE RESPECTING THE MAP,

SYSTEM OF PRONUNCIATION

ADOPTED IS THIS WORK.

Tub Map uf the Empire has been drawn Troni (lie besi authorities
accessible. The coast is cielinealed from the recent surveys of
the English naval officers, and the provioccB from the old surveys
of the Jesuits, correcind in their divisions from a large map of
the empire published by the Chinese govemmeni, which measures
nearly ninety square feet, and has been referred to iri making the
boundaries and divisions of Mongolia, Manchuria, and Ili. The
towns and principalities in Japan are placed according to Siebold's
recent map ; those of Annam according to Bp. Taberd's large
map ; while Moorcroft has been consulted for the divisions of
Ladak, Klaproth for those in Tibet, and the maps of the Useful
Knowledge Society for Russia, Songaria, Turkestan, tSec. In
writing the towns and rivers in the Eighteen Provinces, great
care has been taken to compare every name with the Chinese
map, 90 that no mistake should be made in confounding words
nearly alike, and it is believed that few errors will he found in
this part of it. Nn pulns have been spared to make it as accu-
rate as the extent of our topographical information concerning
the vast regions it embraces enables it to be drawn, though much
of our present delineation of those parts lying north of the Great
Wall rests upon doubtful authority.

The system of pronunciation adopted in the map and book is
nearly the same as that followed in the ivorks published by thtf
in China. The powers of the letters are os

a as in father, far ; never like a in hat ; e. g. chang, hang.
to bo sounded almost as if written chakng, hahne,
nol flat, like the English words »ang, bang, ^.

follows :

XX STSTBM OF PRONUNCIATION*.

2. a as in ilmerican, but, summer, mother ; e. g. pdn, Ukngt

to be pronounced as pun^ tongue.

3. 6 as in men, dead, said ; as teh, shtn^ yen.

4. ^ as in they, neigh, pray ; as cA^, |f^, pronounced chay,

5. i as in pin, finish ; as sing, Un, CMhli.

6. i as in machine, believe, feel, me ; as /i, Kishen, Kanghi.

7. 0 as in long, lawn ; never like no, croto ; as to, soh, po.

8. u as in rule, too, fool ; as Turkf Belur, ku, sung ; pro-

nounced Toork, Beloor, koo, soong. This sound is
heard less full in fuh, tsun, and a few other words.

9. u nearly as in I'une (French), or union, rheum ; as ku, isu.

10. (d as in aisle, high, or longer than i in pine ; as Shanghai,

Hainan. The combination ei is more slender than
ai, though the difference is slight ; e. g. Kwei-chau.

11. au as in round, our, how ; as Fuhchau, Shauchau, Taukwang.

12. ^ as in the colloquial phrase say 'em ; e. g. ch^ng. This

diphthong is heard in the Canton dialect.

13. ia as in yard ; e. g. hia, kiang ; not to be sounded as if writ-

ten high^, kigh-ang, but like hed, keang.

14. iau is made by joining Nos. 5 and 11 ; hiau, Liautimg.

15. ie as in sierra (Spanish), Rienzi ; e. g. Men, kien.

16. iu as in peur, pure, lengthened to a diphthong ; kiu, siun.

17. iue is made by adding a short e to the preceding ; kiuen,

hiuen.

18. ui as in Louisiana, s(//cide ; e. g. sm, chui.

The consonants are sounded generally as they are in the Eng-
lish alphabet. Ch as in church ; hw as in when ; j is sofl, as s
in pleasure ; Aru? as in awAru^ard ; ng, as an initial, as in singing,
leaving off the first two letters ; sz' and isz^ are to be sounded full
with one breathing, but none of the English vowels are heard in
it ; the sound stops at the z ; Dr. Morrison wrote these sounds
Isze and sxe. XJrh or VA, as in purr, omitting the p.

All these, except No. 12, are heard in the court dialect, ac-
cording as that is sounded by the French missionaries, by Morri-
jion, Medhurst, Gonial ves, and many others, and which has
thereby become the most common mode of writing the names of
places and persons in China. Though these authors have em-
ployed diiTerent letters, they have all intended to write the same

ways of

inly diSTeK
.«. of ■^. Such is not the
Macao, Hongkong, Amiy,
which are sounded aocord-
irl proouncialion, Ma-agau,
MuDy of ihe discrepancies
itei'H are utving lo some fol-
II would be desirable lo
^all plat

sound ; thus cAon, than, and xan,
writing |1^ ; and tsse, (fie, tst', and
case, however, with such namps i
W/uimpoa, and others along thf ecus
inp 10 the local palols, and not the ci
Uiangkiang, Hiamun, Hiaangpa, &ic.
Hi'i?n in the works of travellers and writ
liiwiog the former, and some ihe latter,
follow the latter in all cases, and not

fureign books by thuir local pronunciation; but uairormily ii
almost unattainable in this matter. Even, too, in what is called
liic Court dialect, there is a great diversity among educated Chi-
nese, owing to the traditional way ail learn the sounds of the
characters. In this work, and on the map, the sounds are writ-
ten uniformly according to the pronunciation given in Morrison's
Dictionary, but not according to his orthography. Almost every
writer upon the Chinese language seems disposed lo propose a
new system, and the result is a great confusion in writing the
same name ; for instance, eu/l, olr, ul, ulh, Ik, urk, 'rh, i, e, lor,
nge, ngi, je, ji, are different ways of writing the sounds given to
a single character. Amid these discrepancies, both among the
Chinese themselves, and those who endeavor to calch tlieir pro-
nunciation, it is almost impossible lo settle upon one mode of
writing the names of places. That which olTers the easiest pro-
nunciation, and has i)eGome the best known, has been adopted in
this work, ll may, perhaps, be regarded as an unimportant mat-
ter, so long as the plnce is known, but to one living abroad, and
unacquainted with ihe langunge, the discrepancy is a source of
great confusion. Hf. is unable to decide, for instance, whether
TuTig.ngan. Tungon hien, Tang-oune, and Twtgao, refer lo the

In writing Chinese proper names, authors differ greatly as to
the style of placing them ; thus, Puhchaufu, Fuh-ohau-fu, Puh
Chau Fu, Fuh.Chau fu, &c.. are all seen. Analogy alTorda little
guide here, for New York, Philadelphia, and Cambridge, are
severally unlike in the principle of writing them ; the first being
really formed of an adjective and a noun, yet not in this case
united to the tatter, as it is in Newport, Newtown, &c. ; the
second is tike the generality of Chinese lov^ns. and while it is
now written as one word, it would be written as two if the

f-

xmi

THE MIDDLE UNODOM.

wore translated, Brotherly Love ; the third Cambridge is never
written Cam Bridge, and many of the Chinese names are like it
in their origin. The same rules apply in writing Chinese names
as in English, and in this work, the proper names of places
have been written as one word, Suchau, Peking , Hongkong, with a
hyphen inserted in some cases to avoid mispronunciation, as
Hiau-1, Chau-ngan, &c. It is not supposed that the system of
writing them here adopted will alter such names as are commonly
written otherwise, but the principle on which they are constructed
will be shown. The additions, ju, chau, ting, and Men, being
classifying terms, should form a separate word, and not be incor.
porated into the name, as Ningpqfu. It has not been possible to
reduce the names of towns in other parts of the Empire, and in
Japan, to the same system of pronunciation, though they have
been written as nearly like it as they could be.

1^

MIDDLE KINGDOM.

CHAPTER I.
Genenl Diriiioiu and FeatureB of the Empire.

4

Teb possessions of the ruling dynasty of China, — ihal portion
of the Asiaiic contineni which is usually called by geographers
the Chinese Empire, — form one of the most extensive dominions
ever swayed by a single power in any age. or any part of the
world- Comprising within its limits every variety of soil and
climate ; watered by large rivers, which serve not only to irrf-
gsle and drain it, but, by means of their size and ilie course
of their tributaries, also aRbrd unusual facilities for intercom-
munication, it produces within its own borders everything
necessary for the comfort, support, and delight of its inhabitants ;
who have depended very slightly, upon the assistance of other
climes and nations for satisfying their own wants- Its civiliza-
tion has been developed under its own inslilutions ; its government
htt-t been modelled without knowledge or reference to that of any
other kingdom ; its literature has borrowed nothing from the
genius or research of the scholars of other lands ; its language
is unique in its symbols, its structure, and its antiquity ; and its
people are remarkable for their industry, peaccfnlneas, numbers,
and peculiar habits. The examination of such a people, and
so extensive a country, con hardly fail of being both instructive
and entertaining; and if rightly pursued, lead to a stronger
conviction of the need of the precepts and sanctions of the Bible
to the highest development of mankind, in their personal, social,
and political relations in this world, as well as to their individual
lutppineas in another. It ta to be hoped, too, that at this day in

9. ^^ THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

the worlc^ history, there are many more than formerly, who
desiro to Icam the condition and wants of others, not entirely
for their own amusement and congratulation at their superior
knowledge and advantages, but also to do their fellow-mcn good,
and impart to them liberally of the gifts they themselves enjoy.
Those who desire to do this, will find that few families of man-
kind are more worthy of their greatest efforts than those*
comprised within the limits of the Chinese Empire ; while none
stand in more need of the purifying, ennobling, and invigorating
principles of our holy religion to develope and enforce their own
theories of social improvement.

The origin of the name China, by which the most ancient
and important part of the present empire is known abroad, has
given rise to some discussion. The people themselves have now
no such name for their country, nor is there much evidence that
they ever did apply the term to the whole land. The most
probable account ascribes its origin to the family of Tsin, whose
chief first obtained complete sway, about b. c. 250, over all the
other feudal principalities in the land, and whose exploits ren-
dered him famous in India, Persia, and other Asiatic states.
This family had, however, long been famous in Chinese history,
and previous to this subjugation, had made itself widely known,
not only in China, but in other countries. Its territories lay in
the north-western parts of the empire, and according to Visdelou,
who has -carefully examined the subject, the family was illus-
triofis hy^iis nobility and power. " Its founder was Taye, son
of the emperor Chuen Hu. It existed in great splendor more
than a thousand years ago, and was only inferior to the royal
dignity. Feitsz', a prince of this family, had the superintendence
of the stud of the emperor Hiau-wang, and as a mark of favor
liis majesty conferred on him the sovereignty of the city of
Tsinchau in mesne tenure, with the title of sub-tributary king.
One hundred and twenty-two years afterwards (about b. c. 770),
Siangkwan, petU rm of Tsinchau (having by his bravery revenged
the insults offered to the emperor Ping by the Tartars, who slew
his father Yu), was created king in full tenure, and without
limitation or exception. The same monarch, abandoning Si-ngan
fu, the capital of his empire, to transport his seat to Lohyang
(now called Honan fu), rendered him master of the large province
of Shensf, which had composed the proper kingdom of the
emperor. He thus became very poweiful, but though bis for-

IIAMBS FOR CHTXA.

tune ebanged, he did not change hia lille, rataining always ihal
of ihe city of Tsinchau, which had been the roundalion of his
elevatioD. The kingdom of Tsin soon became celebrated, and
being the place of (he lirst arrival of the people from the w
countries, it seems probable that those who saw do more of China
ihnn the realm of Tsin, extended this name to all the real ; and
called the whole enrtpire Tsin or Chin,"*

This extract refers to periods long before the dethn
the family of Chau by princes of Tsin ; and it is plain, that the
position of tliis principality, contiguous to the desert, and holding
the passes leading from the valley of the Yarkand across the
desert eastward to China, renders the supposition of the learned
Jesuit highly probable. The possession of the old imperial capi-
tal would strengthen this idea in the minds of the traders n
ing to China from the west ; and when (he same family did ob-
tain paramount sway over the whole empire, and its head render
himself so celebrated wherever the country whs known by his
conquests over Tungking, Annam, and the neighboring countries,
by his cruelly over the literati, and by building the Great Wall,
the name Tsin was still more widely diffused, and regarded as the
name of the country. The Malays, Hindus, Persians, Arabians,
and other nations of Ania, have known the country or its people
by no other terms than Jin, Chin, Sin, Sirut, Ttinula, or others
similar. These invesligations derive additional importance from
the light they throw upon the prophecy in Isaiah xlix., 12,
and the aid they give in determining what country is intended by
what people are there specifically
0 be brought into the pale of the church. t
) to designate themselves and
One of the most ancient is Tien Hin,

" land of Sinim
pointed out, as finally tc

The Chinese ha'
the land they inhabit,
meaning Benealh the Sky, and denoting the World ; another,
] the Four Seas ; a
s Climg Kteoh, or Middle
situated in the centre
I of the Middle Kingdom.
} the vanity and

s Sj' Hoi, i

third, 1

e. [all «

Kingdom, given to it from an idea that ii
of the earth ; Chung Kwokjin, or
denotes the Chinese. All these i

the ignorance of the people respecting their gec^apliical posi-
tion and their rank among the nations, but they have not been
alone in this foible ; the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, all had

.. IV.. p. 8.

4 THB KIDDLE UNODOK.

terms for their posBessioiiB which intimated their own ideas of
their superiority ; while, too, the area of none of those monarch-
ies, in their widest extent, greatly exceeded that of China Proper.
The family of Tsin also established the custom, since continued,
of calling the country by the name of the dynasty then reigning ;
but, while the brief duration of that house of only forty-four
years was not long enough to give it much currency or favor
among the people, succeeding dynasties, by their talents and
prowess, imparted their own as permanent appellations to the
people and country. The terms Hatujin and Han-tsz' (i. e. men
of Han or sons of Han) are now in common use by the peq)le
to denote themselves ; the last also means a " brave man."
Tang-jin, or Men of Tang, is quite as frequently heard among
the natives ; and the phrase Tang Shatit or Hills of Tang, de-
notes the whole country. The Han dynasty sat upon the throne
from B. c. 202 to a. d. 220 ; and the Tang from a. d. 620 to 907 ;
their sway is regarded by the Chinese as the most glorious pe-
riods of their national history.

The present dynasty Tsing calls the empire Ta Tsing Kwoh^
or Great Pure Kingdom ; but the people themselves have refused
the corresponding term of Tsing-jirif or Men of Tsing. Klaproth
must therefore have been misinformed when he says the Chinese
call themselves Tsing-jin ; it is not unlikely, however, that the
Manchus and Mongols so designate themselves, and he perhaps
inferred from this that the Chinese do so too. The empire is
also sometimes Tsing Chau, i. e. [land of the] Pure Dynasty, by
metonymy for the family which rules it. The term so fre-
quently heard in western countries for China, — the Celestial
Empire, — ^is derived from Tien CJiau, i. e. Heavenly Dynasty ;
meaning the kingdom which the dynasty appointed by heaven
rules over ; but the term Celestials, for the people of that king-
dom, is entirely of foreign manufacture, and their language could
with difficulty be made to express such a patronymic. Besides
the common terms Han-jin and Tang-jin to denote the people,
they "have some others of a descriptive nature. The phrase Li
Min, or Black-haired Race, is a common appellation ; the ex-
pressions Hwa Yen, the Flowery Language, and Chung Hwa
KtDoh, the Middle Flowery Kingdom, are also frequently used
for the written language and the country ; because thf^ Chinese
consider themselves to be among the most polished and civilized
of all nations, — which is the sense of ^tm in these phrases. The

e JVtn Ti, at Inner Land, is often employed to ilislinguish it
from countries beyond thejr borders, whic)i constitute the deso-
late and barbarous regions of the earth. Hwa Hia (the Glorious
Hia) is another ancient lerm for Ctiina, the Hia dynasty being
the first which sat on the throne ; but these, and a few others like
them, are not in common use among the people.

The present ruling dynasty has extended tlie limits of the
empire far beyond what they were under former princes, and
its dimensions and limits are given by McCulloch from careful
examinations of many maps. The peninsula of Luichau, in the
province of Kwangtung, the most soutlierly poilion of its conti-
nental dominions, is in lat. 20° N. ; but if the island of Hainan
be included, the most southern point will be the hay of Yulin, in
lat. IB" JC N. The most northerly portion is the north-eastern
part of Manchuria, lying on Ihe Russian frontier, in lat. 66* 10'
N., along the range of the Outer Hing-an or Yablonoi mountains.
This boundary is nearly as fnr north aa the utmost north-eaBtern
comer above the mouth of ihe Amour river, in lat. 56° 30' N.,
and long. 143= 30' E. The island of Sagalien or Tarakai is
included among the possessions of the present dynasty on the
largest maps of the empire, hue it is very doubtful whether the
Chinese have any officers there, or exercise the least sway over
the inhabitanU. If it be included. Cape Patience, in lat. 49° W
N., and long. 144° 50' E,, will be the most eastern point of the
empire. The western frontier is not well defined, hut Cashgar
is the largest town of importance on thai side ; it lies in the
province of III, in long. 73° 65' E, ; but the western bend of the
Belur ti^, in long. 70° E., is usually regarded as the frontier
between China and the states of Kokand and the Kirghfs stepp.
The longest line which can be drawn in it from the soulh-weslem
part of III bordering on Kokand north-easterly to the sea of
Okhotsk, is 3350 miles ; its greatest breadth is 2100 miles from
the Outer Hing-an south-westerly to the peninsula of Luichau.
The length is about sevenly-seven degrees of longitude, and the
breadtJi about forty of latitude. The area of this vatA region is
estimated by McCulloch, afler the most careful examination, at
5,300,000 sq. m., and this is evidently much nearer the truth
than Ihe usual sum of 3,010,400 sq. m.

Tlie form of the empire approaches a rectangle. It is bounded
on (he east and south-east by various arms and portions of the
Pacific ocean, called on European maps sea of Okhotsk, gulf

6 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

of Taitaiy, sea of Ja|>aD, gulfs of LiautuDg and Pechele, Yel*
low sea, channel of Formosa, China sea, and gulf of Tonquin.
The peninsula of Corea lies south of Liautung, separated from
it by a chain of low mountains, and forms the only interniptico
to the maritime frontier. Cochinchina and Burmah border on
the provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan, in the
south-west ; but most of the region near that frontier is inhabited
by half-independent tribes of Laos, Singphos, and others. The
high ranges of the Himalaya separate Assam, Bootan, Nfpal,
and states in India from Tibet, whose western border is bounded
by the nominally dependent country of Ladak, or if that be ex-
cluded, by the Karakorum mountains. The kingdoms or states
of Lahore, Cashmere, Badakshan, Kokarid, and the Kirghis ste[^,
lie upon the western frontiers of Little Tibet, Ladak, and Ilf, as
far north as the Russian border ; the high range of the Belur-
tag or Tsung-ling separates the former countries from the Chi-
nese territory in this quarter. Russia is conterminous with
China from the Kirghis stepp along the Altai chain and Daourian
mountains for 3,300 miles to the sea of Okhotsk. The circuit
of the whole empire is 12,550 miles, or about half the circum-
ference of the globe. The coast line from the mouth of the
Amur to Hainan is 3350 miles. This immense country com-
prises about one-third of the continent^ and nearly one-tenth of
the habitable part of the globe ; and, next to Russia, is the largest
empire which has existed on the earth.

It will, perhaps, contribute to a better comprehension of the
area of the Chinese empire to compare it with some other coun-
tries. Russia is nearly 6000 miles in its greatest length, and
about 1500 in its average breadth, and measures 7,725,000 sq. m.,
or one-seventh of the land on the globe. The United States o"f
America extends about 3000 miles from the Pacific in a north-
easterly direction to Maine, and about 1700 from Lake of the
Woods to Florida. The area of this territory is now estimated
at 2,620,000 sq. m. The area of the British Empire is not far
from 6,890,000 sq. m., but the boundaries of some of the colo-
nies in Hindostan and South Africa are not very definitely laid
down ; the superficies of the two colonies of Australia and New
Zealand is nearly equal to that of all the other possessions of the
British crown. A great portion of the Russian, English, and
Chinese empires is uninhabitable, or so situated as never to be
capable of supporting a very large population, while the greater

part of the territory of the United States is auaceptible of cuiti'
vation, and capable of subsisting a dense papulation.

The Chinese tliemselvts divide iheir empire into three princi.
pal purls, rather by the different form of government which thej
udopt in each, than by any geogruphical arrangement.

I. The Eighteen Prooinees, or that which is more strictly
called China, or Chiua Proper; it is, with trivial additions, the
country which was conquered by the Manchus in 1664,

II. Manchuria, or the native country of the Manchus, lying
north of the gulf of Liautung and east of the Inner Duonriiin
mountains to the Pacific.

III. Colonial Poxsttsions, including Mongolia, tli (comprising
Sungaria and Euslern Turkestan), Koko-nor, and Tibet.

The first of these divisions alone is that to which other nations
have given the name of China, and is the only part which is
settled by the Chinese. It lies on the eastern slope of the high
table land of Central Asia, in the south-eastern angle of the con-
tinent; and for beauty of scenery, fertility nf soil, salubrity of
climate, magnificcnl and navigable rivets, and variriiy and
abundance of its productions, will compare with any ponion of
the globe. The common name for ihi.s portion of the empire, as
distinguished from the rest, is Shih-pak SSng or the mghlccn Pro-
vinces, but the people themselves most usually mean this pnrt
alone by the term Middle Kingdom. The area of the Eiglitern
Provinces ia estimated by McCulloch at 1,348,870 sq. in., but
if the full area of the provinces of Kansuh andChihU be include<l,
this 3um is not large enough^ the usual estimate is 1,297,999
sq. m. 1 Mulle Brun reckons il at 1,482,091 sq. m. ; but the
entire dtmensions of Ihe Eighteen Provinces, as the Chinese
define them, cannot be much under 2,000,000 sq. m., the excess
lying in Ihe extension of the two mentioned above. This part,
consequently, is rather more than two-fifths of the area of ihe
whole empire.

The old limitH are, however, more natural, and being belter
known may still be retained. They give nearly a square fcivm
lo the provinces, the length from north to south being 147'i niili-s,
and the breadth 1335 miles; but the diagonal line from tliit
norih-casl comer lo Yunnan is 1069 miles, and that from Amoy
to the north-western part of Kansuh is iSM miles. Tho coasi-
Una from Hsinan to Liantung is more than 2500 miles, and the

H THB AUDDLK KINGDOM.

line of land frontier 4400 miles. Thus China Proper is about
seven times the size of France, and fifteen times that of the
United Kingdom ; it is nearly half as large as all Europe, which
is 3,650,000 sq. m. The area of China Proper is, however,
nearer that of the twenty-eight states of the American Unioa,
which is reckoned to be 1,265,000 sq. m., the superficies of
Texas being about the same as those of Iowa and Wisconsin com-
bined, or 320,000 sq. m. The geographical position of the two
countries on the western borders of the two great oceans is
another point of likeness, which involves considerable similarity
in climate ; there is moreover a further resemblance between the
size of the provinces in China and those of the newer states.

Before proceeding to define the three great basins into which
China nuiy be divided, it will give a better idea of the whole
subject to speak of the mountain ranges which lie within, and
those which defme the limits of the whole empire. The latter
in themselves form almost an entire wall around the empire,
inclosing and defining it ; the principal exceptions being the west-
em boundaries of Yunnan, and the border between tli and the
Kirghis stepp.

Commencing at the north-eastern corner of Manchuria, above
the mouth of the Amour, about latitude 56^ N., are the first sum-
mits of the Altai range, which during its long course of 2000 miles
takes several names ; this range forms the northern limit of the
table land of Central Asia, as well as the boundary between
China and Russia. At its eastern part, the range is called
Yablonoi-Khrebet by the Russians, and the Outer Hing-an by
the Chinese ; the first name is applied as far west as the conflu-
ence of the Songari with the Amour, beyond which, north-west
as far as lake Baikal, the Russians call it the Daourian mount-
ains. The distance from the lake to the ocean is about 600 miles.
Beyond lake Baikal, westward, the chain is called the Altai, i. e.
Golden Mountains, and sometimes Kin shauy meaning the same
thing \ and as far as the Tshulyshman river, separates into two
chains, near the Selenga river, running nearly east and west.
The southern one, which lies mostly in Mongolia, is called the
Tangnu, and rises to a much higher elevation than the northern
spur. The Tangnu mountains continue under that name in the
Chinese maps in a south-westerly direction, but this chain pro-
perly joins the Tien shan, or Celestial mountains, in the province

BOITNDAKIES OF THE EMPmK. 9

of Cobdo, oDil continues on uolil it again unitps with the Altai
further weat, near the junction of llie Kirghfs stepp with China
and RusBia, where ttie range ends. The length of the whole
chain is not fur from S500 miles, and except near ihc Tshulysh-
man river, does not, so far na is known, rise lo the snow line,
except in detached peaks. Tlie average elevation is supposed
lo be not far from 7000 feet, and most of it lies between lalitudea
47° and 52° N., forming the longest mountain boundary between
any two countries.

The next chain is the Belur-log, Torinsh ling, or Onion
mountains { Tsujig ling), which lies in the south-west of Songaria,
separating it from Bodakshan ; this range commences about
latitude 50° N., nearly at right angles with tho Tien shun, and
extends southerly, rising to a great height, though Utile is known
of it. It may be considered as the connecting link between the
Tien ahan and the Kwftnlun or Koulkun ; or rather, both this
and the latter may be considoretl as proceeding from a niountaiu
knot in the south-western part of Turkestan called Puahtikhur,
the Belur.tag coming from its northern side, while the Kwfinlun
or Koulkun range issues from its eastern side, and extends
across the middle of the table land to the Azure sea, where it
diverges into two branches. This mountain knot lies between
latitudes 36° and 37° N., and longitudes 70° and 74° E. The
Himalaya range proceeds from it south-easterly, along the south-
ern frontier of Tibet, till it breaks up near the headwaters of the
Yonglsz' kiang, Salween, and other rivcra between Tibet, Bur-
mah, and Yunnan, thus nearly completing the circuit of the
empire. A small spur from the Viin ling, in the west of Yun-
nan, in the country of the Singphos and borders of Assam, may
also be regarded as forming part of the boundary line. The
coast line from Corea, north-easterly lo near the mouth of the
Amour,' is likewise girded by a range of mountains, called
Sih-hih-tih on Chinese maps.

Within the confines of the empire are four large chains, some
of the peaks in their course rising to stupendous elevations, but
the ridges generally falling under the snow line. The tirst is
the Tien shan or Celestial mountains, called Tengkiri by the
Mongols, and sometimes erroneously Alak mountains. This
chain begins at the northern extremity of the Belur-tag in 40°
N., or more prop* riy comes in from the west, and extends from

10 THB MIDDLE KINODOM.

west to east between longitudes 76^ and 90^ E., and ganezally
along the 27? of north latitude, dividing tlf into Songaria and
Turkestan, or Northern and Southern Circuits. Its western por-
tion is called Muz-tag ; and the Muz-daban, about longitude 70^
E., between Grouldja and Oksu, is where the road from north to
south runs across, leading over a high glacier above the snoir
line. East of this occurs a mass of peaks among the highest
in Central Asia, called Bogdo-ula ; and at the eastern end, as it
declines to the desert, are traces of volcanic action, but no active
volcanoes are now known. The volcano of Pi shan is between
the glacier and the Bogdo-ula ; it is the only one known in oonti-
nental China. The Celestial mountains end abruptly at their
eastern point, where the ridge meets the desert, not far from the
meridian of Barkoul in Kansuh, though Humboldt considers the
hills in Mongolia a continuation of the range eastward, as far as
the Inner Hing-an. The space between the Altai and Tien shan
is very much broken up by mountainous spurs, which may be
considered as connecting links of them both, though nothing like
a regular chain exists. The western prolongation of the Tien
shan, under the name uf the Muz-tag, extends from the high pass
only as far as the junction of the Belur-tag, beyond which, and
out of the Chinese Empire, it contimies nearly west, south of
the river Sihon towards Kodjend, under the names of Ak-tag
and Asferah-tag ; this part is covered with perpetual snow.

Nearly parallel with the Celestial mountains in part of its
course is the Nan Shan, Kw&nlun or Koulkun range of moun-
tains, of which less is known than of the other three great systems.
The Koulkun starts from the Pushtikhur knot in latitude 36^ N.,
and runs along easterly in nearly that parallel through the whole
breadth of the table land, dividing Tibet from the desert of Grobi
in part of its course. About the middle of its extent, not far from
longitude 92^ E., it divides into two ranges ; one of these declines
to the south-east through Koko-nor and Sz'chuen, under the name
of the Bayan-kara mountains or Siueh ling (i. e. Snow moun-
tains), and unites with the Yun ling (i. e. Cloudy mountains),
about latitude 88^ N. The other branch bends northerly not far
from the source of the Yellow river, and under the names of
Eihlien shan or Nan shan. In shan, and Ala shan, passes through
Kansuh -and ShensI to join the Inner Hing-an, not ftir from the
great bend of the Yellow river. Some port on of the country

^'

MOUMAIN EANGBS. II

between the exlrcmilies of ihese two ranges is less elevated, but
no plains occur, though ihe northern paria of Katisuh, where ih^
Greal Wall runs, are rugjjed and not very fertile, Thn lurgt
tract between the Tien shan and Koulkun is mostly occupied bj
the desert of Gobi, but on the southern declivities of the formei
many large towns are found, and agricultural labors are well
repaid. The mineral treasures of the Koulkun ore probably
great, judging from the many precious stones brought from there,
and this dosnlate region is the favorite locality for the monsters,
fairies, genii, and other beings of Cbiaeae legendary lore.

The region of Koko-nor is exceedingly rough, forming a moun-
tain knot, like Pushtikhur, some of the peaks of it rising far above
the snow line. From near the beadwateis of llie Yellow river,
there are four small ridges running south-easterly, which con.
verge ao near each other at the confines of Burniah and Yun-
nan, that they are not more than one hundred miles in breadth.
The Yun ling constitutes the western frontier of Sz'chuen, anr
going soutli-eosi into Yunnan, thence turns eastward, under th(
names of Nan !ing, Mei ling, Wu-i shon, and other local terms,
passing through Kweichnu, Hunan, and dividing Kwangtung and
Fuhkien from Kiangst and Chehkiang, bends north-east till ii
reaches the sea opposite Chusan. One or two spurs branch ofi
north from this range through Hunan and Riangsi, as far as the
Yangts?.' kinng, but they are all of moderate elevation, covered
with forests, and susceptible of cultivation. The descent front thf
Siueh ling or Bayan-kars mountains, and the western part of the
Yun ling, to Ihe Pneific, is very gradual, and few peaks which rise
above ihe sjraw line are known to occur within the provinces.

Another less eirtensive ridge branches off nearly due east from
the Bayan-kara mountains in Koko-nor, and forms a moderately
high range of mountains between the Yellow river and YaiiglsK'
kiang as far as longitude 112° E., on the western borders ol
Nganhwui ; this range is called Ko-tsing shan, andPeh ling(i. c.
Northern mountains), on European maps. These two chains, vi^.
the Yun ling with its continuation of the Mei ling and the Peh
ling, with their numerous oflsets, render the whole of the western
part of China very uneven, and the people there are more hardy
and loss polished than their countrymen in the Great Plain.

On the east of Mongolia, and commencing near the bend of
Yellow river, or rather forming a continuation of the nnge

12 THB HIDDLB UKODOM.

in Shansf, is the Inner Hing-an ling or Sialkai, called also Soyoiti^
which runs north-eaat on the west side of the baain of the Amour,
till it Teaches the Outer Hing-an or Yftblonoi-Krebet, in latitude
56° N. The sides of the ridge towards the desert are nearly
naked, hut the eastern acclivities are well wooded and fertile.
Another ridge commences near the mouth of the Amour, and
runs along south-westerly very near the coast till it terminates at
the south end of the Corean peninsula ; it is called the Sih-hih-tih.
At its entrance into Corea, a spur atrikea off westward through
Shingking, called Kolmin-shanguin alin by the Manchus, and
Chang-peh shan (i. e. Long White mountains), by the Chinese.
Between theSialkoi and Sih-hih-tih are two smaller ridges defin-
ing the bafin of the Nonni river on the east and west. Little is
known of the elevation of these chains, and some of them have
never been described by European travellers.

The fourth system of mountaina is the Himalaya, which hounds
Tibet on the south, while the Kwfinlun defines it on the north-
The ancient country of Tangout occupies the present residency
of Koko-nor, and is not included within the limits of Tibet. A
small raage runs through it from west to east, connected with the
Himalaya by a high tabic lond, which surrounds the lakes Man-
Bsa-rowa and Ravan-hrad, and near or in which are the aources
of the Indus, Ganges, and Yaru-tsangbu. This range is called
Gang-dis-ri and Zang, and also Kailasa in Dr. Buchanan's map,
and its eastern end is separated from the Yun ling by the narrow
valley of the Yangtsz' kiang, which here flows from north to
south ; little or nothing is known of this range, but most of the
peaka are prohahly above the snow line. The country north <^
the Gang-dis-ri is divided into two portions by ft apur which ex-
lends in a north-west direction as far as the Koulkun, called the
Karakorum mountains. On the weatern aide of this range lies
the spacious country of Ladak, drained by one of the largest
branches of the Indus; and although included in the imperial
domains on Chinese maps, yet now sends no tribulo to hia mtt-
jesty. The Karakorum mountains may therefore be taken as
forming part of the boundary of the empire ; Chinese geogrn.
phers regard them as forming a cootinuatiwi of the Tsnng ling.
That part of Tibet lying east of them is called Katshe, and ooo-
siats of a succession of plains of greater or less extent, but of
whose productions, topography, and people, very little is oertainljf

tmataj or sobi. is

kncnni. The regknu lying weet of the Karakonira mouiittuif
have been visitsd by many travellers, and frequeaily described.

This outline of the mountain chains around and within the
Chinese Empire, describes their principal features sufficiently to
give an idea of the arrangement of the country. The proportion
which is either mountainous or hilly is nearly four.fifths of the
empire (if the vast desert of Gobi be left cut of the estimate),
and roo«t of it will repay the huabandman, some parte of the hilly
K^ion in the provinces being among the moat populous and fertile
districts.

Between the Celestial mountains and the Kwinlun range on
the louth-weat, and reaching to the Sialkoi on the north-east, in
an oblique direction, lies the great desert of Gobi or Sha-moh,
both words signifyiDg desert or »taiiiy lea. The entire length of
this waste is more than 1800 miles, but if its limits are extended
to the Belur-tag and the Sialkoi, at its western and eastern ex-
b«mity, it will reach 2200 miles ; the average breadth is be-
tween 350 and 400 miles, subject however to great variations.
The area within the mountain ranges which define it is shout
1,300,000 square miles, and few of the streams occurring in it
find their way to the oceaD. The whole of this tract is not a
desert, though no part of it can lay claim to more than compara-
tive fertility ; and the great attitude of most portions seems to be
as much the cause of its sterility as the nature of the soil.

The western portions of Gobi, lying east of the Taung ling
and north of the Koulkun, between long. 72° and 06° £., and
in lot. 80" and 37° N., is about 1200 miles in length, and be-
tween 300 and 400 across. Along the southern side of the Ce-
lestial mountains extends a strip of arable land from 60 to 80
miles in width, producing grain, pasturage, cotton, and other
things, and in which lie nearly all the Mohammedan cities and
forts of the Nan La or Southern Circuit, as Kashgar, Oksu,
Hami, and others. The Tarim or Yarkand river and its hraoches
flows westward into Lop nor, through the best part of this tract,
from 72° to 86° E. ; and along the banks of the Koten river, a
road nuu from Yarkand to that city, and thence to H'lassa ;
here the desert is comparatively narrow. This part is called
Bm hai, or Mirage sea, by the Chinese, and is sometimes ktiown
aa the desert of Lop nor. The remainder of this region is an
almiMt unmitigated waste, and north of Koito-oor assumes ita

14 TBE MIDDLE KUfODOM.

most terrific appearance, being covered with dazzling atones, and
rendered insuperably hot by the reflection of the sun's rays from
these and numerous mountains of sand, which are said to move like
waves of the sea. One Chinese author says, " There is neither
water, herb, man, nor smoke ; — if there is no smoke, there is ab-
solutely nothing." The limits of the western portion of the
Desert are not easily defined, for near the base of the mountain
ranges, streams and vegetation are usually found.

Near the meridian of Hami, long. 96^ E., the desert is nar-
rowed to about 150 miles, and this portion is also less level,
more stony, and possesses some tracts aflfording pasturage. The
road from Kiayii kwan to Hami runs across this narrow part, and
travellers find water at various places in their route. It in fact
divides Grobi into two parts, the desert of Lop nor and the Ta
Gobi, the former being about 4500 feet elevation, and the eastern
not usually rising as high as 4000 feet. The province of Kan-
suh has been extended quite across this tract to the foot of the
Tien shan.

The eastern part of it or Great Gobi stretches from the east-
em declivity of the Celestial mountains, in long. 96° to 120®
E., and about lat. 40° N., as far as the Inner Hing-an ; and its
width between the Altai and the In shan range varies from 500
to 700 miles. Through the middle of this tract extends the de-
pressed valley properly called Sha-moh (i. e. Sandy floats), from
150 to 200 miles across, and whose lowest depression is from
2600 to 3000 feet above the sea. Sand almost entirely covers
the surface of this valley, generally level, but sometimes rising
into low hills. Such vegetation as occurs is scanty and stunted,
afibrding indifierent pasture, and the water in the numerous small
streams and lakes is brackish and unpotable. North and south
of the Sha-moh, the surface is gravelly and sometimes rocky, the
vegetation more vigorous, and in many places aflbrds good pas-
turages for the herds of the Kalkas tribes. In those portions
bordering on or included in ChihH province, among the Tsak-
hars, agricultural labors are repaid, and millet, wheat, and barley
are produced, though not to a great extent. Trees are met with
on the water courses, but they do not form forests. There are
no large inland streams in the part of Gobi north of China, but
on its north-eastern borders are some large tributaries of the
Amour. On the south of the Sialkoi range, the deaert lande

KtTKU OF CHtlfA. IS

reaoh nearly to tbe Chang-peh shan north of Llautung, about
fi#e degrees beyond ihoee mountains. The general features of
this portion of the earth's surface are less forbidding than Sahara,
but more bo than the stepps of Siberia or the pampas of Buenos
Ayres.

The raen of China are her glory, and no country can com.
pars with her lor natural facilities of inland navigation, and tbe
people tbemaelTes c<H)sider that portion of geography relating to
their rivers as the most interesting, and give it the greatest atten-
tion. The fi)ur largest rivers in the empire are the Yellow
river, tbe Yangtss' kiang, the Hehlung kiang or Amour, and
the Tarim or Yarknnd ; die Yaru-tsangbu also runa more than a
thousand miles within its borders. Of these magnificent streams,
tbe Yellow river is the most celebrated, though the Yangtsz'
kiang is the lai^eat and most useful.

The Hmtng ho, or Yellow river, rises in the Singsuh hai or
Hotun nor (i. e. sea of ConstellBtions), a marshy plain lying
between the Bayan-kara and Kwanlun mountains, in which a
great number of springs or lakelets unite in two larger ones
called Ata nor, in latitude 35^° N., and about longitude 96" E.
Its course is so crooked afler it leaves Ata nor, that it turns first
south 30 miles, then east 160, then nearly west about 130, wind-
ing about tbe gorges of the KwGnlun ; and lastly flows nortb-eaat
and east to Lanchau fu in Kansuh, having gone about 700 miles
in its devious line. From Lanchau fu, it turns northward along
the Great Wall for 430 miles, till it is bent eastward by the In
ahan, on the edge of the table land, and incloses the country of
the Ortous Mongols within this great bend. A spur of the Peh
ling deflects it south, about longitude 110° E., between Shansf
and ShensE for about 500 miles till it enters the Great Plain, hav-
ing.run 1130 miles from (.anchau fu. In this part of its course
it becomes tinged with the clay which imparts both color and
name to it ; at the northern bend it separates in several small
lakes and branches, and during this part of its course, for more
Ifaan 500 miles, receives not a single stream of any size, while
it in still so large and rapid in Shansi as to demand great pre-
oautioDs when crossing it by boats. At the south-western comer
of Shansi, the Yellow river receives its largest tributary, the river
Wei, which oomes in from the westward after a oouno of 400
miles, and is more available, so far as means of navigation are now

10 TBB MIDDLE KIHODOM.

fand among tbe Cbinew, than tbe whole of its migb^ oompetitor.
From this angular turn, the main stream flows on eastward about
650 miles, in some parts of Honon above the plain on its sideo,
ond finally disembogues itself in solitude about latitude 34°, —
bearing the character of a mighty, impracticable, turbid, furious
stream throughout most of its long route. The area of its basin
is estimated at 700,000 sq. m., and althoi^gh its source is only
1200 miles in a direct line from its mouth, its numerous windings
prolong its course to nearly double that distance. It is but little
used by the Chinese for navigation, and the cities on its banks
are in constant jeopardy of being submerged. Foreign skill and
science are necessary to teach the people how to restrain its fury,
and western steamers alone can stem its impetuous current, and
make it a channel for commerce. In its progress, the Yellow
river receives fewer important tributaries than any other large
river in the world, except the Nile. The principal are the Wei
and Lu in Shensf, and the F&n in Shansf, and the waters of
lake Hungtsih in Kiangsu.

Far more tranquil and useful is its rival, the Yangtsz' kiang
(i. e. Son of the Ocean), called also simply Kiatig or Ta kiang,
the River, or Great river ; it is often erroneously named on west-
em maps, " Kyang Ku," which merely means " mouth of the
river." The sources of the Kiang are not well known, partly
owing to the difficulty of ascertaining which of its numerous
branches is the principal. So far as can be ascertained, three
small streams on the south-western side of the Bayan-kara, in
the meridian of Tengkiri nor in Tibet, longitude 69° B., and
about 200 miles west of the Singsuh hai, unite to form the Munis-
ussu (in Chinese, MuUiuu), which is soon after joined by three
other streams, all of which may be considered its headwaters.
There is no authentic account of its oourse from this union till
it joins the Yahlung kiang in Yunnan, a distance of nearly ISOO
miles ; but Chinese maps indicate a south-westerly direction,
through the gorges of the Bayan-kara and Yun ling, till it bursts
out from the mountains in latitude 26° N., where it turns north-
east. During much of this distance it bears the name of the
Po-lai-lBz'. The Yahlung river rises very near the Yellow
river, and runs parallel with the Kiang in a valley further east,
flowing upwards of 600 miles before they join. Large rafts of
timber are floated down both these itietma, tat sale Kt the towns

HtVSBS OP CBIKA. It

fiirther «aat, but no boats of any uto are seen on Ibem before
th«y leave the mountaiDs. The town of Batang, in latitude 29°
N., is the first large place on the river, the regi<m beyond that
being almost uninhabitable. The main trunk is called Kinsha
kiang (i. e. Golden-sand River), until it receives the Yahlung
kiang in the southern part of Sz'chuen, which the Chioese
there regard as the principal stream of the two ; beyond the
junction, the united river is called Ta kiang, or Great river, as
far as Wuchang fu, the capital of Hupeh, where it takes its beat
known name of Yangtaz' kiang. Its general course from this
point is easterly, receiving various tributaries on both abores, and
passing through several lakes, until it discharges its waters at
Tsungmiag island, by two mouths, in latitude 82° N., more than
1B60 miles from its mouth in a direct line, but flowing nearly
3000 miles in all its windings.

One of the largest and most useful of all the tributaries it
receives in its lower course is the Kan kiang in Kiangsi, whioh
empties through the Poyang lake, and continues the transverse
communication across the provinces from north to south, con-
necting with the Grand Canal. The Tungting lake receives
two Urge rivers, the Siang and Yuen, which drain the northern
sides of the Nan ling in Hunan. These are on the south ; the
Han kiang in Hupoh, and the Kialing in Sz'chuen, are the main
affluents on the north, contributing the drainings of the country
south of the Peh ling. The Grand Canal comes in at Chinkiong
fu, and from thence the deep channel of the Son of the Ocean,
able to carry the largest men-of-war on its bosom, finds its way
to the Pacific. Much of the silt brought down by this and the
Yellow river is carried across to the Japanese coast, and \a no
doubt gradually filling up the Yellow sea. No two rivers can
be more unlike in [heir general features than these two mighty
streams. While the Yellow river is unsteady, the Yangtsz' is
uniform and deep in its lower course, and available for rafU
from Batang in the western confines of Sz'chuen, and for boats
from beyond Tungchuen fu in Yunnan, more than 1700 miles
from its month. Its great body and depth afford ample room for
the largest ships 200 miles, as far as Nanking, and probably
■cores of miles beyond that city, where in some places no bot-
tom could be found at twenty fathoms, and ships anchored in ten
fatboiHBlinoBtunoDgtbe nuhes; while the banks are not so low

16 TBB KIDDLE mfSDOM.

aa to be injured or overflown to any great extent by the fmlM&
The tides are perceptible 400 milea to Kiukiang at the embon-
chure of the Poyang lake, in Kiangst. No river in the worid
exceeds this for the arrangement of its subsidiary streams, which
render the whole basin accessible, and no interruption of import-
ance is experienced by waterfalls. The basin drained by the
Yanglaz' kiang is estimated at 750,000 gq. m., and from its
almost central course, and the number of provinces through
which it passes, it has been termed the Girdle of China ; and has
given rise, among the people, to the expressions " south and north
of the river," and " beyond the river," to designate those living
on its further banks.*

Besides these two principal rivers and their large branches,
numerous others empty inio the ocean along the coast from Hai-
nan to Sagalien, three of which are some hundreds of miles in
length, draining large tracts of country, and afTording access to
many populous cities and districts. The third basin is Ihal south
of the Nan ling to the ocean, and is drained chiefly by the Chu
kiang, though its form is much less regular than those of the
Yellow river and Yangtsz' kiang. The Chu kiang, like most of
the rivers in China, has many names during its course, and is
formed by three principal branches, respectively called East,
North, and West rivers, according to the quarter from whence
they come. The last is by far the largest, and all of them are
navigable most of their distances. They all disembogue at Caa-
ton, and drain a region of not much less than 200,000 sq. m.,
being all the country east of the Yun ling and south of the Nan
ling ranges. The riyers in Yunnan, for the most part, empty into
the Saigon, Meikom, and other streams in Coohinchina. The
Min river, which flows by Fuhchau fu, the Tsih, upon which
Ningpo lies, the Tsientang leading up to Hangchau fu, and the
Pei ho, or White river, emptying into ihe gulf of Pechele,
are the most considerable among these lesser outlets in the pro-
vinces ; while the Liau ho and Yahyuen kiang, discharging into
the gulf of Liautung, are the only two that deserve mention in
eouthem Manchuria. The difierence in this respect between the
Chinese coast and that of the United States is very striking,

* P«nn; Cjdopcdis, Arts. Yellow River ind Ting-ln kiug. CluncM
HepMitcnj, vd. II., p^ 910. ,

I^KES OF CHINA. 10

multing from the diflerenl direction of the mouatain chains In
tho interior.

The late* of Cluna are comparatively few and small, and all
in the provioces of any size lie within the Plain, and are con-
nected with the two great rivers. The largest is the Tungting
ha in Huasn, about 220 miles in circumference, which receives
the waters of the Slang and Yuen rivers, and furnishes an im.
portant afSnent to the Yangtsz' kiang. This lake is situated in
the south-western part of an extensive depression in Hiipeh, lying
on both sides of this river, in which are many smaller lakes con-
necting with it, the ^hole area being about 200 miles long and
60 broad. About 320 miles eastward, lies the Foyang lake in
Kiangsf, which also discharges the surplus waters of the basin
of the Kan kiang into the Yangtsz'. It is nearly 00 miles long,
and about 20 in breadth, inoloaing within its bosom many beau>
tiful and populous islets. The scenery around this lake is highly
picturesque, and its trade and fisheries are more important than
tboae of the Tungting lake. The Yangtsz' receives the waters
of several other lakes as it approaches the ocean, the largest of
which are the Great lake near Suchau fu, and the Tsau hu
lying on the northern hank, between Nganking fu and Nanking ;
both these lakes join the river by navigable streams, and the
fitnner is connected with the ocean by more than one channel.

The only lake of any size connected with the Yellow river is
the Hungtdh hu in Kiangau, situated near the junction of that
river and the Grand Canal, into which it discharges the drainings
of the Hwu river ; it is more remarkable for the fleets of boats
upon it than for the scenery around it. Most of the whole country
between the mouths of the two rivers is so marshy and full of
lakes, as to suggest the idea that the whole was once an enor-
mous estuary where their waters joined, or else that their deposits
have filled up a large lake which once occupied this tract, leav.
ing only a number of lesser sheets. Besides these, there are
other lakes in ChihU and Shantung, and one or two of consider-
able extent in Yunnan ; all of them support an aquatic popula-
tion, who subsist principally on the fish found in their waters.

The largest lake in Manchuria is the Hinkai nor in Kirin, near
the source of the Osouri ; the two lakes Hurun and Pir, in the
basin of the Nonni river, give their name to Hurun-pir, the
western district of Tsitsihar ; hut of the extent and productions

so THB HIDOLB KINGDOM.

of these sheets of water there ia little known. A uhkII («e in
Shingkiog on the Chang-pih shan is celebrated among the Manchus
from its connection with the legend concerning the celestial ori.
gin of the present reigning family : — Three divine females were
bathing in this lake, when a magpie brought the youngest of them
a fruit, which she ale and became the mother of a son, the ances-
tor of the reigning Manchu monarchs.

The regions lying on the north and south of Gobi are remark-
able for their inland salt lakes, none of them individually com-
paring with the Aral sea, but collectively covering a much
larger extent, and most of them receiving the waters of the
streams which drain their own isolated basins. The peculiarities
of these little known parts, especially the depression on each side
of the Celestial mountains, arc such as to render them among
the most interesting fields for geographical research in the world,
and it is highly probable that erelong they will be mere fully
explored. The largest one in Turkestan is Lop nor, slated to ha
about TO miles long and 30 wide ; Bostang nor, north of it about
30 miles, and connecting with it, is nearly as lai^e. North of the
Celestial mountains, the lakes are larger and more numerous ;
the Dzoisang, Kisil-bash and Issikul are the most important. So
far Ds is known all these lakes are salt, and it would be on inte-
resting question to solve by their examination whether any in-
closed sheet of water receiving a river necessarily becomes salt
by evaporation ; no region could afford so satisfactory a solution
as Songaria.

The whole region of Koko-nor is a country of lakes. The
Oling and Dzaring are among the sources of the Yellow river;
and the Tsinghai or Azure sea, better known as Koko-nor, gives its
name tp the province. The notion, that the Azure sea is the
source of the Yangtsz' kiang, was the origin of the term Blue river,
applied to that stream. The Tengkiri nor in Tibet lies to the
north of H'lassa, and is one of the largest out of the provinces ;
in its neighborhood are numerous small lakes extending north-
ward into Koko-nor. The Palti or Yamcrouk is shaped like a
ring, the island in its centre occupying nearly the whole surface.
Ulterior Tibet possesses many lakes on both sides of theGang-dis-ri
range ; the Yik and Paha, near Gobi, are the largest. Tengkiri
nor is the largest within the frontiers of the Chinese empire.

BOVMSAKIBB OF TBI PIOTUICBS. 31

Tbe Eighteen Proviaoes am bouoded on the noith-eut by
Lututimg and Inner Mongolia aa far as Kalgan in Chiiilf ; west
of thia mart, tbe Great Wall divides the nortliera provinces tfom
Jie Mongoliao deaens aa &r aa the Kiayll pasa in Kanauh, beyond
which the deseit of Gobi lies on tbe north of that province. On
the east, lie the gulf of Pechele or Pek hat (i. e. North sea), and
Ibe Yellow sea or Tung hai (i. e. Eoatem sea), aa &r south aa
the channel of Pormoea. This channel and the China aea lie on
the eouth-eSst and south, as far as the gulf of Tongking and the
confines of Annain. The south-east is bounded by portions of
Aseam and Tibet, but nearly the whole south-west and western
frontiers beyond Yunnan and Sz'chuen, are possessed by small
tribes of uncivilized people, over whom neither the Chinese nor
Burmese have much real control. Those living in Koko-nor
belong to^e Mongol race, and that province bounds Sz'chuen and
Kaosuh on their western and south- western sides.

This whole country is at present divided into eighteen pro-
vinces, the emperor Kienlung having subdivided three of the
largest, which are uauelly arranged by the Chinese in the follow-
ing order ; Cbihlf, Shantung, ShaDsf, and Honan, on the north ;
Kiangsu, Nganhwui, Kiangsf, Chehkiang, and Fuhkicn, on the
east ; Hupeh and Hunan, in ihe centre ; Shensf, Kansuh, and
Sz'chuen, on the west ; and Kwangtung, Kwangsl, Yunnan, and
Kweichau, on the south. Of these, Kiangsu and Nganhwui were
formerly united under the name of Kiangnan ; Hupeh and
Hunan under that of Hukwang; and Kansuh once formed part
of Shenn, but has since been detached and made to include the
region across the desert towards Hami and the confines of Son-
garia. The island of Hainan forms one department in the pro-
vince of Kwangtung, the western half of Formosa a department
of Fuhkien, and tho Chusan archipelago a single district in the
department of Niogpo in Chehkiang.

The coast of China is lined throughout the whole extent, from
Hainan to tbe mouth of the Yangtsz' kiang, with multitudes of
idands and rocky ialels; from that point northward to Liautung,
tbe shores are low, and the coast rendered dangerous to vessels
by sboals. The western shores of Corea are high and bold,
guarded with numerous groups of small islands ; but from the
peninsula called the Regent's Sword, northward and westward

uooDddnibofMortlMBal&ofLlratiwgHid PmU^Jm**
the fTomoataxf of Shutang, tbo oout fa low ud ■halhnr |..«
ehain of ialeti and rmk aztindi monm dw golf fton tht yaalk
>uk to the fromoaiorj, Nmt the mouth of Pel bo, th» ahfoam
in so low u with diffioultj to be diatliigiiiilMd from the diUMt
Mtoborage, when the ebeUowneM of the water obligee ehipa to
lie. The \mj of Tnogtsi' kw, oo the weit of the [inntMwili.
mariiB the temunatiow of the Great Wall, end eo dutinot and Ugk
are ita course and towera to be seen from the anobordge ISmiliia
ofi^ that it forma a eonaiuonoaa maA for the guidanoe of ridpa, -
South of the embooohore of the Pel ho, extending to the •>•
tremity of Shantung pronaontorj, the coast ia somewhat boldar, ^
creasing in height after paMJng the Miautan ialanda, though nrithn
iddeoftbe promontory presents any point of remarkable elevatiea;
cape Haoartoey, at the eastern end, is a oonspiououa bluff whaa
approaching it from sea. From this cape to the mouth of the
Tsientuig near Chapu, a distance of about 400 miles, the ooaet
is for the moat pert bir, especially between the mouths of the
Yangtaz' kiang and Yellow river, and has but few good harbon.
Owing to the quicksands in the regions near these rivers, the
navigation is very dangerous to native junks, and by no meaiM
without hazard to foreign vessels. South of Kitto point near
Ningpo, as far down as Hongkong, the shorcH assume a much
bolder aspect, and numerous small bays occur among ihe islanda
afibrding safe refuge for vessels' plying up and down the coast,
when the tempests and currents of the Formosa channel force
them to seek shelter. The aspect of the shores in this part is
uninviting in the extreme, consisting principally of a succession
of clifK and headlands of a cisyey color, and giving little promise
of the highly cultivated countiy beyond them. This bleak
appearance is in many places caused by the rains washing the
decompoBed soil off the surface, the rock beiog granite or disin-
tegrated feldspar and quartz with little adhesion, so that the loose
soil is eauily carried down into the intervales. Another reason
for its uninviting appearance, is owing to the practice of the in-
habitants of this part of the coast, of annually cutting Ihe coarse
grass growing on the hills for fiiel, and after the crop is gathered,
setting the stubble on fira in order to manure the soil for the
coming year ; the fire and thinness of the soil together, com-

pletely prevent Kny large growth of trees or shrubbeiy upon the

hillB.

The estuaiy of the Pearl river Crom the Bocca Tigris
down to the Grand Ladrones, a distance of 70 miles, and from
Hongkong aa the east to the island of Tungku on the west, about
100 miles, is interspersed with islands of greater or leaser size.
Proceeding westward from the neighborhood of Macao, the coast
is not much known to foreigners, except by the numerous ship-
wrecks in one part and another of it, especially on the shoals and
reefs lining the southern shores of Hainan, which have given it
a melancholy notoriety. In its general aspect, this part of the
coast resembles that between Hongkong and Amoy. The narrow
strait which separates Hainan from the peninsula of Luicfaau,
has been supposed to be the place called by Arabian travellers
in the 9th century, the Gates of China, but that channel was
probably near the Chusan archipelago.

In this rapid survey of the coast-line, only the principal features
have been noticed. The Chusan archipelago oS the coast of
Chehkiang, does not properly belong to the long chain of islands
which bonlers the eastern shores of Asia, from Behring's strait
to the Indian archipelago ; it is rather a detached group form-
ing the termination of the mountain chain which passes through
(•hehkiang. The island of Formosa, or Taiwan, fonna a large
link in that chain, connecting the islands of Japan and Lewchew
with Lu^onia. Between Formosa and the coast, lie the Pesca-
ibres or Panghu islands, but this group is much less in extent
and number than the Chusan islands, and the harbors are few.
The whole coast, indeed, has comparatively few excellent harbora,
but the number of refuges from the tempest of greater or less
security is great, and most of them are easily entered ; the in-
tttrval between Chapu and the promontory of Shantung, and the
whole circuit of the gulf of Pechele, present fewer of them than
the other parts. The recent examinations by the English sur>
veying ships, under the command of captains Collinaon, Kellett,
and others, of the coast between Hongkong and Shanghai, and of
the Pescadore and Chusan archipelagoes, have added so much
to previous knowledge, that the navigator can now avail himself
of all the havens. The Chinese have prepared itineraries of all
the places, headlands, islands, &o., aioag the entire coast fbr the

kept

II also i

^^ Plaii

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

junks, but they do oot affon] much valuable infonnatiDn,

wiih regard to Ihe names of positions.*

first objects that invite aiteniion in the general aspect of

ire the great plains in the norih-eost, and the three longi-
tudinal basins into which the country is divided by the two lead-
fiag mountain chairiB. The three great rivers which drain these
baains flow through them very irregularly, but by means of their
main trunks and the tributaries, water communication is easily
kepi up, not only from west to east along the great courses, but
also across the country. These natural facilities for inland na-
vigation have been greatly improved by (he people, hut they still
of sieam to ossisl them in stemming the rapid cur-
ils of some of their rivers, and bringing distant places into more
"IVequent communication.

The whole surface of China may be conveniently divided into
the mountainous and hilly country, and the Great Plain. The
mountainous country comprehends more than half of the whole,
lying west of the meridian of 112° or 114'^ (nearly that of
Canton), quite to the borders of Tibet. The hilly portion is thai
south of the Yangtsz' kiang and east of this meridian, compris-
ing the provinces of Fuhkien, Kiangsi, Kwanglung, and parts of
Hunan and Hupeh. The Great Plain lies in the north-east, and
forms the richest part of the empire. •

This Plain extends in length 700 miles from the Great Wall
north of Peking to the confluence of the river Kan with the
Yangtsz' kiang in Kiangsi, lal. 30° N. The latter river may be
considered as its southern boundary as far down as Nganking fu,
the capital of Nganhwiu, in lal. 30° 27' N., whence to the sea it
is formed by a line drawn nearly east through Hangchau fu.
The western boundary may be marked by a line drawn from
Kingchau fu in Hupeh (lat. 30° 3S'), nearly due north to Hwai-
king fu OD the Yellow river, and thence duo north to the Great
Wall about 50 miles north-west of Peking. The breadth of the
Plain varies. North of lat, 36", where it partly extends to the
ellow sea, and partly borders on the western side of the moun-

Shantung promontory, its width varies between 150 and
SSO miles ; stating the average at 200 miles, this portion of the

. 337; Tol. X. pp. 351, 371.

-J

THE GREAT nTALL. 25

plain oovers an area of 70,000 square miles. Between 84* (tad
35", the Plain enlarges, and in the parallel of the Yellow river
it extends more than 300 miles from east (o west ^ while further
south, along tlie course of the Yangtsz' kiaiig, it reaches nearly
400 miles inland. Estimating the meaii breadth of this portion
at 400 miles, there are 140,000 square miles ; which, with the
northern part, make an area of 210,000 square miles — a surface
seven times as large as that of Lombardy, and about the same
area us the plain of Bengal drained by ihe Ganges. The north-
ern portion towards the Great Wall ia dry and sandy, destitute
of trees, but producing millet, wheat, and vegetables in abun-
dance; Ihat lying near the coast in Kiangsu, south of lat. 35°
N., is low and swampy, covered by numerous lakes, and inter-
sected by many water courses. This portion of ihe plain is ex-
tremely fertile, and furnishes large quantities of silk, tea, cotton,
grain, and tobacco, for the consumption of other provinces. Pro-
ceeding inland, the soil becomes more firm, and produces these
articles in great abundance. The eastern portion of the Plain is
traversed by the Grand Canal, which not only serves to focilitale
communication, but also to drain some of the elevated swampy
portions. The most interesting feature of this Plain is the enor-
mous population il .■iupports, which is, according to the census of
1812, not less than 177 millions of human beings, if the whole
number of inhabitants contained in the six provinces which lie
wholly or partly in it be included ; making it by far the most
densely settled of any part of the world of the same size, and
amounting to nearly two-ihirda of the whole population of
Europe.*

The public works of China are probably unequalled in any
land or by any people, for the amount of human labor bestowed
upon them ; the natural aspect of the country has been mate-
rially changed by them ; and it baa been remarked thai the Great
Wall is tlie only artificial siruciure which would arrest attention
in a hasty survey of the surface of the globe. But their use-
fulness, or the science exhibited in their construction, is far in-
ferior to their extent. The Great Wall, called Wan-li Ckang
(i. e, Myriad-milo Wall) by the Chinese, was built by Tsin Chf-

• Pmny Cyckinedia, Vol. VII., pige 74 ; McCuUoch-a Geognphical Dio-
tioniljr, ToL I., page 5M.

26 THE HIDDLB KtHSDOK.

hwangtf about B. c. 320, in order to protect hia doouaiofu fion
the incursioDa of the Dorthem tribes. It is sufficieat evidenoo of
the solidity of its origioal construction, that it has remained ao
well preserved in a region of frosts and moisture. The ships of
the English Expedition visited the point on the coast of Liautiing,
at Shanhai wei, laUtude 40° 4' N., longitude 120° 2' E., where
it commences its course, and which is described as a place of
considerable trade ; the gate here is called Shanhai Inean or Hill-
sea barrier. Lord Jocelyn describes it, when observed from the
ships, as " scaling the precipices and topping the craggy hilla of the
country, which have along this coast a most desolate appearance."

It runs along the shore for several miles, and terminates on the
beach near a long reef. Its course from this point is west, a little
northerly, along the old frontiers of ihe province of Chihll, and
then in Shanaf, till it strikes the Yellow river, in latitude 3&^° N.,
and longitude 111 j-" E. This is the best built part, and contains
the most important gales, where garrisons and trading marts are
established. Within the province of Chihii there are two walls,
inclosing a good part of the basin of the Hong ho west of Peking ;
the inner one was built by one of the emperors of the Ming dy>
nasty. From the point where it strikes the Yellow river it ibnna
the northern boundary of ShensI, till it touches that stream agaia
in latitude 37° N., inclosing the country of the Ortous Mongols.
Its direction from this point is north-west along the northern froa*
tier of Kansuh to its termination near KiayU kwan, through which •
ihe great road passes leading across Central Asia, in about lon-
gitude 89° E., and latitude 40° N.

From near the eastern extremity of the Wall in the province of
Chihti, extending in a north-easterly direction, is a wooden stock-
ade or palisade, which ibrms the boundary between Liautungand
Kirin, and has been often taken from its representation on maps w
a continuation of the Great Wall. It was erected by the Mao-
chus, and garrisons are placed at the twelve gates through whioh
the roods pass leading from Shingking into Mongolia.

The entire length of the Great Wall, including all the doubliogi^
is estimated by McCulloch at 1250 miles. The coostniotion of
this gigantic work is somewhat adapted to the nature of the
country it traverses. In the western part of its course, it is leas
substantially built than In the eastern, being in sonia places manly
a mud or grkvel wall, and in others earth cased with biiok*

THE GRAND CANAL. 27

The eastern part is generally composed of a mound of earth and
pebbles, faced with masonry, supported on a coping of stone, the
whole being about 25 feet thick at the biise, and 15 feel at the
top, and varying from 15 lo 30 feet high; the lop is terraced
with tiles, and defended by a slight parapet, tlie thinness of which
has been loJien as proof that cannon were unknown at the lime
it was erected. There are brick towers upon it at different inter-
vals, some of them more than 40 feel high, but ihe usual height is
a little under that elevation. They are not built upon the Wall,
but are independent alruclures, usually about forty feel square at
the base, diminishing to thirty at the top ; al particular spots the
towers are of two stories, when ihey are nearly fifty feet in-height.
This remarkable structure did, no doubt, in some degree, serve
as a barrier against the incursions of the nomadic tribes near jt
for many ages after its erection, though it is plain from the facts
of history that it availed but litile against the ottacks of their
enterprising chieftains. Al present it is simply a geographical
it the passes, nothing is done to keep it in
are located at these points. Be-
feslern extremity, the Great Wall,
iefly a mound of earth or gravel,
th only occasional towers of brick,
A structure of this sort, in such a

boundary, and, except a

repair; most of the garr

yond the Vcllow river to its

according to Gerbillon, is (

about fifteen feet in height, '

or gateways made of stone.

climate, must of course soon be overgrown with trees of greater

or less size, but none of those who mention having crossed it

apeak of this circumstance, from which it might be inferred that

care was taken lo prevent the growth of plants upon it.

The other great public work is the Grand Canal, or CAoA ho
(i. e. river of Flood-gales) called also Yun ho (i. e. Transit
river), — an enterprise which reflects far more credit upon the
Mongol monarch who devised and executed it, than the Great
Wall does to the Chinese conqueror ; and if the time in which it
was dug, and the character of the princes who planned it, be
considered, few works con be mentioned in the history of any
country more creditable and useful. By means of its connection
with the rivers which flow into it, an almost entire water com-
munication across the country from Peking to Canton is com-
pleted ; and, through ihe two great rivers, goods and passengers
can pass from the capital to nearly every targe town in their
basiiu. The canal properly commences al Lintsiog chau in Shan-

28 THE MIDDLE XINODOH.

tung, in about latitude 37° N., and longitude 116^ B., though in
northern termination is generally placed at Tientsin fu near f t-
king. An abridged account of Davis's remarks (Sketches, vol. i.,
p. 245) will afford a good idea of its construction and appearance.

" Early on the 23d September, we entered the canal through two
stone piers and between very high banks. The mounds of earth
in the immediate vicinity were evidently for the purpose of effect-
ing repairs, which, to judge from the vestiges of inundation on
cither side, could not be infrequent. The canal joins the Yu ho
which we had just quitted, on its eastern bank, as that river
flows towards the Pei ho. One of the most striking features of
the canal ia the comparative clearness of its waters, when con-
trasted with that of the two rivers on which we had hitherto tra-
velled ; a circumstance reasonably attributable to the depositions
occasioned by the greater stillness of ils contents. The course
of the canal at this point was evidently in the bed of a natural
river, as might be perceived from its winding course, and tho
irregularity and inarti6cial appearance of its banks.* The stone
abutments and floodgates arc for the purpose of regulating it*
waters, which at present were in excess and flowing out of it.
As we proceeded on the canal, the slone floodgates or sluices oc-
curred at the rate of three or four a day, sometimes oflener, ac-
cording as the inequalities in the surface of the country rendered
them necessary.

" As we advanced, the canol in some parts became narrower,
and the banks had rather more of an artificial appearance than
where we first entered it, being occasionally pretty high ; but
still (he winding course led to the inference, that as yet the canal
was for the most part only a natural river, modified and regu-
lated by sluices and embankments. The distance between ths
stone piers in some of the floodgates was apparently so narrow aa
only just to admit the passage of our largest boats. The oon-
trivance for arresting the course of the water through them waa
extremely simple ; stout boards, with ropes fastened to each end,
were let down edgewise over each other through grooves in the
stone piers. A number of soldiers and workmen always attended

* This is iuppMed, with > great degree of probabilit;, to hafa bean
oac« the bed of the Yellow river, or of one of ita mauthn, whoie waten
found their w>7 Dorth-eutwird through the manhea aeir Kaifluig fli la '
Hnwn. Bic4 hti WTitt«D ■ memoir apon ttie tnbjeet.

at the sluices, and the danger lo the boats waa diminished by
coils of rope bein|{ hung down at the sides to break the force of
blows. The slowDesa of our progress, which for the last week
averaged only twenty miles a day, gave us abundant leisure to ob-
serve the country

" We now began to make better progress on the canal ihaa
we had hitherto done. The stream, though against us, was not
strong, except near the sluices, where il was confined. In the
afternoon we stopped at Kal-ho chin (i. e. River-opening mart),
BO called, perhaps, because the canal was commenced near here.
On the 2ath, we arrived at the influx of the Vun ho, where the
sirean) turned in our favor, and flowed to l!ie southward, being
llie Kiglicsl point of the canal, and a place of some note. The
Yun ho flows into the cnnal on its eastern side nearly at right
angles, and a part of its waters flow nortli and part south, while
a strong facing of stone on (he western bank sustains the force
of the influx. At this point is the temple of the Dragon King,
or genius of the watery element, who is supposed to have the
canal in his special keeping. This enterprise of leading in this
river seems to have been the work of Sung Li, who lived under
Hungwu.the first emperor of the Ming dynasty, about 137.5, In
his time, a part of the canal in Shantung became so impassable
that the coasting passage by sea began to be most used. This
was the very thing the canal had been intended to prevent ;
Sung accordingly adopted the plan of an old man named Plying,
lo concentrate the waters of the Yun ho and neighboring streams,
and bring thera down upon the canal as they are at present.
History stales that Sung employed 300,000 men to carry the
plan into operation, and that the work was completed in seven
months. On both sides of us, nearly level with the canal, were
extensive swamps with a shallow covering of water, planted with
iheNclumbium; they were occasionally separated by narrow
banks, along which the trackers walked, and the width of the
canal sometimes did not csceed 25 yards. On reaching the part
which skins the Tu-ahan lake, the left bank was entirely sub-
merged, and the canal confounded with the lake. All within
sight was swamp, coldness, and desolation — in fad, a vast inland
sea, as many of the large boats at a distance were hull down.
The awamps on the following day were kept out of sight by some

30 THE MIDDLE KINC^DOM.

decent villages on the high banks, which from perpetual ^oun^
lation, assumed in some places the aspect of hills.

" A part of our journey on the first of October lay along a
portion of the canal where the banks, particularly [o the right,
were elatwrately and llioroughly faced with slone ; a precaUti<NF
which seemed lo imply a greater than ordinary danger frum
inundations. In fact, the lakes or rather floods seemed to extend
at present nearly to Ihe feet of the mountains which lay at a dis-
tance on our left. We were now approaching that part of China
which is exposed lo the disastrous overflowings of the Yellow-
river, a perpetual source of wasteful expenditure lo the govern,
ment, and of peril and calamity to the people ; it well deservetf*
the name of China's Sorrow. We observed the repairs of th^
banks diligently proceeding under the superintendence of thA
proper officer. For ihis purpose they use the natural soil 14*
combination with the thick stalks of the gigantic millet."

The Canal crosses the Yellow river about 70 miles from il
mouth, or rather flows into it, for the artificial level on both 8idfl0
is much above the natural. When it leaves the lakes in tb#
southern part of Shantung, the cans! runs nearly parallel wtA
Ihe Hwang ho for more ihan a hundred miles, and between A
and The New Salt river for a good part of this dislance. Th
crossing of this rapid stream is a matter of some diflicully if thV
weather be boisterous, but when Amherst's embassy passed, t
boats struck right across the stream without observing anyordaff
and gained the opposite bank, about three quarters of a mile dis
tanC, in less than an hour. Barrow says the boatmen in evei
barge sacrificed a fowl and a pig, or some other animalS) a
daubed the blood and hair upon the principal parts of the t
on llie bow was placed an oblation of spirits, oil, salt, rice, i
die, and when the boat reached the middle of the stream, t
captain poured the cups of liquids into the water, ^ ^^

at his side beat a gong violently, and others burned a quanliw
of fire-crackers and gilt paper. On safely reaching the o
bank, the Dragon King was again addressed in a volley of cracKa
ers, as a token of thanks for his propitious aid ; and the captafij
and crew feasted on the offerings. The ceremonies observrf'
when the second English embassy crossed were less formftl.
The boats were drifted about two miles down the river, and than
■lowly brought up against the current to the spot where the o

TBS QHAND tANAL. 3J

eniered. This opening was a sluice nearly a hundred yards
across, and ihrougli it the waters rushed into Ihe river like a mill
nee ; llie banks were conslruclcd of earth, iDlermingled nnd
strengthened with airaw and reeds of millet, and strongly bound
with cordage. Numerous boats wore anchored on the banks of
the river, laden with the stalks of plants ready to be carried to
every part. The boats are dragged through and up the sluice
close to the bank by menns of ropes communicating with htrge
windlasses workexl on the bank, which safely, though slowly,
bring ihem into still water. This was not, however, ihe canal,
but an outlet of the Hungtsih lake, which emptied itself both
into liie Hwang ho aiid Canal. Theenlranceof the soulherndivi-
sion of the coual is further south, and a good deal of contrivance
has been employed in conslrucling the embankments and regu-
lating the course of the waters. Artificial basins have been hol-
lowed out in Ihe banks of the river, where the Loals can securely
anchor, and between them are other embankments and sluices
dmilar to the one leading into the river, up or down which the
boats are taken by ropes worked by windlasses. These basins
and sluices serve the same purposes as locks in weelem cnnals.
The distance between the Hwang tio and Yangtsz' kiang is
about 90 miles, and the canal is carried through the whole space
upon a mound of earth kept together by retaining walls of stone,
and not less than twenty feet above the surrounding country in
some parts ; this sheet of water is about 200 feet wide, and its
current about three miles an hour. It is, however, carried gene-
rally through the lowest levels, and serves as a drain to large
tracts of marshy country north of the Yellow river. South of
that stream, several large towns stand near its banks, below
their level, whose safely wholly depends upon the care taken of
the banks of the canal. The city of Hwai-ngan fu, and town
of Pauying, stand below and near its banks in such a position as
to cause an involuntary shudder at the thought of the desiruciion
which would take place if the banks should give way. The
level descends from these towns lo the Yangtsz' kiang. and nt
Yangchau fu the canal is much below the houses on its sides : it
also connects with every stream or lake in its progress, whose
waters can be led into it. The repairof the embankments annu-
ally demands vast sums, but the outlay for this line is but a small
part of the total expenditures ibr this purpose. There are two

32 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

or three inlets into the Yangtsz' kiang, where the canal joins its
northern bank, but Chinkiang fu on the southern shore is regarded
as the principal defence and post of its crossing. The^ canal
leaves the river east of that city, and proceeds south-easterly to
Suchau fu, and thence southerly on the eastern side of lake Tai,
with which it communicates, to Hangchau in Chehkiang. This
portion is by far the most interesting and picturesque of the whole
line for the rich and populous cities the traveller passes, the fer-
tility and high cultivation of the banks, and the lively aspect the
multitude of boats gives to the canal. The channel between the
two great rivers was made in the seventh century by princes of
the Tang dynasty ; that from Lintsing chau, or the Yu ho, to
the Yellow river, was dug by the Mongols in the thirteenth cen-
tury ; and the southern part, to Hangchau fu, was completed by
the Chinese, under the Ming dynasty in the fourteenth century.
Its entire length is about 650 miles, or not quite twice that of the
Erie Canal, but it varies in its breadth and depth more than any
European canal.

As a work of art, compared with canals now existing in west-
ern countries, the Transit river does not rank high ; but even at
this day there is no work of the kind in Asia which can compare
with it, and there was none in the world equal to it when it was
first put in full operation. It passes through alluvial soil in every
part of its course, and the chief labor was expended in construct-
ing embankments, and not in digging a deep channel. The
junction of the Yun ho, about latitude 36** N., was probably
taken as the summit level ; from this point northward, the trench
was dug through to Lintsing to join the Yu ho, and embankments
thrown up from the same place southward to the Yellow river,
the whole being a line of two hundred miles. In some places th&
bed is cut down thirty, forty, and even seventy feet, but it passes
through no material obstacle ; the banks are sometimes twenty
feet above the surrounding country, and a hundred thick. The
sluices which keep the necessary level are of rude construction,
and thick planks, sliding in grooves formed by stone buttresses,
form the only locks. Still, the objects intended are all fully
gained, and the simplicity of the means certainly does not derogate
from the merit and execution of the plan.

There are some other canals in the empire, but none of them
at all equalling this in importance or extent. Kienlung con*

PUBLIC ROADS. 33

alnioted a vaste-weir for carrying olF ihe waters of the Yellow
river of about a hundred miles in Icngih, by culling a canal
from Ifung hicn in Honan, to one of Ihe principal afTlucnts of
lake Hunglsih ; but whether it is now in good repair, or haa
been stopped up, is not known. It also served as a drain ftir the
marshy land in thai port of the Pioin. In the vicinity of Canton,
there are many ditches and channels cut through the lowlands,
which serve both for irrigation and navigation, but ihey are not
worthy (he name of canals ; similar conveniences exist more or
less in all parts of the provinces.

The public roads, in a country so well provided with naviga-
ble streams, are of minor consequence, but these media of travel
have by no means been neglected. Dc Guignes, speaking of
them, says, " I have travelled near 600 leagues by land in
China, and have found many good roads, most of them wide and
planted with trees ; tlicy arc not ueually paved, and consequently
in rainy weather are either channelled by the water or covered
with mud. and in dry weather so dusiy that travellers are obliged
to wear spectaclea lo protect their eyes. In Kwangtung, trans-
portation is performed almost wholly by water, the only roads
being across t-he lines of navigation. The pass across the Mei
ling is paved or filled up with stones ; at Kih-ngan fu in Kiangsf,
are paved roads in good condition, but beyond the Yangtez' kiang,
in Nganhwui, ibey were almost impracticable, but became better
as we proceeded northward, and in many places had trees on
both sides. Beyond the Hwang ho ihey were broader, and we
saw crowds of travellers, carts, mules, and horses. In Shantung
and Chihli, ihey were generally broad and shaded, ond very dusty ;
this is no douht disagreeable, but wo went smoothly over these
places, while in the villages and towns we were miserably jolted
on the pavements. I hope, for ilie sake of those who may come
after me, that the Chinese will not pave their roads before they
improiye their carriages. The thoroughfares about Peking are
paved with slabs of stone, and kept in good repair. Those
Hangohau, and the great rood leadinji; from Chehkiang
Kiangsf, are all in good condition. Generally speaking, however,
OB is the cose with most things in China, the roads are not well re-
paired, and large holes are frequently allowed to remain unfilled
in Ihe path, to the great danger of those who travel by night."'

• VoyBgw i Peking, vol. II,, oaf;* Bl*.

y

■e

J

84 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

Mountain passes have been cut for facilitating the transit of
goods and people over the high ranges in many parts of China.
The great road leading from Peking south-west through Shensi
and Sz'chuen, is carried across the Peh ling and the valley of the
river Hwai by a mountain road, " which, for the difficulties it
presents, and the art and labor with which they have been over-
come, does not appear to be inferior to the road over the Sim-
plon."* At one place on this route, called Lf-nai, a passage has
been cut through the rock, and steps hewn on both sides of the
mountain from its base to the summit. The passage across the
peak being only wide enough for one sedan, the guards are
perched in little houses placed on poles over the pass. This road
was in ancient times the path to the metropolis, and these im-
mense excavations were made from time to time, by different
monarchs. The pass over the Mei ling, at Nan-ngan, is a work
of later date, and so are most of the other roads across this range,
in Fuhkien and Kwangtung.

The general aspect of the country is perhaps as much modi-
fied by labor of man in China as in England, but the appearanoe
of a landscape in the two kingdoms is unlike. Whenever water
is available, canals and streams are dug, or led upon the lioe-
fields, and this kind of grain allows few or no trees to grow in the
plats ; such fields are divided by raised banks, which serve for
pathways across the marshy inclosure, and assist in confining the
water when let in upon the growing crop. The bounds of other
fields are denoted by stones or other landmarks ; and the entire
absence of walls, fences, or hedgerows, makes a cultivated plain
appear like a vast garden, in which the plats seem to be mere
beds.

The greatest sameness exists in all the cities. A stone wall
incloses all towns of any size, and the suburbs are not unfre-
quently larger than their enceinte ; most of the streets are paved,
and the sewers run under the slabs, which reach across, and
what filth is not in them is generally in the street, as they often
become choked. The streets are not usually over eight feet
wide, but the lowness of the houses makes them appear lees like
alleys than they would in western cities. Villages have a plees-
ant appearance at a distance, usually embowered among tiee%

* Penny Cyckypadia, Vol. XXVU,, page 666.

ASPECT OP TBK COUNTRY. 3!)

between which the wliitcwnshed houses look prellily ; bul on
entering ihem, one is disiippoinled at iheir irreguUrily, dirtiness,
and general decayed look — for a. Cliinese seldom repairs his house
before it is dilapidated. The gardens and best bouses are moslly
walled in from sight, while the precjncis of temples are the resort
of idlers, b^gars, and cliildren, wiili a proportion of pigs and

Elegance or ornament, orderly arrangement or grandeur of
design, cleanliness, or comfort, are atmcist unknown in Chinese
houses, cities, or gardens. Commanding or agreeable situations
are chosen for temples and pagodas, which are not only the abode
of priests and senseless idoU, but serve for Inns, theatres, and
other purposes. The terrace cultivation sometimes renders llie
acclivities of hills beautiful in the highest degree, but it does not
often impwt a distinguishing feature to the landscape. A loliy
solitary pagoda, an extensive temple shaded by trees in the open-
ing of a vale or on a hill side, or boats moving in every direction
through narrow creeks or on broad streams, are some of the
peculiar lineaments of Chinese scenery. No imposing mansions
are found on the skirts of a town, for the people huddle Ingeiher
in hamlets and villages for muiual aid and security; no tapering
spires pointing out the ruml church, nor towers, pillars, domes,
or steeples, in the cities, indicating buildings of public utility, rise
above the low level of dun tiled roofs. No meadows or pastures,
containing herds and flocks, are visible from the htll-tops in China ;
nor are coaches, steamers, or railroad cars, ever observed hurry.
ing Bcrom its landscapes.

The condition and characteristics of the various families of
man inhabiting this great empire, render its study far more
interesting than anything relating to its physical geography or
public works. The Chinese are the leading family, but the
Miauts:', or the still independent aborigines in the southern pro-
vinces, the Manchus, the Mongols, and other Tartar tribes, the
Tibetans, and some other races in Hainan, Kirjn, and Formosa,
must not be overlooked. The sons of Han are indeed a remark-
able race, whether regard be had to their tintiquily, their num-
bers, their government, or their literature, and on these accounts
deserve the study and respect of everj- intelligent student of man-
kind : while their unwearied industrj-, their general peaceable-
ness and good humor, and their attainments in domestic order and

36 THB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

mechanical arts, commend them to the notice of every one who
sees in these points of character indications favorable to the per-
manence of Christian institutions, when once established.

The physical traits of the Chinese race may be described as
being between the light and agile Hindu, and the muscular,
fleshy European ; their form is well built and symmetrical. Their
color is a brunette or sickly white, rather approaching to a yel-
lowish tint than to a florid, but this yellow hue has been much
exaggerated ; in the south they are swarthy but not black, never
becoming as dark even as the Portuguese, whose fifth or sixth
ancestors dwelt on the Tagus. It is almost unnecessary to add,
that the shades of complexion differ very much according to the
latitude, and degree of exposure to the weather, especially in the
female sex. The hair of the head is lank, black, coarse, and
glossy ; beard always black, thin, and deficient ; no whiskers ;
and very little hair on the body. Eyes invariably black, and
apparently oblique ; this is owing to the slight degree in which the
inner angles of the eyelids open, the internal canthi being more
acute than in western races, and not allowing the whole iris to
be seen ; this peculiarity in the eye distinguishes the eastern
races of Asia from all other families of man. The hair and
eyes being always black, a European with blue eyes and light
hair appears very strange to them ; and one reason given by the
people of Canton, for having called foreigners fan kwei, or " for-
eign devils," is, that they had deep sunken blue eyes, and red
hair like demons.

The cheek-bones are high, and the outline of the face remark-
ably round. The nose is rather small, much depressed, and
nearly even with the face at the root, and wide at the extremity ;
there is, however, considerable difference in this respect, but no
aquiline noses are seen. Lips thicker than among Europeansy
but not at all approaching those of the negro. The hands are
small, and the lower limbs better proportioned than among any
other Asiatics. The height is about the same as that of Euro-
peans, and a thousand men taken as they come in the streets oC
Canton, will probably equal in stature and weight the same num-
ber in Rome or New Orleans ; their muscular power would prob^
ably be less.

In size, the women are disproportionately small, when oom-
pared with European females ; and in the eyes of those aocus^

CRINSSE A2fD MIAUTSZ'. 37

tomed to the Eurqiean style of beauty, the Chinese women po8>
seis little, the broad upper face, low nose, apd linear eyes, being
quite the contrary of handsome. But still the Chinese face is
not destitute of some beauty, and when animated with good
humor and an expressive eye, and lighted by the glow of youth
and health, the displeasing features lose much of their repulsive-
ness. Nor do they fade so soon as has been represented, and
look as ugly and withered when old as some travellers say, but
are in respect to bearing children and keeping their vigor, more
like Europeans than the Hindus or Persians.

The mountainous regions of the Nan ling and Mei ling,
between Kwangsf and Kweichau, give lodgment to many clans
of the Miautsz' or " children of the soil," as the words may be
rendered, and which they no doubt are. It fs singular that any
of these people should have maintained their independence so long,
when so large a portion of them have partially submitted to
Chinese rule ; those who will not are called sang MiatUsz\ i. e.
wild or unsubdued, while the others are termed shuh or subdued.
This race presents so many physical points of difference, as to
lead one to infer that they are a more ancient race than the
Chinese around them, and the aborigines of southern China.
They are rather smaller in size and stature, have shorter necks,
and their features are somewhat more angular. The degree of
civilization they have attained is much below that of the Chinese.
It is not known what language they speak, but the names given
to parts of the body and the common articles about their boats by
some boatmen who visited Canton in 1833, showed that it was
essentially different from Chinese. An aboriginal race is said
to exist in the centre of Hainan island, but little or nothing is
known of them. The natives of Formosa are allied to the inha-
bitants of the Madjicosima group, and belong to the Japanese
race, but their language is indigenous. The Chinese from
Fuhkien have either subdued or driven them off from the western
half of the island, across the mountains. The only person in
modem times who has described them, is Count Benyowsky.

The Mongol and Manchu races have been considered as the
same, but even if they were originally from the same stock, they
now present many important differences. The Mongols are
essentially a nomadic race, while the Manchus are an agricul-
tural or a hunting people, according to the part of their country

they inhabit. The Manchus are of a lighter complexion un
slightly heavier build than the Chinese, have the same confor-
matioD of the eyelida, but rather more beard, and tiieir counte-
nances present greater intellectual capacity. They seem to par-
lake of both the Mongol and Chinese character, possessing more
determination and largeness of plan than the latter, with much
of the rudeness and haughtiness of the former. Barrow says,
someof those whom he saw at Peking classed among the Manchus,
had fair and florid compleAiona, a few had blue eyes, straight or
aquiline noses, brown hair and heavy beards ; the emperor
Kienlung himself had some of these characteristics. They are
evidently a mixed people, but have more affinities with the Chi-
uese than (he Mongolian race, though great pains have been
taken to keep them distinct from both since the conquest of the
country. The climate of Manchuria is milder than that of Mon-
golin, and the inhabitants of Liautung are more stationary and
civilized than those on the stepps; literary pursuits are more
esteemed, and they are not so much under the power of the
priesthood. The Manchus, in short, may be regarded as the
most improvable raco in Central Asia, if not on the continent,
and the skill with which they have governed the Chinese empire,
and the improvement they have made in their own condition
during the same lime, give promise of still further advances, when
they become familiar with the civiliitaiion of Christian lands.

Under the term Mongols or Moguls, a great number of Iribea
occupying the valleys and steppa of Central Asia, are comprised.
They extend from the borders of the Kirghis stepp and Kokand,
eastward to the Sialkoi mountains ; and it is particularly to this
race that the name Tartars or Tatars is applicable. This latter
term has been used as vaguely as the word Indian in America,
and the designation Cherokee or Carib Indians is quite analogous
to that of Usbcck or Kalkas Tartars. No such word as Tartar
is now known among the people, and the use in European books
of Tartars and Tartary should be discontinued. Klaproth con-
fines the appellation of Tartars to the Mongols, Kalmucks, Kal-
kas, Eleuths. and Buriats, while the Kirghfs, Usbecks, Cossacks,
and Turks are of Kurdish and Tttrkonuxnongin : neither Tartars
oor Turks have many points of similarity with the Manchus.
The Kalkas tribes constitute the majority of the Mongols at pro-
sent under Chinese away-

MANCHUS AND MONOOLS. 90

The Mongol Iribes generally are a atout, squat, swarlhy,
ill-favored race of men, having high and brood shoulders, short,
broad noses, pointed and prominent chins, long teeth distant from
each other, — eyes black, eiliptical, and unsteady, — thick, short
necks, extremities bony and nervous, muscular thighs, but short
legs, with a stature nearly or quite equal to the European.
They are nomadic in their habits, and subsist on animai food, de-
rived cKietly from their flocks and herds. They have a written
language, but their literature ia limited and mostly religious ; the
same language is spoken by all the tribes, with slight variations
and only a small admixture of foreign words. Most of the ac-
counts Europeans possess of their origin, their wars, and their
habits, were written by foreigners living or travelling among
them ; but ihey themselves, as McCulloch remarks, know as little
of these things as rats or marmots do of iheir descent. The fate
of the vast swarms of this race which hove descended from the
table land of Central Asia, and overrun the plains of India,
China, Syria, Egypt, and Eastern Europe in diflerent ages, and
the rise and fall of the gigantic empire they themselves erected
under Genghis in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, ore among
the most remarkable episodes in the world's history. They have
alwa^ maintained the same character in ibeir native wilds, and
iheir conquests have been exterminations rather tlian subjuga-
tions. The number of petty tribes and families of this raoe
within tlie limits of the Chinese empire is not known. In Inner
Mongolia, there are twenty-four aimakt or tribes, arranged under
six chalkaru ; in Outer Mongolia, the Kalkos are governed by
four khans. The Orlous, Tsakhars, Eleuiha, and Kortchin, are
the largest tribes, next to the Kalkas. The Tourgoulhs, Ho-
shoiis, Tourboiha, Choros, and Khoita, are among the tribes dwell-
ing in Koko-nor. In lli, the Mongols are mixed up with and
subordinate to tribes of Turkish origin ; the former are mostly
Budhists, while the Inlter are bigoted Mohammedans.

The last of the five races is the Tibetans, who partake of the
physical characteristics of the Mongols and Hindus. They are
described as abort, squat, and broad-shouldered in body, with an-
gular faces, wide, high cheek bones, small black eyes, and little
beard. They are mild in disposition, have a stronger religious
feeling than the Chinese, and have never left their own highlands
either for emigration or conquest. Their civilization is fully

I

equal to that of the Siamese and Burmeac. and life and proper^
are more secure ihan among their turbulent neighbors in Bulan,
Lahore, or Caiibul. There are, no doubt, other variations
in the language, habits, and features of the inhabitants of this
vast region estending over thirty degrees of longitude and nine
of latitude, but they are not important enough to be particularly
noticed.

It will be seen from this brief sun'ey, that a full account of
the geography, government, manners, lileraliire, and civilization
of so large a part of the world and its inhabitants, requires the
combined labors of many observers, all of them well acquainted
with the languages and institutions of the people whom they de-
scribe. No one will look, therefore, for more than a brief outline
of these subjects in the present work — minute enough, however,
to enable ihem to form a fair opinion of the people. Tlie indus-
try of the Chinese has given them iheir commanding place
among the nations of the earth, and their superiority over all
their neighbors is owing chiefly to this virtue. Not only has the
indigenous vegetation been superseded wherever culture would
remunerate their toil, but high hills have been tilled and terraced
almost to their lops ; cities have been built upon them, and ex-
tensive ranges of wall erected along their summits. They prao-
tiae upon a vast scale all the industrial arts, whether rural or
manufact urine, and maintain the largest population ever united
under one system of rule. Ten centuries ago they were the
roost civilized nation on earth, and the incredulity manifested in
Europe, five hundred years ago, at the recitals of Marco Polo,
regarding their condition, is the counterpart of the sentiments
now expressed by the Chinese when they hear of the power and
grandeur of western nations.

Their civilisation has been developed under peculiar forms and
influences, and must be compared to, rather than judged of, by
European | the dissimilarity is as wide, perhaps, as can possibly
e«ist between two races of beings, having the same common
nature and wants. A people, from whom some of the most dis-
tinguishing invenlions of modem Europe came (such as th«
ipass, porcelain, gunpowder, and printing), and were known
and practised many centuries earlier, — who probably amount to
n»re than three hundred millions, united in one system of maa-
nm, letters, and polity, — whose cities and capitals rival in num.

ATTAINMENTS IN CI VI LIZ AT] O.N. 4i

ben the grealeat metropoles of any age, — who hnve not only
coven?d the earlh but ibe waters with towns ^and streets: — such
n nation must occupy u conspicuous pluce in the liistory of man-
kinil, and Uie study ol' their character and condiiioa commend
itself lo every wull. wisher of his race.

It has been too much the custom of writers lo overlook the in-
Duence of the Bible upon modem civilization ; but when & com-
parison is to be drawn between European and Asiatic oivilization,
this element forces itself upon the niteniion as the main cause of
the superiority of the former. It is not the civilization of luxury
or of letters, of arts or of prieslcruft ; it is not the spirit of war,
the passion for money, nor the application of machinery, that
render a nation pcrinnnenily great and prosperous. " Cbristianiiy
is the summary of aU civilization," says Chenevix ; " it contains
every argument which could be urged in its support, and every
precept which explains its nature. Former systems of religion
were in conformity with luxury, but this alone seems to have
been conceived for the regions of civilization. It baa flourished
in Europe, while it has decayed in Asia, and the most civilized
nations are the most purely Christian." Christianity is essen-
tially tlie religion of the people, and when it is covered over with
forms and contructed into a priesthood, its vitality goes out ; ibis
is one reason why il has declined In Asia. The attainments of
the Chinese in the arts of life are perhaps es great as they can
be witiiout this spring of action, without any other motives to in-
dustry, obedience, and morality, than the commands or demands
of the present life.

A general survey of the world and its various races in succes-
sive ages leads one to infer, thai God has some plan of national
character ; and that one nation exhibits the development of one
trait, while another race gives prominence to onolher, and subor-
dinates the iii'st. Thus the Egyplian people were eminently a
priestly race, avast body of undertakers; the Greeks developed the
imaginative powers, excelling all olbers in sculpture, poetry, and
art; the Romans were warlike; the Babylonians and Persians
magnificent, like the head of gold in the vision ; the Arabs pre-
dacious, volatile, and imaginative; the Turks stolid, bigriied, and
impassible; the Hindus are contemplative, religious, and meta-
physical; the Chinese industrious, peaceful, literary, atheistic,
kod conceited. The same religion, and constant ii

43 THE MIDDLE KIIfODOK.

nation among European nations, usiinilatM them mon than oUm
lucea ever were before ; but every ooe knows the nationa] peon-
Haritiesof the Spaniards, Italians, French, English, tic, and how
they are maintained, notwithstanding the motives to imitation and
coalescence. The comparison of national character and civili.
cation, with the view of ascertaining such a plan, ia a subject
worthy the profound study of any scholar, and one which would
offer new viewsof the human race. The Chinese would be found
to have attained, it is believed, a higher position in general secu<
rity of life and property, and in the arts of domestic life and
comfort among (A« nuui, and a greater degree of general literary
intelligence, then any other heathen or Mohammedan nation
that ever existed, — or indeed than some now calling themaelvea
Christian, as Abyssinia. They have, however,- probably dc»e all
they can do, reached as high a point as they can without the
Gospel ; and its introduction, with its attendant influences, will
erelong change their political and social system. The prc^rev
of this revolution among so mighty a mass of human beings will
form one of the most interesting parts of the history of the world
during the nineteenth century, and solve the problem, whether it
be possible to elevate a race without the intermediate stepa of
disoi^anization and reconstruction.

CHAPTER 11.

Geognphical Detcription or (he Eastern Prorinces.

The Chinese empire is everywhere subdivided into sang, fu,
ctiau, ftien and ai', or provinces, departments, districts, hundreds
and tilhings, of greater or less size, according lo their position,
populatioa, and mode of governmenl ; but in the regions beyond
the borders of the Eighteen Provinces, although arranged on the
same plan, these divisions are considerably modified by the cha-
racter of the inhabitants and iheir mode of living. In the wilds
of Manchuria, which are considered as the patrimony of the
reigning family, the scanty population is ruled by a more simple
military organization than any other portion of the empire, the
higher departments being appointed by his majesty liimself.
The khans of the Mongols in Mongolia and III, the Mohammedan
begs in Turkestan, and the lamas in Tibet, arc overseen and
assisted in their rule by Chinese residents and generals appointed
to direct and uphold the governmenl of those distant regions.

The geography of foreign countries has not been studied by
the Chinese themselves ; and such have been the restrictions
imposed upon the emigration of the people, and so few have been
the educated men who have travelled even into the islands of the
Indian Archipelago, or the contiguous kingdoms of Siam, Coreo,
or Burmah, that there have been few opportunities for the people
to become acquainted with the countries lying on their borders,
much less with ihosS in remoter parts, whose names, even, they
hardly know. A few native works exist on foreign geography,
among which four may be here noticed. " 1. Researches in the
East and West, 6 vols. 8vo. It was written about two centuries
ago ; the lirst volume contains some rude charts intended to show
the situation and form of foreign countries. 2. Notices of the
Seas, 1 vol. Its author, Yang Pingnan, obtained his information
from a townsman, who, being wrecked at sea, was picked up
by a foreign ehip, and travelled abroad Irora country lo cotintiy

li.

44 TEE HIDSLB SIHGDOM.

for fourteen years ; on his return to China he became blind, and
was engaged as an interpreter in Macao. 3. Notices of Things
hcnrtl and seen in Foreign Countries, 2 vole. ISmo., written
about a century ago, contains among other thinga a chart of the
whole Chinese coast. 4. The Memoranda of Foreign Tribes, 4
vols. 8vo., were published in the Tcio:a of Kienlung."" Besides
these, which contain so little correct inrormalion that ihey are
not worth reading, a still more methodical work is ihat of Lf
Tsinglai, a native of Canton, called Plates Illuslralive of tho
Heavens, being an astronomical and geographical work, mLCA
of whose ctmtenta were obtained from Europeans residing in the
country. But even if the Chinese had better treatises on these
subjects, the information contained in them would be of little use
until it was taught to the youth in their schools. The high officers
in the government begin now to see the importance of a better
acquaintance whh general geography, and commissioner Lin has
lately published a partial translation of Murray's Cyclopajdia of
Geography, made by two Chinese who had obtained a knowledge
of English in American schools. This translation has been pub-
lished in twenty volumes by Lin under his own name.

Bill if the Chinese have few geographical works upon foreign
countries, those delineating the topography of their own are
hardly equalled in number and miniiiencss in any language :
every district and town in the empire of any importance, as well
as every department and province, has a local geography of its
own. It may with truth be said thai tho topographical and
statistical works form the most valuable portion, after the ethi-
cal, of Chinese lite-rature. It would not be difficult to collect «
library of 10,000 volumes of such works alone ; the topography
of the cily of Suchau, and of the province of Chchkiang, are
each in 40 vols., white the Kioangtung Tung Chi, an Historical
and Statistical Account of the province of Kwangtung, is in 182
volumes. None of these works, however, would bear to be
translated entire, such is the amount of legendary and unimpor.
tanl matter contained in them ; but they contain many data not
to be overlooked by any one who undertakes to write a geogra-
phy of China.

The C/unate of the Eighteen Provinces, although it has not yat

* Cbinoe Chrcatamathj, page 420.

CLIMATE OF FSItNO.

46

L meieorological tables, has still bet^n sulTi-
oienllv observed lo Bscerlain its general salubrity. PeslJlences
do not frequently visit the land, nor, as in Southern India, are the
people deluged with rain during one monsoon, and parched with
dg)Ught during the other. The inhabiiants everywhere enjoy
as good health, and are as well developed, and attain as greal an
age, UB in other countries. The cutaneous diseases which pre-
vail are owing to the dirty habits of the people, and not to ihe
climate. The average temperature of ihe whole empire is lower
than thalof any other country on the same latitude, and the coast
is subject to the same extremes as that of the Atlantic Slates in
America. The climate of Peking, though subject lo extremea,
is salubrious; epidemics are rare, and the plague unknown there
or anywhere else in China. The water is frozen from December
to March ; in the spring, violent storms and whirlwinds occur;
the winters of the capital are Hkc those of Stockholm or Boston,
ranging from lO" to 25" F. ; but the summers are those of
Naples or Washington, the temperature sometimes rising lo 95°
and 105", but more usually from 75° to 90" F. Autumn is the
most pleasant part of the year, the air is then mild, the sky
serene, and the weather calm. It is probable thai the position of
Peking, in a wide and poorly sheltered plain al the fool of moun-
laina and high table land, increases both the heat in summer and
cold in winter. This remark is still more applicable to the towns
m die gulf of Pechele, and GutzlalT describes in his journal the
pvnlyaing effects of the cold upon his shipmates at Kaichau, as
deriving them of all energy.

The climate of the Plain is generally good, but near the rivers
and marshy grounds is prejudicial lo robust health. Foreigners
sufTer fivm fevers and agues, which open the way for diseases
man dangerous; the English farces, in 184S, did not recover
fiom the maladies which attacked them in their passage up lo
Nanking until their return to Hongkong. A resident in that city
qieaks of the bad influences of the temperature of Nanking and
tte legion around it: "This vest Plain being only a marsh half
dninedi the moisture is excessive, giving rise lo many strange
dlMBses, all of them serious, and^iot unfrequendy mortal. The
flUmale affects the natives from other provinces, and Europeans ;
I have not known one of the latter who was not sick for six
months or a year after his arrival. Every one who comes here

must prepare himself for a teriian or quoiidian. For myaelf
after BulTi^ring two manths from a malignant fever, I had tea
attacks of a malady the Chinese here call the gand, from the
ekin being covered with little blackish pimples resembling graina
of dust. It is prompt and violent in its progress, and corrupts
the blood so rapidly, that in a few minutes it stagnates and coagu-
lates in the veins. The best remedy the people have is to cica-
trize the least fleshy ports of the body with a copper cash. Ttie
first attack I experienced rendered all my limbs insensible in
two minutes, and I expected to die before 1 could receive ex-
treme uactioa. AAer recovering a liltle, great lassitude suc-
ceeded."* Those parts of the Plain which are hilly do not suf-
fer from Ihese complaints, nor are they prevalent where the
drainage is good.

The inhabitants of Shanghai, latitude 31° 24' N., suffer from
the rapid changes in the autumn and spring months, and pulmo-
nary and rheumatic complaints are common. According to Dr.
Lockhart'a hospital report, the maximum of heat is 100° P., and
the minimum 34°, but ice is not common, nor does snow remain
on the ground very long. The average temperature of Ihe sum-
mer b from 80° to 93° F. by day, and from 60° lo 75" by night ;
the thermometer in the winter months ranges from 45° lo 60" F.
by day, and from 36° to 45° by night. The limits in a single
day are about 20°, rarely over 25°, and the effects of the vicissi-
tudes depend more upon the winds and humidity than upon tho
heat. The east winds are unusually chilly from the proximity
of the high mountains in Japan, and shallow water in the Yellow
sea.

The climate of Ningpo and Chusan is pleasanter than Shang-
hai, owing in some degree to the hills in their vicinity. The
thermomcler ranges from 24° to 107° during the twelvemonth,
and changes of 20° in the course of two hours are not unusual,
which the openness of the houses renders still more disagreeable.
The cold is such as to require lircs in winter, but the natives
content themselves with additional clothing, and the large forms
of mason-work used for cooking and for sleeping, so common in
Chihlf, are not often seen. The river is never frozen, but ioo
n pools. Snow frequently falls, but does not remain long.

Auula da la Propagition da U Fai, tome XVI;, pige 993.

CLIMATE OP C

47

Ntngpo and Puhchau are healthy residences, being neither so
hot Ha Canton for many months, nor so changeable as Shanghai.
The climate of Anioy is delightful, but iis insular position ren-
ders a residence there perhaps a little less agreeable than on the
main ; (he city is built only a few feet above high water, and
high barren hills are in the rear. The thermometer ranges from
40° to 96°, throughout the year, withotJ those rapid uhanges
which are experienced at Ningpg ; but (he heat oontinues longer,
though assuaged by breezes from the sea. Much rain falls in
the spring, and tyfoops occur in August ; but the air is clear and
bracing from November to March, when woollen clothing is
necessury.

The climate of Canton and its vicinity is much better known
than that of the other ports ; and the observation, " that, on the
whole, ihe climate of Canton, but more especially of Macao, may
be considered superior to tlial of most other places situated
between the tropics," is corroborated by the experience of almost
every resident. The thermometer, during the months of July
and August, stands on aa average at 80° to 88°, and in January
and February at 50° to 60°; the highest recorded observation in
1881 was 94° in July, and Ihe lowest 29° in January, Ice some-
times forms at Canton in shallow vessels a line or two in thick-
ness, but no use is made of it by the natives, nor is it ever
brought by them from the north. A fall of snow, nearly two
inches deep, occurred at Canton in February, 1835, which
remained on the ground three hours ; but it was such an unusual
event that the citizens hardly knew what was its proper name,
■ome catling it falling cotton, and every one endeavoring to pre-
serve it as a febrifuge. Fogs are common during February and
March, and the heat sometimes renders them very disagreeable,
it being necessary to keep up a little lire tirdry the house, which
ia not wanted for warmth. During May and June, most of the
rain falls, but there is nothing like a rainy season as at Calcutta
and Manilla. July, August, and September, are the regular
monsoon months, the wind coming from the south-west, with fre-
quent showers lo allay the heat.

In Ihe close streets and creeks of Canton, reeking with oSal of
every description, the heat is aggravated by radiation from the
walls, and by vile smells urged forth by the sun ; but in the
oouDtTy, and towards the sea-coast, the winds cool it. In the

4S THE UIDDLE KINGDOM.

succeeding monihs, the northerly winds commence with
inierruplions at first, but from October to January tho tempers'
lure is ngreeable, the sky clear, and llie air invigorating. Few
large cities are more healthy than Canton, no epidemics nor ma-
laria prevail there, notwithstanding much of the town is built
upon piles. Foreigoera residing there generally enjoy good
health, if they abstain from ardent spirits, and do not expose them-
selves to the sun, notwithstanding the confined limits into which
they ore crowded. Woollen clothes are worn, and fires are com-
fortable during the months of January and Februnry, but the
Chinese do not warm their houses. The monsoons do not blow
regularly northeast of Canton near the coast, and can hardly be
said to extend above '25° N., except with many interruptions.

The climate of Macao and Hongkong has not so great a range
as Canton, from iheir proximity to the sea ; still both of them are
iMalthy residences. Pew cities in Asia exceed Macao in respect
to climate, though it has been remarked that few of the natives
attain a great age. The maximum at Macao is 90°, and the
average summer heat 84° ; the minimum is 50", and average
winter weather 68", with almost uninterrupted sunshine. Fogs
are not of very long continuation at Macao, but on the river ibey
prevail, and at Whampoa are more frequent than ai Canton.
North-easterly gales are common in the spring and autumn,
often continuing to blow three days. The vegetation in this part
of the country does not change its general aspect during the win-
ter, the trees cease to grow, and the grass becomes brownish ; but
the Etimutuii of the warm moisture in March and April soon
makes a sensible dillerencc in the appearance of the landscape,
and bright green leaves soon lake the place of the old. The
insalubriiy of Hongkong has been chiefly owing to other causes
than the climate, and when it becomes a well built, well drained
town, there is every probability of its being a healthy one. The
reins are more abundant there than in Macao, owing lo the
attraction of the high peaks on the island and in the neighbor-
hood. During the rainy and foggy weather of March and
April, the walls of houses become damp, and if newly plaaterod,
drip with moisture. Silken and woollen dresses mildew, and
great care is required to prevent them, and books, cutlery, and
paper from spoiling. Tinned boxes are considered as the beat
preservatives.

RAINS AND WfNDS. 49

The provinoes of Kwanglung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan, are con-
sidered Ihe most unhealtliy of the eighteen, and on this elccoudi
are employed as places of baniahnienl for crimiuals from ihs
north-eastern diairicls. The central portions of the country are
on some accounts the most healthy, not so liabto to sudden
changes as the coast, nor so cold as the ivpstern and northern
districts. Sz'chueii aad Kweiehau am colder tlian Fuhkien and
Chehkiang froin the mountains in and upon their borders.

The fall of rain in Chino is estimated by Humboldt at 70 in.
annually, but he does not state where he derived this average ;
whatever il may b9 for the whole country, this amount is the
mean of sixteen years' observalion at Canton. During four
years, there were only fifteen rainy days from October lo Feb-
ruary in each year. Thunder storms are not remarkably com-
mon or severe, but not a year passes witliout some deaths occur-
ring from lightning.

The increased temperature on the southern coast during the
months of June and July operates, with other causes, to produce
violent storms along ihe seaboard, called li(foons, from the Chi-
nese fa^un^, or "great wind." These destructive tornadoes occur
from Hainan to Chusan, between July and October, gradually
progressing northward ss the season advances, and diminishing
in fury in ihe higher latitudes. They annually occasion great
losses to the native and foreign shipping in the Chinese waters,
and more than half the shijw lost on that coasl have suffered
in ihem. One of the most melauelioly was the loss of the
British transport Golconda in 1840, with about 650 souls on
board, oHioers and sipahis ; also the merchantmen Hamoody,
Marg. Graham and Hormusjee Bomanjee, in one gale, and Earl
of Moira in another ; not a trace of ihem was ever seen. The
bark Kent, about 350 tons, dragged her anchors in one of these
storms, and was carried nearly a mile from low water mark,
and left high and dry : she was afterwards floated by digging a

Tyfoons are now ascertained lo be whirlwinds, whose fury
is exhausted within a narrow traok, which, in such coses as have
been registered, lies in no uniform direction, other than from
south to north si a greater or less angle. The principal phe-
Doraena indicating the approach of these hurricanes are ihe
direction of the wind, which commences lo blow in soft zephyrs

60 THE MICnLE KINODOM.

from the north, wiiliout assuaging ihe h^at or disturbiiig ths
calmnesB of ihe Btiiiasphere, ami tlie sinking of the barometer.
The glass Qsuallv beffins to fall Heveral hours before it com-
menoes, and tiie rarefaction of the (lir is further shown Ly tha
heavy swell rolling in upon ihe beach, though the sea is smooth.
The wind increnEPs as it veers lo the north-easl, and from thai
point lo south-east blows with the greatest force in fitful gusts.
There is little or no rain until towards the close of the gale,
when the glass begins to rise ; ihe barometer not unfrequenlly
falls below 28 m., and Krusenstern, ihe Russian navigator,
not a little surprised to see the mercury sink out of sight.

The Chinese dread these gales, and in Haiuan have elected
temples to tile Tyfoon Mother, a goddess whom ihey supplicate
for protection against them. They say, " that a few days before
a tyfoon comes on, a slight noise is heard at intervals, whirliBg
round and then stopping, sometimes impetuous and aometlmea
slow; this is a ' tyfoon brewing.' Then Itery clouds collect ii
thick mosses, the thunder sounds deep and heavy ; ratnbom'
appear, now forming an unbroken curve and again separating,
and Ihe ends of the bow dip inio the sea. The sea sends back
a bellowing sound, and boils with angry surges ; the loose rooki
dash against each other, and detached seaweed covers ths '
water; there is a thick murky aimoaphere, the waler-fowl ttf
about affrighted, the trees and leaves bend to the south — >th8
tyfoon has commenced. When to it is superadded a violent rain
and a frightful surf, ihe force of ihe tempest is let loosCt afi
away tly the houses up to the hills, and the ships and boats bM
removed to the dry land ; horses and cattle are turned hedi
over head, trees are lorn up by the roots, and the sea boils Of
twenty or thirty feet, inundating the fields and destroying vegfc
tation : this is called an iron ichiriimnd."'

The Chinese arc ihe only people who have, 1
terms added to the name of a place, endeavored li
relative rank. Three of' the words used for thi
fa, chau, and hien, have been translated, and the Ic
Du HaJde and others, as of the Jirtl, tecond, or third rank ; blf
this gradation is not quite correct, and the terms do not apply ^
Ihe city or town atone, but to the portions of country of wbiot

' means
o designate

i purpoee.

M Of

>te il^

' ChincM Rapoiitor;, Vol. VIII.. paga 330: Vol. IV., piga 1B1.

they are die copital. An extract from llie Repository will ex.
plain the nature of these and other terms, and the divisiona

intended by ihera.

"The Eightpen Provincea are divided into/". /iTig-, cAau, and him. A
_fti is a large portion or department of a province, jnder tiie general con-
trol of one civil officer immedialely subordinate to the heads of the pro-
vincial government. A ting' is a division of a province sinaller than a
fu, and either like it governed by an officer immediately subject to the
heads of the proyincial government, or else forming a subordinate part
of a fu. In tlie former case it is called chih-li, i. e. under the ' direct
mis' of the provincial government ; in the latter case it is simply called
ttTig. A chau ie a division similar to a ting, anil like it either independ-
ent of any other division, or forming part of a/u. The diflerence iie-
twcen the tnn con^iats in the government of a ling resembling that of a
/u more nearly than that of a chau does : tliat of the chau is less e;cpen-
eivc. The tiiig and chaa of the class to wMch the term chih-U ia
attached, may \>e denominated, in common wilJi the fu, departmenli or
prefeelum ,- and the term rhih-ti may be rendered by the word independenl.
The subordinate ling and ehau may both be called districls. A \ien,
which ia also a dUlricI, is a small division or subordinate part of a de-
portment, whellier of a fu, or of an independent chau or ling.

"Each/u, ling.ekau, nnd ftim, posseaaea at least one walled town, the
seat of its government, which bears tiie same name aa Ihe department or
district lo which it pertains. Thus Hiangahwi is the chief town of Ihe
district Hiangshon hien ; and Shauking, that of tt^e department Siiau-
kiiig fu. By European writers, the chief towns of the fu or depart-
ments have been called cities of the tirst order ; those of the chau, cities
of the second order ; and those of the hien, cities of the third order.
The division called litig, being rarely met with, has been left out of the
arrangement — an arrangement not recognised in China. It must be
observed that the chief town of a fu is always also the chief town of a
lii'en district 1 and somctimeE, when of considerable size and importance,
it and the country around are divided into two hien districts, both of
which have the seat of their government within the same walls : but
this is not the ease with the ting aiad chau departments. A district is
not always aolidivided ; instances may occur of a whole district potiBess-
iog but one important town. But as tliere are often large, and even
walled towns not included in the number of chief or of district towns,
cmaequently not the eeat of a regular chau or hien magistracy, a subdi-
vision of a district is therefore frequently rendered necessary ; and for
Ihe better government of such towns and the towns surrounding them,
magistrates are appointed to them, secondary to the magistralea of the
deportments or the districts in which they are comprised. Thus Fubshan

L

!■ B very lar^ commerciEd town in Ihe district of Nanh&i, of die i
putmeni of Kwangchau, situated about twelve miles distsut from Cti^
ton. The chief officer of the department has therefore an aaaiatant resid-
ing there, aud the town is partly under his government and partlj u.
that of tlie Nanhai magisli&te, within whose district it Is included, bat*
wlio resides at Canton. Macao affords another instaace : being a plaos
of some importance, both from its size and as the residence of foreiga-
ers, an aaalstaol to the Hiangshan hien magistrate is placed over it,ai '
it is aba under the control of an aBsistant to the chief magistrala of ti
fu. Of these ttssistanl raagistratea, tliore are two ranks secondary to
ihe chief magistrate of a fu, two secondary to the mttgistrato of a
and two also secondary lo the magistrate of a kisn. The places under
the rule of these assistant magistrates are colled by various names, nuMt
freqaently chin and 90, and sometimes also chai and uei. These niuiu
do not appear to have reference to any particular form of municipal g
vemment eusting in them ; but the chai and the ted are often mililaqn
posts 1 and sometimes a place is, with respect to its civil govemmra^,
the chief city of a/u, while with respect to its military position i:
called wei. There are other towns of still smaller importance ; theti
are under tho government of infiirior magistrates who are called i'
kien: a division of country under such a magialrate Is called a
The town of Wlinmpou and country around it form one such divisioai,*
called Kiautong si', belonging to the district of Pwanyu, in the depMV
ment of Kwnngchau.

" In the mounlainoua districts of Kwangsi, Yunnan, Kweicban, m
Sz'chuen, and in some other places, there are districta called (u s^*
Among these, the same distinctions of/u, cAnu, and Jii^n exist, tc_
with the minor division is'. The magialratea of these departments &
districta are hereditary in their aocceasion, being the only heredity,
local oScera acknowledged by the sopreme government.

" There is a larger division than any of tlie above, but as it does n
prevail universally, it was not mentioned in the first instance. It
called lau, a course or circuit, and compriGes two or more departmen
of a province, whether fu, or independent ling or chau. These cireuiM
are subject to the government of officers called laiilai or intendanla nl
circuit, who often comliine with political and judicial powers a milllMi
authority, and various duties relating to tho territory or to the revenoa."^

The eighteen provinces received their present boundaries ai
divisionsin Ihe reign of Kienlung; and the liltle advance whii
has been made abroad in the geography of China is shown by tl
fact, that although these divisions were established eighty yi

togotbae
eotsagd
eredituj

* Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., nags M.

ago, ihe old demarkations, existing at llie time of the survey
under Kanghi, in 1710, are still found in many modern European
geographies and maps. The opposite table shows iheir present
divisions and government. The three columns under the head
of Dtfartmetil* contain the/u, e/dh/i ling, and cluhli chau, all of
which are properly prefectures; the three columns under the
head of IHftricla contain (he ting, chau, and Men.

The province of ChiblI is the most important of the whole. Od
foreign maps it is usually written Pechele (i. e. North Chihlf),
a name formerly given it in order to distinguish it from Kiaognan,
in which the seat of government had beforetime been located ;
but among the people it is at present only called Chihii. Tliia
name is descriptive, rather than technical, and literally means
Direct rule, denoting ihot from this province the supreme power
which governs the empire emanates; any province, therefore,
in which the emperor and court should be fixed, would be termed
Chihii, and its chief city King, " capita!," or King-sz', " court ol
the capital." The surface of this province is level, there being
a few ridges of hills in the west and north, while the eastern parts
along the gulf of Pechele, and those south of the capital, are
among the flattest portions of the Great Plain.

It is bounded on the north-east by Liautung, where for a short
distance the Great Wall is ihe frontier line ; on ihe east by
' the gulf of Pechele ; on the south-east and south by Shantung ;
on the south-west by Honan ; on the west by Shansi ; and north
by Inner Mongolia, where the Hwang ho forms the boundary.
The extensive region lying north of ChihU, occupied by the Tsak-
har Mongols, is now included within the jurisdiction of the pro-
vince, and placed under the administration of officers residing at
one of the garrisoned gates of Ihe Great Wall ; the area of this
part beyond the Great Wall is about half of the whole province,
which is now nearly double what it was inKanghl's lime. The
chief department in the province, that of Shuntien fu, being both
large and important, as containing the imperial metropolis, is
divided into four circuits, each under the rule of a sub-prefect,
who is subordinate to the prefect living at Peking.

Peking* (i. e. Northern Capital) is situated in this province in

• This word should not be (vritten Pekin ; it is pronounced Pth-ching by
IhecitisenB, and by most of the people north of the Great river, with
whom the initial k i> frequently loftened ioto eh, *a CMangaan foi Siang-

THE HIDDLK KIMGDOK.

ii

HI

nnl

■ii-ll

^ km

Hi IHlf

III ;!3;|

fjlf
III

fill

III
III

3SS& eSP^S 83 f:S^^

D ?

iHiiil

=11

POSITIO.N OK PEKING. &6

1 Baaiy plain, about twelve utiles south-west of the Pei ho, and
about a hunflred miles weat-nonh-wesl of its mouth, in latitude
39P 54' 13" N., and longitude 116= 27' E., or nearly on the
parallel of Samarkand, Erzrooin, Naples, and Philadelphia.
A siuoil brojich of this river, called Tung-hwui ho, enters the •
city on the north-west, and supplies it with water, before empty-
ing into the Pei ho. The entire circuit of the walls and suburbs
is reckoned by Father Hyacinthe, who resided there manv years,
at twenty-Bve miles, and its area at twenty-seven square miles.
This estimate probably includes the suburbs, as Barrow (page
681) puts it down at fourteen square miles. Like Canton and
other cities, which have over|)asscd the limits of their walla, it is
jiot easy to separate the cily from the suburbs ; and this consti-
tutes the chief difficulty in estimating the population. Du Halde
reckons it to be about 3,000,000, and Klaproth 1,300,000 ; others
place it between these extremes ; but comparing it with Jjonilon,
whose circuit is about eighteen miles, and population 1,SOO,000,
there seems to be no insuperable objection at stating that of Pe-
king at two millions. The broad streets, the river, parks and
squares of the former, are probably equal to the waste ground
and gardens of the latter.

Peking is regarded by the Chinese as one of their most ancient
cities, but it was not made the capital of the country until iia
conquest by the Mongols, when Kublai. about 1282, established
his court first at this spot, then called Shuntien fu (i. e. city
Obedient to Heaven), and afterwards removed il lo Hangchau.
The native emperors who succeeded the Mongols held their court
at Kiangning fu or Nanking, until Yungloh, the third monarch of
the Ming dynasty, who as prince of Yen had reigned at the for-
mer capital, transferred the seat of government there in 1411,
where it has ever since remained. Under the Mongols, the city
was called Khm-folik (i. e. city of the Khan), changed into
Cambalu in the accounts of those times ; on the Chinese maps it
is usually called King-sz' (i. e. Capital of the Court).

It WHS at tirst surrounded by a single wall pierced by nine
gates, whence it is sometimes called ihe City of Nine Gates.
A pari of the southern suburbs has since been inclosed, and the
city now consists of two portions, the northern or Tartar oily,
called Nui thing, containing about twelve square miles, where
are the palace, governmfnt buildings, and troops; and the south-

►

ern, called Wen fAin^, or Oincrcily, where the Chinese live,
wall of the cily ia Ihiriy feet high, twenty. five thick al the k>BO,
and the inner face slofH'S in so much that it is only Iweli
feel wide across the terre-plein upon which the parapet ia erected,
■Near the gales, of which there are sixteen in all, the walla ars
faced with stone, but in other placets with largo bricks, laid ia
B mortar of lime and clay, which in process of time becomes
olmosl as durable as stone. The intermediate space between the
facings is filled up with the earth taken from the dllch which
surrounds the city. Square lowers, projcoling fifty feet from
the outer aide of (he walls, occur at intervals of about sixty
yards, and one of these bultress-like defences stands on each
side of every gal*!, connected in front by a Sfimi-dircular fort ;
the entrance into the area is at the aide and not directly in frool.
The arches of liie gateways arc strong, and eacli gate is sur-
tnuuntcd by a wooden building several stories high, with painted
porl-holes for cannon.

Al the sides of the gales, and also between them, are espla-
nades for mounting to ihe lop ; the ditch around the city is fed
from the Tunghwui river, which also supplies all the olher ditches
leading across or through the cily. The approach lo Peking
■ froni Tung chau is by a well paved road, but lillle or nothing of
the buildings inside ihe walla is seen ; and were it not for the
high lookout lowers over the gales, il would more resemble bu
encampment inclosed by a massive wall ihan a large metrDpoIta.
No spires or towers of churches, no pillars or monuments, no
domes or minarets, nor even many dwellings of superior eleva-
tion, break the dull uniformity of this or any Chinese cily. In
Peking, the difTerent colored tiles, yellow, green, and dun r«d(
upon the roofs, impart a variety of colors to the scene, but the
only objecls to relieve ihe monotony are usually large clumpa of
trees, and the flng-Btafla in pairs before every official reaidenot.
A towering pagoda is usually the only building which claims Um
pre-eminence. It is no doubt, in a social point of view, far
better that all the people should have decently comfortable tene-
;nents, than that Ihe mud hovels of the wretched poor should
only look the more foriom beside the magnificent palace of th«
nabob ; still, the mere scenery, as at Calcutta or Tabriz, is moio
picturesque than in Chinese cities.

The plan of the cily here given is abridged from a loige CtA*-

so THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

neso map. The oorthem portion was taken possession of by tha
Manchus in 1644, Tor barracks and rcaidences, and Ihe govern-
ment purchased the buildings of llie Chinese and gave them to
their officers, but necessity soon obliged these men, less frugal
and thrifty than the natives, to sell them, and content themselves
with humbler abodes ; consequently, the greater part of the
northern part is now tenanted by Chinese, This division consista
of three inclosures, one within the other, eoeh surrounded by ita
own wall. The innermost contains the imperial palace and its
surrounding buildings ; the second is occupied by tho several
offices appertaining to the government, and by many private
residences ; the outer one, for the most pnrt, consists of dwelling-
liousea, with shops in the large avenues. The inner area is
called Kin Chrng, or Proiiibited City, and its circumference is
about two miles ; the wall is nearly as solid ns that around the
city, faced with glazed bricks, and covered with yellow tiles,
which at a distance, and in the sunshine, look brilliantly. A
gale on each side of this area gives access to its buildings, and
the space and rooms ap|>rrtainiiig to them furnish lodgment to the
guard which defends the approach to the Dragon's Throne ; a
tower at each corner, and one over each gateway, also aSbtA
accommodation to other troops. The interior of this inclosure
is divided into three parts by two walls running from south to
north, and the whole is occupied by a suite of court-yards and
apartments, which, in their orrsngcment and architecture, far
exceed any other specimens of liic kind in China. According to
the notions of a Chinese, all here is gold and silver ; " he will
tell you of gold and silver pillars, gold and silver roofs, and gold
and silver vases, in which swim gold and silver fishes."

The southern gate, colled the Meridian gate, leads into the
middle division, in which are the imperial buildings ; it is espe-
cially appropriated to the emperor, and whenever he passes
through it, a bell and gong, placed in Ihe tower above, are struck ;
when his troops return in triumph, the prisoners they bring are
here presented to him ; and hero the presents he confers on vas-
sals and ambassadors are pompously bestowed. Passing through
this gate into a large court, over a small creek spanned by five
marble bridges, which are ornamented with sculptures, the visitor
is led into a second court paved with marble, and terminftted oQ

L

the sides by gules, {xirticoes, and pillared corridors. The next
building of importance is at the head of this court, called the
gate of Extensive Peace, and is a superb marble structure,
one hundred and ten feet high. It is a sort of balcony where
the emperor, on newyear^s day, his birthday, and other ovca-
sioDs, receives the homage of his courtiers assembled in tlie court
below; five flights of stairs, decorated with balustrades and
sculptures, lead up to it, and five gates open through it into the

Beyond it ore two httlls, one culled thalof Perfect Peace, where
his majesty examines the implements used in the onnu&l plough-
ing ; the other that of Secure Peace, where he banquets his
foreign guests and other distinguished persons on newyear's
day. Alter ascending a stairway and passing another gate, the
visitor reaches the Kien Tsing Ining or Tranquil Palace of Hea-
ven, into which no one can enter without special licenee. Li it
is the council -chamber, and here candidates for office are pre-
sented la their sovereign. The building is described as the
loAiest, richest, and most niagnificenl of all the palaces. In the
court before it is a small tower of gilt copper, adorned with a
great number of figures, and on each side are large incense
vases, the uses of which are no doubt religious. Il was in this
palace thai Kanghi celebrated n singular and unique festival, in
1723, for all the men in the empire over sixty years, that being
the sixtieth year of his reign. His grandson Kienluug, in 17S5,
in the fiAieth year of his reign, repeated the same ceremony, on
which o&asion the number of guests was about three thousand.*
This building is considered by the Chinese as the most important
of all the imperial edifices. Beyond it stands the Palace of
Earth's Repose, where the empress, or " heaven's consort," rules
her miniature court in the imperial hareem ; and between which
and the northern wall of the Forbidden City ia the imperial
Flower Garden, designed for the use of its inmates. The gar-
dens are adorned with elegant pavilions, temples, and groves, and
interspersed wiih canals, fountains, pools, and flower-beds. Two
groves rising from the bosoms of small lakes, and another crown-
ing the summit of an artificial mountain, add to the beauty of
the scene, and aBbrd the inmates of the palace an agreeable

• Chinew Repoiitory, vol. IX., page 359

00 THE MIDDLE KINGIKIH.

Id the easlern division of llie Proliibitcd City are the of
the Cabinet, where its members hold their Bessions, and the trea-
sury or the palace. North of It lies the Hall of Intense Thought,
where sacriticcB are presented to Confuciun and other bages.
Not far from this hall stands Ihe Hall of the Lherury Abyss,
or the Library, the cntalf^neof whose contents is published from
time to time, forming an admirable synopsis of Chinese literature.
At the northern end of the eastern division are numerous palaces
and buildings occupied by princes of the blood, and those con-
nected with them ; and in (his quarter is placed the Fur^ Sien
lien, a small temple where the emperor comes lo "bless his
ancestors." Here the emperor and his family perform their
devotions before the tablets of their departed progenitors ; when-
I his palaee, the first day of a seaaon,
monnrch ^ocs through his devotions

ever he leavi
and on other
in this hall.

Thew
voted to put

,„d f,i'

1 conluins a great variety of edifices de-
e purposes, among which may be men-
tioned the hall of distinguished sovereigns, statesmen, and literalit
the printing-office, the Court of Conlrollors for the regulation of
the receipts and disbursements of the court, and the Ching-km
miau, or Guardian Temple of the city. The number of people
residing within the Prohibited City cannot be sloted, but it is
probably very great ; most of them are Manchus.

The second inclosure, which surrounds the imperiiil palaces, is
called Hwang Ching, or Imperial City, and is an oblong squt
about six miles in circuit corresponding in form io the northern
city, and inclosed by a wall about iwenly feet higli. There i(
gale in each face of the wall, and none but authorized persons
are permitted to enter ihem. From the southern gote, called the
gate of Heavenly Rest, a broad avenue leads up to the Kim
Ching ; and before it, outside of the wall, is an extensive space
walled in, and having one entrance on the south, called the gata
of Great Purity, which no one is allowed to enter except on fi
imleas by special permission. On the right of the avenue wilhia
the wall, is a gateway leading to the Tai Miau, or Great TempU
of the imperial ancestors, a large collection of buildings inolo
by a wall 3000 feet in circuit. Hero offerings are presented be-
fore the tablets of deceased emperors and empresses, and worship
performed by the members of the imperial family and olu

^^^^1

61

It departed forefiithers. Across ihe avenue from this temple
is B gateway leading to the Shii-Taik tan, or altar of the gods of
Land and GraiD, where -sac Hfioes are offered in spring and au-
lumn by Ihe emperor alone to these diviniticB, who are supposed
lo hove originally been men. This altar consists of two stories,
cnch five feet high, Ihe upper one being fifty-eighl feet square ;
no other altar of the hind is found in Ihe empire, and it would

B and vrorsliip upon it.
ire respectively black,
; the ceremonies con-
ing the most ancient in

he tanlamounl lo high Ireason to erect oni
The north, east, soulh, and west allar i
green, red, and white, and the top yellow
nected with the worship held here are an
China.

On the eastern side of the Imperial City, north of the Great
Temple, and not far from Ihe eastern gale of the Prohibited City,
is a depositary of military stores, and workshops for their manu-
facture. The establishment of The Russian college lies north of
the gale ; and in the north-easlem part of this side is the loca-
tion of the Lamas, with numerous temples, monasteries, and
ijther religious edifices. Much of this quarter of the Imperial
City is occupied by dwelling-houses and by temples dedicated to
various inferior gods in Chinese mythology.

On the northern side, surrounded by a wall more than half a.
mile in circuit, is the King Shan, or Artificial Mountain, nearly
150 feet high, and having five summila, crowned with as many
pavilions. Trees of various kinds border its base, and line the
paths leading to the lops, while animals and birds in great num-
bers occupy and enliven the whole inclosure. Its height allows
the spectator to overlook the whole city, while too it Is itself a
conspicuous object from every direction. The earth and stone
to erect this mountain were taken from the ditches and pool.t dug
in and nrouad the city, and near its base are many lanks of pic-
turesque shape and appearance; so that altogether it forms a
great ornament to the city. The western part of ibis inclosuro
is chiefly occupied by the Si Yuen, or Western Park, in and
around which are found some of the most beuuliful objects and
spots in the metropolis. An ariitieial lake, more than a mile
long, (did averaging a furlong in breadth, occupies the centre ; it
is supplied by the Tunghwui river, and its waters are adorned
with the splendid lotus. A marble bridge of nine arches crosses
it. and its banks are shaded by groves of trees, under which are

THE MIDDLE

well paved wolka. On its south-eastern side is a large ai
house, consiating of several edifices partly in or over the water,
and inclosiRg a number of gardens and walks, in and around
whicli are many artificial hills of rock-work beautifully alternat-
ing or supporting groves of trees and parterres of flowers.

On the western side is the hall for the examination of mili-
tary candidates, and where his maje^y in person sees them
exhibit their prowess in equestrian archery. At the north end
of the lake, is a bridge leading to an islet in its centre, which
presents the aspect of a hill of gentle ascent covered with
groves, temples, and summer- houses, and surmounted with a
tower, from which an extensive view can be taken. Near the
north-east of the S{ Yuen is a temple dedicated to Yuenll, the
reputed discoverer of iha aiik-worm, where the empress annually
ofiers sacrifices to her, and near which a plantation of mulberry
trees and a cocoonery are mainlained for the preparation of ailk.
Near the temple of Great Happiness, not far distant from the
preceding, on the borders of the lake, is a gilded copper statue
of Budha, sixty feet high, with a hundred arms ; and Timkow-
ski, who furnishes this statement, says the temple itself is one
of the greatest ornaments of the Park. The object kept in view
In the arrangement of these gordens and grounds, has been lo
tnake them an epitome of nature, and then furnish every part
with oommodious buildings. But however elegant the polat
and grounds may have appeared when new, it is to be feared
that his majesty has no higher ideas of cleanlinesa and order
than his subjects, and that the various public and private edilioea
and gardens in these two inclosures arc despoiled of half their '
beauty by dirt and neglect. The number of the palaces in them
both is estimated to be over two hundred, " each of which,'' says
Attinet, in vague terms, " is sufficiently large to accommodate
Ibe greatest of European noblemen, with all his retinue."

Along the avenue leading southerly from the imperial city
through the Tartar city to the division wall, are found the prin-
cipal government offices. Five of the Six Boards have their
bureaus on the east side, and the Board of Punishments with its
subordinate departments, has its courts on the west aide; aad
jusl south of it is the Censorale. The office attached to the
Board of Rites, for the preparation of the Calendar, commonly
called the Astronomical Board, stands directly east of it ; i

^^Miedia

Hlical College, or body of pliysiciana employed In the set.
vice of goveromenl, has its hall not far off. The BanJin ywn,
or National Academy, and (he Colonial OQice, are also on llie
enstern side of the avenue near the south-eastern comer of the
Imperial City. Near the Colonial Office is the temple where the
nearest ancestors of the reigning family are worshipjied by hia
majesty and llie princes of his family on the first dav of every
moDih, nlien they conie in procession to this temple in Iheir state
dresses, and his rnajesty, as high priest of the family, performs
the llighest religious ceremony before his deified ancestors, viz,
three kneelings and nine knockings.^AHer he has completed his
devotions, the attendant grandees go through the same ceremo-
nies. The temple itself is pleasantly situated in the midst of a.
grove of fir and otiier trees, and the large inclosure around it is
prettily laid out with trees and shrubbery. There are many
other public buildings in this part of llie Tartar City, between
the divisiDn wall and the Imperial City, besides numerous private
residences of great extent.

In the south-eastern port of the Tartar City, built partly upon
the wall, is the Observatory, which was placed under the super-
intendence of the Romish missionaries by Kanghf, but is now
confided la the care of Chinese astronomers ; it is an elevated
building, and is seen on the left as the visitor enters the eastern
gale of the city. Nearly opposite to it stands the hall for literary
examinations, where the candidates of the province assemble to
write llieir essays. In the north-easlem parftif the cily, about
half a mile west of llie Russian church of the Assumption, is
the Temple of Eternal Peace, belonging to the lamas, and
described as the largest and most splendid temple in Peking.
The lamas have about two hundred Chinese and Manchu neo-
phytes and pupils under their care, who learn the Tibetan lan-
guage, probably with a view to political service in thai country.
A similar college for learning Chinese and Manchu stands west
of this temple, where students of both races are respectively
tBug'it each other's languages, to prepare them for the service of
government.

The superintendence of the Tartar city is under the control
of the general of the Nino Gates, whose headquarters lie about
half-way between the Imperial City and the northern wall, and
who is mode especially responsible for the peace and good order

M

of the Tartar city ; the post is conferred only on MancliaB,
is regarded as a high office, Eomewhal like that of Constable of
the Tower in England. Near his establishment, standing in tha
avenue leading to the north gate, is a high tower containing ao
immense bell and drum, which are struck to announce the uight
watches ; this edifice is one of the most conspicuous objecW serai
in approaching the capital, being higher than the towers over tlw
gateways. The dimensions of this bell are 12)- cubils highj
and nearly a cubit thick ; it weighs 120,000 lbs.*

Near the south-western angle of the Imperial City stands the
Mohammedan mosque, an^a large number of Turks live in ill
vicinity, whose anceslors were brought from Turkestan about
a century ago ; this pari of the city is consequently the chief
resort of all Mohammedans coming to the capital from III. South
of the mosque, near the division wall, stands the spacious church
of Heaven's Lord, and a convent attached to it, which the Jesuita
and Portuguese built in the times of their inJluence ; it was ttas
finest specimen of architecture in Peking, but is now going to
decay. There are religious edifices in the Chinese metropolis
appropriated to many forms of religion, viz. the Greek and Lalia
churches, Islamism, Budhism in its (wo principal forms, Ratioo-
alism, ancestral worship, slate worship, and temples dedicated to
Confucius and other deified mortals, besides a great number ia
which the popular idols of the country are adored. Among tbem
is the temple where the tablets ofthe'kings and emperors of -
former dynasties'are collectively worshipped, except a few who
have been rejected as unworthy of this honor on account of their ■
wickedness — a feature which recalls to mind the custom in
ancient Jerusalem of not burying wicked princes in the sepul-
chres of the kings. Distinguished statesmen of all ages, colled
by the Chinese kwok chti, or "pillars of state," are asaociatdd
with their masters in this temple, as not unworthy to T&ceivm
equal honors. A little west of this remarkable temple ia tho '
White Pagoda temple, so called from a costly obelisk near it
erected by Kublai in the I3th century, and rebuilt in 1818.
Pfire Hyacinlhe says the comers are covered with jasper, and
the projecting parts of the roof wilh ornaments of exquisite worfc.
maoship tastefully arranged. Around this edifice, which conttuM

* Magaillans' Histoiy oT Chint, pige 133.

• MO&tBkea from ihe forehoadofBudha. caused by his conslaiitljr
knocking his head on ihe ground in worship, are one hundred
mnd eight small pillnrs on which lani|i.s are hurnod in ils honor.

These are the priuciliul buildings and establish in cms worthy
of note in Peliing. Outside of the ciiy, on the east, is ihc Tem-
ple of Heaven, eilualcd in a large area and Rurrounded with
imny spacious buildings ; on the west of the city is a currespoud-
ing structure called the Temple of Karib, both of them con-
nected with the state religion. The southern and mosi populous
portion of the city contains no edifices of any importance, nor is
the Chinese part as well built as the Tartar city ; the walls arc
nut as Rolid, and it resembles ordinary Chinese towns- It is not
subject to the same rigid iiiililary rule as the northern half, and
is conscqut'nlly the resort of many persons in quest of relaxation
and dissipation. The areas of the two are nearly the same, but
& large portion of the soulhem is occupied by the immense court-
yards connected with the temples of Heovcn and Karth.

The first of these edifices stands east of the avenuo leading
from the southern gale to ihe Tartar city, in on inclosure mea-
suring three miles around. The Tien Ian, or altar to Heaven, is
a round terrace consisting of three stages, each ten feel high,
respectively 120, 90, and (it) feet in diameter, paved with marble,
and protected by balustrades. A square wall surrounds this
altar, beyond which is the palace of Abstinence, where the
emperor fasts three days preparatory to offering the annual sacri-
fice to heoven at the winter solstice. Some other buildings, end
a few statues, are connected with this place, but no priests live
in the inclosure, ihe emperor himself, as vicegerent of heaven,
being ihe pontifex maxitnus. On the western aide of the avenue,
over BgatDsl Ihe Tien tan, is the Sien Nung fan, or altar to Eanh,
as il may he translated, ihough it is professedly dedicated to Ihe
deified monarch Shinnung, the supposed inventor of agriculture.
This allar stands in an inclosure about two miles in circum-
ference, and really consists of four separate altars : to the spirits
of llie heavens, those of the eanh, to the planet Jupiter, nnd lo
Shinnung The worship ot this altar is performed al the vernal
equinox, at which time Ihc ceremony of ploughing a pari of the
inclosure is performed by the emperor, assisted by members of
the Board of Rites. A little west of this inclosure is an artihciul
pool, dug in 177J, called the Heh Lung Ian or Black Dragon

W THE MIDDLE KINGDOM-

pool, dedicated to the spirits of the waters, where his majeit^
performs special supplications whenever the country suffers from
drought or deluge. These three areas occupy a large part of
Ihe southern city, and east of the altar to Heaven, is an extensive
space devoted to the rearing of vegetables. These chasms in
the settled portions of Peking, including that pari of the Imperial
cily occupied by the Western Park, render it improbable thai the
population of the Chinese metropolis much exceeds iwo millioDa,
including those dwelling in the suburbs around each gate,

The park of Yucti Ming yvcn {i. e. Round and Splendid gar.
dens), so celebrated in th« history of the foreign embassiee to
Peking, lies about eight miles north-west of the city, and is eatk-
mated lo contain twelve square miles. The country in thia
direction rises into gentle hills, and advantage has been taken of
the natural surface in the arrangement of the different parts of
the ground, so that the whole presents every variety of hill aod
dale, woodlands and lawns, interspersed with canals, pools, rirtu
lets, and lakes, the banks of wliich have been thrown up or diver-
sified in imitation of the free hand of nature. Some parts etn
tilled, groves and tangled thickets occur here and there, and
places are purposely lell wild in order lo contrast the belter with
the highly cultivated precincts of a palace, or to form a rural path*
way to a retired summer-house. Barrow says there are no le«
than thirty distinct placesof residence for the emperor or his nrnuB.
tera within Ibis park, around which are niaay bouses occupied hj
eunuchs and servants, each constituting a little village. The
principal hall of audience stands upon a granite platform, and is
surrounded by a perislyle of wooden columns upon which tba
roof rests ; the length is one hundred and (en feet, the breadth
forty-two, and the height twenty. Within the outer colonnade is '
another serving for the walls of the room, having intercoluinnia>
lions of brick- work about four feet high, and lattice-work covered
with oiled paper, so contriveil as to be thrown open in pleamat
weather. Above the lattices, but between the lop of the columD*'
and giing around the hall, is an elaborately carved frieze gailf
decorated ; the ceiling, also, is whimsically painted, and oov>
responds to ihe inclination of the roof- The throne stands in ft
recess at the head of the hall, and is made of wood beautifulljr
carved. The general appearance of this and other buildings ia
this indoaure is shabby, and neglect in oo changeable a climata

■Doh destroys all the varnish and wood work upon which ihe
Chinese bestow ifieir chief pains.*

"It wBs Bt a place called Hai-tien," Hays Davis, "in the
immediate vicinity of these gardens, ihel the strange scene
occurred which terminated in the dismissal of the embassy of
1816. On his arrival there, about daylight in the morning, with
the commissioners and a few other genilemcn, the ambassador
was drawn to one of the emperor's temporary residences by an
invitation from Duke Ho, as he was called, the imperial rela-
tive charged with the conduct of the negotiations. After passing
through an open court, where were assembled a vast number of
grandees in their dresses of ceremony, they were shown into a
wretched room, and soon enconipassed by a well-dressed crowd,
among whom were princes of the blood by do7.ens, wearing yel-
low giidles. With a childish and unmannerly curiosity, con-
Histent enough witli the idle and disorderly life which many of
them are said to lead, they examined the persons and dress of the
gentlemen without ceremony ; while these, lired with their sleep-
less journey, and disgusted at the behavior of the celestials,
turned their backs upon them, and laid themselves dow'n to rest.
Duke Ho soon appeared, and surprised the ambassador by urging
him to proceed directly (o an audience of the emperor, who was
wailing for him. His lordship in vain remonstrated that to-
morrow had been fixed for the first aildienoe, and thai tired and
dusty aa they all were at present, it would he worthy neither of
the emperor nor of himself to wait on his majesty in a manner
so unprepared. He urged, too, that he was unwell, and required
immediate rest, Duke Ho became more and more pressing, and
aV length forgot himself so far as to grasp the ambassador's arm
violently, and one of the others stepped up at the same time.
His lordship immediately shook them off, and the gentlemen
crowded about him ; while the highest indignalion was expressed
at such treatment, and a determined resolution to proceed to no
audience ihis morning. The ambassador at length retired, with
the appearance of satisfaction on the part of Duke Ho, that the
audience should take place to.morrow. There is every reason,
however, to suppose that ihis person iiad been largely bribed by

■ Chinese Repmilorj', Vol, 11., p|
Btmn*'* Tnvela. Mi^llani.

, Hjacinihe, Ville de Pekln.

63 THE MIDDLB KinGDOK.

the heads of the Canton local govemmeDt to frustrate the viewi
of the embassy, and prevent an audience of the emperor. The
mission, at least, was on its way back in the aftemooa of the

The principal part of the provisions required for the supply of
ihis immense city comes from the southern provinces, or from the
Hocks reared in the northern part of Chihii. It has no manufac-
tures or trade, and the adjacent plain produces but a small
amount of the food required. The government of Peking differs
from that of other cities in the empire, the affairs of the depart-
ment being separated from it, and administered by officers resid-
ing in the four circuits into which it is divided. " A minister of
one of the Boards is appointed superintendent of the city, and
subordinate to him is il fut/in or mayor. Their duties consist in
having charge of the mclropolilan domain, for the purpose of ex-
tending good government to lis four divisions. They havVunder
them two distinct magistrates, each of whom rules half the city ;
none of these officers arc subordinote to the provincial governor,
but carry affairs, which they cannot determine, to the emperor.
They preside or assist at niany of the festivals observed in the
capital, superintend the military police, and hold the courts
which take cognisance of the offences committed there, "f

The thoroughfares leading across Peking, from one gate to the
other, are broad, unpaved avenues, more than a hundred feet
wide, and which appear still wider from ihe little elevation of the
buildings ; the side streets ore narrow lanes, as is the case with
moat of the streets in Chinese cities. The inhabitants of the
avenues are required to keep ihem well sprinkled in summer;
but in rainy weather they are almost impassable from the mud,
the level surface of the ground preventing rapid drainage. The
crowds which throng these avenues, somt engaged in various
callings, along the sides or in the middle of the way, and others
busily passing and repassing, together with the gay appearance
of tlie sign-boards, and an air of business in the shops, render
the great streets of the Chinese metropolis very bustling, and to
a foreigner, a very interesting scene. The buildings in the ave-
nues are shops, whose fronts are so contrived as to be entirely
opened when necessary ; they arc constructed of panels or

8TUBT8 OF PBKINO. 60

•hntterv fitting into grooves, and secured to a row of strong posts
on the inside, which set into mortices. At night, when the shop
is closed, nothing is seen from without ; but in the day-time,
when this movable front is taken away, and the goods exposed
in the entrance, the scene becomes more aivimated. The sign-
boards are broad planks, fixed in stone bases on each side of the
shop-front, and reaching to the eaves, or above them ; the cha-
racters are large and of different colors, and in order to attract
more notice, the signs are often hung with various colored flags,
bearing inscriptions setting forth the excellence of the goods.
The appearance of a street thus trimmed is very gay, and the
sides of the houses themselves are not less brilliant, being painted
blue or green, mixed with gold. At the intersection of the ave-
nues are plaoed honorary portals or tablets, called pai lu, erected
in memory of distinguished persons.

The police of the city is materially assisted in its duties by the
gates, which are placed at the heads of the streets. During the
night the great thoroughfares are usually quiet ; they are lighted
a little by the lanterns which hang before the doors of the houses,
but generally are dark and cheerless. In the metropolis, as in
all Chinese cities, the air in the lanes and streets is constantly
polluted by the stench arising from private vessels and public
reservoirs for urine and all kinds of offal, which is all carefully
collected by scavengers, and carried out of the gates in the same
boxed carts they bring their vegetables to market. By this ex-
change of raw material for the manufactured article, although
the streets are kept clean, they are never sweet ; but habit ren-
ders the people almost insensible to this as well as many other
nuisances. Carriages, or rather carts, sedans, and horses, are
all used for locomotion, and are to be hired in all the thorough-
fiires ; the Manchu women ride astride, and their number in the
'Streets, both riding and walking, imparts a peculiarity to the
crowd, which is not seen in cities farther south.

The various tribes in Central Asia have representatives among
the throng, and their different costumes add to the liveliness of
the scene. The environs beyond the suburbs are occupied with
groves, private mansions, hamlets, and cultivated fields, in or
near which are trees, so that the city, viewed from a distance,
appears as if situated in a thick forest. It is colder in winter
than any other place in the same latitude, and the poor, who re-

^

70

K)rt thither from other parla of the province, form a very
and troublesome part of the population, sometimes rising in large
mobs and pillaging the granaries to supply themselves with food,
but more commooly perishing in greui numbers from cold and
hunger. Its peace Is always an object of considerable solicitude
with the imperial government, not only as it may involve the
personal safety of the emperor, but still more from the disquieting
efiein it may have upon the adniinistration of the empire, in im-
peding the efficiency of its orders. The possession of this capital
by an invading force is more nearly equivalent to the control ol
the country than it would be in most European kingdoms, but not
as much as it would be in Siam, Burmah and other native Asiatic
■latcs. The good influences which may bo exerted upon the na-
tion from tlie metropolis are likewise correspondingly great, and
the purification of this source of contamination, and liberalizing
this centre of power, will confer a vast benefit upon ihe Chinese
people.

Besides the capital, Chihii contains several other large cities,
among which Pauling fu, the residence of the governor of the
province, and Tientsin fu, the entrepAt of the trade which comes
through the Pei ho coastwise, are the most important. The for-
mer lies about eighty miles souih.wesi of the capital, on the
great road leading to Shansi. The whole department is described
as a pleasajil, well cultivated, and populous region; it is well
watered by various tributaries of the Pei bo, and possesses two or
three small lakes.

Tientsin fu is the largest port on the coast above Shanghai, and
the only one of importance not open to foreign trade. Owing,
however, lo the shallowness of ihe gulf of Pechele towards ila
western shores, and lo a bar at the mouth of the Pei ho, over
which at neap tide only three or four feel of water flow, the
port is rendered almost inaccessible to foreign vessels, and would
be of little avail for trade if it was thrown ojien. Its size and im-
portance are owing more to its being the terminus of the Grand
Canal, where all the produce and taxes for the use of the capital
are brought, than to the extent of its maritime trade. Mr. Gutzlaff,

ho visited Tientsin in 1B31, describes it as a bustling place.

All (he avenues were thronged, and in the shops — generally
well filled with Chinese, but sometimes also with European com-
modities— trade seemed lo be brisk. The town, which stTetohea

^

TIEMTSin FU AND THE FBI HO. 71

•BYtaral milei along the banks of the river, equals Cantcm in the
bustle of its busy population, and surpasses it in the importanoe
of its native trade. The streets are unpaved, and the houses are
built of mud, but within they are furnished with accommodations
in the best Chinese style. The trade is quite extensive ; more
than five hundred junks arrive annually from the southern ports
of China, and from Cochinchina and Slam. The river is so
thronged with junks, and the mercantile transactions give such
life and motion to the scene, as strongly to remind one of Liver-
pool. As the land in this vicinity yields few productions, and
the capital swallows up immense stores, the importations required
to supply the wants of the people must be very great."* The
approach to this city from the eastward indicates its importance,
and the change from the sparsely populated country lying along
the banks of the Pei ho, to the dense crowds on shore, and the
fleets of boats before the city, adds greatly to the vivacity of the
scene. " If fine buildings and striking localities are required to
give interest to a scene," remarks Mr. Ellis, " this has no claims ;
but, on the other hand, if the gradual crowding of junks till
they become innumerable, a vast population, buildings, though
not elegant, yet regular and peculiar, careful and successful cul-
tivation, can supply these deficiencies, the entrance to Tientsin
will not be without attractions to the traveller." The stacks of
salt near the city along the river arrest the attention of the voy-
ager, and it is not improbable that the immense quantity of this
article collected at this city is furnished as a tax. The barges
of the English embassy were two hours in passing the town, and
the observers judged it to extend a mile or more back from the
river ; it probably contains nearly half a million of inhabitants,
and its position renders it one of the most important cities in the
empire, and the key of the capital.

The banks of the Pei ho, near the ocean, are flat and sterile,
their inhabitants poor and squalid, and their habitations mean,
dirty, and dilapidated. The scenery and people improve as one
advances up the meandering channel and approaches Tientsin,
which is still further bettered from thence up to Tung chau.
In some parts of its course the Pei ho is higher than the adjacent
country, which is also true of some of the other streams that

* Chinese Repository, Vol. I., page 165.

72 THE UIDDLE KINGDOM.

cross the Plain. Near ihe embouchure of the river is Ta-ku, a
small lown, chiefly aotioeable as the spoi where the first inter.
view between the Chinese and English plenipotentiaries was held,
on the breaking out of the war in 1840 ; hut the village at the
mouth of the river is Tungku, and between the twotsSi-ku. The
general aspect of this province U cheerleaa, and the soil, between
Peking and the ocean, so poor as barely to support its inhabitants.
In the southern and weetem sections it is less monotonous and
more fertile.

One of the towns of note, in the journey from Tungku to tba
capital, a distance of 120 miles in a direct line, but IS2 if all
the sinuosities of the river he followed, is Tung chau, where all
boats unload their passengers and cargoes, and proceed by a
broad avenue twelve miles long to the capital. The streets o
Tung chau are straight and paved, wjjh a raised foot-path on their
aides, but for size and importance the town is inferior to Tientsin
fu. Another city of note in Chihif is Siuenhwa fu, situated be-
tween the branches of the Great Wall. This town was visited
by Timkowski in 1820, who remarks, " the crenated wall which
surrounds it is thirty feet high, and puts one in mind of that of
the Kremlin, and resembles those of several towns in Russia ;
consists of two thin parallel brick walls, the intermediate spaoe
being filled with cloy and sand. The wall is flanked with towera.
We passed through three gates to enter the city; the first la
covered with iron nails ; at the second is the guard-house ; we
thence proceeded along a broad street, bordered with shops of
hardware ; wo went through several large and Bmall streets,
which are broad and clean ; but, considering its extent, the ci^
is thinly peopled."

The department of Chahar, or Tsakhar, lies beyond the Great
Wall, north and west of the province, a wild, mountainous and
thinly settled country, chiefly inhabited by Mongol shepherds of
the Tsakhar tribe, who keep the flocks and herds of the empe-
ror, and who are considered as among his most faithful subjects.
These shepherds supply a great part of the aoimal food consumed
at Peking.

There are several lakes in this province, the largest of which,
the Peh hu in the south-weslem part, connects with the Pel bo
through the river HQ-1o. The various branches of the former
stream afibrd water com mimic alton through most parts of ChihU,

PBOVINCE OF SHAHTDSG, 73

and lead inio the adjiicent provinces of Simnsi aud Honan. The
Pei ho, or White river, is [lie largest stream between the Yellow
river and the Great Wall, and drains all thnl part of the plain
east of Sliansi and south of the edge of the table land. It enters
ihe aea by iwo chaonels, which do noi unite uniii above Tientsin,
and the principal part of the trade is on the southern branch j
this diversion of the waters greatly interfercii with the naviga-
tion, while the little impetus they receive in their course through
the plain is insufficient to carry the silt far beyond the moulh of
the river. On one of the northern rivers, called the Jeh ho, or
Hot stream, which flows south from Chahar into the gulf of
Pechele, is the emperor's summer retreat; it lies nearly due
north of Tnku about !70 miles. The route there from Peking,
and the various objects of interest to be seen at that place, are
familiar to the readers of Staunton, and the chief interest con-
nected with it is associated with Macartney's visit in I7D3.'

The principal productions of ChihU are millet and wheal,
many kinds of pulse and fruits, and a little rice. One cause of
the poverty of the soil in the eastern portion is probably owiagfl
to the " nitrous eshaiations" which Du Halde speaks of. II!oal^
is found in the province, and among other modes of using
Ihe capital, thai of mixing the dust with a small proportion of •
clay, and working it into cakes, is common. Among the mineratfl
productions, marble and granite occur, both of which are i
for architectural purposes ; also some kinds of precious stones,
and clay suitable for bricks and chinaware.

The province of Shantung (i. e. East of the Hills) has a
longer coasl-line than Cbihli, its maritime border being r
than half its whole circuit. It lies south of the gulf of PechelOif
Eoutb-eosl of Cbihli, north of Kiangsu, and borders on Honon,^
where the Yellow nver divides Ihe two. Most of its area is j
level, the only hilly part being the peninsular portion, where the
highest points rise too high lo admit of cultivation. Its area is
05,184 square miles, or about llic same as that of the slates of
Georgia or Missouri ; the population is 28,958,764, which is an
average of 444 to a square mile ; the United Kingdom contains
27 j millions, and Scotland, Ireland and Wales together equal the
area of Shantung. The Grand Canal traverses this provinoa

• ChineM RipMitorj, Vol. XI.. pp. 93, 439.

74

: MIDDLE KINGDOM.

i

from Linlsing chau in the north-west, in a south- easleily dimiT
lion through the western dislricls, and ndda greatly to its import-
ance. The peninsular shores are generally bold, and full ofinden.
lotions, some of which are c.xcelleoi harbors, but there is no sea.
port town of any importance along the entire coast; no river
of any size disembogues within the province, and on each side
of the peoinsula the waters are shallow. Tfingchau fu, on the
northern shores, is the largest. Barrow soys, the hills along Iha
shore have a remarkably uniform, conical shape, resembling tha
bonnets worn by ofHcers. The hilly regions of this part are fer.
tile and well watered, but not as ihichly settled as those of tbe
pl.m.

Speaking of the appearance of the couniry, coming from iha
north, Davis says, " The flat couniry through which we had
hitherto journeyed all the way from Peking, at this autumnal
season, had proved very unhealthy to many of our number; but
we were soon to perceive an alteration at tiic point where tlia
Chah ho, i. e. river of Flood-gales — the Grand Canal com-
mences its course through a region where the inequalitiea of
surface render those artificial aids necessary. Everything a^
peared to wear a more prosperous and wealthy aspect as w*
advanced into Shantung, and upon the whole a marked imprar»
ment took place generally as we proceeded soutliward." Thk
province is one of the most celebrated in Chinese history, partly
from its having been the scene of many remarkable events in
their annals, but more particularly from its containing the birth-
place of the sage Confucius, and his disciple Mencius, whoas
fame has gone over llie earth. The tomb of the former, wh9
died B. c. 470, at Kiuhfau, is a majestic monument, embosomed
in a forest of oaks, whose gloomy shades are well fitted for noii>
rishing the respect and homage paid his memory. In an account
of a missionary voyage along the promontory, in 1835, Mr. Ste-
vens* remarks that on one occasion he and his companion mel^
at the entrance of a village, two elders who declined to recelra
their tracts, saying, "We have seen your books, and neithar
desire nor approve of them, In the instructions of our sag*
we have sufficient, and they are far superior to aDy forelga
doctrines you can bring." The inhabitants of the province ara

* Chioeae Repoiitny, Vol. IV., pj

e317.

MOUNTIINS ^

proud of their oalivity on
marin was because Jacob
of Sychar.

One of the highi
or Great niouni, is situated
dezvous of devotees, and e
idols, BCDtlered everywher
priests chant their prayerii,
pilgi

1 clTtES OF SHANTUSG.

is score, much as the woman of Sa-
cattle had drunk water at the well

ill China, called Tat than,
I this province ; it is the great ron-
iry sect liaa there its temples and
up and down its sides, in which
uii practise a thousand superstitions
shrines- During ihe spring, the roads
leading to the Tai shan are obstructed with long caravans of
people coming to accomplish their vows, to supplicate the dei.
ties for health or riches, or to solicit the joys of heaven in ex-
change for the woes of earth. A missionary mentions having
met with pilgrims going to it, one party of whom consisted
of old dames, who had with infinite fatigue and discomfort come
from the south of Honan, about three hundred miles, to " remind
their god of the long abstinence from flesh and fish they had ob-
served during the course of their lives, and solicit, as a recom-
pense, a happy transmigration for their souls." The youngest
of this party was 78, and the oldest 90 years."

The capital of the province is Tainan fu, but it haa not lately
been visited by foreigners — it lying off the great route of travel
on Ihe canal. Its manufactures are coarse fabrics made of wild
silk, and ornaments of liv-li, a kind of vitreous compound made
to resemble serpentine, jade, ice, and other things. The capital
of Tafoiiig chau lies on the canal, and is described by Davis as
an opulent and flourishing place, judging from the gilded and
carved shops, temples, and public offices in the suburbs, which
stretch along the eastern banks of the canal ; just beyond the
town, the canal is only a little raised above the level of the ex-
tensive marshes on each side, and further south the swamps
increase rapidly : when Amherst's embassy passed, the whole
country, as far oa the eye could reach, displayed the effects of
a most extensive recent inundation. Davis adds, " The waters
were on a level with those of the canal, and there was no need
of dams, which were themselves nearly under water, and sluices
for discharging the superfluous water were occasionally observed.
Clumps of large trees, cottages, and towers, were to be seen on

, 1644. b:

■ XVI..pig«491.

TIM H1DDI.S

all aidM htif uudrr wntrr, a ted by th^ iiilmlntanto ; ths

numbsr of llin 1nth>r Ird to inf^ i: roncc ihnt tlicy were pro-
vided u pUcrs of refugo in ciisc oi inuiKialiin, which irnial be
here Tery frtquunt. Wretched villngrji occun-pd frpqiicnily on
the right hand bunk, along which the tracking path was in 6omc
plaoet so ooiripletely und»miin[-d lu to give way at evory tflcp,
obliging tbem to lay iluwn hurdles uf reods tu ntTurd a passage."*

One of the most important towin In Liut.iiiog diau, on (be Yu
ho, M ita junction with t)ie canal, lying in the midst of a beauti-
ful oountry, full of gardens and ciiltivnltH] grounds, interspersed
with buildiogs. This place is the dJpAt for much of the produce
brought on tlie t-nnal, and is consequently a rendezvous for large
fleets of boats and barpcs. Ncnr it is n jHigodn in good repair,
about 150 feet high, the basement of which is built of granite,
and the other stories of glazed bricks. The city of Tingcbau
fu, lying on the northern shore of the promontory, has some
trade with Liautung and Corca, but the commerce of Shantung
is less than any of the other marilime provinces.

The harbor was visited by Lord Macartney in 1793, when the
prefect of the cjly came off to the Lion ; and again by Capt.
Elliot in 1840, to procure a supply of provisions for the ships of
war. The officers of the place were much alarmed, lest his
visit was a hostile one, and preparations had been made to resist
an attack by collecting troops aud building forts. The build-
ings do not occupy half the space inclosed by the walls ; and
the harbor can be entered only at high water. f The shores east
of Tangchau fu, near Weihai wei, were visited by Messrs. Med-
hurst and Stevens in 1835, and the country described as delight-
ful, aflbrding a pleasing succession of hill and dale, fertilized
with streams, and densely inhabited. The soil in many places
poorly repaid the labor of tillage, but wherever the travellers
passed evinced the diligence of the peasantry ; who, on their part,
presented, amidst all their wretchedness, many pleasing traits,
good-humoredly offering to divide their scanty meals with' the
travellers, and receiving the books offered them. The account
of their rambles over thtf oountry between Weihai wei and Kf-
ahan so, and of the treatment they raoeived in Shantung
generally, is highly interesting.

■ SkatchM or Cliina, Vnl. I., pat* 991.

t BioghtD't Ezpodition to Cbini, Vol. I., p»CM 9H-970.

CONDITION OF THE PJBOPLB. 77

Mr. Skoreos obaerves, speaking of the towns, " that all things
mark decay rather than growth ; everywhere there are lookout
towers on the hills fallen to ruins, forts dismantled, or nearly so ;
and long lines of mud fortificntions inclosing many acres of land,
some of which are now turned to cultivated fields without a
building, and others inclose a hamlet, the miserable remnant of
a fortress." This shows rather the peaceful state of the coun-
tiy, while the cultivation indicates that the neglect is not owing
to a decrease of population. The remarks of Mr. Stevens, on
his visit to this province, give a lively description of the condi-
tion of the people. *^ These poor people know nothing, from
youth to old age, but the same monotonous round of toils for a
subsistence, and never see, never hear anything of the world
around them. Improvements in the useful arts and sciences,
and an. increase of the conveniences of life, are never known
among them. In the place where their fathers lived and died,
do they live, and toil, and die, to be succeeded by another gene-
ration in the same manner. Few of the comforts of life can be
found among them ; their houses consisted in general of granite
and thatched roofs, but neither table, chair, nor floor, nor any arti-
cle of furniture could be seen in the houses of the poorest. Every
man had his pipe, and tea was in most dwellings. They were
industriously engaged, some in ploughing, others in reaping, some
carrying out manure, and others bringing home produce ; num-
bers were collected on the thrashing-floors, winnowing, sifling
and packing wheat, rice, millet, peas, and in drying maize, all
with the greatest diligence. Here, too, were their teams for
ploughing yoked together in all possible ludicrous combinations ;
sometimes a cow and an ass ; or a cow, an ox and an ass ; or a
cow and two asses ; or four asses ; and all yoked abreast. All
the women had small feet, and wore a pale and sallow aspect, and
their miserable, squalid appearance excited an indelible feeling
of compassion for their helpless lot. They were not always shy,
but were generally ill clad and ugly, apparently laboring in the
fields like the men. But on several occasions, young ladies
clothed in gay silks and satins, riding astride upon bags on don-
keys, were seen. No prospect of melioration for either men or
women appears but in the liberalizing and happy influences of
ChrisUanity."*

• Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp., 308-335. Mcdhurst's China,
Chaps. XV.-XIX.

16 Till! Miu[)t.t hI^tiI)u>r.

Shanluiig is woll watered ; numerous fimall ativama ruo wo-
wartls fnini the hilla in iho unal, and iribuiaries of (he YoUow
and Whiw rivers flow through Ihn wcBl*?m aud KUihem parts.
Coal is dbuudtint, and largely exported ; iron inioos am worked
(ci D cmisiderabU exlRfit. Among ulh«r produclioiis t.n nalunl
calculi obtained from tiio stomuhM ufcciwe and goats, which are
highly prized in Chinese phnrmacy. MIliiM, rice, wheat, and
mniKo — the former of which furnishes the principal article of
food — are abundant; water.fbwl and fish plentiful, and tite
frixita numeroua : the (wnrs are largely exported, but their
flavor iM inferior to their size, which is said lo ri-Bcli ihe weight
of eight or ten pounds. Hnm« innde from dnga are exteosively

eurr.i f.i .Si.ui.lLiinr, ,u,.l fr,nn iili nrtt.Oc ..f fXp-.n.'

Th,- jir-.vJiK'.- ..r SiuNsi(i. '■■ ^V,M .,(■ .!,.■ Mills) lica between
Chihlf and Shensf, and north of Honan ; the Yellow river bounda
it on the west and partly on the south, and the Great Wall foram
most of Ihe northern frontier. This province ia the original seat
of the Chinese people ; and many of the places mentioned and
scenes recorded in their ancient annals, occurred within ita bor-
ders. It lies on the western llmlis of the Plain, and its rugged
surface presents a striking controst lo the level tracts in Chihlf
and Shantung, although most of the lowlands are represented as
hein/f well cultivated and lerroced. The northern and southern
districts exhibit great diversity in their animal, mineral, and vege-
table productions. Some of the favorite imperial hunting-grounds
are in the north ; and in the coal, iron, cinnabar, copper, marble,
lapis-lazuli, jasper, salt, and other minerals which it affords, the
inhabitants find sources of wealth. The principal grains are
wheat and millet, besides a large variety of vegetables and fruits,
including grapes. The rivers are numerous, but not large, and
almost every oAe of them is a tributary of the Yellow river.
The Pdtt ho, about 800 miles long, is the largest, and empties
into it near the south-western comer of the province, after drain-
ing the central part.

The capital, Taiyuen fu, lies on the eastern bank of the Fan
ho ; and though the palaces of the princes who formerly swayed
their sceptre here are fallen into decay, the ciiy is still populous,
and contains manufaoturea of felt carpets. There is little to re-

* CbineM Repositor;, Vol. XI., paga 937.

PSOYINCB OF HONiN. 79

mufc rBtpeodng this province, and much of the information pos-
■oanad oonoeming it has been derived from the letters of Romish
miflsioDaries, who have a seminary in its borders. They describe
some of the passes among the mountains as truly dangerous, and
the nature of the country generally such as might be expected
oa the ascent to the high table land of Mongolia. The charac-
ter of the inhabitants partakes somewhat of the roughness of
their country ; and in their manners, dwellings, and dress, they
are less polished and comfortable than the lowlanders of Kiangsu
or Honan. The great roads from Peking to the south-west and
west pass through most of the large towns in this province.

The province of Honan (i. e. South of the River) comprises
flome of the most fertile parts of' the Plain, and, on account of its
abundance and central position, is sometimes called Chung Hwa or
the Middle Flower. It is bounded north, by Shensi and Chihlf,
east by Nganhwui, south and south-west by Hupeh, and west by
Shensi. The Yellow river flows through the northern side of it,
and all the other streams within its borders arc branches of that
river, or of the Han kiang^ a tributary of the Great river. The
surface of the country is level. A range of low hills runs
through it in a south-easterly direction, forming the water shed
of these streams ; and in the western part some points rise to
high peaks. Honan produces food for the support of its own
population, and large quantities for exportation to the capital and
elsewhere, besides silk, cotton, hemp or flax, tutenague, cinnabar,
mica, and other minerals. There are no lakes in the province,
and almost every part of it is susceptible of cultivation ; exten-
sive forests in the western districts supply timber for building
and other purposes.

Kaifung fu, the capital, is situated about a league from the
southern bank of the Yellow river, whose bed is here elevated
above the adjacent country, and consequently in danger from the
freshes and bursting away of the river's banks. It is an ancient
city, and the eflbrts to protect it from the waters of the river by
strengthening the banks have no doubt contributed, during a
succession of ages, to elevate the whole bed to its present danger-
ous height. The dykes in the vicinity of the city extend many
leagues, and are under the superintendence of the governor of
the rivers. During the period of the Manchu conquest, Kaifung
was defended by a loyal general, who, seeing no other resource

I

oc&inst the inToilprt. broke down iho embankmenls to drown
them, by which man(Buvrc u|iwardH of 300,01)0 of ihe inhabitnnta
perished. The city has sitice been rcbuill, but hits not nilained
to its ancient splendor, if credit can be given to iho Staiistios of
Kaifung, in which it \b described as having been six lengues
in circuit in the twelfth century, approached by five roads,
and containing numerous palaces, gardens, and government
houses. It liaa undergone various fortunes, having been over-
flown fifteen limca. and sustained eleven sieges ; a repetition of
the former calamity occurred two or three years since, which
destroyed part of ihe city, and dispersed the inhabitants ; some
of them begged iheir way as far as Canton, travelling in small
parties, and oblniiiing a precarious living by exhibiting monkeya
ood performing curious tricks. Kaifung is noted as the principal
seat of the Jews in China, of whose present condition and num-
bers little is known, and also ns ihc capital of Fuhhi, the founder
of the Chinese monarchy-

The province of Kia.ngsh is nanted from the first syllable of
the capital, Kiangning fu, joined to Su, part of the name of the
richest city, Suchau fu. it lies along the seaeoasi, in a north-
westerly direction, having yhanlung on the north, Nganhwui on
the west, and Chehkiang on the soulli. The area is about 45,000
aq. m., consisting, with little interruption, of level tracts inter-
spersed witli lakes and marshes, through which flow their two
noble rivers, which as they are Ihe source of the eitraordioary
fertility of this region, so also render it obnoxious to destructive
inuiidations, or cover Ihe low portions with irreclaimable marshes.
The region of Kiangnan, as this and ihe next province are still
called, is where iho Iwauty and riches of China are most amply
displayed; "and whether weconaider," remarks Gutzlaff, "their
agricultural resources, ilieir great manufactures, their various
productions, their excellent situation on the banks of these two
large streams, their many canals and tributary rivers, these two
provinces douhtlesa constitute the best territory of China." The
staple productions are grain, coHon, tea, silk, and rice, and most
kinds of manufactures are here carried 1o the greatest perfectiOT.
The people have the reputation of possessing the greatest intelli-
gence, and although the province has long ceased to posseia a
court, its cities still present a gayer aspect, and are adorned with
better structures than any others in the empire.

PHon.VrE OF KIANiiSD, 81

Probably no other country of equnl extent is belter waierpd
than Kiangsu. The Grent river, the Yellow river, ibe Grand
onal, with many smaller streams and canals, and a suocession
of lakes along the line of the canal, alTord easy comniunicatjon
through every part. T^e sea-coast, between the rivers, la low,
mad is rendered arable by constructing dykea, to prevent the
overflow of the ocean. There are no hlUsof consequence in the
province. The largest lake is the Hungtsih, about 200 miles in
ofrcum fere nee. South of it ia the Kauyu lake, and on Ihe cost-
BRI side of the cnnal oppoatie is Pauying lake, both of them
brood sheets of water. Numerous small lakes lie around them.
Tai Au, or Great lake, on the south, lies partly in Kiangsu and
portly in Ghehkiang. and is the largest body of water in the
provinces, next to Tungting hu. Its borders are skirted by
romantic scenery, and its bosom broken by numerous islets,
KSbrding convenient resort to the fiahermen who get their subsist-
ence from its waters.

Kiangning fu, better known abroad as Nanking, is the capital
of the province, and well situated for the metropolisof a kingdom;
it was once the most celebrated city in the empire, whether
regard be had to its extent, its buildings, its manufactures, or the
character of its inhabitants. It has again been rendered famous
from its b(?ing the plac« where the English compelled the Chi-
nese to submit to iheir terms of peace in August, 1842. Every
opportunity of examining the place and its environs was improved
by the officers of the Expedition, and from their observations it
ia evident that its ancient size and influence have much dimi-
nished ; and had it not been well silu.Mtid for trade it would pro-
bably ere this have dwindled to decay. One of them aaya,
" There are remains of an ancient or outer wall which can be
traced for about thirty-five miles, but how much of this immense
space was formerly occupied by houses cannot now well be
determined. The walls of the present city are not neorly so
great, and of the space inclosed within them perhaps not more
than one-eighth is actually occupied by the town."* Davis
remarks Ihe striking resemblance between Rome and Nanking,
the area within the walls of both being partially inhabited, and
ruins of buildings lying here and there among the cultivated
fields, the melancholy remains of departed glory.
* VciyBgu of the NemcBUi, pigi 444.

BS

THE HIDDLE KINGIWM.

i

The pert occupied by the Manclius is separ&ted by ■ laom
wall Trom the Chinese town. The great extent of the wall ren-
ders the defence nf the city difficult, besides which it is over-
looked from the hills on the east, from one of which, the Chung
shan, a wide view of the surrounding country can be obtained.
On this easteni face arc three galea; the land near the two
towards the river is marshy, and the gales are approached on
stone causeys. A deep canal or ditch runs up from the river
directly under the walls on the west, serving to strengthen the
approaches on that side. According to Ellis, who rather under-
estimates its population at 400,000, Nanking oonsista of (bur
rather wide and parallel avenues intersected by others of le«B
width. The avenues are not so broad as tliose of Peking, but
are on the whole clean, well-paved, and bordered with hand-
somely furnished shops.

The ancient palaces have nearly disappeared, the only remark-
able monuments of royalty, which remain being some sepulchral
statues situated not far from the walls. These statues are
□ear an ancient cemetery, which the visitors called the Toraba
of (he Kings, and formed an avenue leading up to the sepulchres;
they consisted of " gigantic ligurrs like warriors cased in a kind
of armor, standing on either side of the road, across which at
intervals large stone tablets are extended, aup|>orled by large
blacks of stone instead of pillars." Situated at some distance
from these atatuea are a number of rude colossal figures of
horses, elephants, and other animals, placed without any distinct
arrangement, whose purpose may have been originally to orna-
ment particular tombs, but which have been scattered by other
hands. There is a peculiar antique Egyptian cast about them
all, and at the time of the visit, the high grass which grew around
Kdded still further an appearance of venerable age.*

Nothing has made Nanking more celebrated abroad than the
Porcelain Tower, called by the Chinese the Recompensing Favor
Monastery, which stands pre-eminent above all other similar
buildings in China for its completeness and elegance, the quality
of the material of which it is built, and the quantity of gilding
with which its interior is embellished. Its form is octagonal,
divided into nine equal stories, the circumference of the lower

* Voyages of Uib NaroeM*, page 4S3.

f being one hundred and tivciity feet, decreasing gradually
to the top. lis liuse rests upon a solid foundation of brickwork
tea feel liigh, up wiu'eli a flight of twelve steps leads inio iho
tower, whence a spiral staircaiic of one hundred and ninety
steps carries the visitor lo the sumniil, iwo hundred and sixtv-oue
feet froni the ground. The outer face is covered with slabs of
glazed porcelain of various colors, principally green, red, yellow,
and white ; lite body of ihe edifice is brick. At every story
there is a projecting roof, covered wiih green liles, and a bell
suspended from each corner, Tlic saloons are more gaudy than
elegant, and are tilled with a great number of little gilded images
placed in niches. This uuitjue structure was completed j. a.
1431), having been nineteen yeai's building.

According to the Chiuese account, one of their princes erected
a monaslery on this spot in the second century, and that having
been demolished, the emperor KienwSn rebuilt il about A. D. 372,
and deposited a precious relic of Budha within it. In the seventh
century, it was again enlarged, and called the monastery of Ce-
lestial Felicity, but was destroyed by lire when the Mongols
reigned over China. At length Yungloh, who moved his court
from Nanking to Peking in 141 1, recoinmenccd its erection, " in
order to recompense llie grcnt fnvor of her majesty, the august
empress," but did not live lo finish it ; his son, when it was done,
called it the First Pagoda. lis roof was overlaid with copper ;
152 bells, in all, were suspended from ihf- top and corners, and
128 lamps hung on the outside. The entire cost is stated at
93,313,973. In the top were suspended a number of pearls,
books, money, and pieces of silk, to word off evil influences. In
1801, " the god of Thunder, while expelling a strange monster,
chased him lo this place, when inslantly three parts of Ihe nine
stories of the pagoda'were demolished ; but the strength of the
god was so awfully stern, and the influence of the Budhislic doc-
!, Iltal the whole building was not de-
■s done by ihe " god of Thunder " wore
rises thirty
appearing
s upon the peak.

irines was so boundli

Biroyed." The dama.

repaired by government. Frc

feet, which is surrounded by

like rings from below ; a gilded ball

It is situated beyond the southern wall of the city, in Ihe midst
of the grounds atlached to the monastery, which are about three
miles in circuit, and ihe view from the summit amply repays the

t

labor of the oflcenl,* The country around is bcsuliflitly Slvtr-
aiGed by hili and dale, hamlets and fields, while yet in some
parts within the walls it looks partially deaertod. The enter-
prise and resources of Hungwu, the founder of this city, must
have been great, to have enabled him lo lay out and build a city
of the size of Nanking, and impart to it the reputation it has
since had ; (or it whs the metropolis only half a century.

Nanking has extensive manufactories of fine satin and crape,
and the cotton cloth which foreigners call Nankeen derives its
name from this city ; paper and ink of fine quality, and beauti-
ful artificial flowers of pith paper, are produced here. In distsnt
parts of the empire, any fabric or article which is superior to the
common run of workmanship, is said to be from Nanking, though
the speaker means only that the thing in question is made in that
r^on. Nanking is renowned, too, for its scholars and literary
character, as well as manufactures, and in this particular it stands
wnong the first places of learning in the country. It is the resi-
dence of the governor-general of three provinces, and conse-
quently the centre of a large concourse of officials, educated
men, and students seeking foe promotion ; which, with its larga
libraries and bookstores, all indicating and assisting literary pur-
suits, and the superior accuracy and elegance of the editicHM
published here, combine to give it this distinguished place. In
the monastery on Golden island, near Chinkiang fu, a very ex-
tensive library was found by the English officers, but there was
DO haste in examining its contents, as they intended to have car-
ried off the whole collection wiiii them, had not the peaoc pr©-
Tcnled.
^ The city of Suchau now exceeds Nanking in size and riches.
It ia situated on islands lying in Great lake, and this sheet of
water is of such extent as lo afford water communication along its
shores to most parts of the department. The walls of the city
are about ten miles in circumference ; outside of them are four
suburbs, one of which is said to extend ten miles each way, be-
sides which there is an immense floating population. The whole
space includes so many canals and pools connected with the
Grand canal and the lake, that it is hard to say whether the land

Ta;^^ of the Nemwis, page 430. Chinew Repository, Vols. X!It..

SUCHAC F(- AND CIIIMCIARG PP. 95

or the waler pfedominales. The whole population cannot be Tar
from two millions, including all thai live in U'hal is called ihc
cily of Suchnu. It lies norlh-wpst of Sliaughai, ihe wiiy lying
through a continual range of villages and cities; the environs
are highly cultivated, producing cotton, silk, rice, wheat, rruits,
and TPgetables-

The Chinese regard it as one of [heir most beauliful and rich-
est cities, and have a saying, " that to be happy on earth, one
must be bom in Suchau, live in Canton, and die in Liauchau ;"
for in the first are the handsomest people, in the second the rich-
cM luxuries, and in the third tl>e bosi coffins. It has a high
reputation for the splendor of its buildings, the elegance of its
tombs, the picturesque scenery of its waters and gardens, the
politeness and intelligence of its inhabitants, and the beauty of
its women. Its manufactures of silk, linen and cotton fabrics,
and works in iron, ivory, wood, horn, glass, lackered-ware, paper,
and other articles, are the chief sources of its wealth nnd pros-
perity ; the kinds of silk goods produced here surpass in variety
and richness those woven in any other place. Vessels can pro-
ceed up lo the cily by several channels from the Yangtsz' kiang,
but all those of large burden anchor at Shanghai, or proceed up
the Wusung lo Sungkiang fu, from whence there is h direct pas-
sage to Suchau through the lake.

The whole country between the Great river and lake Tai is so
out up by natural and artificial channels, 'hat it is not easy for
large eraft to reach the cily ; and Admiral Parker, who recon-
noitred the passages leading to it in Ihe steamer Medusa, lost so
much time from having taken a wrong channel, that he did not
reach the city, though ihe smoke of ihe steamer was descried
from the walls, causing no little consternation to its inhabitants.*
The rich city of Chinkiang fu, situated at the junction of the
Grand canal with ihe Yangtsz' kiang, has lately became well
known from its unhappy fate during the laic war. Its position
renders it the key of the country, in respect lo the transport of
taxes tuid provisions for Peking, for when the river and canal are
both blockaded, the supplies for the north and south are lo a great
extent intercepted. The largest part of the supplies for the capi-
tal had passed across the river before the arrival of the English.

* ChiacM RepoailoiT, Vols. XI., pogt 316 : XIV., pcgc 984.

Bh. I

66 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

Ill times of peace, (he scenes at the junction afib
biiioD of the industry and trade of the people. Barrow describes
" the multitude of ships of war, of burden and of pleasure, some
gliding down the stream, others sailing against K ; some moving
by oars, and others lying at anchor ; llie banks on either side
covered with towns and houses as far as the eye could reach ; aa
presenting a prospect more varied and cheerful than any that
had hitherto occurred. Nor was ihe canal, on the opposite side,
less lively. For two whole days we were continually passing
among fleets of vessels of different construction ar

The country in the vicinity is well cutttvated,
by Capl. Loch as presenting a pleasing variciy. ■' On the south-
east, the hills broke into an undulating country clothed with ver-
dure, and firs bordering upon small lakes. Beyond, stretched tha
vast river we had just ascended. In the other direction, the land
in the foreground continued a low and swampy flat, leaving it
difficult at a little distance to determine which of the serpentina
channels was the main branch ; there were innumerable aheeta
of water, separated by narrow mounds, so thai the whole resem-
bled a vast lake, intersected by causeways. Willows grew along
their aides, and dwellings were erected on small patches aora*
what higher than the common surface.'" The batlle al Chio-
kiang fu occurred the '21st July, 1842, and Ihe resistance oa tba
part of the Manchu garrison showed Ihnt during iwo centuries of
peace Ihey had not altogether lost their courage. The general
in command, Hailing, finding the city taken, sealed himself in
his office, in the midst of his papers, and sel fire lo the house,
making it his funeral pyre. His ashes, and those of his wife and
grandson, were ailerwards collected, and an honorary fane or-
dered lo be erected to his memory at public expense.

Near the mouth of the Grand canal is Kin ahan, or Golden I,,,
a beautiful spot, covered with temples and monastic ealablish*
ments. A pagoda crowns the summit, and there are many
pavilions and halls, of various sizes and degrees of elegance, on
its sides and at the base ; but latterly, the whole estublishineiil
has considerably fallen to decay, from. the withdrawal of govein-
mental patronage. A similar establishment is found at SuH^
than, or Silver I., below Chinkiang fu, but it is on a lesa oxiaOt

* ErenU in Chiai, p, 74.

POSITION OF SHANOBULI. . 87

mvB aoaloy though a beautiful spot. Priests are the onlj occu-
pants ; temples and palaces the principal buildings, surrounded
by gardens and bowers. Massive granite terraces, decorated
with huge stone monsters, are reached from the water by broad
flights of steps ; fine temples, placed to be seen, and yet shaded
by trees, open pavilions, and secluded summer-houses, give it a
delightful air of retreat and comfort, which a nearer inspection
ladiy disappoints. Kin shan, or Grolden I., is smaller, and has
more of a toy-shop appearance, from the crowd of temples, pago-
da% and palaces, which cover its sides, and glitter with yellow
and green glazed porcelain roofs. ^

The banks of the Yangtsz' kiang are described by travellers
as not so populous and well cultivated as might be supposed in a
region said to be so densely inhabited. This absence of large
cities between the embouchure and Nanking, may perhaps be
owing to the danger they would be in from the freshes, inducing
the inhabitants to remove from the banks, as is the case along the
shores of the Yellow and Pearl rivers.

The largest seaport in Kiangsu is Shanghai hien (i. e. Ap-
proaching the Sea), and it is likely erelong to become one of the
leading emporia in Asia. It lies on the north shore of the Wu-
sung river, about fourteen miles from its mouth, in latitude 31^
1(K N., and longitude 121° 30^ E., at the junction of the Hwang-
pu with it, and by means of both streams communicates with
Suchau, Sungkiang, and other large cities on the Grand canal ;
while by the Yangtsz' kiang it receives produce from Yunnan
and Sz'chuen. In these respects its position resembles that of
New Orleans.

The town of Wusung is placed * at the mouth of that river,
here about a mile wide ; and two miles beyond lies the district
town of Paushan. Shanghai is a walled town, three miles in
circuit, through which six gates open into extensive suburbs,
the two being divided from each other by a canal twenty feet
wide. The city stands in a wide plain of extraordinary fertility,
and intersected by numerous streamlets, afibrding the means of
navigation and communication ; its population is estimated to be
OYcr 225,000 inhabitants. The banks of the river are covered
with dwellings, temples, shops, dec, among which a temple to
the Queen of Heaven, near the landing-place, is a conspicuous
object. The native trade here is probably larger than at any

6S ms HIDDLB RliroMK.

other cily in Ihn empire ; nenHy n thouwind junka h«»« been
ootintod lying in iho ^Inuit^pu, eam of ibe town. Thi? foreign
trade will probiilily •oon Hurpaas ilie native iti value ami variety.

Shanftliai is a dirty plane, nnd [xwrly built uompurcd with some
other towns in the provincn ; the houana are mostly of brick.
The streets, os usual, aro narrow, and In the daytime crowded
with people. The merchandise which most ultracts the notice of
a stranger is the silk and embroidery, eotton, and cotton goods,
porcelain, ready-made clotlips, lined with beautiful akinB and ftirs,
bumbuo pipes six feet long, nnd numerous shops for selling bam-
boo ornamenta, pictures, bronz-es, specimens of old porcelain, and
other curiositiea, lo which the Chinese mllach great value. But
articles of food form the most extensive trade of all : and it is
wmetimea a diflicull matter to get through the sirects, owing to
the immense quaniiiies of lish, pork, fruit, and vegelabli^s, which
crowd ihc stands in front of tlie shops. Dining-rooms, tea-houses,
&nd bakers' shops, are met with at every step, from the poor man
who carries around his kitchen or bakehouse, altogether hardly
worth a dollar, lo ibe most e-itenstve tavern or tea-house, crowded
with customers. For a few cash, a Chinese can dine upon rice,
fish, vegetables, and lea ; nor does it matter much to him, whether
his table is set in the streets or on the ground, in a house or on
a deck, he makes himself merry with his chopsticks, and eats
what is before him.* The buildings compoaing the Ching-hwang
miau, and the grounds attached to this establishment, present a
good instance of Chinese style and taste in architecture. Large
warehouses for storing goods, ice-houses, granaries, and temples,
are common ; but neither these, nor the public buildings, present
any distinguishing features lo attract notice.

The remaining cilies and districts of Kiangsu present nothing
worthy of special remark. No towns of note occur on the Yellow
river, when proceeding up its stream, before reaching Hwai-ngan
fu, on its southern shore, six miles distant ; and this city, tike
Kaifung fu, in Honan, ■' is in imminent danger of being drowned,
for the ground on which it stands is lower than the canal, which,
in several places, is supjioned only by banks of earth."

The island of Tsungming, at ihe mouth of the Yangtsz' kiang,
conslilutes a single district. It is about sixty miles long, and six-

PBOvmcE OF NOANHwrr. 89

tBen wide, containing over 900 square miles, and is supposed to
have been gradually enlarged by the constant deposits from the
river; it is flat, but contains fresh water, and trenches are dug
to assist in irrigation. It is highly cultivated and populous,
though some places on the northern side are so impregnated with
salt, and others so marshy, as to be useless for raising food. It
possesses no harbor, nor any place of size besides the district
town of the same name. During the examination and blockade
of the river by H. B. M. ship Conway, in 1840, a foraging party
landed on the southern shore of the island, and were attacked by
the inhabitants, and loss sustained on both sides. Pt. Harvey is
named after a midshipman who lost his life on this occasion.*

The province of Nganhwui was so named by combining the
first words in its two largest cities, Nganking fu and Hwuichau
fu, and forms the south-western half of Kinngnan ; it is rather
larger than Kiangsu, and less of its surface is covered with
water. It lies north of Kiangsi, west of Kiangsu and Cheh-
kiang, and between them and Honan and Hupeh, on its west.
Its productions and manufactures, the surface and high cultiva-
tion of the country, and character of the people, are very simi-
lar to those of Kiangsu, but the cities are less celebrated.

The Great river passes through the south of Nganhwui from
south-west to north-east ; several small tributaries flow into it on
both banks, one of which connects with Chau hu, or Nest lake,
in Luchau fu, the largest sheet of water in the province. The
largest part of the province is drained by the river Hwai and its
branches, which flow into Hungtsih lake ; and most of them are
navigable quite across to Honan. There are several small lakes
near the Yangtsz' kiang, and the southern part of the province is
the most fertile and populous. The productions comprise every
kind of grain, vegetables, and frnit known in the Plain ; most of
the green tea districts lie in the south-eastern parts, particularly
in the Sunglo range of hills in Hwuichau fu, but the shrub is
cultivated in the whole province. Silk, cotton, and hemp are
also extensively raised ; and gold, silver, and copper, and other
metals, dug from the mines. The southern and western sections
are agreeably diversified with ranges of low hills, one of which,
north of Nest lake, forms the water-shed between the basin of the
great rivers.

• Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 541 ; Vol. XL, p. 210.

00 TH£ UIDDU EIKODOH.

The provincial cftpital, NgEuiking fu, lies on the noithsm
shores of the Kiang. Davis describes the streets as very narrow,
and the shops as unattractive ; (he courts and gateways of many
good dwelling-houses presented themselves as he passed along
the streets. " The palace of the lie ulen ant-governor we first
look for a temple, but were soon undeceived by the inscriptions
on the huge lanterns at the gateway. These ofEcial residences
seldom display any magnifioence. The pride of a Chinese
officer of rank consists in his power and station, and as the dis-
play of mere wealth attracts little respect, it is neglected more
than in any country of the world. The best shops that we saw
were for tho sole of horn lanterns and porcelain. They poswMS
the art of softening horn by the application of a very high degree
of moist heat, and extending it into thin laminee of any shape.
These lamps are about as transparent as ground-gloss, and,
when ornamented with silken hangings, have on elegant appear-

The banks of the river, between Nanking and Nganking (ti,
a distance of 300 miles, are descritx-d by him as being well cul- -
livatcd, and containing towns and villages at short intervals. At
the party advanced slowly up tho rivor, "they found a cliraata
and a country which could yield to none in the world, and
equalled by very few. The landscape, consisting of the finest
combination of hill and dale, witji high mountains in the dis-
tanee, was variegated at ihia time in the most beautiful manner,
with the red and yellow tints of autumn." The tmvellers dailjr
walked on shore, and everywhere ibund the country well culti-
vated, peaceful, and populous.

Hwuichau fu, in the south-eastern part of the proyioce, i>
. celebrated for its excellent manufactures of ink and lackered-
ware, which are sent to all parts of the empire. Fungyang fu
(i. e. the Rising Phcenix], a town lying north-west of Nanking,
on the river Hwai, wos intended by Ilungwu, the founder of the
Ming dynasty, to have been the capital of the empire instead
of Nanking, and was thus named in anticipation of its futiue
splendor.

The district town of Wuhu, in Taiping fu, about a htmdred
miles beyond Nankiap, is said by Mr. Davis to be the largest of
its class in China ; if so, its population cannot be much ■Iwit of
half a million. It elands on tbe south side of the river, aaar tbe

^^

01

Q of several streams coining in from the south, diid its size
and importanoe are owing lo ihe extensive inlaml Irode which
centres here. The streets are large, and lined willi shops well
stocked with a great vftriely of goods, some of which had Leon
brought overland from Canton, a distance of 600 miles.*

The province of KiakgsI (i. e. Weat of the River) lies south
of Ngannwui and Uupeb, between Chehkiang and Fuhkjcn, on
the easi, and Hunan on ihc west, reaching from the Yangta?.' kiang
lo the Mei ling on the south. Its form is oblong, and its entire
area is made up of the beautiful basin of the Kan kiang ; a spur
of the Nan ling, running north, divides it on the west from
Hunan and the basin of itie Hang ho, while the eastern frontier
is marked by the main ridge passing north-easterly through Fub-
kieo to the ocean. It is a little larger than all New England,
about the size of Virginia, or twice that of Portugal, but, in
population, vastly exceeds these couniries. The surface of the
country is rugged, and the character of the inhaLitanis partakes
in aome respects of the roughnes.'j of their native hills. It is well
watered and drained by the river Kan and its tributaries, most
of which rise within the province ; the main trunk empties into
the Poyang lake by numerous mouths, and the high level of that
sheet of water renders the country around it swampy. For
many miles on its eastern and southern banks extends an almost
uninhabitable marsh, presenting lo the voyager a most dreary
appearanoe. The soil, generally, is productive, and large quan-
tities of rice, wheat, silk, cotton, indigo, lea, and sugar, are
grown and exported. It shares, in some degree, the monufac-
lurea of the neighboring provinces, especially in Nankeen clolh,
vast quantities of which are woven here, but excels them ail in
the quality and amount of its porcelain. The mountains in the
south and south-east produce camphor, varnish, oak, banian, fir,
and other trees; those on the west are well wooded, but much
of the timber ia unattainable by Cliinese ingenuity.

Nanchang fu, the provincial capital, lies near the aoutheni
shore of the Poyang lake ; Ihe city walls are six miles in circuit,
and accessible by water from all sides. It suffered, at the time
of the Manchu conquest, by fire, but has since been rebuill.

I, Vol. II., pp. 37, 42. Chinese Bepoailoiy

82 THE HIDDLB XINeDOK.

though Davis noticed that conaiderable portions of the inclomin
were slill vacant. Barrow estimated that there were, indepen-
dent or innumerable small craft, 100, GDO tons of shipping lying
before the place. The banks of the Kan kianfr. near the lake,
are flat, and not highly cultivated, but the scenery becomes mora
varied and agreeable the funher one ascends it ; towM and vil-
lages constantly come in sight, and the cultivation, though not
universal, is more extended. As the voyager ascends the river,
several large cities are passed, as Linkiang, Kih.ngan, Kanchau,
and Nan-ngan, all capitals of departments, besides numerous
towns and villages : so that if the extent of this river and ths
area of the valley it drains be considered, it will probably besr
comparison with that of any valley in the world for populous-
ness, amount and variety of productions, and diligence of cultiva-

Beyond Kihngan fu are the Shihpah Ian or Eighteen Rapids,
which are torrents formed by ledges of rocks running across the
river, but not of such height or roughness as to seriously obstruct
the navigation except at low water. Tlie shores in their vicinage
are described as exceedingly beautiful; " The transparency of the
stream, the bold rocks fringed with wood, and the varied forma of
the moiiQlains, call to mind those delightful streams that are dis-
charged from the lakes and north counties of England." The
hilly bonks are in niuny places covered with the Camellis
oleifera, whose white blossoms give them the appearance of
snow, when the plant is in flower. Kanchau fu is a place of
great trade, where large boats are obliged to stop ; but Nau-Ogui
fu is at the head of navigation, aliout three hundred miles from
the lake, where alt goods for the south are debarked to be curied
across the mountains.

Within the department of Jauchau in Fauliang hien, east of
Poyang lake, are the celebrated porcelain majiu factories of
Kingteh chin, named afler an emperor of the Sung dynasty, in
whose reign, a. d. 1004, they were established. This mart still
supplies all the fine porcelain used in the country, and the amaO
amount of fancy ware now exported to Europe and America.
Upwards of a million of workmen are said to be employed ; tba
approach to the town is announced by the smoke, and at night h
appears like a town on fire, or a vast furnace emitting flamea
firom numerous vents, there being, it is said, five huddnd HIm

Utntly buniiog. Places called chin, as this one is,
mon in China ; ihe word means ttiurl, and the town, whatever be
ila size, is not incloeed by walls; Ktiigt(?h chin stands on the
liver Chang in a plain flanked by high mountains, about forty
miles norih-easl from Jauchuu, through which its ware ia distri-
buted over the whole empire.

Genius in China, as elsewhere, renders a place illustrious, and
few spols arc more celebrated among the Chinese than the vale
of Ihe White Deer in the LU hills, near Nankang fu on ilie west
side of the Poyang, where Chu Hi, the great disciple and oom-
mentator of Confucius, lived and taught, in the 12lh century.
It is a secluded valley about seven miles from the city, siluated
in a nook by the side of a rivulet. The unpretending buildings
are comprised in a number of dilferent courts, evidently intended
for use rather than show. In one of the halls, the While Deer
is represented, and near by a tree is pointed out, said to have
been planted by the philosopher's own bond. This spot ia a
place of pilgrimage to Chinese literati at the present day, for ihe
writings of Chu are prized by them next to their classics. The
beauty and sublimity of this region are Iduded by Mr. Davis, and
its praises are frequent themes for poeiical celebration among
native scholars.*

The maritime province of Chehkiano, the smallest of the
eighteen, lies eastward of Kiangsf and Nganhwui, and between
Kiangsu and Fuhkien north and south, and derives its name
from the river Cheh or Crooked, which runs across its southern
part. Its area is aliout the same as Kentucky; it lies in the
southern portion of the Plain, and for fertility, numerous water-
courses, rich and populous cities, variety of productions, and
excellence of manufactures, is not at all inferior to the larger
provinces. The Nan ling chain, under many local names,
borders and ends near its southern frontier, and renders this
part hilly and rough. The whole province produces cotton,
silk, tea, rice, and other grains in abundance, and is regarded
by the people as possessing within its limits every requisite for
the food and clothing of its inhabitants, while the excellence of
its manufactures insures it in exchange, a supply of the luxuries
of other regions. The native topographical works upon this

* DiviA Sketchet. VoL. II., \nga U.

branch of the

as Changshan
igsi, by a very

I

94 TBB MIDDLE

province are voluminous, and the maps correspond with
of the Jesuits, showing the source whence they were derived.
The information oblniiied from the surveys of its islands and
coasts, and tht recent operations in its eastern parts by the
English Expedition, have added largely to our previous know-

The rivers in Cbehkiang, like those in Kiangsf, have their
rise in Ihe province ; and, as might be inferred from Ihe position
of the hills, their course is generally short and their currents
rapid. Fourteen principal streams are enumerated, of which
the Tsicntang is the most important. It rises in the liills near
Kiangsi, and flows about 150 miles north-eoaterly by Hangchau
into the ocean near Chapu. The western
was ascended to its source by Macartney,
hien, from whence he crossed the hills inl
fine causeway of 24 miles, judiciously led through the defiles of
the mountains. Some parts of the scenery along this river ex-
hibit the contrast of an extensive plain on one bank, richly and
variously cultivated, while high mountains, " apparently higher
than any in Great Britain," rise suddenly on the other. The
other rivers empty into the ocean south of the Tslentang,

The forest and fruil trees of Chehkiang comprise almost every
valuable species known in the eastern provinces. The larch,
camphor, tallow, banian, fir, dryandra, mulberry, varnish, and
others, are common, nnd prove sources of wealth in their timber
and products. The climate is on' of the most salubrious; tba
grainn, vegetables, and animals, including a long list of fishe^
furnish food ; while its beautiful manufactures of silk are unri-
valled in the world, and have found their way to most parts of it.
Besides silken goods, cotton and linen fabrics are woven ; tack-
ered-ware, tea, crockery, paper, ink, and other articles, are also
exported.

The inhabitants of this province are considered equal to thoso
in the neighboring regions for wealth, learning, and refinements;
with the exception of the hilly districts in the south bordering OD
Kiangsi and Fuhkien, where they are less civilized. In these
parts, the cultivation of the mountain lands is interdicted, and a
line of military posts, ihiny.four in all, extends around them in
the three provinces, in order to prevent the people from settling

it

Bthe

HAUGCHAD FO m CBEHKU

ieir limita j though the interdiction does nst Torbid cutting the
timber growing there.*

Hangfhau fu, the uapilol of the province, lies in the northern
part, about two miles from the Tsientang, on a plain, and foriyor
fifty miles from the mouth of the river. The velocity of this
stream indicates a rapid descent of ihe country from the hills
which supply its headwaiers ; the tide rises six or seven feet op-
posite the city, and nearly thirty al the mouth. Capt. CollinsoD
of the English Expedition, when making some explorations of its
mouth, in order to ascertain the practicability of an approach to
Hangchau, found the tide [o run 1 1 J knots an hour, and " although
the steamer had an anchor down with a whole cable, having pre-
viously lost an anchor and cable when she endeavored to bring
up, and was under her full power of steam with sails set, she
was still driving."

Only a. moiety of the inhabitants reside within the walla of the
city, the suburbs and the waters around them supporting a large
population. A portion of the space within the walls is divided
off for the accommodation of the Manchu garrison, which con-
sists of 7000 troops. The govemor.general of Chehkiang and
Fuhkien resides in this city, and also the governor of (he pro-
vince, which, with their courts and troops, in addition to the great
trade passing through, render it one of the most important and
richest cities in Ihe empire. The celebrated traveller Marco
Polo, when he held the office of lieutenant-governor of Kiangnan,
at the end of the thirteenth century, repeatedly vbited Hangchau,
and describes it as " pre-eminent above all other cities in the
world in point of grandeur and beauty. Ha well as from its
Abundant delights, which might lead an inhabitant to imagine
himself in paradise." The Chinese have a praveTh^ShaTig yu
lien Umg : Hia ya Su Hang — the purport of which is that Hang-
chau end Suchau are fully equal to paradise ; bul the comparison
of the Venetian traveller gives one a poorer idea of the Euro-
pean cities of his day, than it does of the magnificence of the
Chinese to those who have seen them. The streets are well,
paved, ornamented with numerous honorary tablets erected to the
memory of distinguished individuals, and agreeably interrupting
the passage through ihem. Travellers say that the shops and

* CUiuM Repoiitory, Vol. IT., page 4Ba. ^^|

i

j9S THE MIDDLE EINGDOH.

warehouses in point of size, and slock ofgoode contaiDed in them,
might vie wiili the best in London. In its population, luxury,
wealtli, and influence, Hangchau rivals Suchau ; and, for excel-
lence of manufactures and beauty of position, probably exceeds
it. This city was the metropolis of ihe country during the latter
princes of the Sung dynasty, when the norihern parts were
under the Kin Tartars. Il maintained its splendor during the
away of the Mongols, but began to decline when Hungwu made
Nanking his eapiiul.

One cause of the belebriiy of this city is found in the beauty
of its environs, especially those near the West lake. Barrow ob-
serves that "the natural and artificial beauties of this lake for
exceeded anything we had hitherto had an opportunity of seeing in
China. The mountains surrounding it were lofly, and broken
into a variety of forms thai were highly picturesque ; and the
valleys were richly clothed with trees of different kinds, among
which three species were remarkably striking, not only by their
intrinsic beauty, but also by the contrast they formed with ihem-
aelves and the rest of the trees of the forest. These were the
camphor and tallow trees, and the arbor vilEC. The bright, shin-
ing green foliage of the first, mingled with the purple leaves of
ibe second, and over-topped by the stately tree of life of the
deepest green, produced a pleasing eifect to the eye ; and the
landscape was rendered still more interesting to the mind by the
very singular and diversified appearance of several thousand
repositories of the dead upon the sloping sides of the inferior
hilia. Here, as well as elsewhere, Ihe sombre and upright cy-
press was destined to be the melancholy companion of the tombs.

" Higher still, among the woods, avenues had been opened to
admit of rows of small blue houses, exposed on white colonnades,
which, on examination, were also found to be mansions of the
dead. Naked coffins, of extraordinary thickness, were every-
where lying on the surface of the ground. The margins of the
lake were studded with light aerial buildings, among which one
of more solidity and greater extent than the rest was said to be-
long to the emperor. The grounds were inclosed with brick
walls, and mostly planted with vegetables and fruit-trees ; but in
Bome there appeared lo be collections of such shrubs and flowen
u are most esteemed in the country."*

' Travel! ia Ctitaa, psft 933

OF HANOCBAU.

07

Staunton speaks of ihc lake as a beautiful sheet of water, per-
fectly pellucid, full offish, in most places shallow, and omamenled
with a great number of lifjht and fanciful stone bridges, thrown
across the arms of the lake as it runs up into the hills. A stone
lower on the summit of a projecting headland attracted attention,
from its presenting a different architecture from that usually
seen in Chinese buildings, This lower, called the Lui Fung lak,
or tower of the Thundering Winds, was four stories, and about
one hundred and twenty feet high, and though ruined at the top,
something like a regular order was still discernible in the moul-
dering cornices thai projected in a kind of double curve.

An interesting corroboration of this account is given by P
who says, ihat all arouud the lake " are beautiful palaces s
houses, so wonderfully built that nothing can possibly s
them ; they belong to the great and noble men of the i
There arc alao abbeys and monasterir^a of {delators in great num-
bers. In the middle of the lake are two islands, on one of which
stands a palace, so wonderfully adorned that it seems worthy of
belonging to the emperor." The barracks of the Manchu gar.^
rison arc in the north-western part of the city, inclosed by a wall,!
separated, as is usually the case, from the rest of the inhabitant**
and city. The shape of tba cily is oblong, but the walls had
fallen into decay when De Guignes was there.

This traveller describes ihe shape of the lombs and mausolea
in the environs of Hangchau, as differing from those elsewhere-
One of an officer unjustly executed was the most remarkablff, i
It was composed of two courts ; along the walls of (he first w
four bronEe statues of his accusers, one of whom was a womanj
on Iheir knees, with their hands bound behind them. Beyoni.l
rhem are slonc figures of three officers, a tiger, bull, and horse,
placed in front of the doors leading to the second court, whera J
ore placed the sepulchres of Ihe deceased officer and his sod, J
built in a conical form. In a temple, called Ting-lsz' «', not J
far from the cily, the parly of the Dutch embassy were well J
lodged, and al tended by three hundred priests. The establish- J
mcnt wa« in good repair, and besides two guardian monsters near J
the eniranoe more ihan thirty feet high, conlained about five J
hundred images, with miniature pagodas of bronze, of beautiful
workmanship.

Hangchau is more known abroad lor its manufactures of silk

I

than for any other fahrics, but its position ai the
the oanal may perhaps give the name of the city to many aniclfla
which are not actually ma^Ie there. In the northern suburbs lie*
an irregular basin, forming the southern extreme of the canal ;
but between the river Tsientang and this basin there is no cotth
munication, so that all goods brought hither must be landed.
The city contains, among other public buildings, a mosque, bear*
ing an inscription in Arabic, staling that it is a " temple for Mu»
sulmen, when travelling, who wish to consult the Koran."* It a
higher than the adjacent buildings, and adorned witli a cupola,
pierced with holes at short intervals. There are also aevenl
others in the city, it being llie stronghold of Islamism in China.
There is a water communication between Hangcbau and YUyao,
south-east through Shauhing fu, and thence lo Ningpo, by wfaid
goods find their way to and from the capital. A good road Bh»
exists between the two former cities, and elsewhere in the pin-
vince the thoroughfares are passably good.

Ningpo fu (Peaceful Wave cily) is the moat imporlant oily in
Chehkiang, next to Hangchau, in consequence of its foreign rdar
lions, ll is admirably sllualed for trade and influeuce, at tiw
junction of three streams, in lat. 29° M' N., and long. 131* 3*
E. ; the uniled river (lows on to the ocean, eleven and a hdf
miles distant, under the name of the Tatsieh, sometimes erroufc
oualy written Tahiah. Opposite the city iwelf, there are but twfti
streams, but the southern branch again sutxiivides a few ntilH '
soulh-west of Ningpo. lis population has been variously ea^ .
mated from one-fourth to one-third of a million, and even n»i^
including all the suburban and Boating inhabitants. It is, oionfe
over, an ancient city, and lis Annals alford very full iaformali^'
Upon every point interesting to a Chinese antiquarian, though »,
foreigner soon tires of tho many insigniiicaDt details mixed U'
with a few valuable statements.

" The plain in which Ningpo lies is a maguilicent ampbil
Ire, stretching away from twelve lo eighteen miles on
to the hose of the distant lulls, nnd on the other to the vo^ of
the ocean. As the eye travels along, it catches many a plea«Bj'
object. Turn landward, it will see canals and water-coui
fields and snug farm-houses, smiling cottages, family reaideooa^,

• Voy»gM i Peking. Vol. 11., ptget 64-77,

SITUATION OF NIKQFO. S9

hamlels and villages, family tombs, nioaaslcries, and lemples.
Turn in ihe opposite direction, and you perceive a plain country
descending towards the ocean ; but ihe river alive with all kinds
of boats, and the bonks studded with ice-houses, mosi of uH
ollract the attention. From without the city, and while still upon
the ramparts, look within its walls, you will be no less gratified.
Here there is nothing European, little to remind you of what
you have seen in the west. The single-storied and the double-
eioried houses, the heavy prison-like family mansions, the family
vaults and graveyards, the glittering roofs of the temples, the
dilapidated oSicial residences, the deserted literary and examina-
tion halls, and the prominent sombre Tower of Ningpo, are en-
tirely Chinese. The attention is also arrested for a moment or
two by ditches, canals, and reservoirs of water, with their wooden
bridges and stone arches."* One serious drawback to a resi-
dence in so beautiful a place is the heat of summer and the bod
quality of the drinking water.

The circumference of tlie walls docs not exceed five miles ;
they are about twenty-five feet high, &iieea feet wide at the lop,
and twenty-two at the base, buill solidly, though at present some-
what dilapidated, and overgrown with gross. The houses are
not built upon or adjoining the wall, as in Canton, and a deep
moat partly surrounds them; it commences at the nortli-gate,
^ and runs on the west, south, and south-east side as far as Bridge
gale, a distonce of nearly three miles, and in some places is forty
yards wide. Its constant use as o thoroughfare for boats insures
its repair and proper depth ; the other faces of the city are de-
fend^ by the river. There are six gates, besides two sally-ports
near the south ond wes g nd d for the passage of the

boats that ply on the ci a I

On the east is Bridge g w h uh ch, and near the- walls,
the English factory w u d This gate leads out lo

the floating hridge which ross h r ; this structure is two

hundred yards long and h h ad n ad of planks firmly lashed,
and laid upon sixteen lighters closely linked and chained toge-
ther, but which can be opened to allow passage to large boats
plying up and down the river. A busy market is held on the
" ' * je, and the visitor following the bustling crowd finds his way

MUoa. inChinticRcpisit<>ry,Vo]. X[|[..pi|t 33.

I

100

to BQ extensive suburb on the opposite side. Ferry boats ply
across both eireams in great numbers, adding greatly to the viva-
city of the scone. The cuslom-house is situated beyond the
bridge, and this eastern suburb cantuins several buildings of a
religious and public character, lumber-yards, docli-yards, and
rows of ice-houses, inviting the notice of the Iraveiler. The
environs beyond the north gate are not so tliickly settled as those
across the rivers ; and the well cultivated lields, divided and
gated by numerous water courses, with scattered hamlets, be.
guile the visitor in his rambles, and lead him onward.

There are numerous temples and monasteries in Ningpo, tog(
ther with a large variety of assembly-halls, governmental offices,
and educational eslablishmenls, but none of these edifices are
remarkable in an architectural point of view, The assembly-
halls or club-houses, found in this as in all Chinese towns and
I, and in (heir internal arrangements form a
society. It is the practice among red-
dents or merchants from other provinces, to subscribe and erect
on the spot where ihey are engaged tji business, a temple, dedU
cated to the patron deity of their native province, in which a few
priests are supported, and plays acted in its honor. Sometimes
the building is put in charge of a layman, called a " master of
ceremonies," and the current expenses defrayed by a voluntary
subscription. These club-houses are places of resort for IraveU*
lers from the several provinces or districts, and answer, moreover,
to European coffee-houses, in being points to hear news and pricea
from abroad.

The streets are well paved, and interrupted here and ther*:,
by honorary portals of considerable size and solidity, which also
give variety lo an otherwise dull succession of shops and B
boards, or dead walla. Two small lagoons afford space for si
aquatic amusements to the citizens. One called Sun lake
between Bridge gate and South gate, and is only
yards in circuit ; the other, called Moon lake, is near the West
gate, and three times its perimeter. Both are supplied by sluices:
passing through the gates of the city, while many canals ai
filled from them, which aid in irrigating the suburbs. Nume-.
rous aqueducts, passing through the city, are also supplied from
ihem, but their beauty and usefulness are much impaired by i1m
filtb thrown into their waters. Soma of the pteasuitest

OF CtllNUAI. 101

deuces occur on their banks. The government of the city ia
under & prefect, who also oversees the whole department. An
inlendant of circuit, superior to the prefect, has an office in
Ningpo; but the immediote superintendence of the city is in the
haoda of a district magistrate, the Kin hien, assisted by a police
and military force. During the occupation of the city by the
English in 1841—42, the governmentRl buildings were used as
barracks for their troops, and some of them considerably defaced
and injured. The prefect's residence is entered hyaline arched
gateway, and the path up to it shaded wilb trees.

The most striking building in Ningpo is the Tien-fung lah
(i. e. Heaven -conferred pagoda), or Tower of Ningpo, a hexa-
gonal seven-storied building upwards of 160 feet high, which,
according to the Annals of the oily, was first erected 1100 years
ago, though during that period it has been destroyed iUid rebuilt
several times. According to this authority, the Tower was con-
structed before the city itself, and its preservation is considered
as connected with the good luck of the place. The visitor mounts
to the summit by a flight of narrow stone steps, ascending spirally
wiiliin the walls.

The most elegantly furnished building in the city lies on the
water's edge outside the walls, between the East and Bridge
gates; it is a temple dedicated to the popular goddess Ma Tsupu,
and was founded by Fuhkien men in the 12th century, but the
present structure was erected in 1680, and largely endowed
through tbe liberality of its patrons. Its walls are solid, its
ornamentB elaborate and rich, and its appearance on festival
days, gay and animated in an unusual degree. The lanterns
and scrolls hanging from the ceiling attract attention by the
curious devices and beautiful characters written and drawn on
them in bright colors, while the nakedness of the walls is con-
cealed by innumerable drawings.

Chinhai is a district town at the mouth of the river, and is so
situated by nature and fortified by art, that it completely com-
mands the passage. Its environs were the scene of a severe
engngoment between the Chinese and English in Oct. 1S41, on
which occasion great slaughter was committed upon the imperial
troops. Chinhai is the place where merchant ships report when
proceeding up the river, and between it and Ningpo, the scenery
is diversified, and the water, as usual in China, presents a lively

i

i

MS THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

scene. On its banks are numerous ice-houses constroctetl dC
thick stone walls twelve feet fiigh, having a door on one side and
a slope on llie otlier for the removal and introduclion of the ic6|
and protected by straw laid on it, and a thick thatched roof. It
is used for preserving fish.

The town lies at the foot of a hill on a tongue of land on t
northern bank of the river, and is partly protected from the a
on tiie north by a dyke about lliree miles long, composed entirely
of large blacks of hewn grunile, and proving a good defence froitt
(he waves, lis walls are twenty feet high and three miles W
circumference, but the suburbs extend along the water, attracted-
by, and for the convenience of, the shipping. The defences of'
the place consist of two batteries on the river side, and a well buiU'.
citadel placed on a precipitous clilT two hundred and fifty fee(
high, at the end of the tongue on which the town is built. Ot
the south side of the river, is a range of steep hills, overlooking'
the citadel and the city opposite. During the war, the Chinew
did everything in their power to strengthen these heights, aoC
defend the passage up the river, by establishing iDtrenofaof
camps, and building lines of wall at every defensible point.

The Chusan archipelago belongs to the department of NingpCb,
and forms a single district of which Tinghai is the capital ; it w
divided into thirty-four chaang or townships, whose officers ut
responsible to the district magistrate. The southern limit of tU
whole group is Quesan or Riu shan islands, in lat. 29° 21' N., an^
long. 121° 10' E., consisting of eleven islets; th'; norlhernmorf
island is False Saddle island, lying in lat. 30" 50' N., and IooaI'
122° 41' E, The total number of islands in the archipelago W
over a hundred. The town of Tinghai lies on the southern sicl^.
of Chau shan or Boat island, the largest of them all, and whio^
gives its name on foreign maps to the whole group. It is twcD^
miles long, from six to ten wide, and fiRy-one and a half in e
oumference.

The general aspect of this and the neighboring islands s
coasts, is that of ridges of hills, steep, and occasionally ruiuiiiui
into peaks ; between these ridges in Chusan, are fertile and weft
watered valleys, most of which run to the sea, and contain a smaft
stream in their bosoms. The mouths of these valleys have a Aya-
along the beach, which converts them into plains of greater or '
extent, through which canals run, used both for irri^dOB

RCHIPELAGO.

^tion. Rice and barley are ihe produce of the plaina, and
beaaa, yams, and sweet potatoes, &a., are grown on the sides
of the hills ; every spot of arable soil being cultivated, and ter-
races constructed on most of the slopes. The view from the tops
of the ridges, looking athwart them, or adown their valleys, or to
seaward, is highly picturesque. The prevailing rocks on Chuson
belong to the ancient volcanic class, comprising many varieties,
but principally clay-stone, trachyte, and compact and porphyrilio
felspar. The former aflbrds good material for building and paving,
and is extensively quarried by the inhabitants. The geological
character of the whole group is similar to that of this island.*
The domestic animals reared are those used for food, as pigs,
geese, ducks, and fowls ; the horned cattle are few in number,
and employed in agriculture, but sheep and goats are seldom
seen.

Timber trees are scarce, a kind of fir being the common cover-
ing of the untitled hills; nor are fruit trees plentiful ; most of the
wood used in domestic and nnval architecture is brought from the
mainland. The only roads arc paved footpaths, and as there are
no carriages or beasts of burden, every article, even the most
weighty, is transported by men, — for the largest stream or canal
on the island hardly allows a boat to ascend nbovc liic plain on
the seaside. The population of Chusan, according to the census,
is about 200,000 persons, and that of the whole group has been
estimated at 300,000; Tinghai itself does not contain over 30,000
inhabitants.

The district town of Tinghai lies in lot. 30° N., and long.
0,2" 5J' E., in the valley of Yungtung, half a mile from the
beach ; it is connected with the shipping by a causey running
from the gale to the suburb of Ta Tautau, where is the cusiom-
house and principal landing-place, and by two canals deep enough
for boats. The city is of an irregular pentagonal shape, sur-
rounded by a solid wall nearly three miles in circuit, upon
which are several small lowers ; there are four gates, each sup-
ported by an outer gate and defences at right angles to the inner
gate, and distant from it about twenty yards ; a canal thirty-three
feet wide and three deep, nearly encircles them, and enters the
town near the south gate. The streets are not more than twelve

* CliinCM RepMitni;, Vol. X., pige* 338, 436.

104 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

or fifteen feet wide, and are pnved with granite, Sewen nm
underneath, and aa the descent towards the canal is slight, they
are seldom clean ; the oHensive smell proceeding from them is
aggravated by the cdluvia from tlie stagnunt pools in the canal,
end the large jara at the corners of the streets full of puirtscenl
animal and vegetable filth, collected for manuring purposes.
The houses are mostly built of wood, but all those of any pre-
tensions are constructed of brick.

The plain of Tinghai is about 2} miles from east to west, and
the ridges of the hills which define it are from 450 lo 650 feet high.
The embankments along the hoach throw the water back, so
that the country la marshy, and impassable except by means of
the raised foot-palhs between the fields. Tliis mode of irrigating
lice-fields is common throughout China wherever the waler-
couraea will allow, and the ingenuity of the husbandman is often
atrikiogiy exhibited in the mode ho economizes the water, and
leads it from one plat to another. The suburb of Tautau runs
along the beach, forming a long street, oiT which the shipping
lies; on the cast end is a small hill surmounted by a temple.
The harbor of Tinghai is one of the best on the coast, and
accessible by three or four passages. The tides rise and fall
12i feet, but ordinarily 6 or 7 feet. The island of Chusan con-
tains eighteen of the iwenly-four chwang, or townships, in the
district, each of which is under the direction of constables,
|)olioemen, village elders, and assessors of taxes, who are respoo-
uble to the district magistrate. There are three small towns
along the shores of the island, of which Shinkia-mun, or Sinka-
inong,DD the south-east, is the largest ; Chinkiang or Singkong, and
Shau, are the others.*

The other islands of the archipelago compose nineteen chfeang,
of which Luhwang and Silver islands form four. The island of
Puto and a few smaller ones are independent of the jurisdicUoa
of the magistrate of Tinghai, being ruled by the abbot of the
head monastery. This establishment, and that nn Golden island
in the Yangtsz' kiang, are among the richest and most exten-
sively patronized of all the monasteries belonging to the Budhists
in China; both of them have been largely favored by emperors
kt different periods.

* ChiDMc Rspaaitory, Vol. X., psgei 2S4. 338.

^^HL The island of Puto hHs been rcpccitcdiy visitfd by foreigners
^^^■fering the last fuw years, and has become better known than
^Hfeolden island. It is a narrow Islet, 3j) miles long, and lies 1}
^^dnriles from the eastern point of Chusan. Its surface is covered
will) sixty monasteries, pavijians, temples, and other buildings
appropriated to religious uses, besides grottoes and other monu-
ments of superstition, in which at least SOOO idle priests chant
the praises of their goHs. One visitor drscribes his landing and
ascending " a broad and well beaten pathway which led to the
top of one of the hills, at every crag and turn of which we en-
countered a temple or a grotlo, an inscription or an image, with
here and there a garden tastefully laid out, and walks lined with
IS, which diffused a grateful fragrance through the
The prospect from these heights was extremely delightful ;
i islands, far and near, besludded the main, rocks and
precipices above and below, here and there a mountain monas-
tery rearing its head, and in the valley the great temple, with its
yellow tiles indicative of imperial distinction, basked like a basi-
lisk in the noonday-sun. All the aid that could be collected from
nature and from Chinese art, were here concentrated to render
the scene enchanting. But to the eye of the Christian philan-
thropist it presented a melancholy picture of moral and spiritual
death. The only thing we heard out of the mouths of the priests
was Ometo Fuh (i. e. Amida Budha) ; to every observation that
was made, re-echoed Ometo Fuh ; and the reply to every inquiry
was Ometo Fuh. Each priest was furnished with a rosary which
he was constantly counting, and as
senseless, monotonous eiclanialio
eye at every turn of the road, a
and on every scrap of paper ;
and on the walls, the same wo
the whole island seemed ii
phrase, and dev

ed repealed the same
n. These characters met the
t every corner of the temples,
in the bells, on the gate-ways,
s presented themselves ; indeed
o be under the spell of this tatismanic
Mrding and re-echoing Ometo Fuh."

From recent accounts, it seems that the pristine glory of these
temples is dimmed, many of ihe buildings presenting marks of
decay, and some of the priesthood being obliged to resort to
honest labor to get a living. Deaths in their number ore sup-
:^>ed by purchasing youths, who are taught nothing but religious

^■PM^b}

■ China, iti State and Prospects, page 31

i

Iilennn,sfit tninM^toMM ihMr wm^ to pomH die dnll
wwiirij «r m^V Owh Pub. 1W two inpcrial temples
fltmaa p>ad ^aeiiMurf CMif —iMliinn* ; brt tbnjr «Bd
•addKr fl^pfetlHMM at P>fc M> lilMpifci 1 1 «*te. and it
te to be bofMd win MM nub •ny, or ta applM to boiler

IWfiliai ««r««TWle4aBlUiUM>JMMriTW«. p. S90.aiMl
■inn it hMune * man far priMto it iMaa to b«v» tatjor^d tba
|«lraMg« of the pmninm. The gndJa— of Uenj » mid to
have raiiad thw Und, and bar inaga b tba frindpal object of
wonliip. No fMsalM ara sIIowmI to lira on tha Htaad, nor any
haiAtfi pH'<« •inl>-> in ihoir omplnv. Th« mvpoix^i mrv derived

frv,ml>„ - V .'■! ■ . I- I ■ ..-■■.J- -..■■ .^. ■- ^ tK.f..-,!.

lection of those priests who go on begging excursions to the main,
•nrf from the alms of pilgrims who resort to this agreeable spot,
•nr) who are well lodged and attended during their stay. It
appi^arn like one of the most beautiful spots on the earth when
\hr. traviiller lands, just such a place as his imagination had pic-
turiid as exclusively belonging to the sunny East, and so far a«
nature anil art can combine, it is really so: but here the illusion
rniU. I'llenesB and ignorance, celibacy and idolatry, vice, dirt,
nri'l dilnpiilBlLon, in the inmates or in their habitations, form a
pfxir bn(;k-ground for the well dressed community, and gay,
varicgntiid prospect seen when stepping ashore.

Thii other departments and districts in the province of Cheb-
klnng hiivn not been much visited by foreigners. The district
t'iwn« i.f Fimghwa and Tsz'kl, lying westward of Ningpo, were
llif wi<'t»'H of NkirmisheH between the English and Chinese in
llnin'inlii.r, lfi41, wboro large bodies of the imperialists were
'"illi'il, nnil ilrivnn back upon Hangchau fu. The country lying
nl'rtiK iliK linnk* of the two rivers leading from Ningpo up lo
IJi'iH- I'.wriN, U umluUling and highly cultivated. A lown of
i.,iiialili<rnliln liripurtuniin in ibis province is Chapu in the depart-

IH'TII !.(' Kl^hlllff 1 It l|„ „|„m filly ^i,gg ^p ,|,e p^j^,_ jj^^^_

**'■■' '''■ '"''"''»'. "<irf«« llnngchau bay, and is connected with

ll.»l H.y .liro„^h « hiMutlani plain by a well paved causeway
KtKM.I ll.lriy m In. lm.«. Chapu i. the port of Hangchau, and
fho »n\y ..nn III rhlim wl,mi<« tr«do 1. carried onWith Japan
|„ ^ill i.MMn h rh„,m rMn, .,r ih., mart of Chapu, and it is^e
,.r llm Urgort wi lh*> imaM iikM to Hhamhai and Tient«n. The

AND

107

e of the liilU

*l ihe bollom of a bay on llie weslern fut
forming iu eaatern point, and at low tide Ihe mud runs olfa long
way from the low land lying bclweco thrso and some diatunt
hills, whose tops are covered with buildings. The suburbs nre
situated near the western extremity of a small headlnud, which
runs back four or five miles, and lines the beach on both sides.
the central part being hilly ; the walled town stands about half
a mile behind. It was attacked and much injured by the British
forces in May, 1842, but abandoned immediately after the
engugemeni. The walls were found in poor condition, but iJio
Monchu garrison stationed here upheld their ancient reputation
for bravery. This body of iroops occupies a separate division
of the city, and their cantonment is planned on the model of a
camp. The outer defences of the city are numerous, but at the
time of the attack, most of the old fortifications were found to be
conaderably decayed, The country in the vicinity is highly cul-
tivated, and more than usually adornod with well built houses,
which extetid more or loss (o Hangcliau,"

South-west from Chapu lies the old town of Uanfu, called
Konpu by the Chinese, which was once the port of Hangchau,
but now deserted, from Ihe stream running by it having become
choked with sand. This place is metKioned in the voyages of
two Arabian travellers in llie ninth century, as the chief port of
China, where all shipping centred. The narrow entrance be-
tween Buffalo island and Kilto point is probably the Gates of
China mentioned by them ; and Marco Polo, in 1290, speaks of
Ganpu, an extremely fine port tweniy-five miles from Hangchau,
frequented by all ihc ships that bring merchandise from India.
Marsden erroneously supposes Canpu to be Ningpo-f If this
was in fact the on/y port allowed to bo opened for foreign trade,
it shows that, even in the Tang dynasty, the same system of ex-
elusion was maintained that has so recently been broken up.
Canfu was destroyed by insurrectionists, which catastrophe drove
away the foreign trade from it to Canton, where it afterwards
remained ; and what trade has since arisen, h&a gone to Chapu.

The province of Fchkien (i. e. Happily Established) is
bounded on the north by Cbehkinng, north-west and west by

^^^VCHiDMe

Repo»ilory. Vol. XI., page «5 ; Vol. Xll.
Travels of Marco Polo, page 183.

pigea.

Kiangsi.south-wcst by Kwangiuag,an<i30UlhandcBat by thed
ne\ of Formosa, Its northern and north-western borders are de-
fined by the high range of iho Nan ling, which render this part
of the province, and also the adjacent districts of Kwangtung,
very rugged. The lino of seacoaal is bold, and bordered with
a great number of islands, whose lofty granitic or treppean peaks
extend in precipitous, barren headlands from Numoh as far as
the Chusan aruhjpelago. In the general features of its surface,
the islands on its coasts, and its position with reference to the
ocean, it resembles the region lying east of New Hampshire.

The river Mln is farmed by the union of three large streams
Bl Yenping fu ; it drains all the country lying east of- the Wu-[
hills, or about three-fourths of the province, and empties into the
ooean by several mouths. It is more than three hundred miles
long, and owing to its regular depth, is one of the most useful
streams in China ; twenty-seven walled towns stand on ila bonks.
The tide rises eighteen or twenty feet at the entrance, and this,
with the many islands and reefs, renders the approach difficult in
hazy or heavy weather. At Min-ngan hien, about fourteen miles
from the mouth, the stream is contracted to les.s than half a mile
for about three miles, the water being from twelve to tweaty-fivo

[fathoms deep ; the hills on each side rise from fifteen hundred U>
two thousand feet, and are defended by forts and batteries. One
traveller speaks of the walls of these defences as afibrding a sort
of stairs for the more convenient ascent of the hills on which
Ihey are situated. From the top, •' the view embraces a beauti-
ful scene ; nothing can be more picturesque than the little plals
of wheat and barley intermixing iheir yellow crops on the accli-
vities with bristling pines and arid rocks, and crowned wilji g«r.
den spots, or surrounded with rice fields and orchards of oranges.
The valley of the Min, viewed from the summit of the fortress,
is truly a beautiful sight."* The scenery on this river, though
of a ditferent character, will bear comparison with that of the
Hudson for sublimity and beauty ; ilie hills nre, however, much
higher, and the country less fruitful, on the Min.
The passage up to Fuhchau for large vessels is difScult, and
presenis a serious obstacle in the way of the city ever becoming
ft place of commerce commensurate with its size and get^rmphi-

* Chine Oaverte, pige 137.

rsOVlNCE OF FIJllKIKN. lOfl

cal advantages. Only une or Iwo foreign merchaDts reside (liere,
and Dot over a dozen me re ha nl men have aa yet entered the port,
three of which were Atnericiui. From Fuhchau upwurda, the
river is partially obatructed with rooks and banks, rendering the
navigation troublesome oa faros Minlsing hiett, about tfainy miles
above it, beyond which no foreign traveller has described it.

Mr. Stevens says of this river, that " bold, high, and romantic
hills give a uniform yet ever varying aspect lo the country ; but
it partakes so much of the mountainous character, that it may be
truly said that beyond the capital we saw not one plain even of
small extent. Every hill was covered with verdure from the
base to the summit. The less rugged were laid out in terraces,
rising above each other sometimes to the number of thirty or
forty. On these the yellow barley and wheat were waving over
our heads. Here and there a laborer, with a bundle of grain
which he had reaped, wns bringing it down on his shoulder to
thrash out. Orange, lemon, and mulberry, or other trees, some-
limes shaded a narrow strip along ibe banks, half concealing
the collages of the inhabitants."*

Nest in size to the river Min is the Lung kiang, or Dragon
river, which flows by Changchau fu, and disembogues near
Amoy, in the south-western part of the province ; it is about two
hundred miles long. The number of islands along the coast of
Puhkien is great, but none of them are of large size. The first
on the west, within the limits of the province, is Namoh or
Nan.au, about thirteen miles long and three wide, well known
aa B, principal d6p6l for the sale of opium. Amoy and Quetnoy
are the largest islands of a group lying off the entrance of the
Dragon river. Chimmo bay is north-east of Amoy, and is the
entrance of ihe passage up to Chinchew, or Taiuenchau fu, cele-
brated for the commercial enterprise of its inhabiiants. Between
(his bay and ihe mouth of the Min, the Laniyit islands, Ockaeu,
and Haiton, are the largest ; off that river are the White Dog
group, Mo-tsu shan and Changchi shan. Between this part and
Chehkiang, only Tungyung, Pihsiang shan, Fuhyau, and Pih-
kwan need be mentioned ; some of their peaks are 1500 lo
1700 feet high. The harbors and creeks along their shores are
infested with numerous fleets of pirates, which "sneak about

■ Chioew Repogitory, Vol. IV., pkge SB.

I

eaceful traders. •

n a small junk, when going up

foreign veaaela.*

a hardly enough lo support ils

bn ant, and iargn quaittilies of

rmosa, and elsewhere. Black

HT, chinaware, and grass-cloth,

like rats," and prey upon the

had a narrow escape from them
the coast, but (hey seldom altac

The grain raised in Fuhkien
population, especially on the ae
rice are brought from Siam, I
tea, oamphorand other woods, si
are the principal exporls-

The city of Puhchau fu (i. e. Happy City), or Hokchiu hu, as
it is called by the inhabitants, is situated in latitude 26° 5' north,
and longitude 119° 20" east, on the northern side of the Min,
thirty-four miles from its mouth, and nine, from Pagoda island,
where the ships anchor. The city lies in a plain, through which
the river runs, about three miles from ils banks; this plain is
surrounded by hills, forming a natural and most magniticent
amphitheatre of vast dimensions, whose fertility quite equals its
beauty. Suburbs extend from the walls three miles to the banks,
end stretch along on both aides tho stream. They are connected
with each other, and a small islet in the river, by a atone bridge
four hundred and twenty paces long, reposing on forty solid
stone piers on the northern side, and on nine similar ones on
the sooth. The bridge is lined with shops. The scenery is bold,
and such parts of the surrounding hills as arc not cuUivated or
used for graves, are covered with pines ; some of the hille below
the city are three thousand feet high. Opposite Fuhchau the
land b lower, and the suburb is built upon an island formed by
Ihe division of the main channel, seven miles above the city ;
the branches reunite again at Pagoda island. This island, and
the plain on each side, forms a large basin, about twenty miles
long by fifteen wide. The islet, between the two parts of the
bridge, again subdivides the channel opposite the city. The river
is crowded with floating habitations, ferry-boats, and trading craft,
Tendering its surface an animated and noisy scene. Each boat
is furnished with flower.jiots, and the boalwomen «-ear natural
flowers in their hair, which impart a pleasing aspect both to the
boats and their inmates.

Proceeding through the suburb of Nantai, by a single street,
the visitor reaches the city. Ils walls are about thirty feet high,

* Wanderings in Chioi, page 388.

[PTION OF FUBCHAO FV. HI

Bod twelve wide at iho lop, and overgrown with grass. The
gates are seven in number, and overlooked by high towers ;
sriiHller guard-houses stand upon the whUs at short intervals, in
which a few soldiers lodge, and where two or three cannon indi-
cate llieir object. The city is divided into wards and neighbor-
hoods, each of which is under its own police and headmen, who
are responsible for the peace of their respective districts. The
British Consulate is situated soiiih of tho city, on the Wu-tMh
shan, or Black-sione hills, in a heaulifully wooded spot, elevated
about two hundred and filly feet above the plain, where many
temples and pavilions have been built. Some of these the priests
leased out to the British consul, themselves assisting to remove
the images and make the necessary alterations.

From this eminence the view is extensive, and presents a great
diversity of pleasing objects. The square battlements of the
wall are seen extending in a devious and irregular circuit for
more than eight miles, and inclosing most of ihe buildings, except
on the south. On the south-east, a hill rises abruptly more than
two hundred feel, its sides built up with interspersed dwellings;
and another on ihe extreme north of the city, surmounted t^ a.
walch-iower, closes the prospect in that direction. Two pagodas
within, and fantastic looking watch-towers upon the walls, large,
regular built granaries, and a great number of Hag-stafls in pairs
before temples and offices, contribute to relieve the otherwise dull
monotony of low tiled roofs, which is still further diversified by
many large trees. Several lookout houses are placed over the
streets, or upon the roofs of buildings, for the accommodation of
watchmen, one of which immediately attracts Ihe attention of the
visitor, from its height, and its clock-dial with Roman letters.
Few vacant spaces occur within the walls of the city, which is
everywhere equally well built.

Serpentine canals divide the country around into plats of greater
or less extent, of every form and hue, and help to drain the city
as well as provide channels for boats to come up from the river.
These parts of the landscape are doited with hanileis and cottages,
or, where Ihe ground is higher, with graves and lomhstones. To
one seated on this eminence, the confused hum of mingling cries
ascending up from the town below, — the beating of gongs, crack-
ling of fireworks, reports of guns, vociferous cries of hucksters
and coolies, oombiaing with- the barking of dogs and other domes-

J

I

112 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

tic sounds, as well as those from the crows, fish-hawbst and mag-
pies nearer by, — inform him in the liveliest manner that the
beauliful panorama lie is looking down upon is filled with teeming
multitudes in ull the tide of life. Their moral coiidilion and
ignoranuB, also, suggest melancholy reflections lo the Christian
spectator, and prompt the wish, that they may be speedily en-
lightened by the gospel of truth and purity. On the western side
of the city is a sheet of water, called Si hit, or West lake, with
a series of unpretending buildings and temples lying along its
margin, a bridge crossing its expanse, and fishing-nels and boats
floating upon its bosom. The watch-lower, on the hill in the
northern part of the city, is upon the wall, which here runs near
a precipice two hundred feet high ; it is the most conspicuous
object when approaching the place.

The Manchus occupy the eastern side of the city, which, as
usual, is walled off. They number altogether about 9,000 per-
sons, and the natives generally are not allowed to enter their
precincts. They live under their own officers, in much the same
style as the Chinese, and, not having any regular occupation,
give no little trouble to the provincial authorities. The number
of temples and well built private residences in Fuhchau is much
less than in Ningpo, and as a whole It is a poorer built city. The
streets are full of abominations, for which the people seem lo
care very little. The shops are well stored with goods, hot for
the most part of a poor quality. Paper money is Issued by the
leading mercantile firms in the city, varying in value from forty
cents lo a thousand dollars, and supplying all the advantages with
few of the dangers of bank notes. The blue, red, and black
colors, which are blended together on these promissory bills, pre-
sent a gay appearance of signatures and endorsings. The name
of the issuing house, and a number of characters traced around
the page, in bright blue ink, form the original impression. The
date of issue, and some ingeniously wrought cyphers, for the
reception of signatures and prevention of forgeries, are of a deep
red ; while the entry of llic sum, and names of the partners and
receiver, stand forth in large black characters. On the back are
the endorsements of various individuals, through whose bands
the bill has passed, in order to facilitate the detection of forgeries,
but not rendering them at all liable.* The streets are crowded
* Smith'! China, page 3B4.

113

wWi craftsmen and hucksters, in ihe usual alyle of Cliinesp lowna,
where ihe sliopmen, in their desire to atiruct custom, seem Id
imagine, that the more iliey get in iheii' cusiomers' way, the more
likely thoy are to sell them something. The shiips lire thrown
open so widely, and display such a variety of articles, or expose
the workmen so plainly, that the wliole street seems to be rather
llie stalls of a market, or the aisle in a manufactory, than the
thoroughfare of a town.

The officiol residencna are numeroiiB, the chief civil and mili-
tary dignitaries of the province residing here, besides the prefect
and the two magistrates of Min and Huukwan districts. Their
establish men Is, however, are neither belter built, nor more ele-
gantly furnished than those oF the better class of shopmen, while
most of the out-buildings are dirty, and ill-iilted for living in.
The Ching-kwang miau is one of the largest religious edifices in
the place, and the temples of the goddess of Mercy, and god of
War, Uie most frequented- The Kiu Sien shan, or hill of the
Nine Genii, on the southern side of the town, is a pretty object.
The city wall runs over it, and on its sides little houses are built
on the rocky steps ; numerous inscriptions are carved in the face
of the rocks. Near the eastern gate, called Tang tnun. or Bath
gate, there is a small suburb, wjiere the Chinese and Munchus
live together, and where are numerous public hoi baths, the
waters of which proceed from springs neoJ by. Four or five
wells, each six feel across, and four deep, are filled with the
water, and for two cash any one may bathe ; they are much fre-
quented, and the accommodation is so inadequate ihat the bathers
are obliged to pack themselves into the reservoirs as closely as
possible.

The citizens of Fuhchau bear the character of a reserved,
gloomy, turbulent people, very unlike Ihe polite, aflable natives
further north. Theii dinlcct is horeh and guttural, contrasting
strongly with the nasal tones of the patois of Amoy, and the mel-
lifluous sounds heard at Ningpo. There are few manufactures
of importance in the city, and its commerce and resources are
sensibly declining, under the drain of the precious metals, and
other sad results of the trailie and use of opium. More culprits
wearing the cangue are to be seen in the streets than at the other
ports, and in passing along the way none of the hilarious merri-
ment which i» heard alaewhere greets the ear. There b alao a

114 THE MIDDLE KIITGDOM.

general lack of courtesy in passing by each other quite unnnul
in China, no one seeming to mind whether he runs against another
or not. Beggars of the most loathsome aspect crowd the tho-
roughfares, showing both the poverty and the callousness of the
inhabitants. One half the population is supposed to bo addicted
to the opium pipe, and annually expend two millions of dollars
for this noxious gratification. The population of Puhchau and
its suburbs is reckoned, by those who have visited the place, at
rather over than under SOO.OOO souls.

The island in the river is densely settled hy a trading popula-
tion of 20,000, a great part of whom consist of sailors and boat-
men. The country women, who bring vegetables and poultry to
inorket in the suburbs, are a robust race, and contrast strikingly
with the sickly-looking, little-footed ladies of the city. Fishing-
boats are numerous in the river, many of which are furnished
with cormorants, trained to assist their masters in procuring fish.
The neighboring villages arc entirely agricultural; but neither
they nor the district towns in the department, present any pcunto
of interest. Min-ngnn is the only town on the river below Put
chou of any consideration.*

Anioy or Iliamun (i. c. the Gate or Harbor of Hia) ia the
most important and best known port in the province, and 160
years ago the seal of tt large foreign commerce. It is a mart in
the dialriel of 1'ung-ngan, belonging to the department of Tuuen-
chau, situated in lat. 24° 40' N., and long. llS" aO" E., upon
the south-western corner of the island of Amoy, at the mouth of
the Dragon river leading up to Changchau fu. The island itself
is about forty miles in circumference, and contains scores of
large villages besides the city. The scenery within the bay is
picturesque, caused partly by the numerous islands which defina
it, some of them surmounted by pagodas or temples, and pOirtlj
hy the high barren hills behind the city, and the bustling crowds
of vessels in the harbor before it. There is an outer and inner
city, as one approaches it seaward— or more properly a citadel
and a city — divided by a high ridge of rocky hills having a forti-
tied wall running along the top. A paved road connects the two,
which is concealed from the view of the beholder as he comes in
from sea by the ridge, until he has entered the Inner huter.

■ ChincM TUpanlorj, ToL XV., pages IBS, 999.

CITV OF JlHOT.

The entire circuit nC the city and suburbs is about eight miles,
containing a population of 300,000, while that of the island is
enimaled at 100,000 more.

Amoy is furtlier divided by the Inner harbor, which extends
in front, and joins a large estuary running up some distance into
the island, and skirting the northern side of the city. Thus
it, in fact, lies upon a lungue of land, having only one-ihinl
of its circuit defended by walls, and these are overlooked by the
hills in its rear. These hills contain some nncient tombs and
sepulchres of great solidity, part of them being excBvated out of
the rocks and ornamented with inscripiionfi and epitaphs ; — a
mode of interment by no means common in China, nor cvea here
used at present. Few cities are more favorably situated for ac-
cess than Amoy, but its water commuoication with the interior
is not equal to those of the other four ports. The two rivers
which disembogue into the hay are small, the one leading north-
east to Tung-ngan hien is sometimes almost dry at low tide, even
within three miles of the town,

The harbor of Amoy is one of the best on the coast ; there is
good holding ground in the Outer harbor, and vessels can
anchor in the Inner, within a short distance of the beach,
and be perfectly secure ; the tide rises and falls from fourteen
to sixteen feet. The western side of the harbor, here from
MI hundred imd seventy.five to eight hundred and forty yards
wide, is formed by the island of Kutang su ; the balteriea
on this island completely command the city. It is about a mile
long and two and three-quarters around, and maintains a rural
population of 3S00 people, scattered among four or five hamlets.
This island was occupied by the English troops after the capture
of the city in September, 1941, until it was restored to the Chi-
nese in December, 1845. Eastward of Amoy is the island of
Quemoy or KinmuQ (i. e. Golden harbor), presenting a striking
contrast in the low, rice grounds on its south-west shore, to the
high land on Amoy ; its population is mueh less than that of

The country in Ibis part of Fuhkien is thickly settled and highly
cultivated. Mr. Abeel, describing a trip towards Tung-ngan,
says, " For a few miles up, the hills wore the same rugged,
barren aspect which is so common on the southern coast of China,
but fertility and cultivation grew upon us aa we advanced ; the

lie THE MIDDLE JIMGDOM.

mountains on the east became liills, and ihcse were adorned irMi
fields. The villdgea were numerous ai intervals ; many or them
were indicated in tlie distance by large groves of trees, but gene-
rally the landscape looked niiked. Well-sweeps were scattered
over the cultivated hills, affording evidence of the necd and the
means of irrigation."* Within the district of Ngaiikr, east of
Tsiuenchati fu, lie the hitla where the Ankoi leas are grown, a
class of black teas of peculiar taste. These hills were visited
in 1886 by a party of foreigners, and found to be well culli-
voted.

Ill the other direction towards Changchau fu, the traveller, be-
yond Pagoda island, enters an oval bay ten or twelve miles long,
bounded by numerous plains rising in ihe distance into steep
barren mountains, and upon which numerous villages are found ;
twenty-three were counted at once hy Mr. Abeet, and the boat-
men said that all could not be seen. About fideen miles west
of Amoy is the entrance of the river; on its banks are several
large towns, ajid " villages uncounted " are to be seen in every
direction. Changohau fu lies about thirty-five miles from Amoy,
and is described as well built, the streets paved with granite,
some of them twelve fert wide, and as usual intolerably oflen-
sive. A bridge, about eight hundred feet long, spans the river,
consisting of beams stretching from one abutmenl to another,
covered with cross pieces. From the top of the hills liehind a
temple at the north-western corner of the city, the prospect ia
charming.

" Imagine an amphitheatre," says Mr. Lowrie, " thirty miles
in length and twenty in breadth, hemmed in on all sides by bare
pointed hills, a river running through it, an immense city at our
feet, with fields of rice and sugar-cane, noble trees and numerous
villages stretching away in every direction. It was grand and
beautiful beyond every conception we had ever formed of Chi-
nese scenery. Beneath us lay the oily, its shape nearly square,
curving a Utile on the river's banks, closely built, and having an
amazing number of very large trees within and around. The
guide said that in the last dynasty it had numbered 700,000
inbabitanis, and now he thought it contained a million — probably
a large allowance. Tlie villages around also attracted our atten-

* ChineM Repoaitory, Vol. XI., p*ge 50Q.

L

POSITION OF CHiNGCHAIT FU. Il7

tion. I tried to enumerate them, but aAer counting thirly-nine
of large size distinctly visible in less than half the field before
us, I gave over the attempt, ll is certainly within the mark to
Esy that within ihe circuit of this immense plain there are at
least one hundred Tillages, some of them small, but many num-
bering hundreds and even thousands of inhabitants."*

Changchau was again visited in 1846 by Rev. Mr. Pohlman
and Isidore Hedde, who were received with civility by the author-
ities, and with great cordiality by the citizens. M. Hedde's object
was to examine the silk-dyeing, and other manufactures of the
place, and he received th« permission of the officers to do so ; Mr.
Pohlman improved the opportunity to make Ihe acquaintance of
the people, and distribute Christian books among them.

A town on the river, called Shihma or Chiohbe, is a place of
some trade, extending a mile along the shore, and larger than
Haitang hicn, a district town between it and Amoy. Large
numbers of people dwell in boats on this river near the towns,
rendering a voyage up its channel somewhat like going through
a street, for the bustle and noise.

The cities in the interior of the province have not been often
vifiilcd by foreigners. The department of Hinghwa, situate on the
coast between Tsiucnchou and Fuhchau, is described as exceed,
iogiy populous ; the horrid crime of female infanticide is, so far
is noir known, more prevalent from the borders of Kwangtutig
to the river Min than in any other part of China. It is said that
Qt Yenping fu on the Min river, the people speak the dialect of
Nanking, which is so unlike the local patois as to lead to the
inference thai it was settled by a colony from that region. Much
of the tea and camphor produced on the Wu.[ hills in the west-
ern part of the province is carried over the frontier through
Kiangsi lo the Kan kiang, end thence to Canton. f

The island of Formosa and the group called the Pescadore
islands, lying between it and Amoy, together form a department
of this province. The limilsof Chinese junsdiclion on Formosa,
according to native maps, extend over half the island, reaching
no further cast than the Muh kan shan, a ridge of mountains
running through the middle of the island. The island is called

' Chinese Repoaitory, Vol. XII., page 530.
t Ibid., Vol. XI.. p>Ee 631

118 thf: middle kingdom.

Taiwan (i. d. Terrace Beach) by tlie Chinese, but this name b
applied more accurately only to the department, and not to it
OS an island ; the Chinese portion is atwut 250 loilea long, and
80 broad, inclosing an area of from 12 to 15,000 square miles.
The populalion is perhaps 2,500,000 ; the prisoners captured
from the British ship Ann, in 1842, represent that part of the
island which they passed through as being well cultivated. It is
fertile, possesses a salubrious climate, and is well watered, in
every respect meriting the name of Formosa. The rice trade
alone between it and the maritime provinces employs about
three liundred vessels ; other products give rise to a large trade,
of which camphor, salt, sulphur, maize, fruits, and limber ars
the principal.

The city of Taiwan lies in the south-western jrnrt, and ia
described as a large place. The western coast presents no har.
bora, and vessels lie a long dtslance off ihe shore, exposed to great
inconveaiences when lading. Kflung at its northern extremity
ia the only good port, but on the eastern shore Benyowsky ibund
several secure harbors. Some of the aboriginal inhabitants have
been driven or have removed east of the mountains, but most of
them have become partly incorporated with the Chinese settlerS)
or live in villages of their own, under Ihe general supervisioa of
Chinese officers. A still greater proportion of the aborigines pay
no allegiance to the Chinese, and many of their villages ^re aljll
ibuud west of the mountains. They are divided into numerooa
clans or tribes, like the North American Indians, and striies
woong themselves prevent all sj-stematic opposition to the en-
croachments of the Chinese. So far as is known these aborigines
have no written language, and no other religion than the respeol
paid to sorcerers and demons ; the Chinese represent them as being
free from theil and deception, and just in their mutual dealings,
but revengeful when provoked- They are of a slender shape,
olive complexion, wear long hair, and blacken tbeir teeth ; soma
suppose them to be of Malayan or Polynesion origin, tbough
further investigation will probably show that ihey are allied to
the Lfcwchewaos. The Chinese had no knowledge of Formosa
until A. D. 1403, and tlieir sway was not established over it until
J683. It has always been a misgoverned, turbulent region,
owing to a variety of causes, among which no doubl the intermix-
ture of^be half civilized natives with the restless Fuhkienttae,

FORMOSA AND PESCADOBB ISLANDS. 119

and their insubordination developed by ihe exiorUon and cruelty
of the imperial otiicers, are the principal ; a great emigration is
constantly going on from the main, and lands are taken up by
capitalists, who not only encourage the people lo go over, but
actually purchase large numbers of poor people to occupy their

About twenty-five miles weat of Formosa, and aliached to
Taiwan fu, is the diatriol of Pdnghu ling at Pescadore islands,
consisting of a group of twenty-one inhabited islets, the largest
of which, called Psnghu, is eighty-four miles in circumference;
Done of them rise three hundred feet above tiie sea. The two
largest are situated near the centre of Ihe cluster, and have an
enoellent harbor between them. The want of trees, and the
absence of sheltered valleys, give these islands a barren appear-
ance. Millet, ground-nuts, pine-apples, sweet potatoes, and vege-
tables are grown, but for most of their supplies they depend upon
Formosa. The population of t!ie group is estimated at 6000, of
whom a lai^e part are fishermen. The Dutch seized these
islands in 1622, but removed lo Formosa two years after at the
instance of the governor of Fuhkien, since which time they have
hardly been visited by foreigners, until they were surveyed by
Capt. Ci)llin8on in 1645.

■ Chinew Repmitorjr, Vol. II., pig« 409; Vol. V., page 490.

CHAPTER III.

Qeognpbicil Description of the Western Provmcei.

Thb central prorinces of Hupeh and Hunan formerly constituted
a single one under the name of Hukwang (i. e. Broad Lakes),
and they are Blill commonly known by this appellation. Hupsh
(i. e. North of Ihe Lakes) is the smallest of the two, but contains
(he most arable land. It ia bounded north by Honan, east by
Ngonhwui and Kiangat, sOuth by Hunan, and west by Sz'chuen
and Shensi. Its area is about 70,000 square miles, or equal to
New England and New Jersey united.

The Great river flows through the south of the province, where
It connects with all the lakes on both ita shores, and nearly doubles
its volume of water. The Hun kiang, or Han shwui, is its largeat
tributaryon the north. This river rises in the south-west of Shend,
between the Peh ling and Tapa ling, and drains the south of that
province ond nearly ihe whole of Hupeh, and joins the Yangtn'
kiang at Wuchang fu, after a course of nrtore than five hundred
miles. The area of its basin cannot be frr from a hundred
thousand square miles. The south- eiidtem part of Hupeh is
occupied by an extensive depression filled with a succeasioD of
lakes. The length and breadth of this plain are not for from two
hundred miles, and it is considered the most fertile part of Chini,
not being subject to overflows like the shores of the Yellow lirer,
while the descent of the land allows its abundance of water lo ba
readily distributed. Every spot is cultivated, and the surpliu of
productions is easily transported wherever there is a demand.

The Ax lake. Millet lake. Red Horse lake, and Mionyang lake,
are the largest in the province. The remaining parts of both the
Lake provinces are hilly and mountainous ; the high range of the
Tapa ling lies on the west of Hupeh, and separates the basins of
the Great river and its tributary, the Han kiang, from each cHhu,
some of its peaks rising to the snow line. The produotkn at

PBOVtSCE OF HUPKH.

121

iisn, and timber ;
Tlie clinialc is le

Hupeh arc bread-stuffs, silk, coi
manuracturex are paper, was, ai
perate and healthy.

The capital of Hupeli, Wucliang fu, lies on the Yangtsz' kiang,
where the river Han joins it, and opposite to Hanyang fu. These
two cities, together uith the suburb of Hankau, below the latter,
probably preaent, in addition to the shipping before them, one of the
largest assemblages of liouses and vessels, inhabitants and sailors,
to be found anywhere in the world ; London and Yedo alone can
compete with it. A fire broke out in Hankau in 1833, which
burned seven days, deslroyiug a great amount of merchandise
with the wooden dwellings. The number of vessela of the largest
size exceeds ten thousand, white the multitude of amall erafl and
ferry-boats moving about is much greater. The Yanglsz' kiang,
nearly five hundred miles from the sea, is here a league broad,
with depth sufficient for the largest ships.

A traveller thus speaks of the approach to Wuchang fu ; " The
night had already closed in when we reached the place where the
river is entirely covered with vessels, of all sizes and forms, con-
gregated here from all parts. I hardly think there is another
port in the world so frequented as this, which passes, too, as
among the moat commercial ia the empire. We entered one of
the open ways, a sort of a street having each side defined by
floating shops, and after four hours toilsome navigation through
this difficult labyrinth, arrived at the place of debarkation." He
further remarks, that " for the space of live leagues, one can only
see houses along the shore, and an infinitude of beautiful and
strange looking vessels in the river, some at anchor and others
passing up and down at al! hours,"*

^The coup d'ceil of these three cities is beautiful, their environs
being highly cultivated and interspersed with the mansions of the
great; but he adds, "If you draw near, you will find on the
margin of the river only a shapeless bank worn away with
freshes, and in the streets alalia surmounted with palisades, and
workshops undermined by the waters or tumbling to pieces
from age. The open spots between these ruins are filled with
abominations which diffuse around a suflbcating odor. No
regulations respecting the location of the dwellings, no aide-

t de la Propagitian de U Foi, 184S, kmia XVII., j»gM 387, 990,

ISS THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

walfcs, no place to avoid the crowd which presses upon one
elbowing and disputing the passage, bul all gel along peli-meli
in the midst of cattle, hogs, and other domestic animals, each
protecting himselC as he best can from the flltb in his way, which
the Chinese collect with care for agricullural uses, and carry
along in little open buckets through the crowd." These cities
are obnoxious to freshes, and are occasionally injured by the rise
of the waters, their advaniogeous position being thus also the
source of their greatest danger.

Among tlie other cilies in this province is Kinchau fo, one of
the most important from its position upon the Yangtsz' kiang,
where it enters the lake country ; a large garrison is maintained
here. Siangyang fu on the river Han is celebrated in ancient
Chinese history.

The province ofHcNAN (i. e. South of the Lakes) is bounded
north by Hupeh, east by Kiangsi, south by Kwatigtung and
Kwangsf, and west by Kweichau. The surface of the country
is much more hilly than Hupeh, rising into mountains on the
south, where a hardy, sparse population find their subsistence.
Tungting hu, the largest lake in China, lies in the north; the
country around it is extremely fertile, yielding two crops aUDU.
ally. Three large streams, which take their rise in the Naa
ling, pour their waters into it ; these are the Siang, which draiiM
ihe eastern part of the province, the Tsz' and the Yuen, which
communicate with the districts bordering on Kweichau." They
drain a country equal in area to Great Britain, and through tl»
Tungting hu, convey its produce lo all parts of the land ) few
provinces, therefore, exceed this in facilities for internal naviga-
lion. The productions of Hunan arc such as an agricultural
country fuinishes, rice being the principal grain. The moun-
tains produce pine, cassia, and other timber, which are floated
down in rafls lo the Great river; malachite, iron, lead, and coal,
are also obtained from their bowels.

The capital, Changsha fu, lies in the north-east on the river
Siang, and every prefecture in the province is accessible by
water from it through the lake. Yohchau fii, on ihe eastern aid*
of the lake at the junction with tliia river, is Ihe thorough&re fi»

* Tha Siuig ia called the Hmg Iciang, and the Tbz' bears the name of I* '
inang,iaDaHslde,battheiiaaiei here given are thoae imerted ia CluiiM* '
mips.

i

PHOVINCKS OF HUNA.V ANB JHENSf. 123

all goods passing up and down the KInng. The surface of this
and other lukes ia cntivenecl by ftshing- boats of various forms,
some of them carrying cormorants ; by large raAs, carrying
houses upon them, in which numerous families find a home ; and
by odd shaped vessels transporting passengers and merchandise
iu different directions. Pirates infest both ihc lakes atid streams,
who do not confine themselves lo depredations upon the water,
but land and levy black-mail u]ion the villogea. The cily of
Changsha is said to have been the place where the festival of
Dragon Boats originated. In the south-western part of the pro-
vince aboriginal hill-tribes exist, who not seldom prove a source
of trouble to the intperial government. An insurrection broke
out in that region and Kwangtung, in 1S32, which caused the
governors of tlie two provinces great trouble to quell, and cost
the governor-general of Kwangtung his office.

The province of ShensI (i. e. Western Defiles) is bounded
north by Inner Mongolia, from which Ihe Great Wall divides
it, east by Shansi and Honan, south-east by Hupeh, south by
Sz'chuen, and west by Kausuh. Its area is not far from 70,000
square miles. Shensf is a hilly region, diversified by many
well watered tracts, and subsisting a hardy and industrious
population.

On Ihe north, the Great Wall separates it from the country of
the Ortous Mongols. The road leading from Shnnsf to Kansuh,
Ibrough ShensI, and that going south into Sz'chuen, are among
the most ojtpensive works of the kind in China. The mountains
in this province form part of the Peb ling range, running across
its southern districts, and dividing the two basins of the Yellow
and Great rivers. North of the Wei ho, the whole country
gradually declines to the eastward, and although hilly does not
rise into any high peaks.

The rivers north of the Wei all run south-east into the Yellow
river ; some of them are over 350 miles long, taking their rise
in Kansuh, but their channels are in many places unnaviga-
ble on account of rapids and falls; the Loh and Wu-ting are
ihe largest. The Wei he is the most considerable of all its afflu-
ents, and joins it at the place where it enters the Plain. This
spot is well known In Chinese history as Ihe Tungkwan pass, the
rivers bursting through high cliffs in Shans! on the north-east
and on the south. The basin of the Wei ho is equally fertile

1S4 TlIE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

a.nd populous with Ihe other great intemat bastna in Ch!na ; the
course of the river itself is not short of 400 milea, and ita basin
probably comprises an area of 60,000 sq. m. This region is the
most ancient part of China, and Si-ngan fu was the meiropolis
for many centuries.

GJold mines occur in Shenal, and gold is collecled in some
of the streams ; other metals also are worked. The climale is
(oo cold for rice and silk ; wheal, millet, and cotton supply their
places ; rhubarb, musk, wax, red-leail, coal, and nephrite ara
exported. Wild animals sltll inhabit the northern parts, and the
number of horses, sheep, goals, and cattle raised for food and
service is large, compared with the easlem provinces.

The capital, SIngan fu, is renowned as the metropolis of the
empire in the Tang dynasty, and is still much the largest city in
this part of the country, containing some remains of its fermer
grandeur, though from its position on the river Wei it could not
become a commercial emporium like Nanking or Hangchau.
This city is somewhat celebrated abroad as the place where an
ancient monument of the Nestorian missionaries in- China woa
discovered. The governor-general of this and the adjoining pro-
vince resides here, having under his control a large body of
troops. There are some other towns of note in this province,
of which Hanchung fu in the west, on the Han river, where ihs
great road from Singan fu strikes that stream, is the largest.
The city of Yfllin fu is the station of a force to overrule the Mon-
gols.beyond the Great Woll, and receive the peltry brought in'
frqjn that region.

The immense province of KANStrn (i, e. Voluntary Re-
verence) formerly belonged to Shenai, and extended no further
west than the pass call«d KiayU knan in the Great Wall near
Suh chau, but since the division, its. limits have been extended
aoross the desert of Gobi to the confines of Songaria on the
north-west, and to the borders of Tibet on the west. Its name ia
farmed by joining the names of two large towns, Kanchau fu and
Buh chau. It is bounded north and north-east by Gobi andiha
country of the Mongols, east by Sbensf, south by Sz'chuen,
MUlh-west by Koko-nor and the desert, and north-west by Cobdo
and III. Its entire area cannot be much under 400.000 sq. ft).,
the greater part of which b a howling desert ; it extends acraw

PBOVtNCBS OF lUNSUU AND SZ CHDBN. 125

twelve degrees of latitude and twenty-one degrees of longitude,
and comprises a large part of the ancient kingdom of Tangut.

The country is mountainous, some of the peaks rising over
10,000 feet; the principal chain is a spur from the Pch ling,
called Lung mountains on some maps, which running north-
easterly bounds the valley of the Yellow river on its east, and
forces its waters nonhward ; it also fornis ihc east water-shed of
the Wei and other tribularies of the Yellow river in Shensi-
The Yellow river flows through ihe province in a north-eost
direction, and receives a few large alHuents in its course, as the
Ta-tung ho and Chau ho, both of which join it near Lanchau fu.
Near the termination of the Great Wall, a range of hills called
Kl-lien shan, forms the waler-shed between the valley of the
Ta-tung and a number of small rivers which flow northward into
the desert.

The climate of Kansuh is colder than Shensi, and its inhabit-
ants make much use of skins and furs in their clothing. The
country east of the Yellow river is fertile, and produces wheat,
barley, millet, and olher edible plants. Wild animals are fre-
queDt, wliose chase affords both food and peltry ; large flocks and
herds are also maintaiued by Tartars living within the province.
The mountains produce metals and minerals, among which are
copper, almagalholile, jade, gold, and silver. The capital of the
province is Lanchau fu, which lies on ihc sooth aide of the Yel-
low river, where it turns north-east ; the valley is narrow, and
defended on the west by a pass, through which the road goes
westward. At Si-ning fu, about two hundred miles east of Tsing
hai, the superintendent of Koko-nor resides ; its political import.
ence has largely increased its trade within the last few years.
Ninghia fu in the north-east of the province is the largest town
on the borders of the desert. The pass called Kiaytl kwan is
gradually rising in importance from its being the first settlement
when coming in from the desert ; duties are levied here, and a
garrison maintained. West of this pass lie the towns of Barkoul,
Hami, Turfan, and Oroumisi, wiih other settlements, aud ruled
partly by Chinese officers, and partly by the chieflaios of the
various tribes. Oroumtsi is more than two thousand miles from
Peking, and the communication between lliem is constanl.

The province of Sz'chubn (i. e. Four Streams) is the largest
of the eighteen, being double tlu: size of most of them ; it is

IM THE MJDl

bounded north by Kansuh and Slienaf, cast by Hupeh, aout
Kweichau and Yunnan, and west by Tibet, and north-west by
Koko-nor. lis area equals all ihc Eastern and Middle Stales e«.
eluding Maryland. Its topography partakes of that of the adjoiO'
ing provinces, rugged and full of defiles ; the Yun ling stretches
across its western side, and sends off branches to the south and
north-east. There is one plain of considerable extent around llie
capital, and the bottoms of the Yangtsz' kiang and its tributaries
are level and well cultivated. The Yangtsz' kiang flows along
a crooked channel in a north-easterly course through the south-
eastern part of the province, receiving some of its largest tribu-
taries. The Y'ahlung in the west, the Min in the centre, and the
Kialing near Hupeh, are its chief affluents in Sz'chuen. The
first is about six hundred miles long, and serves but liltle for
navigation compared wiUi its length. The Min kiung is more
useftil, and affords passage for boats up to Chingtu fu, if not be-
yond ; the city of Sachau stands at the junction. The Kialing
drains a wide region, its branches extending over all the eaatera
third of Sz'chuen and into the adjacent provinces ; Chungking
fu stands at its entrance, and receives the limber and boats which
come down from Panning fu and other towns on. its banks.

The whole province is well wotered, and produces groin, allt,
tea, horses, metals in abundance, musk, rhubarb, and skins.
The climate is good ; the people are of a mised race, and in
many places are governed with an imperfect rule. This pro-
vince and Kansuh frequently suffer from famine (which, bow-
ever, is a calamity common enough everywhere in China), at
which times the most horrible excesses and misery are endured,
people resorting to brigandage to supply their wants, seizing and
devouring one another, drowning themselves and exposing their
children, and sometimes rising upon their rulers and destroying
all government and subordination. If the inlcmal commerce of
the whole country was more secure, these dreadful calamities
would be greatly alleviated, if not altogether removed. Insur-
rections are frequent among [he haif-subdued tribes on the west-
ern frontier, which are quelled partly by force and partly by
bribes and concessions, though it is impossible to learn from tha
Chinese accounts how they arise.

Chingtu fu, the capital, lies on the Min river, near the oeDtra
of the province, in a well watered plain. It was once a atj of

PROVINCE OF KWANGTITNG.

127

note, but suffered so much at the Manchu conquest that it has
not regained its former splendor. The trade of Sz'chuen is by
no means proportionate to its size or capabilities ; the inhabitants
cause their rulers much trouble, and are to a great degree thuin-
eelvca the sourceof most of the commotions and distress that pre-
vail. The mineral productions of this region are great, but not
availed of to the extent they might be ; ailk, tea, rhubarb, and
grain also form articles of exportation.

The province of Kwangtdns (i. e. Broad East), from its hav-
ing been for a long time the only one of ihc eighteen to which
foreigners have had access, has almost become synonymous wiih
China, although but little more is really known of it than of the
others, except in [he vicinage of Canton, and along the course
of the Pch kiang, from Nanhiung chau to that city. Il is
bounded north by KiangsS and Hunan, north-east by Fuhkieu,
south by the ocean, and west and north-west by Kwangsf. Its
area is about the same as that of the United Kingdom, and Its
natural facilities for internal navigation and an extensive coasting
trade, are unusually great ; for while its long line of coast, nearly
a thousand miles in length, affords many excellent harbors, its

ivith the regii
beyond its borders.

The Natl ling runs along the
and Hunan, rendering thai portioi
The chain takes forty or fifly nar
to Fuhkien, but no part of it i
twenty.four miles
I ridge), bet'

lorth, and e

lorth, between it and Kiangst
of the province mountainous,
es in its course from Kwangs!
so well known as the roud,

length, which crosses the Mei ling (i. e.

Nan-ngan and Nanhiung. The elevation

here is about a thousand feet, and none of the peaks in this part
of ihe range exceed two thousand. Towards Kwangsi they be-
come more elevated. Their summits are limestone, W'ith gra-
nite underlying ; granite is also the prevailing rock along the
coast. The Lf-mu ridge in Hainan has some peaks reaching
nearly to the snow.line. The bottoms of the rivers are wide,
and their fertility amply repays the husbandman. Fruits, rice,
silk, sugar, tobacco, and vegetables, constitute the greater pari
of the productions. Lead, iron, and coal, are abundant.

The Chu kiang. or Pearl river, which flows past Canini.,
is formed by Ihe union of three rivers, the West, North, and East
riverB, the two first of which unite at Sanshwui, west of the city,

138 THE MIDDi-E KINGDOM,

and the East river joins them ot Whampoa. The S( kiang, or
Weat river, is by fur the lai^est of the branches : it rises in the
eastern part of Yunnan, and receives tributaries Ihroughoui the
whole of Kwangsi, along the soutliern acclivities of the Nan
ling, and after ii course of 500 miles, passes out lo sea through
numerous mouths, the besl known of which is ihe Bocca Tigris.
The Peh kiang, or North river, joins il after a course of 200
mites, and the East river is nearly the same length ; these two
streams discharge the surplus waters of all the nortlieni parts of
Kwangtung. The country drained by the three cannot be muoh
less than 150,000 square miles, and most of their channels are
navigable for boats lo all the large towns in this and the province
of Kwangsi. The Han kiang in the eastern end of Kwangtung
is the only other river of importance ; the lai^e town of Chau-
chau fu, or Ti6-chiu, lies near its mouth.

The coast-line of Kwangtung extends from Namoh island to
Cochinchina, a distance of more than 000 miles in a south-west-
erly direction, deeply indented with bays and estuaries, and pre-
senting two remarkable exceptions lo the general uniformity of
the whole coaai — viz. the large delta of the Pearl river, and the
peninsula of Luicliau opposite Hainan. The number of islands
scattered along Ihis line is unknown, but if all are included, there
can hardly be less than 300, of which nearly one-third belong to
the department of Kwangchau.

Canton, or Kwangchau fu (i. e. Broad City), the provincial
capital, lies on the north bank of (he Peari river in lai, 23° T
10" N., and long. 1 13° 14' 30" E., nearly parallel with Havana,
Muskat, and Calcutta ; its climate is, however, colder than either
of those cities. The word Canton is a corruption of KwangltiDg,
derived in English from Kamtom, ihe Portuguese mode of writ-
ing it ; the citizens lliemselves usually call it Kwangtung t&ng
ching, i. e. the provincial capital of Kwangtung, or simply aSng
citing. Another name is the City of Rams, and a third the City
of Genii, both derived from ancient legends. It lies at the Ibet
of the White Cloud hills, along the low banks of the rivei
about seventy miles north of Macao in a direct line, and nineti
ni3rth-we3t of Hongkong ; these distances are further by tS*

The delta into which the West, North, and East rivers fall
might be o&lled a gulf, if the ialands in it did not occupy so mueo

POSITION AND SIZB C

139

of Ihe area. The whole forma ooe of the most fertile parla of
the province, and one of the nioBl extensive esliiaries of any river
in the world, — heing a rough triangle about a hundred miles long
each aide. The bay of Lintin — ao called from the islet of thai
name, where the opium mid other store ships formerly aiichored
— is the largest sheet of water within the estuary, and lies below
Ihe principal embouchure of the river, called Fu Mun, i. e.
Bocca Tigris, or Bogue. Few rivers can be more completely
protected than this ; but their defences of walls and guns at this
spot availed the Chinese but little against the skill and power of
their enemies in the last war ; Ihey were all, ten in number,
levelled with the ground. Ships pass through the Bogue, and
thence up to the anchorage at Wlmmpoa, about thirty miles;
from whence Canton lies twelve miles nearly due west. The
approach to it is indicated by two lofty pagodas within the walls,
and the multitude of boats and junks thronging the river, amidst
which the most jileasing object to the " far-irnvelled stranger " is
the glimpse he gets through their masts of the foreign factories,
and the flagstaffs hearing the English, American, and other
ensigns.

The part of Canton inclosed by walls is about six miles in cir-
cumference;— having a partition wall running east and west,
which divides it into two unequal parts. The entire circuit, in-
cluding Ihe suburbs, is not far from ten miles. The population
on land and water, so far as the best data enable one lo judge, ia
not far from a million of inhabitants. This estimate has been
doubted ; and certainty upon the subject cannot be attained, for
the census affords no aid in determining this point, owing to the
fact that it is set down by districts, and Canton lies partly in two
districts, Nanhai and PwanyQ, which extend beyond the walls
many miles. Mr. Davis says, " ihc whole circuit of the city has
been compassed within two hours by persons on fool, and cannot
e.iceed six or seven miles ;" which is true, but he means only
that portion inclosed within the walls ; and there arc at least as
many houses without the walls as within ihem, besides the boats.
The city is constantly increasing, ond the western suburbs pre-
sent many new streets entirely built up within the lost ten years.
The houses sirelch along the river from opposite the Fa ti or Flow,
er grounds lo French Folly, a distance of four miles, and the
banks are everywhere nearly concealed by the boats and rafta>

NM tbe middle kingdom.

The situaiion of Canton is one which would naturally soon
ELttract settlers. The earliest notices of liie city date back two
centuries before Chrial, but traders were doubiless located liere
prior lo that lime. It grew in importance as ibe eounlry became
better settled, and in A. n. 700, a regular market waa opened,
and tt collector of customs appointed. When the Manchus over-
ran the country, this city resisted their utmost efforts lo reduce
ii Tor the space of eleven months, and was finally carried by
treachery. Martini says a hundred ihousnnd men were killed at
its sack ; and the whole number who lost their lives at the final
assault and during the siege was 700,000 — if the native accounts
are trustworthy. Since then, it has been rebuilt, and has in-
creased in prosperity until it is regarded astlie Iburth city in the
empire for numbers, and probably next to Peking for wealth.

The foundations of ihe city walls are of sandstone, and their
upper pari brick ; they are about twenty feet thick, and from
twenty-live lo forty feel hi^h, having an esplanade on ihe Inside,
and pathways leading to the rampart, on three sides. The houses
ore built very near ihe wall on both sides of it, bo that one hardly
sees it when walking around the city, except on the north.
There are twelve outer gales, four in the partition wall, and two
water gales, through which boats pass from east to west across
the New city, A ditch once encompassed Ihe walls, but is now
dry on the northern side ; on the other three, aDd within the city,
it and most of the canals are HHed by ihe tide, and present a re-
volting mass of reeking lilth when the retiring waters expose Ihe
bottoms. The inhabitants are supplied with water for washing
from these canals and the river ; and tolerable drinking water is
plentifully furnished from many springs and wells. The gates
of the city are all shut at nighl, and a guard is consianlly sta-
tioned at them to preserve order, but the idle soldiers them-
selves cause at times no little disturbance. Among the names
of the gates are Greal-Peaoe gate, Eternal-Rest gale, Five-Genii
gale, Bam boo- Wicket gate, &c.

The appearance of Ihe city when viewed from the hills on the
north is insipid and uninviting, compared with western cities
being an expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large trees,
and interspersed with pairs of high red poles used for flag-Blafis.
Two pagodas ghool up within the walls, far above tbe watch-

I, and with tile five-sloried lower near the northern
gi(a^<4brm the most conspicuous objects in the prospect.

To a spectator at this elevation, the riverisa promiaent Teature
iA the landscape, covered with a great diversity of boats of differ-
ent colors and sizes, some stationary and others moving, and all
resounding with the mingled hum of laborers, sailors, musicians,
marketers, children, and boatwomen, pursuing their several
sports and occupations. A fort, called Dutch Folly, or Sea Pearl
by the Chinese, is built on a little island in the river, its fanciful
buildings and beautiful trees, with the quietude reigning within
its walls, agreeobly contrasting with the liveliness of the waters
around. Beyond, on its southern shore, lies the suburb and island
of Honam, and green HeMs and low hills are seen still further in
the distance ; at the western angle of this island, the Pearl R.
divides, the greatest body of water flowing south, and leaving
n oomparatively narrow channel before the ciiy. The hills north
of the city rise twelve hundred feet above the river ; their ac-
clivities for miles arc covered with graves and tombs, the necro-
polis of this vast cily : little or*no vegetation Is seen upon them.
Three or four forts are built on the points nearest the northorn
walls.

The streets are too narrow to be seen from such a spot.
Among ihcir names, amounting in all to more than six hun-
dred, are Drngon street. Martial Dragon street. Pearl street.
Golden Flower"sIreel, New Green Pea street. Physio street. Spec-
tacle street. Flower street, &c. They are not as dirty as those
of some other cities in the empire, and on the whole, considering
thehobitsof the people and surveillance of the government, which
prevents almost everything like public spirit, Canton has been a
well governed, cleanly city. In these respects it is not now as
well kept, perhaps, as il was before the war, nor was it ever com-
parable to modern cities in the West, nor should it be likened lo
ihem : without a corporation to attend to its condition, or having
power lo levy taxes lo defniy its unavoidable expenses, it cannui
be expected that it should be as wholesome. Il is more surprising,
rather, that it is no dirtier and no sicklier than it is. The houses
along the water are built upon piles driven into the ground, and
many portions of the city are subject to inundations when the
waters increase. On the edge of the stream, the water percolates
the soil, and spoiU all the wells.

^

183 THE MJDDLK KISRDOM.

The temples and public buildhiga of Canton are tiumeroos, but
none of them offer much worthy of special remark. There are
two pagodas near the wesl gale of the old city, and one hundred
and twenty-four temples, pavilions, halls, and other religious
edifices within the circuit of the city. One of the pagodas, called
the KtBaitg iah or Plain pagoda, was erected hy the Moham-
medans, who still reside near it, about ten centuries ago, and is
rather a minaret than a pagoda, though quite unlike those struc-
tures in Turkey in its style of architecture; it shoots up in an an-
gular, tapering tower, to the height of one hundred and sixty feet.
The other is an octagonal pagoda, of nine stories, one hundred
and seveJity feet high, and was first erected more than thirteen
hundred years ago. The geoniancers say that the whole city
is like a junk, these two pagodas are her masts, and the five storied
tower on the northern wall, her stem sheets.

The Hai-chwang n', a Dudhist temple at Honam opposite the
foreign factories, and usually known as the Honam Joss-house, is
one of (he largest in Canton, and has been frequently described.
Its grounds cover about seven a^res, surrounded by a wall, and
divided into courts, garden-spots, and a burial-ground, where are
deposited the ashes of priests whose bodies are burned. The
buildings present nothing worthy of note in an architectural
point, oonsisting mostly of cloisters or apartments surrounding a
court, within which is a temple, a pavijlion, or a hall ; these
courts are overshadowed by large trees, the resort of thouauids
of birds. The outer gateway opens upon the street on the river
banks, and leads up a gravelled walk to a high portico guarded
by two huge demoniac figures, through which the visitor enters
B small inclosure, separated from the largest one by another
spacious porch, in which arc four huge statues. This conducts
him to the main temple, a low building one hundred feet square;
and surrounded by pillars ; it contains three wooden gilded
images, in a sitting posture, called San Pau Fuk, or the Past,
Present, and Future Budha, each of them about twenty-tire feet
high, and surrounded by numerous altars and attendant images.
Daily prayers are chanted before them by a large chapter, all of
whom are dressed in their yellow canonicals, and go through the
liturgy with great regularity. Beyond this a smaller building
contains a marble repository somewhat resembling a pagods, un-
der which is preserved a relic of Budha, said to be one of his

CANTON. 133

loe-nails. This court conloius other shrines, and many oflicea
for the accommodatioD of the priests, among which are the print-
ing-office aod library, bolh of ihem respectable for size, though
the books are little calculated to instruct or entertain either priest
or people.

There are about one hundred and seventy-five priests con-
nected with the eslablishtnenl, only a portion of whom can read.
Among the buildings within the walls are several small tem-
ples dedicBteil to national deities whom the Budhists have taken
into iheir mythology, for they have no scruples in worshipping
whatever will bring devotees to their shrines. One of the apart-
ments is appropriated to the reception of hogs (not bugs, as was
slated in one work) offered by worshippers, which are fed here
as long as ihey live.

Besides the Honam temple, there are two others in the Old
city belonging lo the Budhists. bolh of ihem, like that, well
dowed. One of ihem, called Kwang-hiau «', or temple of Glo-
rious Filial Duty, contains two hundred priests, who arc
ported from the lands belonging to the eslabliahnienl, which
are estimated at three thousand hvc hundred acres. The num.
her of priests and nuns in Canton is not exactly known, but they
probably ejceed two thousand, nine-tenths of whom are Bud.
hists. There are only three temples of the Rationalists, and
their numbers and influence are far less than those of the Bud-
hists.

The Ching-hwang miau is one of the most important religious
institutions in every Chinese city, it being a sort of palladium,
in which both rulers and people offer their devotions for the wel-
fare of the city. The superintendent of thai in Canton pays
94000 for his situation, whioh sum, with a large profit, is ob-
tained again in a few years, by the sale of candles, incense, &c.,
to the worshippers. The temples in Canton are cheerless,
gloomy abodes, well enough fitted, however, for the residence of
inanimate idols and the performance of unsatisfying ceremo-
nies. The areas in front of them are usually oocu pied by huck-
Btera, beggars, and idlers, who are occasionally driven off lo give
room for the mal-sheds in which theatrical performances, got up
by the priests, are acted. The principal hall, where the idol sits
euahrined, is lighted only in front, and the altar, drums, bolls,
and other furniture of the temple, are little calculated toenllTen

k

'Ui TR£ MIIIDLB KINGDOM.

it ; the oells and inner apariments are inhabited by men almost
BB senseless as the idols they serve, miserable beings, who, hav-
ing abandoned society and their better reason too, here drag out
a vicious, idle, misanthropic life.

The residences of the high officers of government are all situ-
ated within ihe walls, part of ihem in (lie Old, and pari in the New
city. The proper residence of the governor-general is Shauking
fu, but in consequence of the importance of Canton he is allowed
to reside there, though to prevent illegal combinaliona or exac-
tions, his official guard of SOOO troops is kept at the foriner place
His office is situated in ihe south-western corner of the New city,
and comprises a large number of buildings tor Ihe accommoda'
lion of himscifand attendants. The collector of customs, styled
the Grand Hoppo by foreigners, lives a lilllo east of the governor-
general, and these two are the only high officers who retado in
the New city. The fuyuen, commander-in-chief, provincial trea-
surer, judge, literary chancellor, commissioner of Ihe gabel and
grain departments, and prefect, all live in dilferenl parts of the
Old city. The residence of the Itiangkian, or commander-in.
chief, is said to be one of the best built houses in the city ; it waa
erected for the King of the South, as the son of Kanghi was
called, who was sent by his father, about a. n. 1700, to subjugate
this region. The Kiaig yuttt, or hall of Literary Examinatiiw, in
the south-eastern comer of ihe Old city, is a spacious edifice)
containing several thousand cells for the reception of the students
who assemble at Ihe examinations held in it.

There are four prisons in the city, and all of them large ei
bliahmeuls ; all the capital oSenders in the province are brought
to Canton for trial before tlie provincial officers, and this regula-
tion makes it necessary to provide spacious accommodations lor
them. The eiecu I ion -ground is a small yard near a pottery
manufacture between the southern gate and the river side, and
unless the ground is newly stained with blood, or cages oontt
ing the beads of the criminals are hung around it. has nothing
about it to attract the attention. Another public building, situ-
ated near the governor's palace, is the Wtm-tluia kvng, at Impe-
rial Presence hall, where three days before and afler his majesty's
birthday, the officers and citizens assemble to pay him adoration.
Tlie various guilds and associations among Ihe people, and the
merchants from other provinces, have, each of them, public hi

FORBION FACTOSIBS. 1ST

for their particular use, which are usually ckIW amtoo lumtet
by foreigners, from a corruption of the native term kung-n', i. e.
public hall ; the total number of these buildings is not less than
one hundred and fllty, and some of ihem are not destitute of ele-

The foreign factories in the western suburbs, for a long time
the only residences allowed to foreign merchants in China, are
far more showy in point of architectural display than any other
buildings iu Canton ; and, as a block of buildings, are said by the
natives to exceed any other in the empire, not CTen excepting
the imperial palaces themselves, though they would not attract
attention in western cities as extraordinary for cither magnifi-
cence or convenience. Their river frontage is between seven
ftnd eight hundred feet in length, and the area before them ia
partly occupied with an inclosed garden, about a hundred and
twenty feet in depth ; the buildings at the western end of the
garden reach to the water's edge. The factories are built of
b/ick stuccoed, with granite foundations ; some of them are three
stories high, but most of them only two. They occupy, with the ■
gardens in front, an area about sixty rods long by forty deep, or
a little more than fifteen square acres, which is only three more
than the base of the pyramid of Suph is at Gizch. This small
space is still further rtduccd by three streets lined with Chinese
shops and one large native hongf (Mingqva's), which run quite
through to the back street, so that the space actually occupied by
the whole foreign community in Canton is hardly equal to the
base of the great pyramid.

The separate houses composing each hong He one behind the
other, so that the facade of the front ones is seen from the river ;
those in the rear are reached by an alley passing through the
middle of the ground story, the rooms on each side being occu-
pied with offices and servants' apartments. Some of the hongs
contain four, and a few seven or eight houses, separated from
each other by small intervals, quite inadequate for suilicient light

• Chineie Repository. Vol. II., pp. 145, 191, tc.

t This word is deriveil from the Chinese iong or liang, me>ning > row
or Mri», Bad is applied to warehouaea because these consist or a succewioD
of rooms. The foreign factories are built in this manner, and therefora
the Chinese called each block a hong i the old aecurity-merchuta wei«
ctlled hmg-mtrehiinU, l)ecauke they lived io such establishiiieDti,

IS8 THK HIDSLE KIKODOX.

and air to peoelrate into some of the retired apBrtments. Baoh
hong adjoins those next to it, the only lateral division being the
three Chinese streets, so that there are, in all, four nearly solid
blocks of buildings, placed together almost as close as books in
B library. These streets are lined with Chinese shops appropri-
ated to the sale of articles intended for foreign markets ; one
called by the Chinese Sin-latt Ian, i. e. Green Pea street, or Hog
lane by foreigners, is chiefly occupied with slop and spirit abopo,
and frequented by lascars and other sailors from the shipping.

The factories nre so called from their being the residence of
factors ; there is no handtcrafl carried on in them, nor are many
goods stored in them. They were entirely destroyed by fire in
1822, and soon afler rebuilt by the hong- merchants, though a
few of the mercantile firms creeled their own dwellings. The
ground is owned by the hong- me re ban Is. The three eEwteni
lionga (viz. the Creek, Dutch, and Company's) were pillaged and
burnt during tbe war; Ihey have been since rebuilt under the
direction of tiic British consul for the accommodation of the Con-
sulate, on a somewhat ditTercni plan. A narrow creek separates
the costernmosl hong from the wareliouses of the bong-merchants,
and offers some protection against (ires amcmg the adjacent shops
and workhouses. The next six hongs constitute a solid maas of
houses, about thirty in all ; they are called the Chowchow, Old
English, Swedish, imperial, Pau-shun, and American ; a small
garden, reaching to the river, occupies the entire area in their
front. They arc divided by a broad street, called Old China
street, from Mingqua's, and the French and Spanish hongs oa
the west ; and these iwo last arc separated by another street,
called New China street, from the thirteenth ond last, called the
Danish hong. The Danish and Spanish hongs were burnt ia
1843, but have been rebuilt in a much less commodious a^le,
and extended down to the river side. The rents paid for the
factories vary from 81200 to 93000 for each establishment.

The trades and manufactoriRB at Canton are all more or less
connected with the foreign commerce. Many of the silk fabrics
exported nre woven ot Fuhshan or Fatahan, a large town situated
about ten miles west of the city ; fire-crackers, paper, mat-sailsi
cotton cloth, and other articles, are also made there for exporta-
tion. The number of persons engi^ed in weaving cloth in Can-
loD is about 60,000, inoluding the embroiderers : sbout TOM

AMCHOBAOB OF WHUfPOA. 189

buben and 4200 sboemakerB are stated as the number licensed
to shave the crowns and shoe the soles of their fellow-citizens.

The suburb of Honam opposite Canton offers a few walks for
recreation, and the citizens are in the habit of going over the
river to saunter in its fields, or in the cool grounds of the great
temple. A couple of miles up the river are the Fa li or Flower
gardens, which supply the plants oarrie'd out of the country, and
are resorted to by pleasure parties ; but lo one accustomed to the
squares, gardens, and esplanades of western cities, these grounda
a[^ar mean in the extreme. Foreigners ramble into the coun-
try a little, but rowing upon the river is their favorite and safest
reoreation. Like Europeans in all parts of the East, they retain
their own costume and modes of living, and do not adopt the
native styles ; though if it were not for the shaven crown, it ia
not unlikely many of them would have adopted the Chinese dress.
The position of the residents in Canton is far more confined and
irttsome than at the other four ports, and years must elapse be-
fore the ill will and contempt now felt by the people will be
changed. , There have been many causes long in operation to
bring about and confirm this unpleasant state of feeling, but they
were developed and aggravated by the war, and by demagogues
who then stirred up alt the worst passions of the populace.

The citizens of this city enumerate eight remarknble localities
called pah king, which they consider worthy the attention of the
Stranger. The first is the peak of Yuehsiu, just within the walls
on the north of the city, which commands a fme view of the sur-
rounding country. The Lyre pagoda at Whampoa, and the
Eutem sea Fish-pearl, or tlio Dutch Folly, are two more ; the
pavilion of the Five Genii, with the five stone rams, and print of
a man's foot in the rock, " always filled with water," near by ;
the rocks of Yu-shnn ; tho lucky wells of Faukiu in the western
suburbs ; cascade of Sf-tsiau, forty miles west of the city ; and
a famous red building in the city, complete the eight "lions."

The foreign shipping lies at Whampoa (pronounced Wbnipoo,
i. e. the Yellow Anchorage), a reach in tho river four miles in
length, above which it is impossible for large ships to go. H. B.
M. ship Blenheim, 74, came up within four miles of Ihe city in
May, 1841, along the south side of Honam island, hut that chan-
nel has since been blocked up by the Chinese. There are two
ialsnds on the south side of the anchorage, called Prenoh and

140 THE MIDDLE KINciDOM.

Danes' islands, on m liich foreigners and sailors are buried, ud
where persona from ihe shipping are allowed to ramble. The
prospect rrom the summit of Ihe hills bereabouis is picturesque
and charming, giving the speclalor a high idea of the fertility
and industry of the land and its people. Large' hcrdx of cattle
are reared on these and other islands for supplying the shipping
with beef, but the people' ihemselveH do not use it. The town
of Whampoa and its pagoda lies on the island north of the
anchorage ; between it and Canton is another called Lob creek
pagoda, both of ihem uninhabited and decaying.

Macao (pronounced Maeoie) is a Portuguese settlement on a
small peninsula projecting frum the south-eaatern end of the
large island of (liangshan. Its Chinese inhabitants are governed
by a ttolavg or lieutenant of the district magistrate of the town
of Hiangshan, aided by a sub-prcfecl, called the kiun-minfu, who
resides at Tsienshan or Casa Branca, a few miles from Macao-
The circuit of this settlement is about eight miles, and ita limits
landward are defined by Q Barrier wall running across the
isthmus, where a small guard of Chinese troops is stationed to
prevent foreigners from trespassing upon the Inner Land. The
position of Macao is very agreeable ; nearly surrounded with
water, and open (o the sea breezes on every aide, having a good
variety of hill and plain even in its Utile territory, and a large
island on the west called Tui-mien shan or Lapa island, on which
are pleasant rambles, to be reached by equally pleasant boat
excursions, it is also one of the healthiest residences in south-
eastern Asia. The principal drawbacks upon its advantages so
far as a residence for foreigners goes, are the want of carriage
roads, and a choice of society — for the Portuguese and foreign
population, generally speaking, are debarred from mutual inter-
course by their ignorance of each other's language.

The population of the peninsula is not far from 30,000, of whom
more than 5,000 are Portuguese and other foreigners, living
under the control of the Portuguese authorities, and the Chinese
under the rule of their own magistrates. The Portuguese pay
an annual ground rent for the settlement, and are not allowed lo
build dwelling-houses without the walls of the town ; the houses
occupied by the foreign population are built on the plan of those
in other eastern cities, large, roomy, and open, and from the rising
nature of the ground on which they stand, present an impa

SBTTLEMBNT OF MACAO. 141

appearance to tho visitor coming in from the sea. Since the con-
ulusion of the war, tlie Portuguese have obtained some additional
uiiinijiorlant privileges from the Chinese, but their own bigoted,
short-sighted policy, and narrow-minded regulations, are the chief
obslncles in the way of the town again becoming the place of
wenlth and trade it was one hundred and fifty years ago, when it
was incomparably the richest mart in Eastern Asia.

There are a few good huildinga in the settlement ; the most
imposing edifice, St. Paul's church, was burned in 1835. Three
forts on commanding eminences protect the town, and others out-
side of the walls defend its waters ; the governor takes the oaths
oF office in the Monte fort ; but the government offices are mostly
in the Senate house, situated in the middle of the town. Macao
has been the usual residence for the families of merchants trading
at Canton, and during the war most of the business was conducted
there ; since the peace, the trade has returned to the city, and
many of the families have moved to Hongkong, but the amhoritiea
are doing what they can to revive the prosperity of the place, by
making it a free port. The Typa anchorage lies between the
islands Mackerara and Typa, about three miles off the southern
end of the peninsula ; all small vessels go into the Inner harbor
on tlie west side of the town. Ships anchoring in the Roads, on
the east, are obliged to lie about three miies olf the Praya Grande
or key, in consequence of shallow water, and large ones cannot
come nearer than six miles.

Eastward from Macao, about forty
acquired English colony of Hongkong, i
22° IBf N., and longitude 114° 8^' E.,

the estuary of the Pearl river. The island of Hongkong,
Hiangkiang (i. e. tlie Fragrant Streams), is nine miles long,
eight broad, and twenty-six in circumference, presenting an
exceedingly uneven, barren surface, consisting for the most part
of ranges of hills, with narrow intervales, and a little level beach
land. The highest peak is 1825 feel. Probably not one twen.
tielh of the surface is available for agricultural purposes. The
island and harbor were firel ceded to the Crown of England by
the treaty made between Captain Elliot and JCishen, in January,
1841, and again by the treaty of Nanking, in August. 1842.
It had been extensively colonized previous to the ratified cession,
both by foreigners and Chineae. The town of Victoria lies on

miles, lies the newly
island -in latitude
1 the eastern part of

143 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

the north of Die island, and exlenila nearly three milei along ibe
shore, occupying all the land between the water and the ascent of
the hilts, and rising up the latter wherever the acclivity is not too
steep. The seoure and canvenient harbor, which induced ihe
English plenipotentiary to select this island as the British setlle-
inent, has attracted the chief town lo its shores, though the uneven
nature of the ground, ill calculated for a compact settiemant,
compels the inhabitants to stretch their warehouses and dwellings
along the beach. In iliis respect Mucao is better situated than
Victoria, but that town has no good harbor.

The architecture of most of the buildings erected in Viotorift
is superior to anything heretofore seen in China. lis populatioii
in June, 1645, was estimated at 25,000, of whom about 20,000 .
were Chinese laborers, sliopkeepers, and boatmen, of low cha-
raoter, very few of whom had immigrated with their families.
The government of the colony is vested in a governor, lieutenant.
governor (who is likewise the commandant), chief-justice, and ■
legislative council of five, assisted by various subordinate ofBcera
and secretaries, the whole forming a cumbrous and expeoaiva
machinery, compared with the needs and resources of the colony -
The governor has also the oflice of superintendent of British
trade at the five ports, and exercises a general control over all
British ships end subjects resorting to Cliina.

The climate of Hongkong, like that of Macao, is generally
healthy to most foreigners, but i( has obtained a bad celebrity
from the numerous deaths which occurred in 1842 and 1843,
though Ihtse to a good degree resulted from other causes than
the climate, aided no doubt by local predisposing causes existing
at the time. Subsequent years have shown, however, that with
proper attention to regimen, avoiding the sun, and living in dry,
well ventilated houses, as good a degree of health can be enjoyed
as at Macao or Canton. The peninsula of CbekchU on the aouth-
weatem point, Shek-pai wan on the west, and the hay of Tytam
on the eastern end of the island, are eligible positions for resi-
dences, but hitherto few of the inhabitants have erected dwelling-
houses out of Victoria, The supplies of the island are chiefly
brought from the mainland opposite, where an incraasing popula-
tion of Chinese, under iho control of the magistrate of Kaulung,
find ample demand for all the provisions they can furnish. Thp
popnlatiDO of Hongkong before its cession was. ^xmt SOM^b]

COLONV OF HONGKONG. 143

foot aad ignorant race, subsisting by lishing and agriculture ;
or the cutting and sale of biiilJing atoue.

Three newspapers are published in Hongkong, all ofivhich have
A remuDerating patronage. The school of the Morrison Education
Society, the hospital of the Medical Missionary Society, the Sea-
men's and Military hospitals, the chapel and school oftlie London
Miasionary Society, the govemmeut house, the magistracy, jail,
the ordnance and engineer departments, Exchange, and the Club
house, are among the principal ediAces in the town, The amount
of money expended in buildings in this colony since its cession b
enormous, perhaps over two millions of dollars, and most of them
are substantial stone or brick houses.

Tbe places just mentioned, and others intermediate in the
yifiinity of Canton, comprise nearly all those which have b«en
nWted by foreigners, except when the officers and' crew of a
^fcwcked vessel have been forwarded by the authorities orerltwd
fiom the coast of Canton ; but the close manner in which such
parties are kept during their journey, has prevented much
observation of ihe country through which iKey passed. Fatshan
has been represented as eight or ten miles in circumference, but
it has not been visited by travellers for a long time, and little or
nothing is actually known concerning its extent. The island of
Shaiigchueo or Sant^ian, where Xavier died, belongs to this
province ; it lies south-weal of Macao about thirty miles, and is
sometimes visited by devout persons from thai place to reverence
his tomb.

. The city of Shauchau fu in the northeni part of the province,
and Shauking fu on the Pearl river west of Canton, are among
the most important cities afler Ihe capital ; the latter was
formerly the seat of the provincial authorities, liil they were
ordered to remove to Canton to keep the foreigners under con-
trol. It is said to be one of the best built cities in the southern
part of ihe empire, and ils position beautiful. Some of its dis-
tricts furnish large quantities of tea, and grass suitable for
malting. Among other towns of-note b Nanhiung chau. situated
at the head of navigation on the North river, where goods cross
the Mei ling. It is said ihai iifiy thousand porters obtain h live-
lihood by transporting packages, passengers, and mprchandise
over the pass, lo and from this town and Nan-ngan fu in
KiangsE. It ia a bustling place, and the restleia habits of these

144 THS HIDSLB XIKODOIC.

industrioua carriers give its population aotnewhat of a turbulent
character.

The scenery Blong the river, between Nuihiung aud Shaucbau
fu, is described as wild, mountainous, and barren in the extreme ;
the summits of the mountains seem to touch each other across
the river, and the massive fragments fallen from their sides, in and
along the river, indicate that the passage is not altogether free
from danger. In this mountainous region coal ia procured, by
opening horizontal shafb to the mines, and bringing it down to
the river as it is dug. Ellis says, it was brought some distance
to the [Jace where he saw it, to be used in the manufacture of
green vitriol. One of the most conspicuous objects in this part
of the river are five rocks, which rise abruptly from the banks,
and fancifully called Wu-nta lau, or Five-horses' heads. The
formation.of this part of the province consists of compact, dark-
colored limestone, overlying sandstone and breccia. Neariy
balfwajf between Shauchau fu and Canton is a celebrated moun-
tain and cavern temple, dedicated to Kwanyin, the goddess of
Merny, which is much resorted to by devotees and travellers.
The cliff is nearly five hundred feet high; the temple is in a
fissure, about a hundred feet above the water, and consists of two
stories ; the steps leading up to them, the rooms, walls, and cella,
are all cut out of the rock. Inscriptions and scrolls hide the
naked walls, and a few inane priests live in ibis gloomy abode,
fit hierophants to hideous idols, ijorshipped by devotees scarcely
less senseless. Mr. Barrow draws a fitting comparison between
these men and the inmates of the Cork Convent in Portugal, or
the Franciscan convent in Madeira, who had likewise " chained
themselves to a rock, to be gnawed by the vultures of superstition
and fanaticism."

The island of Hainan constitutes a single department, called
Kiungchau, by which name the Chinese generally know it. It is
about one hundred and fifly miles long and one hundred broad,
being in extent neariy twice the size of Sicily. It is separated
from the main by a narrow strait, filled with shoals and reels,
which render its passage difficult. The interior of the island is
mountainous, and the inhabitants give but a partial submissioa to
the Chinese ; they are said to resemble the mountaineers in Kwei-
chaii. This ridge is called LUmu ting; a remarkable peak aa
the west is named Wu-ehi Mitan, or Fire-finger moantaiB. Q*

7 SWASGSf.

145

Chinese iuhabitaota are mnslly descendanls of emigroDts from
Fuhkien, and are eitlier trading, agricultural, marine, or piratical
in iheir vocation, as Ihey can make most money. The lands
along the coast are fertile, producing areca-nuts, cocoa-nuts, and
other tropical fruits, which arc not fpund on the main. Ktung-
chau fu, the capital, lies at the mouth of the Li'mu rivor, opposila
Luichau, and possesses a good harbor ; there arc sevefal other
fine harbors on the southern coast. All the thirteen district towns
lie on the coasi, and within iheir circuit, on the Chinese maps, a
line is drawn, inclosing the centre of the island, within which the
Li nan, or L[ people live, some of whom are acknowledged to be
independent. The population of the island is about l,.'iOO,000.
Its productions arc rice, sweet potaloe, sugar, tobacco, fruits, tim-
ber, and wax ; the last is obtained from an insect, called peh-lah
ehmig, or while-wax insect, which deposits it when laying its
egg»- The bay of Tonquin, lying north-east of Hainan, ia but
little known. It is the resort of pirates, whose depredations have
probably nearly destroyed what they lived upon. The seas
around Hainan are notorious for the hurricanes, which occur
during the summer months.

The province of Kwa.ngsi (i. e. Broad West) extends west-
ward of Kwangtung to the borders of Annam, ^occupying the
region on the south-west of the Nan ling, and constitutes a moun-
tainous and thinly settled part of the empire. The banks of the
rivers sometimes spread out into plains, more in the eastern parts
than elsewhere, on which abundance of rice is grown. There
are mines of gold, silver, quicksilver, and other metals, in this
province, most of which are worked under the superintendence
of government, but no data arc accessible from which to ascer-
tain the produce. Among the principal productions of Rwangsf,
besides provisions, are cassia, cassia-oil, tuk-sloncs, and oahinel-
woods ; its natural resources supply the principal articles of
trade, for there are no manufactures of importance. Many par-
tially subdued tribes are found within the limits of this province,
who are ruled by iheir own hereditary governors, under the
supervision of the Chinese authorities ; there are lwenly-(bur
cbau districts occupied by these people, the names of whose head-
men are given in the Red Book, and their position marked in the
statistical maps of the empire, but no information is given in
either, concerning the numbers, language, or occupations, of the

L

146

THB MIDDLE

inhftbitants. Kwangsl is well watered by ihe West river and iU
branches, which enable it to convey its timber and surplus pro
duce to Canlon, and receive from thence rbIi and other articles
The mountains rise (o the snow-line on the north-west, and mucV
or the province is uncultivable.

The capital, Kweilin fu (i. e. Cassia Forest), lies on iheCas^
river, a branch of the West river, in the north-east part of the
province ', it is described as a poorly built city, surrounded b^
canals and branches of Ihe river, destitute of any edifices worthy

of n

', and having n

n ihe mosi

infer.

Dragon i

great Qmaunt of trade ; which, indeett,
rugged part of the province, would lead

k

river, at its junction with the Lung
ire they unite and form the Wert
', is the largest trading town in the province ; all the expoit
anil import trade of the province passes through it. The indo>
pendent ehau districts are scattered over tho south-west near tha
frontiers of Annam, and if anything could be inferred from their
position, it might be thought [hat they were settled by Loo*
tribes, who had been induced, by the comparative security of lib
and property within the frontiers, to acknowledge the Chtoeaa
Eway. The unsubdued Miautsz' arc probably altogether distinot
from these races; they occupy the north-east portion of the pro-
vince, in [he mountain fastnesses between it and Kweichau.

The province of Kweichao (i. e. Noble Region) lies in tha
mountainous regions of the Nin ling, between Kwangsf and
Sz'chueo, bounded north by Sz'chuon, east by Hunan, south by
Kwangsi, and west by Yunnan. Its productions consist of rioe,
wheat, muak, tobacco, timber, and cassia, with lead, copper,
quicksilver, and iron. Horses and other domestic animals arp
reared in larger quantities than in Ihe eastern provinces. It is ft
poor province, and its inhabitants are rude and illiterate. During
Ihe last war, bodies of troops from Kweichau came down to
Canlon, and by their lawless conduct and uncouth mumer^
excited the strongest disgust and contempt of the citizens, who
used to mock them with the cry of " hed lax' lai .'" — " the devilv
(i. e. foreigners) are after you !"— in order to see them run. Th»
largest river is the Wu, which drains the central and northern
parts of the province, and empties into the Yanglsz' kiang.
Other IributarieB of that river and West river, also have their

n this province, but ita surface ia so uneveo that none of
them are available for navigation far from their mouths.

The capital of (he province, Kwoiyang fu, is situated near ita
centre ; it is the smallest provincial capital of the eighteen, ita
walls not being mofe than two miles in circumference. The
other chief towna or departments are all of them of inferior note.
There are many military stations in ihe southern portions of
Kweichau at the fool of the mountains, intended to restrain the
unaulxlucd tribes of Miautsz' who inhabit them.

This name is used among the Chinese us a general term for
alt the dwellers upon these mounlains, but is not applied to every
tribe by the people themselves. They consist of forty-one
tribes in all, found scattered over the mountains in Kwangtung,
Hunan, and Kwangsl, as well as in Kweichau, speaking several
dialects, and ditTcring among themselves in their customs, go-
vernmeni, and dress. The Chinese have several books describing
these people, but the notices are confined lo a list of their divi-
sions, and an account of their most striking peouliaritiea. Their
language difTers entirely from the Chinese, but too little Is
known of it to ascertain ita analogies lo other tongues ; its affini-
ties are most likely with the Laos, and other tribes between
Burmah, Stam, and China. One tribe, inhabiting Lipo hien, is
called Yau-jin, and although they occasionally come down to
Canton to trade, the citizens of thai place firmly believe them to
be furnished with short tails like monkeys. They carry arms,
and are inclined to live at peace with the lowlonders, but resist
every attempt to penelrale into their fastnesses. The Yau-jin
first settled in Kwangsl, and thence passed over into Lien chau
about the IwelAh century, where they have since maintained
iheir footing. Both sexes wear their hair braided in a luft on
Ihe top of the head, but never shaven ond tressed as the Chi.
nese, and dress in loose garments of cotton end linen ; ear-
rings are^ universal use among them. They live at strife
among themselves, which becomes a source of safely lo the
1 Chinese, who are willing enough to harass and oppress, but are
{ ill able to resist, these hardy mountaineers. In 1832, they broke
n active hostilities against the Cliineae, and destroyed nu-
lus parlies of troops sent to subdue them, but were finally
linduced to return lo their relreaia by offers of pardon and lar-
s granted to ihose who submitted.

148 THE MIDDLE SINGOOH.

A Chinese traveller among ihe Miaulsz' says that botm of them
live in huts constructed upon the branches of trees, others in
mud hovels. Their ogriculiure is rude, ond iheir garments are
obtained by harter from the lowlanders in exchange for metals
and grain, or woven by themselves. The religious observances
or theao tribes are carefully noted, and whatever is connected
with marriagfa and funerals. In one tribe, it is the custom for
the father of a oew-born child, as soon as its mother has become
strong enough to leave her couch, to gel into bed himself and
there receive the congraiulalioiia of his acquaintances, as he
exhibits his otTspring. Another class has the counterpart of the
may-pole and its jocund dance, which, like its corresponding
game, is availed of by young men to select their mates. It is
said there are more than fifty tribes in all of the Miautsz', but
no estimate can be made of their numbers. Many vigorous
efforts have been made by the moniircha of the present dynasty
to subdue these hardy tribes, but ihey have all failed ; and the
general government Dow contents itself with keeping them in
check, or in efforts to induce them, by kind treatment, to settle
on the plains.*

The province of Yihvham (i.e. Cloudy South — south of the
Fun Ung, or Cloudy mountains) is in the south-west of the
empire, bounded north by Sz'chuen, east by Kweichau and
Kwangsi, south by Annam, Laos, and Siam, and west by Bur-
mah. The whole province forms nn extensive uneven table-
land, with numerous deep defiles between the ridges, and some
fertile plains inclosing lakes of considerable extent. The peaks
of the Yun ling in the north rise above the snow-line, hut towards
the southern frontiers the land subsides into undulating tracts,
which increase in extent and Icvelness to the gulfof Siam and
bay of Bengal.

The Yangisz' kiong enters ihe province on the north-west for
a short dbtance ; but the greatest river in the pro4nce is the
Lan-tsan kiang, which rises in Tibet, and runs for a long dis-
tance parallel with the Yangtsz' kiang and Nu kiang between
them, till the three break through the mountains not far from -
each other, and take different courses, — the largest turning to

PROVINCE OF VON!(*«. l4|f

the eaatwanil across China, the Lantsan souih-eaat through Yun-
nan to the gulfof Siam, under the oamc of the Meikon or river
of Cambodia, and the third, or Salween, westerly through Bur-
inah. The Meikoo receives niany large tributaries in ita course
across the province, and its entire length is not less than 15011
miles. The Lungchueii, alarge affluent of the Irrawadi, runsa
little west of the Salweeu. The Meinam rises in Yunnan, and
flows south into Siam under (he name of the Najitiog, and afler
a course of nearly eight hundred miles, empties into the sea
below Bangkok. East of the Lantsan are several important
streams, of which three that unite in Annani to form the Song-
koi, are the largest- The general course of these rivers is
south-easterly, and their upper waters are separated by mountain
ridges, between which the valleys are often reduced to very
narrow limits. There are two lakes in the eastern pari of the
province, south of the capital, called Sien and Chin ; the tatter
b about seventy miles long by twenty wide, and (he Sien hu (i. e.
Fairy lake) about two-thirds as largo. There is another sheet
of water in the north-west, near Tali fu, communicating with
the Yongtsz' kiang, called Urh hat or Urh sea, which is more
than a hundred miles long, and about twenty wide.

The capital, Yunnan fu, lies upon the north shore of lake
Chin, and is a town of note, besides its political importance from
its trade with other parts of the country through the Yangtsz'
kiang, and with Bunnah. The trade between this province and
Burmah centres at (he fortified post of Tsanlah, in (he district
of TSngyueh, both of (hem situated on a branch of the f rrawadi.
The principal pari of the commodities is transported upon ani-
mals from these d^pAts to Bitnio, in Burmah, which stands upon
the Irrawadi, and is the largest market-town in this part of Chin-
India. The Chinese participate largely in this trade, which
consists of raw and manufactured silk to (he amount of £81,000
annually, tea, copper, carpets, orpimeni, quicksilver, vermilion,
drugs, fruits, and other things, carried from their country in
exchange for raw cotton to the amount of £228,000 annually,
ivory, wax, rhinoceros and deer's horns, precious stones, birds'
nests, peacocks' Teathera, and foreign articles. The entire traf-
fic is probably £500,000 annually, and for a few years past has
been regularly increasing.

There is considerable intercourse and trade on the southern

160 THE MIDDLE KINGItOK.

frontiers with the L&as and Annamese, partly by means of the
headwaters of the Meinam and Meikon, which are supposed to
communicate with each other by a natural canal, and partly by
caravans over the mountains. Yunnan fu was the capital of
a Chinese prince about the time of the decadence of the Ming
dynasty, who had rendered himself independent in this part of
their empire by the overthrow of the rebel Li, but having linked
his fortunes with an imbecile scion of that house, he displeased
his ofGceTs, and his territories gradually fell under the sway of
the conquering Manchus. The southern and western diatricta
of the province are inhabited by half-subdued tribes of Laos
origin, who are governed by their own rulers, under the nominal
sway of the Chinese, and pass and repass across the frontiers in
pursuit of trade or occupation. The productions of Yunnan
are chiefly mineral, but no data are accessible as to the amount
obtained from the mines. The elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, tiger,
wild boar, and other wild animals occur in its jungles, and birdi
of brilliant plumage inhabit the forests.

i CHAPTER IV.

G«c^iphicBl Description of Manchuria, Mongolia, 11!, ind Tibet

The portions of tlie Chinese Empire beyond the limits of the
Eighteen Provinces, though of for greater extent, are compara-
(iTely of minor iinporiance. Their vast regions are peopled by
different races, whose languages are niutually unintelligible, and
whose tribf3 ore held together under the Chinese sway rather
by interest and rpciprocnl hosfiiilics or dislike, than by force-
European geograpliers have termed all that f^jiaco lying north of
Tibet to Siberia, and east »f the Tsung ling to the Pacitic, Cliinete
Tarlanj ; while the cijiinlries west of the Tsung ling or Bel ur tag,
to the Aral sea, have been collectively called Independent Tarlary.

Both these names should he era:

wd from all mapsoftho

se regiona.

both because their iiiliabiitinis c

ire neilhcr all 'I'nrtars c

ir Hongols,

nor Turks, and because ihe nal

ivc names and division

s are raore

definite than a single compn

eheiisive one. Sued

names aa

Manchuria, Mongolia, Songari

a, and Turkestan, de

rived from

the leading tribes dwelling in

1 those countries, are

more defi-

nite, though these are not |ieriiinnent, owing to the migratory,
changeable habits of the people. From their ignorance of scien-
tiHc geography, the Chinese have no general designations for
extensive countries, long chains of mnuntainR, or devious rivers,
but apply many names where, if tliey knew more, they would be
content with one.

The following table presents a general view of these couDtries,
giving their leading divisions and forms of government. They
cannot be classed, however, in the same manner as the provinces,
nor arc tiie divisions and capitals hero given to bo regarded as
definitely settled. Their united area is 3,951,130 sq. m., or a
little more than all Europe ; their separate areas cannot be exactly
given. Manchuria contains about 700,000 sq. td. ; Mongolia
between 1,300,000 and 1,500,000 sq. m.; Ill about 1,070,000
■q. m. ; and Tibet from 600,000 to 700,000 sq. m.

TEB XISDLB KIKSDOM.

1

1

B

1
i

111 111 El -ill

a
1

1 1 ! 1 ! . til 1

lij JIfliJ ih

3

!. ilMf it t!

a

hiHiiiiiii

8

J 1 ^ 1

153

Manchitbia comprises all the mosl eastern portion of the high
tabic land of Central Asia, and lies betwenn latitudes 42" and 58°
N., and longitudes 120° to 142° E. Ii is boundi'd on ihe north by
the Yablonoi-Khrebet or Outer Hing-an mountains, which separate
it from the Russian province of Yakoutsk ; east by the channel of
Tartarj', and sea of Japan ; south by Corea and gulf of Pechele ;
south-wesl by the Great Wall ; west by Mongolia and the Inner
Hing-an or Sialkoi mounlains ; and north-west by the Kerlon
river and Daourian mouniaina. The area of this vast region ia
probably 700,000 square miles. The limits between it and
Mongolia commence al the Great Wall, and are marked by a
palisade running north-east for more than two degrees 1o the
Songari river, and down that stream lo latitude 46°, and thence
by its branch the Khailar, north- westerly to the Sialkoi, and Qorth
to the Daourian ranges.

Only a small portion of this vast region has ever been traversed
by Europeans, and most of it is a wilderness. The entire popula-
tion is not staled in the census of 1812, and from the nature of
the country and wandering habits of the people, many tribes of
whom render no allegiance to the emperor, it would be impossi-
ble to take a regular census; there are probably more than
2,000.000 in all. Paris of Manchuria, as here defined, have
been known under many names at different periods. Liaiiiwag
(i. e. East of the river Liau) has been applied to the country
between that river, Corea, and the sea of Japan ; Tungkmg
(Eastern Capital) referred to the chief town of that region, under
the Ming dynasty ; and Kaonlung (East of the Pass) denoted the
same country.

Manchuria is comprised mostly in the valleys of the Songari
and Sagallen rivers and their tributaries in the north, and the
Liau river in the south. There are three principal mounlaio
chains. The Sih-hih-Iih mountains extend from the boundary
of Corea, in latitude 40° in a north-eastern direction along the
seo-coast to the mouth of the Sagalien in 62° N., rising on an
average 4500 feet, and covered with forests. Its eastern declivi-
ties are so near the ocean, that only a narrow strip of arable land
is left, which is inhabited by a race allied lo the Ainos or natives
of Yeso, and having little intercourse with the Manchus. The
southern extremity of this range from about latitude 43°, bears
the MaDchu name of Kolmin-shanguin alin, and the Chinese

154

THE MIDDLE K1»GD0N.

name of Chat^gpeh skan, or Long White moiintains, extending
across Linutung lo tJie tiortli of the Liau ho and other rivers.
This part of Ihe range bears ten or twelve names on Chinese
maps. One spur called Little White mountains reaches north to
43° near Kiriii hotun. aiul is distinguished by a peak called
Pecha, supposed to be 15,U0O Teet high,

The second range is separated from the Sih-bih-tih on the north
only by the valley of the Sagalien. It is the Yabloooi-Khrebet
and its spurs, which extend under a variety of onmes into Tsitsi-
har ; there are two principal spurs, one north of the great bend
of the Sagalien, and the other between it and the Chikiri, one of
its atflucnts. The Inner Hingnn, or Sialkoi range, eitenda over
B great part of Mongolia, commencing near ihe bend of the Yel-
low river, and reaching in a north-easterly direction, forms in
Manchuria three sides of the extensive valley of the Nonni,
ending between the Sagalien and Songari at their junction. Most
of these ranges are covered with forests, but of their height, pro-
ductions, and climate, little is known.

The whole country north of the Long White mountains is
drained by one river, viz. the Sagalien, Amur, Kwgnlung, or
Hehlung kiang (for it is known by all these names), and its afflu-
ents ; Sagalien ula in Manchu, and Hehlung kiang in Chinese,
both mean Black or Black Dragon river ; the name KwAntung
is given to Ihe stream on Chinese maps when it enters the ocean.
The Sagalien drains Ihe eastern slope of Central Asia by a cir.
ouitous course, aided by many large tributaries. Its source is in
latitude 50°' N., and longitude 110° E., in a spur of the Daourian
mountains called Kenteh, where it is called the Onon, and on
whose banks Genghis first distinguished himself. After an east
and north-east course of nearly tive hundred miles, the Onon is
joined by the Ingoda in longitude US'' E., a stream rising east of
lake Baikal, beyond which point, under the Russian name of
Shilka, it flows about two hundred and sixty miles north-east till it
meets the Argun coming from the south at Ft. Baklanova. The
Argun is fully as long as the upper stream. It rises about three
degrees south of the Onon, on the south sHe of the Kenieh, and
under Ihe name of Kerlon runs in a general north-east course
for four hundred and thiriy miles across the country of the Kal-
kas, receiving few tributaries, to lake Hurun ; a large stream,
ottlled the Kalka, here comes in from lake Pir or Puyur, and

RIVERS AND LAKES 07 HANCIKTSIA. 163

their waters leave lake Huruimnder the name of the Argun, and

run Donherly nearly four hundred milpB to \he union with the
Shilka in Intilude 53°, forming the boundary between Manchuria
and Russia. The remainder of its course lies in Manchuria.

Beyond fort Daklanova, the river, now called the Amur (i. c.
Great river), or Sagalien by the Manchus, flows easterly near the
north bend of the Sialkoi. but soon turns south -easterly, forcing
its way by a succession of rapids through a narrow valley be-
tween the Stalkoi und a spur of the Hingan as far south as lati-
tude ili°, where it receives the Songari. This tributary rises
in the Long White mountains in latitude 42°, and flows north-
westerly OS far as Petune in latitude 45°, along the edge of the
desert ; at this place it is joined by the Nonni from the plain of
Tsilsihar east of the Sialkoi, and thence runs E. N. E. till it
joins the Sagalien. In this part il receives the Hourha, a large
affluent which carries otT the surplus waters of the valley of
Ningoula, the original territory of the Manchus. After their
junction, the Chinese call the river Kwintung ; it runs nearly
north-east to its embouchure in latitude b3° N., and longitude
143° E., receiving many email, and one large stream, colled (he
Uauri ; this is nearly as long as the Songari, and drains the
westeni aide of the Sih-hih-tih range. Its entire length is nearly
two thousand two hundred miles, and the area of the country
drained by il about 9OO,00Q square miles.

There ore three considerable lakes in Manchuria ; the Hurun
and Pir on the west of the Sialkoi, and the Hinkai nor in the
valley of the Usuri. The first is about two hundred miles in
circuit, but nothing is known of it. The Hinkai is about forty
miles long, and situated near the headwaters of the Uauri in
latitude 44° N., not more than seventy miles from the sea, from
which it is separated by a low range. The region between the
Songari and the sea of Japan is almost as much unknown to
Europeans as the centre of Africa." The country south-east of
the desert, and north of the Great Wall, is drained and fertilized
by the Sira-muren, or Liau river, the lai^est branch of which,
the Hwang ho, flows through Chahar in a south-easterly course,
taking its rise near the Pecha peak, and joins the Liau in Shing*
king, under which name it empties into the gulf of Liautung,

* Feiuiy CyclopediA, Art Aiiym.

IM THB HIDDLB XmODOH.

ftfler a courso of four hundred miles. The Yahluh kiang, nearly
tliroe hundred milea Ion;;, rune in n very crooked channel along
the northern frontiers of Corea.

The greatest part of Manchuria is covered by forests, the abode
of wild animals, wliosc cnpture afTords employment, clothing,
and fi»d, to their hunters. The riveni and coasts abound in
fish ; among which carp, sturgeon, salmon, pike, and other spe-
cies, as well as shell-iisli, arc plenty ; the pearl fishery is carried
on by government, which sends its soldiers to the mouth of Ihe
Sogalien to procure tlio pcarU. Tlie argnli and jiggetai are two
species of deer peculiar lu this part of Asia ; bears, wolvesi
tigers, deer, nod nuntcreus fur-beurin^ animals arc hunted for
their pelage. The troops arc required to funitsh 2400 stags
iiiii:ii;;lly II' (I:- "inj-^'.'r. v'.. 1 i-».ri:sfT ]\\n '■ivn nsr- only ibe
fleshy part of the toil as « tk-licacy. 'ihe condor is the largeot
bird of prey, and for its aizu anil fierceness rivals its congener of
the Andes.

The greatest part of Sliingking aiid the south of Kirin is eulti-
vutcd ; wheat, barley, jmlae, inillel, and buckwiieat arc the prin-
cipal crops. Ginsenir and rhubarb are uolleeled by troops sent
out in dctiichmeuts under ihu charge of their proper officers.
These portions support Inrge herds of varioua domestic onimBls.
The immense quuntiiies of timber which cover the mountains
will perhaps prove a source of wealth when the Sagalien and its
tributaries arc traversed by Europeans. La Pryrouse coasted
along the eastern shores uf Manchuria, but saw no sign of any
inhabitants most of the liintHnce between lats. 43° and 50°.

Manchuria is divided into three provinces, Shingkhig, Kirin,
and Ttiuihar, or llehlung kiang. The province of Sbixdkihs
includes within its limits the ancient Liautung. It is bounded
north by Mongolia ; north-enst and east by Kirin ; souti) by CoreOi
from which the Yahluh river divides it, and the gulf of Liautung ;
and west by Chahar in Chihli. It contains two departments,
viz. Fungticn fu and Kinchou fu, subdivided info fifteen districts ;
there are also twelve garrisoned j>osts m the twelve gates in the
palisade, whose troops are under the direeiion of a general living
at Moukden. Manchuria is under a mure strictly military go
vemment than any part of the eighteen provinces, every miila
above eighteen being liable to be called on for military serriee,
and in fact ii anrolled under that one of the oight atudardi to

L

wliiofa by birth he belongs. The adm in isl ration of 8hingking is
partly civil and partly military, that of Kirin and Tsitaihar is
entirely military.

The capital of Shingking is usually known as Moukden from
its Manchu name ; its Chinese name is Funglien fu. As the
melropolis of Manchuria, it is also known as Shingking (the
Affluent capilni), distinguished fronii the name of the province by
the addition of pun-chhig, or htad garrison. It lies in latitude
41° 50i' N., and longitude 123" 37' E., on -the banks of a branch
of the Liau, about live hundred miles north-eaet from Peking.
The town is surrounded by a wall about ten miles in circuit,
inclosing another wall which separates the emperor's residence
from the town ; this part of the clly is three miles in circum-
ference. The palace, and the buildings connected with il, the
government offices and courts, and the grounds within it, are all
arranged on a plan similar to those at Peking. It was called
Moukden, which sign i lies ^urisAi'T^, by the Manchu monarchs
in 1631, when they made it the seat of their government, and
the eniperors have sinee done everything in Iheir power to enlarge
and beautify it, but with only partial success.

The town of Hingking, sixty miles east of Moukden, ta one
of (he favored places in Shingking, from its being tha family
residence of the Manchu monarchs, and the burial-ground of
their ancestors. It is pleasantly situated in a ntountain valley,
and the tombs are upon a mountain three miles north of it called
Ttt'yun than. The circuit of the walls is about three miles.
Hingking is situated near the palisade which separates the pro-
vince from Kirin, and its officers have the rule over the sur-
rounding country, and the entrances into lliat province ; a large
garrison is maintained there, which, with the salubrity of the air,
has attracted a considerable population. The emperor Kienlung
rendered himself celebrated among bis subjects, and the city of
Moukden better known abroad, by a poetical eulogy upon ihe
cily and province, which was printed in sixty-four dilTerent forms
of Chinese writing. This curious piece of imperial vanity and
literary effort was tran.slated into French by Amyot.

Kinchau in the port of Moukden, fiAeen leagues from il. and
carries on considerable trade in cattle, pulse, and drugs. GutB-
laD* describes the harbor as shallow, and exposed to southern
gales ; the houses in the town are built of stone, the environa

188 THE MIDJ

well cultivated aud settled by Chinese from Shaniung, while the
natives of Fuhkien carry on the trade. The Manchua lead an
idle life, but keep on good terms with the Chinese who frequent
the place. When he was there in 1832, the authorities had
ordered all the females to seclude themselves ia order to put a
stop to debauehery among the sailors. Horses and camels are
numerous and cheap, hut the carriages are clumsy. The houses
are warmed by large forms of masonry, under which the fire ia
kindled, and in whiolf the cooking is done ; the inmates sleep
upon it by night and lounge on it hy day. This mode of
warming dwellings prevails niso in the northern provinces, modi-
fied in its comfort and extent according to the means of the
householder. Kaichau, another part lying on the east side of the
gulf, possesses a better harbor, but is not so much frequented.

Most of the other towns in Shingking have no claim to any
higher appellation than garrisons or hamlets. Fung-hwang ting
ta the frontier town on the east, lying near the Yuhluh kiang,
and commanding all the trade with Corea, which must pass
through it. There arc many restrictions upon this intercourse
by both governments, which forbid their subjects passing and
repassing the frontiers. The trade is conducted at fairs, under
the supervision of officers and soldiers, and the short time allowed
for concluding the bargains, and the great numbers resorting to
them, render them more like the frays of opposing clans than the
scenes of peaceable trade. There is a market-town in Corea
-itself, called Kt-iu wiin, about four leagues from the frontier,
where the Chinese " supply the Coreans with dogs, cats, pipes,
leather, stags' horns, copper, horses, mules, and asses ; and
receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine,
paper, mats, oxen, furs, and small horses." Only four or five
hours are allowed to conduct this fair, and the Corenn officere
under whose charge it is placed, drive all the strangers back to
the frontier'assoon as the day closes.*

The department of Kinchau lies along the gulf of Liautuiig,
between the Palisade and the sea, and contains four small dis-
trict towns, with forta, wtiose garrisons of agricultural troop*
have collected around them a few settlers. On the aoulh,
towards ChihU and the Wall, ihe country is better cultiTBted.

Anniles de h rropigatioa. 1316, pige 33.

The northern shores of ihe gulf are described by Lord Jocelyn a
presenting an agreeable surface; the hills terraced, and i
bling in general appearance the western coast of Scotland.
Great encouragement is held out to the Chinese to settle in these
parts, but the bleak climate, joined to the difficulty of under-
standing another language, and dislike of the rude Manchus,
disheartens ibem from extensive immigration.

The climate nf Manchuria is such as to prevent the country
from being thickly settled. One traveller describes it as being
colder than Moscow, while the dwellings are not secured so as to
insure warmth to their inmaies. A resident there says ; — " AU
though il is uncertain where God placed paradise, we may be
sure that he chose some other country than Liautung ; for of all
savage regions, this lakes a distinguished rank for the aridity of
the soil and rigor of the climate. On his entrance, the traveller
remarks Ihe barren aspect of most of the hills, and the naked-
ness of the plains, where not a tree nor a thicket, and hardly a
slip of a herb is to be seen. The natives are superior to
any Europeans I have ever seen for their powers of eating ;
beef and pork abound on their tables, and I think dogs and
horses loo under some other name ; rich people eat rice, the
poor arc content with boiled millet, or with another grain called
hae-ham, about thrice the size of millet and tasting like wheat,
which I never saw elsewhere. The vine is cultivated, but must
be covered from October to April ; the grapes are so watery that
a hundred litres of juice produce by distillation only forty of
poor spirit. ■ The mulberry does not grow here, but the leaves
of a tree resembling an oak are used to rear wild silkwomiB,
and this is a considerable branch of industry. The people relish
the worms as food after the cocoons have been boiled, drawing
them out with a pin, and sucking the whole until nothing but
the pellicle is lei\."* Another says, the ground freezes seven
feet in Kirin, and about three in Shingking ; ihe thermometer in
winter is thirty degrees below zero. The snow is raised into
Ihe air by the north-east winds, and becomes so fine that il pene-
trates the clothes, houses, and enters even the lungs. When
travelling, the eyebrows become a mass of ice, the beard a large
flake, and the eyelashes are frozen together ; the wind cuts and

* Aoo&Im cI« li Foi, tome XVT., pnge 399.

iMf TBE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

pieroea the skin like razors or needles. The earth is frozen
during eight months, but vegelation is rapid during the summer,
and the Htreoms are swollen by the thawing drills of snow.

The province of Kism, or Girio, comprises all the country
north-east of Shingking, bordering on the sea of Japan and gulf
of Tartary. It is bounded north by the Hingao ling, separating
it from Russia, east by the ocean, south-east by Corea and Shing-
king from which a palisade partly divides it, and west by Mon-
golia and Taitsihar ; extending through nearly twelve degrees
of latitude, and twenty of longitude. This extensive region is
thinly inhabited by Manchus settled in garrisons along the bot-
toms of the rivers, and by tribes having affinity with them,
who subsist principally by hunting and fishing, and acknow-
ledge their feally by a tribute of peltry, but who have no officers
of government placed over them. They have been called
Elching Tatse and Yupi Tatse and other names, by Du Halde,
which seem indeed to have been their ancient designations, but
which no longer appear on good Chinese maps, The Ghailaks
and other tribes on the coast are hardly known to the Chinese
geographers, and all are completely independent. The words
¥u-pi TakUi, or Fish-skin Tartars, are evidently descriptive (ind
not technical. This tribe inhabit the extensive valley of the Usuri,
aod do not allow the subjects of the emperor to live among them.
In winter they nestle together in kraals like the Bushmen, having
out down fuel enough to last them till warm weather, and sub-
aist upon the products of their summer's hshing.

Ririn is divided into three ruling ling departments or oom-
raanderies, viz. Kirin ula, or the garrison of Kirin. Petuni or
Pedn£, and Changchun ting. Kirin is the largest of the three
oommanderies, and is subdivided into eight garrison districts.
The town itself is situated on the Songari, in latitude 43° 4y
N., and longitude lafl" 25' E., and is a mere collection of huts,
with a few better built houses for tlie accommodation of the
officers. Niuguta is the largest town in the province ; it liea
east of it, and its officers have the direction of all the region
lying along the sea of Japan. The district extends more than
a thousand miles from east to weal, and about four hundred north
to south, and is inhabited by fishermen and hunters. The town
lies upon the river Hourha, which is described as running
^rough a fine vallev ; it is surrounded by a stockade, within

PBOVINCE OF BIRIN.

which are Iwo smaller inclosures. Near it is a subterranean
body of water, from wliioh large fish are procured. The officers
al Sanaing at the juiictioti of the Hourha with the Songari, have
rule over all the coumry along the banks of tbe Sagalien to the
ocean, including, according lo Chinese maps, the large island
of Tarakai. Many villages and posts are marked in the maps
on ihe banks of tbe rivers, but all of them are small.

Tho island of Tarakai, or Sagalien, lies off the moulh of the
KwSntung, extending about sis hundred miles from lalilude 46°
to 54°, and varying from iwenly-five to one hundred milcH in
width ; its area is about 30,000 sq. m. Tbe strait on its west-
ern shore has never been sailed through, and some doubl exists
ae to the accessibility of the mouth of the Sagalien by large
vessels. A bay about fifty miles wide lies off ihe embouchure,
and receives the waters of this majestic stream, which ail flow
north into ihe sea of Okhotsk, with a very rapid current. The
southern halfof liie island is mountainous, and the inhabitants
there are apparently governed by the Japanese from Yeso ; they
call themselves Ainos, but the Chinese call them Orun-chun,
Kuyih, and Fiyak. They subsist by fishing, dwell in huts, and
manufacture a cloth from willow bark ; their average height is
five feet three inches, and their physiognomy approaches to that
of the Kurile islanders. Their dress, and some of I heir customs,
show that llie Chinese and Munchus frequently visit them, and
there is probably considerablo intercourse with those living on
Ihe shores opposite Ihe main. Krusenstern found the inhabitants
of two villages on the north-west coast to consist entirely of
Manchus. The number of articles of cutlery, arms, cloth,
lackered ware, tkc., of Chinese and Japanese manufacture, in-
dicated thai they carry on some traffic. So far as the oh-servationa
of voyagers have gone, they do not cultivate Ihe soil ; and roots,
fruit, and berries, supply all their vegetable diet.

The chief town io the second commandery of Petune lies on
the Songari, near its junction with the Sagalien, in lal. 45° 10'
N., and long. 124° 40^ E. It is inhabited by troops, and persons
banished from China To these remote parts Ibr their crimes. Its
favorable position renders it a place of considerable trade and
importance, and during the summer months it is a busy mart for
these thinly peopled regions. The third commandery of Chang-
chun is small ; it lies west of Kirin and south of Petun£, just

IflS ' THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

beyond Uic Palisade. Allohoucu and Larin are Iwo other garri-
soned lowns in Kirin, which have attracted some of the trade on
the Songari and Amur.

Little or nothing is known concerning ihc languogee spoken
by ihe tribes in Kirin, their numbere, or their internal govern-
ment ; fur native statislioal writers content lliemaelves with giving
a bare list of names and divisions, and let the reader infer that
all the inhabitants are obedient subjects to the genlie away of the
son of heaven. Like true Chinese, ihey give no account of any
but thoee who will bring tribute, and " range themselves under
the renovating inHuence of the glorious sun of the celestial em-

The provinceof Tsi-TSi.HAB, or Hchlung kiang, comprises the
north-west of Manchuria, extending four hundred miles from east
to west, and about twelve hundred from north to south, ll is
bounded north by the Hingan ling ; east and south-east by San-
sing and Kirin ula, from which the Songari partly separates it ;
and south and west by Mongolia. The greatest part of it is oc-
cupied by the valley of the Nonni river, and its area of about
200,000 sq. miles is mostly an uninhabited mountainous wilder-
D6SS. It is divided into sis commanderies, viz. Tsitaihar, Hulan,
Ptitek, Merguen, Sagalien ulo, and Hurun.pir, whose officers have
control over the tribes within their limits; of these, Sagalien
ula, or Hehlung kiang ching, on the river of that name, is the
chief town in Ihe north-east districts, and is used by the govern-
ment of Peking as a penal settlement.

Tsi-tsi-har, the capital of the province, lies on the river Nonni,
in lat. 47°, and long. VZZi" E., and is a place of some trade, re-
sorted to by the tribes near the river. Merguen, Hurun-pir, and
Hutan, are situated upon rivers, and accessible when ihe waters
are free from ice. They are smaller than the posts in Kirin, and
most of them have never been described by Europeans. In fact,
&w of the towns in Manchuria have been visited since the sur-
veys and journeys of the Jesuits in Kangbi's lime, and the infor-
mation possessed of them is scanty and imperfect. Tsitsihar
was built in 1692 by Kangbi to overawe the neighboring tribes.
Il is inclosed by a stockade and a ditch. Amyot gives B list of
twenty-lwo towns in the whole of this vast region, but this pro-
bably comprises only those in which officers reside. The val-
ley of the Nonni is cultivated by the Taguri Manchus, b

whom six thousand six hundred families of Yakuics settled in
1B87, when they emigrated from Siberia. The Korcliin Mon-
gols occupy ihe country south and west of this valley. Some of
its streams produce large pearls. The part of Tsilfiihar south
of the Sialkoi mountains, is level, and most of it has been consi-
dered an extension of iho great de.sert ; though susceptible of
cultivation and receiving some, the rigor of the climate seems to
be one of the strongest reasons why it remains desolate. One
of the most marked distinctions between Ihe Mongols and Man-
chus is seen in the agricultural labors of the latter, so opposed to
the nomadic habits of the former.

The ad ministration of Manchuria conaiats of a supreme civil
government at Moukden, and three provincial military ones,
though Shingking is both civil and military. There ore five
Boards, each under a president, whose duties are analogous to
those at Peking, but on a greatly reduced scale. The oversight
of Ihe city itself, like that of Peking, is under a fuyin or mayor,
superior to ihe prefect. The three provinces are under as many
marshals, whose subordinates rule the commanderics, and these
last have garrison officers subject to them, whose rank and
power correspond to the size and importance of their dialricta.
These delegate part of their power to " aasialBnt directors," or
residents, who are stationed in every town ; on the frontier posts,
the officers have a higher grade, and report directly to the mar-
shals or their lieutenants. AH the ofiicers, both civil and mili.
tary, are Manchua, and a great portion of ihem belong to the
imperial clan, or are iniimalely connected with il. By this ar-
rangement, the Manchus are in a measure disconnected with the
general government of the provinces, furnished with offices and
titles, and induced to recommend themselves for promotion in the
empire by their zeal and fidelity in their distant posts.

Mongolia is the first in order of the colonies, by which are
meant those parts of the empire under the control of the Li-fan
Yuen, or Foreign Office. According to the statistics of the em-
pire, it comprises the region lying between lois. 35° and b'2°
N., from long. 82° to 123° E. [ bounded north by the Russian
government of Irkutsk ; nortb-cosi and east by Manchuria ; south
by the provinces of ChihU and Shansi. and the Yellow river;
MUth-west by Kuisuh ; and west t^ Cobdo and fit. Its length

k

from east to west is about eerenteen hundred miles, and oBe
thousand in its greatest breadth, inclosing an area of 1,400,000
M). miles, supporting an eBlitnated population of two millions.
McCuUoch describes this extensive region " as an elevated plain,
nlmoat destitute of either wood or water, inclosed southward by
the mountains of Tibet, and northward by offsets from the Altai
range. The central part is occupied by the great sandy desert
of Gobi, which stretches in a north-east direction about twelve
hundred miles with a breadth varying from five hundred to seven
hundred miles, a barren stepp having comparatively few fertile
tracts and stunted trees, and destitute for the most part of
water. The chief mountains of this region are, 1. The Altai,
and its various subordinate chains, extending eastward under the
names of Tangnu, Khangai, and Kcnieh, as far as the banks of
the Sagalien, where the range is deflected iiortliward ond joins
the Yablonoi- Kb rebel. 2. The Ala shan and !d shan ranges which
commence in lat. i-2° N. and long. 107" E., and curve N.N.E.,
and northward as far as the Amur in lat. 53° N,, where they
join the Altai.""

The rivers of Mongolia are numerous chiefly in the north, be-
longing to the basins either of the Irtish or Sagalien. Connected
with the farmer are ttie Selengo, Orkhon. and Tola, which unite
their streams and flow into lake Baikal. The Kerlon and Onon,
tributaries of the Sagalien, rise near eaeh other, on opposite sides
of the Renteh range, and flow in a north-east direction through
Mongolia. In the south are the Siro-muren, and its branchea,
whioh unite in the Liau river, and several rivers in the region of
Koko-nor, some pouring their waters into isolated lakes, and
others bearing their tribute to the Yellow river. The chief lakes
south of the desert are Koko-nor, or the Azure sea, and the Oling
and Dzaring, near the sources of the Yellow river. Inner Mon-
golia has no lakes of any importance, and those in the Kalku
khanates are small ; but Cobdo, in the north-west, is a country
of lakes, the principal being the Upsa nor and Altai nor, on the
east, Alak nor, on the south, and the !ki-aral, near which lies the
town of Cobdo.

The climate of Mongolia is exceesively cold, arising partly
from its great elevation and dry atmosphere, and on the stepps to

* Gcognphicil DictioniTj, TdL II., pags SM, '^

POUR DIVISIONS OP KOXGOLIA.

Ihe want of shelter from the winds. In the parts bordering on
Chihll, the people make their houses partly under ground, to avoid
the inclemency of the season. The soil in and upon the confines
of this high land is poor, and unfit for agricultural purposes, on
account of the want of moisture, neither snow nor rain fulling in
sufficient quantities except on the acclivities of ihe
ranges ; but millel, barley, and wheat might be raised north and
south ol' it, if l!io people were not averse to an agricullural life.
They rejoice in their freedom from such occupations, and move
about with their herds and possessions within the limits the Chi-
nese have marked out for each tribe to occupy.

The space on the north of Gobi lo the confines of Russia, about
one hundred and lifly miles wide, is warmer than the desert, and
supports a greater population than the southern sides. Cattle are
numerous on Ihe hilly tracts, but none arc found in the desert,
where wild animals and birds hold undisputed possession. The
thermometer in winter falls thirty and forty degrees below zero,
and sudden and great changes are frequent. No month in the
year is free from snow and frost ; but on the stepps, the heat in
summer is almost intolerable, owing to the radiation from the
sandy or stony surface. The snow does not fall very deep, and
oven in cold weather ihe cattle find food under it ; the flocks and
herds are not, however, very large.

The principal divisions of Mongolia are four, viz. : 1. Inner
Mongolia, lying between the Wall and south of the desert; 2.
Outer Mongolia, between the desert and the Altai mountains,
and reaching from the Inner Hingan to the Tien shan ; 3. the
country ahout Koko-nor, between Ransuh, Sz'chucn, and Tibet;
and, 4. the dependencies of Uliasutai, lying north-westward ot
Ihe Kalkas khanates. The whole of this region has been in-
cluded under the comprehensive name of Tarlary, and if the
limits of Inner and Outer Mongolia had been the Iwunds of Tar.
lary, Ihe appellation would have been somewhat appropriate.
Bui when Genghis arose lo power, he called his own tribe Kukai
Mongol, meaning Celestial People, and designated all the other
tribes Tatars, thai is, tributaries. The three tribes of Kalkns,
Tsakhars, and Snnniles, now constilule the great body of Mongols
under Chinese rule.

Inner Mongolia, or iViii Mungku. is bounded north by Tsiisi.
bar, the TsetKn khanate, and Gobi ; east by Kirin and Shing

ISO rHE MIDDLE KINGDOU.

king, from which a palisade divides it; south by Chihll i
Shaiui; and west by Kansuh. The country is divided into six
corps, and twenty-four tribes, which arc again placed under forty-
nine standards or khochoun, each of which generally includea
about two thousand families, commanded by hereditary princes,
or dzDssaks. The principal tribes are ibc Kortchin and Ortous.
The large tribe of the Tsakhars, which occupies the region north
of the Wall, is governed by a luiung, or general, residing at Kal-
gan, at lite Changkia gale, and their pasture-grounds are now
included in ihe province of Chihlt. The province of Shansi in
tike manner includes the lands occupied by the Toumeis, who
are under the control of a general stationed at Suiyuen, beyond
the Yellow river.

Most of the smaller tribes, except the Ortous, who occupy the
country between the bend of the Yellow river and the Great
Wall, live between the western frontiers of Manchuria, and the
Htepps reaching north to the Sialkoi range, and south to Chohar.
These tribes are peculiarly favored by the Manchus, from their
having joined them in their conquest of China, and their leading
men are ot\en promoted to high stations in the government cflhe
country. The whole of Inner Mongolia is gradually improving
under the industry of Chinese settlers and exiles, and the foster-
ing care of the imperial government.

OuTRS Mongolia, cr Wai Mvngku, is an extensive tract lying
north of Inner Mongolia as far as Russia ; it is bounded north by
Russia, eost by Tsilsihar, south-east and south by Inner Mon-
golia, south-west by Barkoul in Kansuh, west by Tarbagatai, and
north-west by Cobdo and Uliasutai. Tlie desert of Gobi occu-
pies the southern half of the region. It is divided into four la,
or circuits, each of which is governed by a khan or prince,
claiming direct descent from Genghis, and superintending the in-
ternal management of hb own khanate. The Tsetsen khanate
lies west of Hurun-pir in Tsitsihar, extending from Russia on the
north lo Inner Mongolia on the south. West of it, reaching from
Siberia across the desert to Inner Mongolia, lies the Tuchfitu
khanate, the most considerable of the four ; the road from
Kiakhta to Ralgan and Peking across the desert lies within its
borders. West of the last, and bounded south by Gobi, and
north-east by Uliasutai, lies the region of the Kalkaa of Sain-
noin ; and on ita north-west lies the Dzassaktu khanate, aoutli of

J OCTEB MONOOLI*.

167

Uliasulai, aiid reaching lo Barkoul aod Cobdo on the soulh and
weal. All or Ihem are politically under the control of Iwo
Manchu reeideRis at Urga or Rurun, who direct the mutual
interests of the Monguls, Chinese, and Russians.

Most of ihe real power over the Kalkus is in the hands of a
kind of high-priest colled k-utuktu, living at Kurun, the largest
town in Mongolia, situated in the Tuclietu khanate in latitude
49" 20' N., and longitude 107i» E., on the Tola river, a branch
of the Selenga. The four khanates constitute one aimak or tribe,
subdivide'd into eighty-six standards, each of which is restricted
to a certain territory, within which it wanders about at pleasure.
There are altogether one hundred and thirty-live standards of the
Mongols. The Kalkas chiefly live in the country between the
Altai mountains and Gobi, but do not cultivate the soil to any
great extent. They are devoted to Budhism, and the lamas hold
most of the power in their hands through the kutuktu. They
render an annual tribute lo the emperorof horses, camels, sheep,
and other animals or their skins, and receive presents in return
of many times its value, so thiil they arc kept in subjection by
constant bribing ; the least resliveness on their part is visited by
a reduction of presents and other penalties. An energetic
government, however, is not wanting in addition. The supreme
tribunal is at Urga ; it is called the yamoun, and has the civil
and military jurisdiction, and administers justice. The decisions
of Ihe tribunal are subject to the revision of Chinese residents,
and sentences are usually carried into execution atler their con-
firmation. The punishments are horribly severe ; sometimes
the criminal is broken on the wheel, sometimes quartered, at
others torn in pieces by horses, or the feet held in boiling

Letters are encouraged among them by the Manchus, but with
little success. Their tents are made of a frame-work of osier
covered with layers of felt ; the hearths are in the centre, and
few of them have more than two apartments. The lodges of the
rich Kalkas have several apartments, and are elegantly furnished,
but destitute of cleanliness, comfort, or airiness. Most of their
cloths, utensils, and arras are procured from the Chinese. The
SuQiiltes are fewer than the Kalkos, and roam the sterile wastes
of Gobi in the manner of the Bedaween. Both derive some
revenue from conducting caravans across their country, but de-

168 TBB MIDDLE KIHQDOU.

pend k)T their livelihood chiefly upon the produce of their bsrda
and hunting. Their princes arc obliged to reside in Kurun, oi
keep hostages there, in order that the residenta may direct and
reiHraiD their conduct ; but their devotion to the kutukiu, and the
easy life they lead, are the strongest inducements to remain.

The trade with Russia is carried on at Kiakhta, a hamlet on a
creek of the same name, in latitude 50° 21' N., and longitude
106° 28' E., flowing into the Selenga, close lo the border, the
boundary line, marked by granite columns, running between it
and Msi-mai chin on the Chinese side. The trade is carried on
between a small suburb of Kiakhta, consJHting of fidy houses, and
Maimai chin, and when the goods are entered they pay duty at
the custom-house in the Russian cily. The Chinese town con-
eista entirely of men engaged in traffic, no women being allowed
in ihe place, from twelve hundred to (ifleen hundred in number,
under the superintendence of Manchu oflicerB appointed from
Peking. The trade is conducted by six commissioners appointed
on each side, who itx the price of every arlicle of import, and
of the tea exchanged for it, and the proportion of each sort to be
exchanged. The imponw consist of Russian habit-oloihs, velvet-
eens, camlets, linen, leather, skins, and furs; lire-arms, cutlery,
mirrors, watches, and other fancy articles. The numbers of these
commodities in 1843 were, habil-cloths and other woollens,
20,439 pa. ; Russian and Dutch camlets, 26,178 jis. ; linens,
5ST,012 ps. i velveteens, 1,167,138 pa.; goal-skins tanned,
62,605 skins ; furs, consisting of cut, squirrel, otter, lynx, and
musquash, 1,011,177 skins; and 180,345 fine lamb-akina from
Bokhara and the Ukraine. These goods are always exchanged at
a fixed valuation for tea and preserves, lackered- ware, nankeens,
and silks, but no data are obtainable of the amount and value ;
in 1B34, the average amount of tea for the two or three years
preceding was nearly eight millions of pounds ; there were
120,000 chests in 1843, all black.* Brick tea forms a considera-
ble part of the whole; it is used by tho Mongols in Siberia;
opium is introduced in small quantities. The total trade is stated
by Coltrell at a hundred millions of rubles annually (over
£4.166,000), and the import duty paid by Russians in 1836 wu

* Chinvie Repusilory, Vol. XIV., pige 290.

k

TBADB AT SIAKHX*. COBDO. 10B

X496,^75 ; but from (he nionopoiy enjoyed by the commissioners
on bolli sides, h is not very profitable to the private traders.
Others plaue it much less than this.

Maimai chin {i. e. Buying-Selling mart) is a small hamlet,
having two streets crossing at right angles, and gates at the four
eods, in the wooden wall which surrounds il. The streets barely
allow two camels to pass, and are badly paved. The one-storied
houses are constructed of wood, roofed wiih turf or boards, and
consist of two small rooms, one used as a shop and the other as
a bed-room. The windows in the rear apartment are made of
oiled paper or mica, but the door is the only opening in ihe shop.
The dwellings are kept clean, the furniture in of a Nuperior
description, and considerable tost? and show are seen In display-
ing ihe goods. The traders live luxuriously, and altract a great
crowd there during the fair in February, when the goods are
exchanged. They are under the control of a Manchu called the
dzarguchl, who is appointed for three years, and superintends the
police of the settlement as well as the commercial
There ijre two Budhist temples in it served by ki
laming Rvc colossal images silting cross-legged, a
smaller idols.'

The western portion of Mongolia between the meridians of 64°
and 96° E., extending from near the western extremity of Kan-
suh province to the conlincs of Russia, comprising Uliasuiai and
its dependencies, Cobdo, and the Knlkas and Tourgoulhs of the
Tangnu mountains, is less known than any other part of it. The
residence of the superintending officer of this province is at
Uliasutai, or Poplar Grove, a town lying north-west of the Selen-
ga, in the khanate of Soin-noin, in a well cultivated and pleasant

Cobdo, according to the Chinese maps, lies in the north-west
of Mongolia ; il is bounded north and west by the government of
Yenissei, north-east by Ulianghai, and south-east by the Dzas-
saklu khanate, south by Kansuh, and west by Tarbagatai. The
part occupied by the Ulianghai tribes of the Tangnu mountaina
lies north-east of Kobdo, and north of the Sain-noin and Dzas-
saktu khanates, and separated from Russia by the Altai. The
government of the Ulianghai tribes is administered by twentf-

* Cottrair* RecolUction* or Siberia. Chap. IX., pi(* 314,

170

TRE MIDDLE KIN SIMM.

L

five subordinate military aiTicera, subject to the resident nt Ulifc
euiui. This ciiy is said to contain about two thousand houses, ia
regularly luilt, and carries on some irado with Kurun ; it lt«
on the Iro, a tributary of llie Djabkan. Cobdo comprises eleven
tribes of Kalkas divided inio thirty-one standards, whose princes
obey an amban at Cobdo city, himsslf subordinate to the resident
at Uliasutai. The Chinese rule over these tribes is conducted
on the same principles as thai over the other Mongols, and they
all render fealty to the emperor through the chief resident at
Uliasutai, but how much obedience is really paid his orders
not known. The Kalkas submitted lo the emperor in 1688 to
avoid estinclion in iheir war with the Eleuths, by whom they
had been defeated.

Cobdo contains several lakes, many of which receive riven
without having any outlet, but it is not known whether they ara
all salt. The largest is Upsa nor, which receives from the east
the river Tes, aud the fk!-aral nor into which the Djabkan falls.
The river Irtish falls into lake Dzaisang. The existence o '
many rivers indicates a more fertile country north of the Altai
or Ektag mountains, but no bounties of nature would avail to
induce the inhabitants to adopt settled modes of living and culti-
vate the soil, if such a clannish stale of society exists among them
as is described by M. Levchine to be the case among their neigh-
bors, the Kirghts. The tribes in Cobdo resemble the Amerieaa
Indians in their habits, disputes, and modes of life, more than ths
eastern Kalkas, who approximate in their migratory character la
the Arabs.

The province of Tsing hai. or Koko-nor, is not included
Mongolia by European geographers, nor in the Chinese statistical
works is it comprised within its liinits ; the inhabitants are, how-
ever, mostly Mongols, and the government is conducted on the
same plan as thai over the KaJkus tribes further north. Thh
region is known in ihe histories of Central Asia under the namo*
of Tangout, Sifan, Turfao, d;c. On Chinese maps it is called
Tsing hai, but in their books is named Si Yu or St Yih, i. ».
Western Limits. The borders are now limited on the north by
Kansuh, south-east by Sz'chuen ; south by Anterior Tibet,
west by the desert, comprising about six degrees of latitude
longitudu.

OJ XOKO-NOE. 171

It includes within ita limits several large loltes, wluch rcc(?ive
rivers into their bosoms, and many of them having no outlets ;
the Azure sea is the largest, but it has not been viBited by travel-
lers, and nothing is known of its character. Chinese maps deli-
neate il as about one hundred and ninety miles long by sisty
wide, and its borders level and settled. This extensive province
is occupied by Tourgouths, Hoshoits, Kalkas, and other tribes,
who are arranged under Iwenty-nine standards, and governed by
a Manchu general residing al Siniug fu in Kansuh ; nmny of
them are clustered around the shores of the Azure sea. West
ofKoko-nor, extending across Gobi to Turkestan, tribes of Eleuths,
Tourbeths, and others find pasturage, the whole of them arranged
under thirty-four standards. The habits of these nomads, wan-
dering at their pleasure and making it difficult lo restrain them,
renders il almost impossible, with the little authentic information
DOW possessed, lo define their limits or ascertain their numbers.
The Chinese maps are tilled with the names of the tribes, but
their statistical accounts are as meagre of information as the
maps are deficient in accurate and satisfactory delineations.

The topographical features of this region are high mounlain
masses wiih narrow valleys between them, and a few large de-
pressions containing lakes ; the country lying south of the Azure
sea, as far fis Burmah, is exceedingly mountainous. The south-
em range which separates the headwaters of the Yellow river
and Yangtsz' kiang, is called the Bayan kara mountains ;
that north-west of this is called Kflien shan and Nan sban,
and bounds the desert on the south ; between them rises
the Siuch shan, or Snowy mountains, much higher than
either. On the northern declivities of the Kilien range are
several towns lying on or near the great western rood leading
across Central Asia, which leaves the valley of the Yel-
low river at Lancbau fu, in Kansuh, and runs N.N.W. over a
rough country to Liangchau fu, a town of some importance situ-
ated in a fertile and populous district. From this place it goes
N.W. to Kanchau fu, noted for its manufactures of felted cloths
which are in demand among the Mongol tribes of Koko-nor, and
where large quantities of rhubarb are procured, besides horses,
shet'p, and other commodilies. Going still north- West, the travel-
ler reaches Suh chau, the last large place before passing the
Great Wall and entering the desert road, which renders it a mart

I 1TB THE MIDDLE

I for provisions nnd all articles brought from the west in exchange

for the manufactures of China. About fifty miles from ihis town
is [he pass of Kiayti, beyond which the road lo Hami, Oroumtsi,
and Ilf, leads directly across the desert, here about three bun.

, dred miles wide. This route has been for ages the line of inter,

nal communication between the west of China and the regions
lying nruund and in the basins of the Yarkand river and the Cas-
pian. A belter idea of the comparative security of Iraffic and

* caravans within the empire, and consequently of the goodness of

the Chinese rule, is obtained by comparing the travel on this road
with the hazards, robberies, and poverty met on the great roads
in Bokhara, and the regions south and west of the Belur tag.

I The productions of Tsing hai consist of grain and other vege-

tables raised along the bottoms of the rivers and margins of the
lakes, sheep, cattle, horses, camels, and other animais. The
yak is used extensively for carrying burdens. The Chinese
have settled among the trihea. and Muhanunedaus of Turkish
" origin arc found in the large towns. There are eight corps be-

ll tween Tsing hai and Uliasulai, comprising all the tribes and

banners, and over which are placed as many supreme generals or
commanders appointed from Peking. The leading tribes in
t Tsing hai are Eleulhs and Tourbelhs, the former of whom are

' the remnants of one of the most powerful tribes in *Cen(ral Asia.

Tangout submitted to the emperor in IGIKI, and its population since
the incorporation has greatly increased. The trade at Sining fu
' is lai^e, bul not equal to that between Yunnan and Burmah at

Bamo ; dales, rhubarb, chowries, precious stones, felts, cloths,
&o,, are among the commodities seen in tlie bazaar. This city
lies in lat. 36' 89' N. and long. 100° 48' E., about a hundred
miles east of the sea; tiie department of which it is the capi-
I tal comprises many small detached tribes within its limits, who

are ruled by their own authorities, and not under such direct
military sway as those living furtlier west.*
^ The towns lying between the Great Wall and Ilf, though be-

longing to Kansuh, are more connected with the colonies in their
form of government than with the Eighteen Provinces. The firat
town beyond the Kiayil pass is Yuh-mun hien, distant about'
ninety miles, and is the residence of officers, who attend to the

L

D OkOUMTSl. 173

eonvaiiB going to and from the pass. It is represented eis lying
near the Junclion of Iwo streams, which Row northerly into the
Pu-run-ki. The other district town of Tunhwong lies across a
mountainous country, uptvurda of two hundred miles distant.
The city of Ngansi chuu lias been built for facilitating the com-
munication across ibe desert to Hami or Kamil, the first town in
Songaria, and the dfipAt of troops, arms, and munitions of war.
There is a large trade al Hanii, and the country around it is cul-
tivated by |M>or Mongols. Barkoul, or Ctiinaf fu, in latitude
43° 40' N., and longitude 94° E., is the rnost important place in
the department; the district is called Iho bien. A thousand
Manchus, and three thousand Chinese, guard the post. The town
is situated on the south of lake Barkoul, and die vicinity receives
some cultivation, Hami and Turfiui each form a Itn^ district, in
the south-east and west of the department. The trade at all
these places consists mostly of articles of food and clothing.

Oroumtsi, or Tih-hwa chau. in latitude 43" 45' N., and longi-
tude 89° E., is the westernmosl department of Kansuh, divided
into three districts, and containing many posts and settlements.
In the war with the Elcuths in 1770, the inhabitants around this
place were exterminated, and the country aderwards repeopled
by upwards of len thousand troops, with their families, and by
exiles ; emigrants from Kansuh were also induced to settle there.
The Chinese accounts speak of a high mountain near the city,
always covered with ice and snow, whose base is wooded, and
abounding with pheasants ; coal is also obtained in this region,
The cold is great, and snow falls as late as July- Many parts
produce grain and vegetables. All this department formerly
constituted a portion of Songaria. The policy of the Chinese
government is to induce the tribes to settle, by plocing large
bodies of troops with their familieM at all important points, and
sending ibeir exiled criminals to till the soil ; the Mongols then
find an increasing demand for their callle and other products, and
are induced to become stationary to meet it. So far as is known,
this policy has succeeded well in the regions beyond tlie Wall,
Dow joined to Kansuh, and those around Koko-nor.

That part of the empire called IlJ, is a vast region lying on
each side of the Celestial mountains, and including a tract nearly
•• luje as Mongolia, and not much more suflceptible of cultivs-

174 Tut MUDI.E Kl.tGlHlM.

tion. Its limitB may be stated us eiclending froni latitude 36° to
49° N., and froin longitude 71° to 06° E., and ils entire areo,
although difficult to estimate frciiii Its irregularity, can hardly be
less than 900,000 square milea, of which Songaria occupies
rather more ihnn one third, ll is divided by the Tien shan into
two parts, called X.U, or Circuits, viz. the Tien-ahan Peh Lu, and
Tien-slian Nan Lu,or Uie circuits north and south of the Celestial
mountains. The former is commonly designated Songaria, from
the Songares or Eleutlis, who ruled it till a few scores of years
past, and tlie latter is known as Little Bokhara, or Eastern
Turkestan.

lii is bounded north by the Altai range, separating it from the
Kii^bfa; north-east by the Irtish river, and Outer Mongolia;
east and south-east by Oroumtsi and Barkoul in Kansuh ; south
by the desert and tlie KwiLnlun range ; and west by the Belur
mountains, dividing it from Kokand and Badakshon. In length,
the Northern Circuit extends about nine hundred miles, and the
width on an average is three hundred miles. The Southern Cir-
cuit reaches nearly twelve hundred and fifty miles from west lo
east, and varies from three hundred to five hundred in breadth)
SB it extends to the Koulkun range on the south. There is pro-
bably most arable land in the Northern Circuit,

Ilf, taken as a whole, may be regarded as an inland isthmus,
extending south-west from the south of Siberia, off between the
Gobi and Caspian deserts, till it reaches the Hindu Kuah, leading
down to the valley of the Indus. The former of these deserts
incloses it on the east and south, the other on the west and north-
west, separated from eachother by the Belur and Muz tag ranges,
which join with the Celestial mountains that divide the islhmua
itself into two parts. These deserts united are equal in extent
to the Sahara, hut are not as arid and tenantless.

This part of the world has some peculiar features which dis-
tinguish it from all others, among which its great elevation, its
isolation in respect to its water courses, and the character of its
vegetation, are the most remarkable. Songaria is especially
noticeable for the many closed river basins which occur between
llie Altai and Celestial mountains, among the various minor
ranges of hills, each of which is entirely isolated, and containing

lake, the receptacle of ils drainage. The lorgest of these sin-
gular basins is that of the river III, or Djabkan, which

i

iLi. SONGAKIA.

sbmit three hundred miles westward, from its riae in the Celestial
mountaina till it Tails into lake Balkash, which also receives snme
Other streams ; the superficies of the whole basin is about forty
thousand square miles, not far from the area of Tennessee. The
other lakes lie north-eastward of Balkash ; the largest of them
are the Dzaisang, which receives the Irtish, the Kisilbash, into
which the Urungu flows, and four or five smaller ones between
them, lying north of the city of 111. The basin of lake Tetnunu,
or Issikul, lies in the south-western part of this Circuit ; this
sheet of water is fresh, about one hundred miles long, and thirty-
live wide ; its superabundant waters flow off through the Chui ho
into the Eirghfs slepp.

Little is known concerning the topography, the producliooa. or
the civilization of the tribes who inhabit much of Songaria, but
the efforts of the Chinese government have been systematically
directed to developing its agricultural resources, by stationing
bodiee of troops in every part, who cultivate the soil, and banish-
ing criminals there, who are obliged to work for and assist the
troops. It gives one a higher idea of the rulers of China, them-
selves wandering nomads originally, when they are seen carrying
on such a plan for developing the capabilities of these remote
parts of their empire, and leaching, partly by force, partly by
bribes, and partly by example, the Mongol tribes under them the
advantages of a settled life.

The productions of Songaria are numerous. Wheat, barley,
rice, and millet, are the chief corn stufis ; tobacco, cotton, melons,
and some fruits, are grown ; herds of horses, camels, cnltle, and
sheep, afford means of locomotion and food to the people, while
the mountains and lakes supply game and fish. The inhabitants
are composed mostly of Eleulhs, with a tribe of Tourgouths,
and rejnnants of the Songares, together with Mongols, Manchus,
and Chinese troops, settlers and criminals.

TiEK-sHAN Peh Lii is divided by the Chinese into three com-
manderies, I'li on the west, Tarhagatai on the north, and Kur-kara
UTO on the east between fli and Uroumtsi, in Kunsuh. The go-
vernment of the North and South Circuits is under the contml
of Hanohu military officers residing at Ili. This city, c^ilted
hy the Chinese Ilwuiyuen chiog, and Gouldja or Kuldsha, and
Kura by the natives, lies on the north bank of the Ili river, in
latiWilB 43** 48' N. and lon^tude 83^° E. ; it oontaina aboiH

k

fifty thousand itihabiinnls, nnd corriea on conBiderable lred« with
China ihrough tlie ciiies in Kansuh und also with other towns
It 19 inclosed by n slonc wall, and contains burracks, forls, gra-
naries, and public offices for the use of government, Ii is slated
in Chinese works thai when Aimiraana, the discontented chief of
the Songares, applied in 1775 to Kienlung for assistance against
his rival Tawals or Duvnlsi, and was sent back with a Chinese
ftrmy, in the engagements which ensued, more than a million of
people were destroyed, and ttie whole country depopulated. Al
that time, Kuldsha was built by Kienlung, and«oon became a
place of note. Outside of the town are the barracks for the
troops, which consist of Elcuths and Mohammedans as well as
Manchus and Chinese. Conl is found in this region, and most
of the inland rivers produce abundance of fish, while wild ani-
mals and birJs are numerous. The resources of the counlrj
are, however, insufficient to meet the expenses of the military
establishment and the presents made lo the bega, and the deficit
is supplied from China.

Subordinate to the control of the commandant at Kuldsha are
nine garrisoned places situated in the same valley, at each of
which are bodies of Chinese convicts. The two remaining dis-
tricts of Tarbagaiai anil Kur-kara usu are small compared with
ll(; the first lies between Cobdo and the KirghSs stepp, and
w inhabited mostly by emigranls from the stepps of the
latter, who render merely a nominal subjection to the gar-
risons placed over them. The Tourgoulhs, who emigrated
from Russia in 1772 into China are located in this district
and Cobdo. In the war with the Songares, many of the people
fled from the valley of flf to this region, and afler that country
was settled, they submilled lo the emperor, and partly returned
to III. The chief town, called Tugiichuk by the Kirghts, and
Syilsing ching by the Chinese, is situated not far from the south-
em base of the Tarbagatai mountains, and contains about six
hundred houses, half of which belong lo the garrison. It is one
of the ninr fortified towns under the control of the commandant
at Kuldsha, and a place of some trade whh Ihe Kirghis. There
ere two residents stationed here wiih high powers to oversee the
trade and intercourse across ihe frontier, bul their duties are
inferior in importance to those al Kurun. There are about 2500
Manohu and Chinese troops at this post, &nd since the conquHt

TARBAGATAI

of the country in 1772 by Kienlung, its ogricuIlurBl products
have gradually incroaaed under llie induslry of the Chioese.
Tlie tribes dwelling in this distant province are restricted within
certain limits, and their obedience secured by preseniB. The
climate of Tarbagatai is changeable, and the cold weather com-
prises more ihnn half the year. The basin of lake Alakul,
or Alaktukul, occupicR the soulh-west, and part of the Irtish and
lake Dzaisang tbe north-east, so that it is well watered. The
trade consists chiefly of domestic animals and cloths.

Kur-kara usu lies on the river Kur, north-east from Kuldsha,
and on the road between i( and UroumtKi; it is called Kingsui
ching by the Chinese. The number of troops stationed at all
these posts is cstlmaled at sixty thousand, and the total population
of Songaria under two millions.

The TiEN-SHAS Nan Ln, or Southern Circuit of Ili, the territory
of ■' the eight Mohammedan cities," waa named Sin Kiang (or
New Frontier) by Kienlung, and has been called Litlle Bokhara
and Chinese or Eastern Turkestan, by foreigners. It is less
fertile thnn the Northern Circuit, (he greatest part of its area
consisting of rugged mounioins or barren wastes, barely afford-
ing subsistence for herds of cattle and goals. Tlte principal
boundaries are the Kwinlun mountains, and the desert, separat-
ing it from Tibet on the south; Ludak lies on the south-west,
and Badakshan and Kokand are separated from it on the west
and north-west by the Belur tag.

The greater part pi this Circuit is occupied with the basin of
the Tarim, which flows from ihe Belur range in four principal
branches, called from the towns lying upon iheir banks the
Yarkand, Kashgar, Oksu, and Khoten rivers, and running east-
wan], receives several allluents from the north and south, and
falls into lake Lop, iu longitiide 38° E., atler a course, including
windings, of between 1300 and 1500 miles. This lake lies on
the edge of the desert, in an uninhabited region, and surrounded
by extensive swamps, which extend also west along the Tarim
to its junction with the Kaidu. No other river basins of any
size are found within the Circuit, except a large tributary called
the Eaidu, which, draining a parallel valley north of Lop nor,
two hundred miles long, runs into a lake nearly as large, called
Bostang nor, from which an outlet on tie south continues it
into thu Tariin, about eighty miles from its moutl>. The tribu

ITS THE BIlDDl^ RIHODOH.

tariea orihis river are repreaented as much more serviceable for
agricultura! purposes llian the main trunk is fur UBvigiition.
The plain through which the Torini flows is about two hundred
miles brood and not far from nine hundred miles long, most of
it unfit for cultivation or pasturage. The desert extends coa
siderably west of the two lukes. The climate of this region is
exceedingly dry, and its barrpnni.'BS is owing, apparently, more
lo Ihe want of moisture than to the nature of the soil. The
western parts are much colder than those towards Kansuh, the
river being passable mi ice ni Yarkand, in latitude 38°, for three
months, while frost is hardly known at Hami, in latitude 42°.

The productions of ihe valley of the Tarim comprise most
of the grains ond fruits found in southern Europe; the sesa-
mum IB cultivated for oil instead of the olive. Few trees or
shrubs cover the mounlain acclivities or plains. All the domes-
tic animals atnund, except the hog, which is reared in small
numbers by the Chinese. The camel and yak are raised for
food and service, and iheir pelage affords both skins and hair for
garments. The horse, camel, black cattle, ass, and sheep, are
found wild on the edge of the desert, where ihey procure a pre-
carious subsistence. The mountains and marshes contain
jackals, ligers, bears, wolves, lynxes, and deer, logether with some
large species of birds of prey. Gold, copper, and iron are brought
from this region, but the amount is not Urge, and as articles of
trade they are less important than the sal-ammoniac, saltpetre,
sulphur, and asbestos obtained from the vglcanic region in Ihe
east of the Celestial mountains. The best specimens of the t/uh
or nephrite, so highly prized by the Chinese, are obtained in the
Southern Circuit.

The present divisions of this Circuit are regulated by the
position of the eight Mohammedan cities. The western depart.
meats of Kansuh naturally belong lo the same region, and the
cities now pertaining to that province are inhabited by much
the same races, and governed in the same feudal manner, with
•ome advantages in consideration of their early submission to

i

The first town on ihe road, of note, is Hami ; Turfan
iportanl as trading posts than as garri-

Kienlung.
■nd Pidsb)

sons. The eight cities are named in the SlatiMics of the Em-
pire in the following order, beginning at the east : Harashar,
Kuche, Ushi (including Sairim and Bai), Oksu, Khoten, Yarkand,

CdlES LN THE SOL'THEBN CIRCPIT. 179

Cashgar, and Yingkeshar. The superior officers live at Yarkand,
but the Southern Circuit is divided into four minor governments
at Hurashar, Ushi, Y'arkand, and Khoten, each of whose residents
ri^porls both to Kuldsha and Peking.

Haraehar lies on the Kaidn river, not far from lake Boslang,
alxjut two hundred and ninety miles west of Turfan, in lat. 42°
la' N., and long. 87° E. It is a large district, and has two towns
of some note wiihio the jurisdiction of its ofKoers, — namely,
Kuril aod Bukur. Harashar la forlifled, and from its being a
secure position, and the seat of the chief resident, attracts con-
siderable trade. Thi^ embroidery is superior ; but the tribes
living in the district are more addicted to huntiog than disposed
lo sedentary trades. Kurli lies soutli-wcsl of Harashar on the
Kaidu, between lakes Bnslang and Lop, ami tho productions of
liie town and its vicinity indicate a fertile soil ; the Chinese say
the Mohammedans who livo here are fond of singing, but have
no ideas of ceremony or urbanity. Bukur lies two hundred
miles west of Kuril, and " might be a rich and delicious coun-
trj'," says the Chinese account, "but those idle, vagrant Mo-
hammedans only use their strength In thefl and plunder; tlie
women blush M nothing," The town formerly contained up-
wards of ten thousand inhabitants, but Kienlung nearly destroyed
ll ; the district has been since resettled by Hoshoits, Tourbelhs,
and Turks, and the people carry on some trade in the produce
of their herds, lynx skins and other peltry, copper, and agates.

Kucli6, about one hundred miles west from Bukur, lat. 41°
37' N., and long. 82° 55' E., is a larger and more important city
than that or Harashar, for tho road which crosses the Tien
shan by the pass Muz-dabon lo Ili, here joins that coming
from Oksu on ihc west and Kami on the east. It is three
miles in circuit, and is defended by ten forts end three hundred
troops. The bazaars contain grain, fruits, and vegetables, raised
in the vicinity by great labor, for the lond requires to be Irri-
gated by hand from wells, pools, and streams. Copper, sulphur,
and saltpetre are carried across lo III, for use of government as
well as traffic, being partly levied from the inhabitants as taxes ;
linen is mannfactured in the town, and sal ammoniac, cinna-
bar, and quicksilver are procured from the mountains. Kuchfi
is considered the gate of Turkestan, and Is the chief town, poli-
tically speaking, between Hami and Yarkand. The disiriol

w

iM

sod town of Shayar lie souih of Kuche, in a marshy valley jm-
diicing abundance of rice, melons, and fruit ; the pears are par-
ticularly gooH. The population is about four thouaasd, ruled
by hega subordinate to the general at Kuche.

The valley of the Okau contains two lai^e towns, Oksu and
Ushf, besides several posts and villages. Between the former
Biul Kuch6, lie the small garrisons and distriols of Boi and Sai-
rim. The first contain I from four (o five hundred families, ruled
by their own chiefs. Sairim or Hanlemuh is subordinate toUshf
in some degree, but its productions, climate, and inhabitants are
like those of Kuch6. " Their manners are simple," remarks a
Chinese writer, speaking of the people ; " they are neither cow.
ards nor rogues like the other Mohammedans ; they are fond of
singing, drinking, and dancing, like those of Kuch£." Oksu is a
large commercial and manufacturing town, containing twenty
thousand inhabitants, situated, like Ruch6, at the termination of
a road leading across the Tien shan to Ilf, and attracting to its
market traders from Siberia, Bokhara, and Kokand, as well as
along the great road. Its manufactures of coiion, silk, leather,
harnesses, crockery, precious stones, and metals are good, and
sent abroad in great numbers. The country produces grain,
fruits, vegetables, and cattle in perfection, and the people are
more civilized than those on the east and north ; " they are gene-
rous and noble, and both sing and ridicule the oddities and nig-
gardliness of the other Mohammedans." The Chinese garrison
consists of three thousand soldiers, and the ofRcers are account-
able to those at Ushi.

Usht lies higher up the valley, in lot. 41° 35' N. and long.
77° 50' C, and is slated to contain ten thousand inhabitants. It
Ib called Yungning ching (i. e. city of Elemal Tranquillity) in
Chinese, a name given it by Kienluiig. The officers stationed
here report to ihe commnndani at fit, but they communicate
directly with Peking, and receive the emperor's sanction lo their
choice of begs, and to the envoys to bo sent to ihe capital with
tribute. Copper money is oast here in ingots, somewhat like the
ingots of sycee in the provinces. There are sLx forts attached
to Usht, lo keep in order the wandering tribes of the Kirghls,
called Pruth Kirfihis, which roam over the frontier regions be.
tween Ushi and Yarkand. They pay homage lo the officers at
CaU, but give no tribute. Those who do pay tribute are taxed

J

irsHl, KASHGAE, a:4d varkand. ISl

B tenth, but Ihe Kirglils on Ihis fronlier are usunlly allowed to
roam where Ihey like, provided ihey keep the pence. This re-
gion waa nearly depopulated by Kienlung's generals, ond at pre-
sent supports a sparse population compared with Its fertility
and resources.

The large town of Kashgar ia situated at the north-western
angle of the Southern Circuit, on the Kashgar river, in lalitude
89" 26' N. and longitude 75° E., at the extreme west of the
empire, Several roads meet here. Going in a north-weal
direction, one leads over the Celestial mountains to Kokand ; a
secoiid passes south, through Yarkand and Khoion, to Ceh and
Cashmere ; a third, ihe great caravan route, from China through
Ushi, may be said to end here ; and the fourth and most fre-
quented, leads oB" north-east over the Tien shnn through the Rowat
pass, and along the western banks of lake Issikul to tlf- The
trade thus concentrated here renders Kashgar the emporium of
the commerce of Centra! Asia ; its population is estimated at
eighty thousand, consisting of represenlalivea from all parts of
the empire and the valley of the Caspian, Russians, Tibetans,
AfTghans, and Sikhs.

In the middle of the town is a large square, and four bazaars
branch from il through to the gates ; the garrison is placed with-
out iho walls. The manufactures of Kashgar excel those of
any other (own in the two Circuits, especially in jade, gold, silk,
cotton, gold and silver cloths, and carpels. The taxes are sent
to III. The country around produces fruit and grain in abun-
dance ; "the manners of the people have an appearance of
elegance and politeness," says ihe Chinese geographer; "Ihe
women dance and sing in family parties ; they fear and respect
the otiicers, and have not the wild uncultivated aspect of those
in Ushi." Several towns were formerly subordinate to Kashgar,
but since the rebellion of 1827, its political importance has gone,
and with ihot much of the trade, to Yarkand. South-west from it
is Tashbniig, and on the road leading to Yarkand, is Yengi hissar
or yingkeshar. both of them towns of some importance ; the
latter conlaina a garrison. "

Yarkand, or Yerkiang, may be termed the capital of the South-
ern Circuit, as the highest military officers and strongest force
are stationed here. It lies on that river in lalitude 38= HT N.,
■ad longittide 76" 10' B-, and its alreels and environa are abun-

dtmllj' supplied wiih walfr by canals. The Ktone walla i
three miles in circumference, but the suburbs are much larger;
the hoUHCfi are built of dried bricks, and ihe towa has a more
BUbslontial appearance than others in Ili. There are many
mosques and colleges, which, with the public buildings occupied
by the government end troops, add to its consideration. The
troops, seven thoiiaand in number, are uniier the control of the
commandant, and are scattered in detachments in and around the
city ; Ihe population is unknown, but doubtless exceeds 200,000.
The principal articles of Irude are horses, silk, and wool, and
fabrics made fj'om them ; but everything found at Kasbgar is
sold also at Yarkond. Many merchants from Shensi, Kansuh,
and Sz'chuen, are established in both places, and the convicts
sent to fll usually settle in the trading towns as cradsmcD or
agriculturists.

In a Chinese notice of the city, the customs at Yarkand are
stated to yield over 845,000 annually ; the taxes ore 35,400
sacks of grain, 57,569 pieces of linen, 15,000 lbs. of copper,
besides gold, silk, vamtsh, and hemp, part of which an- carried to
fil. Jade iaobtained from the river in large pieces, yellow, white,
block, and reddish, and the articles made from it are carried to
China. The Chinese authorities stationed here are very careful
not to admit Europeans, but seem to have no objection to the
resort of natives of Kokand, Cashmere, and other neighboring
states, many of whom settle and marry. The contrast be-
tween the turbulence ond insecurity of those countries, and the
comparative quiet, etficient government of the Chinese, bad as
their rule is generally, is not lost upon the natives of the Mo-
hammedan stales, and the great mass of their people would be
glad to become subjects of Taukwang.

Khoten is situated on the southern side of the desert, and the
district embraces all the country south of Oksu and Yarkand,
along the northern base of the Koulkun mountains, for more than
three hundred miles from east to west. The town is called
Ilch! on Chinese maps, and lies in an extensive plain on the
Ktoten river in latitude 37° N., and longitude 80° 85' E. The
town of Karakash lies a few miles north-west in the same valley,
and is said by traders to be the capital rather than IlchI ; it lies
on the road to Yarkand, distant twelve days' journey. Tho
town of Gumml Is also placed on this road, whose chief had in

! the power of causing
I lies live days' journey easl of IlchS,
near Uie pass across the iiiouatains into Tibet and Ladak ; a
gold mine is worlted near this place, the produce of which ta
monopolized by the Chinese. The three towns of Karakash,
Ilchi, and Kirrea, are the only places of impoilance between the
valley of the Tnrim and Tibet, but none of ihem have been
visiled for a long time by Europeans. The population of the
town or district is unknown ; one notice* gives it a very large
number, approaching three millions and even more, which at
any rate indicates a more fertile eoil and genial climate than the
regions north and south of il- Dr. Morrison, in his View of
China, puts it at 44,630 inhabitants; and although the former
includes the whole district and is probably loo large, the second
seems to be much loo small.

The eastern part of Khoten is marshy, but the whole country
must have a high elevation, from the fact thai ihe river which
drains and connects il with the Tarim runs quite across the
desert in its course. The country is governed by two high
officers and a detachment of troops ; there are six towns under
their jurisdiction, the inhabitants of which are ruled in the same
manner as the other Mohammedan cities. The people, how.
ever, are said to be mostly of ihc Budhist faith, and the Chinese
give a good account of their peaccfulness and industry. The
trade with Leh and H'lossa is carried on by a road crossing the
Koulkun by the Kirrea pass, beyond which it divides. The
productions of Khoten are line linen and cotton stulTs, jade orna-
ments, copper, grain, fruits, and vegetables; the former for
exportation, the latter for use. Il is supposed that the English
word cotton is derived from the name of this city.

Remusat published an accouut of this country in 1820, drawn
from Chinese books, in which ihe principal events in its history
are slated, commencing with the Han dynasty before the Chris-
tian era down to ihe Manchu conquest. In the early part of its
history, Khoten was the resort of many priests from India, and
the Budhist faith was early established there. It was an inde-
pendent kingdom most of the time from its earliest mention to
the era of Genghis khan, the princes somelimas extending their

* Pannj' Cjcloptedia, Arl. Tuiaji uiU) man lD.

KWhy from the KiayQ pas9 and Koko-iior to the Tsung ling,
then obliged to contract to the valley now designated
After tha expulsion of the Mongols from China, Kho
ed its independenee, but aderwards fell under the away of the
Songares and Eleuths, and lost many of ils inhabitants. The
Manchua conquered it in 1T70, when the rest of the region be-
tween the Tien shan and Kwftnlun fell under their sway, but
they have not settled in it to the same extent, or made it a penal
settlement as they have other parts of Ili.

The government of III differs in some respects from that of
Mongolia, where religion is partly culled in to aid the state. In
ihe Northern Circuit, the authority is strictly military, exercised
by means of residents and generals, with bodies of troops under
their control. The supreme command of all III is intrusted by
ihe Colonial Oificc to a Manchu Uiangkiun or military governor-
general at Kutdsha, who has under him two councillors to take
copnisanca of civil cases, and thirly.four residents scattered
about in both Circuits. This governor has also the control of the
troops stationed in the threa western departments of Kansuh, but
has nothing to do with the civil juriadiclion of those towns. The
entire number of troops under his hand is staled at 60,000, most
of whom have families, and add agricultural, mechanical, or
Other labors to Ihe profession of arms. The councillors are not
altogether subordinate to the general, but report lo the Colonial
Office.

in the Northern Circuit, there is a deputy appointed for every
village and town, invested with military powers over the troops
and convicts, and civil supervision over Ihe native piko or chief-
tains, who are the real rulers acknowledged by the clans. The
character of the inhabitants north of the Tien shan is rendered
unlike that of thoee dwelling in the Southern Circuit, not more
by the diversity in their language and nomadic habits, than by
the sway religious rites and allegiance have over them. Through
this latter motive, the government of Mongolia anil the Northern
Circuit is rendered far easier and more effectual for Ihe distant
court of Peking than it otherwise would be. The appointment
of the native chieAains is first announced to the general at Ruld-
eha and the Colonial Office, and they succeed lo their post when
confirmed, which, as the station is in a measure hereditary, uaii-
■lly follows in course.

COVEHNiMEST OP iLi. 195

The inhabitants of [be Southern Circuit are Mohammedons,
Bad acknowledge a less willing subjection to the emperor than
those in tlic Northern ; the differoncea in religion and language
arc probably the lending reasons. The government of ilie whole
region is divided among the Manchu residents or amhant at the
eight chies, who are nominally responsible [o the general lit IH,
and independent of each other, but there seems to be a gradation
in their rank and power, the one at Yarkand having the priority.
The begs are chosen by the tribes themaclves, and exercise
authority in all petty cases arising among the people, without the
interference of the Chinese. The troops are all Manohu or
Chinese, none of the Turks being enrolled in separate bodies,
though individuals nre employed with safety. There is con-
siderable difference in the rank and influence of the begs, which
is upheld and respected by the umbans. The ullowances and
style granted them ore regulnted in a measure by their feudal
importance. The revenue is derived from a monthly capitation
tax on each man of about hidf a dollar, and lilhea on the pro-
duce ; there are no transit duties as in China, but custom -ho uses
are established nt the frontier trading towns. The language
generally used in the Southeni Circuit is the Jaghaloi Turki of
the Kalmucks ; the Usbecks constitute the majority of the peo-
ple, but Eleitths and Kalmucks are everywhere iutcrmiited.
The Tibetans have settled in Kbolen, or more probably, rem-
oanis still exist there of the former inhabitants.

The history of the vast region constituting the present govern-
ment of fit early attracted the attention of oriental scholars, and
few portions of the world have had a more e.tciting history.
After the expulsion of the Mongols from China by Hungwu, a.
D. 1366, they found that they, as a tribe, were inferior in power
to the western tribes, but it was not till about 1G40 that the
Eleutbs, north of ihe Tien shun under the Ualdan, began to
attack the Kalkas, and drive them eastward. The Sunnitca,
Tsakhars, and Solons, portions of the Eastern Mongols, had
already joined the Manchus ; and the Kalkas, to avoid extermi-
nation, submitted to them also, ond besought their assistance
against the Bleuths. Kanght received their allegiance, and tried
to settle the difliculties peaceably, but was obliged to send his
troops against the Galdan, and drive him from the territory of
the Kalkaa tn the westward of hop dot and Barkoul. The em-

IW THE AltDI

peror was mnterially aidiMl in iIjIs enterprise by the i
from llie Eleuihs of the Songares, whose khan had taken oflence,
and drawn hia hordes offlo the south. The kiiansof the Kalkas
and iheir vasi territory, Ihus became subject lo the Chinese,
The Galdan lost all his forces, and died by poison, in 1697, his
power dying with him, and his tribe having already become too
weak lo resist.

Upon the ruins of his power arose that of Arabdan, the khan
of the Songarea. He subjugated the Northern Circuit, passed
over ioto Turkestan, Tangout, and Khoten, and gradually re-
duced lo his sway nearly all the elevated region of Central Asia
west of Kansuh, He expelled the Tourgouths from their po«-
aessiona in Cobdo, and compelled them to relreal to the banks of
the Wolga. Kanghi expelled the Songares from the districts
about Koko-nor, but made no impression upon ihcir authority to
Songaria. After the death of Arabdan, about 1720, hia throDe
was disputed, and the power weakened by dissensions among
hia sons, so that il was seized by two usurpers, Amursana and
Tawals, who also fell out niter iheir object was gained. Amur-
sana repaired lo Peking for assistance, and with the aid of a
Chinese army expelled Tawals, and took possession of the tbrone
of Arabdan. Bui he had no intention of becoming a vassal to
Eienlung, and was no sooner reinstated than he reaisled him ;
he defealed two Chinese armies sent against him, but succumbed
on the third attack, and fled to Tobolsk, where he died in 1757.

The territory of Arabdan then fell to Kienlung, and he pursued
his successes with such cruelly tlial the Northern Circuit wm
nearly depopulated, and the Songares and Eleuths became almost
extinct as distinct tribes. The banished tribe of Tourgouths was
then invited by the emperor to reiurn from Russian sway to their
ancieni possessions, which ihey accepted in 1772 ; the history of
the Chinese embassy to ihem, and their disastrous journey back
to Cobdo over the Kirghfs siepp, and through the midst of their
enemies, is one of the moat remarkable instances of nomadio
wanderings in modem times. Chinese troopa, emigrants, exiles,
and oomodic tribes and families, were sent and encouraged lo
(!ome into the vacant territory, so thai erelong il began lo resume
its former importance. In the period which has since elapsed,
the Manchus have been enabled lo prevent any combination
among the tribes, and maintain their own authority by a k

HISTORY Jmu C0K4tl&ST OF il.L

Bystem of coercion and coosing which ihcy well know how to
practise. The sgriculiural anii mineral resources of the country
have been developed, many of the nomads induced to attend to
agriculture by making their chicdains emulous of each other's
prosperity, and by exciting a spirit of traffic among all.

There have been some disturbances from lime to time, but no
master spirit has arisen who has been able to unite the tribes
against the Chinese. In 1835, there was an attempt made from
Kokand by JehangEr, grandson of the kc^ek or prince of Kashgar,
to regain possession of Turkestan ; the khan of Kokund assisted
him with a small army, and such was iheir dislike of the Chinese,
that as soon as Jehangfr appeared, Ihc Mohammedans arose and
drove the Chinese troops away or put them to death, opening the
gates to the invodcr. He look piisscasion of Yarkand and
Kashgar, and advanced to Oksu, where the winter put a slop to
the campaign. In-the next year, the khan of Kokand, seeiiig the
disposition of the people, thought he would embark himself in
the same cause, and made an incursion aa far as Oksu and
Khoten, reducing more than half the Southern Circuit to himself,
but ostensibly in aid of Jehangtr. The kojeh, beginning to fear
his aid, withdrew ; and the khan, having suffered some reverses
from the Chinese iroops, made his peace on very favorable terms,
and relumed to his own country. Jehangir went to Khoten from
Yarkand, but his conduct there diRpleasing the people, the Chinese
troops, about 60,000 in number, hod no difficulty in dispersing his
force, and resuming their sway. 'The adherents of the kojeh
fled towards Bodakshan, while he himself repaired lo Isaac, the
newly appointed kojeh of Kashgar, by whom he was delivered up
to the Chinese with his family, and all of them most barbarously
destroyed.

The kojeh was rewarded with the office of prince of Kashgar,
but having been accused of treasonable designs he was ordered to
come to Peking for trial ; the chaises were ail disproved, and he
returned to Kashgar after several years' residence at (he capital.
The country wos gradually reduced by Changling, the general
at Ili, but Kashgar suffered so much by the war and removal of
the chief authority to Yarkand, that it has not since regained its
importance. During this war, the dislike of the Mohammedans
to the Chinese sway was exhibited in the large forces Jehanglr
brought into the field ; and if he had been a popular spirited

fi^3^^^

leader, there is reiiscm for supposing he might have
wresied these cities from the Chinese. The joy of Taukwang
Kt the successful termination of the expedition and capiure of the
rebel, was so extravagant as to appear childish; aiid when
Jehangir was executed at Peking, he ordered the sons of two
officers who had been reported killed, " to wiiness his execution,
in order to give expansion lo the indignation which had accuinu-
latod in their breaats ; and lei the rebel's heart be torn out and
given to them to sacrifice it at the tombs of their fathers, and
thus console their faithful spirits." Honors were heaped upon
Changling at hia return to Peking, and rewards and titles
showered upon ii!l the troops engaged in the war.

Since this insurrcelion, the frontiers of Kashgar and Kokand
have been passed and repassed by the Prulh Kirghis ; and in
1830, they excited so much trouble because their trade was
realMcted, that a large force was called out to restrain them, and
tnany lives were lost bethre (he rising was subdued. The causes
of the dispute were then examined, and the trade allowed to go
OD as before. The oppressions of the residents sometimes goad
on the Mohammedans to rise against the Chinese, but the policy
of the emperor is concilialory, and the complaints of the people
are listened to. The visits of the begs and princes to Peking
with tribute aRbrds Ihem an opportunity to state iheir grievances,
while it also prevents them from caballing among themselves.
The salaries of the governor- general and his councillors, and the
residents, are small, and the*are all obliged to resort to illegal
means lo reimburse their outlays. The highest officer receives
about 85200 annually, and his councillors about S2000 ; the
residents from «2:)00 down to 8500 and less. These sums do
not, probably, constitute one lenlh of the receipts of their
situations.*

The third great division of the colonial part of the Chinese
empire, that of Tibet, is less known than tli, though its area is
hardly less extensive. It constitutes the most southern of the
three great table lands of Central Asia, and is surrounded with
high mountains which separate it from all the contiguous regions.
The name Tibet or Tubet ia corrupted from Tu po, the couiiUy

l,&c, ; Vol. IX. IMP

of the Tu, A race wbbli overran it in ihe sixth century ; another
name, according to Turner, is Pue-ktiaehini, signifying the
"snowy country of the north;" bm Csoma, who lived there
some years, says the people call it Pat or Bod, or Bod yul, — " the
land of Bod." The Chinese call the whole country Si Tmng,
and divide it into Tsien Ttang or Anterior Tibet, and Hati Taang
or Ulterior Tibet. It is bounded north-east by Koko-nor ; east by
Sz'chuen and Yunnan ; south by Assam, Butan, Nipal, Delhi, and
Lahore; west by LndakiBadakshan, and Bokhara; and north by
Gobi and Kholen. The southern frontier curves considerably ill
its course, but is not less than 1500 miles from the weaiem
extremity of Nipat to the province of Yunnan ; the northern
border ta about 1300 miles ; the eastern and western frontiers
cannot be accurately calculated, but are not less than 300 miles.
Beltistaa, Little Tibet, and Ladak, nlUiough included in its limits
on Chinese maps, have too little subjection or connexion with the
court of Peking, lo be reckoned among its depeodenciea.

Tibet, in its largest limits, is a. table land, the highest plains of
which are about 10,000 feet high, and divided by mountain
chains into three distinct parts. The western one consists of the
valley of the Indus, until it breaks through into Cashmere and the
plains of the Punjab. It begins near Mt. Eailasa, and stretches
norlb-west between the Hindu Kush and Himalaya, comprising
the whole of Behislan and Ladak ; the Tsung ling defines it on the
north-east. The second part consists of an extensive desert land,
commencing Amount Railosa, and having the Tsung ling on the
west, the Koulkun on the north, which separates it from Khoten,
and the high watershed of the Yanglsz' kiang, Salween, and
other rivers, and lake Tengkiri, on the east ; the Himalaya con.
slitutes its southern boundary. This high region, called Kaishe
or Kor-kachi, has never been traversed by intelligent travellers.
Mountains stretch across it, and many rivers and lakes are found
wiihin their defiles. It is so cold that tew inhabitants can live
in its northern portions.

The eastern part consists of the valley of the Yaru-tsangbu,
which commencing in Ari about 80° E., gradually widens as it
goes eastward, containing in its plains most of the towns in Tibet,
until it reaches the alpine region which lies between Butan,
Burmah, and Yunnan. This part of the country consists of a
■ucoeMion of ridges and peaks, some ef which are among lh«

[ MIDDLE KINGDOM,

Q ihe clouds. Mount Kailasa,
a the north-eastern pari of Ari,

The number of peuka covered
, but exceeds that of any other

Classa strikes the Yahlung kisng,

ind ther

westerly to
r it proceeds up

r Meikon, by a
till it reaches

highest in the world, and the traveller crosses the narrow valleyi

by ropes and bridges enveloped ii ' ' ' "'

one of the highest peaks, tying ii

is not far from 36,000 feet high.

with perpetual anow is not kno

part of the world of the same f

The road from Sz'chueo lo 1
in the district of Ta-tsien-lu,
PoUing on the Yangtsz' kiang ; crossing the rivi
the narrow valley a short distance, and then <
mountains north-west to the Lantsan kiang c
series of pathways leading over the gorges,
Tsiamdo ; from this point, the road turns gradually south-west,
following the valleys when practicable till it ends at H'lassa,

The largest river in Tibet is Ihe Dzangbu, Erechunibu, or Yaru-
tsangbu. It rises in the Tamehuk hills in Ari, not more than a
hundred miles east of the headwaters of the Indus, and flows a
little south of cast for about seven hundred miles, through the
whole of southern Tibet, between the Himalaya and Dzang
mountains, as for as latitude 29" N. Its tributaries on the north
are numerous, and among them ihe Nauk-tsangbu and Dzangtsu
are the largest. The volume of water which flows through the
mountains into Assam by this river, is equal to that by the Indus
into Scinde. It is still a disputed question, whether the Yarn-
tsangbu joins ihe Brahmaputra or Irrawaddy, but the weight of
geographical evidence, and the size of the rive", is greatly in
favor of the former. This will make the Brahmaputra the largest
and longest river in southern Asia ; its passage into Assam is
near 95° B. longitude.

The eastern pan of Tibet, beyond this meridian, is traversed
by numerous ranges of lofty mountains, having no separate
names, the direction of which is from west to easl, and from
north-west to south-east. From these ranges, lateral branches
lun out in diflferent directions, containing deep valleys between
them. In proportion as the principal chains advance towards the
aouih-east they converge towards one another, and thus llie valleys
between them gradually become narrower, until at Inst, on the
frontiers of Yunnan and Burmah, they are mere mountain passes,
whose entire breadth does not much exceed a fiuudred miles,
having four ttreams flowing through them. In fact, Tibet in-

RIVERS AND LAKES OF TIBET. 101

closes the founlain heads of all the largi? rivers of southern and
eastera Asia; and, besides ihem, the Indus and ila greatest
branch, the Sailej, ihe Ganges and Brahmaputra, the Yellow
river and some of their largest tributaries, also have their sources
in its borders. The names and courses of all l!ie rivers in easl-
em Tibet are known chiefly from Chinese maps, but othera have
described Ihem aAer iheir entrance into the lowlands.

Tibet, especially the central part, is a country of lakes, in this
respect resembling Cobdo. The largest isTengkiri nor, situated
in the midsl of stupendous mounlains, about one hundred and ten
miles north-west of H'lassa. It receives a small river on the
west called Tarku ; this lake is over a hundred miles long and
about thirty wide. The region north of it conlaina many isolated
lakes, and Chinese maps place the headwaters of the Nu kiang
in the mounlains on its east. Two of the largest, the Bouka and
Kara, are represented as connected with that stream. Most of
the isolated lakes are salt. The Yamorouk or Yarbrokyu, some-
times called Palii from a town on its northern shore, is a large
lake south of H'lassa, remarkable for its ring shape, ihe centre
being filled by a large island, around which its waters flow in
a channel thirty miles or more in width. On the island is a nun-
nery, called the Palace of the Holy Sow, said to be the finest in
the oounlry. In Little Tibet, south of Khoten, are many lakes,
the largest of which, the Yik and Paha, are connected by a river
flowing through a marshy country. The sacred lakes of Manasa-
rowa and Ravan-hrad, or Mapam-dalai and Langga nor, of the
Chinese, form the headwaters of the Indus ; they lie near each
other, and their outlet unites with two other streams to form that
river. The Manasa-rowa is said to be next in size to lake
Tengkiri, but is probably inferior lo lakes Paha orYih.

The climate of Tibet is characterized by its purity and exces-
sive dryness. The valleys are hot, notwithstanding their prox-
imity to snow-capped mountains ; from May lo October the sky
is clear in the table lands, and in the valleys the moisture and
temperature are favorable to vegetation, the harvest being ga-
thered before ihe gales and snows set in, which are after October.
The eflecis of the air resemble or are worse than those of Ihe
knmsfn in Egypt. The trees wither, and their leaves may be
ground to powder between the fingers ; planks and beams break,
and the inhabitants cover tha timbera and wood-work of iheir

er lo preserve them ogaioM ti

r neither rols nor is worm-eate
becomes 80 dry thai it may i
: dried it is preserved durJnf
" 1 in Tibet. The cal^'

93 THE MIDDLE

bcuses with coaru: cottons, in ordi

destructive aaccidity. Tlie limbo

Mutton, exposed to ihe open

powdered like bread ; wlien

years- Thia flesh-bread is a

case of the animal, divested of ita shin and viscera, is placed wherfc-

the frosty air will have free access lo it, until all the juices ofthB

body dry up, and the whole becomes onestilfened mass. No salt

is used, nor does it ever become tainted, and is eaten wiiliout aaf

further dressing or cooking ; the natives eat it at all periods afler

it is frozen, and prefer the fresh to that which has been kept so

months.

The productions of Tibet consist principally of domestic t
wild animals, and few plants or forests, presenting a strong o
traat with Nipal and Buion, where vegetable life flourishes mi
luxuriantly. Sheep and goats are reared in immense flocks, fitr
their flesh, hair, and coats ; the yak, or grunting ox, is used bt
carriage, and its milk and flosh reward the care of its ownentf
all other domestic animals, including neat cattle, horses, buflaloaih
etc., are common.

PRODUCTIONS OF TIBET. 193

There is comparatively little agriculture ; flocks and berda
supply mare food than the farm. The variety of wild animals,
birda, and fishes, is very great; among them the musk deer,
feline animals, eagles, and wild sheep, are objects of the cliaae.
The brute creation are generally clothed with an abundance of
fine hair or wool ; even the horses have a more shaggy coal
than is granted to hears in more genial climes. The musk deer
is clothed with a thick covering of hair two or three inches long,
standing erect over the whole body ; the animal resembles a
hog in size and form, but the legs are slender. The Tibetan
goat aflbrds the shawl wool, wliich is so highly prized for the
nKuiufacture of garments, and exported to China and India.

Fruits are common; pomegranates, peaches, oranges, figs,
grapes, apples, and nuts, constitute the limited variety. Barley
is raised more than any other grain, and the principal part of
agricultural labors is performed by the women. Peas and other
pulse and wheat are cultivated, but no rice west of H'lassa;
this grain can only be raised along the bottoms. Rhubarb, assa-
&etida, ginger, madder, and safHower are collected or prepared,
but most of the medicines come from China and Butau. Tur-
nips, onions, and melons are raised in small quantities. The
trees are few in number and small in height, rarely rising into
forests. The mineral productions are exceedingly rich. Gold
is found in the beds of streams, and forms a constant article of
export ; lead, silver, copper, and cinnabar are also dug out of the
ground, but iron has not been found to much extent. The
great difficulty in the way of the inhabitants availing themselves
of their metallic wealth, apart from their ignorance of tlie best
modes of mining, is the want of fiiel to smelt the ore. Tlncal
or crude borax is gathered on the borders of a small lake in
the neighborhood of Tengkiri lake, where also rock salt can be
obtained to any extent. Precious stones are found, most of which
find their way to China.

The present divisions of Tibet, according to the Chinese sta-
tistical works, are Trien Tsajig, or Anterior Tibet, and Hau
Ttang, or Ulterior Tibet. Anterior Tibet is also called Wei or
Wei Tsang, and was formerly divided into Kham and Wei, the
first being called Anterior and the second Central Tibet. Ulte-
rior Tibet is also divided into Tsang and Ari.* These divisioDS
« Chineu Repository, Vol. XUI., page SOS.
10

194 TnF; midone kingdom.

arc usually found on European maps ; Csoma says the country
tH divided by ihe iohabilanls imo Kham-yul or Eoalern Tibet,
called also Pol-chen or Great Tibet, Wei Tsang or Tibet Proper,
and Ari or Nnri, including north-western Tibet. The Chinese
books mention eight cantons in Anterior Tibet, five of them lying
east of H'iossa, added to which are thirty-nine feudal townships
in ihe north called lu-m', bordering on similar townships in Koko-
nor and S^'chuen. Csoma de Kdriia mentions several small
principalities in Kham, and describes the inhabitants as differing
very much from the rest of the Tibetans in appeamnce and lan-
guage ; they assimilate probably with the characleriaticB of the
tribes on the Burman and Chinese frcaitiers.

H'lassa, ilie capital of Tibet, is situated on the Dzangtsu,
about twelve leagues from its junction with the Yaru-tsangbu, in
Int. 29° 30' N., and long. 91° 40' B., and is the largest town in
this part of Asia, It is famous for the convents in and near it,
composing the ecctesiasticat establishments of the dalai-lama,
whose personal residence is in the convent of Pobrang-marbu
(i. e. Red (own) on mount Botala. The principal building of
this establishment is three hundred and sixty-seven feel high,
and it contains, as the Chinese expression is, " a myriad of
rooms." This ciiy is the head-quarters of Budhism, and the
hierarchy of lama-s, who, by means of Ihe dalai-lama, and his
subordinate the kutuktu, exercise priestly control over nearly
all Mongolia as well as Tibet. The city lies in a fertile plain .
extending about twelve miles from north to south, and about
one hundred and twenty-five in length. MounlBins and hills e
circle it ; Botala is the western one, and Ihe river runs near iia
base, so that a wall has been built lo preserve the buildings from
the rise of the waters. The Chinese garrison is quartered about
two miles north of this mount, and two large temples called
B'/atsa tfo-kang and Ramotsie tso-kang, resplendent with gold and
precious stones, stand very near it. The four monasteries, Sera,
Brebung, Samy^, and Galdan, constitute as many separate esta-
blishments." During Ibe sway of the Songaresin Tli, heirprinca
Arabdan mode a descent upon H'lassa, and the lama was killed.
KanghE placed a new one upon the see, and reinstated him at
Botala in 1720, appointing six of the leading officers of the old

* Klsproth'a DucripIiDa du Tubtt, page 34fl.

TWO CiiPITALS OF TIBET, 195

lama to assist liim in the goTemment. Three of lliese joined in
an insurrection, and in the conflicls which succeeded, H'lassa
suffered considerably. Since the cspulsion of the Nipalese
in 1792, no foreignera are allowed entrance from the south,
the Chinese having established a line of posts along the whole
of the southern frontier towards Nipal and Butan. The popu-
lation of H'lassa is conjectured to be 24,000 ; that of the pro-
vince is reckoned by Csoma at about 650,000.

The capital of Tsang or Ulterior Tibet is 2hikats6-jung or
Teshu-h'tu nihil, twenty-six miles weal of H'lassa, the monastic
residence of the teshu-lama or bench in -erdeni, a town of three
or four hundred houses, convents, and palaces, built on an ele-
vated plain. It contains, among other buildings, the mausoleum
of the teshu-lama, who died in Peking in 1791, which is de-
Bcribed by Turner as a beautiful specimen of Tibetan sculpture.
The plain between this town and H'lassa is a fertile tract, and
judging from the number of towns in the valleys of the basin
of the Yaru-tsnngbu, its productive powers are comparatively
great. Ulterior Tibet is divided into six other cantons, besides
the territory under the jurisdiction of the chief town, most of
their fortified capitals lying westward of ZhikalsS, in the
basin of the Yaru-tsangbu. The last of the si.ith, Ari or Nari,
is an extensive region, described by Csoma as stretching from
Tsang to Ladak, but very thinly settled, its population not ex.
ceed in g 50,000 families, on an area, judging IVom Chinese and
other maps, of at least five times that number of square miles ;
he speaks, however, of tracts of desort land within its limits.

The degree of skill the Tibetans have attained in manufac-
tures, mechanical arts, and general civilization, is less than that
of the Chinese, but superior to the Mongols. They appear to be
a mild and humane people, and possess more of a religious sense
than the Chinese. They belong to the Mongol race, with slight
intermixture of their southern neighbors ; no two people or coun-
tries widely separated present a stronger contrast than the stout,
tall, muscular, and florid Butias, upon their fertile fields and
wooded hills, do with (he squat, puny, sluggish, and swarthy
Tibetans in ihoir rugged barren mountains. They distinguish
five sorts of people among themselves, the last of whom are the
Butias ; the others are the inhabitants of Kham, or Anterior Tibet,
thoH in Tnng, th« nomads of Kor-katah«, end tha peopls of Lit-

I 100

! MIDDLE KINGDOM.

tie Tibet. All of ihem speak Tibetan with some variationi,
Tibetans are clad with wooUona and furs to such a. degree that'
they appear to emulate the animals they derive them from ind
their weight and warmtli ; and with this elolhing is found qA>»
amall quantity of dirt. The dress of Ihe sexes varies alighllj-
in its shape ; yellow and red are the predominant colors. Largs"
bulgar boots of hide are worn by all persons; the remainder of'
the dresH consists of woollen robes and furs like those of th»'
Chinese. The women wear many jewels, and adorn their halt'
with pearls. Girls braid their hair in three tresses, married
women in two. The head is protected by high velvet oaps;i
the men wear broad-brimmed coverings of various materials.

The two sects of religious are distinguished by yellow and'
red caps ; the latter are comporatively few, allow marriage M
the lamas, but do not differ materially in iheir ritual or tenets.
There ia no country where so large a proportion of the people
are devoted to religious service as in Tibet, nor one where th#
secular part of the inhabitants pay such implicit deference to thA
clergy. The food of tlie Tibetans is taken at all hours, thei4
being no slated limes for eating. Mutton, barley, and tea oaa^
sliiule the staple articles of food. Tea is not drunk clear, but
when the infusion is drawn off, barley meal is stirred up in thB'
cup, making a thin gruel. A strange mixture of water, flourj
butter, and salt, boiled together with the tea, and drawn off 16-
cups as tea or gruel, is also used to some extent. On all vidtC'
tea is presented, and the cup replenished as often as it is drained.
Spirits and beer, both made from barley, are common bevero^e^'
On every visit of ceremony, and whenever a letter is soot front
one person to another, it is necessary lo connect a silk scarf wifltt
it, the size and texture being proportioned to the rank and con<S%
tion of the parties. The sentence Om vtaiu. pai (orpdd) mi ofli^
an invocation in universal use among the people, is woven upo^
each end. In reverential salutations, the cup is removed b^
the inferior, and the arms hang by the aide.

The bodies of the dead are placed in an open incloaure, in the
same manner as practised by the Parsees, where birds and beasts
of prey devour them, or ihey are dismembere-d in an exposed^
place. Lamas are burned, and their ashes collected into uraa.
As soon as the breath has departed, the body is seated in ihs
sam* attituds &a Budha ia represented, with tha legs bout

CCSTOMS OF THE TIBETANS,

and the soles of (he feet turned upwards. The right hcknd rests
upon the thigh, the left turns up near the body, the thumb touch-
ing the shoulder- In this aiiittide of contemplation, the corpso
is burned. ^

In Tibet, as in Bulan, the custom of polyandry prevails.
The choice of a wife lies with the eldest son, who having made
known his intentions to his parents sends a matchmaker lo pro-
pose Ihe maticr to the parents of the girl. The sexes are not
kept upart as in China, and the youth makes his own selection.
The consent of the parents being obtained, the matchmaker
places an ornament of a jewel set in gold, called scdtia, upon
the head of the damsel, and gives her presents of jewels, dresses,
cattle, ic, according lo the means of the young man. The
guesia invited on the day of the marriage bring presents of such
things OS they choose, which augments the dowry. A tent is set
up before the bride's house, in which are placed three or four
square cushions, and the ground around sprinkled with wheat ;
the bride is sealed on the highest cushion, her parents and friends
standing near her according to their rank, and the assembled
party there partake of a feast. The bride is then conducted to
the house of her lover by the friends present, her person hemg
sprinkled with wheat or barley as she goes along, and there
placed by his side, and both of them served with tea and spirits.
Soon after, the groom seats himself apart, and every one present
gives them a scarf, those of superior rank binding them aroimd
their necks, equals and inferiors laying them by their sides.
The nest day, a procession is formed of the relatives of the newly
married pair, which vigils all the friends, and the marriage
is completed. The girl thus becomes the wife of all the bro-
thers, and manages the domestic concerns of their household.
Priests have nothing to do with marriages in this or any other
part of the Chinese empire, iheir otfice being associated with
funereal rites. Almost every family furnishes one or two mem-
bers to the priesthood. A closer acquaintance with a society so
singularly constituted would no doubl disclose the fact that these
families were either unhappily joined, or that the marriage tie
was not very strictly kept. Population is constantly kept down
by the united efiecis of religious celibacy and polyandry. The ■
climate of this elevated region probably has iia eflects in continu-
ing such a custom, and nuuntaining tlie purity of society.

i

198 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

The dweltingB of the poor are liuilt of unhewn stones, rudely
piled upon eoch other without cement, two stories high, and
resembling brick-kilna in shnpe nnd size ; the windows are small
in order not to weaken the structure ; the roof is Hal, defended
by a brushwood parapet, and protected from the molestation of
eTil spirits by flags, strips of paper tied to strings, or branches of
trees. Timber is little used, for it does not grow in the country ;
the floors are of marble or tiles, and lite furniture consists of but
little else than mats and euahions. The temples and convents
ore more imposing and commodious structures ; some of those at
H'lassa are among the best specimens of architecture in Central

The mausoleum of the IcshU'lama at Teshu-h'lumbu, built to-
wards the end of the last century, resembles a plain square watch-
tower surmounted by a double Chinese canopy roof, the eavea
of which are hung with bells, on which Uie breeze plays a
ceaseless dirge. The body of the lema reposes in a coffin of
gold, and liis eiTigy, also of gold, is placed witliin the concavity
of a large shell upon the top of the pyramidal structure which
contains it. The sides of the pyramid are silver plates, and on
the steps are deposited the jewels and other costly articles which
once appertained to him. An altar in front receives tha obla-
tions and incense daily presented before the tomb, and tkear liy is
a second statue of. the deceased as large as life in the attitude
of reading. Scrolls and pennons of silk hang from the ceiling,
and the walls are adorned with paintings of priests engaged In
prayer. The whole structure is substantially built, and its rich
ornaments are placed there not less for security than to do honor
to the revered person deposited beneath. The other buildings in
this town, consisting of upwards of three hundred monasteries,
temples, &c., are noticeable rather for their solidity than elegance-
Tlie windows arc closed with mohair curtains, and a skylight in
the upper story serves for lighting the room, and for passing out
upon the roof. The roof or parapet is ornamented with cylin-
ders of copper or other materials, which imparts a brilliant
appearance to the edifices. The fortress of Zhikalse stands at
the entrance into the valley, and in the hands of a valiant people,
would easily afford full protection to its inhabitants.

The manufactures of Tibet consist of woollens made from the
covering of the shawl goat, and jewelry. Their lapidaries out

COMMERCE A.VD LANGUAGE OF TIBET. 199

erery kind of ornomcnt in superior style, and gold and silver
ware forms a considerable article of trade lo Chiaa. These and
other crafts must necessarily languish, however, from iho im-
mense proportion of men who are wiilidrawn from labor Julo
monasteries, compelling the residue lo devoic most of their
strength lo tillage. The most important e.XfiortB lo China consist
of gold dust, precious stones, bezoars, assafstida, musk, wool-
leas, and skins ; for which the people receive silks, teas, china-
ware, tobacco, musical instruments, and metals. The trade Is
carried on through Sining fu in Kansuh, and Palang in Sz'chuen.
Tincal, rock-salt, and shawl wool, are additional articles sent lo
Ladak, Buian, and India, but the trade towards the south is far
less productive than il would be if unrestricted.

The common diseases in Tibet are dropsy, rheumatism, small-
pox, and syphilis ; the lost two are much feared, and the patiunt
upon whom the pustules are seen is instantly abandoned and left
to starve, if the disease does not kill him. Syphilis is cured in
some degree by mercurial preparations. The medicinal pre-
parations are put up by the people, but most of the drugs come
from China. Music is studied by the priesthood for their cere-
monies, and with much better effect than among the Chinese
priests- Their amusements consist in archery, dancing, and
observance of many festivals connected with the worship of the
dead or of the living. Dram-drinking is common, but the peo-
ple cannot be called a drunken race, nor does ihe bobii of opium
eating or smoking, so fatally prevalent in Assam on their south,
prevail.

Education is confined to the priesthood, but the women, who
conduct much of the traffic, also learn arithmetic and writing.
The language is alphabetical, and reads from lefl to right ; there
are two forms of Ibe charoder, the vthen used for books, and
the umin employed in writing, which do not differ more than the
Roman and the running-hand in English- The form of the
characters shows their Sanscrit original, but there are many
consonants in the language not found in that tongue, and silent
letters are not unfrequent in the written words. There are
thirty consonants in the alphabet, distributed into eight classes,
wilh four additional vowel signs ; each of them ends in a short
a, as ka, nga, eha, which can he lengthened by a diacritical mark
phoed uodemeatb. Xb» ^llsUes are separated Irom each

other by a point ; the decerned consonant is ihat which foWawa
the vowel, and the others, whether before or after ii, are pro-
nounced as rapidly as pOBsible, and not unfrequeolly omitted
altogether in speiiking. The variations in ihia respect constitute
the chief features of tlie putois fnund in dill'^rent parts where
Tibetan is spoken. A dictionary and grammar of this language
have been published in Calcutta by Csoma de K5ri)s, a Hunga-
riao who formerly resided among the priests near Ladak. The
literature is almost u'liolly theological, as far as it has been
examined, and such works as are not of this character, have
probably been introduced from China. Their divisions of time,
numeration, chronology, and weights, have also been adopted
from that country with u few alterations.

The history of Tiliel has been made known to Europe tlirough
the Mongol Sanang Selsen, but if free access could bo had to
their annals, il is probable that a methodical history could be ex-
tracted, reaching bock at least three centuries before Christ.
Tibet was ruled by its own princes till the rise of Genghis ; the
first monarch, who united the various tribes under his sway b. c.
313, was Seger-Sandilutu-Ragan-Tul-Esen; and from the fact
that Budhism was introduced during his reign, it might be
inferred that he came from the souih. H'lassa was founded by
Srongzan-Gambo about A. D. 630, af)er which time Tibetan faia-
tory becomes more authentic, inasmuch as this king introduced
the alphabet. The Tang dynasty carried their arms into Tibet
from Khoten, but the people threw off their yoke during the de-
cline of that family. Mohammedanism also disturbed the supre-
macy of the Budhist faith, and severe persecutions followed about
the beginning of the tenih century by an Islam prince Darma,
but it was repelled at his death, and has never since made the
least impression upon the people, Genghis reduced Tangout, one
of the principalities, about 1200, aod soon after brought the whole
country under his sway, which Kublni still further settled as a
deptendency of his empire. The people recovered their indepen-
dence oD the expulsion of the Mongols from China, and under
the Ming dynasty formed several small kingdoms, among which
were Ladak and Rodok in the west towards Cashmere, both of
them still e:iisting.

From a short resum6 of letters written from Tibet in 1626, by
Romish missbnaries living there, it appears, that the kingdom of

.s the most powerful in the north, and Cogu6, U-tsang,
and Moriul, were three southern principalities. The king of
Cogue allowed them to reside in his territories, and look pleBsuro
in hearing them eonverse and dispute n'ith the lamas. The
dalai-lama at this time was the king's brother, and possessed sub-
ordinate influence in the stute, but the priests were numeroua
and influential. The conquest of Mongolia and Tangout opened
the way for Kanghl to enter Tibet, but the intercourse between
the emperor and dalai-lama was chiefly connected with religion
and carrying tribute. The lamas held the supreme power until
towards the end of his reign, when Chinese influence became
paramount. The country had already been conquered by the
Songar chieftain, so that on his defeat it could offer Utile resiat-
ance. Kanghi appointed si\ of the highest princes or gialbo
over the provinces ; but soon after his death, in 1727, three of
them conspired against Yungching, and were not subdued with-
out considerable resistance. The emperor then appointed the
loyal prince or^/toas governor-general, and he remained in his
vice-regal ofGce till his death, about 1750. Kienlung, finding
ihot his son was endeavoring to make himself fully independent,
executed him as a rebel, suppressed the office, and appointed
two Chinese generals to be associated with the dalai-lama and his
coadjutor, in the administration of the country. The troops
were increased and forts erected in all parts of the country to
awe the people and facilitate trade.

The present government of Tibet is superintended hy two ta
c!un, or great ministers, residing at H'iassa, who act conjointly,
while they serve as checks upon each other; they do not hold
their office for a long time. They have absolute control over all
the troops in the country, and the military arc generally confined
to the garrisons, and do not cultivate the soil. The collection of
revenue, transmission of tribute to Peking, and direction of the
persona who carry it, and those who conduct the trade at Patang
and Sining fu, are all under their control. The dalai-lama at
H'iassa, in Anterior Tibet, and the leshu-lama or banchin-erdeni
at Zhikalse, in Ulterior Tibet, are the high religious oflicers
of the country, each of them independent in his own province,
but the former holding the liighest place in the hierarchy. The
Chinese residents confer with each concerning the direction of
hia own province. All their appointments to office or nobility
10'

L

L

must be sanctioned by Ihe residentis before they are valid, but
merely religious ofHcers are not under this aurveilltuice. In the
villages, Ihe authority is adniinislered by secular depuly lamaa
called deba, and by oommandaols called karpon, who are sent
from Ihe capilal. Each deba. is assisted by a native vazir of the
place, who, with the chief lama, form the local government,
amenable to the supreme magistracy. The western province of
Ari is peopled by nomads, who wander over the regions north of
Ravan-hraJ, and are under the authority of tarpons sent from
H'laasa, without the assistance of lamas. The two high-priests
themselves are likewise assisted by councillors. One of these,
called Soopoon Choomboo, who held the office of sadeck or ad-
viser when Tunter visited Teshu-h'tumbu, was a Manchu by birth,
but had long lived in Tibet.

The nomadic clans of Dam Mongols and other tribes occupy-
ing the thirty-nine feudal townships or lusx' in Anterior Tibet,
are governed by the residents without the intervention of the
lamas. The disturbances in Ulterior Tibet in 1702, resulting
from the irruption of the Nipalese and sack of Teahu-h'lumbu.
were speedily quelled by the energy of Kienlung's government,
and the invaders forced to sue for mercy. The southern fron-
tier was, in consequence of this inroad, strongly fortihed by a
chain of posts, and the couununicatinn with the slates between
Tibet and India strictly forbidden and watched. It gave the
Chinese an opportunity to strengthen their rule in Ulterior Tibet,
and extend their influence north to Kholen and into Ladak. The
natural mildness of character of the Tibetans renders them much
easier under the Chinese yoke, than the Mohammedans of the
Southern Circuit ; they are represented as contented and indua.
trious by those who have seen them. Although their form of
government is more liberal than other parts of the empire, too
little is known of its practice lo be able to judge whether the
mass of people really enjoy any greater privileges or more free-
dom ; but it is little likely that the frivolities of Budhism would
tend to teach the rulers equity or liberality, or the people a jurt *
knowledge of their rights. 'M

The large map of the empire, which is regarded by the Chi-
nese as the best delineation of the extent and divisions of their
possessions, includes within its limits two other countries besides

i-iBAK AND rrs DIVISIONS. 208

those now deacribtKl, but over which their influence is altogether
nominal. These are Cores and Ladnk. The former was pro-
bably placed in the map from ils prositnily to the capital, and its
peoinsular form naturally connecting it with the ucighboring dis.
tricls. Bui national vanity alone can he the motive for includ.
ing the remote principality of Ladak within the imperial fron-
tiers, for ii9 ruler has almost no connexion at all with Peking,
and has never received troops into liis borders. The Ulter inac-
curacy of the map in this portion of it is another proof of
the ignorance of the draAsmsn, lor Leh is placed in let. 90°
on the map, instead of 34°, and the sources of the Indus run
south of it in three parallel streoms due west, without any obstruc-
tion. The rajah of Ladak, however, is not so independent as to
be able to contemn the advice of the Chinese officers stationed on
hia eastern frontier at ftodok, Teshigang, Gug6, and other places.
Ladak and Little Tibol or Beltistan, comprise the north-western
port of Tibet. The former may be said to consist of the upper-
most valley of the Indus, here called Sinka-bab, and the latter
the same river near its confluence with the Shayuk.

Ladak, formerly called Mar-yul, is bounded north by the
Tsiing ling, which divide it from Yarkand ; east by Rodok and
Gardnk, along the Sinkn.bab, which separate it from Ari ; south
andsouth-west by the Himalaya, separating it from Cashmere ; and
norlh-wcsl by Beltistan. Its area is about 30,000 square miles,
and population between 150,000 and 200,000, who speak Tibe-
tan, and arc Mohammedans as well as Budhists. It is divided
into four di.stricls, Leh, Nuhra, Zanskar, and Pitii or Purak.
The country is an inhospitable, bleak region, consisting of a
succession of ridges, between which narrow valleys, presenting
small inducements to the farmer, offer the only arable ground.
The main river is the Indus, which receives several considerable
Btrearns within the limits of Ladak, and some others beyond the
borders; few of them are available Ibr navigation or tillage.
The climate is clear and cold in winter, seldom above 15° F.
from December lo February j in summer the heat is 135° F.,
and even higher. There is little rain, hut grain ripens rapidly
during the summer, being ready for the sickle in eight or nine
weeks after sowing. The frost and rain decompose the sides of
the hills, which form the only soil at their bottoms ; the inhabit.
■uta terrace the base, and raise large crops upon the ground ihua

I

gained, leading the mounlain streams from one level to the
other.

The people liave many resemblances to the Tibetans. Thej
are mild, industrious, and peaceful, and carry on a large monu*
facture of shawls and other articles from the woo) of the goat.
Leh, the capital of the country, is situated in lal. 44° IV N. and
long. 77° 4^ E., about two miles from the Indus, in a well cul-
tivated plain. The city is surrounded by a wall defended by
towers, and the houses, about seven hundred in all. arc built of
stone or unburnt brick two and three stories high, in such a. con-
fiised manner, and with such a want of arrangement in their
position, as to resemble a burrow more than a city. The Toofa
uid floors are composed of layers of earth upon willow or pojdar
trunks, covered with thatch, and during the rains, the soil pours
down into the apartments ; the mud thus formed is carefully used
for manure. Little furniture is seen in these dwellings. The
most considerable building is the palace, which is two hundred
and fifty feet long, in front, and several stories high. The inha-
bitants dress in woollens and skins, and are uncleanly in their
persons and houses. The productions consist of three kinds of
wheat, buckwheat, and two kinds of barley. Kitchen vegetables
are not much known, onions, carrots, turnips, and cabbages, com-
prising the greatest part. Apples and apricots are the common
fruits, but melons, grapes, and other kinds are brought froir.
Cashmere. The cattle are the yak, the cow, and a hybrid be-
tween them, horses, sheep, and goats. Wild animals and birds
of many sorts are numerous, and supply both peltry and food to

The trade of Ladak is extensive, and a source of profit to the
people, for Leh is the great thoroughfare of the caravan trade
from Yarkand, H'lassa, and Russia, lo Cashmere, Lahore, and
India. The principal article of trade is goat's wool, supplied
partly from Rodok and Tibet, and sent lo the amount of eight
hundred camel-loads annually. Much of the transportation
over the mountains of Little Tibet is done upon sheep, each
carrying twenly to twenty-iive pounds weight. Tea, lineal,
Bilka, and Chinese manufactures come from Tibet, but the
largest trade is with Yarkand. The government of Ladak is in
the hands of a rajah, but most of the real power lies in the priesl-
bood, who monopolize the profits upon the trade. The peaceful

L

LADiK. 206

(JispoBiEionof ihe Ladakese is in strong contrast to their lurbulent
neighbors on the west and south, in Lahore, Coshniere, and
Bodakshan ; and it is somewhat remarkable that amidst so many
unscrupulous rulers they have been permitted to remain so long
unmotesled. Ranjit Singh partially extended his dominion over
them, but after his death, they regained their independence, but
have since been again reduced to vassalage. The rajah annually
sends presents to the rulers of Cashmere, Gartope, and H'lassa in
Tibet, us a kind of acknowledgment of the trade passing from
their possessions through his slates. Polyaodry exists in Ladak
as well as Tibet, but not to so great an extent, so far as has been
ascertained. The effects of this singular custom upon the pro-
gress and happiness of society have never been examined by
observers who have had opportunity to reside in families so con-
stituted, but so far as the reports of the inhabitants to travellers
can a^Lsl in forming an opinion, it does not appear to materially
interfere with the harmony of the household. The excess of
females is sold to the people living south in Lahore, Rajast'han,
and other states near the Indus. There is little wealth in the
country, but the great body of the people hove a sufficiency of
food and clothing- They arc addicted to drunkenness, and spend
much of their timi

306 THE MIDDLE KINGDOK.

CHAPTER V.

Population and Statistics.

Much of the interest appertaining to the country and people here
treated of, in the minds of philanthropic and intelligent men, has
arisen from the impression they have received of its vast popular
tion. A country twice the size of the Chinese empire would
present few attractions to the Christian, the merchant, or the eth-
nologist, if it was no better inhabited than Sahara, or Oregon :
a people might possess most admirable institutions, and a match-
less form of government, but these excellences would lose their
interest, when we heard that it is the duchy of Modena, or on the
Angola coast, where they are found. The population of few
countries in the world has been accurately ascertained, and pro-
bably that of China is less satisfactory than most European or
American states. It is far easier to take a census among a peo-
ple who understand its object, and will honestly assist in its exe-
cution, than in a despotic, half-civilized country, where the mass
of people are afraid of contact or intercourse with their rulers ;
in most of such states, as Abyssinia, Turkey, Persia, &c., there
is either no census at all, or merely a general estimate, far dif-
ferent from an intelligible enumeration of the people.

The subject of the population of China has engaged the atten-
tion of the monarchs of the present dynasty, and their censuses
have been the best sources of information in making up an opi-
nion upon the matter, by those writers who have examined the
question. Whatever may be our views of the actual population
of China, it is plain that these censuses, with all their discrepan-
cies and inaccuracies, are the sources of information upon which
the most dependance can be placed. The conflicting opinions
and conclusions of writers neither give any additional weight to
them, nor detract at all from their credibility. As the question
stands at present, they can be doubted, but cannot be denied ; it
is impossible to prove them, while there are many grounds fi>r

DIFFICULTISa OF THB SUBJECT. 307

IS population which they exhibit can
be declared to be improbable, but not shown to be impoesible.

No one who has beer in China can hesitate to bc know ledge,
lhtt( there are some strong grounds for giving credit to the cen-
suses, but the total goes mi far beyond his calculations, thai he
defers his entire belief till some new data have been furnished.
There are, perhaps, more peculiar encouragements in China lo
ihe increase of population than in any other country. Among
the moEt powerful are the desire for sons to continue ihe worship
in the ancestral hall, and lo assist in maintaining the parents when
old. In Japan, India, and Persia, tliese causes have less influ-
ence ; in Tibet, they arc almost powerless ; in Siani and Durmah,
they are weak. Security of life and properly, continuance of
peace, and minuteness of tillage, have also aided lo produce the

At this point every one must rest, as the result of an examina-
tion into the population of Ihe Chinese empire ; though, from llie
survey of its principal divisions, made in the preceding chapters,
its capability of maintaining a dense population needs no addi-
tional evidence. The mind, however, is bewildered in some
degree by the contemplation of milliaos upon millions of human
beings collected in this manner under one government ; and it
almost wishes there might be grounds for disbelieving the enor-
mous total, from the dreadful results that might follow the tyran-
nical caprice or unrestrained fury of their rulers, or the still
more shocking scenes of rapine and famine, which a bad harvest
and insufficient food would necessarily cause.

Before entering upon the examination of ihia question, it will
be well to bring together in a tabular form the various estimates
taken of ihc population during the present dynasty. No entire
census of the empire has been published for Ihirly-five years,
and, therefore, only an approximation can be mads of the present
amount ; for, if the number given in 1812 be considered worthy
of credence, it is highly probable that there has been an increase
during the interval. In the cily and vicinity of Canton and
Macao, it is certain the population has become more dense during
this period, to an extent quite evident to many foreigners who
have resided there. The details given in this table have been
taken from ibe best sources accessible to foreigners, and are aa
good as the people at large themselves possess.

■* K-^HH

^^■iM

TBK KIDDLK KNGDOM.

■

M

iliiiiiip} 1

■

i

illiliiil

1 P

»

iiiiiii!

■ J

i

iiiiiiiill j

r 8
1 ^

III

iiiiiii 1

^1'

iifiiiiii f

^1

•s

iilPPP 1

^H

Jil

1 ||l|Siag8|S3J|IH 9

1 i||iS||i6i55sisr 1

H 1

isSt

63SI3»IS6S5SSa5a»= S

ilH

iillSfSaiiRllppi 1

^^K

i

^^H

K

lilJlifflllllM

F

M

TABLE OF TARIOUS CENSUSES.

20U

Besides these detailed accounts, there have been severnl aggre-
gates of iho whole oounlry given by Chinese authors, and some
by foreigners, professedly drawn from original sources, but who
have not stated their authorities. The most iruslworlhy, together
with those given in the preceding table, are here placed in chro-
nological order.

tSIb yttr. I71U t

ITM t 3nn4>in,l7T Hfmul

sTih rcu, inn vn.KJSBu

STlh TfMT, 17^ 333»WCI,n(K1

vot Tou, IBIS 3(ia.m,ifa

Seven of these censuses, viz. ihe 7lh, 8th, ISch, I3th, 17lh,
20lh, and 2l3t, are given in detail in the preceding table. The
dtet three belong lo the Ming dynasty, and are taken from the
Kang Kien I Chi, or Mirror of History, where these amounts
are simply inserted, without giving any details of the population
of each province. The same work also contains one census taken
previous to lltese, about A. n. lOOU, when the population is
set down at 9,955,729. During the Ming dynasty, a part of the
country now called the Eighteen Provinces, was not under the
control of Hungwu and his descendants. The mode of Inking
the census in those diiys is not stated very delinitely. but if the
three are equally trustworthy, it is evident Ihnt there was uo in-
crease Ibr more than 150 years. The wars with the Japanese,
and with tribes on the north and west, together with the civil

210 THB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

wars and struggles between the Chinese, and the Kin in Manchu-
ria, must have somewhat decreased the population.

The first census of 1662 (No. 4) is incidentally mentioned by
Kienlung in 1791, as having been taken at that time, from his
making some observations upon the increase of the population,
and comparing the early censuses with the one he had recently
ordered. This sum of 21,068,600, does not, however, include
all the inhabitants of China at that time ; for the Manchus com-
menced their sway in 1644, and did not exercise full authority
over all the provinces much before 1700 ; Canton was taken in
1650, Formosa in 1683.

The census of 1668 (No. 5) shows a little increase over that
of 1662, but is likewise confined to the conquered portions ; and
in those provinces which had been subdued, there were extensive
tracts which had been almost depopulated at the conquest. Any
* one who will read the recitals of Semedo, Martini, Trigault, and
others, concerning the massacres and destruction of life both by
the Manchus and by Chinese bandits, between 1630 and 1650,
will feel no loss in accounting for the diminution of numbers,
down to 1710. But the chief explanation of the decrease from
sixty to twenty-seven millions, is to be found in the object of
taking the census, viz. to levy a poll tax, and get at the number
of men fit for the army — two reasons for most men to avoid the
registration.

The census of 1711 (No. 8) is the first one on record which
bears the appearance of credibility, when its several parts are
compared with each other. The dates of the preceding (Nos.
6 and 7) are rather uncertain ; the last was extracted by Dr.
Morrison from a book published in 1790, and he thought it was
probably taken as early as 1650, though that is improbable. The
other is given by Dr. Medhurst without any explanation, and
their great disparity leads us to think both are dated wrongly.
The census of 1711 is much more consistent in itself, though there
are some reasons for supposing that neither did it include all the
population then in China. The census was still taken for
enrolment in the army, and to levy a capitation tax upon all
males between the ages of sixteen and sixty. But this tax and
registration were evaded and resisted by the indignant Chinese,
who had never been chronicled in this way by their own princes,
and the emperor Kanghl, therefore, abolii^ed the eapitatiop tas.

COMFAFISOS OF FIRST THBEB CENSUSES. 211

It was not till about lliis time Ihat the Maiiclius had subdued and
pacified the southern provinces, and it is not improbable that this
census, and the survey taken by the Jesuits, were among their
acts of sovereignly. Findiag the people unwilling to be regis-
tered, the poll taK was merged in the land tax, and no census
ordered during the reign of Yungching, till Kienlung revived it
in order to have some guide m apportioning relief during seasons
of distress and scarcity, establishing granaries, and aiding ihe
police in their duties. Many, therefore, who would do all in
their power (o prevent their names being taken, when they were
liable to be taxed or called on to do military service, could have
no objection to come forward, when the design of the census was
to benefit themselves. It mailers very little, however, for whal
object iho census was taken if there is reason to believe it lo be
accurate. It might indeed acl as a stimulus lo multiply names
and figures whom there were no people to represent, as the way
of paying the marshals a percentage on the numbers they
reported, did in some parts of New York in 1840,

The three next numbers (9, 10, and 11} arc taken from De
Guignes, who quotes Amiot, but gives no Chinese authorities.
The last is given in full by Do Guignes, and both this and that
of Allerstain, dated twenty years after, are introduced into the
table. There are some discrepancies between these two and the
census of 1753, taken from the General Statistics, which cannot
easily be reconciled. The internal evidence is in favor of the
latter, over tlio census of 1743 ; it is taken from a new edition
of the Ta Tsing Htoui Tien, or General Stotistics of the Empire,
and the increase during the forty-lwo years which had elapsed
since the last census is regular in all the provinces, with the
exception of Shantung and Kiangnan. The extraordinary fer-
tility of these provinces would easily induce immigration, while
in the war of conquest, their populousness and wealth attracted
the armies of Ihe Manchus, and the destruction of life was dis-
proportion ably great- The smaller numbers given to the western
and southern provinces correspond moreover to the opposition
ejtperienced in those regions, still partially subdued. On the
whole, the census taken in 1753 corresponds very well with ihat
of 1711, and both of ihem bear an aspect of verity, which does
not belong lo the table quoted by De Guignes, dated in 1743.

Fcom 1711 to 1753, the population doubled ilaelf in tibout

L

91S

: MIDDLE KINGDOM.

twenty-two years, premising ihot the whole country was
fully registered at the first census. For instance, the province
of Kweichau, in 1711, presents a mere fraction on the average,
of a little Tnore than a single person to two square miles ; while
in 1753 it harl incfeased in the unexampled ratio of three to a
square mile, wliii^li is doubling its population every seven years ;
Kwangtung, Kwangsl, and Kansuh (all of them containing to this
day, partially subdued tribes), had also multiplied their numbers

w^

n nearly the
bly, to the mi
population.

The amour
(wd 1762 (Nc
from De Gi
Chinois. The 1i

Its for 1736, three of 1743, and those of 1760, 1761,
5s. 9, 10. 11, 12, 15, 16. and 17), are all extracted

ignes, who took them from the Memoires sur lea
pf 1762, i»

I (able.

I

The discrepancy of sixty millions between that given by Amiot
for 1760, and that by Dr. Morrison for the same year, is owing,
there can be little doubt, To foreigner:!, and not to an error of the
Chinese. The work from which Dr. Morrison extracted his
estimate for thai year was published in 1790, but the census was
taken between 1760 and 176,'). The same work conioins the
census of 171 1 (No. 8), quoted by him, and there is good reason
for believing that Amiot's or Grosier's estimalo of 157,343,075
Itjr 1743, is the very same census, he having multiplied the
number 2^,605,716 by five, supposing them to have been
families and not individuals. The three ascribed to the year
1743, are probably all derived from the same native authorities
by different individuals.

The three dated in 1760, 1761, and 1762, are harmonious with
each other; but ifthey are taken, Ihoseof 1753and 1760, extracted
from the Yih Tvng Chi by Dr. Morrison, must be rejected, which are
&r more reasonable, and correspond better with the preceding one
of 1711. It may be remarked, that by reckoning live persona to
a family in calculating the census of 1753, as Amiot does for 1743,
the population would be 189,223,820 instead of 103,050,060, as
given in the table. This explains the apparent decrease of fifty
millions. All the discrepancies between these various tables and
censuses must not be charged upon the Chinese, for where we
find that an author like Grosier has made the glaring mistake of
.mlliug jilt-ting lamilies instead of persons, and then multiplying

COMPAEISON t

313

this amount by five to ascenain the real populatioa, it throws a
shade of doubt over other estimates. The Chinese take their
census by families, and it has been usual to allow live persons [o
a family, which may or may not be too much.

The amount for 1736 corresponds sutBcienlly well with ihal
for 1743 ; and reckoning the same number of persons in a fa-
mily in 1753, that tallies well enough with those for 1760,1761,
and 1762, the whole showing a gradual increaae for twenty-live
years. But we think all of them, except that of 1753, are rated
too high. That for 1762 (No. 17), given by AUerstain and others,
has been considered usually as one of the most authentic state-
ments on this subject.

Tbe amount given by 2. of Berlin (No. 18), of ISfiJ millions
for 1790, is quoted in the Chinese Repository, but the writer
states no authorities, was probably never in China, and as it ap-
pears at present, is undeserving the least notice. That given by
Dr. Morrison for 1792 (No. 19), aa having been taken the year
before Lord Macartney's embassy, is extracted from Chinese
works, but he did not publish it in detail. Il is probably much
nearer the truth than the amount of 333 millions, given by the
commissioner Chau to the English ambassador. This e
has had niuch more respect paid to il a
than it deserved. The Chim

vrish to exalt his country in the eyes of its far-travelled visitors,
and not having the official returns to refer to, would not be likely
to state them less than they were. He gave the population of
the provinces in round numbers, and perhaps altogether from
memory, with the impression upon his mind that his hettrera
would never be able to refer to the original details. It con only
be taken as the utT-hand remembrance of an intelligent native,
but by no means worthy of the same credence as an extract from
a statistical work.

The last one quoted (No. 21) is the moat definite and satisfac-
tory of all the censuses in Chinese works, and was considered by
both the Morrisons and by Dr. Bridgman, in the Chinese Itepo-
silory, as " the most accurate that has yet been given of the
population."

In questions of this nature, one well authenticated table ia
worth a hundred of doubtful origin ; and it has been shown how
apocryphal ara many of the siatcmeDls given in books, but loM

authentic document
would naturally

S14 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

SO with the census of 1812, Ihe last one published b7 t6e
nese government ; and Ihe source of error which is chiefly to be
guarded against in that, is ihft avernge given to a family. This is
done by the Cliinese themselves on no uniform plan, and it may
be the case that the estimate of individuala from the number of
families ia done in separate towns, from an intimate acquaint'
anco with the particular district, which would be less liable to
error than a general average. The number of families given in
the census of 1753, is 37,785,552, which is more than one-third
of the population. The number of persons in a household in
England at the census of 1^40 was, on an average, 4| individuala.

The four censuses which deserve the most credit, so far as the
sources are considered, are those of 1711, 1753, 1792, and 1812
(i. e. Nos. 8, 13, 19, and 21) ; these, when compared, show the
(bllowing rate of increase :

From 1711 to 1753, the population increased 74,222,602,
which was an annual advance of l,7f!4,e24 inhaliilants, or a little
more than six per cent, per annum for forty-two years. This
high rate, it must be remembered, does not take into account
the more thorough subjugation of the south and west at the later
date, when the Manchus could safely enrol large districts, where
in 1711 they would not have been permitted to enter for such a
purpose.

From 1753 to 1792 the increose wos 104,636,982, or an an-
nual advance of 2,682,997 inhabitants, or about 2i-per cent,
per annum for ihirty.nine years. During this period, the coun-
try enjoyed almost uninterrupted peaoe under the vigorous sway
of Kientung, and the unsettled regions of the south and west
rapidly tilled up.

From 1792 to 1812. the increase was 54.126,679, oran annual
advance of 2,706,333 — not quite one per cent, per annum — for
twenty years. At ilie same rale, the present population is over
four hundred and fii\y millions; but no one supposes there has
been that increase, nor are there any data from which to make
even the least guess of the present ppulation of the whole em-
pire. The Chinese have overflowed the bounds of their posses-
Bions on all sides under the patronizing policy of their monarchs,
especially in Manchuria, Mongolia, Ui, and towards Tibet, whila
the emigration towards the Indian Archipelago is also la^e.

It la rery easy for foreigoers to say they do not believe thete
censuses, and that the population does not at all equal tlieir im-
mense numbers. " Cool and impariinl men rate the population
of Cliina, properly eo called, at one hundred and fifly millions,"
says Malle-Brun in 1800; but what advance docs lie make in
statistical knowledge by thus contemptuously rejecting, in his
study in Prance, the researches and investigations of the Chi-
nese ? So with the compilers of the Encycloptedia Americana,
who say "-that China Proper has only 146,280,000" (only four-
teen more on a square mile than Massachusetts), " hut the tri-
butary states and those under its protection swell the total to
two hundred and forty millions ;" but who give no authorities for
their assertions. It ia far better to say that the whole subject
rests on no credible data, and that we know nothing about the
matter, than perpetuate such erroneous ideas and slatemenis. If
the Chinese censuses are worth but little, compared with those
taken in European slates, they are better than the guesses of
foreigners who have never been in the country, or who have tra-
velled only partially in il.

The Chinese people are doubtless one of the most conceited
nations on the earth, but with al! their vanity, they have never
bethought themselves of rating their population twenty. five or
thirty per cent, higher than they suppose it to be, for the purpose
of exalting themselves in the eyes of foreigners or in their own.
Except in the case of the commissioner who informed Lord Ma-
cartney, none of the estimates were made for, or intended to be
known by foreigners. The distances in miles between places
given in Chinese itineraries correspond very well with the real
distances ; the number of districts, towns, and villages in the de-
partmcnts and provinces, as staled in their local and general
topographical works, agree with the actual examination, so far as
it can be made : why should their censuses be charged with false-
hood and gross error, when, however much we may doubt them,
we cannot disprove them, and the weight of evidence derived
from actual observation rather confirms thom than otherwise ;
and while iheir account, of towns, villages, distances, &C,, arc
unhesitatingly adopted until belter con be obtained ? Some of
the glaring discrepancies in the various tables are ascribable to
foreigners, and some of the Chinese censuses are incomplete, or

»

316 THE KIDDLE EmODOH.

the year canaot be precisely fixed, both of which viliale the

deductions mEtdc froin them as lo the rate of increase.

Some reasoiiB for believing that the highest population ascribed
to the Chinese empire ia not greater than the country call sup-
port, will first be stated ; and the objections against receiving -
their censuses then considered. This interesting subject can
then only be leA with the reader ta form his own opinion.

The area of the eighteen provinces is 1,349,870 sq. m., and the
average population, therefore, for the whole in 1813, was 269
persons on every square mile; that of the nine eastern provinces
in and near the Great Plain, comprising 502,192 sq. m., or two-
fifihs of the whole, is 458 persons, and the nine southern and
western provinces, constituting the other three-fifths, is 154 to a.
square mile. The surface and fertility of the country in these
two portions differ so greatly, as to lead one to look for results
like these. Taking McCuIloch for a guide, it appears that the
whole area of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
is 119,928 sq. miles, and the total population in 1631, was
24,410,429, or 212 on a square mile over the whole ; ihe ave-
rage in England and Wales is 241, in Scotland 78, and in
Ireland 249 persons on each square mile. The areas of these
three divisions of the United Kingdom given in ihe Penny Cyclo-
pssdia are 115,227 sq. m., but the former ia near enough for
comparison. The areas of some other European states and iheir
population, ore added to assist in this comparison.

mm.

A».

P.put.no.

Ai^np, PnlKil.-
Om lo ( Ml. DL

2oa,73a »q. m.

45,400,487 in IB4<t

223

14,157,573 ia IS37

132

HolUnd . .

IS3,75S "

13,168,77* in 1837

67

13,5«8 "

2,915.398 in 1838

214

Lomhaniy .

is.oaa "

4,707,630 ID 1839

i3,ai4 •'

4.2ja,6O0 in 1830

321

4S0 "

163,108 ia 1839

40D

All these are regarded as well settled countries, with tha
exception of Spun, but tiie two last in the list are the only ones
which exceed that of China taken as a whole, while none of
them comes up to the average of the eastern provinces. All of
them, China included, fall far short, however, of the avgrac*

COMPARISON WITH OTHEH COUNTRIES. 217

population on a square mile of the kingdoms of Judaii nod Israel
in the reigns of Abijali and Jeroboam, if the 1,200,000 men
brought into the field by them con be taken as a ratio of the
whole nuinber of inhabitants. In cslLniating the capabilities of
these European counlriea to support a dense population, great
allowances must be made for roads and pasture- lands for horses,
and the parks or grounds of noblemen, which afford very little or
no food.

In England and Wales, there are nearly twenty.nine milliona
of acres under cultivation, seventeen millions of which are
pasture- lands, and only ten millions devoted to grain and vege-
tables ; the other two millions consist of fa) luw.g round, hop-beds,
&c. There are, ihen, on the average about two acres of land
for ihe support of each individual, or rather less than this, if the
land required for the food of horses be sublracled. It has been
calculated thai eight men can be fed on the same amount of land
one horse requires; and thai four acres of pasture-land will
fumisli no more food for man than one of ploughed land. The
introduction of railroads has superseded the u^e of horses for
transportation to such an extent that it is estimated there are
only 200,000 horses now in England, instead of a million in
1830. if, therefore, one half the land appropriated lo posture
should be devoted to grain, and no more horses anil dogs raised
than a million of acres could support, England and Wales could
easily maintain a population of more than four hundred to a
square mile, Supposing them to be willing to live on what the
land can furnish.

The Irish consume a far greater proportion of vegetables than
the English, and it is estimated that of their eight millions of
people, five principally depend upon the potatoe, and two and a
half on oats, leaving only half a million who regularly use meat.
Many of these live a beggarly life upon half an acre, and even
less, and seldom taste meat or animal food ; but the average of
the whole country, including tillage only, is a little over two
persons to an acre. The quantity of land under cultivation in
Belgium is about fifleen -seventeenths of the whole, which givea
an average of about two acres to each person, or the same as in
England. In these two countries, the people consume far more
meat than in Ireland, and the amount of land occupied for
patturage is in nearly equal proportions in Belgium and Eng-

SIS THE UIDDLB KINCDOH.

laod. Id France, the average of culiivBted land is IJ acreB.
in Holland, 1 j acrca to each person.

ir the eaine proporlLon between titc arable and uncultivated
land exists in China as in England, namely one founh, there an
about 650 millions of acres under cultivation in China ; aud wa
are not left to conjecture in this caae, for by a report mode to
Kieulung in 1745, it appears tijat the area of the land under
cultivation was 595,59S,'2'2l acres ; a subsequent calculation
places it at 640,579,381 acres, which ia almost the same propor-
tion as in England.

Estimating it ai six hundred and fifty millions, for it has a
increased rather than diminished, it gives one acre and four-fiflhc
to every person, which is by no means a small supply for ths
Chinese, considering that there are no pastures or meadows for
horses, sheep, or oxen in the country.

In comparing the population of ditTerenl countries, the manner
of living and the articles of food in use among their inhabitonls,
forni such important elemeals of the calculation, in ascertBining
whether the cminTTy be overstocked or nol, that a mere tabular
view of the number of persons on a square mile is no criterion
of the amount of iuhabitauts the land would maintain if they
consumed the same food, and lived in the some manner in all of
them. Living as the Chinese, Hindus, Javanese, and other
Asiatics do, chiefly upon vegetables, the country can hardly b»
said to maintain more than one half or one third, or even one
fourth as many people on a square mile as il*might do, if
tlieir energies were developed as those of the English and Bel-
giuns are, and their food remain the .'^ame. The population of
Iliese eastern regions has been repressed by the combined
influences of ignorance, insecurity of life and property, religioui
prejudices, vice, and wars, so that the land has never maintained
nearly as many inhabitants as it might have done.

The greatest part of the cultivated soil in China is employed
m raising food tor man. Woollen garments and leather are'
used, and cotton and mulberry occupy but a small proportion of
the soil. There is not, so far as is known, a single acre of land
in the empire sown with gross-seed, though the sedge in
niarshes and grass on the hills are collected for fodder or fuel,
ami therefore almost no human labor is employed in raisLog food
for animals, which will not also serve to sustain man. Hotsm

SOintCES OF FOOD LS CHJNA. 219

are seldom used for pomp or war, for iravelling or carrying bur-
dens, but mules, asses, and goals are pinployed for Iraosporta-
tion and other purposes in the norlh-wost. Horses are fed on
cooked rice, or chopped straw and beans, and in Kiria on oala.
In the southern and eastern provinces, all tliese animals are rare,
the transport of goods and passengers being done by boats or by
men. The natives make olmoat no use of butter, cheese, or
milk, and the few cattle they employ in agricullure easily find
their living on the waste ground around the fields and villages.
In the south, the buffalo is used more than the ox for ploughing
tlie riae fields, and the habits of this animal make it cheaper to
keep him in good liking, while he can also do more work. The
winter stock is grass cut upon the hills, straw, bean stalks, and
vegetables. No wool being wanted for making cloth, flocks of
sheep and goats are seldom seen — it may almost be said are
unknown in the east and south.

The common viands are pork, ducks, geese, poultry, and fish,
all of which are raised cheaply. In the houses and boats of the
poor, it is not uncommon to see a pig, or two or three ducks, kept
in a pen or cage, and living upon the refuse of the family. No
animal is reared cheaper than the Chinese hog, and llic batching
and raising of ducks affords employment to thousands of people,
each of whom can easily attend to hundreds. Geese and poul-
try are abundant, but fish forms a far larger part of the common
food of all classes than birds, being not only caught in seas,
lakes, and running waters, but reared in pools and tanks, lo an
extent hardly conceivable by those who have not seen it. All
these sources require but little more than the mere labor and
implements for catching and keeping, to have their full benefit ;
in fishing, no pasture-grounds, no manuring, no barns, are needed,
nor taxes paid by the cultivator and consumer.

While animal food is thus provided lor the people, its prepara-
tion lakes away the least passible amount of cultivated soil. The
space occupied for roads and pleasure-grounds is insignificant,
but there is perhaps on amount approprialed for burial-places
quite equal to the area used for those purposes in European coun-
Iries ; it is, however, less valuoble land, and much of it would
be useless for culture, even if thus unoccupied. Graves or
usually dug on the sides and lops of hills, in ravines and copses
and wherever thev will be retired and dry. Moreover, it is ver

J

i

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

common to preserve the cofGo in temples and cemeterks nntil It
is decayed, partly in order lo save the expense of a grave, and
partly to worship the remains, or preserve them until they can
be gathered to their fathers, tn their distant native places. On
the north of Canton are scores of buildings filled with cofGna,
before which incense is daily burned, and similar depositories are
found Dear all cities.

Near Shanghai, Hangchau fu, Ningpo, aod in Chusan, coflina
are seen piled in the comers of the fields, or under precipices,
vhere they remain till dust returns to dust, and the bonea are
thrown into common receptacles. When the family burying.
ground is full, it is a common custom for the owners to lake up
the ashes, and deposit them in urns, all in one pit, and occupy
the vacant graves with other tenants. These customs limit the
consumption of land for graves much more than one would sup-
pose when he sees, as at Macao, almost as much space occupied
by the dead for a grave as by the living for a hut. The necro-
polis of Canton occupies the hills north of the city, of which not
one fiftieth part could ever have been used for agriculture, but
where cattle are allon-ed lo graze, as much as if there were do

The honor put upon agricultural pursuits has its effect in in-
creasing the cultivation of the land, while the principle on which
land is rented and taxed, viz. that of paying a proportion of the
crop, always remunerates the cullivalor according to his indus-
try. Much of the land in ihe souih and east of China Proper
produces two crops annually. In Kwnnglung, Kwangd, and
Puhkien, two crops of rice are taken year after year from the
low lands ; and in the winter season, in the neighborhood of
towns, a crop of sweet potatoes, cabbages, turnips, or some other
vegetable is grown, making a third crop. De Guignes estimates
the returns of a rice crop at len for one, which, with the vegeta-
bles, will give full 25 fold from an acre in a year ; few parts,
however, give this increase. Little or no land lies fallow, for
constant manuring and minute subdivision of the soil prevents
the necessity of repose. The diligence of the Chinese husband-
men in collecting and applying manure is well known, nor is
their industry less in turning up the soil ; which, if it result in
the production of two crops instead of one, really doublea the
area of land under cultivation, when its superficl

) POPULATLON. 221

pared wllh those of other countries. If the amoUDt of land which
producea two crops be eslimated at one fourth of the whole (and
it is perhaps as near one third), it makes the area of arable land
in the provinces upwards of S12 millions of acres, or 2^ acrea to
an individual. The land is not, however, cut up into such small
farms as to prevent its being managed as well as the people know
how to stock and cultivate it ; for manual labor ta the chief de-
pendence of the landlord or farmer, and fewer cattle, carts,
ploughs, and other Instruments are used than in any other
country. In the cultivation of rice, there is no need of animals
after the wet land has been ploughed and harrowed, the labor of
transplanting, weeding, and reaping being done by men.

In BO other country is so much food derived from the water.'
Not only are the coasts, estuaries, rivers, and lakes, covered with
fishing-boats of various sizes, which are provided with nets,
dredges, and tackle of dilFerent forms and uses, for the capture
of whatever lives in the waters, but the spawn offish is collected
from the shallow waters of the rivers and carried wherever it
can be reared. Rico fields are often converted into pools in the
winter season, and stocked with carp, mullet, and other fish ; and
the tanks dug in the fields for retaining the rain needed in irri-
gation usually contain hsh. By all these means, an immense
supply of food is obtained Bt a cheap rate, which is eaten fresh
or preserved with or without salt, and sent over the whole em-
pire, at a rate which places it within the reach of all above beg-
gary. Other articles of food, besides those here mentioned, both
animal and vegetable, such as dogs, cats, game, worms, birds-
nests, tripong, leaves, &.C., do indeed compose part of the meals
among the Chinese, but it ia comparatively an inconsiderable
part, and need not enter into the calculation. Enough has been
stated to show that the land is abundantly able to support the
population ascribed to it, even with all the drawbacks known to
exist ; and that, taking the highest estimate to be true, and con-
sidering the mode of living, the average population on a square
mile or a square acre in China is less than in most European
countries.

The political and social causes which tend to multiply the in-
habitants of China are more numerous and powerful than m most
countries. The failure of male posterity to continue
siou of the family, and woislup at the tombs of the deceased pa.

1

I

I

i

222

'. MIIIDLE KINISDOM.

lb

rents, is considered by all classes of people as one
afflictive misfonunea of life ; and the laws allow unlimited faci-
litieE of adaption, and secure the rights of such as are taken
into the family in this way. Tha custom of betrothing children
when young, and the obligation society imposes upon the youth
when arrived at maturity, to fulfil Iho contracts entered into by
their parrots, acts favorably to the establishment of families and
the nurture of children, and prevents polygamy. Parents desire
chiMren also for a support in their old age, as there is no legal
provision for aged poverty, and public opinion brands with infa-'
my the man who allows his aged or infirm parents to suffer when
he can help them. The law requires the owners of domestic
slaves to provide husbands for their females, and prohibits that
execrable feature of American slavery, the involuntary or forci-
ble separation of husband and wife, or parents and children,
when the latter arc of tender age. All these causes and influ-
ences lend lo increase population, and equalize the consumption
and use of property more, perhaps, than in any other country.

The custom of families remaining on the patrimonial estates,
tends to the same result. The local importance of a large family
in the country is weakened by its male members removing to
Iowa, or emigrating ; consequently, the patriarch of three or four
generations endeavors to collect his sons and grandsons around

'Is estate, their houses joining his, and they and their
families all eating at a common table, or from a common alock.
Such cases as those mentioned in the Sacred Commands ore 01
course rare, where nine generations of the family of Chang Eung-f
inhabited one house, or of Chin, at whose table seven hundred
mouths were daily fed,* but it is the tendency of society. Faini-

supported on a more economical plan, the claims of kin-
■^red are better enforced, the land is cultivated with more core,
and the local importance of the family perpetuated. This is,
however, a very difierent system from that advocated by Fourier
in France, or Greeley in America, for these little communities
are placed under one natural head, whose authority is acknow.
lodged and upheld, and his punishments feared. Slill, it has tha
result of supporting a large number of persona in comfort and
respectability, at a small expense, so that no prudential scniplea

* Sacred Edict, pages SI, 00.

OBSTACLES TO EMIGBATIOM.

2:23

need deter any member of the household from lUBrrying. Work-
men of the same profession form tlieraselvee into associatinDs for
mutual assisianco in cusc of sickness, each person contributing a
inthly, (

disabled ; and tliLs lauduble
nmount of poverty.
The obstacles pui

V and prejudice, operate I

of assistance h
oin prevents and oIlcviatDS iivast

of emigrating beyond sea, both
I deler respectable persons from
leaving their native land. Necessity, indeed, makes the law a
dead letter, and compels thousanils annually to leave their homos
to avoid starvation ; and no better evidence of the dense popu-
lation can be offered to tliose well acquainted with Chinese
feelings and character, tlian the extent of emigration. "What
stronger proof," observes MedhursI, " of the dense population of
China could be afforded than the fact, that emigration is going on
in spite of restrictions and disabilities, from a country where
learning and civilization reign, ttnd where all the dearest interests
and prejudices of the emigrants are found, to lands like Burmah,
Siam, Cambodia, Tibet, Manchuria, and the Indian Archipelago,
where compai-ative ignorance and barbarity prevail, and where
the extremes of a tropical or frozen region are to be exchanged
for a mild and salubrious climate? Add to these discommodities,
the fact, that not a single female is permitted or ventures to leave
the country, and consequently, all the lender attachments that
bind heart lo heart must be burst asunder, and, in most cases, for
ever." None but the most indigent or desperate, therefore,
leave the country to seek Iheir livelihood in less populous regions,
and with such restrictions, few besides these would be inclined

to do 90.

Moreover, if they return with wealth enough to live upon,
which all of [hem wish lo do, they are liable to the vexatious
extortions of needy relatives, sharpers, and police, wiio have a
handli- for their fleecing whip in the well-known law (Code, see.
225} against leaving the country. A case occurred in 1S3'2, at
Canlon, where the son of a Chinese living in Calcutta, who had
been acnl home by his parent with his mother, lo perform the
usual ceremonies lo his deceased grandparents, was seized by his
uuclo as he was about lo be married, on the pretext that his
father had unequally divided the paternal inheritance ; he wns
obliged to pay a thousand dollars to iree liimself. Soon aAer his

I

J

234 TH£ miDDLE KTKGDOn.

marriage, a few sharpers seized him and carried liitn e
sedan, as he waa walking near his house, but his cries attracted
the police, who carried them all to the magistrates, where he Was
liberated ; he was, however, obliged lo fee his deliverers.*
other case occurred ia Macao, in 1838, which resulted i
death of the man. He had been living several years in Singa-
pore as a merchant, and still kept up an interest in the trade
with that place when lie settled in Macao. Accounts of hia great
wealth became generally rumored abroad, and he was very seri-
ously annoyed by his relatives. One night, anumberof thieves,
dressed like police-runners, came to his house to search for opiut
and the boisleroua maimer of iheir entrance terrified him to such
a degree, thai he jumped from tlio lerrace upon the hard gravelled
oourl-yard to escape, and broke his leg, of which he shortly after
died. A Ihird case is mentioned, where the returned emigrant*,
consisting of a man and bis wife, who was a Malay, and two
children, were rescued from extortion, when before the magis-
trate, by the kindness of his wife and mother, who wished lo a
the foreign woman-t These oases are constantly occurring, and
tend very materially to restrain emigration in those who can stay
at home, and to prevent the emigrants from returning when they
have gone.

The anxiety of the government lo provide stores of food for the
necessities of the people in times of scarcilj', shows rather the
fear of the disastrous results usually following a short crop, such
as the gathering of clamorous crowds of starving poor, and the
consequent increase of bandits and disorganization of society,
tbsn any peculiar care of the rulers for their subjects, or that
these storehouses really supply deficiencies. The (
quencea resulting from an overgrown population are experienoed
in one or another part of the provinces almost every year; and
drought, inundations, locusts, mildew, or other natural (
give rise lo nearly all the insurrections and disturbances which
occur. The inference from such events, as well as from the
prevalence of infanticide, the custom of selling the poor inl
domestic slavery, the existence of swarms of beggars among
a generally induslrious community, and the bounty paid o
importation of rice, is confirmatory of a superabundant popol^

tion. There can be no doubt, Ijouevcr, (hut, without adding a
single acre to the area of amble land, these evils woulj bo raaie-
rially alleviated, if Ihc iniercominunication of traders and their
goods, between distant parts of the country, were more frequent
and safe ; but this is not likely to be the case until both rulers
and ruled make greater advances in just government, obedience,
and regard for each other's welfare.

It would be a satisfaction in regard to this subject, if foreign-
ers could verify any part of the census. But this is, al present,
impossible. They cannot examine the original records in the
office of the Board of Revenue, nor can they ascertain the
amount of population in a given district from the archives in the
hands of the local authorities. Neither can tliey beconle ac-
quainted with the actual mode of enumeration so as to ascertain
the degree of credibility to be ailnched to it, or the character of
those who lake it. Still less can they go through a village or
town, and count the number of houses and their inhabitants, and
calculate from actual examinations of a few parts what the whole
would be. Wherever foreigiiers have gone, there has appeared
much the same succession of waste land, hilly regions, cultivated
plains, and wooded heights, as in other countries, with an abun-
dance of people, but not more than the land could support, if
properly tilled. Most of their travels, however, have been along
the great water-courses and thoroughfares, and not so much
through the secluded agricultural districts, though perhaps thb
would not make much dilTerence in the general impression of the
amount of papulation.

It is perhaps as easy to take a census in China as in most
European countries, from the manner in which the people are
grouped into hamlets and villages, called kutvg, each of which
is under the control of village elders and officers. In the dis-
trict of Nanhai, which forms the western part of the city of Can-
ton, and the surrounding country for more than a hundred square
miles, there are one hundred and eighty hiang ; the population
of each hiang varies from two hundred to one hundred thousand,
but ordinarily ranges between three hundred and ihirly-five hun-
dred. If each of the eighty-eight districts in the province of
Kwangtung contain the same number of hiang, there will be,
including the district towns, 15,D28 villages, towns, and cities in
alt, with an average population of twelve hundred inhabitants to
11*

326 THE MIMLE KINRDOM.

eftch. From the top of the hills on Dane's island at Whampoa,
thirty-six (owns and villages can be counted, of which Canton is
ono; and four of these conlain from twelve to fifteen hundred
houses. The vicinity of Macao, and the whole district of Hiang-
shan in which that settlement lies, is also well covered with vil-
lages, though iheir exact number is not known. The island of
Amoy contains more than fourscore villages and towns, and this
island forms only a part of the district of Tung-ngan. The banks
of the river leading from Amoy up to Chongchau fu, are likewise
well peopled. The environs of Ningpo and Shanghai are well
settled, though that is no more than one always expects of tha
country around large cities, where the demand for food in the
cily it«elf causes the vicinity lo be well peopled and well tilled.
In a notice of an irruption of the sea in 1619, along the coast of
Shantung, it was reported that a hundred and forty villages were
laid under water, which indicates a well peopled country.

The law respecting liio enrolment of the people is contained
in Sees. Ixxv. and Ixxvi. of the sialutes.* It enacts various pe-
nalties for not registering the members of a family, and its pro-
visions all go 10 show that Uio people are desirous rather of evad-
ing the census than of exaggerating it. When a family has
emitted to make- any entry, the head of it is liable to be pu-
nished with one hundred blows if he is a freeholder, and witb
eighty if he is not. If the master of a family has among his
household another distinct family whom he omits lo register, the
pimishmenl is the same as in the last clause, with a modification,
according ns the unregistered persons and family are relatives
or strangers. Persons in the employ of government omitting to
register their families, are less severely punished. A master of
family failing to register all the males in his household who aru
liable to public service, shall he punished from sixty to one hun-
dred blows, according to the demerits of the offence ; this clause
was in effect repealed, when the land (ax was substituted for the
capitation ttus. Omissions, from neglect or inadvertency, to
register all the individuals and families in a village or town, on
the part of the headmen or government clerks, are punishable
with different degrees of severity. All persona whatsoever are
to be registered according (o their accustomed occupations or

* Penil Code, page 19.

MODE OF TiKIW; THE CKfreDS, 227

professions, whether civil or military, whetlier couriers, arllsana,
physicians, astrologers, laborers, muaiciaoa, or of any other de-
nomination whatever ; and sublcrfugea in representing oneself
as beliiiifjing lo a profession not liable to public service, are
visited as usual with the bamboo ; and persons falsely describing
llicmselves as belonging to the army in order to evade public
service are banished as well as boalen.

" In Ihn Chinese govemnienl," observes Dr. Morrison, " there
uppcars great regularity and system. Every district has its sp.
propriate officers, every street its constable, and every ten houses
their tythtng-inan. Thus they have alt the requisite means of
ascertaining the population with considerable accuracy. Every
family is required to have a board always hanging up in ihe
bouse, and ready for the inspection of authorized officers, on
which ihe names of all persons, men, women, and children, in the
house are inscribed. 7'liis board is called nitm-pai or door-lablel,
because when there ore women and children wtlhin, the officers
are expected lo tuiie the account from the board at the door.
Were all the iniuntes of a family faithfully inserted, the amount
of the population would, of coiirsc, be ascertained with great
accuracy. But it is said that names are sometimes omitted
through neglect or design ; others think that (he account of per-
sons given In is generally correct." Both Dr. Morrison and his
son, than whom no one has had better opporiunities to know tlie
true slate of the case, or been more desirous of dealing fairly
with Iho Chinese, regarded the censuses given in the General
Statistics OB more trustwoi-tliy than any other documents availa'
ble. A writer in the Repository says {Vol. I., p. 383), that
n native tells him that the local officers are in the habit of making
a lumping addition to the last census, and sending that io as the
actual amount of population, without troubling themselves whe-
ther it bo Irue or not. He says also that Chinese books, and
above all Chinese stale documents, are little lo be trusted. This
is indeed true, when compared with similar documents in Euro-
pean countries, but this person at the same lime considers the
native with whom he conversed, who had probably never exa-
mined the records of his own government for himself, as belter
authority than the slate documents prepared by the most intelli-
gent men in the service of the governmeni.

The internal evidences of the juth of these estimates of the

i

I 228

population or ihe Chinese empire are partly circumstantial i
partly inferential. The purpose of taking the census
portion the due amount of government officers and police
district, and make suitable provision for ihe necessities of ihv'f
people in case of famine. The equal levying of land taxes a.
collection of other revenues, also forms part of the design
ascertaining Ihe population ; which is done, in short, for much
the same purposes as it is in all countries.

In conclusion, it may be asked, are the results of the enumC'
ration of the people as contained in the statistical works published ,
by the government, to be rejected or doubted, therefore, becai
the Chinese officers do not wish to ascertain the exact population^
or because they are not capable of doing it ; or, lastly, becaiM
they wish to impose upon and terrify foreign powers by an a
metical array of millions they do not possess ! The questiidi
■eems to hang upon this Irilemma. It is acknowledged that the]
falsify and garble statements in a manner calculated to thro '
doubt upon everything they write, as in I'.e reports of viclori
and battles sent to the emperor during the last war, in ihi
rials upon the opium trade, in their descriptions of nal
jeots in books of medicine, and in many other things. But tbtf
question is ns applicable to China as to France : is llie estimated
population of France in 1601 to be called in question, becauas
the Moniteur gave false accounts of Napoleon's battles in 1818.^^
It would be a strange instance of national conceit and folly, t^M
a ministry composed of men fully able to carry on all the detallll
of a complicated government like that of China, to systematically'"
exaggerate the population, and then proceed, for more than a
century, with taxation, disbursements, and official appointments,
founded upon these censuses. Somebody at least must know
them to be utterly worthless, and the proof that they «
must, one would think, ere long be apparent. The provin
departments have been divided and subdivided since Ihe Jesuit^
made their survey, because they were becoming loo densely s
tied for the same officers lo rule over them.

Still less will any one assert thai the Chinese are not capahl
of taking as accurate a census, as they are of measuring o
lances, or laying out districts and townships. Errors may be
found in the former as welt as in the latter, and doubtless are so;
fer it is not contended that the four censuses of 1711, 17S3, 1T92,

L

PROBABILITIES OF ERROfi ]N CENSUS. 839

and 1S12 are as ttccurate as those lalten in England, Prance, or
ihe United States, btil tliat ihey are the best data that we have,
and that if lliey are rejected we leave tolerable evidence anJ
take up with doubtful and suppositive ; — with what cool and im-
partial men, like Malle-Brun and the editor of the Encyclopeedia
Americana, give instead. Nor does it seem likely that, con-
sidering the objects for which (he census is now taken, thai it haa
been exaggerated to impose upon themselves or upon foreigners.
There is no sufficient motive for doing so ; and Mr. Morrison
says, " We know from several aulhorilies that the people are in
the habit of diminishing rather than increasing their numbers in
their reports to government. " One reason, among others, for
doing so is that the local officers may pocket the difference in the
taxes assessed for collection from their districts.

It is not improbable there may be an error of fifleen or twenty
millions, or four or five per cent, in excess in the last census,
but we have no means of proving il. On the other hand, it may
be staled that in Ihe last census, the entire population of Man.
churia, Koko.nor. fli, and Mongolia, is estimated at only 2,167,286
persons, and nearly all the inhabitants of those vast regions are
subject to the emperor. The entire population of Tibet haa
never been included in any census, and it is very doubtful if an
accurate enumeration of any part of the extra- provincial terri-
tory has ever been taken ; but the Chinese cannot be charged
with exaggeration, when good judges, as Klaproth and others,
reckon the whole at between six and seven millions. Khoten
atone, one writer states at three and a half millions. No writer
of importance estimates the inhabitants of these vast regions as
high as thirty millions, as Mont. Manin does, which would be
more than ten to a s<juaro mile, excluding Gobi ; while Siberia,
though not so well peopled, has only 3,611,800 persons on an
area of 2,649,600 sq. m., or 1^ to each square mile.

The reasons given on a preceding page, why the Chinese
desire posterity, and do all they can to build up their families,
are not all those which have favored the increase of the nation.
The long peace which the country at large has enjoyed since
1700 has operated to develope its resources. Every encourage-
ment has been given to all classes to multiply and fill the land.
Polygamy, slavery, and prostitution, three social evils which
check Ihe increase of the species, have been ciicumsoribed io

380 THE MIDDLE KINCDOU.

(heir effects. Early betrothmcnt and poverty do much to pn-
vent the first ; female slaves can bo and are usually married ;
and public prostitution is reduced by a separalion of the sexes,
and early marriages. No fears of overpassing the supply of
fbod restrain the people from rearing families, but the emperor
Kienlung issued a proclamation in 17!I3, calling upon all ranks
of his subjects to economize the gifls of heaven, lest, ere long,
the people exceed the means of eubaistence.

McCuUoch doubts the accuracy of the Chinese censuses, and
the increase of population they exiiibit, because China had been
long settled and civilized, her public works had been undertaken
and completed at a remote period, the aris have been stationary
for ages among her people, and because the Manchus imparted
nothing that was new, and could give them no instruction in sci-
ence or arts : for these reasons, the odicia! accounts have been
grossly exaggerated, and he submits, " thai the rate of increaao
is such as could liuve been realized only in an unoccupied and
very fertile country, colonized by a people far advanced in the
arts, and that it is all but al>surd to suppose that it should be
realized in an old settled country
China." Now Ireland has lived nex
days of the conquest by Henry 11.
the arts, knowledge, inventions, and
more than six centuries. Yet it w
population began to increase, and at

the Chinese estimate, for in filly-six years, from 1785 to 1S41,
the population had advanced from 3,845,932 to 8,466,000, or
About 5^ per cent, per annum, while England did not increase
half OS fast. Still in 1785, England had nothing new to commu-
nicate, no new invention or ari to favor the increase of the popu-
lation was introduced ; and yet the people have multiplied even
in that island, far more civilized, well settled, and better governed
than China. A priori, we might also submit that this unexam-
pled inorease in Ireland was likewise absurd, if it was not known
to be the fact. Again, the population of France has increased
«ince 1841, from thirty-four to forty-five millions, or about two
roillicns per annum, which is a rate of increase far exceeding
anything existing in China.

In all these cases it is difRcult to see what reasoning has to do
with the subject, except where the laws of pnjgreesiou deduced

with stationary arts like
door to England since the
1 1171, participating in all
commerce of the latter for
is only till 17S5 that her
which quite outstrips

DENSITV IN CHINA COMFAREO WITH OTHES COUNTRIES. 231

from a number of examples nre lotaily set at defiaiice, which
is not the case in China. Food and work, peace and security,
not universities or sleainboats, are llie encouragements needed
for the multiplication of ihe species ; though they do not have
that cfiect in all countries, as in Mexico and Brazil, it is no reason
wfay they should not in others. There are good grounds for
believing that not more llinn two-thirda of the whole population
of China were included in the census of 1711, but thai allow-
ance cannot be made for Ireland in 1785 ; and consequently, her
annual percentage of increase, up to 1641, would ihen be greater
than China, during the forty-two years up to 1753. McCui-
looh quotes De Guignes with great approbation, but the French-
man takes Ihe rough estimate of 333,000,000 given to Macartney,
wliich is less truslwortliy than that of 307,467,200, and compares
it wiUj Grosier's of f57,343,975, whiob is certainly wrong through
bis misinterpretation. De Uuignes proceeds from the data in his
possession in 1802 (which were less tiian those now available),
and from bja own observations in travelling through the country
In 1796, to show the improbability of the estimated population.
Bui iho observations made in journeys, taken as were those of
the English and Dutch embassies, though they passed through
BOine of the best provinces, cannot be regarded as decisive evi-
dence against oflicial statistics.

Would any one sujiposc, in travelling from Boston to Chatham,
and then from Albany to Buffalo, along the railroad, that Maa-
sachuaetts contained almost double the population on a square
mile of New York ? So, in going from Peking to Canton, the
judgment six intelligent travellers formed of the population of
China might differ as much as one half. De Guignes says, after
comparing China with Holland and France, " All these reasons
clearly demonstrate, that the population of China does not exceed
ihtit of other countries ;" and such is in truth the case, if the
kind of food and materials of dress be taken into account. His
remarks on the population and productiveness of the country ore,
like his whole work, replete with good sense and candor ; but
some of his deductions would have been different, if he hod been
in possession of all the data since obtained.* The discrepancies
between the different censuses have been usually considered a

* Voiagei k Faking, torn. II!., pages ^5— SO.

k

TQE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

Btrong internal evidence ogainst them, especially by De GuignM.
They are of considerable weight, but the question resolves itself
partly into an inquiry regarding the aourcea wlience they were
all taken, and partly into the manner of taking them.

After all these reasons for receiving the highest estimate as the
true one, there are, on the other hand, two principal objections
against taking the Chinese census as altogether trustworthy. The
first is the enormous averages of 850, 705, and 671 inhabitanta
on a square mile, severally apportioned to Kiangsu, Nganhwui,
and Chehkiang, or, what is perhaps a fairer calculation, of 458
persons to the nine eastern provinces. Whatever amount of cir-
cumslaniial evidence may be brought forward in coniirmation of
the census as a whole, and explanation of the mode of taking it,
the moat positive proof is necessary before giving implicit cre-
dence to tliis astounding result. Such a population on such an
extensive area is unparalleled, notwithstanding the fertility of the
soil, facilities of navigation, and sslubrity of the climate of these
regions, although acknowledged to be almost unequalled. While
we admit the full force of all that has been urged in support of
the census, and are willing to lake it as the best document on the
subject exlanl, it is desirable to have some additional proofs de-
rived from personal observation, and lo defer the settlement of
this interesting question until such opportunities are aflbrdcd.

Such an average is, indeed, not without o.'sample. Captain
Wilkes, in his exploring expedition, ascertained that one of the
islands of the Fiji group supported a population of over a thou-
sand on a square mile. On Lord North's island, one of the
Pelew group, the crew of the American whaler Mentor ascer-
tained there were four hundred inhabitants living on half a square
mile. These, and many other islands in that genial clime, con-
tain a population far exceeding that of any large country, and
each separate community is obliged lo depend wholly on its own
labor. They cannot, however, be cited as altogether parallel
cases, though if it be true, as Barrow says, "that an acre of
cotton will clothe two or three hundred persons," not much more
land need be occupied with cotton or mulberry plants, for clolh-

g in China, than in the South Sea islands.

The second objection against receiving the result of the census
as slated is, that we are not well informed as to the modeof enu-
nerating the people by families, and the manner of taking the

ftccoutit, when the patriarch of two or three generations lives in
B hamlet, with ell his children and domestics around him. Twn
of the provisions in Sec. xxvtli of ihc Code, seem expressly de-
signed for some such stale of society ; and the liability to under-
rate the males fit for public service, when a capitation tax was
ordered, and to overrate the inmates of such a house, when the
liead of it might suppose he would thereby receive increased
BJd from government when calamity overlook him, are equally
apparent. The door-tahlei is also liable to mistake, and in shops
and work-houses, where the clerks and workmen live and sleep
on the premises, it is not known what kind of report of families
the asses-sors make. On these imporlanl points our present in-
formation is imperfect, while Ihe evident liability to serious error
in the ultimate results, makes one hesitate. The Chinese may have
taken a census sufficient for their purposes, showing the number
of families, and the average of persons in a family, while they
may have greatly erred in deducing the number of individuals.
The point of this objection is, that we do not know how the fami-
lies are enumerated, nor with what degree of accuracy the indi-
viduals are coimted, or calculated from the number of families.
The average of persons in a household in England, in 1931, was
4.7, but it is probably less than that in a thickly settled country,
if every married couple and their children be taken as a family,
whether living by themselves, or grouped in patriarchal hamlets.
The whole subject must remain an open one, therefore, until
further statistics are obtained. No one doubts that the population
is enormous, constituting by far the greatest nsseinblagc of human
beings using one speech ever congregated under one monurtih.
To the merchants and manufacturers of the West, who hope to
make them customers for the goods they can make and bring
them, (he determination of this question is of some importance,
and through them to their governments. The political economist
and philologist, the naturalist and geographer, have also greater
or less degrees of interest in the contemplation of such a people,
inhabiting so beautiful and fertile a country. But the Christian
philanthropist turns to the consideration of this subject with the
liveliest solicitude ; for if the weight of evidence ia in favor of
tlie highest estimate, ho Icels his responsibility increase to a puin-
ful degree- He knows, by the express declaration of Ihe Bible,
that no idolater, or liar, caji ever reach heaven, and cannot, there-

fore, escape the conclusion, llmi ihia huge concourse is going to
eternal death in odb unbroken mass, with perhaps a few isolated
exceptions not affecting the general stalemenl. Tlieir danger is
furthermore greaily enhanced by the opium traffic, — a trade
wliich, as if the rjvera Phlegethon and Leilie were united in It,
carries fire and destruction wherever it flows, and leaves adeadly
forgeil'ulnesa wherever it has passed. Oh! for an appeal of urgent
intrealy, a voice of loud expostulation, to all calling themselves
Christiana, to send the antidote to this baleful drug, and diffuse a
knowledge of the principles of the Gospel among them, thereby
placing life as well asdeath before them. If the populationof China
be as the census represents it. and their condition, with relation lo
their God, be us the Bible declares it to be, the conclusion is in-
evitable, that there will be more among the lost from the Chinese
tiian any other nation. Cannot aa much be done to save and
elevate, as there is now doing to impoverish and destroy them i

If the population of the empire is not easily ascertained, a satis-
factory account of the public revenue and expenditures ia still
more difficult to obtain ; it posaessea far leas iciterest, of course, in
itself, and in such a country as China is subject to many varia-
tions. The market value of the groin, silk, and other products
in which a large proportion of the taxes are paid, varies from
year to year ; and although this does not materially affect the
government which receives these articles, it complicates the sub-
ject very much when aliompling I
Statistics on these aubjects an
and should not yet be looked ft
regard to truth. The central gover
to support itself, and furnish a cert
tenance of the emperor and his col
his majesty ia continually embarrassed for the "
that all the provinces do not supply enough r

,nly of r

a the real taxation.
1 Europe,

n China drawn up with much

it requires each province

lUrplusage for the main-

>ul it ia well known that

i[ of funds, and

it their

b

1 outlays. There is nc
metals are less abundant j
thirty years ago ; and this

n the

that the precious
a government

without national credit, or any well understood i
plying the deficiency.

The amounts given by various authors as the revenue of China
Kt difierent timeS) are so diacordanl, that a single glance suffioei

to abow thai thoy were obtained fruin partial or incompkie returns,
or else reforonly to thesurplusngesent loihecapilal. DeGuignes
reraarka very truly, that the Chinesp. are so fully persuaded of the
riches, power, and resources of iheir couniry, [hat a foreigner is
likely to receive different accounts from every native he asks ;
but there appears to bo no good reason why the government
should falsify or abridge their fiscal accounts. In 1587, Trigauli,
one of the French missionaries, staled the revenue al only twenty
millions of taels. In 1655, Nieuhoff reckoned it at one hundred
and eight millions. About twelve years after, Magalhaens gave
the treasures of the emperor at 20,423,962 dollars ; and Le Comte
about the same time placed the revenue at twenty-two millions
of dollars, and both of them estimated the receipts from rice, silk,
AiC; at thirty millions, making the whole revenue previous to
Kanghi'a deatli, in 1721, between fi fly and seventy millions of
dollars. Darrow reckoned the receipts from all sources in 1706
at one hundred and ninety-eight millions of taels, derived from a
rough estimate given by the commissioner who accompanied
the embassy. Sir George Staunton places the total sum at
£66,000,000 ; of which twelve millions only were transmitted
to Peking. Dr. Medhurst, drawing his information from original
sources, thus stales the principal items of the receipts.

lud Bun in moneT. ) Tula 3IJ4&M6 nlned m tlI.»7.DH

Luid uiBi la psln, > mnl 19 FeklDg. SMk 4,33n,M7 " l%an,ni

CiialaaiudmBilcdiiUM. S Tncli l.tHa.Din I.in4.«l»

I<Uul UIH IB mvucy, I k„„ , ^ .,, ,„ TlieU »J,7n3.1»S " 38.371100

OnlB, I "=pllnp"'>ln«".shlh 3IJIM.SW •■ lD5.iaB,WT

The 3hih of rice is estimated al 93, but this does not include
the cost of transportation to the capital on that sent hither. At
two hundred millions of dollars, the tax received by government
from each person on an average is about si.xty cents ; Barrow
1 the capitation at about ninety cents. The accoilnt of
~ I taets from each province given in the lable of
population on page 198, is extracted from the Red Book for
1840;' the occount of the revenue in rice, as stated in the
official documents for that year, is 4,114,000 ahih, or about five
hundred and fifty millions of pounds, calling each ahih a pecul.
The manner in which the various items of the revenue are
divided is thus stated for Kwanglung, in the Red Book for 1842 :

• AnnalM de la Foi, tome XVI., page **».

SM THE MIDDLE KINGIXtH.

L«nd Ux in money. . 1,364.304 tri't

Pawnbrokera' taxes, S,(>tH)

TaxEB at Ihe frDnlier and on tianaportation, . 719,307

Retained, 330,143

Hiscellaneous soutcto, .... 50,530

Salt depnrtnieat and gabel, 47,510

Rarenue from cuBtoDU atCuilon 43.750

Other sUtioni in the prurince, ..... 53,670

2,533,204

This is evidently inerely t)ie sum sent to the capital from this
province, ostensibly as iho revenue, and which the provincial
treasury must collect. The real receipts from this province or
any other cannot well be ascertained by foreigners ; it is, how-
ever, known, that in former years, ihe collector of customs at
Canton was obliged to remit annually from 800,000 to 1,300,000
taels, and the gross receipts of his ofRce were not far from
three millions of tools.* This was well known to be iho best
coUectorale in the empire, but the difference between the sum
menliooecl in the Red Book of 43,750 laels, and the actual
receipts, is so great ae to show that tlie whole system of revenue
is imperfect in practice so far an Chinese statistical accouats
furoiah us with means of judging.

De Guignes has examined the subject of the revenue with his
usual caution, and bases his calculations on a proclamation of
Kienlung in 1777, in which it was staled that the total income in
bullion at that period was 27,967,000 laels.

Income in money aa obovo taeU, 27,067,000

Equal revenue in kind from grain 97,067,000

Tax on the second crop in the southern prorincea, . . .21 ,800,000

Gabel.cool, tran9itdutie«,&c., <1,479,40D

Ciutomi It Cantnn 800,000

Kcrenue from silk, porcelain, vorniah, and other maiiufactuKH, . 7,000.000

Adding bouae and aliop taxes, licensea, tonnage duties, &c., . 4,000,000

Total revenue, taeli. $9,113,400

The difference of about eighty millions of dollars between thia

amount and that given by Dr. Medhursl, will not surprise any

one. All these calculations are based on opprosirnationa, which,

although easily made up, cannot be verilied in any degree or

* Chinese Conmiercial Guide, 2d editiau, page 143.

SOURCES AND ABfOUfiT OP HEVENTJE, 237

manner ; but all agree ia placing the [olal amount of revenue
below thai of any European government in proportion to the
population. The sagacity of the Monchu nioDarchs has bcea
remarkably exhibited in this important part of their system j and,
far from desiring lo extort as much revenue as possible from their
subjects, they soon laid down well understood rates of taxation,
from wliich there has not since been any malcrial deviation.
The extraordinary sources of revenue which are resorted to in
lime of war or bad harvests, are sate of office and honors, tem-
porary increase of duties, and demands for contributions from
wealthy merchants and landholders. The first is the most fruit-
ful source, and may be regarded rather as a permanent than a
temporary espedioncy employed to make up deficiencies. The
mines of gold and silver, pearl fisheries in Manchuria and else-
where, precious stones brought from III and Khoien, and other
aimilar sources, furnish several millions.

The expenditures, almost every year, exceed the revenue, but
how the deficit is supplied does not clearly appear. In 1832, the
emperor said the excess of disbursements was 26 millions of
laels ;* and, in 1938, the defalcation Was slill greater, and offi.
ces and tiiies to the amount of ten millions of loels were put up
for sale lo supply it. This deficiency has become more and
more alarming since the great drain of specie annually sent
abroad in payment for opium has atloined its present amount,
and the shifts of the government lo provide for its ordinary ex-
penses have been more varied and oftener resorted to. The prin-
cipal items of the expenditure are thus staled by De Guignes,

SalU7 of civil uid militBry oOicen, a tithe of the impost on

land 7,773^0

Pay o( 600,000 inrantry, three tacla per month, bilf ia monej

and half in rations . . 21,600,000

Pay of 343,000 cavalry, al four ta^^lB per month, . . . 11,010,000

Mounting the cavalry, 20 taeb each 4,840,000

UnifortQS for both arms of the service, 4 taela .... 3,309,000

Arms acd Binmunition B42,000

Navy, fcvenuE colters, ftr., 13,500,000

Canall and tmnsportstion of revenue, 4,000,000

Forts, utillery, and muoitions of war 3,800,000

Taeis, . . 71,33y,500

Chinese Repoaitory, Vol, I., page ISO.

i

TKE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

This, according to his calciilBtioD, shows a surplus of neftrly
30 millions of taels every year. But the outlays for quelling
insurrections and transporting troops, deficiency from bad har-
vests, defalcatJOD of officers, payments to the tribes and princes
in Mongolia and Ilf, and other uousual demands, more than ex-
ceed this surplus. In 1833, Ihe Peking Gazette contained an
elaborate paper on the reveQue by Na, a Manchu censor in
Kiangsf, proposing various ways and means for increasing it.
He says the income from land-tux, the gobel, customs and transit
duty, does not altogether exceed forty millions of taels, while the
expenditures should not much exceed thirty in years of peace*
This places the budget much lower than other authorities, and
this censor perhaps includes only the imperial resources, though
the estimate then would be too high. The pay and equipment
of the troops is the largest item of expenditure, and it is proba-
ble that here the apparent force and pay are far too great, and
that reductions are constantly made in this department by com-
pelling the soldiers to depend more and more for support upon
Ihe plats of land belonging to them. It is considered the best
evidence of good government on llie part of an oilicer to render
his account of the revenue satisfactorily, but from the injudicious
system which exists of combining fiscal, legislative, and judicial
functions and control in the same person, the temptations to de-
fraud are strong, and the peculations proportion ably great.

The salaries of the provincial ofGcers are not high. That of &
governor-general is 20,000 taels ; a lieutenant-governor, 16,000 ;
a treasurer, 9000 ; provincial judge, 8000 ; prefect, 3000 ; dis-
trict magistrates from 2000 down to 800, according to the size
of the district ; literary chancellor, 3000 ; commander-in-chief,
4000; general, 3400; colonels, 1300; and gradually decreas-
ing according to rank down to 130 taels per annum. The per-
quisites of the highest and lowest officers are disproportionate,
for the people prefer to lay their important cases before the high-
est courts at once, in order to avoid the expense of passing
through those of a lower grade, The personal disposition of the
functionary modifies the exactions he makes upon the people so
much, that no guess can be mode as to the amount.

The laud-tax is the principal resource for the revenue in rural

* Chinew Bepoiitory, VoL II„ page 131

SALARIES OF OFFICKES AND lUTE OF TAXATION. 239

districts, and this is well understood by all parlies, so that there
is little room for exactions. The land-tax is from IJ to 10 cenu
a mati, or from 10 to 66 cents an acre, according to the quality
of the land, and diiGculty of ullage ; taking the average at 35
cents an acre, the income from this source would be upwards of
15D millions of dollars. The clerks, constables, licior^, and un-
derlings of the courts and prisons, are the " claws " of their
superiors, as the Chinese aplly call Ihetn, nnd perform most of
their extortions, and are correspondingly detested by the people.
In towns and trading places, it is easier for the officers to exact
in various ways from wealthy people, than in the country, where
rich people often hire bodies of retainers to defy the police, and
practise extortion and robbery themselves. Like other Asiatic
governments, China suffers from the consequences of bribery,
peculation, extortion, and poorly-paid ollicei's, but she has no
powerful aristocracy lo retain the money thus squeezed out of the
people, and erelong it linds its woy out of the hoards of empe-
rors and ministers back into the mass of the people. The Chi-
nese believe, however, that the emperor annually remits such
ablo to collect into Moukden, placing them there
case of need : these probably consist of precious
stones and regalia rather than bullion or stores ; and it is not
likely that the value of the articles thus stored away at present
amounts to nearly as much as it once did, or was ever as
great as has been represented. The portion of the revenue ap-
plied to filling the granaries is much larger, but this popular
provision in case of need is really a light draft upon the re-
sources of the country, as it is usually managed- In Canton,
there are only fourteen buildings appropeialed to this purpose,
few of them more than thirty feet square, and none of tftem fui'i.

i

CHAPTER VI.

Natural History of Chin*.

The succinct account of the natural hiatory of China given by
Davis, contains nearly all the popular notices of much valuf
present known, collected by him from the writings of travellers
and his own observations. A few additional items of information
derived from other sources, will comprise most that is worth re-
pealing on this subject. Malle-Brun observed long ago, " That
of even the more general, and according to the usual estimate,
the more important features of that vast sovereignty, we owe
whatever knowledge we have obtained to some ambassadors who
have seen the courts and the great roads, — to certain merchants
who have inhabited a suburb of a frontier town, — and to several
missionaries, who, generally more credulous than discriminating,
have contrived lo penetrate in various directions into iho interior."
The compilers of the work upon China in the Edinburgh Cabinet
Library, have brought together a great number of facts relating
to the botany and zoiilogy of China, the list of plants given L
the Vllth chapter being the best heretofore published. The col-
lections of Mr. Fortune, who was sent out by the Horticultural
Society during the years 1844 and 1845, lo the vicinity of the
five ports, when desn'ibed, will probably enlarge our present ii
formation on these topics more than anything which has yel been
written. The opportunities which will be offered for examii
the productions of the country in the vicinity of those newly
opened places, will no doubt gradually increase until our know-
ledge of the natural history of China is somewhat comparable to
its extent and variety.

Personal invesligalion is particularly necessary in all that ri
lales to the geology and fossils of a country, and the knowledge
possessed on these heads is consequently exceedingly meagre ;
confined for the most part to desultory notices of the coasts and
waters through which the embassies passed, or description of de-

COAL ABTraUiNT IN CHINA.,

241

ttebed specime«8. The vast stcpps of Mongolia and wilds of
Manchuria, with the raounloinous ranges of Tibet, Songaria,
and the western proviiioea of Sz'chueii and Knnsuh, and the salt
lake regions in and along the great Desert, ure consequently utter-
ly unknown, except a few notices of the most general character.
It cannot be doubted that so peculiar a part of liie world as tha
table land of Central Asia will, when thoroughly examined, solve
many problems relating to geology, and disclose many important
facts to illustrate the obscure phenomena of other parts of the
world.

The few nolicea of the geological formations which are
nished in the writings of travellers, have already been given to J
a considerable extent in the geographical account of the pro>
vinces. The summnry given by Sir John Davis is a well digest-
ed survey of the observations collected by the gentlemen attach-
ed to the embassies, and need not be repeated.* The metal-
lic and mineral productions of China used in the arts, comprise
nearly everytliing found in other countries, and they are furnished^
in such abundance, and at such rates, as conclusively show thatj
they are plenty and easily worked- Coal is generally used for^
fuel in all those places which have been visited, and the supply 1
might probably he greatly increased by introducing EuropeanJ
machinery and modes of working it. The boats on the North J
river, below Nanhiung, lie near the mouth of a horizontal shaftj
worked into the mine, above which tlie cliiFs are scarped downj
as the shaft advances. The ignorance of the Chinese of tbs J
best modes of draining and ventilating mines, must necessarily 3
prevent working many of them beyond a certain depth aodT

The mountains of Shansf and Chihli supply large quantities J
of this valuable mineral, and many boats find constant employ, j
(nent in bringing a coarse anthracite from Katchau in Liautung,^
to Tientsin, One locality of the mine in Liautung is about tat. .
H9° ItK N., and long. 121" 25' E.f Several kinds, both of an- 1
ihraciic, and bituminous, have been seen in marts at the north } ,
and coal dust and refuse la mixed with a little moistened clay at J
Peking, and made into cokes for the fires of the poor. That
wliich is brought to Canton is hard, and leaves a large proportioQ

•The ChinesB, Vol. II., pages 333-343.
t Chinaie Repoailorr, Vol. X., pige 437
12

tttS a THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

of ashes after combuslioD ; during igoition, it throws ofl* ft
eating sulphureous smoke, which prevents ihe natives using ft
for cooking. It is employctl in Ihe inanufactiire of coppci'as fram>
hepatic iron pyrilps, a(!curdtng to Du Halde, but is less frequeDtljr
employed in the arts than It would be if iho people know better
how lo use it.

Crystallized gypsum is abundant at Canton, brought from
norlh-west of the province, and is ground lo powder in mills
similor lo that used for making flour. It is not used a
by the Chinese, but mixed with oil lo form a cement for paying'
the seams of boats after ihey have been caulked. The powder
is employed as a dentifrice, a cosmetic, and a medicine, and'-
sometimes, also, is bailed to make a gruel in fevers, under ths
idea thai it is cooling. The bakers who supplied the Cngliah
troops at Amoy, in 1813, occasionally put it into the bread
make it heavier, but not, as was erroneously charged upon thenv^
with any design of poisoning their customers, for they do aot
think it noxious ; its employment in coloring tea, and adutteraU
ing the ping-fa, or powdered sugar, is also attributable lo ol~

omju

B the

L:

Ltmeaione is abundant at Canton, both the common oloudod
marble and Ihe bine transition limestone ; (he last is extensively
used in the artificial rockwork of gardens. Even if the C '
knew of the existence of lime in limestone, which they generally
do not, the expense of fuel for calcining it would be such as k
prevent their obtaining lime from it. The marble commonl;^
used for Hours is fissile crystallized limestone, unsusceptible a
polish ; no statues or ornaments are sculptured from this minerK
but ornamental slabs are somelimes wrought out, and the side
curiously stained and corroded with acids, forming rude reprft^
sentations of animals or other figures, so as lo convey the a
ance of their being natural markings. Some of these siinulot
petrifactions arc exceedingly well done. Slabs of argillaoeoia
sluto are also chosen with reference lo their layers, aai
treated in the same manner. The stone used about Canton ani
Amoy Ibr building is gracdte, and no people exceed the Chinese i|
cutting it. Large slabs are split out by wooden wedges, and oW
for basements and foundations, and laid in a beautiful manner j
pillars are cut from single stones of different shapes, though ofm
extraordinary dimensions, and tlieir shafts ornamented with 1^

mnLDTKG STONE AND GEMS.

■criptions. Ornamental walls are frequently formed of large
slate secured by posts, iho outer faces of wtiich are beaulifully
oarved with figures in deep intaglio, representing a landscape or
procession. Sandstone, mica slate, and other species of rock, are
also worked for pavements and walls.

The nitre obtained in Chibli by lixiviating the soil under
houses, furnishes a large part of that used in the manufacture of
gunpowder. A ley is obtained from lixiviating ashes, which
partially serves the purposes of soap ; but the Chinese are igno-
rant of the processes necessary for forming tliat substance.
Alum is extensively used for settling water when turbid, as
well as in dyeing cloth and whitening paper ; large quantities are
annually carried to India. It is obtained by lisiviation from
shale. Other metallic or eartliy salts arc known and used, as
sal-ammoniac, which is collected in Mongolia and fU from lakes
and the vicinity of extinct volcanoes, and blue and white vitriol,
which arc obtained by roasting pyrites. Common salt is all pro-
cured by evaporating seawater, rock itah not having been noticed.
At Chusnn, the scawaier is so turbid that the inhabitants are
obliged to filter it through clay, and then evaporate the water to
dryness in order to obtain pure salt.

The minerals heretofore found in China have for the most part
been such as have attracted the attention of the natives, and been
collected by them for curiosity or sale. The skilful manner in
which their lapiilaries cut crystal, agate, serpentine, and other
quartzose minerals, is well known. The corundum used in these
operations occurs in granitic rocks, but some of the crystals are
brought from Borneo ; il is used in the form of a powder. Tlie
ijih or yu is a species of prehnite, or according to others of ne-
phrite, and its value in the eyes of the Chinese depends chieRy
upon its sonorousness and color. The most valued specimens
are brought ftom Yunnan and Khoten ; a greenish- white color is
the most highly prized, but a plain color of any shade is not
much esteemed. A cargo of this mineral was imported into
Canton from New Holland not long ago, but the Chinese would
not purchase it, owing to a fancy taken against its origin and
color. The patient (oil of the workers in this hard and lustreless
mineral, is only equalled by the prodigious admiration it is held
in ; and both fairly exhibit the singular taste and skill of the
Chinese. " Its color is usually a greenish -white, passing into a

S44 THE MIDDLE KfNGDO.M.

greyish-green and dark gross-^recn ; ialeraally it is nosKMlip'''
glimmering. Its fraclure is splinter}' ; splinters white ; meat
semi-lrans parent and cloudy ; ii scratclieB glass strongly, but rock
crystal does not scratch it. Specific gravity from 2-9 to S-3."*
The ruby, diamond, amethyst, garnet, opal, agate, and other
stones, are known among the Chinese, but whether (hey are all
found in Ihe country itself or intponed is not known. The seals
of the Boards are in many instances cut on valuable stones.
Malachite is common, and is used for paint and set as a jewel ;
jet is likewise employed for the same purpose.

All the common metals, except platina, are found in China,
and the supply would no doubt be sutHcient for all the purposes
of the inhabiiantB, if lliey could avail themselves of the improve-
ments adopted in other countries in blasting, mining, &c. The
importations of iron, lead, tin, and quicksilver, are gradually
increasing at Canton, but ihey probably form only a small pro.
portion of the amount used throughout the empire, especially of
the two Hret named. Their precise localities, the nature of the
ores containing them, and the processes by which they are ex-
tracted, are hardly known, and only the most vague ond unsatisfac-
tory accounts have been obtainfed. It is almost useless to inquire
of the people themselves on such points. A native dealer in iroD
at Canton, for instance, has not, generally speaking, the least
knowledge of the mode of manufacturing the metal, or whence
it is brought ; it is enough for him that it sella. Consequently, it
is almost impossible to obtain any satisfactory information with-
out an actual examinalion of the mines, and observing the van*
ous manipulations employed in the preparation of the ores, nhioli
hitherto has not been done by scientific persons.

Gold is collected in the sands of the rivers in Yunnan and
Sz'chuen, especially from the upper brarichof the Yangtsz' kiang,
called Khufui kiang, or Golden Sanded river, from this product.
The largest amount is said by Davis lo come from Lfkiang fu,
near (hat river, and from Yungchang fu on the borders of Bur-
mah. It is wrouglit into personal ornaments and knobs for
otSciat caps, and beaten into leaf for gilding, but is not used as a
coin, nor is much found in market as bullion. Silver is brought
from Yunnan near the borders of Cochinchina, and the mines id

* Murray's China, Vol. III., p. 373.

THEM. 245

that region must be both exlensive and easily worked to afford
such large quanlities aa have been exported during the last five
yeara. The working of both gold and silver mines lias been
aaid to be prohibited by ihe rulers, but this proliibiiion is rather
a government monopoly of the mines than an injunction upon
working those which are known. The importation of this metal
into China during the two centuries the trade has been opened,
will hardly equal the exportation which has taken place since
the commencement of the opium trade. It is altogether impro-
bable Ihat the Chinese are acquainted with the properties of
quicksilver in separating these two metals from iheir ores, though
the great consumption of the former is hardly accounted for by
its use in medicine, or the mcmufacture of vermilion and look-
ing-glasses. Cinnabar occurs copiously in Shenal, and all the
shwiii yin, "water silver," i. c. hydrargyrum, not imported, is
obtained from this ore, it is said, by a rude process of burning
brushwood in the wells, and then collecting the metal after con-
densation.

Copper is used chiefly for manufacturing coin, bells, and bronze
articles of various sorts. It is found pure in some instances,
whence it is named tst' lai, or natural ; and the sulphuret of cop-
per is known to occur in some places as well as malachite. The
ores of zinc and copper which furnish the spelter and the white
copper, are obtained from Yunnan, and the mines must be very
rich, judging from the immense amounts used. Block tin is not
common, most of that used being imported into Canton from the
Indian Archipelago. Lead is obtained from the sulphuret, but
not so cheaply as to be brought to market at the price it can be
imported from the United States. It is a singular instance of the
results of commerce that the lead which lines a tea-chest first
opened at St. Louis, should have been smelted at Galena, and
arrive there by way of China. Several ores of lead, copper, and
zinc are known to exist in the country, and the liotryoidal and
ha;matitic ores of iron, as well as the carbonate and earthy oxide,
have been seen.

The sulphuret of arsenic is sometimes cut into ornamental
figures in Ihe same manner as prehnite and almagatbolite. The
lapis-lazulj is employed in making ultramarine blue for painting
upon copper and porcelain were ; this mineral is obtained in
A few minerals and fossils have been noticed in Ihe

Ifei

Si46 THE MIDDLE KINGtWM,

vicinity and shops of Canton, but none of tliem of much
Coarse epidotc occurs at Mncao, and tuDgstate of iron has boen
noticed in the quartz rocks at Hongkong. Some petrifactions
have been brought lo Canton, especially petrified crabs from
Hainan, which are considered very curious, and prized by the
natives for their supposed medicinal qualities. Orthoceratiles and
shells of various Itinds are noticed iji Chinese books oa being
found in rocks, and fossil bones of huge size in cavca and river

There are many hot springs and other indications of volcanio
action along the southern acclivities of the table land in the
provinces of Shensi and Sz'chucn ; and in Chihll, near the em-
peror's summer palace at Jeb-ho in Chahar, there are therma]
springs which are resorted to from a distance by invalids ; and
similar phenomena occur elsewhere in that region. One of the
French missionaries in Sz'chucn describes the Ho tsmg or Fire
wells, in that province, "as apertures resembling Artesian
springs, sunk in the rock to a depth of 1500 or 1800 feet, whilst
their breadth does not exceed five or six inches. This is a work
of great difficulty, and requires in some cases the labor of two or
three years. The water procured from them contains a fifth
part of salt, which is very acrid, and mixed with much nitre.
When a lighted torch is applied to the mouth of some of those
which have no water, fire is produced with great violence and a
noise like thunder, bursting out into a (lame twenty or thirty feet
high, and which catmot be extinguished without great danger and
expense. The gas has a bituminous smell, and bums with a
bluish flame and a quantity of thick, black smoke. It is con-
ducted under boilers in bamboos, and employed in evaporating
the sail water from the other springs,"* Besides the gaseoua
and aqueous springs in these provinces, there are others possess-
ing diiferent qualities, some sulphurous and others chalybeate,
found in Shansi and along the banks of the Yellow river. Of
these interesting phenomena, the authentic information now pos-
•essed is just enough lo excite a strong desire to become better
acquainted with every fact relating to them.

The animal and vegetable productions of the extensive domains
under the sway of the emperor of China include a great variety

• Murra^'a Chira, Vol. UI., page asi.

4N1MALS FOUND l.\ CHINA — MOSKETS. 247

of types of different families in both tliese kingdoms. On ilio
south the islands of >Iaixian and Farmosa, and parts of the adja-
ceDi coasts, slightly partake of a tropical character, exhihiting
ia Ute cocoanuis, plantains, and peppers, the parrots and Rton-
keys, decided indications of an equatorial climate. From the
eastern coast- through the country to the north-west provinces,
occur mountain ranges of gradually increasing elevation, ioter-
Epersed with intervales and alluvial plains and bottoms, lakes
and rivers, plains and hills, each presenting its own peculiar
[iroduclions, both wild and cultivated, in great variety and abun-
dance. The southern ascent of the high land of Mongolia beyond
the Great Wall, the uninhabited, uncultivated wilds of Manclin-
ria. the barren wastes of the desert of Gobi, wiih its salt lakes,
extinct volcanoes, and isolated mountain ranges ; and lastly, the
stupoadous chains and valleys of Tibet and northern Songaria,
all differ from each other in the character of iheir productions
and olimale. In one or the other division, nearly every variety
of soil, position, and temperature occur which are known on the
glob..

A few notices of the zoology of these extensive regions, taken
chiefly from the laborious digest given by Mr. Burnel,* will
afford sudicient data for enumerating the principal animals,
birds, and fishes occurring therein. Of the lUadrumanous order
of animals, th'ere are several species. The Chinese are skilful
in teaching the smaller kinds of monkeys various tricks, and
persons carrying them around the country to entertain the popu-
lace with their antics, are often met. M. Breton gives one
picture of their adroitness and usefulness in picking tea in Shan-
tung from plants growing on otherwise inaccessible acclivities,
which, if not misrepresented, rests on doubtful authority. One
of the most remarkable animals of this tribe is the douc or Co-
chinchinese monkey {Simia ittmaiii), which is said to occur also
in Kwangsf. " It is a large species ofgreat rarity, and remark-
able for the variety of colors with which it is adorned. Its body
is about two feet long, and when standing in an upright position
its height is considerably greater. The face is of aii orange
color, and flallened in its form. A darii band runs aciHiss the
front of the for«bead, and the sides of the <

■ liamj't China, Vol. III., Chop. IX.

»8

I Resby win

I pears in i

1^

toDg sprenditig yellowish lufVs of hair. The bsdj^ '
and upper parts of the rorenfms are brownish grey, ihe lower
portions of ihe arms, froni the elbows to the wrists, being white ;
its liands and thighs are black, nnd the legs of a bright red color ;
while the tail and a large triangular spot above it are pure
white." Such a creature matches well, for its grolesqiio and
variegated appearance, with the mandarin duck and gold lish,
also peculiar to China.

Chinese books spenk of two large animali of this family onder
the names otjt-fi and siirg-sing. The former is said to have a
long mane covering its back, and almost prehensile lips ; the
nng-siftg is smaller, and more nearly resembles a man rn ila erect
gut. Perhaps the latter is allied to llie chimpanze, and the for-
mer to the orang-outang of Borneo, The singular proboscis
monkey of Cochinchina, culled Lhi-doc in that country and Aai-
ttik by tlie Chinese, exhibits a clrange proiile, part man and part
beast, reminding one of the fubolous combinations in Cruik-
ahanks' or H. D.'s caricatures. It is alraiit three feet high, of a
reddish brown color, and the nose of a stuffed specimen brought
to Macao was fonr inches and a half long, and roundish like a
proboscis. The Chinese account says, " its nose is turned up-
wards, and Ihe tail very long and forked at the end, and that
whenever it rains, the animal thrusts the forks into its nose. It
goes in herds, and lives in friendship ; when one (lies, the rest
accompany it to burial. Its activity is so great that it runs its
head against the trees ; its fur is soft and grey, and the face
black."* Native authors speak of some other quadrumonous
animals, but none of them are described with suiRcicnt accuracy
to identify them, as the above quotation fully shows.

The Chinese Herbal, from which the preceding extract is
token, describes the bat under various namex, such as " heavenly
rat," " fairy rat," "flying rat," " night swallow," and "belly
wings ;" it also details the various uses made of the animal in
medicine, and the eslraordinary longevity some of the white
species attain. " The bat," aaya the author, " is in form like b
mouse ; its body is of an ashy black color ; and it has ihio
fleshy wings, which join the fonr legs and tail into one. It ap-
pears in the summer, but becomes torpid in the winter; oo

* Chincw Cbiestomathy, p. 4«0

BATS, BEAES, LIONS, TIGERS, ETC. 349

which account, as il eals nothing during that season, and because
il has the hahii of swallowing its breath, it attains a great age.
It has the characier of a nighi-rover, not on account of any
inability to lly in the day, bul il dares not go abroad nt that lime
because il fears a kind of hawk. It subsists on mosquitoes and
gnals. It flics with ita head downwards, because the brain ie
heavy."* This quotation is among tiie best Chinese descriptions
of objects in natural history, and shows how little there is to
reward ihrir perusal. Bats, with an expanse of eighteen inchca
across the wings, are frequent in tlie southern provinces, and a
large species, found in Sz'chuen, is used for food.

Frequent mention is made of bears, and their paws are regard-
ed by the Chinese as a delicate dish, though perhaps not the iriost
so which can be eaten, as is remarked by Mr. GutzlaiT. The
polar bear is said to have been seen in Liautung ; a small species
of brown bear is sometimes brought to Canton in cages from the
western provinces, and they are not uncommon in the mountains
of Kweichau. The Eighteen Provinces are now too well cuhi-
vated and thickly peopled to alTord safe retreats for the larger
wild animals, however numerous they may have been originally ;
the only places at all likely to harbor them are the jungles of
Yunnan, and the mountains on the west and south-west. The
forests of Manchuria, however, still atTord many fur bearing and
carnivorous animals, whose capture gives employment to thou-
sands of hunters. The lion and tiger are among the most com-
mon animals delineated by Chinese painters, but the figures are
so far from the truth as to prove that the living animals are sel-
dom seen in the country, while (he rampant sculptured lions
placed near the gates of temples are even still greater bur-
lesques on that noble animal. The lion has been brought to
court from India as a present to the emperor, but it is never seen
now. The last instance was in the reign of Hienlsung about
1470. The tiger and elephant probably still frequent the bor-
ders of Burmah, and a small species of the former is peculiar
to the Altai mountains. Hunting leopards and tigers were used
in the days of Marco Polo by Kublai khan, but the manly pas-
time of the chase, on the magnificent scale then practised, haa
fallen into disuse with the present princes. A small and fierce

' ChineM Repositdry, Vol. VII., p UO

300 THE MIDDLE

species oC wild-cnt occurs in ihe province of Kwangtuog, which
is Bought for as game, and is served at tables after proper feed-
ing, as an expensive delicacy. Lynxes are also found in Ihe
country.

The domestic animals used by the Chinese offer few pecu-
liarities. The cat, or " housa hold fox," is a favorite inmate of
families, and the ladies of Peking are fond of a variety of the
Angora cat, provided with long hair and hanging ears, which
they carry about in the same way western ladies do their
poodles. Tbe commau species is usually grey or black, many
of them destitute of a tail, and when reared fur food, it is fed
on rice and vegetables.

Tlie dog and hog are ihe most corrmion domestic animals. The
first differs but little from its congener among the Esquimaux,
and along the northern shores of the American and Asiatic con-
tinents, and is perhaps ihc original of the species. There is but
little difference in llieir size, which is about a foot high, and two
feet in length ; ihe color is a pale yellow or black, and always
plain, with coarse bristling hair, and toils curling up high t
the back, and rising bo abruptly from the insertion that il
been humorously remarked, they almost assist in lifting the legs
from the ground. The hind legs ore unusually straight, which
gives them an awkward look, and perhaps prevents them running
very rapidly. The eyes arc jet black, small and piercing, and
the inaides of their lips and mouths, and the tongue, are of the
same color, or a blue black. The bitcli has a dew-claw on each
hind leg, but the dog has none. The ears are sharp and upright,
the head quite peaked, and the bark very unlike the deep
sonorous baying of our mastiffs, but a short thick snap. One
item in ihc Chinese description of the dog is that it " can go on
three legs ;" a gait that is often exhibilod by ihom. They are
used as guards to houses, but are by no means as intelligent or
faithful as Uie animal in western lands.

The dogs about Canton are often diseased with the mange, and
present hideous spectacles ; some ascribe its prevalence to their
vegetable diet. They are not so wild and voracious as the
doga in Syria and Egypt, but still they roam about seeking for
food. One writer says, speaking of (he worship offered at the
tombs, on one occasion, " That hardly had the hillock been
abandoned by the worshippers, when packs of hungry dc^s cams

niDDing up to devour the pari of tlie offeriiiga left for ihe dead,
or to lick up the greaao an [lie ground- Those who tnine first
held up their heads, brisiled their hair, and showed a proud niid
satisfied demeanor, curling and moving their tails with an inso.
lent BJr ; while the late corners, tails between their legs, held
their lieads and cars down. There was one of them, however,
which, grudging the fare, held his nose to the wind as \( aauffing
for better luck ; but one loan, old, aad ugly hcasi, with a flayed
hack and hairless tail, was seen gradually separating himself
from the band, though without seeming to hurry himself, making
a thousand doublings and windings, nil the while looking back to
seo if he was noticed. But the old sharper knew what he was
about, and as soon as he thought himself at a safe diatanco,
away he went like on arrow, the whole pack after him, to some
other feast and some oilier tomb."*

The breed of oaitle and horses is smaller than the European,
and nothing is done to improve the race. Tlie oxen are some-
tiroes not larger than an ass, and have a small hump between the
alioulders ; the dewlap is large, nnd the contour remarkably neat
and symmetrical. The fort'hpad is round, the homs small and
irregularly curveJ, and the general color dun red ; the hump
is often entirely wanting- Thuyare reared about Whampoa and
Afacoo, lor supplying foreigners with beef and milk, though
occasionally seen in the harness. The butfalo, or " water ox,"
as the Chinese call it, is not as large as the Indian or Egyptian
Miinial, but much the largest beast used in agriculture. Il is
very docile, and about the size of an English ox ; the hairless
hide is a tight black color, and the animal seeks refuge from the
gnal, and coolness for itself in muddy pools, dug for its conve.
iiicnce near villages, where it wallows in the ooze with its nose
just above (he surface. Each horn is nearly semicircular, and
bends dowawanlii, while ilie head is turned up so much that the
nose is nearly horizontal. This animal must not be confounded
with the buffalo or bison of the western prairies of America, for
no two quadrupeds of the same genus can be more unlike iu
their habits. The licrdboys who drive the buffalo usually ride
it, and tlie metaphor of a country lad astride a buffalo's back,
blowing the flute, usually CDlers into a Chinese description of

* Ld Chiae Uurerte, page t-17.

rural scenery. The yak or grunliiig ox of Tibet is emploj
in that country and the whole region of ihe Himnlayas, as a
beast of burden, and to furnish food and raimenl, ll is covered
with a. mantle of hair reaching nearly to the ground, somewhat
like the musk ox of North America, and the soft pelage is used
for making standards among the Persians, and its tail as Sy-flaps
0r chowrics in India ; the hair is woven into carpets, and also
dyed red for a covering to official caps in China. The wild
buffalo of India is noticed in Chinese authors, but it is doubtful
whether it now exisis in ihe country.

The domestic ahecp is Ihe broad-tailed species, and furnishes
excellent muilon ; it is not so common as the goat in the north-
ern provinces. The tail la sometimes ten inches long, and
three or four thick ; and the size of this fatty member does not
appear to be much afTccted by the temperature, nor to deteriorate
the quality of the mutton.

There are many kinds of deer in the country, and the wealthy
often keep a species of spoiled deer or axis in their grounds, re-
sembling the gazelle in its light form and expressive eyes ; it is
(»lled IdTi-laien lah, or money deer, from the white spots on its
sides. A beautiful species of mouse deer, with very long hind
legs, is found in the south, which is also kcpl in paddocks and
gardens. One of the most common species of this family is the
duren or himng yang (Antelope gutturoaa), met with in many
parts of the country, but especially on the borders of the desert
between Tibet and Turkestan. This Chinese antelope is some-
what heavy in body, its horns short and thick, about nine inches
long, annulated to the very lips, reclining backwards, divergent,
wavy, and the points turned inwards. The nose is blunt, the
lips surrounded with long hairs, ears small and painted. The
most remarkable feature is a large movable protuberance in the
throat, occasioned by ihe dilatalion of the larynjt, and appearing
externally with long stiff hairs pointing forwards; in the old
males it is monstrously enlarged. Like its congener, the spring-
bok in Southern Africa, it avoids woody places, and frequents
open plains and barren mountains. It is very swtfl, and takes
surprising bounds when running, and is usually seen in herds.*

The musk deer (Moschua mosckifenu), called aki or hiang

• Mnmy'B China, Vol. III., page 408. Penny CfClopBdia, Vol. n..

MUSK DEEH, HOBSE, ETC. 358

chatig, is much more celebrated than theChinese antelope. This
animal roams over a vast extent of alpine territory, from Tibet
and Shens! to lake Baikal, anil is everywhere an object of eager
chase on account of the odorous substance il produces, and which
has long been qd article of conimerce among Asiatic and Euro-
pean nations. Like the chamois, the musk deer inhabits the
lofiiest cliiTs and defiles, and makes its way over rugged moun-
tains with great rapidity. Il has no horns, and is not unlike the
roe in general appearance, though ihe projecting teeth make
the upper lip look broad. Its color is greyish brown, and its
limbs slight. The musk is contained in a pouch beneath the
tail on the male, and ts most abundant during the rutting season.
It is token in nets or shot, and the hunlers are said to allure it to
its destruction by secreting themselves and playing the flute,
though some would say the animal showed very little taste in
attending to such sounds as Chinese flutes usually produce. The
musk is often adulterated with clay by the hunters or traders,
or when used, is mixed with other subaiancea to moderate its
powerful odor. The argali and jiggetai room over the ranges
of the Hingan ling, and their flesh and skins are sought after.

The horse commonly seen in China is a mere pony, not much
larger than the Shetland pony ; it is bony and strong, but kept
with little care, and presents a worse appearance than it would
if its hair were trimmed, its fetlocks shorn, and its toil untied.
This custom of knotting the tail is an ancient practice, and the
sculptures at Persepolia show that the same fashion prevailed
among the Persians. The Chinese language possesses a great
variety of terms to designate the horse ; the difTerence of age,
sex, color, and disposition, are all denoted by particular charac-
ters. Piebald and mottled white and bay horses are not uncom-
mon; but in China the improvement of this noble animal ia
altogether neglected, and he looks sorry enough compared with
the coursers of India. He is principally used for carrying the
post, or for military services ; asses and mules being more em-
ployed for draught in Ihe eastern provinces, and camels in Central
Asia. The Chinese books speak of a mule of a cow and horse,
OS well as from the ass and horse, though it is well known no
such hybrid aa the former ever existed.

The elephant is kept ot Peking for show, but it is likely that
the sixty aiiimals there in the days of Kienlung, when Bell saw

SS4 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

them, have since dwindled to less than hall' that number. Van
Braam snys he mel six going into Peking, sent ihlther by an
officer from Yunnan. The deep forests of that province also
harbor the rhinoceros and tapir. The horn of the former id
much sought after as medicine, and the best pieces are carved
into drinking cups, which are supposed to sweat whenever any
poisonous liquid is put into ihem. The tapir is the white and
brown animal found in the Malacca peninsula, and strange stories
are told of its caiing stones and copper- The wild boar occurs
in the same extensive region, lying between Siam and China, and
also in the mountains in the provinces. They are quite nume-
rous in the hills of Chehkiang, and seriously annoy the husband-
men in the lowlands, by their depredations upon the fields. Deep
pita are dug near the base of the hills, and covered with a bait
of fresh grass, and many are annually captured or drowned in
them. They are fond of tlie tender shoots of bamboo, and per-
sons are stationed near the groves to frighten them away by
striking pieces of wowl together with a loud noise.

The Chinese pig is well known for its short legs, round body,
crooked back, and abundance of fal. Its introduction into the
Btys of western farmyards has greatly improved the ISuropean
breed. The black Chinese breed, as it is called in England, is
considered the best pork raised in that country. The Chinese

WILD BOAB AND DOMESTIC HOG. 255

are fully aware of tlio perverse disp»ilion of the hog when
driven, and find it much more expeditious !o carry instead of
driving him through their narrow streets. So uniformly ia this
done, that loose cylindrical baskets of bamboo, open at both ends,
are made for this purpose, ia which the hog can easily be carried.
In order to capture the obstinate brute, the basket is secured
just outside the half opened gate of the pen, and the men seize
him by the tail and pull it lustily; his rage is roused by the
paiti, and he struggles ; they let go their hold, whereupon he
darts out of the gate to escape, and linda himself snugly caught.
A pole is then thrust through the basket lengthwise, oa which
he is lifted up and unreaisttugly carried off.

Mnde of ourrtnf Flp.

The Quarterly Journal of Agriculture (Vol. Hi., p. 42) quoted
by Mr. Burnet, describes several varieties of the hog known in
Europe, among which are the cocfum de Siam and the pore de no-
blr&, which have evidently been derived from and improved by
the Chinese animal. The cheapness with which pork is fat-
tened, and the usefulness of the hog as a scavenger, make it one
of the most profitable nninials for the Chinese to rear, though the
miscellaneous garbage composing its food deteriorates the flesh.

The c&mel is employed ia the caravans which cross the desert,

S56 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

between Kiakhla and Kalgan, and weatward from Kansuh lo
Hami, Ili, and the Caspian, but il is rarely seen south of Peking,
nor very frequently in that city. Du Halde describes them as
having two humps, " covered with thick hair as long as goats ;
some of them are of a yellowish dun color, others are reddish or
anh colored ; the legs are not so slender as those of the common
came), and seem belter lilted for carrying burdens." The
Chinese have employed the camel in war, and trained il to carry
small swivels on its back; one sort is called fang-kioh to, or
wind-fooled came/, on account of its swiftness, it being employed
in carrying light burdens and messengers across the desert.

The smaller tribes of animals have their representatives in
China, and among them many which are interesting lo the sports-
man. Staunton speaks of a species of hare which was abun-
dant in the valleys beyond iho Great Wall towards Jeh ho. It
resembled the species known in Northern Europe in thai it
changed its color during winter from brown to white, but waa
remarkable for the great length of its feet, which formed a broad
support in scampering over the snow. Hares, rabbits, squirrels,
deer, and other game, are not chased by dogs trained for the
purpose, but when the emperor or his grandees engage in the
sport, a large space is surrounded, and all the animals in it
driven lo the centre. Game is brought to Peking In great abun-
dance in the winter in a frozen state, and the list, according to
Du Halde, includes bucks, does, wild-boars, goats, hares, rabbits,
squirrels, cats, Held rats, geese, ducks, woodcocks, pheasants,
quails, and several others not met iviih in Europe. The fox is
not unusual ; it is a raccoon faced animal, and has been named
the Caaia proeyonmdes, from its resemblance. Both the Chinese
and Japanese entertain singular superstitions regarding this ani-
mal, believing il to be frequently possessed by evil spirits fbr the
purpose of tormenting mankind, and that fairies, gnomes, ogres,
and goblins transform themselves into it for the purpose of
executing their spite. The wolf partakes somewhat of the same
supernatural character. The pelage of the fox, hare, wolf, wild-
cat, and other fur-bearing ojiimals, furnishes the hair used in the
manufacture of writing pencils. Besides these, the martin, er-
mine, silver fox, ratel, wolverine, sea and land otter, and proba^
bly many others, are sought for by hunters through the ibresta
tad waters of Manchuria.

L

AKT-EATEE AND SMALL WILD A.NLMALS. 2-57

No nnimalB have puzj:ied tlio Chinese more than ihe scaly anl-
eater, manis, or pangolin, and the fiying squirrel. Tlie former
is regarded as a liali out of water, and is hence called liTig-lC or
hill carp ; nlso dragon cnrp, and the " scaly hill-borer." "Its
form resembles a crocodile," says one author j "it can go in
dry polha as well as in water ; it has four Irgs. In the daytime,
it ascends the banks of the stream, and lying down on the
ground, opens its scales wide, and puts on the ■a(>pearance of
death, which induces the ants to enter between the scaleti. As i
soon OS they have done so, the animal closes its scales and re-
enters tlie water, and then opens them, when all the insects float
out dead, and he devours them at leisure." Another and betMr
observer says it continually protrudes its longuci to ejitice ants,
on which it feeds ; and, true to Chinese physiological deduction,
he accordingly recommends the scales as a remedy for all aniish
swellings. The manis is quite common in the southern provia*
ces, and the Chinese employ parts of it for medicinal purposes ;
they have observed that the scales consist of the agglutinated
hair of the body, and arc not bony scales.

The flying-squirrel is classed among birds, and one name
given it signifies that it is tiie only bird which suckles its young
when it flies. The skin held in the hand during parturition will
render delivery easier, " because the animal is of a remarkably
lively disposition."* a

The porcupine, hedgehog, marmot, weasel, and many species
of rats and mice, are known to occur in various pans of the
country. The Chinese bamboo rat, or cAiiA sku {Rhymmya
CKinetuu), is found in the western part of Kwangtung. The
common Norway water rat has found its way to Canton, where
it infests the river banks. The sea-otter has been seen near
Macao. The estuary of the Pearl river contains a large species
of while dolphin or porpoise, which the fishermen there call pak
ki, and regard with great reverence, always setting it at liberty
whenever entangled in their nets. It is perhaps allied to the
Delphinapterus ; the snout is sharp, the body thick and clumsy,
from six to eight feet long, and the color a dun white. Porpoises
occur in the Yangtaz' kiang, where they arc called " river pigs."
Whales are found off the coast of Hainan, and gulf of Tonquin,

> ChinefeRepciitory,Tol.Tn.,lMg«a43,ei.

where tliey are caught by the fishermen, who go out in fleete of
Binall boats from throe to twenty-five tons burden euch, fifty
boats going together. The line is about 350 feet long, made of
native hemp, and fastened 1o the mnat, the end leading over the
bow. The harpoon has one barb, and is attached to a wooden
handle ; through un eye near the socket, the tine is so fastened
along the handle, that when the whaie begins lo strain upon it,
the handle draws out upon the line, leaving only the barb buried
in the skin. The boat is sailed directly upon the fish, ond the
harpooner strikes from the bow just behind the blow-hole. Aa
soon OS the liah is struck, the sail is lowered, the rudder un-
shipped, and ttie boat allowed to drag stern foremost until the
prey is exhausted. Other boats come up to assist, and half a
dozen harpoons soon dispatch it. The species most Gommon
there is the right whale, and yield about 50 ihU. each ; the oil,
flesh, and bone are all used for food or in manufactures. The fish
resort to the shallow waters in those seas for food, and to roll and
ruli themselves on the hanks and reels to get rid of the bamaoW
and insects which torment them ; they are oi^en seen leaping
entirely out of water, and falling back perpendicularly against
the hard bottom.'

The Yellow sea alTords a species of cow-fish, or round-headed
cachalot (Globicephalus RUsii), which the Japanese capture jf
and other species of whales resort to the waters east of Manchu-
ria. Seals have been observed on the coasts of Liautung, but no-
thing b known of their species or habits.

The birds of China are less known than the mammiferee,
though some of the more splendid species have long been sought
after. The emperors of the Mongol dynasty were very fond of
the chase, and famous for their love of the noble amusement of
falconry, ai]d Marco Polo says Kublai employed no less than
seventy thousand attendants in his hawking escursions. Fal-
cons, kites, and other birds of prey were taught lo pursue their
quarry, and the Venetian speaks of eagles trained to sloop at
wolves, and of such size and strength that none could escape
their talons. Ranking has collected a great number of notices
of the mode and sumptuousness of the field sports of the Mongols
in China and India, but they convey little more information lo
■ Chinese Repnsitorj.VoI. XII., page 608.
t rbid.,VoL VL.pagaii:.

259

the naturalist, ihan that the game was abundant and comprised
a vast variety. Many species of accipilrine birds are described
in Chinese books, but ibey are spoken of ao vaguely that nothing
definite can be learned from the notices. It is in the forests and
mountaJQs of Manchuria that beasts and birds of prey find food
and shelter, and not tn the oultivalcd regions of the south, and
Chinese naturalists have not explored those wilds. None of liiem
are now trained for sport by the Chinese, though hawking is atill
a favorite pastime for the princes of the Japanese isles. Owls
of several species are common, and are sometimes exposed ibr
sale in the markets of Canton, though not intended lor the (oble.
The butcher-bird, or an allied species, is a native of China, and
the books notice its habit of impaling small birds and ^tsshop-
pers on thorns, before devouring them.

The tribes of fly-catchers, grackles, thrushes, and goatsuckcra,
all have numerous representatives in China, and some of ihem
arc of great beauty. A kind of thrush, called Au>a mi, or " pic-
tured eyebrow," of a greyish yellow color, is often kept in cages
OS a song-bird, and when well trained, beara a high price. There
is a variety called peh htea mi, from the predominance of white
in the plumage. Another apecies of thrush of a dark plumage,
called lou ski Ink, is likewise reared as a songster ; it is larger
than the hvxi mi, and o(\en carried out upon a perch by native
gentlemen in tlwlr strolls. There is a species of thrush (^Turdua
viotaeem), " wiihthe feathers of the head, neck, breast, and wing-
coverts sieel-blue, and a white spot on the wings ;" which is also
an attendant of iheir leisure hours. A party of Chinese gentle-
men are not unfrequently seen, each with a cage or perch in hia
hands, seated on the gross, or rambling over the fields actively
engaged in catching grasshoppers for (heir pets. The spectacle
thrush, BO designated " because its eyes are surrounded by a
black nircle bearing a fancied resemblance lo a pair of specta-
cles," is also reared in captivity. But the favorite song-bird is
the lark, of which there are three sorts reared for sale ; it is
called pth liim, i, e. " hundred-spirit bird," from its activity nnd
melody. Twenty-five or thirty dollars is not an uncommon
price to pay for a famous song.'tter.

The mino-bird, or Indian grackle, is sometimes brought in Can.
ton, hut has not been seen wild In thai region. It is remarkable for
the yellow canuclea which extend from the back of the eye to-

wards the occiput, and look eomewliat like cars. The swkIIow
is a favoriie iviili l)ie Chinese, and builds ils nest unmolested in
their dwellings under the unceiled roora. Sparrows and crows
Bfe common about Canton ; the former are exceedingly abundont
and troublesome from their depredations in gardens. Tiie crow-
is larger than the common species, and remarkable for a while
ring about the neck ; he is regarded as a sacred bird, cither from
a service rendered by one of his race to the ancestors of the pre-
sent monarchs, like that given by the spider lo Mohammed, or
beoause he is an emblem of filial duty, from a notion that the
young assist their parents when disabled. Two or three species
of warble^ or robins are domesticated for tlieir musical powers,
and the Alva sparrow is taught tu perform many tricks, one of
which is often exhibil&l by the bird-fanciers at Canton, who shuf-
fle a pack of cards, and then present tbem to the bird to pick out
the one previously shown it.

The red-billed magpie is a beautiful bird. " Its size exceeds
the common English bird, and the great length of its tail bestows
upon it a more slender and elegant aspect. The prevailing co-
lors are blue, with burs of black and white. When seen amid
the foliage of trees, i1 forma an ornamental and conspicuous ob-
ject, flitting from bough to bough with its long and flowing taiU
its whole form full of grace, and vivacity in every movement."*
There are also several other species of crows, jays, and magpies,
one of which is the blue crow observed by Pallas in Siberia.
The habiis of the cuckoo of laying its eggs in the nests of other
birds, and thus avoiding all maternal cares of its own, are known
lo the Chinese ; it is called tuku as with us, in imitation of its
note. In the fens and rice-grounds of the south, a beautifully
variegated kind of kingfisher, not much larger than a sparrow,
called _/i Uui by the Chinese, builds ils nest ; the plumage is red
and green mixed with blue on the breast. It is much sougbt a&
ter for its feathers, which are employed for many ornatnenlal
purposes. A very tasteful specimen of art is sometimes made
by first forming a miniature landscape within a bc.x of wood and
pasteboard, and then covering the houses, fields, and other paiU
with these lustrous feathers, placing a few figures of men anrd
cattle to till up Iho scene. The tools employed in this beautiful
kind of Mosaic are merely two or three chisels and knives, and x
OouIiTb Century of Birds; Momy'a China, Vd. II., page 417

MANY SPECIE^ OF PHEASANTS. 261

brush filled with gum or glue. The vane of the plumes of par.
rots is too coarse for this purpose, but that of the tiny avedavat
is ofte I employed, as well as the kingfisher.

The parrot is a native of China, but the birds of this tribe sold
in the streets of Canton, as macaws, cockatoos, loris, and parro-
keets, are mostly brought from the Archipelago. Not so the
magnificent species of pheasants, which have so long been the
ornament of aviaries, most of which come from China. The
gold and silver pheasants are now so extensively reared that it is
doubtful if they are found wild, though it is not improbable that
the latter still frequent the woods of the central provinces. The
prevailing colors of the golden pheasant are yellow and red, fine-
ly blending with each other in difierent shades. The silver
pheasant is larger than its rival, and more stately in its gait. Its
silvery back and tail only show the more beautifully in contrast
with the steel blue of the breast and belly, rendering the peh
hieuy as it is called by the Chinese, one of the most splendid birds
known. The females of both species present a remarkable con-
trast by their plainness and humble bearing. The Phasianus
guperhuSf or barred-tailed pheasant, is another magnificent mem-
ber of this genus, remarkable for the great length of its tail fea-
thers, some of which have been seen seven feet long, though com-
monly not over four. They are barred with alternate white and
yellowish bands, and are ofien seen in the caps of performers
acting the brave hero on the theatre. Its body is not so large or
showy as the silver pheasant, nor is the bird so graceful in its
movements. The first specimen was procured by the late Mr.
Beale in 1808, and four other cocks were purchased by him in

1831, of which part were taken to England by Mr. Reeves in

1832, and first made known to the naturalists there, and thence
called Reeves' pheasant. The female has not been described.

China also afibrds the argus pheasant, or a species allied to it,
for the natives have founded their fung-hwang or phcsnix upon
it. It is called the argus pheasant from the great number of
eyes on its tail and wing feathers, and its plumage gives it a
much larger size than any others of the family. " This great
apparent size arises chiefly from the peculiar formation of the
wings, of which the secondaries are three times the length of the
quill-feathers, being nearly three feet long. In consequence of
this unwieldy extent of that portion of the wing which is not un-

k

der the power of much muscular action, tlie bird Ja alleged to b*
almost entirely destitute of the power of Bight. Its pace, how-
ever, when running on the ground, is greatly accelerated, the
expanded accondan'es acting as powerful sailsi and furnishing a
very fleet and elTectual mode of transportation. In its phant/
state, it measures about five feet three inches, the tail being
nearly four feet long." This description is taken from the Ja-
vanese bird, but is also nearly applicable to the Chinese spocies.
The peacock pheasant is the only bird which can compete with
it for gaiety of apparel, but this is a much smaller kind, though
exceedingly beautiful. The medallion pheasant, sometimea
called the iris peacock, is another elegant bird, "so called from
a beautiful membrane of resplendent colors on the neck, which
is displayed or contracted according as the cock is more or leas
roused. The hues are chiefly purple, with bright red and green
spots, which vary in intensity according to the degree of excila-
ment, and become developed during the early spring months or
pairing season." It has tufts of feathers neor the ears, whence
it is also called ibe horned pheasant. It freely breeds in cap-
tivity, but ia kepi only for its beauty.

The peacock is reared in many parts of China, and haa long
been known io the people, though it is not a native of the country.
The use of the tail feathers to designate otTicial rank, which pro-
bably causes a large consumption of them annually, does not
dale previous lo the last dynasty. Poultry b reared in immense
quantities, and its flesh at Canton is of a poor quality. There
is one variety, called the silken cock, which has the vane of ths
feathers so minutely divided that it resembles curly hair rather
than feathers; the color is generally a plain black. This tt
probably the same variety described by some writers aa having
wool like sheep. The other wild fowl of the gallinaceous order,
as partridges, francolins, quails, woodcocks, ic., are plenty in
moat parts of China ; and are captured both for sale and for tlio
table. The turkey has been introduced about Canton, but it
reared to any great extent. The Chinese quai! is brown above,
sprinkled with black spots and white lines ; the throat black, with
a while arch, and the central part of the abdomen chestnut,
is reared for fighting, aa cocka are in other countries, as well
eaten. Doves arc domesticated, hut not to a very great extent ;
pigeons, turtles, and ring-doves, are common in most ports of tha

CAME BIRDS *ND WATER FOWL. 263

provinces; one of Uie most beautiful species of this family is the
rose pigeon ; the Sural turtle is aiso found in llie southern part
of the country.

Snipes, and many species of the extensive family of waders,
are among the most common of the feathered race in China. The
plover, or Goa lapwing, enjoys a very extensive range from India
to the shores of the Yellow sea. A delicate species of ortolan or
rice bird is common in ihe markets of Canton, in the month of
October. Herons, egrets, storks, paddy birds, cranes, curlews,
and most of the long legged waders, or grallalorea, are sought
after for food in the marshes and upon banks of rivers in the
eastern and southern provinces. Two elegant species of crane of
a slender contour and pure white plumage, are common in the
markets of Canton, where they are exposed for sale on stands
with their eyelids sewed together. The singular jacana is also
a native of China, " diatinguished not less by the grace of its form
than its adaptation to the localities which nature has allotted it.
Formed for traversing the morass and lotus-covered surface of the
water, it supports itself upon the floating weeds and leaves by
the extraordinary span of the toes, aided by the unusual lightness
of its body. Like the moor-hen. of whose habits and manners it
largely partakes, it is doubtless capable of swimming, the long
and pendent tail feathers being elevated so as not to dip in Ihe
water, !n powers of flight it appears deficient, the wings being
short, and the quills terminated by a slender appendage proceed-
ing from the lip of the shafts."* The stork is considered to be,
with the tortoise and fir tree, one of the emblems of longevity,
and the three are grouped together on visiting cards at newyear
in a pretty picture, implying the wish that there may be many
happy returns of the season.

The fenny margins of lakes and rivers, and the marslies on the
eea-coasts, afford both food and shelter to innumerable flocks of
water-fowl. The banks along the wide delta of the Pearl river,
and the islands in it, are frequented by immense flocks of geese,
teal, ducks, and other birds ; and they arc likewise very abun-
dant and tame along the inland water- courses. Ducks are some-
times caught by persons who first covet their heads with a gourd
pierced with holes, and then wade into the water where the bird*

' ■ Gould's Century of Biid«.

L

364 THE MIDDLE

are feeding ; these, previously Sccuslomcd to empty cbIkI
floating about on the water, ullow the fawler to approach, and are
pulled under witlioui difficulty. The wild goose caught on ihe
shiiree of the Pear) river, and the common goose of Chinese farm-
yards, do not dtfTer much, both of liicm being a plain asliy grey
color, with a large knob at the baae of the upper mandible ; the
domesticated species ia almost loo gross for the table, from the
ease with which it fatiens. This bird and the mandarin duck are
both considered as emblems of conjugal fidelity, and a pair of one
or the other usually form part of wedding processions. The
epithet mandarin is applied to this beautiful fowl, and also to a
species of orange, simply because of their excellence and beauty
over other species of the same genus, and not, as some writera
have inferred, because they are appropriated to officers of
govern mcQl.

The yuen-yang, as the Chineee call this duck, is a native
of Ihe central provinces, and is reared chiefly for its beauty. It
is one of the most variegated birds known, vying with the hum-
ming birds and parrots in the di versified tints of its plumage, if it
does not equal ihem for brilliancy. The drake is the object of
admiration, liis partner being remarkably plain and unpretending,
but during the summer season he also loses much of his gay ves-
ture. Mr. Bennet tells a pleasant story in proof of the conjugal
fidelity of these birds, the incidents of which occurred in Mr.
Beiiio's aviary at Macao. A drake was stolen one night, and
the duck displayed the slrongesl marks of despair at her loss,
retiring into a corner, and refusing all nourishment, as if deter.
mined to starve herself to death from grief. Aiioilier drakd
undertook to comfort the disconsolate widow, but she decliucMl
bis attentions, and was fast becoming a martyr to her attachment,
when her mate was recovered and restored lo her. Their reunion
was celebrated by the noisiest demonBiraliuiiB of joy, and the duck
soon informed her lord of the gallant proposals made to her during
his absence ; in high dudgeon, he instantly attacked Ihe luckless
bird who would have supplanted him, and so maltreated him aa lo
cause his death.

The aviary here mentioned was for many years one of the
principal attractions of Macao. Its owner, Mr. Thomas Beale,
had erected a wire cage on one side of his house, having two
apartments, each of them aboul fifty feet high, and conlainins

Handasin ducx and seale's aviaht. 265

•erereJ large trees ; small cages ami roosls were placed on Ihe
side of the house under shelter, and ta one corner a pool alTbrded
buthing conveniences lo the water-fowl. The genial cHmale of
the place obviated the necessity of any covering over the aviary,
and only those species which would agree to live quietly together
were allowed the free range of the two apartmenis. The great
attraction of the collectjoa was a living bird of paradise, which, at
the time of the owner's death, in 1840, had been in his possession
eighteen years, and enjoyed good health at thai lime. The col-
lection at one time contained nearly thirty specimens of the lUf-
ferent species of pheasants, and besides these splendid birds,
there were upwards of one hundred and 6!iy others, of different
sorts, some in cages, or on perches, and ihe rest loose in the
aviary. In one comer, a large cat had a hole, where she reared
a titter of young ; her business was to guard it from the de-
predations of rats. A magnificent peacock from Damaun, a
JDt^c assortment of macaws and cockatoos, a pair of magpies,
two of the superb crowned pigeons from Amboynn, one of whom
moaned itselfto death on the decease of its mate, and several of
the Nicohar ground pigeons, were also among the attractions of
this curious and valuable collection. On the melancholy death
ortls proprietor, il passed into the hands of those who could not
afford the leisure necessary (o keep it up, and the birds gradually
died out, or were scattered.

The other birds which demand notice in ihis sketch, for their
legance or rarity, are few. A pretty species of grebe, called

*Awuinu, or" water slave," is commor

around Macao. The same

region olfords sustenance to the pelica

n, which is somelimes seen

cks, or sailing on easy wing

aver the shallowH in search of food

Its plumage is nearly a.

pure white, except the black tips of the wings ; its height is about
four feel, and the expanse of the wings more than eight feet.
The bill is flexible like whalebone, and the pouch susceptible of
great dilatation. Gulls, tish-hawks, and other sea-fowl, are abun-
dant on the coasts, while the cormorant is extensively used in
the eastern provinces for catching fish.

There are four fabulous animals spoken of by the Chinese,

which arc so oflen referred to by them as to demand a passing

notice. The unicorn, or ki-lin, is one of these, and is placed at

Ihe bead of all hairy animals ; as the fung-kmuig, or phcenix, is

18

L "■

L

prQ-eminent among the feathered races ; the dragon a
Btnong Ihe icaly and shelly tribes; and nun among nakci
mals! The naked, hairy, fealhercd, shelly, and scaly t
conalilule the quinary system of nncienl Chinese naturaliaM,
The kiliti is dcecribed as resembling a slag io its body, and |
borse in its hoofs, but possessing the isil of an ox, and a pniG^
colored skin. A single horn proceeds out of Ihe foreiiead, hsi
a fleshy lip. Besides iliese external marks of beauty, il exhibiii
great benevolence of disposition towards other living anim
and appears only when wisB and just kingK, like Ynu and Sh
or sages like Confucius, are born, to govern and teach maokintfi
The Chinese description of the kilin presents many resemblanot
to Ihe popular notices of the unicorn, and tJio independent origi
of their account adds something to the probability, that a nnj~
horned equine or cervine animal has once existed.*

The phcenix of Arabian story is a kind of eagle, but theyioM
liwattg of Chinese legends is a sort of pheasant, adorned wit|
every color, and combining in its form and motions whatever A
elegant and graceful, as well as possessing such a benevoL
disposition, that it will not peck or injure living insects, nor tn
on growing herbs. It has not been seen since (he halcyon dajl
of Confucius, and from the account given of it seems lo iSl
been entirely fabulaus, though hearing a greater resemblance
the argus pheasant than any other bird. The etymology of d
name implies, that it is the emperor of all birds ; and aa is d
unicorn among quadrupeds, so is the ph(wiix the most honorafa
among the feathered tribes, One Chinese author describe* j
" us resembling a wild swan before, and a unicorn behind ; it
the throat of a swallow, the bill of a fowl, Ihe neck of a. snt
Ihe tail of a fish, llie forehead of a crane, the crown of a n
darin drake, the stripes of a dragon, and the vaulted baok oft)
tortoise. The feathers have five colors, which are named afi
Ihe five cardinal virtues, and it is five cubits in height ; Ihe U
is graduated like Pandean pipes, and its song resembles the miM
of that instrumem, having five modulations.'' A beautiful om
meot for a lady's head-dress is sometimes made in the abape I
Ihe fvng-hieattg, and somewhat resembles a similar omar
imitating the vulture, worn by the ladies of ancient Egypt.

* CbiiKM Repodltity, Vol. VII., pgge 313.

ANIMALS OF CHinESE.

The lung or dragon is a fainiliur object on articles made b^
ihc Chinese, and funiishea a compiirison among them for every-
thing terrible, imposing, and [Kiwerful ; and being token as the
imperial coal of arms, consequently imparta these ideas to his
person OJid state. The type of the drogon is probably ths boa
constrictor or sea-serpent, or some other similar monsier, though
the researches of geology have broixght to light such an exact
counterpart of the lung of the Chinese, in the iguanadon, as lo
tempt one to believe that that might have tteen the prototype.
There are three dragons, the hmg in the aky, the li in the sea,
and the loan in the marshes. The first is the only aUAenfie spe-
cies, according to the Ciiinese : it has the head of a camel, the
homa of a deer, eyes of a rabbit, ears of a cow, neck of a snake,
belly of B frog, scales of a carp, claws of a hawk, and palm of
a tiger. On each side of the mouth are whiskers, and its beard I
contains a bright pearl ; the breath is sometimes changed ints \
water and sometimes into iire, and its voice is like the jingling of
copper pans. The dragon of the sea occasionally ascends to
heaven in water-spouts, and is the ruler of all oceanic phenome-
na.* The dragon is worshipped and feared by Chinese fisher-
men, and (he supcrslition of all classes towards it is probably a
modified relic of the wide-spread serpent worship of oncieiA J
times. The Chinese suppose thai elfs, demons, and other super. %
natural beings often transform themselves into snakes ; and H. '
Julien has translated a fairy story of this sort, called filaitche et
Bleue. The tortoise has so few fabulous qualities attributed to
it, that it hardly comes into tlie list ; it was, according to ths
story, an attendant on Pwanku when he chiselled out the world.
A celebrated book in Chinese liieraiure, called the Shan-hai
King, ot Memoirs upon the Mountains and Seas, contains pictures
and descriptions of these and kindred monsters, from which tlia
people now derive most of their notions respecting them, tbt^
book having served to embody and fix for the whole nation whatjfl
the writer found floating about in the popular legends of poriiciiK J
lar localities. . ■

The larger lizards have not been noticed in China, though tha I
crocodile is found both in India and Siaiti, on nearly the satMlfl
latitude as Ewanglung, It may however once have inhabitoA-a

* CtuDcu REpoiitoTf . Vol. yiL, p^e a». -^t^M

L huge B

»

SvB THE MIDDLE

the rivers of the Middle Kingdom, for the chaiujier «,
dently ao original word, and Marco Polo describes
pent which he had not seen himself, but which seems to ha'
beea intended for ilie crocodile. Small lieards abound in tl
southern parts, and the variety and numbers of serpents, bo
land and water, found in the maritime provinces are hardly e
oeeded in any country in the world ; very few of ihem are pt
aonous. A species of Naja is the only venomous anaJce yet t^
served at Chusan, and there are only two commonly regarded •
such at Canloa. One of these frequents the banks, and is drim
out of the drains and creeks near the river by high water iiil
the houses, when its bite not unfrequently proves fatal. A oos
is meoiioned by Bennet of a Chinese who was bitten by one an
died in a few hours ; the mashed head of the reptile had I
applied as a poultice to the wound, a mode of treatment whiok<>
had probably accelerated his death by mixing more of the poiMfc
diluted in the animal's blood with ihe blood of the man.
however, rare to hear of caeuallies from thia source.
snake is called " black and white," from being marked along it
body in alternate Jiands of those Iwo colore. A species of Acra
ohordon, remarkable for its abrupt short tail, has been notioet
near Macao.

All the forma of reptiles billierto observed are tropical, cxc^
the common fr<^, which, as might be supposed, is taken in grai4|
numbers in the fields for food. Tortoises and turtles from frerf'
and salt water, are plenty along the coast, and furnish fbod t
many people. Species of Emys and Trionj'x are kept id tuU
in the streets, where they grow to a large size. The lanoM
shell turtle is not found in the Chinese seas, and the shell Works
up by the clever carvers at Canton into such a variety of b
liful objects, is brought from the Archipelago.

The ichthyology of China is one of the richest in the work
though it may be so, however, more from the greater proporlio
of food furnished by the waters than from any real superabufl
dance of the finny tribes. The oiTal thrown out from the bod
near cities must tend to attract some kinds of tish to those placei/
Several large collections of preserved fishes have been made U
Canton, and Mr. Reeves has deposited one of the richest in tfaj
British Museum, together with a series of drawings made bjfii
Dative artists from living specimens ; they have been deacribe^i

by Dr. John Richardson in ihe Report of the British Associatic
for the Advancement of Science for 1845. The variety of fi

1 willing to eat ull that a.
e do. Including the sharks, lor-
n have a djflerent speoica every
'uth be aaid, ihut the Chinese eat
r, some of the hideous

i

is so great in Macao, that if a
brought to market, aa the Chin
pedoes, rays, gudgeons, iio., he c
day ia the year. It may with ti
nearly every living thing found ii
fiahiag (rogs or gurnards alone excepted.

The cartilaginous fishes, including many genera of sharks,
rays, and sturgeons, are abundant on the sea-coast. The stur.
geon is not common at the south, but is highly prized by ChiDese
epicures for its gelatinous nature, and the stew made from its
flesh is very palatable. The hammer-headed shark {Sphj/ma
ij^ana), and tlie zebra shark {Ceslracion iebra), are seen in tbs
markets at the south ; and also immense skates, s
measuring five feet across ; their viviparous young are regardedr4
as a delicacy. A member of the family of torpedoes (iVarciM<l
Imgula) is not uncommon in the seas on the southern coast, birt'a
the natives do not seem to be aware of its electrical properties^fl
It is said the fishermen off Macao sometimes destroy the shark
by boiling a melon, and throwing it out as a bait ; when swal-
lowed, the heat is so great as to kill the fish. The true cod haa
not been obnerved on the Chinese coast, but several species of
Serrani (as PleclTopoma mauki, Serranuf shiApan, megachir, &d.),
generally called shiK-pan by the natives, and garoupa by foreign-
ers, are common about Macao, and considered the moat delicate
flavored of any in the markets. Another common and delicious
fish 13 l\\B Polynemua tetradaclylua or byniii-carp, usually called^rf
salmon by foreigners ; binglass is prepared from its skin. Tb«f
pomfret, or i!«tn^ t/u of the natives {SlromaUTia argeiUetta),
good pan-fish, but not so delicate as the sole fisb, many spectw 1
of which abound in the shallows off the Bogue. Two or
species of mackerel, the Sdana. lucida, an ophicephalu!
mullet, the " white rice fish," and a kind of shad, complete thft.^
list of good table lish found in the markets of Canton.

The fiiraily of the carps (Cyprinide) is very abundant ii
rivers and lakes of China, and some species are reared in fialk I
pools and tubs to a monstrous size ; filly-two species are meii> 1
lioned in Richardson's list, l^e gold fish is the most celebrated j
of this fsmily, sod has been introduced from Ctaioa into Eurap*i>

S70

►■

c hang ins ihd

where it wbs first seen towards the end of the seventt)
tury. The effects of culture ond domestication in changing iJ
natural form of Iliis fish are as great as ia sometimes seen in araa
mals ; apecimpns are often seen without any dorsal fin, and tM
tail and other fins tuAed and lobed to such a degree as to resenni
bie artificial appendages or wings rather than natural organw
The eyes arc developed till ihe'glolw projecls beyond the sockM
like goggles, presejitinn; an extraordinary appearance. Som ^ of!
them are so fantastic, indeed, that they would be regarded a
lusUB nature, were they not so common. The usual color is i
ruddy golden hue, but both sexes exhibit a silvery or blackiall
tint at certain stages of their growth ; and one variety, called tj
silver fish, has this shade all its life. The Chinese keep tttf.
beautiful fish in ponds in their gardens, or in large earthenwoi^
jars, in which are placed rocha covered with i
grown with tufta of fenia, to afford them a retreat from the ligfab
When the females spawn, the eggs must be removed, lest I
males devour them, to a shallow vessel, until the heat of the s
hatches thera ; the young are nearly black, but gradually hi
whitish or reddish, and at last assume a golden or silvery hot _^
They are taken out of the water in a dish or shell, as handlifl|^

ir do the persons who rear them place thoiH

s upwards of two feet long have beeff

lally no longer in China than in Eurapad!

mportanl pursuit, and the spawn fc

n proper vessels, and placed in favoraUK
The Bulletin Uuiversel for 1829 a
■■ part of China, the spawn so taken is carefull<p
placed in an empty egg-shell, and the hole closed ;
then replaced in the nest, and aAer the hen has sat a few daj^
upon it, re-opened, and tlie spawn placed i
wanned by the sun, where it soon hatches.

One large species of fish, called- Ainii^ yw, (
found in the Yangtaz' kiang, which is said to atl
dinary size of eight hundred pounds. The i
fishing boats on this great stream and its tributarii
finny supplies its waters afford, A species of pipe fish (Futufih:
riffl immaculata), of a red color, and the gar pike, with green
bones, are found about Canton ; ds are also numerous beautiltit
chffitodons, or sun-fish. An Ingenious mode of taking il« pr«y ki

n destroys them, m
in glass vases. Specin
noticed, but they are us
The rearing of fish if
sometimes deposited i
positions for hatching.

vessels of wi

yellow fis

fleets ofj
indicate iIm

a OTIIEE KISDS BEAKED.

271

practised by a sort of chcetodon or chelmon ; it dons a drop i
water at the flics or other insects lighting on the bonlc near I
edge, in such a. nianner as to knoclt them ojf, whpn ihey a
instantty devoured. Another common freahwater Rsh i
OpMcephalia maeuUttus, or s&ng yu (i. e. living tish), rcmat
for \\a tenacity of life ; it is reared in pools, and carried about fi
sale in shallow tubs, and cut up while still alive.

Kela, mullets, alcwives or file-lish, gurnards, gudgeons, and
many other kinds, are seen in the markets, ihe recapitulation of
whose names would afford little inrormation of a popular kind.
Few things ealen by the Chinese look more repulsive than the
gudgeons, or gobies, as they lie wriggling in the slime which
keeps Ihem alive. One species {Trypauchm vagina) called cku
pih yit, or vermilion pencil Ash, by the Chinese, is a cylindrical
fiah, six or eight inches long, of a dark red color, which inhabits
^e muddy banks of the rivers. Some kinds of gobies construct
little hillocka in the ooze, with a depression on the top, in which
they remain as if watching Gir their prey ; at low tide they are
seen skipping about on the banks with great vigor, and arc easily
captured with the hand. A delicious lasted species of carp, or
Salmo {Leucoaoma Chinensia), called pik fan yu, or white rice
fish, is abundant at Canton in the winter. The body is scaleless
and transparent, so ihot (he muscles, intestines, and spinal column
can be seen without dissection ; (he bones of the head are thin,
Bexible, and diaphanous. It grows six or eight inches long, and
is eaten whole, aller simple eviscerulion- Many species of file-
fiA, aole-fiah, anchovy, and eels, are captured oa the coasts off
the Canton river.

Shell-fish and muilusks, both fresh and salt, are abundanl in
the market, but ihey have not been e^iamined scientifically.
Oysters of a good ijuality are common along the coast, and a
species of Maclra, or sand clam, is fished up near Macao. The
Pearl river affords two or three kinds of freshwater abeil-fish,
of the genus Mytilus, which are obtained by dredging. The
prawns, shrimps, crabs, craw-fish, and other kinds of Crustacea
met with, are not less abundant than palatable ; one species of
craw-lish, as large, but not lakinj; the place of the lobHter, called
/ung hoi, or dragon crab, cuttle-fish of three or four kinds, and
the large king-crab ( Po/yphemug), are all eaten by the natives,
UuM^b not relished by others. Tbs inland waters produce

1

1^:

S72 THE MIUIILE KiiiGtnn.

many species of Bbells, and ihc new genus ThcliJcrma, allied to
the Unio, was Ibnned by Mr. Bcnmn of Cakcutta, from speci-
s obt&iaed of a shopkeeper at Canlon. The lund sikells ara
abuiiilant, rspccially various kinds uf snails, uid are not alio*
L gether unknown as ariiclea of food. A calaloguo of nearly
f sixty shells obtained in Caolon, is given in Murray's China
(Vol, iit., page 445), but ii ia doubtful whether more than a
majority of them are found in the country, as the shops at Can-
supplied in a great degree from the Indian Archipelago.
Shells are common along the coast ; Doct. Cantor mentions
eighty-eight genera occurring between Canton and Chusan.
Pearls are found in China, and Marco Polo ^>eaks of a sail
lake, supposed now to be in Yunnan, which produced them ia
such quantity lliat the fisliery in his day was farmed out and
restricted lest ihcy should bccwme too cheap and common ; but
such is not now the case. Judging from the numbers onauolly
imparled from India. The Quarterly Review speaks of an arti-
ficial mode practised by the Chinese, of making pearls by drop-
I ping ft string of small mcthcr-of-pearl beads into the shell, which

I in a year are covered with the pearly crust. Leeches are very
common, and much used by native physicians ; the hammer,
headed leech has been noticed at Chuaan.
The insects of China are equally unknown to the natursliatt '
with the molluscous and crustaccous tribes. Tn Dr. CantorV
collcctkin, made at Chusan in 1840, there are liily-iiine genera
mentioned, among which tropical fonns prevail i there are a)s»
six genera of Arachnidse, and the list of spiders could easily %b
multiplied 10 hundreds ; among them are many of the most
splendid coloring. There is one so large and strong as to suo-
oesafully attack small birds on the trees. Locusts sometimes
oommit extensive ravages, and no part of the country is free
from their presence, though their depredations do not nsuatljr
reach over a great extent of country, or oflen for two years suc^
cessively. They are, however, sufBciently troublesoma lo-
attract the notice of the government, as the edict against them,
inserted in another chapter, proves. Centipedes, scorpitHis, and i
some other species in the same order, are known in Cliina, but-
escept the first, none r)f them give ihe inhalutanis any trouble.
The most valuable insect to the Chinese is the silhwomv,
which is extensively reared in nearly every province. There

^^" MiNY SPECIES OF SHELLS ANU INSECTS. 273

are many other insects of Ihe same order {LepidopUra), com-
mon, but those sent abroad have been mostly from the province
of Kwanglung. Eastward of the cily of Canton, on a range of
hQls called Lofau shan, there are butterdies of large size, and
V^i moths of immense size and brilliant coloring, which are
VQllored for transmission lo court, and for sale. One of these
iDaects (Bombi/x alias), "measures about nine inches across;
Ihe ground color is a rich and varied orange brown, and in the
centre of each wiug there is a triangular transparent spot,
resembling a piece of mica." Sphinxes of great beauty and
size, though not so large as this, are common around Canton,
and in their splendid coloring, rapid noiseless flight from tlower
to flower, at the close of the day, remind one of the humming-
bird.

Many tribes of coleopterous insects are abundant in China, but
the number of species identified Is hitherto very trifling. Seve-
ral species of water beetles, and olhers included under the same
general designation, frequently occur in the collections sold at
Canton, but owing lo ihe careless manner in which those boxes
are made and filled, very few of the specimens contained in ihem
are perfect, the antenna or tarti being in most cases broken.
Tlie mole cricket occurs everywhere, and its stridulous chirp is
ofien heard tmtn its burrow in the grass. The common cricket
a the markets for gambling, and persons of
s ihe vulgar, amuse themselves by irritating
sects in a bowl, and betting upon the prowess of
The cicada or broad locust is abundant about
er, and its stridulous sound is heard from the
trees and groves with deafening loudness. Boys otlen capture the
mole, and tie a straw around the abdomen so as lo irritate the
sounding apparatus, and carry it through the streets in this pre-
dicament, to the great annoyance of every one. This insect was
well known to the Greeks, and one distich of ancient date,
which runs.

is caught and sold i
high rank, as well a
two of these insects
their favorites
Canton in

ahowB their knowledge of this sexual difference, as well as inti-
mates their opinion of domestic quiet. It also forms the subject
it's invocation :

►

k

" 0 ghriU- voiced insect '. tlist with dew-dropa laett,
laebriate, dent is deiert woodlands sing ;
Perch'd OQ the apray top with indented feet,
Tliy dusky body's echoing* harp-like ring."

The lanlern-fly (Fulgora) ia less common than the cicada at
Canton, but more abuodant furtlier north. It is easily recognised
by its long cylindrical snout, arched in nn upward direction, its
greenish reticulated elytra, and orange-yellow wings with black
extremities, lis appearance when seen flitting through the skirts
of a thicket or grove, in the summer evenings, is very luminous^
imparting a brilliant aspect to the shades of evening. The pal
lah ahu, or white wax tree, afTords nourishment to ;
tliis order called Cicada Kmbata. " It is the larvte which furaisfa
the was ; the fly was first observed by Staunton on the coast of
Cochinchinit ; it has curious pectinated appendages on the back,
and the whole insect is covered with a white powder, which is
imparted to the stems of the plants it inhabits, and from whose
bark it is collected by the natives ; hot vegetable oil is next ai^
plied, and the whole when cold coagulates, and becomes as firm
OS beeswax. It is used as a mcdiciNC, as well as mode into c
dies. Wax is also made from wild and domestic bees, but honey
is not much used ; a casing of wax, colored with vermilion, ii
used to inclose the tallow in a candle.

The Chinese Herbal contains a singular notion, prevalent also
in India, concerning the generation of the Sphe.t. or solitary
wasp. When the female lays her eggs in the clayey nidus she
makes in houses, she incloses the dead body of a caterpillai
it tor ihe subsistence of the worms when they are hatched.
Those who have observed her enlojnbing the caterpillar, did not
look for the eggs, and immediately concluded that the Spbex took
the worm for Iter progeny, and say, that as she plastered up
the hole of the nest, she hummed a constant song over it, sayiog,
" C6h» tuilh me .' Cl<ui wilh me ! " — and the trans formatioa gra-
dually look place, and was perfected in its" silent grave by lbs
next spring, when a winged wasp emerged to pontinue its poste-
rity the coming autumn, in the same mysterious way.

While ants arc troublesome in the south, but they a
large as in Java, and theirdepredationsare less extensive. They
form passages under ground, and penetrate upwards into ths
voodwork of houses wherever it comes to the earth, and tbe

USES OF SKAWEEll AJiD Fnci, 373

whole building may become infested with ihetn almost bufori?
Iheir esiatence is suspected. They will eal their way into fruit
trees, cabbage^ and other plants, destroying them while in ruU
vigor. Many of the iijternul arrangements of the nests of bees
and anis, luiit tiieir peculiar instincts, have been described by
the Chinese writers with cnnsiderable accuracy. The composi-
tion of the chnrncters for the bee, ant, and muwguilo, respectively,
denote llie am! insect, the rightnut insect, and the kUered insect ;
referring thereby to the sting of the lirsl, (he orderly marching
and subordination of the second, and the lelter.Iike markings on
ihc wing»of the last. Miisquiloes are plenty in all parts of China,
and gauze curtains ore considered by the people as a more ne-
cessary part of bed furniture than a mattress.

The botany of China is rntlier better known than its zoology,
though compared with what has been ascertained of tlie flora of
other oounlries, it is nearly undescribcd. Two or three species of
pine are floated down the Pearl river to Canton, in rafls, taken
from Ihc Mei ling, or brought from Kwangsl ; the limber is used
for fuel, and the rafters and pillars in buildings. The wood of
the Melin, or pride of India, is commonly employed for cabinet-
work in Canton ; there are also many kinds of fancy wood seen
in the markets, some of widcli are imported, but most of them
indigenous. A kind of cednr, called nan muA, or southern wood,
which resists time and insects, is considered peculiarly valuable,
and eepecitilly reserved for imperial use and buildings. The
rose wood and aigic wood, and the timber of (lie bastard banian,
arc also eerviceobic for various purposes in carpentry.

The people collect seaweed on the coast to a great extent,
using it iri the oris and aiso for food. Among these the Gigar-
tina tmas Is mcniioncd as alTording an excellent material for
glues aiid vnriiislirs. It is simply boiled, and the transparent
glue obtained is brushed upon a porous kind of paper called aba
eki, which it renders nearly transparent. It is also used a.^ a
size for siiiTeninK silks and gauze, and extensively employed in
(he manufacture of lanterns, and in (he preparation of paper for
lattices and windows. This and other kinds of fuci, are boiled
down to a jelly by the islanders on the south, and extensively
used for food; it is known in commerce under the name of agar-
agar. Among other cry ptogamo us plants from China, the Tarta-
rean lamb (Atpidivm barometx), so enthusiastically described by

i

276 THE MIDDLE KlNbDOM.

Dsrwin io his Botanic Garden, has long beea celebrated ; it is
partly an artificial production uf the ingenuity of Chinese gar-
deners taking advantage of the natural habita of the plant, to
form it into a shape resembling a sheep, or other object.

The list of gramineous plants cultivated for food is latge, of
which the common sorts include' both upland and aquatic ri
wheat, barley, and oats, the Barbadoes millet, and paniclcd millet,
of which several varieties are noticed by the Chinese, and sugar
cane. There i» a kind ofgrass (Cccx lachryma) extensively cul-
tivated in the south for weaving floor-matting of various degrees
of fineness, the coarser kinds of which are used also for con-
structing sheds lo screen workmen when building houses, and
even the walls of the huts tenanted by Ihe poor ; the beat comes
froni Lientan, west of Canton. No grasses are cultivated foi
food for animals, but the country produces many species fitted
for rearing flocks and herds. A species of Andropogon and one
of Arundo, grow upon the hills around Canton, which are
every autumn by the poor for fuel ; when liio hills are well
sheared of their grassy covering, the stubble is set on tire, ia
order to supply ashes for manuring the next crop, — an operation
which tends to keep the hills bare of all shrubbery and trees.
The bamboo is cultivated about villages for its pleasant shade and
beauty, and a grove furnishes from year to year culnis of all
sizes for the various uses to which it is applied. No plant im-
parls so oriental and rural an aspect to a garden or village as
clumps of this graceful and stalely grass ; tlie stalks shoot up
their wavy plumes lo the height of fifty feet and upward, and
swaying themselves to every breeze, form an object of great
elegance, well befitting so useful a plant.

This plant may well be called useful, for it is applied by iha
Chinese to such a vast variety of purposes, some of them indeed
better accomplished elsewhere bydifierecit materials, that it may
justly be called their national plant. It is reared from shoots
and suckers, but afier it has once rooted, is not much attended
to ; the common yellow species extends over all the southern and
eastern provinces, but the varieties mentioned by Chinese wri
amount lo sixty, of which the black skinned sort used in making
furniture, and the low, fine branched one affording the slender
twigs employed in the manufacture of writing pencils, ere the beat
known. The tender shoots are cultivated for food, and are, when

HAKV UEES

OF THE BAMBOO.

four or five inches high, boiled, pickled, and comHted, but not
Ihe '' lender buds and flowers, cut like aaparagua," as repre-
sented by Murray. The roots are carved into fantastic images
of men, birds, monkeys, or monstrous perversions of aoiraated
nature ; cut iulo lantern- handles and canes, or turned into oval
sticks for worshippers to divine whether the gods will hear or
refuse iheir petitions. The tapering culms are used for all pur-
poses that poles can be applied to in carrying, supponing, pro.
pelliog, and measuring, by the porter, the carpenter, and the
boatman ; for the joisls of houses and the ribs of sails ; the
BhafU of spears and ihe wattles of hurdles ; the tubes of aquc.
ducts, and the handles and ribs of umbrellas and fans.

The leaves are sewed upon cords to make rain cloaks, swept
into heaps to form manure, and malted into thatches to cover
houses. Cut into splinlhs and slivers of various sizes, the wood
is worked into baskets and trays of every forjii and fancy,
twisted into cables, plaited into awnings, and woven into mats for
scenery o( the theatre, the roofs of boats, and the casing of
goods. The shavings, even, are picked into oakum, and mixed
with those of rattan, to be sluifed into mattresses. The bamboo
furnishes the bed for sleeping, and the couch for reclining ; the
chopsticks ibr eating, the pipe far smoking, and the flute for en-
tertaining ; a curtain to hong t>efore the door, and a broom to
sweep around it ; together with screens, stools, stands, and sofas
for various uses of convenience and luxury in the house. The
matlress to lie upon, the chair to sit upon, the table to dine from,
food lo eat, and fuel lo cook it with, are alike derived" from it: —
the ferule lo govern the scholar, and the book he studies, both
originnte here. The tapering barrels of the »a.ng, or organ, and
the dreaded instrument of the lictor— one to make harmony and
the other to strike dread ; the skewer lo pin Ihe hair, and the hat
to screen the head ; the paper lo write on, the pencil-handle to
write with, and the cup lo hold the pencils ; the rule to measure
lengths, the cup to gauge quantities, and the bucket to draw
water ; the bellows lo blow the lire, and the bottle to retain tha
match ; the bird. cage and orab-net, the fish-pole and sumpilan,
the water-wheel and eave-duct, wheelbarrow and hand-cart, lee,
&c., are one and all furnished or completed by this magnifioeDt
grass, whose graceful beauty when growing is comparable to ita
varied usefuLneas when out down.

J

278 THB MIDDLE KINODOM.

China could hardly he governed without the ooDstant applies
tion of the hamboo, nor the people get along in their daily pur-
suits without it. It serves to embellish the garden of the prince,
and shade, the hamlets of the peasant, compose the hedge which
separates their grounds, assist in constructing the tools to work
their lands, and feed the cattle which labor upon them ; and
lastly, as the Chinese verily believe, brings forth its seeds in
years of famine to supply the deficiencies of other crops. There
is nothing they paint and draw so well, and its siliceous tubes
furnish an admirable material for the display of their skill in
carving and writing.*

Palms are not abundant in southern China, although many spe-
cies have been noticed. The cocoanut flourishes in Hainan and
the adjacent coast ; and the fan-leaf palm (RapJUs) is cultivated
for its leaves. The rattan has been said to be a native of China,
but this requires proof; all that used at Canton for manufac-
turing purposes is brought, together with the betel-nut, also the
fruit of a palm, from Borneo and the Archipelago. The date
palm is not known in China. The pandanus, or screw-pine, is
common along the southern coasts, extending north as far as Lew-
chew. The Chinese occasionally eat its cones, and plant it for
hedges — the singular fructification, shooting out roots along the
ground wherever moisture and soil favor their development, and
its spinous rough leaves, growing upwards in clumps, adapting it
for this purpose. The wiry fibres of the bracts of the Raphis
are separated into threads and used largely for making ropes,
cables, twine, brooms, hats, sandals, and even dresses or cloaks
for rainy weather.

Several species of the Aroidese are cultivated for food, among
which the Caladivm cuculatum, Arum esculentum and Indicuniy are
the most common. The tuberous roots of the SagiUaria Sinen-
gis also contain much farinaceous matter, and are esteemed for
their food ; the taste resembles that of the preceding, and all
grow in marshy lands. The roots of these plants, and of the
water-chestnut, are manufactured into a powder resembling
arrow-root, much in request among the people. The sweet^flag
(Calamus) is used in medicine to a great extent for its spicy
warmth. The stems of a small species of Juncus are collected

* Chinese Commercial Guide, 2d edition, page 132. Chinese Repository,
Vol. III., page 201

PALMS, VAM, PLANTAIN,

279

from the swampy grounds, and ilie pilh carefully token out and
used by the poor for " lam p. hearts," or lampwicks.

The extensive group of Lilialeii or lilies contains many splen-
did ortiamentd of the conservatory and garden, natives of China,
besides some vhich are articles of food. The Agapanlhas or
blue African lily, four species of HemeroeaBu or day lily, and
■he fragrant tuberose, are all common about Canlon ; the latter
is cultivated in large patches to supply the demand for ils fra-
grant blossoms. Eight or ten species of Lilium, among which
the speckled liger lily and the unsullied white are conspicuous,
also add their gay beauties to the gardens ; while the modest
Commelina, with its delicate blue blossoms, ornaments the hedges
and walks. Many alliaceous plants, including the onion, cives,
gorljc, &c., belong to this group; and the Chinese relish ihem
for the table as much as they admire the flowers of (heir beau-
teous and fragrant congeners for bouquets. The singular red-
leaved iron-wood (Dracteno) is a member of this group; it is
chiefly noticeable for its long red leaves. The aloe is common
near Canton, but Utile or no cordage is obtained from its leaves.

The yam is not much raised in China, though its wholesome
qualities 09 an article of food are well understood ; its native
name is la thti, meaning the great polatoe. The same group
{Miua/es) lo which the yam belongs, furnishes the custard -apple,
one of the few fruits which have been introduced into China from
abroad ; the people call it fan lichi, or foreign lichl, and are
probably indebted to the Portuguese lor it. The family of the
Amaryllldse is represented by many pretty species of Crinum,
Nerine, and Amaryllis ; all of which are common in gardens.
Their useless beauty ts compensated by the plain but useful
plantain, said to stand next to the sago-palm, as producing the
greatest amount of wholesome food in proportion to its size, of
any cultivated plant. The plantain does not, however, furnish the
Chinese so great a proportion of food as it does the inhabitants of
the Archipelago or South America, though it is the common sum-
mer fruit in Canton.

That pleasant stomachic, giDger, is cultivated through all the
interior, and exposed for sale in the slrecls as a green vegetable ;
It is employed when fresh, (o spice dishes, besides being made
into a preserve for exportation. The Alpinia and Canna, or
ladi&o abot, both belonging to the same family as the ginger, aie

y.

THE NIDDIX KINGDOX.

common garden flowers. The large group of OrchideB ha*
less than nineteen genera known la be natives of China, ami
which the air plants (Vanda and Mridca) are great favoritea.
They are suspended in baskets under the trees, and continue hi
unlbid their blossoms in gradual succession for n
the care necessary being to sprinkle them daily. The trut
species of £ridea are among the most beautiful productions of
the vegetable world, their flowers being arrayed in long raoeraflB
of delicate colors and delicious fragrance. The beautiM
Bletia, Arundina, Spathogloitis, and Cymbidium, i
damp and elevated places about the islands near Mac
Hongkong.

Many species of the pine, cypress, and yew, forming the throt'
Bubdivisions of conebcaring plants, exist in China, and furnish ■
large proportion of the timber and fuel. The laroh was observeA^
by the embassies, and also the Pinus massoniana, I
on the hills; the pines about Canton seldom attain their f
growth. The juniper and thuja are ol\en selected by gardeneiifr
to try their skill in forcing them to grow into rude represenlat
tions of birds and animals, the price of these curiosities beioK
proportioned lo their grotesqueness and difficulty. The seeds i
the maiden-hair tree {Salisburia adiaiitifolia) form one of tl
most common nuts in the north, and the leaves are sometiin
put into books as a preservative against insects.

The willow is a favorite and common plant in all parts of Chiim;
and grows to a great size, Staunton mentioning some which i
fifteen feet in girth ; he suys they shaded the roads near the ca[dk
lal, and it is well known they are seldom wanting from gardraiii
and sides of water-courses. Their leaves, foliage, and habil^
afford many metaphors and illustrations lo poeis and writei^^^^
much more use being made of the tree in this way, it mi^MI
almost be said, than any other. The oak is less patronised t^
fine writers, but the value of its wood and bark is well undei
stood ; the country alTords several species, some of which art
cultivated for burning into charcoal, and for fruit. The gaL
are used for dyeing and in medicine, and the i
kinds, after cleaning off' the husks, are ground in mills, and I
flour soaked in water and mode into a farinaceous paste. Soi
of the missionaries speak of oaka a hundred feet high, but tl
hitherto observed have been under lifly. " One of the liu

ant] most interesting of these trees, which," write^AbeJ, "I hove
culled Quercus densifolia, resembled a laurel in its shining green
foliage. It bore branches aniJ leuves in a thick head, crowning
a naked and straight stetn ; its fruit grew along upright spikes
lerminaling the branches. Anolherspecies, growing toiho height
of fifty feet, bore them in long pendulous epikes." The centrnl
provinces produce these plants in the greatest abundoncc.

The chestnut, walnut, and hazelnut, are all natives of China;
thejr fruit is tolerable. The Tack-fruit {Arloatrpua) is not un-
known in the markeia of Canton, but il is not much used. There
are many species of the banian or lig, but none of them produce
iruit worth plucking ; the Portuguese have introduced the brown
fig into Macao, where it flourishes; it is called wu hwa kwo,
meaning flowerlesS fruit. The bastord banian is a magnificent
shade tree, its branches sometimes overspreading on area a hun-
dred or more feel across. The walls of cities and dwellings are
soon covered with the FUui repens, and if lefl unmolested, its
roots gradually demoliish them. One species of the mulberry
{BrtnugrnmUa) furnishes a good material for paper in the albur-
num, which is carefully separated from the bark, and beaten to
a pulp, and when mixed with rice sizing, formed into sheets by
moulds. The largest portion of the paper used in Japan is manu-
factured from this substance, but the Chinese usually employ
bamboo and cnilon ; some of it is very fine and silky- The
leaf of the common mulberry is the principal object of its cul-
ture, but the fruit in eaten, and the wood burned for lampblack
used in making ink.

Hemp is cultivated (or its fibres, and the seeds furnish an oil
UKed for household purposes, and medicinal preparations ; but the
inlosicaling substance called bang, made from it in India, is un-
known in China. The family Pi-oteaccie contains the Dryendra
cordata, or wa-titng, one of the favorite trees of the Chinese, for its
beauty, the hard wood it furnishes, and the oil extracted from its
seeds. The nuts of the Jatropha and Croton, belonging to the
family of Euphorbiaceie, produce more oil than the seeds of the
Dryandra. Some is also obtained from the Steroulia, but the
nuts gf this splendid tree are not noxious Hhe those of the Croton.
The celebrated tallow ireo (SlilUngia) belongs to the same family,
this symmetrical shaped tree is a native of all the eastern pro-
viooes, Bod resemblea the aspen in the Ibrm and color of (he \tti.

I

L

and in its genefal conlour. The castor-oil plant is cultivated for
use, both in the kitchen and apothecaries' shop.

The order Hippurinte furnishes the water caltrops [Tfapa),
the seeds of which are vended in the streets as a fruit, after boil-
ing ; tlie native name is bufaio-kead fruii, which the unopened
nulB strilcingly resemble. Black pepper is not n native of China,
but it is imported, not for a spicp, but for the infusion, to be ad-
ministered in fevers. The betel pepper is extensively cultivated
for its leaves, which are chewed with the betel-nut. Another
plant of the same tribe us pepper, viz. tho ehulan {ChlortmthM
inconspieiiiu), Furnishes the flowers which serve to scent some
sorts of tea. The pitcher plant (NepcTUhes). called pig-basket
plant by the Chinese, is not unfrequent near Canton ; the leaves,
or ascidia, bear no small resemblance to the open boskets employed
for carrying hogs.

Many species of the tribe Rumieiiut are cultivated for their
leaves or seeds, as esculent vegetables, among which may bo
enumerated spinach, green basil, beet, amaranlhus, cockscomb)
buckwheat, &c. Two sp<>cic8 of Polygonum are cultivated for
the blue dye furnished by the leaves, which is extracted like
indigo by maceration. Buckwheat is prepared for food by boiling
it like millet; its Chinese name moans "triangular wheat."
The flour is also employed in pastry at Peking, The cockscomb
is much admired by the Chinese, whose gardens furnish several
splendid varieties. The rhubarb is a memberof this useful tribe,
and largo (Quantities are brouglil to Canton from the northern
provinces. Tho Chinese consider the rest of the world dependent
on them for tea and rhubarb, and their inhabitants forced to
resort thither to procure means to relieve themselves of an other-
tmediable cosliveness. This argument was actually
once made use of by Commissioner Lin, when recommending
certain restrictive regulations to be imposed upon the foreign
Irttde, because he supposed mercliants from abroad would be

mpelled to purchase ihem at any price.

The order Ilicimt, or holly, furnishes several genera of Rhim-
neas, whose fruits are often seen on tables. The Zizyphus
produces the Chinese dates, and the fleshy peduncles of Uie
are eaten; Ihe latter isijuile common on Hongkong-
The leaves of the Rhammta theeiaiu are among the many plants
collected by the poorer Chinese, as a substitute for the true tea.

The Chinese olive is obtained from ihe Fimela, but il is a poor
substitute for the rich olive of Syria,

The widely diGTused and extcDsive tribe of Leguminosffi holds
an important place in Cbini^se botany, affording many esculent
vegetables and valuable products. Peas and beans form impor-
tant objects of culture, and the condiment called soi/ (a word
derived from the Japanese soya), is prepared chiefly from a spe-
cies of DolichoB. One of the oommonesl modes of making this
CondiiAent is to skin the beans, and grind them to flour, which
ia mixed with water and powdered gypsum, or turmeric. The
common Chinese eiit few meals, without the addition of one form
or other of the bean curd or bean jelly. One genus of (his tribe
affords indigo, and from Ihe buds and leaves of a species of Colu-
tea a kind of green dye is said lo be obtained. Liquorice b
highly esteemed in medicine ; and the red seeds of the Abnis
precatorius are gathered for ornaments. The Poinctana and
Bauhinia are cultivated for their flowers, and ihe Erylhrina and
Cassin are among the' most magnificent flowering trees in the
country. The Arachis, or ground nul, is extensively cultivated
for its edible and oily seeds.

The fruits of ihe Chinese are, on the whole, inferior in flavor
and size to those of the same names at the west. The pears,
peaches, plums, and apricots, are all susceptible of great im-
provement. There are several species of Amygdaius cultivated
for their flowers ; and at newyear in Canton, the budding stems
of the flowering almond, narcissus, plum, peach, and the £njti-
onrtiMreft'cuii/iM, or bell-flower, are forced into blossom to exhibit,
as indicating good luck the coming year. The pears, apples,
and quinces, are generally destitute of that flavor looked for in
them elsewhere, but the loqual is a pleasant acid spring rruii.
The pomegranate is chiefly cultivated for its beauty as a flower,
ing plant, and no! as a fruit for the table; but the guava, and
Eugenia, or rose-apple, both of which belong to the same exten-
sive tribe of Myrtinie, are sold in the market, and made into
jellies. The rose is as great a favorite among the Chinese as
with other nations, and is extensively cultivated ; twenty species
are mentioned, together with many varieties, as natives of the
country ; one common at Amoy produces double flowers, desti-
tute of perfume. The Spinea or privet, myrtle, Quisqualis,
Lawsonia or henna, wiiitei purple, and red varieties of Lager.

THE MIDDLE KIKOUOM.

Btrceniia, Hydrangea, Ihc paEslon- (lower, and (he house-ledi,
also among Ihe ornamental planls found in gardens. Few
in any country preaenl a more eleganl appearance, when in full
flower, than Ihe LogerstriEmias. The pride of India, and Chi-
nese tamarix, are also beQUtiful lowering Ireea. The Cactus
and Cereus are grown in ihc south, and specimens of the latter,
containing fifty or more splendid flowers in fuU bloom, are not
unusual at Macao in the nights of August.

The watermelon, cucumber, squash, tomato, brinjal or egg-
plant, and other garden vegetables, are abundant ; one of theai|
the Bemncasa ceriftra, is the tallow-gourd, remarkable for having
its surface, when ripe, covered with a waxy exudation, which
smells like rosin. The dried holtle-gourd {Cucurbiia lagenaria)
is tied to the backs of children on board the boats to assist them
in floating if they should unluckily full overboard. The fruit
and leaves of the papaw, or muh kuM, " tree melon," ore eaten,
after being cooked ; the Chinese are aware of the iatenerating
property of the exiialalions from the leaves of this tree, and
make use of them sometimes to soden the flesh of ancient bena
and cocks, by hanging the newly killed birds in the tree, or by
feeding them upon the fruit beforehand. The papaw tree seldom
Bltoina its greatest size about Canton, on account of its slender
trunk being unable to resist the strong winds. The carambota
or tree gooseberry is much eaten by the Chinese, but is not
relished by foreigners ; Ihe tree itself is of little use.

Ginseng is found wild in the forests of Liaulung and Mancbu-
rta, whcrt! it is collected by detachments of soldiers and camp-
followeni, specially detailed for this purpose ; the regions where

m

V trees

I pii

^^^^ Ml

iperial preserves, and the medicine

ilal monopoly. The importation of

does not interfere to a very serious

ales at the north, os the Chinese are

^n plant is far superior, and its high

it coming south. Among numerous

and pink tribes (Dianthacea) remarka-

le, the Lychnis eormala, live sorts of

s, eight species of Hibiscus, and other

I, may be mentioned ; the cotton tree {Boi!U>aM

etiba) is common at Canton, and the Ueshy petals of Ihe flowers

ue sortetimes prepared as food. The Goatj/piun berbaoevm aad

it grows are regarded a
itself is held
the American root at Canti
degree with the imperial
fully convinced that their
price prevents much of :
plants of the malvaceot
hie for tlieir beauty or
pink, the A/lhtta Cli)

CAMELLIA AND OTHER FLOWEBING PLANTS. 285

Sida tHutfolia aSbrd the materials for cotton and graascloth ;
both of ihem are cullivated in tlie eastern provinces, as i'ar north
a9 Peking. The petals of the Hilrixeua rosa-aincnxis arc usot! in
some cases to Furnish a black liquid to dye the fychrows, and al
Batavia they are employed lo polish shoes. The seed vessels of
the Hibucua ochra or okera are prepared for the table in a variety
of ways.

■ The Camrliia Japonica is a member of the same great tribe aa
the Hibiscus, and its elegant dowers are as much admired by
the people of its native country as by florists abroad ; they enu-
merate thirty or forty varieties, for each of which tliey have a
separate name ; many of these varieties are unknown out of
China, and Chinese gardeners are likewise ignorant of a largo
proportion of those found in our conservatories. This elegant
flower is cultivated solely for its beauty, but there are other spe-
cies of Camellia raised for their seeds, the oil expressed from
them being serviceable for many household and mechanical pur-

poses. The Camellia bears the
does, and the term cka ts likew
selves, to designate any infusion,
of WalUieria, a plant oT the san
and the Penlapetet Pluenicia, or
call

name thai the tea plant
iwise employed, as tea is with our-
m. From the fibres of a species
sme tribe, a fine cloth is made ;
>r " noon tlower," as ihe Chinese
of gardens.

The widely diffused tribe Banunculinie has many r«fFresenIa-
tives in China, some of ihem profitable for their timber, others
sought after for their fruit, or admired for their beauty, and a
few prized for their healing properties. There are eight species
of Magnolia, all of ihcm splendid flowering plants ; the bark of
the Magnolia tfulan is employed as a febrifuge. The seed ves-
sels of the Jliciwn amsalum, or star-aniseed, are brought lo mar-
ket aa an article of ejtportation as well as domestic consumption,
on account of their spicy warmtli and fragrance. The custard
apple is a pleasant fruit, while the flowers of the Arlabotrya odo-
ralissimut and Unona odorala are extensively cultivated for their
perfume. Another member of this tribe is the mmrtan or iree
pieony, which is reared for its large and variegated flowers ; it
bears the name of hvxt vmng, or king of flowers, lo indicate the
estimation in which it is held. The skill of the native garden.
ers has made many varieties, but the difficulty of perpetuating
(hem may be one reaaon for their high price. Good imilatiooa

of full grown plants in flower are somelimca made of piUi

for ornaments. The Clematis or virgin's Iwwer, ilie fox-glovq^'

the "Berbtria ChmcttxU, and the magnificent lotus, or Ne)umbiua%

3 this tribe
plants in Asia,
roots, than reverenced for its
aspera is sometimes collecled,
ing pewter vessels, for which
The group PapaveraceiB

I

■, one of the most cGlebratM

by the Chinese for its edil^

-eligious lissociations. The AcUk

OS the scouriug rush is, for cleoa

ts hispid leaves well fit it.
eludes the poppy, and Crucifertt;
the mustard, cress, cabbage, kale, &c., besides many ornamentnT
flowers. The extent to which the poppy is cuilivaled I
about OS great a disproportion to the consumption of opium, i
the growth of tea abroad docs to its use ; the provinces of Yum
nan and Kwangsl are said to produce the greater part of thi
native article. A plant allied to the poppy, Argemone Mexia
is a weed about Macao, and is sometimes collected for medic
purposes. The leuvea of many cruciferous plants are ea
whether cultivated or wild ; and the variety and amount of sudl(
Ibod consumed by the Chinese, probably e.\ceeds that of aiij^i
other people. Another tribe, Kutinee, contains the oranges and
shaddocks, and some very fragrant shrubs, as the Murraya a
tica and pamculata, and the Aglaia odorala. The hwangpi, or
v)hampe, i, e. yellow skin {Cookia punclaia), is a common aii4
superior fruit. The seeds of the Sapindus, besides their valtM
in cleansing, are worn as beads, " because," say the Budhisti%
" all demons are afraid of the wood ;" one native name meaiW
" preventative of evil." The two native fruits, the lichi anj
lungan, are allied to the Sapindus in their ailinities ; while tb(
JJiTig thu, or plane tree, and two sorts of maple, with the I
tporum lobira, an ornamental shrub often seen, may bo mentionc
among plants used for food, or sought after for timber.

These brief notices of Chinese plants may be concluded fa
mentioning some of the most ornamental not before spoken of^
for where the Hower or the fruit has no common English nai
either for the family or the species, a Chinese or a scientific te
does not usually convey any satisfactory information. In
extensive tribe of Rubiacinffi, are found several beautiful special
of honeysuckle, and a fragrant Viburnum closely resembling tl
Bnowball. The Serissa is cultivated around beds and parterr
like the bos ; and the Ixora cocdnea, and other species of ll

PLANTS CnLTlVATEB FO« TIIEIB

genus, are among Uic most common shiubs in gardens. There
are many other plouls in Ihls Irihe leSa known abroad, and that
is the case likewise with those constituting the Composiiee, of
which liie China aster is a conspicuous member. The seeds of
two or three species of Artemisia arc collected for medicinal
purposes, being dried and reduced to a down, lo be burned on the
afiected part of the body, as an actual cautery. From the Car-
Ihamua tinctorim a fine red dye is prepared. The succory, let-
tuce, dandelion, a^d other cichoraceous plants, either wild or
cultivated, furnish food for the poor ; while innumerable varieties
of Chrysunthetnums and Asters are reared for their beauty.
Some of the species arc trained over frames like a vine, produc-
ing a very elegant appearance when in full blossom.

The Labialie, or mints, alTord many genera, some of them
cultivated ; and the Solanaceffi, or nighlshadea, contain tlie
tomato and common potatoe, tobacco, stramony, and several spe-
cies of Capsicum, or red pepper- It has been disputed whether
tobacco is native or foreign in China, but the philological argu-
ment is in favor of its having been introduced, since the only
name for the plant or the prepared leaf, is ym or smoke, by a
natural metonymy from its use ; the Japanese call il tahago,
which also bespeaks its foreign origin, and they date its intro-
duction about two centuries ago. The Chinese simply dry the
leaves, and cut them into shreds for smoking ; the snuif mode
from it is coarser and less pungent than the Scotch. It is said
that powdered cinnabar is sometimes mixed with snuff, but this
practice must be rare, Trom the cost of that mineral.

The large family of Convolvulaceaa contains many beautiful
species of Ipomea, cultivated for their flowers, especially the
Ipomea quamoclU, found about the houses even of the poorest
people. The Iptnnra marilima is a plant of extensive range,
trailing over the sundy beaches along the coast from Hainan to
the Chusan archipelago. The Cmvohuha repUtn* JSo<\en plant-
ed around the edges of tanks and pools on the confines of the
villages ond fields, for the sake of its succulent leaves. The
narcotic family of Apocynese contains several beautiful flower-
ing plants, two of which, the oleander and Plumeria, are highly
prized for their fragrance ; while the yellow milkweed {Asclepiaa
eureutavica), end the Vtnca rosea, or red periwinkle, are lesi
roospicuous, but not unattraotive, members of the same group.

L

F

k

The jasmine I9 a deserved Tavorite witlt the Chinese, its
and iwiga being often wtAnd in their hair by the
planted in pots in their houses. TiieOUafragfana,
is largely cultivated for scenting lea.

In the Dorth-eoatcm provinces, the hiUa are adorned «
azaleas of gorgeous hue, especially around Ningpo and
Chusan. " Few," says Mr. Fortune, " can form any tdeaof
gorgeous beauty of these azalea-clod hills, whore, on ev
side, the eye reals on masses of flowers of dazzling brightr
and surpassing beauty. Nor is it the azalea alone, which cla
our admiration ; clematises, wild roses, honeysuckles,
hundred others, mingle their flowers with them, and make
confess that China Is indeed the ' central flowery laud.' "
azalea b a. great favorite, and the skill of gardeners has
plied the varieties almost as numerously as tlie Camellia. Wild
flowers of considerable beauty will no doubt be added to the list
of cultivated ones, when naturalists are permitted to roam the
hills and glens of China, but the number yet collected is small.
Few unexplored parts of the earth promise more to repay the
labors and zeal of the naturoliat, whatever department of nature
he might investigate, than the vast dominions under the sway of
the emperor of China.

A few notices of the advance made by the Chinese themselvoi
in the study of natural history, taken from their great work oB
materia medica, the Pun Tsau or Herbal, will form an appropri-
ate conclusion to this chapter. This work is usually bound up
in forty octavo volumes, divided into fifty-two chapters, and oon-
tains many observations of value mixed up with a deal of inc(nw^
rect and useless matter ; and os those who read the book have
Buflicient knowledge to discriminate between what is true
what is partly or wholly wrong, its reputation tends greatly
perpetuate its errors. The compiler of the Pan Ttau
ohin, who lived during the Ming dynasty, and collected all
information on these subjects extant in his lime, and arranged
in a methodieal manner for popular use, adding his own obserra-
lions. The work was well received and attracted the nottoa of
the emperor, who ordered several succeeding editions to be pub-
lished at the expense of the stale.

The first two volumes contain a large collection of
and indices, together with manv notices of the tlieory of

4

of preftoof^l
ofaaatanqfl

MINEtlALOdV OF THE CHINESE HERBAL.

and medicine. Cliaplers i. and [i. consist of introductory ob-
servations upon liie practice of tnedicine, and >fn index of the
recipes contained in the work, called the Sure Guide to a
Myriad of Recipes ; the whole filling the first seven volumes.
Chapters iii. nnd iv. contain lists of medicines for the
all diseases, which fill three volumes and a half, and comprise
the therapeutical portion of the work, except a treatise on th«
pulse in the last volume.

In the subsequent chapters, the author goes over the entire
range of nature in a descriptive, medical, and pharmaceutical
manner, each article being treated in all its branches in a most
melhodicul manner. All sorts of waters, fires, and earths are
treated of in the next three chapters, and chapters viu.-xi. de-
scribe metals, gems, and stones; the whole comprising all inor-
ganic substances. Water is divided into aerial and lerre-strial,
or that from the clouds, and that from springs, the ocean, &c.
Fire b considered under eleven species, among which are the
flames of coal, bamboo, moxa, iScc. The chapter on earth com-
prises the secretions from various animals, as well as soot, ink,
&C. ; that on metals includes metallic substances and their com-
mon oxides ; and gems are spoken of in the next division. The
eleventh chapter, in true Chinese style, groups together what
could not be placed in the preceding sections, including salts,
minerals, dio. In looking ai this arrangement, one is struck
with the similarity between it and the classification of characters
in the language itself, showing the influence that has had upon
it ; thus, ho, thwui, tu, kin, yuh, ikih, and lu, or lire, water, earth,
metals, gems, atones, and salts, are the seven radicals under
which the names of inorganic substances are classified in the
imperial dictionary. The same similarity runs through other
parts of the Herbal.

., inclusive, treat of the vegetable
: divisions, viz. herbs, grains, vegeta-
whicb are again subdivided into bii or
ambers of these families have no more
' than the heterogeneous family of an
The lowest term in the Chinese scien-

Cbapters xii. to :
kingdom, under five pu <
bles, fruits, and trees ;
families, though the m
relationship to each otbei
Egyptian slave dealer.
tific scale is chung, which sometimes in
ofWner corresponds to a species or even i
botudBts understand those terms.

}ludes a j
variety, a

Lioiman

290 THE UIDOLE KINGDOM.

The first division of Iierbs contains nine families: viz. hifl
plants, ofloriferous, marshy, noxious, creeping and climbing,
aquatic, stony, and nK)ssy plants, and a ninth of miscellaneous
j)lants not used in medicine ; there are 590 species described in
them all. In tliis classificution, the habitat is the most influential
principle of arrangement for the families, while the term tsau
denotes whatever is not eaten or used in the arts, or which does
not attain to the matrnitude of a tree.

The second division of grains contains four families: viz. 1.
That of hemp, wheat, rice, &c. ; 2. The family of millet, maize,
&c. ; 3. That of Icfjuminous plants ; and 4. The family of fer-
mentable things, as bean curd, boiled rice, wine, yeast, congee,
bread, &c., which, as they are used in medicine, and produced
from vegetables, seem most naturally to come in this place.
The first three families contain forty. four species, and the last
twenty-nine articles.

The third division of kitchen herbs contains five families: 1.
Oflbnsive pungent plants, as leeks, mustard, ginger ; 2. Sof^ and
smooth plants, as dandelions, lilies, bamboo sprouts; 3. Vegeta-
hies proflucing fruit on the ground, as tomatoes, melons; 4.
Atjuatic vegetables ; and 5. Mushrooms and fungi. The number
of species is ninety-live, and some part of each of them is eaten.

The fourth division of fruits contains six families: 1. The five
fruits, as the plum, peach, date (Rhanmus) ; 2. Hill fruits, as the
pear, citron, persimmon ; 3. Foreign fruits, as the cocoanut,
Ik'hi, carambola; 4. Aromatic fruits, as pepper, tea; 5. Trail-
ing fruits, as melons, grape, sugar-cane ; and 6. Aquatic fruits, as
wntor caltrops, water lily, water chestnuts, &c. ; in all 129 species.

The fifth division of trees also has six families: 1. Aromatic
trees, as pine, cassia, aloes, camphf»r ; 2. Stalely trees, as the
willow, tamarix, elm, soapberry (Sapindus), rose ; 3. Luxuriant
growing trees, as mulberry, cotton tree, Cercis, Gardenia; 4.
Parasitos or things attached to tn»es, as the misletoe and amber;
T). FK'xible plants, as bamboo ; this family has only four species ;
(i. Includes what the other five exclude, though it might have
been thought that the second and third families were sufficiently
comprehensive to contain almost all miscellaneous plants. The
number of species is 180. All botanical subjects are classified in
this manner under five divisions, thirty families, and 1094 species.

The arrangement of the botanical characters in the language

^^P ITS AS1U,NeEMEN-T OF FLANTS AND AMMALS. 291

does not correspond so well lo lliis ns ihal of inorganic substances.
The largest group in the language-system is tgau, which com-
prises in genera) such herbaceous plants as ere not used (or food.
The second, mtiA, includes all trees or shrubs ; but the bamboo,
on account of tis great usefulness, standi by it^lf, though moat
of the characters under it denote names of articles made of bam-
boo. No less than four separate radicals, viz. rice, wheal, millet,
and grain, serve as the heads under which the esculent grasses
are arranged, and there are consequently many synonymes and
superfluous distinctions. One family includes beans, and another
legumes, one comprises cucurbilaceoua planU, another the allia-
ceous, and a fourth the hempen ; the importance of these plants as
articles of food or manufacture no doubt suggested their adoption
as types of their classes. Thus all vegetable substancespre dis-
tributed in the language under eleven different heads,

The grouping of animated beings in the Pun Tsau is hs rude
and unscientific aa lliut of plants. There are five pa or divi-
sions in zoology, namely, insect, scaly, shelly, feathered, and
hairy animals. The first division contains four families r I. and
2. Insects born from eggs, as bees and silkworms, butterflies
and spiders ; 3, Insects produced by metamorphosis, as glow-
worms, niole-c rickets, bugs; and 4. Water insects, as toads,
centipedes, 6ic. The second division of scaly animals has four
families: 1. The dragons, including the scaly ant-eater, " Ihe
only fish that has legs;" 2. Snakes; 3. Fishes having scales ;
and 4. Scaleless fishes, as the eel, cuttle-fish, prawn. The
third division of shelly animals is classilied under the two heads
of tortoisM or turtles and mollusks, including the star.fish, echi-
Dus, hermit-crab, 6ic. The luurlli division contains birds, ar-
ranged under four families: 1. Water-fowl, as herons, king-
fishcre, flee. ; 2. Healh-fowl, sparrows, and pheasants; 3. Forest
birds, OS magpies, crows ; and 4. Mountain birds, as eagles and
hawks. Beasts form the fifth division, which likewise contains
four families: 1. The nine domesticated animals and tlieir
producU; 2. Wild animals, aa lions, deers, otters; 3. Roden-
tia, OS the squirrel, hedgehog, rat; and 4. Monkeys and fairies.
The number of ehung or species in these five divisions is 391,
but there arc only 3'iO ditferent objects described, as the roe, fal,
hair, exuviip, &c., of animals are separately noticed.

The iBXlBeA aoait^oal eban«aBT«iii the langiiaga mb not quite

I 992 THE MlBl

■0 far aslray from being types of classes, as the eleven a
ones- Nine uf them are mBtninireroua, viz. the tiger, dog, and
leopard, whjcli stand for liie carnivora ; the rat Ibr rodentia ;
the ox, sheep, ami deer for ruminants ; and the horse and hog for
pachydermatous. Birds are chieDy comprised under one radi-
cal ntau, but there is a sub-faniily of short tailed gallinaceous
fowls, though much confusion exists in the orrangemeflt. Fishes
form one group, and improperly include crabs, lizards, whales,
and snakes, though most of tlie latter are placed along with in-
sects, or else under the dragons. The tortoise, toad, and dragon,
are the types of ttiree small collecticHis, and insects are comprised
in the Gixieenth and last. Thes_e groups, although theycont&ia
many anomalies, as might be expected, are still sutTiciently natu-
ral to teach those who write the language something of the
world aruund them. Thus, when ont! sees that a new character
contains the radical dog in composition, he will be sure that it is
ir any animal of the pachydermatous,
i, although he may have never seen
ame. This peculiarity runs through ^
I, but in other groups, as for inslano«,
nan, woman, and child, or heart, band,
include meutal and passionate emo.

neither fowl, lish, j
cervine, or ruminant tribes,
the animal, nor heard its n
the whole language, inde£
those under the radicals n
leg, &c,,

tionSbOS well as actions and names, so that the type is not sufli-
oiently indicative to oonvey a delinite idea of the words included
under it ; the names of natural objects are, evidently, mora
easily arranged in this manner than other words. If the lan-
guage is capable of a strictly scientific arrangement on this prin-
ciple, and if the characters had been actually so formed, tJM
people would almost necessarily become somewhat acquftinted
with the differences in natural objects.

Between the account of plants and animals, the Herbal has
one chapter on garments and domestic utensils, for such
things " are used in medicine, and are made out of plants."
The remaining chapters, xxws.-lii., treot of animals, as noticeii
above. The properties of the objects spoken of are discused in
a very methodical manner, bo thai a student can immediately
turn to a plant or mineral, and ascertain Its virtue- For instanoe,
information relative to the history and uses of the horse iS' '
, contained in twenty-four sections. The first explains the cfaa-
M, which was originally intended to represem the out-

lina of (he animal. The second describes the varieties of horses,
the best kinds for medical use, aiid gives brief descriptions
of them, for the guidance of the practitioner. " The pure white
are ihe best for medicine. Those found m the south and east

C small and weak. Tlie age is known hy llie teelli. The
■ reflects the full image of a man. If he eats rice, liis feet
will become heavy; if rat's dung, his belly will grow long; if
his teeth be rubbed with dead silkworms, or black plums, he will
not eat, Dor if the skin of a rat or wolf be hung in his manger.
He should not be allowed lo eat from a hog's trough, lest he
contract disease ; and if a monkey is kept in the stable, he will
Dot fall sick."

The tliird section goes on to apeak of the flesh, which is
an article of food ; that of a pure white stallion is Ihe most
wholesome. One author recommends " eating almonds, and
taking a rush broth, if the person feel uncomfortable after a
meal of horse-flesh. It should be roasted and eaten with ginger
and pork ; and to eat the Hesh of a black horse, and not drink
wine with it, will surely produce deatli." The fourth describes
thecrownofthehorse, the "fat of which is sweet, and good to make
the hair grow, and the face to shine." The fifth and succeeding
sections to the twenty- fourth, treat of the sanative properties and
mode of exhibiting the milk, heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, pla-
cents, teeth, bones, skin, mane, tail, brains, blood, perspiration.

Some of the directions are dietetic, and others are prescriptive.
"When eating horse-flesh do not eat the liver," ia one of the former,
given because of the absence of a gall-bladder in the liver, which
imports its poisonous qualities. " The heart of a white horse,
or that of ft hog, cow, or hen, when dried and rasped into spirit
and so taken, cures forgetfulness ; if the patient hears one thing,
he knows ten." "Above the knees the horse has nigkt-eyea
(worts), which enable him to go in the night ; they are useful
in the toothache ;" these sections partake both of the descriptive
and prescriptive. Another medical one, is, " If a man be reat-
lesa otid hy&terlcal, when he wishes to sleep, and it is requisite
lo put him to rest, let tiie ashes of a skull be mingled with water
and given him, and let him hawn skull for a pillow, and il will
cure him." The same preservative virtues appear lo be aa-
crilwd to K bone's hoof hung in a. bouse, as axe aupposetd by aomo

who should know belter, to belong to a borsesboe wheo oailad
Upon the door.* The whole bf this cslensive work is liberally
sprinkled with such whimsies, but the practice of medicine
among the Chinese is usually better ihnn th«<ir theories ; for as
Rimusal justly observes, "to see well and reason falaely ai^
nol wholly incompatible, and the naturalists of China, as well u
the chemists and physicians of our ancient schools, have some-
times tried to reconcile ihcm."

That able French scholar R^muaat read u paper in 1838, On
the state of the Natural Sciences aniong the Orientals, in which
he indicates the position which the Chinese have attained IB theit
researches into the nature and kinds of objects around them.
Ailer speaking of the adaptation the language possesses, front
ita construction, to impart some general notions of animated and
vegetable nature, he goes on to remark upon the theorizing pro-
pensities of their writers instead of contenting themselves with
examining and recording facts. " In place of studying the or- '
ganization of bodies, they undertake to determine by reaaoiung
how it should be, — an aim which has not seldom led them f^
from the end they proposed. One of the strangest errors among
them relates to the transformation of beings into each other,
which have arisen from popular stories or badly -conducted ob-
servations on the metamorphoses of insects. Learned absurdities
have been added to puerile prejudices ; that which the vulgar
have believed, the. philosophers have attempted to explain, and
nothing can be easier according to the orienial systems of cos-
mogony, in which a simple molter, infinitely diversified, shows
itself in all beings. Changes affect only the apparent pniperties
of bodies, or rather the bodies themselves have only appear-
ances ; according to these principles, they are nol astonished at
seeing the electric fluid or even the stars converted into stones,
as happens when aerolites fall. That animated beings become
inanimate is proven by fossils and petrifactions. Ice, inclosed in
the earth for a millennium, becomes rock crystal ; and it is only
necessary that lead, the/aiher of all metals (as Saturn, its alche-
mistic type, was of gods), pass through four periods of two centu-
ries each, to become successively cinnabar, tin, and silver. In
spring, ihe rat changes into a.^ail,
during the eighth month.

• Chiaese Repositoiy, Vol. VII., p.

, and quails into rats again

INACCUBACT OF CKINESE RESEARCHES.

293

*• The style in which these marvels is njlaled is Dow and then
a little eijuivoeal ; but iT they believe pari of them proved, ihey
oan see nothing really impossible in the others. One nalurnlisl,
less credulous than his fellows, rather smiles at another author
who reported the metamorphosis of an orioie into a mole, itnd of
rtoe into a carp ; ' ii is a ridiculous story,' says he ; ' there is
proof only of tho chimge of rats into quails, which is reported in
the almsnac, and which I have often seen myaelf, for there are
cooatBiit rules for transformations as well as generations.' Ani-
mals, according to the Chinese, are viviparous as (quadrupeds, or
oviparous as birds ; they grow by transformations, as insects, or
by the eilect of humidity, as snails, slugs, and centipedes. . . .

. . . Thesuccessof such systems is almost always sure, not in
China alone either, because it is easier to put words in place of
things, to stop at nothing, and to have formulas ready for solving
all questions. It is thus that they have formed a scientific jar-
gon, which one might almost think had been borrowed from our
dark ages, and which has powerfully contributed to retain know-
ledge in China in the swaddling-clothes we now fiod it. Expe-
rience teaches that when the human mind is oukx drawn into a
false way, ihc lapse of ages and the help of a man of genius are
necessary to draw it out. Ages have not been wanting in Chi-
na, but the man whose superior enlightenment might dissipate
thste deceitful glimmerings, would find it very difficult to exer-
cise this happy influence as long as their polilicul institutions
attract all their inquiring minds or vigorous intellects far away
Tram scientific researches into the literary examinations, or put
before them the honors and employments which the functions
and details of magisterial appointments bring with them."*

This last observation indicates the reason to a great degree,
for the fixedness of the Chinese in all departments of learned in-
quiry ; hard labor employs the energy and time of the ignorant
mass, and emulation in the strife to reach official dignities con-
sumes the talents of the learned- When tlie enlargitig truths of
revelation siiall he taught to the Chinese, and its principles acted
upon among them, wc may tixpecl more vigor in their minds,
and their investigations into the wonders of nature conducted
with more profit.

* Melanges Orientilea, PostbuitieB, pagellS.

CHAPTER VII.

Law» of China, and Plnn of its Gorernment.

Thb consideralion of ihc llicnry nnd practice of the
government recommcnda itself to llje atleQlbo of the inlcUi-
genl student of nmn by several peculiar reasons, ainoag wbicb
are its acknowledged antiquity, llic multiludea of people h
roles, and the compartilivc quiet enjoyed by tlie inhabitaolE.
The government of a heathen nation is 90 greatly modified by
ihe personal cliaracter of the e:ipcutive, and ihe people are aqi ,-
liable to confound institutions with men, either from imperfi
acquaintance with the nature of those institutions, or from beii^
through necessity or habit, easily guided and swayed by d
ing and powerful men, that the long continuance of the
polity is n proof both of its adaplolion to the habila and condi^
of the people, and of its general good management,
quity and excellence of such a government, and ita orderijr ■
ministration, mipiht, however, he far greater than it is ii ~
without being invested with the interest which attaches to i(j
that empire in conscqiicnce of the immense population,
lives and property, food and security, depend to so greal a 1
upon it. What was at first rather a feeling of curiosity, j
ally become sone of awe, when tho evil results of n
ment, or the beneficent effects of equitable rule, a
moinentoas.

The theory of the Chinese government is undoubtedly tttA-fl
triarchal : the emperor is the sire, his officers are I
elders of its provinces, departments, and districts, as every fi
of a household is of its inmates. This may, to
theory of most governments, but nowhere has it been aysft
tized so thoroughly, and acted upon so consistently and for 1
long a period, as in China. Two causes, mutually acting Of^
each other, have more than anything else, combined to give a"
f to this theory. The ancient rule of Yau and $

THEORY OF THE CHINESE OOVKKNMENT- 297

filficlly, so far as llio details are known, b pairiarchal cbienain-
ship, conferred upon ihem on account of their excellent oharac-
tsr ; and their successors under Yu of the Hia dynasty were con-
sidered aa deriving their power from heavco, to whom they were
amenable for iis good use. When Chingtang, founder of the
ShoDg dynasty, b. c. 1766, and Wu wang of the Chau, b. c, 1 122,
took up arms against their sovereigns, the excuse given was that
tliey had not fulfilled [he decrees of heaven, and had thereby for-
leited their claim to ihe throne.

When Confucius began lo teach his principles of political
ethics, he referred to the conduct of those ancient kings both for
proof of the corrcclness of his instructions, and for arguments to
enforce them. It shows thai his cnuntrymcn assented to their
propriety from the number of disciples he had in his lifeiime, and
the high character he bore, but it was not apparently till afler
two or three cenlnrios had elapsed, that the rulers of China per-
ceived the great security the adoption and diSusion of these doc-
trines would give ihcir sway. They therefore began lo embody
them more and more into laws, and base the institutions of go-
vernment upon ihem ; and through all the convulsions and wars
which have disturbed the country, and changed the reigning fa-
milies, these writings have done more than any one thing else to
uphold the institutions of Ihe Chinese, and give them a character
and a permanence which no other people have ever had. Edu-
cation being founded on them, those who as students had been
taught to receive and reverence them as the oracles of political
wisdom, would, when they entered upon the duties of office, en-
deavor to carry out, in some degree at leosi, their principles.
Thus the precept and the practice have mutually modified, sup-
ported, and enforced each other.

But this civilization is Asiatic and not European, pagan and
not Christian. The institutionsof China are despotic and defect-
ive, and founded on wrong principles. They may have the
element of stability, but not of improvement. The patriarchal
theory does not make men honorable, truthful, or kind ; it does
not place woman in her right position, nor leach all classes their
obligations to their Maker; and the wonder is, lo those who
know the power of evil passions in the human breast, that this
huge mass of mankind is no worse. Some other power, indeed,
la absolutely necessary to be called in to odd a aanction to
14'

the patriarchal theory, and in the absence of a standing arm]
ftilly able to enforce the commands of llie sovereign, and a sUIe
hierarchy to assist in compelling obedience by the terrors of
superatition, we must look into society itself to find some ade-
t]UBte causes for its continuance. A short inspection will show
that the great leading principles by which llie present CbineM
goTernment preserves its power over the people, consist in a
system of strict tureeillanee and mutual retpomibiiity among ^1
These are aided in their efficiency by the geographical
1 of the country, by a difficult language, and a general
system of political education andnfEcial examinations. -4r-

They are enforced by such a minute gradation of rank and
subordination of officers, as to give the governmeni more of ■
military character than at first appears, and the whole system £•
such as to make il one of the most unmixed despotisms now
existing. It is like a network extending over the whole face of
society, each individual being isolated in his own mesh, Utd
responsibly connected wiih all around him. The man who
knows that it ia almost impossible, e.\cept bv entire seclusion, to
escape from the company of secret or acknowledged emiawriea
of government, will be caolious of oHending the laws of the
', knowing, as he must, ihnl though he siiould himseir
escape, yet his family, his kindred, or his neighbors, will eufibr
for his offence ; that if unable to recompense the sufierera, il
will probably be dangerous for him to return home; or if ha
does, it will be most likely to find his property in the possossioo
of neighbors or officers of the government, who feel conscious of
security in plundering one whose offences have for ever |daoed
him under the ban of the implacable law.

The effect of these two causes upon the mass of the people is
to imbue them witii a great fear of the government, both of its
officers Mid its operations; ench man considers that safety is to
be found alone in absolute withdrawal. This mutual surveil-
lance and responaibility, though only partially extended through-
out the people, necessarily undermines every principle of confi-
dence, and infuses universal distrust; and this object of cm^feto
uolaiion, though at the expense of justice, truth, honesty, and
natural affection, ia what the government strives to acoomplisht
and actually does to a wonderlVil degree. The idea of govern-
~ 1 the minds of the people, ia like the sword of Duao>

THREE PRtN'CIPLBS OF CONTROl..

dea; vid so far lins this undefineiJ fear ofsome uotoward result
when connec'eil tt iih it counlerncted the real vigor of the Clii-
Dene, tliEil much of ihcir indillereace to improvometit, conteit'.-
nieot with what is already known and possessed, and suhtnission
to petty spolialion of individuals, may be referred to it.

Men are deterred, too, by distrust of each other, as much as
by fear of the police, from combining in an intelligent manner
to resist govurntiictital exactions beouuse opposed to principles
of equity, or Joining with their rulers to uphold good order; no
such men, and no such instances, as John Hampden going to
prison lor refusing to contribute to a loan, or Ezekiel Williams
and his companions throwing the lea overboard in Boston harbor,
ever occurred in China or any other Asiatic country. They
dreod illegal societies quite as much from the cruelties this same
principle induces the lenders to exercise over recreant or sua-
pccled members, as from apprehension of arrest and punishment
by Ihe regular uuthorities. Thus, with a state of socieiy at
times on the vetge of insurrection, this mass of people is Itept
in cheoli by the threefold conl of rttpotuibility, feor, and iaolation,
each of them ittrengthening the other, and nil of them depend-
ing upon tliQ character of the people for much of their efficiency.
Since all the officers of government received their intellectu&l
training when plebeians under these influences, it is easy to un-
derstand why the supreme powers are so avers? to improvement
and to foreign iiitcroourse — from both which causes, in truth, the
state bos the greatest reason to dread lest the charm of its power
be broken, and ils sceptre pass away.

Thrrrt is, ii is true, a further explanation for Ihe general peace
which prevails in China, to bi< found partly in the diffusion of a
political eJucalion among ihe pi-ople, teaching ihem the principles
on which the governmenl is founded, and the reasons for those
principles flowing from the patriarchal theory ; and partly in their
plodding, peaceable, industrious character, Brief notices of the
construction and dlvidons of (he central and provincial govcrn-
(nenls, and their mutual relationR, and the various duties devolv-
ing upon the ilepartmcnts and officers, will exhibit more of the
operation of these principles.

Although the emperor is regarded as the head of this great
organisation, as Ihe fly-wheel which seta the other wheels of the
d aa bound to rule it accord-

SOO THE MIDDLE KIKSDOH.

ing to ihe published laws of ihe land ; and when iJiere ia « well
known law, though Ihe source of law, he is expected to Ibllow i|
in his decrees. The laws of China form nn edifice, Ihe (bunda^
tiona of which were laid by L! Kweilweniy cenlurieaago. Sue.
cessive dynasties have been building ihercon ever since, adding,
altering, pulling down, acid building up, as circuniBtances seemed
to require. A history of the changes and additions they liavo
'Undei^one, if there were niBtcrialM for such on account, would
conlributc much to show ihe progress of the rnce in civilization
ftud good government. The people have n high regard Ibr the
Code, " and nil they seem to desire ia its just and impartial exe-
cutioo, independent of caprice, and uninfluenced by corruption.
That the laws of China are, on the contrary, very frequently
violated by those who are their administrators and conslitutignal
guardians, there can, unfortunately, be no question ; hot to what
extent, compafalively with the laws of other countries, miiBt at"
present be very much a matter of conjecture : at the same time
it may be observed, as something in favor of the Chinese system,
that there are substantial grounds for believing, that neither fla-
grant nor repealed acta of injustice do, in point of fact, ofteo, ia
any rank or station, ultimately escape with impunity."* Sir
George Staunton is well qualified to decide on this point, and his
opinion has been corroborated by most of those who have had
similar opportunities of judging ; while his translation of the
Code has given all persons interested in the question the means
of ascertaining the principles on which the government oetcnn^
hij-

This body of lows is called by the Chinese Ta Tsmg Lath H,
i. e. Statutes and Rescripts of the Great Pure Dynasty, and
contains all the laws of the empire. They arc arranged under
aeven leading heads, viz. General, Civil, Fiscal, Ritual, MUiiarj
and Criminal laws, and those relating to Public Works ; and
subdivided into four hundred and thirty-six sections, called UiA,
or statutes, to which the li, or modem clauses, 1o limit, explain, or
alter them, are added ; these are now much more numerous thhn
the original statutes. A new edition is published by authorhj
every five years ; and the emperor ordered the Supreme Conf^
In 1880, to make very few alterations in the edition then about lo

^ * * Penal Code, iDtroduction, pag» xxriii

PBEFACE AND DIVISIONS OF THE CODE. 301

appear, leal wily litigalore took advanlnge of the discrepancies
between the neiv or old law, to suii ilieir own pur|>CJ8es. The
edition of 1830 ia in twenty-eighi volumes, nnd is iKii.essible lo
every one. The clftuses ure ailached to each ainiuie, and have
the same force j but there are na authorized reports of cases and
decisions, either of the provincial or supreme courts, published for
general use, though a record of them is kept in the court where
limy are decided ; and the publiualion of such ndjudged cases, as
O-guide lo officers, is not unknown. An extensive coH^otion of
notes, com nients, and coses, illustrating the practice nod theory
of the luvre, was appended to the edition of 1799. ^_

A short extract from the original preface of tlie Code, pub-
lished in 1047. will explain the principles on which it was drawn
up. After remarking upon the inconveniences arising from the
necessity of aggravating, or mitigating, the sODtcnces of the
magistrates, who, previous to the re- establishment of a lixed coda
of penal laws, were not in possession of any secure foundation,
upon which they could build a jii^t decision, the emperor Shunchi
goes on to describe the manner of revising the code:

" A numerous body of magistrates was assembled at the capital,
at our command, for the purpose of revising the penal code for-
merly in force undi/r the late dynasty of Ming, and of digesting
the same into a new code, by the exclusion of such parts as were
exceptionable, and the iniroduction of olhers, which were likely
lo conlribole to the ntiainmenl of justice, and the general perfec-
tion of the work. The result of their labors having been sub.
mitted to our examination, we maturely weighed and considered
the various matters it contained, and then instructed a seleot
number of our great oflieera of slate carefully to revise the
whole, for the purpose of making audi alterations and emenda-
tions as might still be found requisite. Wherefore, it being now
published, let it be your great care, officers and magistrates of
the interior and exterior departments of our empire, diligently to
observe the same, and lo forbear in future lo give any decision,
or to pass any sentence, according lo your private sentiments, or
upon your unsupported aulhoriiy. Thus shall the magistrates and
people look up with awe and submission to the justice of these
institutions, as they find themselves respectively concerned in
them ; the transgressor will not fail to suffer a strict expiation of
his crimes, snd will be the instrument of deterring others from

THE MWBtK KINGDOM.

■ Bimilar misconduct ; and finally, bolh offioertj and people will
equally secured for endless generations, in the enjoyment of
hnppy effects of tiie great and noble virtues of our illustrioi
progenitors."

Under the head of General Laws are forty-seven aecti
comprising principles and definitions applicable to the whole,
containing some singular notions on equity and oriminaJity.
description of the fire ordinary punishrnents, definition of the
treasonable offences, regulations for the eight privileged cli
and general directions regarding tiie conduct of oRicerB of
vernment, are the matters treated of under this head. The 1
of section xliv. is, " On tlie decision of cases not provided
by law ;" and the rule is, that " such cases may then be del
mined by an aocuralo comparison with others which
provided for, and which approach most nearly to those undsr
vesttgation, in order lo ascertain afterwards to what extent
aggravation, or mitigation, of the punishment would be equitable.
A provisional sentence conformable thereto shall be laid befon
the superior magistrates, and, afler receiving their approbatic^
be submitted lo the emperor's final decision. Any errotteoiB
judgment which may be pronounced, in consequence of adoptjttf .
B. more summary mode of proceeding, in cases of a doub^S
nature, shall be punished as wilful deviation from justioe." Tbi^T
of course, gives great latitude to lbs magistrate, and as he is thUB
allowed to decide and act before the new law can be confirmed
or annulled, the chief restraints to his injustice in suob caaM
(which, however, are nol numerous), lie in the fear of an appeal,
and the consequences to himself, or of summary reprisals from
the suffering parties.

The six remaining divisions pertain to the six great admini*-
irative Boards of the government, in the order above atalsd.
The second contains Civil Laws, under twenty-eight sectioni^
divided into two books, one of them referring to ihp tiystem of
government, and the other to the conduct of magistrates, &0>
The hereditary succession of rank and titles is regulated, and
punishments laid down for ihoso who illegally assume tbew
honors. Most of the nobility of China arc Mancbus, and Dooft
of the hereditary dignities ejLisIing previous to the conquest wen
recognised, except those attached to the family of Confuoiui.
Improperly recommending unfit persons as deserving high bonor^

GENEBAL, CIVIL, *ND FISCAL 1

appoinling and removing officers witlioul ihe
and leaving alaliouB uilhout leave, are the priocipnl subjeclB
reguloted in (he first book. The secoad book conlains rules re^
garding the interference of superior magiBtrates with the pro-
ceediags of the lower courts, and prohibitiopa against cabals and
ireaaonable combinations among oiScers, which are of course
capital crimes ; all persons in the employ of the state are re>
quired to miilce themselves acquainted witli the laws, and even
private individuals, " who are found capable of explaining the
nalure, ond comprehending the objects of the laws, shall receive
pardon in ftll otTcnces resulting purely from accident, or imputa-
ble to them only from ilie guilt of others, provided it be the iirst
offence." - , ,

The third division of Fiscal Laws, under eighty-lwo sections,
contains rules for enrotling the people, and of succession and
inheritance ; with laws for regulating marriages between various
classes of society, for guarding granaries and treasuries, for pre-
venting and punishing smuggling, for restraining usury, and for
overseeing shops. Section Uxvi. orders that persons and fami-
lifts truly represent their profession in life, and restrains them
from altering it ; " generation after generation they must not
change or alter it." This rule is, however, conslanlty violated.
Section xc. exempts the buildings of literary and religious Insti-
tutions from taxation. The general aim of the laws relating to
holding real estate is lo secure the cultivation of all the land
taken up, and the regular payment of the tax. The proprietor,
in some cases, can be deprived of his lands because he does not
till them, and though in fact owner in fee simple, he is re-
stricted in the disposition of them by will in many ways, and
forfeits them if the taxes are not paid.

The founh division of Ritual Laws, under iwenly-ain sections,
contains the regulations for state sacriliccs and ceremonies, those
appertaining to itie worship of
to heterodox and magical secif
ties threatened in some of the^
binations under the guise of a
fear of the authorities lest the

i

together to resist them, tiven processions
are forbidden, nor are (he rites observed h
imitated by any unauthorized person ; Wi

I whatever belongs
or teachers. The heavy penal-
sections against all illegal com-
ew form of worship, indicate the
people will in some way meet

1 honor of the gods

3H THE MIDDLE Kl.lGItOX-

lo congregate id Iho lemples, nor magicians to perfenn any
strange incantalioDs. Few of ihese laws are carried into ~
except ihoH! against illegal sects.

The fifUi division of Military Laws, in seventy-one aectioim,,
provides for the protection of the palace, and the government oi-
the army, for the guarding of frontier passes, management ~
the imperial cattle, and forwarding of despatches by tlie
Some of the ordinances under this head lay down nitea fiir tbs
protection of the emperor's person, and the disposition of hln
body-guard aod troops in the palace, the capital, and
empire- The sections relating to the government of the armjp
inclode the rules for the police of cities ; and those designed to
secure the protection of the frontier comprise all the enactmentl
against foreign intercourse. The supply of cattle for the army
is a matter of some importance, and is accordingly regulated^,
one law orders all persons who possess vicious and dangeroitt!
animaJs to restrain them, and if through neglect any person il
killed or wounded, the owner of the animal shall be obliged to
redeem himBclf from the punishment of manslaughter by paying
a fine.* There is no general post-oflice establishment in ChinSi
but governmental couriers oHen take private letters; the locd
mails are carried by eipresaes. The required rate of travel Sar
the official post is a hundred miles a day, but it does not ordioi-
rily go more than half that distance. OiEcers of govei
allowed ninety days to go from Peking to Canton, a distance nf

1200 mill

The sixth divis
books, containing
division of the w

jllen 1

; arranged into eleveft

is the moat imponsrt

es under some of th*

it for want of proper

in on Criminal Laws i;

n all 170 sections, and

ole Code. The claua

OUB, and show that il is
laws, or insufficient Ihreatenings, thai crimes go unpunished.
The eleven books of this division relale to robbery, in which Ir
included high treason and renunciation of allegiance ; to hon^
oide and murder ; quarrelling and fighting; abusive language J
indictments, disobedience to parents, and false accusations ; \A
bcry and corruption ; foiling and fivuds ; incest and adulteiyj
arrests and escapes of criminals ; their imprisonment and exeoik
tion ; uid lastly, miscellaneous ofiences.

* S«e Exodus xzi., 39, SO.

RIDTALi MIUTARV, A.ND CKIHINAL LAWS. 305

Und^^^^fi cccxxix., il is oniercc) ihal any one who is guilty
a£ tiddreJI^CbuBive language to liia or her father or mother,
or fslher'a parents, or a wife who mils at her huaband's pnreiits
or grandparents, shall be strangled; providcii always .hul the
persons so abused themselves oinplaJn to the magistrates, and
themselves had heard llic iRiiguage addressed to tht^m. Thir
law is the same in regard to children that it was among the Hi»i>
brews (Lev. xk., 9), and ihc power here given the parom doM
not seem lo be productive of evil. Section ccclxxxi. hits refer-
ence to " privately hushing up public crimes ;" but its penaltiea
arc for the most part a dead letter, and a full account of ihe
various modes adopted in Chinese courts of withdrawing cases
from the cognisance of superiors, >vould form a singular chapter
in general juriaprudi<noe. Consequently those who refuse every
ofier lo hush up cases are highly lauded by the people. Another
section (38fllh) ordains that whoever is guilty of impro(«r con-
duct, contrary lo the spirit of the laws, but not a breach of any
ipecilic article, shall ha punished at least wiih forty blows, and
with eighty when of a serious iinlure. Some of llio provisions
of this part of the Code are praiseworthy, but no part of Chinese
legislation is so cruel am) irregular as criminal jurisprudence.
The permission accorded lo the judge to torture the criminals
opens Ihe doot" for great c

The seventh division
Public Worl» and Woys, such i
patlrms, repairing dikes, a

All public residences, gra
1 faclories, embankments and dikps

'alls, and mausolea, niost be frequently e

1 sections relating lo
i'eaving of inierdieled
I edifices fur govero-
treasurics and nionu-
ers and canals, forta,
lined, and kept in
I repair. Poverty or peculation render many of these laws void,
land every subterfuge is pniclisnd by the superinteniting oflicer
D pocket OS much of the funds as he can. One oHicer, when
knlcrcd to repair a wall, made the workmen go over it and chip
ftff the face^ of the stones still »mitining, and plaster up the
IoKb,
^ Berfdas these laws and their numerous clauses, every high
neial olTicer issues ulicls upon such public matters as re-
^ regulation, some of thera even alfecting life and death,
r reviving some old law, or giving il an application to the
B before him, withauch modificatipiM as seem to be necessary.

L.

S06 THE MIDDLE

He tnusl report these actM lo iho supreme Bnard at fnioag. No
such order, which for rhe lime has the force of law, is formally
repealed, but gradually falls into oblivion, until circumstances
again require ib< reiteration. This mode of publishing statutes
gives rise to a sort at common ond unwritten law in villages, to
^ifaich a council of elders sometimos compels individuals to sub-
^KS; long usage is also another ground for enfurcing tliom.
^' Still, with all the tortures and punishments allowed by the
law, and all the cruelties superadded upon the criminals by irri-
leted officers, or rapacious underlings and Jailors, a broad survey
of Chinese legislation, judged of by its results and the general
appearance of society, gives the impression of an administralioa
far superior to other Asiatic countries. Regarding the Code, a
favorable comparison has been made in a review of Staunton's
translation in the Edinburgh Review : " When we turn from the
ravings of the Zendavesla or ijie Puranos to the tone of aenss
and business in this Chinese collection, it is like passing from
darkness lo light ; from the drivelliogs of dotage lo the exercise
of an improved understanding; and redundant and minute as
these laws are in many parti culara, we scarcely know on Euro-
pean code that is at once so copious and so consistent, or is
nearly so freed from intricacy, bigotry, and fiction."

This encomium is to a certain extent just, but the practice of
legislalion in China has probably not been materinlly improved
fay tjw mere possession of a reasonable code of law^thoughcoma
tnelioration in jurisprudence has been effected.' The infliction
pi barbarous punishments, such as blinding, cutting oQ* nose^
ears, or other parts of ihe body, still not uncommon in Pen.
sia and Turkey, is not allowed or practised in China; and Dm
government, in minor crimes, contents itself with but little mora
than opprobrious exposure in the jallory, or castigation, whiolt
carry with them no degradation.

The defects in this remarkable body of laws urbe from screnl
sources. The degree of liberty that can safely be awarded to the
subject is not defined tn it. and his rights are unknown in law.
The government is de5])otic, but having no military power of mnj
efficiency in their hand&, the lawgivers resort to a minuteoees of
legislation upon Ihe practice of social and relative virtues and

• Chlaeie Repodtory, Vol. IV., piMa 34-99.

DEFECTS l.N THE CHINESE CODE. 307

duties, wliich inlerreres with their observance; though it must
be rememtiereil that ihare ia no pulpit or Sabbalh School in
China to expound and enforce them from a higher code, and (he
laws must be the chief guide in most caaea. The code also
exhibits a minute atlcnlion lo trifles, and an ellbrt to legislate for
every possible contingency, which must perplex the judge when
dealing with the infinite shades ofditrcrence occurring in human
actions. There are now many vague and obsolete statutes, ready
10 serve an a handle to prosecute offenders for the gratificalioii of
private pique ; and altiiough usage and precedent both combine
lo prove their disuse, malice and bribery can easily effect their
reviviscelice and application to the case.

Sheer cruelty, except in cases of treason against the emperor,
cannot be charged against this Code as a whole ; though many of
the laws seem designed lo operate chiefly in terrorem, and the
penalty is placed higher than the punishment really intended to
be inflicted, that the emperor may have scope for mercy, or as he
says, " for leniency beyond the bounds of llje law." The princi-
ple on which this is done is evident, end the commonness of the
practice proves thai such an CKercise of 9(ercy has its effect.
The laws of China are not altogether unmeaning words, though
the degree of efficiency in their execution is subject to endless
variations; some officers are lenient, others severe; the people
in some provinces are industrious and peaceable, in others, tur-
bulent and averse to quiet occupations, so that one is likely to
form a jusler idea of' their administration, by looking at the
results as seen in Ihe general aspect of society, and judging of the
tree by its fruits, than by drawing inferences applicable to the
whole machine of state from particular instances of oppression
and insubordination, as is so frequently the case with travellers
and '^^^■

The^BPeral examination of the Chinese government here pn>.
posed may be conveniently considered under the heads of the
emperor and his court, classes of society, the different branches
of the BU^me administration, Ihe provincial auihoHiieH. and the
execution of the laws.

The Emperor of China is at the head of the whole ; and if the
possession of great power, and being the object of almost un-
bounded reverence, con impart happiness, he may safely be con-
sidered as the happiest mortal living ; though to his power there

|k S06 THE MIDDLE lil^GDOH.

are many checliB, and ihe reverence paid him is pynporilonod
somewhat to the fidelity witli which he administers the dec
of heaven. " Tlie emperor is Ihe sole head of the Chinese coo-i
atilution and government ; lie is regarded as Ihe vicegerent off
I heaven, especially chosen la govern all nations ; and is supreitw
I in everything, holding &X once llic highest legislative and (
L tive powers, without limit or control," Both he and the popa
I claim to be tlie vicegerent of heaven and interpreter of its decreeq
I to the whole world, and these two rulers have emulated each otheB
I in Ihe arrogant titles they have assumed. The most commoi
I appellation employed to denote the emperor, in state papers am
I among the people, is hiaatgU^ or august sovereign ; it is defined ai
I "the appellation of one possessing complete virtues, and able H
I act on heavenly principles."* This title is further defined I
L meaning heaven : " heaven speaks not, yet the four seasons Id^
W low in regular succession, and all things spring forth, "
I three august ones (FuliM, Shinnung, aud Ilwangti) descendei
I in state, and uitliout even uttering a word, the people bowed to
I ibeir sway ; their virtue was inscrutable and ttouudlcss liktt
I august heaven, andjjherefore were they called augusi o
I Among the numerous titles given him, may be raentioaedl

I hioang thang, the august lol\y one ; lien hieang, celestial augufl'
I one ; shing hwang, the wiso and august, i. e. infinite in koow*4
I ledge and complete in virtue ; (fen li, celestial sovereign ; and'
I thing If, sacred sovereign, — because he is able to act on hesvenlj
I principles. He is also calkd lien Ux', son of heaven, becaiUBi
I heaven is his father and earth is hts mother; and sMtig liai U^^-
I wise, son of heaven, as being born of heaven and having infiolt*
I knowledge ; — terms which are given him as the ruler of tl
I world by the glA of heaven. He is even addressed and som
I limes refers to himself, under designations which pertaJD exclib
I sively to heaven. Wan mii yi, " sire of ten iliousand ^iMrs,"
' a term used when speaking of him or approaching him, like lbs
words O king live for ever! addressed lo the ancient kings of
Persia. Pi kin, "benealh the footstool," is a sycophantic cont'
peUation used by his courtiers, as if ihey were only worthy of
being at the edge of his footstool. -^
. The emperor usually designates himself by the terms tkt

I * CTiiwwB Hepadtwy, VoL IV.i p. 13 ; Chinese ChMatomktky, p; W,

SOS

ouraelf; hoa jia, the solitary mnn, or the one man; and hM-
kitm, the solitary prince. He has been called by many ridicu- 1
loUB titles by foreign writers, as Brother of the Sun qqiJ Moon, J
Grandson of the Stars, King of Kings, &c., but no sucli epithet* J
are known among the Chinese. His palace has various appellee
lions, auch as hall of audience, golden palace, the ninth entrance, I
vermilion avenue, vermilion hall, rosy hall, tbrbidden pavilion,
the crimson and forbidden palace, gemmcous steps, golden steps,
meridian portal, gemmeous avenue, celestial steps, celestial court,
great interior, the maple pavilion, royal house, &c. To see him
is lo see the dragon's face ; the throne is called the " dragon's
throne," and also the " divine utensil," i. e. the thing given him
by heaven lo sit in when executing his divine mission ; his coat
of arms is a fivc-clawed dragon, and his person is styled the
dragon's body. Thus the 0!tl Dragon, it might be almost said,
has coiled himself around the emperor of China, one of the,
greatest upholders of his power in this world, and contrived to
get himself worshipped through him by one-third of mankind.

The emperor is the fountain of all power, rank, honor, and
privilege to sU within his dominions, which are ignoranlly BUp«
posed to comprise all the best parts of the globe ; and as then -
can be but one sun in the heavens, so there can be bu
kieangti on earth, the source and dispenser of benefits t
whole world. The same absolute executive power held by Mm ,
is placed in the hands of his deputies and governor-generals, to be j
by them exercised within the limits of their jurisdiction. H
the head of religion, and the only one qualified to adore heavea;'\
he is the source of law, and dispenser of mercy ; no right can ban
held in opposition to his pleasure, no claim maintained againstj'J
him, and no privilege protect from his wrath. All the Ton
and revenues of the empire are his, and he has a claim to tba
services of alt males between sixteen and sixty, though he now
seldom tries to advance it. In short, the whole empire is his pro-
perty, and the only checks upon his despotism are public opinioOi
the want of an efficient standing army, poverty, and the venalily
of the agents of his power.

The present emperor is the sixth of the Tsing or Pure dynasty, ,
who has reigned in China. He is the second son of his fatl
Kiaking, was bom in October, 1781, and ascended the Ihrona
in Bsptainber, 1631 ; the preaent year is dte VHh of hia i

810 TKE KIUDL£ KINCIKIN-

and the '27lh of his reign. The portrails circUiatod of-hini,
represent him as u mild, inefficient man, with a couoteOauce itiili'-
eating care and thought fulness, but presenting iia troces of in-
temperance. His physLognomy is not peculiarly Mongolian, iha
thin features, l^rge nose, and small lower face, likening liini a
little to the Circassian. His private character is not so bad oa
his father's, without any very salient qualities — a man fitted fo^
peaceful times, but hardly equal to a desperate emergency.
term Tamg, or Pure, was taken by the Manchus as a dktinctiV?
term for their new dynasty, alluding to the jiurtfy of justice ihey
intended to maintain in their sway. Some of the founders of
the ancient dynasties derived their names from iheir patrimonial'
estates, as the Chau, the Tsin, ic. ; others, as the Ming, or Illus-
trious, the Yuen, or Original, inliniaietl iho vanity of the family.

On his accession to the throne, the emperor ordered that tha
period of his reign should be called Taukwang, or Gloiy CW<
Reason ; and the words may without impropriety ha considered "^
and are so regarded by the people, as his personal name while on
the throne. The surname of the reigning family is Gioro, at
Golden, derived from their ancestral chief Aisin Gioro, whom
they feign to have been the son of a divine virgin. They are
doubtless descended from the Kin, or Golden, a people who sub-
jugated much of northern China in the 1 1th and 12th centuriesi
and were driven into Ltautung by the Mongols. The given
name of the emperor has two ayllables, but only one. Mien, is
generally known, because it is the name of oil in the generation
to which his majesty belongs ; his brothers' names are Mienkaj,
and Mieoyu. lie has three sons, two of whum, Yihchu and
Yihisung, are now 19 years old ; three sons have died.

The emperor Kanghi instituted a mode of naming the diflcrent
branches of his family, that every one might see at a gli
the generation to which each person belongs. lie made out a Uat
of names, eight of wbicii have been used for as many genert-
lions; these are Hiuen, Yun, Hung, Yung, Mien, Yih, Tsai,
and Fung, and the given name of every meml)er of the saiM,
generation contains the same word. Those most nearly allied in
blood, as sons, nephews, &c., are still further distinguiahed hf

ivitig the second syllables of their names written in compound
Chinese characters, whose radicals are alike ; thus Kiaking and
hi« brothers wrote their names with Yung, and under the radioal

I

N OF TADKWANG. 311

gOH ; Taukwang and his broUiers and cousina, wilh Mien, and
under the radical heart. This peculiarity is ecLsily represented
in the Chinese characters, but a comparison can bo made in
English with the supposed names of a family of sons, as
Louis Edward, Louis Edwin, Louis Edwy, Louis Edgar, &c.,
the word Lmiis answering to Mitn, and the syllable Ed to the
radical heart.

Tlie liile Taukwang is called in Chinese kwoh hau, or na-
lionnl designotion, and was first established by the Han dynasty,
about B. c. 200. Native historians have preferred to use the
miau hav, or ancestral name, as the moat appropriate, and be-
cause the hcoh hau, being sometimes changed by monarchs dur-
ing iheir reifins, was liable to some confusion. The reason for
thus investing the sovereign with a title dilTerent from his real
name is not fully apparent ; it arose probably out of the vanity
of the monarch, who wished to glorify himself by a high sounding
tide, and the ouatom was subsequently continued as part of the
system of surrounding him with whatever could enhance the
awful respect atlnched to his position.

When his present majesty " received from heaven and revolv-
ing nature, the government of the world," he issued the follow.
ing inaugural proclamation, on extract from which will exhibit
something of the practice of the Chinese court on such occasions.

" Our Ta Tsing dynasty has received the most substanlial
indication of heaven's kind care. Our ancestors, Taitsu and
Taitsung, began to lay the vast foundation [of our empire] ; and
Shflsu became the sole monarch of China. Our sacred ancestor
Kanghf, the emperor Yungching the glorj' of his age, and
Kienlung the eminent in honor, uU abounded in virtue, were divine
in martial pro^vess, consolidated the glory of the empire, and
moulded the whole to peaceful harmony.

" His late majesty, who has now gone the great journey, go-
verned all under heaven's canopy twenty-five years, exercising
the utmost caution and industry. Norevening nor morning was
he ever idle. He assiduously aimed at the best possible rule,
and hence his government was excellent and illustrious ; the
court and the country felt the deepest reverence, and the stillness
of profound awe. A benevolent heart and a benevolent adminis-
Iralion were universally diffused j in China Proper, as well as

'iS

THE MICDI* KDJGOOM.

beyond it, order and traoquiility prcvniled, and the tens dl
sands of common people were all liappy. But iu the midat of «
hope that lliis glorious reign would be long protracted, and the
help of heaven would be received many days, unexpectedly, on
descending lo. bless, by his majesty's presence, Lwanyang, the
dragon cha,riateer (the holy emperor] became a guest on high.

" My aacred and indulgent father had, in the year that ha
began to rule alone, silently settled that the divine utensil (the
llirone) should devolve on my contemptible person. I, knovriog,
the feebleness of my virtue, at first felt much afraid I should not
be competent to the office ; but oil reflecting that the sages, my
ancestors, have 1el\ to posterity their plans; that his late
has laid the duty on me — and heaven's throne should not be long
vacant — I hove done violence to my feelings, and forced myself
to intermit awhile my heartfelt grief, that I may with reverence
obey the unalterable decree ; and on the 37th of the 8lh moon
(October 3d), 1 purpose devoutly to announce the event to heaven,
to earlli, to my ancestors, and to the gods of the Isod and of tha
grain, and shall then sit down on the imperial throne. Lei the
next year be the first of Taukwang,

" I look upwards and hope to be able lo continue former ex-
cellences. I lay my hand on my heart with feelings of respect
and cautious awe. — When a new monarch addresses himself to
the empire, he ought to confer benefits on his kindred, and ex-
tensively bestow gracious favors : whatever is proper to be doii«
on this occasion is stated below."

Here follow twenty-two paragraphs, detailing the gifts to ba
conferred, and promotions made of noblemen and officers, order-
ing the restoration of suspended dignitaries to their full pay and
honors ; and sacrifices to Confucius and the emperors of former
dynasties ; pardons lo be extended to criminals, and banished
convicts recalled ; governmental debts and arrearages lo be for-
given, and donations to be bestowed upon the aged.

tnyMJF

" Lo ! now, c

in succeeding lo the throne, I shall
to give repose to the millions of my people. Assist
lain the burden laid on my shoulders ! With veneration I re-
ceive charge of heaven's great concerns. — Ye kings and stales,
men, great and small, civil and railitar}', every one be failhAil

CEREMONIES OF THE CORONATION.

aud devoted, and aid in supporting the vast afTair ; that our
family dominion may be preserved hundreds and tens of thou-
sands of years, in never ending tranquiltity and glory ! Promul-
gate this to all under heaven — cause every one to hear it ! "

The programme of ceremonies to be observed when the eio.
peror " ascends the sutnmil," and seals himself on the dragon'i
throne, was published by the Board of Rites a few days after.
It details a long series of prostrations and bowings, leading out
and marshalling the various officers of the court, and memberi
of the imperial family. Aficr they are all arranged in proper
precedence before the throne, " at the appointed hour, the presi-
dent of the Board of Rites shall go and entreat his majesty lo put
on his mourning, and come forth by the gale of the eastern
palace, and enter at the \e{\ door of the middle palace, where his
majesty, before the nllar of his deceased imperial father, will
respectfully announce that he receives the decree— kneel thrice,
and bow nine times."

He then retires, and soon after a large depulation of paloee
officers " go and solicit his majesty to put on his imperial robes,
and proceed to the palace of his mother, the empress dowager,
to pay his respects. Tlie empress dowager will put on her court
robps, and rwcend her throne, before which his majesty shall
kneel thrice and bow nine limes." Alter this filial ceremony ia
over, the golden chariot is made ready, the officer of the Aslro-
noniical Board, whose business is to obierve limes, is slotioned at
the palace gate, and when he announces the arrival of the chosen
and felicitous moment, his majesty comes forth and mounts the
golden chariot, and the procession proceeds to the Palace of
Protection and Peace. Here the great officers of the empire
are marshalled according to their rank, and when the emperor
sits down in the palace, they all kneel and bow nine times.

" This ceremony over, the president of the Board of Rites step-
ping forward shall kneel down and beseech his majesty, saying,
' Ascend the imperial throne.' The emperor shall then rise
from his seal, and the procession moving on in the same order to
the Palace of Peace, his majesty shall ascend the scat of gems,
and sit down on the imperial throne, with his face to the south."
All present come forward, and again make the nine prostratioos,
after which the proclamation of coronation, as it would be called

L the

in Burope, is formally sealed, and then annouuced to the a
with aimilnr ceremonies. There are many other lesser rites
observed on these occasions, some of them appropriate to such a
oocosion, and olliers, according to our notions, bordering on ttM
ludicrous; ilie whole preiieniing a Btraiige ni ill u re of religion,
splendor, and farce, ihougli as a whole calculaied lo impreaa aU
with a sentiment of awe towards one, who gives to heaven, i
receives from mtm, such homage and worship.*

Nothing is omitted which cat) add lo tht? dignily and 8BcredneM<
of the emperor's person or character. Almost everything usej
by him, or in his service, is labued from the comtiion people, and
distinguished by some peculiar mark or color, su as to keep uj
tlio impression of owe wilh which he is regarded, and which issc
powerful an auxiliary to his throne- The outer gate of tba^.
palace must always be passed on fool, aad the paved entrance
walk, leading up lo it, can only be used by him. The vacan
throne, or even a screen of yellow silk thrown over a chair, i
worshipped equally wilh his actual presence, and a dispatch ia
received in tlie provinces with inoeose and prosiralionB ; tba
vessels on the canal, bearing articles for his special use, always
have the right of way. His birthday is celebrated over thu
whole empire by oRicial persons, and the account of the opening'
ceremony, as witnessed by Macartney's embassy, shows how
skilfully every act tends lo maintain hia assumed character ■
llie son of heaven.

" The lirst day was consecrated lo the purpose of renderiag ■
solemn, sacred, and devoul homage lo tha supreme majesty (J
the emperor. The ceremony was no longer performed in a teti|
nor did it partake of the nature of a banquet. The princes, tri«
butaries, ambassadors, sod great olScers of stale, were asaemblad
in a vast hall ; and upon particular notice were introduced uMt^^
an inner building, bearing at least the semblance of a templM
It was chiefly furnished with great instruments of m '
which were sets of cylindrical bells, suspended to n line ffoi^
ornamental frames of wood, and gradually diminishing in ua
from one e.vtremity to the other, and also triangular piecoa d
metal, arranged in the same order as the bells. To the aoundol
these instruments, a slow and solemn hymn was sung by euoucb«|

pagei 87—98, lado-Chinese C

31&

who had such a command over their voices, as lo resemble the
etTect of musical glasses at a distance. Tlio performers were
directed, in ihe gliding from one tone lo another, by the striking
of a shrill and sonorous cymbal ; and the judges of music among
the gentlemen of the embassy, were much pleased with their
execulion. The whole had, indeed, a grand effect. During the
performance, and at particular signals, nine times repeated, all
present prostrated themselves nine times, except the ambassador
and his suite, who made a profound obeisance. But he whom it
was meant to honor, continued, as if in imitation of the Deily,
invisible the whole time. The awful impression intended to be
m&de upon the minds of men, by this apparent worship of a fel-
low-mortal, was not to be effaced by any immediate scenes of
sport or gaiety, which were po9l[>oned lo the following day,""
The mass of Ihe people are not admitted to participate in theae
ceremonies ; they are kept at a distance, and care, in fact, very
little about litem. In rvory provincial capital, there is a hall)
called Wan-shau fnnig, dedicated solely to the honor of the empe-
ror, and where, three days belbre and uAer his birthday, oil the
civil and military officers, and the most distinguished citizens,
assemble lo do him the same homage as if he were present.
The walls ond furniture of this hall arc yellow.

The right of succession is by custom hereditary in Ihe male
line, but it is always in the power of ihe sovereign lo nominate
his successor, either from among his own children, or any of his
subjects. The heir-apparent is not always known during the
lifetime of Ihe incumbent, though there is a titular office of guar.
dion of the heir-apparent. In ihe reign of Kienlung, one of the
censors memorialized him upon the desirableness of announcing
his successor, in order to quiet men's minds, and repress intrigue,
but the suggestion cost the man his place. The emperor said that
ihe name of his successor, in case of his own sudden death, would
be (bund in a designated place, and ihnt it was highly inexpedient
to mention him, lest intriguing men buzzed about him, forming
factions, and'trying to elevate themselves. The soundness of
this policy cannot be doubted, and it is not unlikely Kienlung, or
some of his predecessors, knew the evils of an opposite course,
from an acquaintance with the history of some of the princes of
Central Asia or India. One good result of not indicating the
■ Stwintim'* Embaai;, Vol III., ptgt 03.

i

816 THE MIUDLG kikgsoh.

heir.npparent to the throne is, that not o|)ly are no i
formed by the crown-prince, but when he begitis to reign, he ii
seldom compelled, from fearof hisown safety, to kill orimpriaaff
hia brothers or uncica, as was the case in India and Turkey ; Eat
OS they possess no power or party to render them formidablfl)
their personal ambition soon fmds full scope for its exercise a
the wilds of Manchuria.

The management of the clan of imperial relatives apperlaini
entirely lo the emperor, and has been conducted with coneideraa
ble sagacity. Al) its members are under the control of the Tttmg^
jinfu, a sort of clansmen's court, consisting of a presiding o
trailer, two assistant directors, and two deputies of the &imil^^
Their duties are to regulate whatever appertains lo the govern^
ment of the emperor's kindred, which is divided into t
branches, the direct and collateral, or the isung-thih and Giont,-
The Uang-ahik, or " imperiol liouso," comprises only the lineaL
descendants of Tienming's father, who first assumed the title o
emperor. The collateral branches, including the children dt
his uncles and brothers, are collectively called Gioro abrow'
Their united number is unknown, but a minute genealogici
record of the whole is kept in the national archives at Pekia^
and Moukdcn. The Isung-shih are distinguished by a yelloif'
girdle, and the Gioro by a red one ; when degraded, the fonnar
lake a red, the latter a carnation girdle. A uxtng, or regulut
the first rank, receives an annual salary of about 913,300, »
rations, and a retinue of three hundred and sixty servants,
whole forming an annual tax upon the stale of between ST5,00tt
and 990,000. A prince of the second rank receives half i
sum ; of the third rank, one third, and so on, down to the umpt».
princes of Uie blood, who each receive four dollars a month, uutt
rations. Some of them are consequently reduced lo very straik
ened circumstances, and most of the imperial connexions exhibit
the evils ensuent upon the system of education and surveillaDoa
adopted towards tlieni, in their low, vicious pursuits, and c
ing imbecility of character. The sum of 9133 is allowed whaq
they marry, and 9\bQ to defray funeral expenses, which induoa^
some of them to maltreat their wives to death, in order to receitni
the allowance and dowry as ollen as possible. ,

The titular nobility of the empire, as a whole, is a body who
members are without power, land, wealth, ulBoe) or i '

derived from landed
addition to the name
ferred solely on the i
of which are to some

Some of the lilies are more or less hereditary, but ihe whole
system has been so devised, and the titles so conrorrcd, as to
tifikle ihe vanity of those who receive them, without grantiag
them any real power iu virtue of llie honor. Tbe lilies are not
ales, but the rank is simply designated in
There are twelve orders of nobility con-
[nbera at the imperial house and clan, all
(em hereditary. 1. Ttin tBong, ' kindred
prince,' or prince of the blood, conferred usually on his
majesty's brothers or sons. 2. Kiua teatig, or ' prince of a prince-
dom ;' the eldest sons of ihe princes of ihese two degrees take a
definite rank during their father's lifetime, but the collateral
branches descend in precedence as the generations are more and
more remote from the direct imperial line, until the person is
known simply as member of the imperial clan. 3. Beilf, and
4. Beilsc, two orders of princes in collateral branches of the
family. 5. Guardian Duke, and 0, Sustaining Duke; Ihe
7. and §. are subordinates to them. The Bib to the 12th ranks
arc respectively called Guardian, Sustaining, and Serving Gene-
rnls, and Brevet General. The number of persons in the lower
ranks is very great. Few of these men hold oQices of any im-
portance al the capital, and slil! more rarely are they placed in
responsible situations in the provinces, but the government of
Manchuria is chiefly in their hands. There are several classes
of the imperial princesses, whose tutelage and disposal is under
the control of the empress and tbe court.

Besides tliese, are the five ancient orders of nobility, hmg,
hau, peh, In', and nan, usually rendered duke, count, viscount,
baron, and baronet, which are conferred without distinction on
Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese, both civil and military, forsuoh
reasons as ore deemed suflicient. The three first take pre-
cedence of Ihe highest untitled civilians, but an appointment to
most of the high offices in the country carries with it an honorary
title. The direct descendant of Confucius is called yen-thing
kung, " the ever-sacred duke ;" and of Koxinga, hai-ehing kung,
or " sea-quelling duke ;" these are the only hereditary litlea
among ihe Chinese. Besides the above-mentioned, there are
others, which are deemed even more honorable, eilher from tMr
rarity or |)eculiar privileges, and answer lo membership of tha
various orders of the Garter, Thistle, Bath, &o., in Europe.

i

The internal arrangements oflhe court are modelled
after those orthe Boards) the general supervision being under the
direction of a superior board, called llie iVuiiDU _/u, composed of
a president and s\x assessors, under whom are seven subordinate
departments, ll la the duty of these officers to attend upon ihs
emperor and empress at sacriiic4>s, and conduct the ladies of iha
liareem to and from the palace ; they oversee the households of
the sons of the emperor, and direct, under his majesty, every-
thing belonging to the pniace, und whatever ap|>ertDins to its
supplies and the care of the imperial guard. The seven depart-
ments are methodically arranged, the whole l>eDring no little
resemblance to d miniature state: one is for supplies of food and
raiment ; o second is for defence, to regulate the body-guard
when the emperor travels ; the third attends to the etjijuettc the'
members of tiiis great family must observe towards each other,
and brings forward the inmates of tlie hareem when the emperor,
seated in the inner hall of audience, receives their homage, led
by the empress herself; a fourth department selects ladies to fill
the hareem, and colleels the revenue from crown lands; a fifUi
superintends all repairs necessary in the palace, and sees that the
streets of the city be cleared whenever the emperor, empress^
or any of the women or children in the palace wish to go otit ; >
si.tth department ha.s in charge the herds and flocks of the etB>
peror; and the last is a court for punishing the crimes of soldierg^
eunuchs, and others attached lo the palace.

About 5000 eunuchs are connected with the palace, but Homt
what stotions in society tlioy are taken is not specified. In 1829^'
a supplementary clause was added lo the law, ordering that tbft
sons of a murderer who had killed all the heirs of a family
should be given to the keeper of the hareem to be emasculated ;
but such a law would not do much towards supplying this part
of the household. The number of females attached tothe hareem
is not accurately known ; all of them arc under the nominal
direction of the empress. Every third year, his majesty reviews
the daughters of the Manchu officers over twelve years of age*
and chooses such as he pleases for concubines ; there are only,
seven legal concubines, but an unlimited number of illegal. Thi
latter are restored to liberty when they reach the age of 3Sy
unless they have borne children to his majesty. It is genenlly
considered an advantage to a family lo have a daughter in ths

hareem, especially by the Marjchus, who endeavor lo riao by thia
backstairs influence.*
• In the 43tli volumo of the Hwui Tien, from which work moat
of the details in ibis chapter are obtained, there is an accoUDI of
the supplies furnished his majesty and court- There eliould
daily be placed before the emperor, 30 lit. of meat in a basin,
and 7 ib*. boiled into soup ; hog's fal and butler, of each I^ Ibg.,
two sheep, iwu fowls, and iwo ducks, the milk of eighty cows,
and 75 parcels of lea. Her majesty receives 21 Ibt. of meat
in platters, and 13 lbs. boiled with vegetables, one fowl, one
duck, twelve pitchers of water, the milk of 25 cows, and ten
parcels of leu. Her maids and the concubinea receive their
rations according to a regular fare, which is minutely specified.
The empress-dowager is the most important person within the
palace, and his majesty does homage to her at frequent intervals,
by making the highest ceremony of nine prostrations before her.
The empress-do wager reached the age of sixty in 1836, on
which happy occasion many honors were conferred by the em-
peror. An extract from the ordinance issued on this festival,
will exhibit the regard paid her by his majesty.

" Our extensive dominions have enjoyed the utmost prospetiiy,
nnder the shelter of a glorious and enduring state of felicity.
Our exalted race has become most illustrious, under the protec-
to whom the whole court looks up.
unalloyed, the highest degree of
sing joy and gladness to every
s of the occn-
refjuircments of the

tion of that honored n-lnlive

To her happiness, already

felicity has been superadded,

inmate of the six palaces. The grand

sion shall exceed in splendor the

! in regard to the humnn relations, calling forth the gra-
tulalion of the whole empire. Il is indispensable that the ob-
servances of the occasion should be of an exceedingly unusual
nature, in order that our reverence for our august parent and
cnre of her, may both be equally end gloriously displayed. . . .
... In the first month of the present winter occurs the sixlioth
onniveranrj" of her majesty's sacred natal day. At the opening
of the happy period, the sun and moon shed their united genial
influences on it. When commencing anew the revolution of the
seiagenarr cycle, (he honor thereof adds increase to her felicity.

* ChibCH Repositorf, Val. XW., pige nai

THE KIDCLE KI.'1<:D0M.

Looking upwards uiul beholding her glory, we repeat aurgnitii*
Ulions, and announce Ihe event to heaven, U) cnrth, lo our ances-
tors, and lo the patron gods of the empire. On ihe niiictecnlhf
day of the tenth moon in the fifteenth year of Tuukwang, we
will conduct tlie princes, the nobles, and all the high ofGo^rsi
both civil and military, into the presence of the great empress,
benign and dignified, univcrsnlly placid, thoroughly virluoUB,
tranquil and self-collected, in favors unbounded ; and wc will
then present our congratulations on the glad occBsioti, the anni.
versary of her natal day. The occasion yields a happiness
equal to what is enjoyed by goddesses in heaven ; and while An-
nouncing it to the gi>ds and lo our people, wo will lender to hef
blessings unbounded-'*

Besides the usual tokens of favor, such as rations to soldiers,
pardon lo oflendcrs, promotion to the deserving, advance in ofS-
cial rank, &c., it was ordered in Ihe lllh article, " That every
perfectly filial son or obedient grandson, every upright husband
or chaste wife, upon proofe being brought forward, shall have a
mooumenl erected with an inscription in his or her honor,"
Soldiers who had reached the age of 90 or lOO, received money
to erect an lionorary portal ; and tombs, temples, bridges, and
roads were ordered to be repaired ; but how many of these
" exceedingly great and special favors " were actually carried
into effect cannot be slated.'

Princesses are given in marriage to thp chicnains of the
Mongols, and leading statesmen among the Manchus, for alt tn-
termarriages between these races and iho Chinese are illegal.
The imperial body-guard is composed of picked Manchu troops,
about 700 to 800 in number, selected from n body of ioipcrial
slaves or troops, who are under the control of high officers.
Some of the guard are always about the imperial [)ersDD, while
other portions of the force are placed on the frontier.

Under the emperor is llie whole body of the people, s great
family bound implicitly to obey his will as being that of heaven,
and possessing no right or property per at ; in fact, having nothing
but what has been derived from, or may at any lime be reclaimed
by, him. The greatness of this family, and (he absence of an
entailed aristocracy to hold its members or their lands in scrfdomi

* Chinese Bepoiitory, VoL IV.. pige 516.

»l

^^^MfcHBim iwiB *e f »>!■ ; Aen b Mt «««■ « «wd br it Id
^^^^nfnage. No t\kmmi»4pmm «aihef>n ofli» ■awwigBof
^^^mSa weU mIw»>m< rii^ htloagiig to dw pMffe 1ms vw
been rt^«iwd, wmi B aot ttely to be deoModed or ^ntu hy
colher put^, nuil Am Goi^ lUl tacfc tkeu their m^ecltn
ngbla. BncifntiDn abfoad, nd encn nmsnl fimn cue put of
lbs «a9ire to eaothEr, ue |MntulihHl or iwifrminfJ, iboogb aeilbcr
oTHkm i^iolaikBs oAfs Bmch ofaaCM:!* to cbuigiBgoae'a pkaee
of raidence or oeevftAm. NglwitlwwJmg Chinese aoeietjr ta
wo hawoggneom wbm octtdilMn) as dbiiiM^ from the soveret^
incqiwlities of many Linda are coaatantlT md with, some grow-
ing oat of binh or praperty, oifarrs out of occtipaliaa or merit,
but most of tbem derired frani official rank. Tbere a no caste
as in India, aldwugb tbe anckni distinctiMi at the peopJe klo
sclxdarB, agriculturiats, craftsmen, and tradesmen, )iaa been aup-
pcwd to be atiii]<%ous ; oDe of the former emperors ifid, bow.
ever, eodearor nnsuoceasfully lo intrDduc« caslr. This four-
fold arran^ment was perhaps made from a notion of tlie rela-
tive usefulness of these classes, but tbere are local prejttdices
against asaocialin)( with some ponioas of the community, though
the people tbua shut out ik not rpmnunts of old castes. The
lantia, or boat-people, al Canton form a class io some respects be-
neath the other portions of the community, and have rmmy oustoms
peculiar to themselves. At Ningpo, there is a still more degrad-
ed class called to »nm, amounting to nearly 3000 persons, with
whom the people will not associate. The men are not allowed
to enter the ezaminaiions, or follow an honorable calling, but arg
play-actors, musicians, or sedan-bearers ; the women are match-
makers or female barbers, and are obliged to wear a peculiar
dress, and usually go abroad currying a bundle wrapped in a
checkered handkerohief. The lattkia at Canion also wear a simi-
lar handkerchief on their head, and do not cromp their feet. The
(o mm are supposed to be descendants of the Kin, who held north-
ern China in a- d. 1100, or of native traitors, who aided the
Japanese, in 1555-1563, in their descent upon Chehkiang. The
lantta came from some of the Miautsz' tribes, so early that thoir
origin is unknown.*

1

S32 THE MIDDLE in>ai>oH.

The modern classifications of the people, recogniseti, bowevflr.
mare by Uw Iliuu custom, are various and comprehensive. First,
natives and aliens; the latter include the unsubdued mountain-
eera and aboriginal tribes still living in various parts of the eic-
pirc, races of boat-people on the coasts, and all foreigners residing
within its limits, each of whom are subject to parliculat .aws.
Seoond, CMiDquerors aod conquered ; having reference almost en-
tirely to a prohibition of intermarriages between Manohus and
Chinese. Third, freemen and slaves ; every native is allowed
to purchase slaves and retain their children in servitude, and free
persons sometimes forfeii their freedom on account of their crimes,
or sell themselves into bondage. Fourth, the honorable and the
mean, who cannot intermarry without the former forfeiting their
privileges ; the latter comprise, besides aliens and slaves, crimi-
nals, executioners, police- runners, aoiors, jugglers, beggars, and
all other vagrant or vile persons, who are in general required to
pursue for three generations, some honorable and useful employ-
ment before they are eligible lo eater the literary exarainalioDs.
These four divisions cslend over the whole body of the people,
but really atTect only n small minority.

There are also eight privileged classes, of which llie privileges
of imperial blond and connexions, and that of nobility, are the only
ones really available ; this privilege aHects merely the puaish-
menl of offenders belonging to cither of the eight classes. The
privilege of imperial blood is extended to all the blood relations
of the emperor, all those of the empress motlier and grandmother
within lour degrees, of the empress within throe, and of the con-
sort of the crown prince within two. Privileged noblemen ooni-
prise all officers of the first rank, all of the second holding ofGce,
and all of iho third whose office confers a command. These
ranks are entirely distinct froin the titles of nobility, und arc
much thought of by officers as Imnorary distinctions. There are
nine, each distinguished by a diiferent colored ball placed on the
apex of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry on the breast, and a
dilTcrent clasp to tiie ginlle, \

Civilians of the lirsi rank wear a precious ruby or transparcot
red slone ; a slork is embroidered on the back and breast ot
■be, and the girdle clasp of prehmte set in rubies; military
men differ only in having a unicorn instead of a aUiA,
their buttons and clasps being the same as civilians. s

Civilians of the second rank wear a red com! button, a
robe embroidered vr'tlh a golden pheasani, and a girdle clasp of
gold se! in rubies; the lion is emblazoned on the military.

Civilians of the third rank carry a sapphire, and onG-eyed pea.
cock's fenlher, a robe with u peacock worked on the breast, nnd
a clasp of worked gold; military otBcers have a leopard instead
of 0 peacnck.

Civilians of the fourth rank are distinguished by a blue
opaque atone, a crane on the breast, und a clasp of >vorked gold
with a silver button j military officers carry a tiger instead of a
crane.

Civilians of the 6fi\\ rank are denoted by a crystal button, a
silver pheasant on the breast, and a olasp of plain gold with a
silver button ; the bear is the escutcheon of military men.

Civilians of the sixth rank wear an npaque white shell button,
a blue plume, an egret worked on the breast, and a mother-of-
pcai* clasp ; military rnen bear a pitn, or little ligcr.

Civilians of the seventh rank have a plain gold buitoQ, a par-
tridge on the breast, and a clasp of silver; a rhinoceros desig-
nates the military, as it also does in the next rank.

The eighth rank wear a worked gold button, a quail on the
breast, and a claap of clear horn.

The ninth rank are distinguished by a worked silver button, a
,' sparrow on the breast, and a clasp of buffalo's horn; military
men are marked by a sea-horse embroidered on the robe. v.

L

The mass of people, besides the legal distinctions here noticed,
are further subdivided into different clans, guilds, societies, pro-

1^

I

\

and communities, all of whicti in some degree uml
them in mainlaining (heir rigliU, and givo a power to public
opinion it would not otherwise possess. Legally, every subject ia
allowed accees lo the magistrates, secured protection from
oppreasicOf and can appeal to the higher courts, but these privi-
leges are of little avail if he is poor or unknown. He is too
deeply imbued with fear, and too ignorant of hb rights, lo thinh
of organized reeistonce ; his mental independence has been
destroyed, his search aRer truth paralysed, his enterprise
checked, and his whole efTorls directed inlo two channels, viz.
labor for bread, and study for office, by the operation of
this servile fear. The people of a village, for instance, will not
be quietly robbed of the fruits of their industry ; but every indi-
vidual submits to multiplied insults, oppressions, and ciYueldes,
without thinking of combining with his fellows lo resist. Pro-
perty is held by a tolerably secure tenure, but almost every
other right and privilege a re 'shamefully trampled on. '■•

Altholiigh there is nominally no deliberative or advisatory
body in the Chinese government, and nolliing really analogous
to a congress, parliament, or tiers (tat, still necessity compels tlio
emperor to consult snd advise with some of his oflicers, There
are two imperial councils, which may be regarded as the organs
of communication between the imperial head and the body politic;
these are the Nui Kok or Cabinet, and the Kiutt-ki Cha or General
Council i the last t>eiDg the most deliberative body of the two.
Subordinate lo these two councils are the administrative parts of
the supreme government, consisting of the six Boards, the ColO'
nial Office, Censorate, Courts of Representation and Appeal, and
the Imperial Academy; making in all thirteen principal depart-
ments, each of which will require a short description. It need
hardly be added that there is nothing like an elective Itody in
any part of the system ; such a feature to a Chinese would be
almost as incongruous as tlie election of a father hy fais family.

The Nin Koh, or Cabinet, consists of four la hioh-st', or prin-
cipal, and two krchpan la hioh-sx', or joint assistant chancellors,
half of them Manchua, and half Chinese. Their duties, accord-
ing to the Imperial Statutes, are lo " deliberate on the govern-
ment of the empire, proclaim abroad the imperial pleasure,
regulate the cauons of stale, together with the whole admiiustrs-
tioa of the great balance of power, thus aiding the

nai KOK OR CABINET. 325

directing the aflairs of state-" Subordinule lo these six chan-
cellors, are six grades of officers amoualing in all to upwards
of two hundred persons, of whom more than half are Maiichua.
Immediately under the six chiincellors, are ten assjslanta, called
kiohsT', " learned scholars ;" some of the sixteen are constantly
absent in the provinces or colonies, when ilieir places arc sup-
plied by substitutes. What in other countries is performed by
one person as prime minister, is in China performed by tlie four
chancellors, of whom the liriJt in the list is usually considered
lo be the premier, though perhaps the most influential man and
the real leader of government holds another station. The present
premier of China is Muchangah, a Manchu of great inlluence
and power, and probably an able man ; he has been president of
several Boards UDd of the Academy, and has tilled his present high
station eleven years. It speaks something for the stability of this
government, that Taukwang has had only three premiers in
twenty-six years, Tohtsin, Cbangliiig, and Muchangali, all of
them Mane h us.

The most prominent daily business of the Cabinet is lo
receive imperial edicts and rescripts and present memorials, lay
before ^is majesty the atfairs of the empire and receive his
orders thereon, and forward them to the appropriate office to
be copied and promulgated. In order to expedite business in
Court, it is the custom, aAer the ministers have read and formed
on opinion upon each document, to fasten a slip of paper at tlie
'.Ibol, or more than one if elective answers are lo be given, and
Dius present the document to his majesty, in the presence-cham-
ber, whO| with a stroke of his |>encil on the answer he chooses,
decides its fate. The papers having been examined and ar-
ranged, are submitted to the sovereign at daylight on the follow-
ing morning, in the dally audience ; one of the six Manchu
hhlus' first reads each document and hands it over lo one of the
four Chinese AioAjt', who inscribes the answer dictated by the
sovereign, or hands it to him to perform thai duty with the ver-
milion pencil. By this arrangement, a large amount of businesii
can be summarily dispatched ; but it is also evident that no little
depends upon the manner in which the answer written upon the
slip is drawn up, as to the reception or rejection of the paper,
though care has been taken in this particular by requiring that
fjodicils be prepared, showing the reasons for each answer. The

326 THE MIDULE KJNGDt.M.

appointment, removal, and degradaiion of all ofiicera tbroughoill
his vast dominions, orders respecting llie apportionment or rcmil-
lal of the revenue and taxes, disposition of ihe army, reguli
□f ihe nomudJG tribes, — in short, all concerns, from the highest
appointmenis and changes down to petiy police cases of criine,
are brought to the notice and actinn of the emperor, through the
Cabinet.

Resides these daily duties, there are some additional runcliona
devolving upon the members of Ihe Cabinet, suuh as presiding
on all stale occasions and sacrifices, coronations, reception of
embassies, &c. ; the^o duties are fulfilled by ihe ten assistant
hiohsi', who are uU vice-presidents of the Dourd of Rites. They
are the keepers of ihe 26 seals of government in the Palaoe of
Peace, each of which is of a different form, and used for difier-
ent and special purposes, according to the custom of orientals, who
place so much dependence upon the sen! for vouching for the
' authenticity of a document.* Attached to the Cabinet are tea
subordinate officers, one of which is for traasluiing documents
into tlio various languages found in the empire. The higher
members of the Cabinet are familiarly called koh lau, i. e. elderi
of Ihe council-room, from which the word coho, often leel with
in iSooks upon China, is derived. f

2. The KiON-irt Chu, or General Council, is of recent organi-
zation, but is probably ihe most influential body in the govern-
ment ; and, though quite unlike in its construction, corresponds to
the miniatry of western nations more than any other branch of
the Chinese, system. It is composed of princes of ihe blood,
chancellors of the Cabinet, the presidents and vice -presidents of
the six Boards, and chief oflicpra of all ihe other courts in the
capital, selecud ai tlie emperor's pleasure, who are uniledly
called "greal ministers directing themochinery of the army," —
the army being here (aken to signify the nation. Its duties aro
"to write imperial edicts and decisions, and determine such

* Chinese Chrestotojthj. paee ,'>7<1, chap. ivii,. sect. 4.

t A Btill more cammon ili:aii;iiatti>n Tor uHicers of every runk in tb« em-
plof of the Chineae governmenC, bag not »□ pffA a pircuMge ; this i> tba
word mondariR, derived rrom the PortuKueae mandar, to connnand, aod
indiicriiiiiaately applied by foreigiicrs Id every gnie from a premier lo •
tid«-wuter; it is not aecdrd in English «a ■ general term for officen, and.
Oqgbt to be disused, moreover, from its tendency to coavey the '
tb»% Ihey are in mme n-ay nnllke their compeers elsewhere.

KlUM-Kl CHU OR GENEKAL COUNCIL. 327

things as are of importance to the army and nation, in order to
mid the sovereign in. regulating the machinery of affairs." The
Dumber of members of the General Council probably varies ac*
oording to his majesty's pleasure, but as no list of them is given
in the Red Book, it is impossible to tell the proportion of Chinese
and Manchu officers constituting this mainspring of the govern-
ment, though nearly one-half are Manchus, and their relative
preponderance in the two great councils of the empire shows in
whose hands the real direction of the affairs of state lie.

The members of. the General Council assemble daily in the
Forbidden Palace, between five and six in the morning, and there
transact the business before them ; when summoned by his ma-
jesty into the council-chamber, they sit upon mats or low cush-
ioDB, no person ever being permitted to sit on chairs in the real
or supposed presence of the emperor. His majesty's commands
being written down by them, are, if public, transmitted to the
Inner Council to be promulgated ; but on any matter requiring ^
secresy or expedition, a dispatch is forthwith made up and sent
under cover to the Board of War to be forwarded. In all im-
portant consultations or trials, this Council, either alone or in
connexion with the appropriate court, is called in ; and in time
of wai it is formed into a committee of ways and means. Lists
of officers entitled to promotion are kept by it, and the names of
proper persons to supply vacancies furnished the emperor. Ma-
ny of the residents in the colonics are members of the Council,
and communicate directly with his majesty through it, and re-
ceive allowances and gifts with great formality from the throne,
— a device of statecraft designed to maintain an awe of the im-
perial character and name as much as possible among the mixed
races under them.

From this account of its duties, the General Council evidently
fills an important station in the system, and tends greatly to con-
solidate the various branches of government, and facilitate their
harmonious action, as well as to supply the deficiencies of an
imbecile, or restrain the acts of a tyrannical monarch. The
Statutes from which these notices are taken speak of various
record-books, tiSlh public and secret, kept by the members for
noting down the opinions of his majesty ; and add that there are
no fixed times for audiences, one or more sessions being held
daily, according to the exigencies of the state. Besides these

funolioDs, its members are further charged wiih certain lilMvy
matters, and tliree subordinate offices are attached to the Council
for iheir preparation. One is lor drawing up narratives of im-
portant transactions, — a. few of tiiose relating to the war with
England would be curious at this time ; a second ia for trana-
lating documents ; snd ihe third, entitled " an office fur observing
that imperial edicts are carried into effect." must at times have
rather an arduous task, though probably its responsibility ends
when llie dispatch goes forward. An office with this title shows
that the Chinese govcmmenl, witJi all its busineBS-tibe arrange-
ments, is still an Asiatic one.*

The duties of these supreme councils are general, compriwDg
matters relating lo all departments of the govemmenl, and serve
lo connect the head of the state with the subordinate bodies, not
only at the capital, but in al! the provinces, so that he can, and
probably does to a very great degree, thereby maintain a gene-
ral acquaintance with what is done in all parts, and sooner recti-
fy disorders and malpractices. The rivalry between their mem-
bers, and the dislike entertained by the three races composiDg
them, cause no doubt some trouble to his majesty, but they also
lend to prevent conspiracies and intrigues. It must not be sup-
posed, however, that every high ofGcer in the Chinese govern-
ment is wholly unprincipled, venal, and intriguing ; most of
them desire to serve and maintain iheir country.

The King Chau, i. e. Court Transcripts, usually coiled the
Peking Gazette, is compiled from the papers presented before the
General Council, and consiiluies the principal source of inibnna-
tion available to the people for ascerlsining what is going on in
Ihe empire- Every morning, ample extracts from the papers
decided upon or examined by the emperor, including his own or-
ders and rescripts, arc placarded upon boards in a court of the
palace, and form the materials for the annals of government aw)
the history of the empire. Couriers are dispatched to all parts
of the land, carrying copies of these papers to the high prorincial
officers ; and persons are also permitted to print these documents
without note or change, and circulate them at their own ohargea
lo their customers. This is the Peking Gazelt^ and such die
mode of its compilation. It is very generally read and talked
about by the gentry and educated people in cities, and tends to
■ Chione Repoeitur;, Vol. IV., p. 13S. Chinese Chra9toiniithy,pig« 1173.

THE SIX BOARDS. BOARD OF CIVIL OFFICE. 330

keep, them more acquainted with the character and proceedings
of their rulers, than the Romans were of their sovereigns and
senate. In the provinces, thousands of persons find employment
by copying and abridging the Gazettes for readers who cannot
afford to purchase the complete edition.

The principal executive bodies in the capital under these two
Councils are the Luh Pu, or Six Boards, which are departments of
long standing in the government, having been nxxlelled on much
the same plan during the ancient dynasties. At the head of each
Board are two presidents, called sJumg-shu, and four vice-presi-
dents, called shilang, alternately a Tartar and a Chinese ; and
over three of them — those of Revenue, War, and Punishment —
are placed superintendents, who are frequently Aiembers of the
Cabinet ; sometimes the president of one Board is superintendent
of another. There are three subordinate grades of officers in
each Board, who may be called directors, Under-Secretaries, and
controllers, with a great number of minor clerks, and their appro-
priate departments .for conducting the details of the general and
peculiar business coming under the cognisance of the Board,
the whole being arranged and subordinated in the most business-
like style. The detail of all the departments in the general and
provincial governments is regulated to the minutest matter in the
same manner. For instance, each Board has a different style
of envelope in which to send its dispatches, and the papers in the
offices are filed away in them.

3. The Li Pu, or Board of Civil Office, " has the government
and direction of all the various officers in the civil service of the
empire, and thereby it assists the emperor to rule all people ;"
and these duties are further defined, as including " whatever ap-
pertains to the plans of selecting rank and gradation, to the rules
of determining degradation and promotion, to the ordinances of
granting Investitures and rewards, and the laws for fixing sche-
dules and furloughs, that the civil service may be supplied." Ci-
vilians are presented to the emperor, and all civil and literary
officers distributed throughout the empire by this Board.

There are four bureaus in this Board. The first attends to
the distinctions, precedence, promotion, exchanging, dec, of offi-
cers. The second investigates their merits and worthiness to be
recorded and advanced, or contrariwise, ascertains the character
each officer bears, and the manner in which he fulfils his duties^

830 TBE UIDUiJ! KINCiDOM.

and prescribes his furloughs. Thr lliird regulates retiremenl
rrom office on account of mourning or filial iluiies to sick parents,
and supervises the regisiratioD ol' officiul names ; it is through
Uiis bureau that Hwang Ngamung, Ihe governor of Kwangtung,
has lately been degraded for not resigning hia office on the death
of his mother. The fourth regulates the distribution of liUee,
palenls, and posthumous honors. The CbiaMe b the only go-
veTnnwnt that ennobleB ancestors for the merits of (heir descend-
ants J the custom arose out of the worship paid them, in which
the rites are proportionate to the rank of the deceased, not of the
survivor ; and if the deceased parent or grondparent were com-
moners, they receive proper titles in consequence of the tleva-
lion of their adn or grandson. This custom is not a trick of
state to get money, oa has been said,* for commoners cannot buy
these poslhumoua titles ; Ihey can only buy nominal titles for
themselves. The usage, however, offers an illustraljon of the
remark of Job, " His sons come to honor, and he knoweth it

4. The Hn Pit, or Board of Revenue, "directs the territorial
government of the empire, and keeps Ihe lists of population in
order to aid the emperor in nourishing all people ; whatever ap-
pertains to the regulations for levying and coUeciing duties and
taxes, to the plans for distributing salaries and allowances, to the
rates for receipts and disbursemi^nts at the granaries and treasu-
ries, and to the rights for transporting by land and water, are re-
ported to (his Board, that sufficient supplies for the country may
be provided." Besides these duties, it obtains the admeasure-
ment of all lands in the empire, and proportions taxes and con-
scriptions, according to the divisions, population, &c., regulates
the expenditure, and ascertains ihe latitude and longitude of
I places. One minor office prepares lists of all the Manchu girls

fit to be introduced into the pnlace for selection as inmates of the
I imperial hareem, a duty which seems somewhat incongruoiu, un-

I less these giris are regarded as the revenue from Manchuria.

^^^ The injudicious mode of collecting revenue common under the

^^^k Persian and Syrian kings, by which the sums ablalned from sin-
^^^^^ gle cities and provinces were apportioned among the royal fami-
^^^^H ly and favorites, and carried directly to them, has never been
^^^^H practised by Ihe Chinese.
^^^^^H * Peopli orChiaa, piga S9.

BOARDS OF REVENUE AND RITES. 381

There are fourteen subordinate departments under this Board
to attend to the receipt of the revenue from each of the eighteen
provinces, each of which corresponds with the treasury depart-
ment in its respective province. The revenue being paid in
various ways and articles, as money, grain, manufactures, &o.,
the receipt and distribution of the various articles require a large
number of assistants. This Board is moreover a court of appeal
on disputes respecting property, and superintends the mint in each
province ; one bureau is called the " great ministers of the Three
Treasurie," viz. of metals, silks and dye-stufis, and stationery.

5. The Li Pu, or Board of Rites, '^ examines and directs oon-
ceming the performance of the five kinds of the ritual obser-
vances, and makes proclamation thereof to the whole empire, thus
aiding the emperor in guiding all people. Whatever appertains
to the ordinances for regulating precedence and literary distinc-
tions, to the canons for maintaining religious honor and fidelity, to
the orders respecting intercourse and tribute, and to the forms of
giving banquets and granting bounties, are reported to this Board
in order to promote national education.'' The five classes of
rites are defined to be those of a propitious and those of a felicitous
nature, military and hospitable rites, and those of an infelicitous
nature. Among the subordinate departments is that of ceremonial
forms, which " has the regulation of the etiquette to be observed at
court on all occasions, on congratulatory attendances, in the per-
formance of official duties, &c. ; also the regulation of dresses^
caps, 6lc. ; as to the figure, size, color, and nature of their fabrics
and ornaments, of carriages and riding accoutrements, their form,
dec, with the number of followers and insignia of rank. It has
also the direction of the entire ceremonial of personal intercourse
between the various ranks of peers, minutely defining the num-
ber of bows and degree of attention which each is to pay to the
other when meeting in official capacities, according as they are
on terms of equality or otherwise, it has also to direct the forms
of their written official intercourse, including those to be oh-
served in addresses to and from foreign states. The regulation
of the literary examinations, the number of the graduates, the
distinction of their classes, the forms of their selection, and the
privileges of successful candidates, with the establishment of
governmental schools and academies, are all under tliis depart-
ment."

383

Another office superinieDds liie r
ping deities and spirits of departed tr

a lo bo observed in wpfBhip-

lonarchs, sages, and worthies,

"saving the sun and moon" when eclipsed. The third,

(called *' host and gueat office," looks nficr tribute and tribute-
bearers, and takes the whole management of foreign embas^es,
supplying not only provisions, but translators, and ordering the
mode of intercourse between China and othcrstates. The fourth
I oversees the supplial of food for banquets and aaoriliceB. Th«

I details of all the multifarious ritual duties of this Board occupy

fourteen volumes of the Statutes. " Truly nothing is without its
I ceremonies," as Confucius taught, and no nation has paid so much

attention to them in the ordering of its government as the Chinese.
The Book of Riles is the foundation of ceremonies, and the in-
fallible standard as to their meaning, and the importance th«
Chinese attach to them has had a powerful influence in forming
I their national character.

Attached to the Board of Rites is a Board of Music, containing
an indefinite number of officers possessing musical talents, whose
duties " are to study tlie principles of harmony and melody, to

(compose musical pieces and form instruments proper 1o play
them, and then suit both to the vorious occasions on which they
are ret^uired." Nor are the graces of dancing and posture-
making neglected by these ceremony-mongers ; hut it may with
truth be said, that if no other nation ever had a Board of Music,
and required so much official music as the Chinese, certainly none
ever had less real melody.
1 6. The Ping Pd, or Board of War, '■ has the government and

direction of all llie officers within and wttJiout the provinces em-
ployed in the military service of the nation, for tiie purpose of
aiding the emperor in protecting all people. Whatever apper-
tains to the ordinances for taking away, giving, and resuming
' office or inheriting rank, to the plans of the post-office depa^^

. ment, to the rules of military examination and discipline, and to

L the rates and enrolment of actual service, are reported to this

I Board, in order to regulate the hinge of state" — i. e. the main-

^^^^ spring in 'be whole machine, the army, on which the Monchus
^^^A depend for maintaining their supremacy. The navy is also
^^^^L under the control of this Board, whose general functions nre in-
^^^^H^ated by its title. The management of the post is confided to
^^^^Ktt special department, and the transmission of official dyipatchM

PPKtSHWEMTS.

333

ii performed wJih great efficiency and regularity,
bureau of the courier office is called " the office for the
ment of vicloriea," which contrived, no doubt, to make itself
useful during tho war with England, though from a. recital of its
duties it appears to be rather an urgent express office, whose
lould hasten as if they announced a victory, The
n of military candidates, providing all kinds of warlike
stores, animals, and chariots in camp, caslle, and field ; determin-
ing the number and overseeing the conduct of officers, positions
of the forces and garrisons, iic, naturally falls within the juris-
diction of (he Board of War.

The regulation of the entire army is committed to several de-
partments, and the forces under each are kept distinct. The
imperial body-guard, its such, is directed by Ihe Shi-icei cku, or
Court of the Guards, and every precaution is taken lo insure its
fidelity, and attach the officers and men to their master. The
Manchu army which effected tho conquest in 1644 was assisted by
Mongols and Chinese, (he three nations were divided into eight
mrpa or " banners," and still form the hereditary defence of the
conquerors. Bach of the twenty-four corps are under a tutiaig,
or general, and two^ tulung, or lieutenant-generals, whose du-
ties are " to sustain the regulations of ihe various corps, to keep
account of their instruction and maintenance, to arrange their
titles and honors, and to economize the expenditure upon them,
in order to aid the sovereign in regulating the aflairs of the ' ban-
nered force.' " Most of these troops remain al Peking or in
Liaulung, and the smaller military bodies of Chinese in the
capital are connected with them. The detail of the subdivisions
and locations of this part of the army, and of the native troops in
the provinces, possess*es a minor interest compared with the civil
service. The total number of (nxips of all arms and nations sta-
tioned throughout the empire cannot be slated; the Chinese
troops form the greater, and probably the least efiective part.*

7. The HlNG Pif, or Board of Punishments, " has the govern-
ment and direction of punishments throughout the empire, for the
purpose of aiding the sovereign in correcting all people. What-
ever appertains to measures of applying the laws with leniency
or severity, to the task of hearing evidence and giving decisions,

• ChineM Reporitory, VoL IV., pp. 188, 376-987 ; Vol. V.. pp. 165-178.

i

SM THE MIDDLE

to ibe rights of granting pardons, reprieves, or otherwise, and to
the rate of fines and interest, ore all roporled to this Board, to aid
in giving dignity to national manners." The Hing ?u partakes
of the nature of both a criminal and civil court ; its officers usu-
ally meet with those of the Censoralc and Toll Sz', the three
forming the Sun Fah Si', or Three Law Chambers, which decide
on capital cases brought before them. In Uie autumn, these three
unite with membera from six other courts, forming collectively
a Court of Crrors to revise the decisions of the provincial judges,
before reporting Ibem to his majesty. These precautions are
taken to prevent injustice, when life is involved, and the system
shows an eudoavor on the part of the Chinese lo secure a full
and impartial consideration for all capital cases, wliich, although
it may signally fail of its full elfect, does them high credit, when
the little value set upon life generally by Asiatic governments is
considered. These bodies are expected to conform their deci-
sjons lo the law, nor are they permitted to cite the emperor's own
decisions as preoedents, without the law ou these decisions has
been expressly entered as a supplementary clause in the Code^

It also belongs lo sub-ofliccrs in the Board of Punishments to
record all his majesty's decisions upon appeals from the proviocFS
at the autumnal assizes, when the entire list is presented for his
examination and ultimate decision, and see that these scnleocea
are transmitted (o the provincial judges. Another office super-
intends the publication of the quinquennial edition of the Code,
with all the changes and additions; a third oversees jails and
jailers ; a fourth receives the fines levied by commulalion of
punishments ; and a RRh registers the receipts and expenditures
of the Board. If the administration of the law in China at all
corresponded with the equity of most of its enactments, or the
caution taken in preventing collusion, malversation, and haste on
the part of tlie judges, it would be incomparably the besi govern-
ed country out of Christendom ; but the painful contrast between
good laws and wicked rulers is such as to show the utter impos-
sibility of securing the due administration of justice without
higher moral principles than heathenism coo teach.

8. The KuNO Po, or Board of Works, " has the government
and direction of the public works throughout the empire, together
with the current expenses of the same, for the purpose of aiding
Jie emperor to keep all people in a slate of repose. Whaterer

^fMrtains to plant) for buildings of wood or earth, lo the forms of
uspful inatrunienls, to the laws for stopping up or opening chan-
aels, and to the ordinances for constructing the inausolea and
temples, are reported lo this Board in order lo perfect national
worka." The duties of the Board of Works are of a miscella,
neous nature, and are performed in otiier couiitrlea by no one
department, though the plan adopted by the Chinese is not with
out its advantages. One bureau takes cognisance of the condi
tion of all city walls, palaces, temples, allars, and other public
structures ; sits as a prize-oflice, and fumislics tents for his ma
jesty's journeys, supplies timber for ships, and pottery and glass-
ware for the court. A second attends to (he monnfacture of
military stores and utensils employed in the army, sorts the
pearls from the fisheries according lo their value, regulatea
weights and measures, furnishes " death-warrants " lo governors
and generals, and laslly, takes charge of arsenalti, stores, camp-
equipage, and otlier things appertaining to the army. A third
department has charge of all water-ways and dikes ; it also re-
pairs and digs canals, erects bridges, oversees the banks of rivers
by means of depulicH stationed at posts along their course, builds
vessels of war, collects tolls, mends roads, digs the sewers In Pe-
king and cleans out its gutters, preserves iee, makes book-coses
for public records, and lastly, looks atler the silks sent as taxes.
The fourth of these offices confines its attention chiefly to the
condition of the imperial mausolea, the erection of the sepulchres
and tablets of meritorious officers buried ut public expense, and
the adornment of temples and palaces, as well as superintending
all workmen employed by the Boord.

The mint is under the direction of two vice- presidents, and the
manufacture of gunpowder is Bpeciully intrusted to two great
ministers. One would think from this recital that the functions
of the Board of Works were so diverse, thai it would be one of
the most efficient parts of government ; but if ihc condition of
forts, ports, dikes, &.c., in other parts of the country, corresponds
lo those along the coast, there is, as his majesty said of the army,
' the appearance of going to war, but not the reality," — most of
the works being on record, and suffered to remain there, except
when danger threatens, or his majesty specially orders a publio
work, and, what is more important, furnishes the money.

9. The Li Fam Ypbn, i. e. Court for the Government

a

y

8S6 THB MIDDLE KIN'CDOM.

rdgners, commonly called the Colonial Office, " has the f^ovem-
ment and direction of the external foreigners, orders their emolu'
ment9 and honors, appoints their visits to court, and regulates
their punishnients, in order to display the mnjesty and goodness™
of the state." This is an important branch of the government,
and has the supftrintendence of all the wandering and settled
tribes in Mongolia, Gibdo, Ili, and Koko-nor. All these ore
called teal fan, or " extemol foreigners,"' in distinction from the
tributary tribes in Sz'chuen and Formosa, who are termed n'a
fan, or "internal foreigners." There are alsomiiiandtnit <, or
" internal and external barbarians," the former comprising the
unsubdued mountaineers of Kweichau, and the latter the inhabit-
ants of all foreign countries, who do not chooae to range them-
selves under the renovating inBuenccs of the Celestial empire.
The Colonial Office regulates the government of the nomads and
restricts their wanderings, lest they trespass on each other's
pasture-grounds. Its officers are all Manchua and Mongols,
having over them one president and two vice-presidents, Man-
chus, and one Mongolian vice-president appointed for life.

Besides the usual secretariates for conducting its general
business, there are six departments, whose combined powers in-
clude every detail of authority necessary for the management of
these clans. The first two have jurisdiction over the numerous
tribes and corps of the Inner Mongols, who are under more com-
plete subjection than the others, and part have been placed un-
der the control of officers in Chihii and Shaus!. The appointment
of local officers, collecting taxes, allotting laud to Chinese set-
tlers, opening roads, paying salaries, arranging the marriages,
retinues, visits to court, and presents made by the princes, and
the review of the troops, all appertain lo tliese two departments.
The third and fourth have a similar, but less efTuctual conlrot
over the princes, lamas, and tribes of Outer Mongolia. At Eu>
run, in the Tuchetu khanate, reside two high ministers, orgoiu
of communication with Russia, and general overseers of the
frontier. The oversigiil of the lama hierarchy in Mongolia is
now completely under the control of this office ; and in Tibet,
their power has been considerably abridged. The fiflh depart-
ment directs the actions, restrains the power, levies the iue«i

id orders the tributary visits of the Mohammedan begs in tl
•outhem circuit of Ilf, who are quiet pretty much as tbey t

CflLONUt OFFICE AND CBNSOHATB. 337

paid by presents anil flattered bj Iionnrs. The sixth departmeDl
regulatea the penal discipline of the tributary tribes. The aala<
riea paid the Mongolian priaces are distributed according to an
economical scale. A Isin yang, or " kindred prince," annually re-
ceives only $2,600 and 25 pieces of silk ; ^kamviang, or "prince
of a prinoedom," receives about 8l,6S6 and 15 pieces of sUk ;
and so 00 through llie ranks ofBeile, BeiUe, Duke, &c., the last
of whom receives a stipend of only SI 33 and four piecea of silk.
The internal orgnnization of these tribes strikingly resembles the
feudal system, but the Chinese government is endeavoring to
reduce the influence and retinues of the khoiia and begs, and ele-
vate the people to become independent owners and cultivators of
the soii.

10. The Tu-CHAH Yitb.v, or Censorate, i. e. "All-examining
Court," is intrusted with the " cere of manners and customs, the
tnvealigation of all public offices within and without the capital,
the discrimination between the goo<l and bad performance of their
business, and between the depravity and uprightness of the offi-
cers employed in them ; taking the lead of other censors, and
uttering each his senlimeols and reproofs, in order to cause offi-
cers to be diligent in attention to their daily duties, and to render
the government of the empire stable." The Censorate, when
joined with the Board of Punishments and Court of Appeal, forms
a high court for the revision of criminal cases, and hearing ap-
peals from the provinces ; and in connexion with the Six Boards
nnd the Court of Representation and Appeal, makes one of the
Kitt King, or Nine Courts, which deliberate on important affairs
of government.

The officers are two cenaora and four deputy censors, l>eude«
whom the governors, lieu tenant-governors, and the governors of
rivers and inland navigation are ex-officio deputy censors. A
class of censors is placed over each of the Six Boards, whose du.
tics are to supervise all their acts, to receive all public documents
from the Cabinet, and after classifying them, transmit them to
the several courts to which they belong, and to make a semi-
monthly examination of the papers entered on the archives of
each court. All criminal cases in the provinces come underthe
oversight of the censors at the capital, and the department which
euperintends the affairs of the metropolis revises its municipal
acts, settles the quarrels, and represses the crimes of its inhabit'
16

J

338 Tu

ants. Ttic»e are \he duties of ihe Censorate, than whiot^^f
part of ihe Chinese government has aitracied more attention from
foreigners. The privilege of reproof given by the law lo tlie
ofTice of censor has sometimes been exerciiicd with remarkable
cnndor and plainness, and many cases are recorded in history of
those olficers suffering for their fidelity, but such instances musl
be few indeed in proportion lo ihe failures.

The celebrated Sung, who was tippointed commissioner to ac<
company Lord Macartiii?y, once remonstrated with the emperor
Kiaking upon his attachment to play-actors and strong drink,

which degraded

him from performing his di

called him to his pi

o{ the memorial, asked him

answered "Quartering," 1

"Lei me bo beheaded ;"ai

of his people, and incapacitated

The emperor, highly irrilate<^

his confessing lo Ihe authorship

hat punishmeni he deserved. Hfl

i was lold to select some other;

I on a third command, he chose to

re, und tho next day
thus ocknowledgiag

I emp,

I B di

be strangled. He was then ordered to ret
tho emperor appointed him governor in Ili
his rectitude, though unable to bear his

History records the reply of another censor in the reign of KB
emperor of the Tang dynasty, who, when his majesty once desired
to inspect the archives of the bistoriographer's oflice, in order la
lenrn what had been recorded concerning himself, under ths
excuse that he must know his faults before he couid well corred
them, was answered, "It is true your majesty has committed %
number of errore, and it has been the painful duly of our employ^
ment lo take notice of them ; a duly which further obliges us tt'
inform posleiily of the conversation which your majesty has thii,
day, very improperly, held with us."

The censors usually attend on oH slate occasions by the sida
of his majesty, and are frequently allowed to express their,
opinions openly, but in a despotic government this is little elaa.,
than a fiction of state, for ihe fear of oflending the impen'&l eaiv
and consequent <lisgrace, will usually prove stranger than tiw
consciousness of right, or the desires of a public fame and
martyrdom for [he sake of principle. The usual mode of
to send in a remonstrance against a proposed act^
when one of the body in ie32 remonstrated against iha

iperor paying alteniion lo anonymous accusations ; or to suggest,
B different procedure, as the memorials of Chu Tsun a^diut

le^lizing opium. The number of ihese papers inserted in the
Peking Gazettes for ihe informalion of the empire, in many ot
which Ihe acls of officers are severely repreliended, shows that the
censors are not altogether idle. In 1S33, a. censor named Su,
requested the emperor to interdict official persons at court from
writing private letters concerning public persons and affairs in the
provinces. He stated, that when candidates lefl the capital for
their provincial stations, private letters were sent by them from
their friends to the provincial authorities, "sounding the voioe
of influence and interest," by which means justice was perverted.
The emperor ordered the Cabinet to examine the censor, and get
hb facts in proof of these statements, but on inquiry, he either
would not or could not bring forward any cases, and he himself
<nwequentiy received a reprimand from his majesty. " These
flHbn are allowed," says the emperor, " lo tell me the reports
TtSf hear, to inform me concerning courtiers and governors who
pefrert the laws, and to speak plainly about any defect or impro-
priety which they may observe in the monarch himself; but ihey
are not permitted to employ their pencils in writing memorials,
which are filled with vague surmises and mere probabilities or
suppositions. This would only ftll my mind with doubts and
uncertainly, and I would not know what men to employ ; were
this spirit indulged, Ihe detriment of government would be moat
serious. Lei SU be subjected lo a court of inquiry,"

The suspension or disgrace of censors for their freedom of
speech is a common occurrence, and among the forty or fifty
persons who have this privilege, a few are to be found wlio do not
hesitate lolifl uplheir voice against what they deem to be wrong;
and there is reason for supposing that only a small portion of
their remonstrances appears in the Gazettes. With regard to this
department of government, it may be observed, that although it
may tend only in a partial degree to check oppression and reform

abuses, and

ence, and ihe chari
tempt than respect,
public alii
duct to some degi
results in widespread

■of

real operations and influ-

e\ialence of such a body, and the
can hardly fail to rectify miscon-
:heck mat- ad ministration before it
The Censorate is, however, only

L number of checks upon the conduct of officers, &ad
perhtt|i8 by no means the strongest.

340 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

11. The Tdng-ching Sz', which may bo called a Court t
RepresontutioD, consists of a small body or six officers, whos#
duty is [p receive niBtnoriHU from ihe provincial aulhorities and
appeals Trom tjieir judgmeni by the people, and present them
the Cabinet. Attached to ihia Couit is an otKce for allending at
the palace-gate to await tho beating of a drum, which, i
mily witli an ancient custom, is placed there that appHcanU
may by striking it obtain a lieanng. It is also the channel
through which ihc people can directly appeal to his majes^,
and cases frequently occur of individuals, even womeji and girl^.
travelling to tlic capital from remote places to present i
petitions for redress before the throne. The feeling of blood
revenge prevails among the Chinese, and impels many of Ihea
weak and unprotected persons to undergo great hardsbips tft
obtain legal redress, when the lives of their parents have bceil
unjustly taken by the powerful and rich.

12. The Tj-i-i Sz', or Court of Judicature, has the duty at
adjusting all (ho criminal courts in the empire, and fonnB l&V:
nearest approach to a Supreme Court in ihe government, thou^
the cases brought before it are mostly criminal. When tU
crimes involve life, this Court, with ilie Court of Representatid^
and Ceosorale, unite to form one court, and if the judges are D
UQaaimous in their decisions, they must report their i
the emperor, who will pass judgment upon them. In a deapofiiE
government, no one can expect that the executive officere a
courts will exercise their functions with thai cau
required in Christian countries, but considerable care has b
taken to obtain as great a degree of Justice as possible.

14. The Hanlin Yuen, or Imperial Academy, is intrusti
" with the duly of drawing up governmental documents, liiatorlM
and other works ; its chief officers lake the lead of the vnrioit
classes, and excite iheir exertions to advance in learning, i
to prepare them for employments, and fit them for attending upo.^^
the sovereign." This body has, it is highly probable, some simj
larily lo the collection of learned men to whom the king Oil
Babylon intrusted Ihe education of promising young men, li
although the members of the Hanlin Yuen do not, to any g
degree, educate persons, they are constantly referred U
Chaldeans were by Belahazzar. Sir John Davis likens it to tlia
Sorbonne, inasmuch as it expounds the sacred booka of tlM C

.«

• bed

341

neae. lis chief officers arc two presidents or senior members,
coiled churang yiien AioAw', who are usually appointed for life,
after a long course of study ; they attend u[ion ihe emperor in
the pslace, superintend the siudies of graduates, and furnish
semi-annual lists of persons to he "speakers," nl ihe "classical
feasts," where the literary essays of his majesty ore translated
from and into Manchu, and read before him.

Subordinate to the two senior members are four grades of offi-
cers, live in each grade, together with an unlimited number of
senior graduates, each formiug a sort of college, whose duties
are lo prepare all works published under governmental si
these persons are subject from lime to time to fresh c.
and are liable to lose their degrees, or be altogether dismissed
from office, if found faulty or deficient. Subordinate to the
Hnnfin Yufit b an office consisting of twenty-two selected mem-
bers, who in rotation attend on the emperor, and make a record
of his words and actions. There ia also an additional office for
the preparation of national histories.

The situation of a member of the Hanlin is one of considera-
ble honor and literary ease, and scholars look forward to a sta-
tion in it as one which confers dignity in a government where all
officers are appointed according to their literary merit, but much
more from its being the body from which the emperor selects his
roost responsible officers. A graduate of this rank is most likely
to be nominated to a vacant office, though the possession of the
title does not of itself entitle him to a place.

Before proceeding to consider the provincial governments,
notices of some of Ihe other departments, not connected with the
general machinery of the state, are here in place. The munici-
pality of Peking has already been noticed when describing the
capital, but it is so intimately connected with the general govern-
ment as to form an integral part of the machine. Among the
courts not connected with the municipal rule of the metropolis,
nor forming one of the great departments of state, is the Tai.
chaitg Sx' or Sacriiicial Court, whose officers "direct the sacriii-
cial observances, and distinguish the various instruments and the
quality of the sacriliceB. Their duties are of importance in
comiexion with the state religion, and they rank high among the
dignitaries of the empire, but as members of this possess no
power. The Tai-pak Sx' or Superintendent of H. I. M.'s Stud,

L

343

is an office for " reariog horses, taking accouDt of Ihetr
and rpgulaling their training;" large tracts of land beyond tbs
Great Wall are appropriated lo this purpose, and ihe clerks of
this office, under the direction of the Board of War, overeee tha
herdsmen and grooms who iiave the rearing of the horses.

The Kvrang/uh Ss', or Banqueting House, ha'^ llie charge of
he meritorious and banqueting the deserving;" ii ta
lubordinate to the Board of Riles, and provides what-
ever is necessary for banquets given to literary graduates, foreign
ambasaadors, ic. The Hungla Si', or Ceremonial Court, regu-
lotps the forms lo be observed at these banquets, which coosist
in little else than marshalling the guests according to their pro<
per ranks and directing them when to make the kotau, or well-
known ceremony of prostration, called also san kinti kiu kau,
" three kneelings and nine knockings." The KiMtklJn' Kirn, or
National College, is a different institution from the Hanlin Yuen,
and intended for teaching graduiites of the lower degrees ; the
departments of study are the Chinese language, the classics and
mathematics, each branch having its appropriate teachers, with
some higher officers, both Chinese and Maachu.

The Kin Tien Kien, or Imperial Astronomical College, seeroa,
from the account given of its duties, to be full as much aslrologi-
cal OS astronomical ; they are defined to be " to direct the ascer-
tainment of times and the movements of the heavenly lx>di<>8 in
order to attain conformity with Ihe celestial periods, and to regu-
late the notation of time among men ; all things relating to divi-
nation and the selection of days are under its charge." The
preparation of the almanac, in which, among other things, lucky
and unlucky days are marked for the performance of all tha
important acts of life, and astrological and chiromantic absurdi-
ties inserted for the amusement of fortune- tellers and others,
the instruction of a few pupils, and care of the observolory, oc-
cupy moat of the lime of its officers, for the really scientific part
of their labors was long ago performed for them by foreigners.
It is now, probably, since the Europeans have been dismissed,
of little or no use to advance science or encourage the di9\isiott
of what is already known. The Tai I'Yuen, or Supreme Medi-
cal Hall, is on a par for usefulness with the Astronomical Col-
lege, for instruction in medicine docs not appear to be its object ;
it is rather a collective name for the court physicians.

OTHER MINOR COURTS AT PEKING. 343

The other local couns of tlie capilal seem to have been subdi-
vided and muhipHed to a great degree for the purpose of aflijrd-
ing employment to a larger number of persons, especiully Mnn-
chus and graduates, so that the emperor can attach them to liini-
aelf nnd be surer of their support in case of any insurrection on
the part of the people, and also thai he may have ihem nicirc
under his control. The number of clerks and minor officos in
all the general departments of state is doubUesn more numerous
than it would be in a European got'emment, from the habit
of Asiatics, to have many people to do little work. Tn the
mutual relations of the great departments of the Chinese
governmenl, ihe principles of responsibility and surveillance
among the officers are plainly eihibiled, while regard has been
paid to Gucti a division and apportionment of labor us would
secure great efficiency and care, if every metnber of the machine
faithfully did hia duty. Two presidents are stationed ever each
Board to assist and watch each other, while the two presidents
oversee the four vice-presidents ; the president of one Board is
sometimes the vice- president of another ; and by means of the
Censorale and the General Council, every portion is brought
under the cognisance of several independent olScers, whose
mutual jealousy and regard for their own advanccmeni, or a par.
tiai desire for the well-being of the state, affords the emperor
some guarantee for their fidelity to him. The seclusion in which
he lives makes it difficult for any conspirator to approach his per-
son, but his own fears regarding the management of such an
immense empire compel him to inform himself respecting Ihe
actions of ministers, generals, and proconsular governors. The
conduct and devotion of hundreds of officers, both civil and mili-
tary, during the late war with England, is proof enough that ho
has Bltached his subordinates to his service by some other prin-
ciple than fear. The total number of civilians holding office is
estimated at about fourteen thousand persons, but those depend-
ent on the government are many limes this amount.

The rulers of China have contrived ihc system of provincial
governments in an admirable manner, considering the character
of the people nnd the materials they had to work with in their
officers, and no better proof of their sagacity in this respect can
be required than the general degree of good order which has
been maintained for nearly Iwo centuries, and the great progress

S44

ullh, numbers, and power. By 0 wcill
nd chiuigcs in the provincial ntilhori-
nLusing llit-ir position and power to

the people have maJe ia
arranged plan of check:
ties, the chances of [he

combine to overthrow Ihe KUpremr govrmnicnl have been reduced
almost Id an impossibility ; and the iudijence of mulunl respunsi-
biViKy smong them docs a great deal to pre /ent outrageous opprrs-
sion of [he people, by leading one to aecuse another of high
crimes in order to exonerate himself or obtain his place. Tho
SODS and relatives of llie emperor being generally excluded from
civil oHice in iKe provinces, the high-spirited and talented native
Chinese do not feel inclined to cabal against the government,
because every avenue In emolument nnd power is filled nnd
clooed against them by creatures and connexions of the sove-
reign ; nor when in odice are they disposed to attempt tho over.
throw of the reigning family, lest they lose what has cost them
many years of toilsome study, and the wealth and influence of
friends to attain. The examination ofiliese pasholiki^ is further-
more entitled to notice from the degree of power delegated to
their highest officers, and the shrewd manner in which the exer-
cise of this power has been circumscribed, and rendered amena-
ble to it» imperial source-

The highest officers in the provinces are a tsmgtak, "general-
director," or governor-genera!, and &fvyum, soother, or lieuten-
ant-governor. The former is often called a viceroy, but the term
govemor.general, or proconsul, is more nnalogous to his duties;
the translation of these and many other titles, does not convey
their exact functions, and in some cases an equivalent is more
intelligible than a translation. The taungluK always has rule
over two provinces, or else fills two high offices in one province,
while the fuyuen is placed over one province, either independent
of, or in subordination to, a fstmgtuh. The eighteen provinces
have been incorporated under eleven governments, over which
are placed eight tmvgtuh and fineen Jutpwm, as enumerated in
the table on page 54.

According to the Red Book, there are 8 governor-generals, 15
I ieut. -governors, 19 treasurers (two being placed in Kiangsu), !8
judges, IT literary chancellors, 15 commanders of the forces,
including two admirals ; and if each depariment and district has
a separate officer, 1740 prefi^cts and district magistrates. All

mCB OFFICERS

ihose filling the high grades in this series, report themselves to
his majesty twice every month, hy sending liitn a saluletory card
upMi yellow paper, inclosed in n silken envelope; stating, for
instance, that Hwang Ngfiniung, the treasurer oT Kwangtung,
humbly presents his duly lo Ilie throne, wishing his majesty re-
pose. The emperor, or Ilia secretary, replies with tlie vermilion
pencil, Cfiin ngan, i. e, Ourself is well.

The duties of the governor-general consist in the general con-
trol of all affairs, civil and mililary, in the region under his
jurisdiction ; he occupies, in his sphere, under correction, the
same authority that the emperor does over the whole empire.
The fui/ueri has a similar control, but in an inferior degree when
there is a Isuiigtuh, in the more special supervision of the admi-
nistrative pari of the civil government, as distinguished from the
revenue, gahel, or literary branches.

The departments of the civil government are five, viz. admi-
nialntlive, literary, gabet, commissariat, and excise ; the first
being also divided into ihe territorial and financial, and the judi-
cial branches. At the head of the first branch is the pu-ching »t'
(i. e. reguiating'government commissioner), who is usually call-
ed the treasurer ; the n^an-cAaA ai', or criminal judge, presides
over the second. These two officers often unite their delibera-
tions in t)ie direction of any territorial or financial business, or
llie trial of important cases. The literary department is placed
under the direction of an officer selected from among the mem-
bers of the Haiilin Academy, called a Mdhehing, director of learn-
ing, or literary chancellor ; there are seventeen of Lheni in the
provinces. The gabcl and commissariat are mostly under the
direction of officers called tav,, or laulai, sometimes termed in-
tendanis of circuit, who have other functions in addition. The
excise, or commercial deparlmeni, is under kietOttk, or superin-
tendents, but the details of these three branches vary considerably
in difierent provinces. The ofiioers of the excise are appointed
wherever necessary, either in the interior or on the coast, and
are usually selected from among the members of the imperial
household, and are subject merely to the control of the governor-
general.

The military government of a province includes both the land
and sea forces ; it is under a lUvh, or commander-in-chief, of
which rank there are in all sixteen officers, twelve of them com-

340 TIIE MIDI

iiianding one arm alone, and (bur controlling both land and sea
forces. In fiva provinces, the fuyuen is commander-in-chief,
and in Kansuh there are two. Above llic tUxth, in point of rank
but not of power, are placed garrisons of Manchu troops, under
a itiang-kian, or general, whose office is conferred, and his actions
directly controlled, by the emperor ; he has jurisdiction, usually,
only in the city itself, the principal object of the appointment
being lo check any treasonable designs of the civil authorities.

The duties and relations of these various grades with one
another require some further explanation, however, to be under-
stood. The three officers, Isungluii, fuyuen, and tsiatigkiun, if
there be one, form n supreme council, and unite in deliberating
upon a measure, calling in the subordinate officer to whose
department it particularly belongs, and lo whom its execution ia
to be committed, the whole forming a deliberative board, though
the responsibility of the act rests with the two highest officers.
By this means, the various members of the provincial govern-
ment become better acquainted with each other's character and
plans, (hough their intercourse is much restricted by precedence
and rivalry. In the provincial courts, civilians always take
precedence of military officers: the governor-general and Tartar
commander, lieutenant-governor and major-general, the literary
chancellor and collector of customs, rank with each other ; then
follow the Ireasurer, the judge, and other civilians. The author-
ily of the governor extends to life and death, to the temporary
appointment to all vacant offices in the province, to ordering the
troops to any pnrt of it, issuing such laws and taking such mea-
sures as are necessary for the security and peace of the region
committed to his care, or any other steps he sees necessary.
The fuyuen also has the power of life and death, and attends to
appeals of criminal cases ; he also oversees the conduct of the
lower civilians.

Next in rank to the puehittg n' and nganehah n', who re»i<Ie in
the provincial capital, are the taulai, or intendants of circuit ;
they are a kind of deputy of the governor-general and lieutenant-
governor, residing in the Urn, or circuits, into which each province
IS subdivided. The delegated power oommiltod to them is the
same in kind with that belonging to their superiors, and includes,
very frequently, military as well as civil authority, for the exer-
cise of which they are directly responsible to the hoods of the

St;BDIimNATE

pTDvince ; ihe chief objeci of llieir appointment is to relievo anil
assist those high functionaries in ihe cjischarge of Iheir extensive
dulicB. Some of the intendanls are appoinlett merely to super-
vise, on the part of tlie two governors, the proceeiJings of the
prefecla and district magistrates ; others are stationed at important
posts to prelect them. They are usually placed over two or
more departments, and take a genera! oversight of what is done
by the territorial, financial, judicial, and oommissariat officers in
their circuit.

Subordinate to the governors, through the intendaots of cir-
cuits, are the prefects or head magislralea of deparlmeuts, called
chifu, chUhan, and ling tungchi, i.e. "knowers" of ihem, according
as they are placed over Ju, chan, or ting departments. It is ihe
duly of these persons to make themselves acquainted with every.
thing ihal takes place within their jurisdiction, and they are held
responsible for the full execution of whatever orders are trans-
milled to them, and all make their reports and receive their
orders through the intendanls.

The subdivisional parts of departments, called ling, chaa, and
hien, have each their separate officers, who report to the chifu
and chietuut above them ; these arc called lungchi, ehichau, and
ebihiett, and may all be denominated district magistrates. The
parts of districts called jz', are placed under the control ofwim-
kien, circuit- rest rainers, or hundreders, who form the last in the
regular series of descending rank, — the last of llie " commis-
sioned officers," as they might not improperly be called. The
prefects sometimes have deputies directly under them, as the go-
vernor has his intendanls, when their jurisdiction is very large
ur important, who are called kiunmin fu and lungdii, i. e. joini-
knowers. The deputies of district magistrates are termed cAdu.
lung nnd ehaupteatt for the chUluiu, and himching and chufu for
the ehildett ; tlie last also have others called Iso-laiig and yutang,
I. e. Icft-leitanis and right- ten ants.

Brsides these assistants, there are otiiers, botli in the depart-
ments and di.slricts, having the oversight of the police, collection
of the taxes and management of the revenue, care of water-ways,
and many other subdivisions of legislative duties, which it is un-
necessary to particularize. They are appointed whenever and
wherever tlie territory is so large and the duties so onerous that
one man cannot attend to all; or it is not safe to intrust him with

S49 THE HIDDLB xmGBOM.

ihem. They have nearly as much power as iheir sii|>crkirs in tlie
department inlrusled to them, but none of them have juilicia] or
legislative functions, mid the routine of their otiiccti afliirds ihem
less scope for oppreinion. Nor is it worth while to tioiice the
great number of clerks, registrars, and secretaries fbuni] is con-
nexion with the various ranks of ijignitaries here mitilioneid, or
the multitude of petty subordinates found in the provinces, and
placed over particular placcti or duties, as necessity may require.
Their number is very large, and the reaponsibility of their pn>-
ceedinga devolves upou the higher officers, who receive their re-
ports BDd direct their oclions.

The common people suScr more from these " rata under the
altar," as a Chinese proverb calls them, than from their supe-
riors, because, unlike them, ihey are usually natives of Il)e place
and better acquainted with the condition of the inhabitants, and
are not so often removed. Each inlendant, prefect, ond district
magistrate has special secretaries in his office for filing papers,
writing and ii'ansmiitin^ dispatches, investigating oases, record-
ing evidence, keeping accounts, and performing other functions.
AH above the chihien are allowed to keep private secretaries,
called n^t/i, who arc usually personal friends, and accompany
the officers wherever they go for the purpose of advising them
and preparing their official documeuis. Tlie Tiganckah az' have
jailors under their control, as have also the more important pre-

The appointment of officers in China being theoretically found-
ed on literary merit, the officers to whom is committed tlie
supervision of students and cenferinont of degrees, would natu-
rally bo of a high grade. The hiohchijig, or literory chancellor
of the province, therefore ranks next to the fuyuen, more because
he is specially appointed by his majosiy, however, and oversees
this branch of the goveramenl, than from any remarkable degree
of power committed to his hands. Under him are hcBd-leachers
of different degrees of authority, residing in the chief towns of
departments and districts, the whole forming a similar series of
functionaries to what exists in the civil department. These sub-
ordinates have merely a greater or less degree of superri^on
over the studies of students, and the colleges established for the
promotion of learning in the chief towns of departments. The
btinneas of conferring the lower degrees appertains exclusively

UTERARY, GABBL, AMJ RJBVJSMUR DRPARTMENTS. 849

to the chancellor, who makes an annual circuit through the pro-
vince for that purpose, and holds examinations in the chief town
of each department of all the students residing within its limits.

The gabel, or salt department, is under the control of a special
officer, called a " commissioner for the transport of salt," and
forming in the five maritime provinces one of the san n\ or three
commissioners, of which the puching sz* and nganchah sz* are the
other two. There are above these commissioners eight directors of
the salt monopoly, stationed at the d6p6ts in Chihlt and Shantung,
who, however, also fill other offices, and have rather a nominal
responsibility over the lower commissioners. The number and
rank of the officers connected with the salt monopoly show the
importance the supreme government attaches to the trade, and is
proof how large a revenue is derived from an article which will
bear such an expensive establishment.

The commissariat and revenue department is unusually large
in China compared with other countries, for the plan of collect-
ing any part of the revenue in kind necessarily requires nume-
rous vehicles for transporting and buildings for storing it, which
still further multiplies the number of clerks and hands employed.
The transportation of grain along the Yangtsz' kiang is under the
control of a isungiuh, or governor, who also oversees the disposal
and directs the collectors of it in eight of the provinces adjacent
to this river. The office of Uang-chu tau, or commissioner to col-
lect grain, is found in twelve provinces, the puching sz' attending
to this duty in six ; the supervision of the subordinate agents of
this department in the several districts is in the hands of the pre-
fects and district magistrates. That feature of the Chinese sys-
tem which makes officers mutually responsible, seems to lead
the superior powers to confer such various duties upon one func-
tionary, in order that he may thus have a general knowledge of
what is going on about and under him, and report what he deems
amiss. It is not, indeed, likely that such was the original ar-
rangement, for the Chinese government has come to its present
composition by slow degrees ; but such is, so far as can be seen,
the effect of it, and it serves in no little degree to accomplish the
designs of the present rulers to bind the main and lesser wheels
of the huge machine to themselves and to one another in a very
strong manner.

The customs and excise are under the management of difibr*

850 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

ent grades of officers according to the importance of their posts.
The collection of duties in the maritime provinces only, is under
InetUuh, or superintendents, who rank high in the grade of pro-
vincial officers because they are sent from court, and report di-
rectly to his majesty through the Board of Revenue ; the col-
lector at Canton is a domestic of the emperor's, sent to this station
to amass as large a sum as he can, most of which goes directly
to his master. The transit duties levied at the excise stations
placed in every town, are collected by officers acting under the
local authorities, and have nothing to do with the collection of
maritime duties.

The military section of the provincial governments is under
the control of a tUuh, or major-general, who resides at a central
post, and in conjunction with the governor-general and lieutenant-
governor directs the movements of the forces, while these last
have also an independent contix)! over a certain body of troops
belonging to them officially. The various grades of officers in
the native army, and the portion of troops under each of them,
stationed in the garrisons and forts in difierent parts of the pro-
vinces, are all arranged in a methodical manner, which will bear
examination and comparison with the army of any country in
the world. The native force in each province is distinct from
the Manchu troops, and is divided somewhat according to the
Roman plan of legion, cohort, maniple, and century, over each
of which are officers, from colonel down to sei^eant. Nothing
is wanting to the Chinese army to make it fully adequate to the
defence of the country but discipline and confidence in itself;
for want of practice and systematic drilling, it is an army of paper
warriors against an enemy, but a powerful engine of oppression
in the hands of local tyrants. Still it has no doubt been for the
good of the Chinese people and government — ^the advance of the
first in wealth, numbers, and security, and the consolidation and
efficiency of the latter — that they have cultivated letters rather
than arms, peace than war.

All the general officers in the army have fixed places of resi-
dence, at which the larger portion of their respective brigades
remain, while detachments are stationed at various points within
their command. The governors, major-general, and Tartar com-
mandant have commands independent of each other, but the
tUuh, or major-general, exercises the principal military sway*

MILITARY AND NAVAL DEPARTMENTS. 851

The naval officers have the same names as those in the army,
and the two are interchanged and promoted from one service to
the other. The admirals and vice-admirals usually reside on
shore, and dispatch their subordinates in squadrons or single
vessels wherever occasion requires. Neither the officers nor
marines are skilled in navigation ; and the imperial navy is
almost as much the jest of natives as it is of foreigners.

The system of mutually checking the provincial officers is
also exhibited in their location. For example, in the city of
Canton, the governor-general is stationed in the New city near
the collector of customs, while the lieutenant-governor and Tar-
tar general are so located in the Old city, that should circum-
stances require they can act against the two first. The gover-
nor has the general command of all the provincial troops, esti-
mated to be 100,000 men, but the particular command of only
5000, and they are stationed fifly miles oflF at Shanking fu. The
Tartar general has 5000 men under him in the Old city, which,
in an extreme case, would make him master of the capital, while
his own allegiance is secured by the antipathy between the Man-
chus and Chinese, preventing him from combining with the
latter. Again, the governor has the power of condemning cer-
tain criminals to death, but the tDang-ming, or death-warrant, is
lodged with the fuyuen, and the order for execution must be
countersigned by him ; his dispatches to court must be also
countersigned by his coadjutor. The general absence of resist-
ance to the imperial sway on the part of these high officers for
the two centuries the M anchus have held the reins, compared
with the multiplied intrigfts and rebellions of the pashas in the
Turkish empire, prove how well the system is concocted.

In order to enable the superior officers to exercise greater
vigilance over their inferiors, they have the privilege of sending
special messengers, invested with full power, to every part of
their jurisdiction. The emperor himself never visits the pro-
vinces judicially, nor has the present monarch or his father been
south of the capital ; he therefore constantly sends commission-
ers or legates called kinchai to all parts of the empire, ostensibly
Intrusted with the management of a particular business, but re-
quired also to take a general surveillance of what is going on.
The ancient Persians had a similar system of commissioners,
who were called the eyes and ears of the prince, and made the

802 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

circuit of the empire to overaee all that was done. Thera an
maoy points of reaeniblance between the structure of these two
ancient monarchies, the body of counciUors, who assisted the
prince in his deliberations, the presidents over the provinces, the
satraps, dec. ; but the Persians had not the elements of perpe-
tuity which the system of conunon schools and official examina-
tions give to the Chinese government.*

Governors in like manner send their deputies and agents,
called toeiyuen, over the province ; and even the prefects and in-
tendants despatch their messengers. All these functionaries,
during the time of their mission, take rank with the highest offi-
cers according to the quality of their employers ; but the impe-
rial commissioners, who for one object or another are constantly
passing and repassing through the empire in every direction,
exercise great influence in the government, and are powerful
agents in the hands of the emperor for keeping his proconsuls at
their duty.

The extra provincial regions in Manchuria, Mongdia, and
elsewhere, are under a mixed government of generals and civi-
lians, the former possessing the greatest power, but the latter
exercising as much influence as the people they rule will submit
to. The outlines of their governments have been described
when speaking of the topographical divisions of those countries,
and need not be repeated. There are also many military resi-
dents stationed in the western provinces, who exercise the entire
supervision of the partly subdued tribes, and whose mismanage-
ment and oppressive conduct over these aborigines give rise to
constant disturbances. In Yunnan and Kwangsi are many local
oflicers, who hold hereditary rule over small districts.

* RoUin's Ancient History, Chapter IV. Manners of the AMyrians.
PIeeren*8 Asiatic Researches, Vol. I. , page 207.

CHAPTER VIII.

Administration of the Laws

The preceding chapter contains a general view of the plan upoa
which the central and provincial governments of the empire are
constructed ; and if an examination of the conduct of officers
in every department shows their extortion, cruelty, and venality,
it will not, in the opinion of the liberal minded reader, detract
from the general excellence of the theory of the government,
and the sagacity exhibited in the system of checks designed to
restrain the various parts from interfering with the well-being -of
the whole. In addition to the division of power and the checks
upon Chinese officers already mentioned, there are other means
adopted in their location and alternation to prevent combination
and resistance against the head of the state. One of them is the
law forbidding a man to hold office in his native province, which,
besides stopping all intrigue where it would best succeed, has
the further effect of congregating all aspirants for office at
Peking, where they come in hope of obtaining some post, or
succeeding in the examination for literary degrees. The cen-
tral government could not contrive a better plan for bringing all
the ambitious and talented men in the country under its observa-
tion before appointing them to clerkships in the capital, or scat-
tering them in the provinces.

Moreover, no officer is allowed to marry in the jurisdiction
under his control, nor own land in it, nor have a son, or brother,
or near relative holding office under him ; and he is seldom con-
tinued in the same station or province for more than three
or four years. Manchus and Chinese are mingled together in
high stations, and obligations are imposed on them to inform the
emperor of each other's acts. Members of the imperial clan are
required to attend the meetings of the Boards at the capital, and
observe and report what they deem amiss or of interest to the
emperor and his council ; and in all the upper departments of
the general and provincial governments, a system of espionage

854 TBB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

is carried out destructive of all principles of honorable fidelity,
but not altogether without some good effects in a weak despotism
like China. There is, besides this constant surveillance, a
triennial catalogue made out of the merits and demerits of all the
officers in the empire, which is submitted to imperial inspection
by the Board of Civil Office. In order to collect the details for
this catalogue, it is incumbent upon every provincial officer,
to report upon the character and qualifications of all under him,
and the list, when made out, is forwarded by the governor to the
capital. The points of character are arranged under six differ-
ent heads, viz. those who are not diligent, the inefficient, the
superficial, the untalented, superannuated, and diseased. Ac-
cording to the opinion given in this report, officers are elevated
or degraded so many steps in the scale of merit, like boys in a
class, and whenever they issue an edict, are required to state
how many steps they have been advanced or degraded, and how
many times recorded. Officers are required to accuse them-
selves, when guilty of crime, either in their own conduct or that
of their subordinates, and request punishment. The results of
this peculiar and patriarchal mode of teaching officers their
duty, is better exhibited in an imperial edict issued afler one of
the catalogues had been submitted to his majesty.

" The cabinet minister Changling has strenuonsly exerted himself
during a long lapse of years ; he has reached the eightieth year of his
age, yet his energies are still in full force. His colleagues Pwan
Shi-ng&n and Muchangah, as well as the assistant cabinet minister
Wang Ting, have invariably displayed diligence and attention, and have
not failed in yielding us assistance. Tang Kinchau, president of the
Board of Office, has knowledge and attainments of a respectable and
sterling character, and has shown himself public spirited and intelligent
in the performance of special duties assigned to him. Shi Chiyen,
president of the Board of Punishments, retains his usual strength and
energies, and in the performance of his judicial duties has displayed
perspicacity and circumspection. The assistant cabinet minister and
governor of Chihli province, Kishen, transacts the afiairs of his govern-
ment with faithfulness, and the military force uAder his control is well
disciplined. Husunge, the governor of Sbensi and Kansuh provinces,
is cautious and prudent, and performs his duties with careful exactness,
(lipu, governor of Yunnan and Kweichau, is well versed in the afl^irs
of his frontier government, and has fully succeeded in preserving it free
from disturbance. Linking, who is intniated with the general chargo

SCALE OF OFFICIAL MERITS AND DEMERITS. 855

of the riven in KiftDgnm, hu not fidled in his care of the embank-
ments, and has preseired the sunoonding districts from all disquietude.
To show oar fiivor nnto all these, let the Board of Oflke determine on
appropriate marks of distinction for them.

** Eweisan, subordinate minister of the Cabinet, is hasty, and deficient
both in precision and capacity ; he is incapable of moving and acting for
himself; let him take an inferior station, and receive an appointment in
the second class of the gnaids. Yihtsih, vice-president of the Board of
Works for Moukden, possesses but ordinary talents, and is incompetent
to the duties of his present office ; let him also take an inferior station,
and be appointed to a place in the first class of guards. Narkingii, the
governor of Hukwang, though having under him the whole civil and
military bodies of two provinces, has yet been unable, these many days,
to seize a few beggarly impish vagabonds: after having in the first
instance fiuled in prevention, he has followed up that faUure by idleness
and remissness, and has4ully proved himself inefficient. Let him take
the lower station of lient-govemor in Hunan, and within one year let
him, by the apprehension of Lan Chingtsun, show that he is aroused to
greater exertions.

" Let all our other servants retain their present appointments. Among
them Tau Shu, the governor of Kiangnan and Kiangsi, is bold and
determined in the transaction of afl^rs, but has not yet attained enlarged
views in regard to the salt department ; Chung Tsiang, the governor of
Fuhkien and Chehkiang, finds his energies failing; T&ng Tingching,
the governor of Ewangtung and Kwangsi, possesses barely an adequate
degree of talent and knowledge ; and Shin Kihicn, though faithful and
earnest in the performance of his duties, has in common with these
others, been not very long in office.

^ That all ministers will act with purity and devotcdness of purpose,
with pnUic spirit and diligence, is our most fervent hope. A special
edict"*

m

The effect of such confessions and examination of character is
to repress and restrain the commission of outrageous acts of op.
pression ; and it is still further enforced by the privilege both
censors and private subjects possess of complaining to the empe-
ror of their misdeeds. Fear for their own security has suggested
this multiplicity of checks, but the emperor and his ministry have
no doubt thereby impeded the efficiency of their subordinates,
and compelled them to attend so much to their own standing, that
they care far less than they otherwise would for the prosperity of
the people.

• Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., page 48.

8IMI TB£ MIDDLE KINGDOM.

The position of an officer in the Chinese governnient can hard-
ly be ascertained from the enumeration of his duties, nor his
temptations to oppress his inferiors and deceive his superiors in-
ferred from a general account of the system. His duties, as in-
dicated in the Code, are so minute, and often so contradictory, as
to make it impossible to fulfill them strictly ; it is found, accord-
ingly, that few or none have ascended the slippery heights of
promotion without frequent relapses. Degradation, when to a
step or two and temporary, carries with it of course no moral
taint in a country where the award for bribery is graduated ac-
cording to the amount received, without any reference to moral
violation ; where the bamboo is the standard of punishment as well
for error in judgment or remissness as for crime, only commuted
to a fine in honor of official rank ; where,^ as a distinction in fa-
vor of the imperial race, the bamboo is soflened to the whip, and
banishment mitigated to the pillory.* The highest officers have
of course the greatest opportunity to oppress, but their extortions
are limited by the venality and mendacity of the agents they are
compelled to employ. Inferiors also can carry on a system of
exactions if they keep on the right side with those above them.
The whole class form a body of men mutually jealous of each
other's advance, and one constantly endeavoring to supplant the
other ; they all agree in regarding the people as the source of
their profits, the great spunge which all must squeeze, but difier
in the degree to which they should carry on the same plan with
each other. Although sprung from the mass of the people, the
welfare of the community has little place in their thoughts.
Their life is spent in ambitious efforts to rise upon tha fall of
others, though they do not lose all sense of character, or become
reckless of the means of advance, for this would destroy their
chance of success. The game they play with each other and
their imperial master is, however, a harmless one compared with
that of the pashas and viziers of the sultans and shahs in West-
em Asia. To the honor of the Chinese, lif<? is seldom sacrificed
for political crime or envious emulation ; no officer dreads a
bowstring or a poisoned cup from his lord paramount, nor is on
the watch against the dagger of an assassin hired by a vindictive
competitor. Whatever heights of favor or depths of frown he

* Chinew Repoutory, VoL IV., p^;a 59.

POSITTON AND CBARACTEB OF CHINXSE OFFICIALS. 867

nuLj experienoe, the servant of the emperor of China need not,
in unproved oases of delinquency, fear for his life ; but he not
unfrequently takes it himself from conscious guilt and dread of
the just punishment of the laws.

The names and standing of all ofRcers are published
quarterly by permission of government in the Red Book
(which by an usual coincidence is bound in red), called the
Complete Book of the Girdle Wearers {Tsin Shin Tsiuen Shu),
comprised in four volumes 12mo., to which are occasionally
added two others of army and navy lists. In this book the native
province of each person is mentioned, whether he is a Chinesei
Manchu, Mongol, or naturalized Manchu, that is, a descendant of
those Chinese who aided the reigning family in the conquest ;
and moreover describes the title of the office, its salary, and con-
siderable other general information. The publishers o^ the hock
expect that officers will inform them of the changes which take
place in their standing, and usually omit to mention those who
do not thus report themselves.

A memoir of the public life of some of the highest officers in
China, would present a singular picture of ups and downs, but on
account of their notorious disregard of truth, Chinese documents
are unsafe to trust entirely in drawing such a sketch. One of the
most conspicuous men in late times was Duke Ho of Macartney's
embassy, who for many years exercised a greater control over
the counsels of Kienlung than is recorded of any other man
during the present dynasty. This man was originally a private
person, and attracted the notice of the emperor by his comeli-
ness, and secured it by his zeal in discharging the offices intrust-
ed to him. With but few interruptions, he gradually mounted
the ladder of promotion, and for some years before Kienlung's
death was master of the country. Staunton describes him as
possessing eminent abilities ; ** the manners of Hokw&n were not
less pleasing than his understanding was penetrating and acute.
He seemed indeed to possess the qualities of a perfect statesman."
The favorite had gradually filled the highest posts with his
friends, and his well wishers were so numerous in the general and
provincial governments, that some began to apprehend a rising
in his favor when the emperor died. Kiaking, on his accession,
began to take those cautious measures for his removal, which
showed the great influence he possessed ; one of these proceed-

858 TBB MIDDLB KmODOM.

iDgs was to appoint him superintendent of the rites of mourning,
in order probably, that his official duties might bring him often
to the palace. After four years, the emperor drew up sixteen
articles of impeachment against the favorite, most of them frivo-
lous and vexatious, though of more consequence in the eyes of a
Chinese prince than they would have been at other courts. One
article alledged, that he had ridden on horseback up to the palace
gate ; another, that he had appropriated to his own household the
females educated for the imperial hareem ; a third, that he had
detained the reports of officers in time of war fit>m coming to the
emperor's eye, and had appointed his own retainers to office,
when they were notoriously incompetent ; a fourth, that he had
built many apartments of wood exclusively appropriated to
majesty, and imitated regal style in his grounds and establish-
ment. He was also accused of having pearls and jewels of
larger size than those even in the emperor's crown. But so far
as can be inferred from what was published, this Cardinal Wool-
sey of China, was, comparatively speaking, not cruel in the exer-
cise of his power, and the real cause of his fall was evidently
his riches ; in the schedule of his confiscated property, it was
mentioned that besides houses, lands, and other immovable pro-
perty to an amazing extent, not less than one hundred and five
millions of dollars in bullion and gems were found in his treasury.
A special tribunal was instituted for his trial, and he was allowed
to become his own executioner, while his constant associate was
condemned to decollation. These were the only deaths, the
remainder of his relatives and dependents being simply removed
and degraded. His power was no doubt too great for the safety
of his master if he had proved faithless ; but his wealth was too
vast for his own security, even had he been innocent. The emperor
in the edict which contains the sentence, cites as a precedent for
his own acts, similar condemnation of premiers by three of his
ancestors in the present dynasty, but nothing definite is known of
their crimes or trials.*

The present emperor was more clement, or more fortunate than
his father, and continued Tohtsin in power when he came to the
throne ; this statesman had held the premiership from 1815 to
1832, with but few interruptions, when he was allowed to retire

• Chinete Aepoutory, V<d. III., page 341.

NOnCBS OF DUKE HO, CHAMOLING, AND SUNG. 3d9

•

it the age of seventy-five. He had served under three emperors,
having risen step by step from the situation of clerk in one of
the offices. His successor Changling experienced a far more
checquered course, but remained in favor at last, and retired
from the premiership in 1836, aged about seventy-nine. He
became very popular with his master from his ability in quell-
ing the insurrection of Jehanglr in Turkestan in 1827. Feii
Chinese statesmen have been oilener brought into notice than
Sung, one of the commissioners attached to Lord Macartney's
embassy, and a favorite of all its members. His lordship speaks
of him then, as a young man of high quality, possessing an ele-
vated mind ; and adds, " that during the whole time of our con-
nection with him, has on all occasions conducted himself towards
us, in the most friendly and gentlemanlike manner.'' This was
in 1793. In 1817, he is mentioned as one of the Cabinet, but
not long afler ; for some unknown reason, he was degraded by
Kiaking to the sixth rank, and appointed adjutant-general among
the Tsakhars ; from thence he memorialized his master respecting
the ill conduct -of some lamas, who had been robbing and murder-
ing. Sung and his friends opposed the emperor's going to
Manchuria, and were involved in some trouble on this account,
the reasons of which it is difficult to understand. Sung was pro-
moted, however, to be captain-general of Manchuria, but he
again fell under censure, and on his visit to his paternal estate at
Moukden, the emperor took him back to the capital, and appointed
him to some important office. He soon got into new trouble
with the emperor, who in a proclamation remarks, *^ that Sung
is inadequate to the duties of minister of the imperial presence ;
because, although he formerly officiated as such, he is now up-
wards of seventy years of age, and rides badly on horseback ;"
he is therefore sent to Manchuria to fill his old office of captain-
general. The next year, the ex-minister and his adherents were
involved in a long trial about the loss of a seal, and he was
deprived of his command, and directed to retire to his own tribe ;
the real merits of this disgrace were probably connected with the
change of parties ensuent upon the accession of Taukwang.

Sung was restored to favor soon after, and made adjutant at
Jeh ho, afler having been president of the Censorate for a month.
He was allowed to remain there longer than usual, and employed
his spare time in writing a book upon the newly acquired terri-

SftO TTIG KIDDLE KlNGDOir.

tory iti Turkestan. In 1824, he was reinatated as president o(
the Cenaorate, with admonitiona not to confuse and puzzle him-
self with a muhiplicily of extraneous matters. In 1826, he was
sent on a special commission to Shansf, and when he returned,
was honored with a dinner at court on newyeur's day. He
then appears as irovelling tutor to the crown-prince, but where
his royal highness went for iiis education does not appear; from
this post, we lind hirn placed at the head of the Board of Rites,
and then appointed to inspect the victims for a state sacrifice, pro-
bably in virtue of his official functions. He is then ordered to
Jell ho, from whence, in a fit of penitence, or perhaps, from fear
of a dun, he memorialized the emperor about a debt of C63,000
be incurred nearly thirty years before, which he proposed to
liquidate by foregoing liia salary of 81000 until the arrears were
paid up ; the emperor was in good humor with the old man, and
tbrgave him the whole amount, being assured he says of Sung's
pure official character. In this memorial, when recounting his
services, he says he has been twice commander-in-chief and
governor of III, governor-general of Nanking, Canton, &c., but
had never saved much.

Soon after, he is recalled from Jeh ho, and made governor of
Peking, then president of the Board of War ; and in a few
months he is ordered to proceed across the desert to Cobdo to in-
vestigate some affiiir of importance, — a long and toilsome journey
of fifteen hundred miles for a man over seventy-five years old.
He relumed the next year, and resumed his post as president of
the Board of War, in which capacity he acted as examiner of the
students in the Russian college. In 1831, he was made presi-
dent of the Colonial Office ; and shortly after, appointed superin-
tendent of the Three Treasuries, but was obliged to resign
from ill health. A month's relaxation seems to have wonderfully
restored him, for the emperor, in reply to his petition for employ-
ment, expresses surprise llial he should so soon be fit for official
duties, and plainly intimates his opinion that the disease was all
aham, though he accedes to his request so far as to nominate him
commander of one of the eight banners. In 1632, Sung again
got involved in intrigues, and was reduced to the third degree of
rank ; the resignation of Tohtsin and the struggle for the vacant
premiership was probably the real reason of this new revei
though a fiiivolous accusation of two years' standing «

SKETCH OF COMMISSIONER UN. 861

(umped up against him. He was restored again after a few
vionths' disgrace, at the petition of a beg of a city in Turkestan,
which shows by the w;cy the influence those princes exert. Old
age now began to come upon the courtier in good earnest, and in
1883 he was ordered to retire with the rank and pay of adjutant,
which he lived to enjoy only two years. Much of the success
of Sung was said to be owing to his having had a daughter in the
seraglio, but his personal character and kindness was evidently the
jnain source of his enduring influence among all ranks of people
and officers ; one account says the Manchus almost worshipped
him, and beggars clung to his chair in the streets to ask alms.
It is worthy of notice that in all these reverses, there is no men-
tion made of any severer punishment than degradation and ba-
nishment, and in this particular, the political life of Sung is
probably a fair criterion of the usual fortune of high Chinese
statesmen. The leading events in the life of Changling, the
successor of Tohtsin, together with a few notices of the govern-
or of Canton in 1833, Lt Hungpin, are given in the same
volume of the Repository.*

Commissioners Lin and Kfying have lately become more
famous among foreigners than even the members of the Council,
from the parts they have acted in the late war with England,
but only a few notices of their lives are accessible. Lin TsehsQ
was bom in 1785, in Fuhkien, and passed through the literary
examinations, becoming a graduate of the second rank at the
age of nineteen, and of the third when twenty-six. After filling
an office or two in the Imperial Academy, in which he was em-
ployed in compiling works and arranging papers, he was sent as
assistant literary ^aminer to Kiangsi in 1816, and during three
subsequent years acted as examiner and censor in various places.
In 1819, he filled the office of tautai, or intendant of circuit, in
Chehkiang ; and after temporary absence on account of his
health, he was, in 1828, appointed to fill the post of treasurer of
Kiangsu, in the absence of the incumbent. In 1826, he was
made governor of the rivers, but hearing of his mother's death,
resigned his office to go home and mourn for her. Afler the
period of mourning was finished, he went to Peking, and receivea
the office of judge in Shensi ; but, before he had been in it a

*ChineM Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 61-66
17

862 THB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

month, he was made treasurer of Kiangsu, and before he ooulJ
enter upon this new office, he heard of his father ^s death, and
was obliged to resign to fulfill the prescribed term of mourning
for him. In 1832, he was nominated treasurer in Hupeh, and
five months after, transferred to the same office in Honan, and six
months afler that sent to Kiangsu again. Three months afler
this third transfer, he was reinstated governor of the Yellow
river, and within a short time elevated to be lieutenant-governor
of Kiangsi, which he retained three years, and acted as governor-
general of Liang Kiang two years more. In 1838, he was made
governor of Hukwang ; and shortly after this, ordered to come to
Peking, to be admitted to an imperial audience, and by special
favor, permitted to ride on horseback within the palace.

He was at this audience appointed imperial commissioner to
put down the opium trade, and manage the affairs of the mari-
time frontier of Kwangtung, receiving at the time such plenipo-
tentiary powers to act for the emperor as had only once before
been committed to a subject since the present dynasty came
upon the throne, viz. when Changling was sent to Turkestan to
quell the insurrection. In December, 1839, he was appointed
governor of Kwangtung and Kwangsl, but, in October, 1840, the
seals of office were taken away from him, and he was ordered to
return to Peking. He did not leave Canton immediately, but
remained till May of the next year to advise with Kishen in his
difficult negotiations with the English, after which he and Kishen,
and other high officers, went to the capital under arrest ; Lin
was tried and banished to 111, but before ho had set out, the
emperor partly restored him to favor, and appointed him, for the
third time, governor of the Yellow river. Since that time, we
have no definite account of his political life. A forged paper,
purporting to be an imperial rescript, was handed about in 1843,
bating his death to have occurred, and ordering sacrificial
honors to be paid his manes ; such papers are not uncommon,
though it is not easy to trace their origin or understand their
object. Few Chinese statesmen have appeared of late who havo
exceeded Lin in energy and integrity ; and he was, for these
qualities, a great favorite with the people of Canton. His figure
was well proportioned, somewhat inclined to embonpoint ; in
1839, a fair complexion and brilliant eye, added to an animated
carriage, made fciip f^ltoget^er a verjr good looking mw* l(

NOTICES OF k!yin6. 868

Lin is still alive, which tliere is reason to suppose, he will pro-
bably be heard of again in the councils of his country. The
party of which he is a leading member is still powerful, and
more than ever desirous of humbling the English.

Much less is known of the official life of Klying than of Lin,
but the Manchu has shown himself superior to the Chinese in
conducting the business committed to his care. The first that is
known of him was in 1835, when his name is mentioned as presi-
dent of the Board of Revenue and controller of the imperial
household. He was retained at the capital as commander-in-
chief of the forces there until 1842, when his majesty sent him
to Canton to take the place of the despicable Yihshan, and his in-
efficient colleagues. He was ordered to stop at Hangchau, how-
ever, on his way, and make a report of the condition of affairs ;
his memorials seem to have had great influence at court, for he
was appointed joint-commissioner with lltpu, in April of that
year. At the negotiations of Nanking, Kiying acted as chief
commissioner, and was mainly instrumental in bringing the war
to a conclusion. He was ordered to proceed to Canton in May,
1843, to succeed the aged llfpu, who had died, and there acted
as sole commissioner in negotiating the supplementary treaty
and the commercial regulations, after which he returned to the
capital, in December, 1843. His prudence and vigor had great
effect in calming the irritation of the people of Canton ; and, on
the arrival of Mr. Cushing, the American plenipotentiary, he
was nominated imperial commissioner to treat with him. The
powers at this time conferred on him made him, in fact, a minis-
ter of foreign affairs. During the progress of these negotiations,
governor Kt Kung died, and Kiying succeeded him in the com-
mand of the Liang Kwang, or the Two Broad provinces. Few
Chinese statesmen in modem times have borne a higher charac-
ter for prudence, dignity, and intelligence than Kiying, and the
confidence reposed in him is creditable to his imperial master.
The portrait of him has been engraved from a native painting,
and is generally regarded as a good one. It was kindly fur-
nished for this work by J. R. Peters, jun., from the Chinese
Museum, to which the original belongs.

One remarkable feature of the Chinese political world is the
great age of the high officers, and it is not easy to account for
tfaeir being kept in their posts, when almost useless and worn out.

864 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

by a monarch who wished to have efficient men around him,
although it is not so strange that the holders of the stations should
cling to their offices, salaries and influence. It is, perhaps,
explainable, in a measure, on the ground that, as long as the old
incumbents are alive, his majesty, being more habituated -to their
company and advice, prefers to retain those of whose character
he has some knowledge. The patriarch, kept near the emperor,
is moreover a kind of hostage for the loyalty of his descendants
and clients ; and the latter, scattered throughout the provinces,
can be managed and moved about through him with less oppo-
sition : he is, still further, a convenient medium through which
to receive the exactions of the younger members of the service,
and convey such intimations as are thought necessary. The
system of clientela, which existed among the Gauls and Franks,
is also found in China with some modifications, and has a tendency
to link officers to one another in parties of different degrees of
power. The emperor published an order in 1833 against this
system of patronage, and it is evident that he would find it
seriously interfering with his power, if it was not constantly
broken up by changing the relations of the parties, and sending
them away in different directions. Peking is no doubt almost
the only place where the " teacher and pupils," as the patron
and client call each other, could combine to much purpose ; and
the principal safeguard the throne seems to have against intrigues
and parties around it, lies in the conflicting interests arising
among themselves, though a long established favorite of the
crown, as in the case of Duke Ho, can sometimes manage to
engross the patronage.

Notwithstanding the heavy charges of oppression, cruelty,
bribery and mendacity, which are generally brought against
officers with more or less propriety, it must not be inferred that no
good qualities exist among them. Hundreds of them desire to
rule equitably, to clear the innocent and punish the guilty, and
exert all the knowledge and power they possess to discharge
their functions to the acceptance of their master and popularity
of the inhabitants. Such officers, too, generally rise, while the
cruelties of others are visited with degradation. The pasquinades
which the people stick up in the streets indicate their sentiments,
and receive much more attention than they would in other coun«
tries, because it is almost the only way in which their opinions

FAREWELL ADDRESS OF GHT7 OF CANTON. 865

oan be safely uttered. The popularity which upright officers
receive acts as an incentive to others to follow in the same steps,
as well as* a reward to the person himself. The fuyuen of
Kwangtung in 1833, Chu, was a very popular officer, and when
he obtained leave to resign his station on account of age, the
people vied with each other in showing their hearty regret at
losing him. The old custom was observed of retaining his boots,
and presenting him with a new pair at every city he passed
through, and many other testimonials of their regard were
adopted. On leaving the city of Canton, he circulated a few
verses, " to console the people and excite them to virtue," for he
heard that some of them wept on hearing of his departure.

" From ancient days, my fathers trod the path
Of literary fame, and placed their names
Among the wise ; two generations past,
Attendant on their patrons, they have come
To this provincial city.* Here this day,
*T is mine to be imperial envoy ;
Thus has the memory of ancestral fame
Ceased not to stimulate this feeble frame.

My father held an office at Lungchau,t
And deep imprinted his memorial there ; —
He was the sure and generous friend
Of learning unencouraged and obscure.
When now I turn my head and travel back.
In thought to that domestic hall, it seems
As yesterday, those early happy scenes ; —
How was he pained, if forced to be severe !

' From times remote, Kwangtung has been renowned
For wise and mighty men ; but none can stand
Among them, or compare with Kiuh Kiang : — X
Three idle and inglorious years are passed.
And I have raised no monument of fame.
By shedding round the rays of light and truth,

* The Chinese have a great aifection for the place of their nativity, and
consider being in any of the other provinces, like being in a foreign settle-
ment. They always wish to return thither in life, or have their remains
carried and interred there after death.

t A district in the province of Kwangtung.

X Kiuh Kiang was an ancient minister of state during the Tang dynasty.
His imperial master would not listen to his advice and he therefore retired.
Rebellion and calamities arose. The emperor thought of his faithful ser^
TBnt, and sent for him ; but he was already dead.

; MinnLiv KINGDOM.

llluminstione, gaudy shows, to praia*

The 1^3 and please IhemaelTes. rrom yeitr to ycu

The modern people vie, «nd boast themselves.

And spend their hard-earned wealth. — and all in ruii

For what shall be the end > Henreforth lot all

Maintain an active and a useful life,

The sober husband and the Crugal wife.

" The gracious Btatesotan (gov. Loo), politic and wiia.
Is aj preceptor and my long tried friend ;
Called now to separate, spare our farewell.
The heart-rending words affection so well loves.
That be may still continue tn exhort
The people, and instruct them to be wise.
To practice virtue, and to keep the laws
Of ancient sages, is my constant hope.

" When I look backward o'er the field of fame
Where I have travelled a long fifty years.
The struggle for nmbilioa and the sweat
Pur gain, seem altogether vanily.
Who knoneth not that heaven's toils are close,
[nlinitely close ! Few can escape.
Ah ! how few great men reach a lull old age !
How few unshorn of honors, end their days I

." Inveterate disease has twined itself
Around me, nnd hinds me in slavery,
' ^ The kindness of his majesty is high*
'" And liberal, admitting no return,
2^ Unless a grateful heart ; sti!!, still ny eyes
^ 'e the miseries of the people, —

Unlimited distresses, mournful, sad.
To the mere passer-by, awaking grief.

■thy. 1 withdraw,
0 this windy, dosty world ;
the supremely good —

■' Untalented, unv
Bidding farewel
Upwards I look
The emperor,—
To follow me. Heoceforth it will he weU.
The Tnemnres and the merits passing mine
But I shall silent stand and see hia grace
Diffusing biesainga like the genial spring."

permitting Chu to retire from public lif«.

GREAT AGE OF HIGH OFFICERS. 867

Commissioner Illpu, Kl Kung, the late governor-general of
KwangtuDg, and Shu, the prefect of Ning]x> in 1842, are other
officers who have {>ern popular in late years. When Lin passed
through Macao in 1839, the Chinese had in several places erected
honorary portals adorned with festoons of silk and laudatory
scrolls ; and when he passed the doors of their houses and shops
they set out tables decorated with vases of flowers, " in order to
manifest their profi)und gratitude for his coming to save them
from a deadly vice, and for removing from them a dire calamity
by the destruction and severe interdiction of opium." Alas,
that his efforts and intentions should have been so fruitless !

The Peking Gazettes frequently contain petitions from old
officers describing their ailments, their fear lest they shall not
be able to perform their duties, the length of their official service,
and requesting leave of absence or permission to retire. It is
impossible to regard all the expressions of loyally in these papers,
coming as they do from all classes of officers, as utterly heart-
less and made out according to a prescribed form, but we are
rather inclined to take them, in many cases, as the honest senti-
ments of their minds. Among many instances which might be
given, a memorial from Sht, a censor in 1824, is sufficient for an
example. In this, he says, '^ reflecting within myself, that
notwithstanding the decay of my strength, it has still pleased
the imperial goodness to employ me in a high office instead of
rejecting and discarding me at once, I have been most anxious
to eflect a cure, in order that, a weak old horse as I am, it might
be still in my power, by the exertion of my whole strength, to
recompense a ten-thousandth part of the benevolence which
restored me to life."* The emperor sometimes is obliged to take
the other side, and order the octogenarians to resign and go home ;
that he docs not displace them at once is one of those singular
anomalies constantly seen in this government, which in our
position cannot be accounted for satisfactorily ; the regard paid
to age, for which the Chinese are justly famed, may form one
reason for retaining them.

Connected with the triennial schedule of official merits and
demerits, is the necessity the high officers of state are under of
confessing their faults of government ; and the two form a pecu*

•Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 71

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CONFESSION OF FAULTS BY OFFICERS. 869

has been favorable. The drought tliis season is not perhaps
entirely on their (the officers') account. I have meditated upon
it, and am persuaded that the reason why the azure heavens
above manifest disapprobation by withholding rain for a few
hundred miles only around the capital, is, that the fifty and
more rebels who escaped, are secreted somewhere near Peking.
Hence it is that fertile vapors are fast bound, and the felicitous
harmony of the seasons interrupted.'' A hurricane of sand,
which arose in 1819 near the capital and darkened it at noontide,
puzzled this superstitious monarch, and he sent a commissioner
to ascertain where it originated, and what act of injustice on the
part of the local authorities had generated such a catastrophe.
Somebody must be found fault with, for somebody was of course
responsible, and the astronomer royal was accordingly repri-
manded for not having predicted it, and others scolded for their
mismanagement.

One of the most remarkable specimens of these papers is a
prayer for rain issued by Taukwang in 1832, on occasion of a
aevere drought at the capital. Before issuing this paper, he had
endeavored to mollify the anger and heat of heaven by ordering
all suspected and accused persons in the prisons of the metropo-
lis to be tried, and their guilt or innocence established, in order
that the course of justice might not be delayed, and witnesses
be released from confinement. But these vicarious corrections
did not avail, and the drought continuing, he was obliged, as
high-priest of the e^ipire, to show the people that he was mindful
of their sufferings, and would relieve them, if possible, by pre-
senting the following memorial :

"Kneeling, a memorial is hereby presented, to cause affiurs to be
heard.

" Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, were not the world afflicted by extraor-
dinary changes, I would not dare to present extraordinary services. But
this year the drought is most unusual. Summer is past, and no rain has
fallen. Not only do agriculture and human beings feel ihc dire calamity,
bat also beasts and insects, herbs and trees, almost cease to live. I, the
minister of Heaven, am placed over mankind, and am responsible for
keeping the world in order, and tranquillizing the people. Although it
is DOW impossible for me to sleep or eat with composure ; although I
am scorched with grief, and tremble with anxiety ; still, after all, no
genial and copious showers have been obtained.

" Some days ago, I fasted, and oflcred rich sacrifices, on the altars of

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PRAYER OF TUB EMF£ROR TOUKWANG FOR RAIN. 871

■peedy and divinely beneficial rain ; to ftave the people's lives ; and in
some degree redeem my iniquities. Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, observe
these things. Oh, alas! imperial Heaven, be gracious to them. I
am inexpressibly grieved, alarmed, and frightened. — Reverently this me-
morial is presented." — Reptaittrryy Vol. i., p. 236.

This paper apparently intimates some acknowledgment of a
ruling power above, and before a despot like the emperor of China
would place huTiself In such an equivocal posture before his peo-
ple, he would assure himself very thoroughly of their sentiments;
for its effects as a state paper would be worse than null if the least
ridicule was likely to be thrown upon it. In this case, heavy
showers followed the imperial supplications the same evening,
and appropriate thanksgivings were ordered, and sacrifices pre-
sented before ttie six altars of heaven, eanh, land and grain, and
the gods of heaven, earth, and the revolving year.

The ordera of the court, whether sent down by the emperor to
the high officers in the Boards, or directly to the provinces, are
usually in manuscript, except when some grand event or state
ceremony requires a general proclamation, in which cases, the
document is printed on yellow paper, and published in both the
Chinese and Manchu languages. Tiie governors and their sub-
ordinates, imperial commissioners, and collectors of customs,
are the principal officers in the provinces who publish their
orders to the people, consisting of admonitions, exhortations,
regulations, laws, special ordinances, threatenings, and munici-
pal requirements. Standing laws and local regulations are often
carved very beautifully on black marble, and placed in the
streets to he " held in everlaslinjj remembrance," so that no one
can plead ignorance : — a custom which recalls the mode of pub-
lishing the Twelve Tables at Rome. Several of these legal
tablets, beautifully carved, are to be seen at Canton and Macao.
The common mode of publishing the commands of government
is to print the document in large characters, and stick up copies
at the door of the offices and in the streets in public places, with
the seal of the officer attached to authenticate them. The paper
on which they are printed being only common Chinese paper,
and there being no protection from the weather, the sheets are
soon destroyed ; the people read them as they are thus exposed,
and copy them if they wish, but it is not uncommon, too, for the
magistrates to print important edicts in pamphlet form for cirou*

87S Tue MID]

lotion. The style aJopled in ihese pape^rs is the legal one, and
diSbrs from ooinmou v/ntiog as much as that docs iu English, but
in Chinese it is not involved or obscure. A single specimen of
an edict, out of many wliich could be given, will suffice lo illus-
trate the form of these popers, and moreover show upon whai
BubjeolB a Cliineae ruler sometimes legislates, and the care he is
expected to take of the people.

" Su and Hwang, by special appoiutment nagiBtretes of the districts of
Nanhai and PwHnyu, raised ten steps and recorded ten times, Hereby di«-
tinctly publish important rules for the capture of grasshoppers, that it
iTUiy be known how lo guard against them, in order to ward olf injury and
calamity. On the 7lh day oT the 8th month in the 13th year of Taukwang
(Sept. SOth, 1833), we received a. comnmnicadon from the prefect of the
[deparlmenl of Kwan^chau], Cranamitting a dispatch from their exceUeo-
cios the governor and lientenaDl-govemor, as follows:

"'During the fifth month of the present year, flights of grasaboppera
appeared in the limits of Kwangsi, in [the departmenla of] Uu, Tun,
Kwei, and Wu, and their vicinage ; which have already, according to
report, been clean destroyed and driven off. We have heard that in the
department of Kauclmu and ila neighborhood, conterminous to Ewangai,
grasabopperH have appeared which multiply with extreme rapidity. At
tills Ijme, Ibe second crop is in the blade (which if destroyed will endam-
age the people), and it is proper therefore immediately, wherever they ai*
fonnd, to capture and drive them o^ marshalling the troops to advance
and wholly exterminate them. But Kn*nngtung heretofore has never
experienced this calamity, and wo apprehend the olficf n and people do not
nnilersland the mode of capture i wherefore we now exhlMt in order tha
most important niles for catching grasshoppers. I«[ the governor^
combined forces be immediately instruclod to capture them ircundam
trrfem ; at the same lime let orders be iesued for the villagers and farmers
at once to AEsemble and take them, and for the mugistrBles to ealnblish
storehouses for their reception and purchase, thus wilhout fail sweeping
tliem clean away. If you do not ezeit you'nielf to catch the grasabop'
pers, your guilt will be very great ; let it be done carefully, not clandett-
tinely delaying, thus causing this misfortune lo come upon yoatselvea,
trancgressirtg the laws, and causing us again,accordtnglo the exigenciea
of [he case, to promulgate general orderi-, and make thorough examina-
tion, Sic, &e. Appended hereto are copies of the rules for catching
grasshoppers, which from the I ieul .-governor muai be sent to the treaauiw,
wIk) will enjoin it upon the magislmtes of the departments, and he agala
upon tlie district magistrates.'

** Having ferdved the preceding, besiiles respectfully transmitliDgitlO
ibo colonel of the department to be straightway forwarded U> ~ "

EDICT FOR THE CAPTURE OF GRASSHOPPERS. 378

troops under his authority, and also to all the district justices, that they
all with united purpose bend their energies to observe at the proper time,
that whenever the grasshoppers become numerous they join their forces
and extirpate them, thus removing calamity from the people ; we also en-
join upon whoever receives this that they cateh the grasshoppers ac-
cording to these several directions, which are therefore here arranged in
order as follows :

** * 1. When the grasshoppers first issue forth, they are to be seen on the
borders of large morasses, from whence they quickly multiply and fill
large tracts of land ; they produce their young in little hillocks of black
earth, using the tail to bore into the ground, not quite an inch in depth,
which still remain as open holes, the whole somewhat resembling a bee*s
nest One grasshopper drops ten or more pellets, in form like a pea,
each one containing a hundred or more young. For the young grasshop-
pers fiy and eat in swarms, and this laying of their young is done all at
once and in the same spot ; the place resembles a hive of bees, and
therefore it is very easily sought and found.

** * 2. When the grasshoppers are in the fields of wheat and tender rice
and the thick grass, every d^y at early dawn they all alight on the leaves
of the grass, and their bodies being covered with dew are heavy and
they cannot fiy or hop ; at noon, they begin to assemble for flight, and at
evening they collect in one spot. Thus each day there are three periods
when they can be caught, and the people and gentry will also have a
short respite. The mode of catching them is to dig a trench before
them, the broader and longer tiie better, on each side placing boards,
doors, screens and such like things, one stretched on after another, and
spreading open each side. The whole multitude must then cry aloud,
and holding boards in their hands, drive them all into the trench ; mean-
while those on the opposite side, provided with brooms and rakes, on
seeing any leaping or crawling out, must sweep them back ; then cover-
ing them with dry grass, burn them all up. Let the fire be first kindled
in the trench, and then drive them into it ; for if they are only buried up,
then many of them will crawl out of the openings and so escape.

" * 3. When the swarms of grasshoppers see a row of trees, or a close
line of flags and streamers, they usually hover over and settle ; and the
farmers frequently suspend red and white clothes and petticoats on long
poles, or make red and green paper flags, but they do not always settle
with jjreat rapidity. Moreover, they dread the noise of gongs, match-
locks, and guns, hearing which they fly away. If they come so as to
obscure the heavens, you must let ofl* the guns and clang the gongs, or
fire the crackers ; it will strike the front ranks with dread, and flying
away, the rest will follow them and depart.

'* * 4. When the wings and legs of the grasshoppers are taken off,* and
[their bodies] dried in the sun, the taste is like dried prawns, and more-

374 II 11-^ m::'!-:.!: K■!^■(.!"•■^r.

over Uiey can be kept a long time wilhout .•-poil.nrf. I)u<'k< rnn nlso bo
reared upon the dried grasshoppers, and t?oon boconic larffc mnl l:tt.
Moreover, the hill people catch them to feed pigs; these pig*, weighin;^
at fimt only twenty catties or so, in ten days' time grow to weigh more
than fifty catties ; and in rearing all domestic animals tbey are of use.
Let all farmers exert themselves, and catch them alive, giving rice or
money according to the number taken. In order to remove this calamity
from your grain, what fear is there that you will not perform this 7 Let
all these rules for catching the grasshoppers be diligently carried into
full efiect'

** Wherefore these commands are transcribed that all you soldiers and
people may be fully acquainted with them. Do you all then immediately
in obedience to them, when you see the proper time has come, sound the
gong ; and when you see the grasshoppers and their young increasing,
straightway get ready, on the one hand seizing them, and on the other
announcing to the officers that they collect the troops, that with united
strength you may at once catch them, without fail making an utter ex-
termination of them ; thus calamity will be removed from the people.
We will also then confer rewards upon those of the farmers and people
who first announce to the magistrates their approach. Let every one
implicitly obey. A special command.

** Promulgated Taukwang, 13th year, 8th month, and 15th day."*

The effect of these orders on the grasshoppers did not equal
the zeal of the officers, but swarms of locusts are neither nume-
rous nor devastating in China. The concluding part of an edict
affords some room for displaying the character of the promulgator.
Among other endings, are such as these : ^' Hasten ! hasten ! a
special edict.'' " Tremble hereat intensely." " Lay not up for
yourselves future repentance by disobedience." " I will by no
means eat my words." "Earnestly observe these things." In
their state papers, Chinese officers are constantly referring to ul-
timate truths and axioms, and deducing arguments therefrom in
a peculiarly national grandiloquent manner, though some of their
conclusions are tremendous non-sequiters. Commissioner Liu
addressed a letter to the Queen of England regarding the inter-
diction of opium, which began with the following preamble:

" Whereas, the ways of heaven are without partiality, and no
sanction is allowed to injure others in order to benefit one's self,
and that men's natural feelings are not very diverse (for where
la he who does not abhor death and love life ?)— therefore your

•Easy l/cssons in Cliinesr, pp. 223-227.

CHARACTER AND PHRASEOLOGY OF THE EDICTS. 875

honorable nation, though beyond the wide ocean, at a distance of
twenty thousand Hy also acknowledges the same ways of heaven,
the same human nature, and has the like perceptions of the dis-
tinctions between life and death, benefit and injury. Our hea-
venly court has for its family all that is within the four seas ; and
as to the great emperor's heaven-like benevolence — there is none
whom it does not overshadow ; even regions remote, desert, and
disconnected, have a part in his general care of lifeand well-beng."

The edicts furnish almost the only exponents of the inten-
tions of government. They present several characteristic features
of the ignorant conceit and ridiculous assumptions of the Chinese,
while they betray the real weakness of the authorities in the
mixture of argument and command, coaxing and threatening,
pervading every paragraph. According to their phraseology,
there can possibly be no failure in the execution of every order;
if they are once made known, the obedience of the people follows
almost as a matter of course ; while at the same time, both the
writer and the people know that most of them are but little better
than waste paper. The responsibility of the writer in a measure
ceases with the promulgation of his orders, and when they reach
the last in the series, their efficiency has well nigh departed.
Expediency is the usual guide for obedience ; deceiving supe-
riors and oppressing the people, the rule of action on the part of
officials ; and their orders do not more strikingly exhibit their
weakness and ignorance, than their mendacity and conceit.

It is not easy, without citing many examples accompanied with
particular explanations, to give a just idea of the actual execution
of the laws, and show how far the people are secured in life and
property by their rulers; and perhaps nothing has been the
source of such differing views regarding the Chinese among
writers, as the predominance they give cither to the theory or
the practice of legislation. Old Magaillans (p. 250) has hit this
point pretty well, when he says. " It seems as if the legislators
had omitted nothing, and that they had foreseen all inconveniences
that were to be feared ; so that I am persuaded no kingdom in
the world could be better governed or more happy, if tlie conduct
and probity of the officers were but answerable to the institution
of the government. But in regard they have no knowledge of
the true God, nor of the eternal rewards and punishments of the
other world, they are subject to no remorses of conscience, they

8T6 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

plttce all their happiness in pleasure, in dignity ami riches ; and
Ihcreforc, to obtain these fading advaotagcs, they violate all tb«
laws of God and man, trampling under foot religion, reason,
justice, honesty, and all tho rights of consanguinity and friend-
ship. The inferior oifioers mind nothing hut how to defraud
their auperiora, they the supreme tribunals, and all together how
to cheat the king ; which they know how to do with so much
cunning and address, making use in their memorials of words
and e:(pres3ions so soR, so honest, so respectful, so humble and
full of adulation, and of reasons bo plausible, that the deluded
prince frequently takes the greatest falselioods for solemn truths.
So that the people, finding themselves continually oppressed and
overwhelmed without any reason, murmur and raise seditions
and revolts, which have caused so much ruin and so many changes
in the empire. Nevertheless, there is no reason that the excel-
lency and perfection of the laws of China should suffer for the
depravity and wickedness of the magistrates."

MagBillans resided in China nearly forty years, and hia opinion
may be considered on the whole ns a fair judgment of the real
condition of the people and the policy of their ru!'>rs. When one
is living in the country itself, to hear the complaintsof indi^-iduals
against the extortion and cruelty of their rulers, and to read the
reports of judicial murder, torture, and crime, in the Peking
Gazettes, are enough to cause one to wonder liow auch atrocities
and oppressions are endured from year to year, and why the
sufferers do not rise and throw aside tJie tyrannous power which
thus abuses them. But the people are generally sensible that
they would really gain nothing by such a procedure, and their
desire to maintain as great a degree of pence ns possible, lewis
them to submit to many evils, which in western countries would
soon he remedied or cause a revolution. In order to restrain
the officers in their misrule, Sect. ccx. of the CoiJe ordains Ihat
" If any officer of government, whose situulion gives him power
and control over the people, not only does not conciliate ihem by
proper indulgence, but exercises his authority in a manner so
incoQsistQnt with the established laws and approved usages of tho
empire, that the senlimenls of the once loyal subjects being
his oppressive conduct, they assemble tumultuously
openly rebel, and drive him at length from lite capital city
"his government; such officer shall sutTer death."

EXTORTION OF MAGISTRATES. 377

By the laws of China, every officer of the nine ranks must be
previously qualified for duty by a degree ; in the ninth are in-
cluded village magistrates, deputy treasurers, jailers, &c., but
the police, local interpreters, clerks, and other attendaats on the
courts, are not considered as having any rank, and most of them
are natives of the place where they are employed. The only
degradation they can feel is to turn them out of their stations, but
this is hardly a palliative of the evils the people suffer from them ;
the new leech is more thirsty than the old. The cause of many
of the extortions the people suffer from their rulers is found in the
system of purchasing office, at all times practiced in one shape or
other, but occasionally publicly resorted to by the government
when the exchequer is unusually low. As the counterpart of
this system, that of receiving bribes must be expected therefore
to prevail, and being in fact practised by all grades of dignitaries,
and sometimes even upheld by them as a "necessary evil," it
adds still more to the bad consequences resulting from this mode
of obtaining office. Indeed so far is the practice of " covering
the eyes " carried in China, that the people seldom approach their
rulers without a gifl to make way for them.

One mode taken by the highest ranks to obtain money is to
notify inferiors that there are certain days on which presents are
expected, and custom soon increases these as much as the case
will admit. Subscriptions for objects of public charity or dis-
bursements, such as an inundation, a bad harvest, bursting of
dikes, and other similar things, wliich the government must look
after, are not unfrequcntly made a source of revenue to the
incumbents by requiring much more than is needed ; those who
subscribe are rewarded by an empty title, a peacock's feather, or
employment in some insignificant formality. The sale of titular
rank is a source of revenue, but the government understands the
importance of keeping the well-known channel of attaining office by
literary merit open to all, and it seldom confers much real power
for mere money, when unconnected with some degree of fitness.
The security of its own position is not to be risked for the sake
of an easy means of filling its exchequer, yet it is impossible to
say how far the sale of office and title is carried. The censors
inveigh against it, and the emperor almost apologises for resort-
ing to it, but it is nevertheless constantly practised. The
government stocks of this description were opened during the late

878 THE MIDDLE KIKGDOM.

war, as the necessities of the caso were a aufficienl excuse fcr
the disreputable practice. In 1835, the sods of two of the lead'
ing jiong-merchants were promoted, in consequence of their doQt-
tiona of 825,000 each, to repair the ravages of an innnilatian ;
subscribers to iho amount of 810,000 and upwards, were re-
warded by an honorary tillc, whose only privilege is, that it
eaves its possessor from a bambooing, it being the law that no
one holding any office can be personally chastised.

Besides the lower officers, the clerks in iheir employ, and Ilie
police who are often taken from the garrison soldiery, i
agents in the hands of the upper ranks to aqueete the people.
There arc many clerks of various duties and grades about ali
the offices who receive small salaries, and every applJc
petilion to their superiors, going through their hands, is alletided
by a bribe to poiss ihem up, The military- police and servants
connected with the offices are not pjiid any regular salary, a
Iheir number is great. In the large districts, like those of
Nonhai and Pwanyu, which compose the city of Canton and
suburbs, it is said there are about a thousand unpaid police ;
in the middle sized ones between three and four hundred, and ii
the smallest from one to two hundred. This number is increased
by the domestics attending liigh officers as part of their suite, and
by their old acquaintances who make themselves known when
there is any likelihood of being employed. Among other abuses
mentioned by the censors, is thai of magistrates appointing theif
own creatures to (ill vacancies until those nominated by his
majesty arrive ; like a poor man oppressing the poor, sucii
officers are a sweeping rain. A similar abuse is when oouDtrjT'
magistrates leave their posts to go to tho provincial ospltal to,^
dance attendance upon their superiors, and get DominatHl to fti
higher place, or taken into their service as secretaries, becausa
ihey will work for nothing ; the duties of their vacated offict^s wo
meantime usually lefi undone, and underlings take advaotoga
of their absence to make new exactions. Tho governor fillt-
vacant offices with his own friends, and recommends thein to hit
majesty to be confirmed ; but this has little efiect in consoHdaiingL
a system of oppression from the constant chan^jes gt '

The retinues of high provincial officers contain many depaa-
dents and expectant supernumeraries nil subservient to themt,
among them are the descendants of poor officers; the sonsof bankf:

AGENTS AND MODES OF OFFICIAL EXACTION. 370

rupt merchants who once possessed influence ; dissipated, well hred,
unscrupulous men, who lend themselves to everything flagitious ;
and lastly, fortune-seekers without money, but possessing talents
of good order to be used by any one who will hire them. Such
persons are not peculiar to China, and their employment is
guarded against in the Code, but no law is more a dead letter.
Officers of government, too, conscious of their delinquencies, and
afraid their posts will soon be taken from them, of course endeavor
to make the most of their opportunities, and by means of such
persons, who are usually well acquainted with the leading in-
habitants of the district, harrass and threaten such as are likely
to pay well for being lefl in quiet. It does them little or no good,
however, for if they are not removed, they must fee their supe-
riors ; and if they are punished for their misdeeds, they are still
more certain of losing their wicked exactions.

Another common mode of plundering the people is for oflicers
to collude with bands of thieves, and allow them to escape for a
composition when arrested, or substitute other persons for the
guilty party in case the real oflTenders are likely to be con«
demned. Sometimes these banditti are too strong even for an
upright magistrate, and he is obliged to overlook what he cannot
remedy ; for, however much he may wish to arrest and bring
them to justice, his policemen are too much afraid of their ven-
geance to venture upon attacking them. An instance of this
occurred near Canton in 1839, when a boat, containing a clerk
of the court and three or four police, came into the fleet of
European opium-ships to hunt for some desperate opium smug-
glers who had taken refuge there. The fellows, hearing of the
arrival of the boat, came in the night, and surrounding it, took
out the crew, bound their pursuers, and burned them alive with
the boat, in sight of the whole fleet, to whom they looked for pro-
tection against their justly incensed countrymen.

A censor, in 1819, complaining of flagrant neglect in the
administration of justice in Chihll, says : " Among the mogis-
trates are many who, without fear or shame, connive at robbery
and deceit. Formerly, horse-stealers were wont to conceal
themselves in some secret place, but now they openly bring
their plunder to market for sale. When they perceive a person
to be weak, they are in the habit of stealing his property and
returning it to him for money, while the oflicers, on hearing it.

k

S80 THE miDi

treat it as a Irivial matter, and blnme ihe sufferer for not beiag ' '
mare cautious. Thieves are apprehended with warrants on
them, showing thai when ihey were sent out to arrest thieves,
they availed of the opportunity to steal for themselves. And at
a villa^ n^ar the imperial residence are very many plunderers
concealed, who go out by night in companies of twenty or iliirty
persons, carrying weapons with ihem ; Ihey frequently call up
the inhabitants, break open the doors, and having satisfied them-
selves with what food and wine they can obtain, they threaten
and extort money, which if they cannot procure, they aeize their
clothes, ornaments, or cattle, and depart. They also frequently
go to shops, and having broken open the shutters, impudently
demand money, which if Ihey do not gel, they set fire to the shop
with the torches in their hands. If the master of liie house
apprehends a few of them, and sends them to the magistrate, he
merely imprisons alid beats them, and, before half a month,
allows them to run away."'

The unpaid retainers about the courts are very numerous, and
are more dreaded than the police ; one censor says they ara
looked upon by the people as tigers and ivolves ; he effected the
discharge of nearly 24,000 of them in the province of Cbihll
alone- They are usually continued in their places by the head
magistrate, who, when he arrives, being ignorant of the charac-
ters of those he must employ, continues such as arc likely to
serve. In cases of serious accusation, the clerks frequently
subpcena all who are likely to be implicated, and demand a tee
for liberating them when ih^ir innocence is shown. These
myrmidons still fear the nnger of their superiors, and u recoil of
the people so far as to endeavor to save appearances, by hush-
ing up the matter, and liberaling those unjustly apprehended)
with great protestations of compassion. It may be added, tbsli
as life is not lightly taken, thieves are careful not to murder or
maltreat their victims dangerously, nor do the magistrates ven-
ture to take life outright by torture, though their cruelties fre-

■nily result in denlh, by neglect or starvation. It is money
and goods both policemen and officials want, not blood at^
revenge. Parties at strife with each other frequently resort la
l^al implication to gratify their ill-will, and take a pitiful

• Chinese Repodlarj, VoL IV., p. 818.

VENALITY OF THE POLICE AND CLERKS. 861

i6Tenge by egging on the police to pillage and vex their enemy,
though they themselves profit nowise thereby.

The evils resulting to the Chinese from a half-paid and venal
magistracy are dreadful, and the prospects of their removal very
slight. The governor of Chihli, in 1829, memorialized the
emperor upon the state of the police, and pointed out a remedy
for many abuses, one of which was to pay them fair salaries out
of the public treasury; but it is plain that this remedy must
begin with the monarch, for, until an ofRcer is released from
sopping his superior, he will not cease exacting from his infe-
riors. Experience has shown the authorities how far it can
safely be carried ; while many officers, seeing how useless it is
to irritate the people, so far as ultimately enriching themselves is
concerned, endeavor to restrain their policemen. One lieut.-
govemor issued an edict, stating that none of his domestics were
allowed to browbeat shopmen, and thus get goods or eatables
below the market price ; and permits the seller to collar and
bring them to him for punishment when they did so. When an
officer of high rank, as a governor, treasurer, &c., takes the seals
of his post, he ofttimes issues a proclamation, exhorting the
subordinate ranks to do as he means to do, — '' to look up and
embody the kindness of the high emperor," and attend to the
faithful discharge of their duties. The lower officers, in their
turn, join in the cry, and a series of proclamations, by turns
hortative and mandatory, are echoed from mastiff, spaniel, and
poodle, until the cry ends upon the police. Thus the prefect of
Canton says : " There are hard-hearted soldiers and gnawing
lictors who post themselves at ferries or markets, or rove about
the streets, to extort money under various pretexts ; or, being
intoxicated, they disturb and annoy the people in a hundred
ways. Since I came into office here I have repeatedly com-
manded the Inferior magistrates to act faithfully and seize such
persons, but the depraved spirit still continues."

A censor, speaking of the police, says : — " They no sooner get
a warrant to bring up witnesses, than they assail both plaintiff
and defendant for money to pay their expenses, from the amount
of ten taels to several scores. Then the clerks must have double
what the runners get ; if their demands be not satisfied, they con-
trive every species of annoyance. Then, again, if there are peo-
ple of property in the neighborhood, they will implicate them.

They plot also wilh pettifogging lawyers to get up accm
against people, and threaten and frighten them out of their

One natural consequence of such n static of society, and such
a perversion of justice, is lo render the people afraid of all con-
tact iviih the officers of government, and exceedingly selfish in
all their intercourse, though the latter trait needs no particular
training to develop it in any heathen country. It also tends to
an inhuman disregard of the life of others, and chills every emo-
tion of kindness which might otherwise arise ; for by making a.
man responsible for ihe acts of his ncighbora, or by involving a
whole village in the crimes of an individual, all sense of justice
is violated. The terror of being implicated in any evil that
takes place sometimes prevents the people from quenching fires
until the superior authorities be first informed, and from reliev-
ing the distressed until it is often loo late. Hence, too, it not
unfrequenlly happens that a man who has had the ill fortune to
be slabbed to death in the slreci, or who falls down from disease
and dies, remains on tlie spot till the putrescence obliges the
neighbors, for their own safety to remove the corpse. A dead
body floating down the river aud washing ashore is likely to re-
main on the banks until it again drifls away, or the authorities
get il buried, for no unofficial person would voluntarily run the
risk of being seen interring it. One censor rcporin, that when
he Bsked the people why they did not remove the loathsome ob-
ject, they said, "we always let the bodies be either buried in
the bellies of fishes, or devoured by the dogs ; for if we inform
the magistrates they are sure to make the owner of the ground
buy a coffin, and the clerks and assistants distress us in a hun-
dred ways." The usual end of these memorials and remon-
strances is that the police are ordered to behave belter, the
clerks commanded to abstain from implicating innocent people
and retarding the course of justice, and their masters, the ma-
gistrates, threatened with the emperor's displeasure in case the
grievance is not remedied : — afler which all goes on as before,
and will go on as long as both rulers and ruled are what ihey
arc. Christianity is the only remedy tor the evils which afflict
both parties, the only code which will teoch them theit rights,
and give the motive for upholding them.

The working out of the principle of responsibility scoouiiti

EFFECT OF MUTUAL RESPONSIBILITY. 383

for many things in Chinese society and jurisprudence, that other-
wise appear completely at variance with even common humanity.
It makes an officer careless of his duties, if he can shifl the re-
sponsibility of failure upon his inferiors, who, at the same time,
he knows can never execute his orders ; it renders the people
dead to the impulses of relationship, lest they become involved
in what they cannot possibly control, and hardly know at the
time of its commission. Mr. Lindsay states that when he was
at Tsungming in 1832, the officers were very urgent that he
should go out of the river, and in order to show him the effisct
of his non-compliance upon others, a degraded subaltern was
paraded in his sight. *' His cap with its gold button was borne
before him, and he marched about blindfolded in procession be-
tween two executioners, with a small flag on a bamboo pierced
through each ear. Before him was a placard, with the inscrip-
tion, * By orders of the general of Su and Sung : for a breach
of military discipline, his ears are pierced as a warning to the
multitude.' His offence was having allowed our boat to pass
the fort without reporting it."

During the last war with England, fear of punishment in-
duced many of the subordinates to commit suicide when unable
to execute their orders, and the same motive impelled their su-
periors to avoid the wrath of the emperor in the same way.
The hong-merchants and linguists at Canton, during the old
regime, were constantly liable to exactions and punisiiments for
the acts of their foreign customers from the operation of this
principle. One of them, Sunshing, was put in prison and ruined
because Lord Napier came to Canton from Whampoa in the
boat of a ship he had " secured '* several weeks before, and the
linguist and pilot were banished, for allowing what they could
not possibly have hindered even if they had known it.

Having examined in this general manner every grade of offi-
cial rank, we come to the people ; and a close view will show
that tliis great mass of human beings exhibits many equally ob-
jectionable traits, and that oppression, want, feudal rivalry, and
brigandige, combine to keep it in a constant state of tur-
moil. The subdivisions into tithings and hundreds are much
better observed in rural districts than in cities, and the headmen
of those communities in their individual and collective charac-
ter, possess great influence, from the fact that they represent the

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

popular reeling. In all ports or ihc counliy this popular orgttni. '
zuion ia found in some shape or olher, (hough, as If everything
was somehow perverted, i[ not unfrcquently is an instrument of
greater oppression tlian defence. The division of the people into
clans is perhaps the cause of much of this combination, and as
tliese olans are probably remnants of the old feudal principali-
ties anterior lo the Chriaiian era, resembling in many respects
the Scottish clans, so are the evils arising froni their dissensions
and feuds comparable to those which history records of the
troubles excited among the Highlanders by the rivalry between
Campbella and Hacgregors.

The eldership of vilioges has no necessary connexion with the
clans, for the latter is unacknowledged hy the government, but
the cinn having the majority in a village generally selects the
elder from among their number. In the vicinity of Canton, the
elder is elected by a sort of town meeting, and holds his office
during good behavior, receives such a salary as his fellow villa-
gers give him, and may be removed to make way for another
whenever the principal persons iu the village are displeased with
his conduct. His duties are limited to the supervision of the
police, and general oversight of what is done in the village, and to
be a sort of agent or spokesman between the villagers and higher
authorities; the duties, the power, and the rank of these officers
vary almost indefinitely. The preponderance of one clan pre-
vents much strife in the selection of the elder, but the degree of
power reposed in his hand is so small that there is probably little
competition to obtain the dignity. A village police is maintained
by the inhabitants, under the authority of the elder ■ the village
of Whampoa, for instance, containing about 8,(100 inhabitanis,
pays the elder 8300 salary, and employs fourteen watchmen.
His duties further consist in deciding upon the petty questions
arising between the villagers, and visiting the delinquents with
chas*isemenl, enforcing such regulations os are deemed neceasaty
regarding fealivals, markets, tanks, streets, collection of taxev,
tie. The system of surveillance ia, however, kept up by the
superior oHicers, who appoint excise officers, grain agents, tide-
waiters, or some other subordinate, as the case may require, to
exercise a general oversight of the headmen.

The district magistrate, with the tiunkien and their deputies over
the hundred, are the ofGoers lo whom appeals are carried from

V1LI.AGS ELDERS AND THEIR POWERS. 889

the headmen ; thoy also receive the reporls of tlie elders respect-
ing suspicious charactcni wiihin their limits, or othtr matters
which they <tccm worthy of reference or remonstrance. A aimi-
Inrily of interests leads the headmen of many villages to meet
togetlicr at times in u public hall for secret cnnsuliBlion upon
important mntlcrs, and Iheir united rcsolulioiis arc generally acted
upon by themselves or the magistrates, oslhc coiie may be. This
system of eldership, ond the influential position the headmen
occupy, is an important safeguard the people possess against tho
cxlrejnily of oppressive extortion ; while loo it upholds the go-
vernment in strengthening the loyalty of those wlio feel that the
only security they possess ngainst theft, and loss of all tiiingti
from their seditious countrymen, is to uphold the iitstiiutions of
the land ; nnd that to sufler ihe evils of a bad magi^racy is less
dreadful than the horrors of a lawless brignndige.

The cuBlotns and laws of clanship perpetuate a sad stale of
society, and render districts and villages, otherwise peaceful, the
scene* of unceasing turmoil and trouble. There are only about
four hundred clans in the whole of Chino, but inasmuch as all
of the same surname do not live in the same place, ihe separation
of a clan answers the same purpose as multiplying it. Claiiniali
feelings and feuds appear to be much stranger in Kivanglung and .
Puhliien than in olh-^r provinces, but perhaps only because foreign-^
en bear more of their outbreaks than elsewhere. As an instanoaj
which may \te mentioned, the Gazette cnntains the petition of ^
man from Chauchau fu in Kwangtung relating to q quarrel, stotij
ing, " that four years before, his kindred having refuse<
two other clans in tlietr feuds, had during that period suffi'redjj
most shocking cruelties. Ten persons had been hilled, andJ
twenty men and women, taken captives, had had their eyes dui^S
Dul, Iheir ears cm off, their feet maimed, and so rendered u
for life- Thirty housts v^ere laid in ruins, and three hundre
acres of land seized, ten thousand laels plundered, aneeslrd^ J
temples thrown down, graves dug up, dikes destroyed, and watcf'J
cut off from the fields. The governor hod oflered a reward of J
a thousand taels to any one who would apprehend these persona
but for the ten murders no one had been executed, for the polioaj
dare not seize the offenders, whose numbers hove lorgoly ]
increased, and who set the laws at defiance." This region la
tfptorioua for the turbulence of its inhabitants ; it adjoins the
IB

L

u

province of Fuhkicn, and llic quiet puopli

bers to the Indian Archipelago or lo othi

Gazelles contain still more dreadful accounts of ihc

the cinns, and the great loss of life and property resulting fram

their forays, no less than one hundred and twenty villager having

bfien attacked, and thousands of people killed. These battle*

are constantly occurring, and the auihorilies feeling theraselvea

too weak to put them down, are obliged lo connive at Ulein, and

let the clans fight it out.

Ul will is kepi up belween the clans, and private revenges
gmlified, by every pei'sonal annoyance ihat malice can suggest or
opportunity tempt. If an unforlunatc individual of one clan is
met alone by his enemy, he is sure to be robbed or beaten, or
both; ihe boats or the houses of each party are plundered or
burned, and legal redress is almost impossible. Graves ara
defaced and tombstones injured, and on ibe anuual visit to th«
family sepulchre perhaps a putrid corpse is met, placed there
by the hostile clan ; this insult arouses all their ire, and tliej
vow deadly revenge. The villagers sally out with such arms as
they possess, and death and wounds arc almost sure lo result
before tliey separate. In Shunteli (a district between Canton aod
Macao), upwards of a thousand men engaged with spears and
firearms on one of these occasions, and thiriy-»x lives were lost;
the military were called in to quell the riot. In Tungkwan dis>
trict, near the Bogue, thirty-sis ringleaders were apprehended,
and in 1331, it was reported that four hundred persons had been
killed in these raids; only t wen ly- seven of their kindred appeaJad
to government for redress.

When complaint is made to the prefect or governor, and iove*-
tigation becomes inevitable, the villagers have a provision to meet
the exigencies of the case, which puts the burden of the charge*
as equally as possible upon the whole clan. A band of "devoted
men " are found, — persons who volunteer lo assume such crimes
and run their chance for life — whose names are kept on a lis^

id they come forward and surrender themselves to govemmeiU

: tlie guilty persons. On the trial, their friends employ wit-
nesses lo prove it a justiliable homicide, and magnify the provoca^
(ion, and if there are several brought on the stand at once, thejr
try to get some of them clear by proving an alibi. It not unlre.
quently happens that the accused are acquitted, and not very oftefl

EVILS t-F THE FEtr&S BETWEEN ;LANS. 387

that ihey are cxeculcd ; Iransporlntion or Tiub is tho usual reauli.
Theinducemetit Tor persons to run tliia risk ofihcir lives, is security
from the clan of a maintenance I'or tbeir families in cose of
dealh, and a reward sometimes as high as $300 la land or
money when they return. Tliia sum is raised by taxing [he
clan or village, and the imposition falls heavily on llie poorer
portion of it, wiio can neither avoid nor easily pay il. This
system of substitution pervades all parts of society, and for all
misdemeanors. A person was strangled in Macao in 1838, for
having been engaged in the opium trade, who had been hired by
the real criminal to answer to his name j il is not known what
sum was paid him. Another mode of escape, sometimes tried in
such cases wlien the person has been condemned, is to bribe the
jailers to report him dead, and carry out his body in a coffin ;
but this device probably docs not oflen answer the end, as the turn-
keys require a larger bribe than can be raised. There can be
little doubt of the prevalence of the practice in all parts of China,
and for crimes of even minor penally.

To increase the social evils of clanship and systematized
thieving, local tyrants occasionally spring up, persons who rob
and maltreat the villagers by means of their armed retainers, who
arc in most cases, doubtless, members of the same clan. One
of these tyrants, named Ytk, or Leaf, became quite notorious in
the district of Tungkwan, near ilie Bogue, about fifteen years
since, setting at defiance all the power of the local oulhoriiica ,'
and sending out his men to plunder and ravage whoever resisted
his demands, destroying their groves and grain, and piyticularly
molesting those who would not deliver up their wives or daugh-
ters to gratify him. He was arrested in an underhand way by
the district magistrate at Canton leaving his office, and inducing
him for old acquaintance sake to return with him to the provin-
cial city ; he was there tried and executed by the lieutenant-
governor, although il was at the time reported that the Board of
Punishments endeavored to save his life, because he had been
in office at the capital. Id order that no attempt should be made
to rescue him, he was IpA in ignorance of his sentence, until he
was put into the sedan to be carried to execution.

Clannish banditti ofien supply themselves with fireorms, end
prowling the country to revenge themselves on their enemies,
soon proceed to pillage eve-rv one ; the government is sometimes

ro

I "

1.

m

obliged to resort lo contemptible subterfuges in disarming ti
which conspicuously show its weakness, and encourages a repe-
tition of tbe evil. Parlies of poor persons, who call themsfiWes
guests, are of^en seen squatting on the vacant places along ilje
shores, away from the villages, and forming small clannish com-
munities; as soon as they increase, occupying more anii more
of the land, tliey begb to commit petty depredations upon Uie
crops of ihe inhabitants, and demand money for Ihe privilege of
burying upon ihe unoccupied ground around them- The govern-
ment are generally unwilling to drive them off by force, because
there is the alternative of making them robbers thereby, and
Ihey are invited lo settle in other waste lands, which ihey can
have free of taxation, and leave those they have cutlivaled, if
strictly private property. This practice shows the populousneas
of the country in a conspicuous manner. To these evils must be
also added the large bodies of floating banditti or dacaits, who rove
up and down all the water-courses " like sneaking rats," and
pounce upon defenceless boats. Hardly a river or estuary in
the land is free from these miscrnanls, and lives and property
are annually destroyed by them lo a very great amount, especi-
ally on Ihe Yangtsz' kiang, the Pearl river, and other great
thoroughfares.

The popular associations in cities ond towns are chiefly basw!
upon a community of interests, resulting either from a ^milarily
of occupation, when the leading persons of the sar
form themselves into guilds, or from the municipal regulations
requiring the householders living in the same street to unitu lo
maintain a police, and keep the peace of their divisioD. Each
guild has an assembly-hall, where its members meet to hold the
festival of their patron saint, lo collect and appropriate the sub*
of the members, and settle Ihe rent or storage on the
rooms and goods in the hall, to discuss all public matlera as well

Ihe good cheer they get on such occasions, and to confer with
other guilds. The members oflen go to a great expense in emu-
lating each other in their processions, and some rivalry exists
regarding their rights, over which the government keeps a watch-
for all popular nssemhlies are iis horror. The shop-
keepers and householders in the same street are required lo
have a headman, to superintend the police, watchmen, and bog-
,gan within his limits. The rulers are sometimes thwarted in

their designs by both Ihese foriiis of popular assemblies, and they
DO doubt lend in many ways lo keep up a degree of independence
and of mutual acquaintanc?, which compels the respecl of ihe
government. The governor of Canton endeavored to search all
the shops in a particular Btrcei in ihe city in 1S3^ lo ascertain if
there was opium in them ; but ihc shopmen liame in a body
at the head of the street, and told the policemen that ihey would
on no account permit their shops to be searched, and the governor
deemed it beat to retire. Those who will not join or agree to
what the majority orders in these bodies, occasionally experience
petty tyronn)', bat in a city this must be comparatively trifling.
Several of the leading men in the city are known to hold meet-
ings for consultation in still more popular assemblies for difTerent
reasons of a public and pressing nature. There is a building
at Canton called llie Ming-lun Tang, or Free Discussion Hall,
where political matters are discussed under the knowledge of
government, which rather tries to mould than put them down, for
the assistance of such bodies, rightly managed, in carrying out
their intentions, is considerable, while discontent would be roused
if ihey were forcibly suppressed. In Oct. 1642, meetings were
held in this hall, at one of which a public manifesto was issued,
here quoted entire ns a specimen of the public appeals of Chinese
polilicious and demagogues.

" We hive been reverently consulting upon the empire — ■ vast and
uiulivided whole ! How can we permit it to be severed in order lo give
it to others ! Yet we, the rastic people, can learn to practise a rude
loyally ; we too know to destroy the banditti, and thus requite his majesty.
Our Great Pure dynasty has cared for this country for more than two
hundred years, during which a succession of distinguished mooarchs,
sage succeeding sage, has reigned ; and ive who eat the herb of Ihe
field, and tread tho «oiI, hare Tor ages drank in the dew of imperial good-
ness, and been imbued with its benevolence. The people in wilds (ar
remote beyond our inSuence, have also felt this goodness, comparable
to the heavens for height, and been upheld by this bounty, like the earth
for thickness. Wherefore peace being now settled in the country, ehips
of all lands come, distant though thej be from this for many a myriad
of miles; and of all the foreignera on the south and west there is not
one but what enjoys the highest peace and contentment, and ei
the profoundeet respect and submission.

" Bat there is that English nation : whose ruler is now a
then a man, its people at one time lilie birds and then lilw beasts, with

L

diaposilioiig more fierce and fnrtoiiR Ilion Ihe tigsr or wolf, and Imnto
more greedy than the enake or hog, — 'liis people has ever stealthily
devoured all the Ktuthorn barbarians, and like ibo demon or the night
tliey now suddenly exalt llicmselvea. During- the reigns of Kienlung
and Kiaking, these English barbariana humbly bcBOughl eolrsnce and
permission to make a present ; tliey also prcBumptuously requested to
have ChuBHn, but those divine personages, clearly perceiving their trai-
torons designs, gave them a peremptory refusal. From that time, link-
ing themselves in with traitorous Iradem, they have privily dwell itt
Macao, trading largely in opium and poieoning our brave people. They
have mined lives, — how many millions notie can tell; and wasted pro-
perty— how many thousands of millions who can guess! They tmvo
ditred again and again to murder Chinese, and have secreted the murder-
ers, whom they have refused to deliver up, at which the hearts of dl men
grieved and their heads ached, Thus it has been that for many yean
past, the English by their privily watching for opportunities in Ihe coun-
try have gradually brought things to tlie pre^nt crisis.

"In 1838, our great emperor having fully learned all Ihe crimes of
tlie English, and the poisouoiiB efiecta of opium, quickly wished to restore
the good condition of the conulry and compassionate the people. In con-
sequence of the memorial of Hwang Tsiohsz', and in accordance to hi«
request, he specially deputed the public minded, upright, and clearheaded
minisIerLinTsebsii, toact as his imperial commissioner with plenipoten-
tiary powers, and go to Ctinton to examine and regulate. He came and
took all the stored up opium and stopped the trade, in order U
the stream andculolftiie fountain; kindness was mixed with hi
ty, and virtue was evident in his laws, yet still the^nglish repented not
of their errors, and aa the climax of their contnmacy called Iroops lo
their aid. The ceniior Hwang, by advising peace, threw down Ihe bar-
riers, und bands of audacious robbers, willingly did all kinds of disrepu-
table and villainous deeds. During the past three years, these rebels,
depending upon Iheir stout ships and el&ctive cannon, from Canton
to Fuhkien. thence to Chehkiang, and on to Kiangsu, seinng ottr terri-
tory, destroying our civil and military aulhoritiea, ravishing our women,
capluring our property, and bringing upon the inhabitants of these four
provinces intolerable miseries. His imperial majesty was troubled and
afflicted, and this added to his grief and anxiety. If you wish to purify
Iheir crimes, all the fuel in the empire will not suffice, nor would the
vast ocean bo enough to wash out our resentment. Gods and men
alike filled with indignation, end heaven and earth cannot permit Ihem
to remain.

"Recently, those who have hod the management of affiiira in Kiang-
nan have been imitating those who were in Canton, and at the gates
of the city they have willingly made an agreement, peeling off the &t

of the people to iho tune of hundreds of myriads, and all lo save Ihe
precioUE lives of one or two uttaleas offii^ra ; in doing which they have
exactly verified what chancellor Kin Yinglin had before meinorialiEad.
Now Ibese EogliEh rebels ate barhnrians dwclliog in a petty ialaud
beyowl uur domiunB ; yet Uieir coming Ihrows myriads of mile* of coun-
try into turmoil, while llieir numbers do not exceed a few myiiada.
What can be easier tJian for our celestial dynasty to exert its fullness
of power, and exterminsle Ihese contemptible sea-going imps, just as the
blast bends tl« pliant bamboo! But our highest oflicere and niiaiElera
cheriab their precious llvea, and civil and military men both dread a dog
as they would a tiger; regardless of the eiiemiea of their country or the
griefs of the people, they have actually sundered the empire and granted
its wealth ; acts more flagitious these than those of the tmiion in the
days of the Southern Sung dynasty, and the reasons for whicti are
wholly beyond our comprclicnaion. These English barbarinna are at
bottom witl»ut ability, and yet we have all along seen in the memorials
that ofticera exalt and diUle upon their prowess and obstinacy; our
people are courageous and enlliusiastic, but tlie officers on the contrary
say that they are dispirited and scattered; this Is for no uClier reason
than to coerce our prince to moke peace, nnd then they uill luckily avoid
the penalty due for 'deceiving the prince and betraying Ihe country.'
Do yon doubt? Then look at the memorial of chancellor Kin Yinglin
which says, ' They take the occasion of war to seek for self-aggrandize-
ment ;' every word of which directly pcnula at such conduct as this.

" We have recently read iu his raajeity's lucid mandate, that, ' There
is DO other way, and what is requested must be'granted ;' and that, > We
have conferred extruordinitry jiowera upon llie minisletB, and they havo
done nothing bnt deceive us.' Looking up we perceive his majesty's
clear diacrimination and divine perception, and that he was ftilly aware
of the imbecility of his ministers ; he remembers too the loyal anger of
hie people. He has accordingly now tempomrily settled all the present
difUcallies, but it is thai, having matured his plans, he may hereafter
manifest his indigiialbn, and show to the empire that it had not falhomed
Ihe divine awe-inspiring counsels,

" The dispositions of llicae rebellious English are like that of the dog
or sboep, whose dceirEe can never bo satislicd; and therefore we need
not inquire whether the peace now made be real or pretended. Remem-
ber that when they last year made dislurlmnce at Canton, Ihoy seiied
the Square fort, and thereupon exhibited Ihciraudacily, everywhere plun-
dering and ravishiiig. If il had not been that the patriotic inhabilants
dwelling In Hwailsing and other hamlets, and those in Shingping, had
not killed their leader and destroyed tlieir devitisb soldiers. Ihey would
have Bcropled at nothing, taking and pillaging ibc city, and then liring it
in order 'j> gratify their leagcaoce and greediness: can we imagine

L j^;

that for the paltry euro of eix millionB of dolla™ they would, an rtiej &S,
have raised the wige nnd relirpdT Ilou' to be regretleJ 1 Tliat when
fhe fUib was in the fr}'in|;-piin, the Kwniifcliau fu should rotns and pall
away tlie lirewood, let loo«@ the tiger to return to tlie mountains, «nd
disarm the people's iiidignatian. Letting tlie enemy thui escape on one
DCcaaioD has succeaiively bruuglit misery upon many provlnrea : when-
ever we ipeak of it, it wounds the heart, and causes tlte teara to flow.

"Last year when the treaty of peace was made, it was agreed that
the Eoglinb should willidraw from beyond Lankeet, Ihul tliey should give
back the forts near there, and dweil temporarily at Mimgluing, and that
thenceforlh all military operations were for ever lo cease : who would
have supposed that before the time xtipiilatcd hsd pas-icd away, tbey
would have turned tlieir baoks upon this agreeroeat, taken violent poa-
seasion of the forts at the Bfigiie with tlieir ' wooden dragons ' (i. e. ships
of war), — and when tliey ca.rae upon the gates of the City of Rams
with their powerful ftvoes, wlni was there to oppose ihcml During
theae three years, we have nut been able t^ reslure things aa at first,
and their deceplivo cmrtineas ihen coiilined to theue r^ions haa rapidly
exteiHJed il«elf loKinngnan. tint our lii^li ami inlghly emperor, preimi-
nenlJy intelligent and discerning (/;(. graa|iing the goJden mirror and
holding the gcmmeoua balance^;), coiisonls to demean himself to adopt
aoolMng counsels of peace, and therefore tubmissively accords with tlie
decrees of heaven. Uaving a saapicion that these onilandidi people
intended to incroach upon us, be has secretly arranged all things, VVe
have respectfully read through all bis mDJeEty's nandalen, and they are
as clennrighted as the suri and nwon ; but thwe who now [lunage a&irsa
are like one who auppoaing llie raging lire to bo under, puts himself as
ranch at nase a» t^wnllona in a court ; but who, if the calamity smUenly
reippears, would be ns defenceless ns a grampus in a. tiahmarket. The
law adjudges the penalty of dcnlh for betraying the coimtiy, hut how
can even death atone for their crimes T Those persona who have been
handed down to succeeding ages with honor, nnd those whose memorlea
have been execrated, are but tittle apart on the pageof righteoua history;
let our rulers but remember Ibis, and we think they also miiat neit
themselves to recover their cliaraclers. We jieople have hud our day
in limea of great peace, and this ago is one of uhundant prosperity;
scholars are devising how to recompense the kindness of the govern-
ment, nor can husbandmen think of forgetting bis majesty's eicertiona
lijr them. Our indignation was early excited to join balUe with the
enemy, and wo then all urged one anotlier to the firmest loyalty.

We have heatd the English intend to come into Pearl river and

settlement ; this will not, however stop at Cliineso und inreign-

ers merely dwelling together, for men and beasts cannot cndoro emoh

aba; it wilt be like openiog tbe door and bowing in the thiei,ot setting

the gale ijir and letting the wolf in. While Ihey were kept outside,
there were many traitors within ; how much more, when they incroaoh
even to our bedeides, will our troubles be augmented ? We cannot help
fearing it will eventuate in something strange, which words will be in-
safficienC to express. If the rulers of other slates wish to imitate tlie
English, with what can their demands be waived ? Consequently, the
unreasoQable demands of the English are going to bring great calamity
npoQ the people, and deep sorrow to the couulJy. If we do not permit
them to dwell with us under the same heaven, our spirits will feel no
shame; but if we willingly consent to live with them, we may in mith
be deemed insensate.

" We have reverently read in the imperini mandate, ' There must in-
deed be some persona among the people of extraordinary wisdom or
bravery, who can stir them up to loyalty anJ patriotism, or unite them in
self-defence ; some who can assist tlie government and army to recover
the cities, or else defend passes of importance against the robbers ; some
who can atl&ck and burn their vessels, or seize and brintf tlie heads of
their doItiEh leaders ; or else some with divine prescience and wisdom,
who can diselosa all their silly counsels, and get to themselves a name
of surpaBsing merit and ability, and receive the highest rewards. We
can confer, &c., &c.' We, the people having received the imperial
words, have united ourselves togellier as troops, and practise tlie plan of
joining hamlets and villagea till wo liave upwards of a milUon of troopa,
whom we have provisioned according to the ecala of estimating tiie
produce of respective farms ; and now we are fully ready and quite at
ease as to the result. If nothing calls us, then each one will return to
his own occupation ; but if the summons come, juining our strength in
force, we will incite each other to efliirt ; our brave sons and brothers
are oil animated to deeds of arms, and even our wives and daughters,
titiicB] and delicate as jewels, have learned to discourse of arms. At
first, alas, those who guarded the [tassee were at ease and careless, and
the robbers came unUdden and undesired ; but now [if Ihey come],
we have only xealously to appoint each otlier to stations, and suppress
the rising of the waves to the stillest calm (i. e. to exterminate them).
When (he golden pool is fully restored to peace, and his majesty's
anxiety for the soiitli relieved ; when leviathan haa been driven away,
then will our anger, comparable to tlie broad ocean and high heavens,
be pacified.

•'Ahl Wo hero bind ourselves to vengeance, and express these our
sincere intentions in order to exliibit great principles ; and also to mani-
fest heaven's retribution and rejoice men's hearts, we now issue thia
patriotic declaration. Tlie high gods clearly behold : do not lose your
first resolution."— CM. Rep., Vol. xi., p. 630.

This Bpirited paper was subsequently

by the party

L

ii

304 TH£ MIDDLE KINGUOM.

desirous of peace, but the anti-English feeling prevailed, and iho
committee appointed by the meeting, liet the English consulato
on fire a few days after, to prevent it being occupied.

The many secret associations ejtisling among ihe people are
mostly of B political character, but have creeds like religious
sects, and differ slightly in iheir tenets and objects of worship.
They are traceoble to the system of clans, which giving the
people at once the habit and spirit for associations, are easily
made use of by oJever men, for their own purposes of oppoHJtion
to government. Similar grievances, as local oppression, hatred
of the Manchus, or hope of advantage, add lo their numbers and
strength, and were they founded on a full acquaintance with
the grounds of a just resistance lo despotism, they would soon
overturn the government - but as out of an adder's egg only a
cockatrice can be hatched, so until the people are enlightened
with regard to their just righis, no permanent melioration can
be expected. Il is against Ihal leading feature in the Manohu
policy, isolation, that these sociolies sin, which further prompts
to the systematic efforts of the present dynasty to suppress Uiem.
The only objection the supreme government seem to have against
the religion of the people, is that it brings tbem together ; they
may be Budhisls, Ralionaiisls, Jews, Mohammedans, or Chris-
tians, apparently, if they will worship in secret and apart. On
the other hand, the people being excluded from the state religion,
naturally connect religion with opposition to the state, and base
the latter tipon superstitions and secret rites, which will more
securely bind them together.

The name of the most powerful of these associations ia men-
tioned in Sect, clxii. of the Code for the purpose of interdicting
it ; since then it has apparently changed its designation from the
Pih-tien, kiau or Water-lily sect, to ihe Tien-ti hmui or San-hoh
hiotti, i. e. Triad society, though both names still etisi ; ..iiR
former in the northern, the latter in the maritime provinces, and
Indian Archipelago; and their ramifications take also oilier
appellations. The object of these combinations is to overturn Ihe
reigning dynasty, and id putting this prominently forward they
engage many to Join them. About the beginning of the century,
ide spread rebellion broke out in the north-western and middle
provinces, which was put down after eight years' war, attended
with desolation and bloodshed ; since that time the Water-lily

A»D THEIR INFLUENCE. 395

sect has not been so often spoken of. The Triad Sociely hua
extended itself along the coasts, but il is not popular, owing more
ihaD anything else lo its ill^aiity, and the intimidalion nnd opprea.
sion employed towards those who will not join it. The members
have secret regulations and signs, and uphold and assist eacli
other both in good and bad acts, but as might be inferred from
their character, screening evil doers from just punishment oftener
than relieving distressed members. The original designs of the
associalion may have been good, but what was allowable in them,
soon degenerated into a systematic plan for plunder and aim at
power. The English government of Hongkong, enacted in 1S45,
that any Chinese living in that colony who was ascertained to
belong lo the Triad society, should be declared guilty of felony,
bo imprisoned for three years, and after branding expelled the
colony. These associations, iflhey cause the government much
trouble by interfering with its operations, in no liltle degree,
through [he overbearing conduct of the leaders, uphold it by show-
ing the people what may be expected if they should ever get the
upper hand.

The evils of mal-adminislration are to be learned chiefly from
ihe memorials of censors, and although ihey may color their
atulements a little, very gross inaccuracies would bn availed of
lo their own disadvantage, and contradicted by so many compe-
titors, that most of their stalcmenta may be regarded as having
some foundation. An unknown peraon in Kwanglting memo-
rialized the emperor in 1638 concerning the condition of that
province, and drew a picture of the extortions of the lower agents
of government that needs no illustrations lo deepen its darkness,
or add force to its complaints. An extract from each of the six
heads into which the memorial is divided, will indicate the prin-
cipal sources of popular insurrection in China, besides the
exhibition they give oftiin tyranny of the officers.

In his prefiice, slier the usual laudation of the beneficence and
popularity of ihe monarch, the memorialist proceeds to express
his regret that the impcriiii desires for the welfare of his subjects
should be so grievously thwarted by the villainy of his officers.
After mentioning rhe calamiliea which had come upon the
province in Ihe shape of freshets, insurrec lions, and conflagra-
tions, he Bays thai affairs generally had become so bad as lo
compel his majesty lo send commissioners lo Canton repeatedly

8H THE IHIDOLE KI.VOmH.

in order to regulate them. " If such os this bo indeed the slAte
of things," he inquires, " what wonder is it if habits of plunder
chnraclcrize llie people ; or the clerks and under'oJTiccrs of the
public cDurta, as well ns village peltiftTggers, Iny theiiinelves out
on all occoaiona, to stir up quarrela and instigate false accusa-
tions against ihe good ?" He recommeDds reform in six depart-
ments, under each of which he thus specifies the evils to be
remedied.

Firtt. — In the deporlmeni of police, there is great negligence,
and delay in the decision of judiuiul cases. Coses of ptiinder
are very common, most of which are committed by banditti,
under the designations of Triad societies. Heaven and Earlb
brotherhoods, &c. These nten carry off persons to extort a
ransom, falsely assume the character of policemen, and in simu-
lated re venue- cullers pass up and down Ihe rivers, plundering
the boats of travellers, and forcibly carrying oflT the women.
Husbandmen are obliged to pay ibi^se robbers an " indemnity,"
or else as soon as the crops are ripe, they come and carry off
the whole harvest. In the precincts of Ibo metropolis, where
their contiguity to the tribunals prevents (heir committing violent
depredations in open day, they set lire to bouses during the night,
and under the pretence of saving and defending the persons and
property, carry off both of them : hence, of late years, calami-
tous fires have increased in frequency, oiid the bands of robtten
multiplied greatly. In cases of altercations among ibe villager*,
who can only use their local patois, it rests entirely with the
clerks to interpret the evidence ; and when the magistrate is lax
or pressed with business, Ihey have ibe evidence pre-arranged.
«nd join with bullies and sirife-makera to subvert right and
wrong, fattening themselves upon bribes extorted under the
names of " memoranda of complaints," " purchases o( replies,"
&c., and retarding indefinitely the decision of cases. They also
instigate thieves to bring false accusations against the good, who
are thereby ruined by legal expenses. While the officers of the
governmenl and Ihe people are thus separated, how can it be
otherwise than that appeals to the higher tribunals should be
increased, and litigation and strife prevail ?

SeeoTid. — Magistrates overrate the laxea with a view to a
deduction for their own benefit, and excise officers connive at

n-paymenl. The revenue of Kwangtung is paid entirely in

H0DB8 AJXD KESULTS OF OFFICIAL OPPRESSION. 397

money, and the magistrates instead of taking the commutation at
a regular price of about $5 for 150 lbs. of rice, have compelled
the people to pay $9 and over, because the inundation and bad
harvests had raised the price of grain. In order to avoid this
extortion, the police go to the villagers, and demand a douceur,
when they will get them off from all payment. But the imperial
coffers are not filled by this means, and the people are by and by
forced to pay up their arrearages, even to the loss of most of their
possessions.

Third. — ^There is great mismanagement of the granaries, and
instead of being any assistance to the people in times of scarcity,
they are only a source of peculation for those who are charged
'with their oversight.

Fourth, — The condition of the army and navy is a disgrace,
illicit traffic is not prevented, nor can insurrections be put down.
The only care of the officers is to obtain good appointments, and
reduce the actual number of soldiers below the register, in order
that they may appropriate the stores. The cruisers aim only, to
get fees to allow the prosecution of the contraband traffic, nor
will the naval officers bestir themselves to recover the property
of plundered boats, but rather become the protectors of the law-
less and partakers of their booty. Robberies are so common on
the rivers, that the traders from the island of Hainan, and Chau-
chau near Puhkien, prefer to come by sea, but the revenue
cutters overhaul them under pretence of searching for contraband
articles, and .practise many extortions.

Fifth, — ^The monopoly of salt needs to be guarded more strictly,
and the private manufacture of salt stopped, for thereby the
revenue from this source is materially diminished.

Sixth. — The increase of smuggling is so great, and the evils
flowing from it so multiplied, that strong measures must be taken
to repress it. Traitorous Chinese combine with depraved foreign-
ers to set the laws at defiance, and dispose of their, opium and
other commodities for the pure silver. In this manner, the
country is impoverished and every evil arises, the revenues of
the customs are diminished by the unnecessary number of per-
sons employed, and by the fees they receive for connivance.
If all these abuses can be remedied, " it will be seen that when
there are men to rule well, nothing can be found beyond the
reach of their government."

396

THE f

The chief efibrts of the officers are directed to put down i
ditti, and maialain such a degree of peace a& will enable ihem
to collect the revenue, and secure the people in ihe quiei posses-
won of ihcir property; but iho lawless disposition of ilie people
themselves acting against the illegal demands of the rulers, brings
into operation a constant struggle of opposing desires ; the peo-
ple get into the habit of resisting even ihe proper requisitions of
the officers, who, on their part, endeavor in every way to reim-

' burse their outlay in bribes to iheir superiors ; and ihe combined

action of the two proves an insurmountable impediment to the at-

' tainment of even that degree of security a Chinese officer wishes.

The general commission of robbery and dacoity, and the preva-
lence of bands of thieves, therefore proves ihe weakness of the
government, not the insurrectionary disposition of the people.
In one district of Hupeh, the governor reported in 1828, "thai
very few of the inhabitants have any regular occupation, and
their dispositions are exceedingly ferocious ; they fight and kill
each other on every provocalion. In iheir villages they harbor

i thieves, who flee from other districts, and sally forth again to

plunder." In the nortliern parts of Kwangtung, the people have
erected high and strongly built houses to which they flee for
safety from the attacks of robbers. These bands sometim
upon each other, and the feudal animosities of clanship adding
fuel and rage to the rivalry of partisan warfare, the destruotioa
of life and property is great. Occasionally the people zealously
assist their rulers to apprehend them, though their exertions de-
pend altogether upon the energy of the incumbent ; an officer ii
Fuhkien is recommended for promotion because he had appre-
I hended 173 persons, part of a band of robbers which had infested

the department for years, and tned and convicted 1 I6D criminals,
most or all of whom were probably executed.

In 1821, there were four hundred robbers taken on the borders

yof Fuhkien ; in 1827, two hundred were seized in the south o
the province, and forty-one more brought to Canton from the
eastward. The governor offered 81000 reward, in 1828, for the
capture of one leader, and $3,000 for another. The judge of
the province put forth a proclamation upon the subject in the
same year, in which he saj's there were four hundred and thirty
undecided cases of robbery by brigands then on the calendar ;
|Iid in 1846, there were upwards of two thousand waiting his

PHEVALCNCE OF BANDITTI. 89S

decision, for each of which ihere were perhaps five or sii: per-
eons waiting in prison or under constraint until the case was set-
tled. These bands prowl in the large cities, and commit great
cruelties. In 1830, a party of five hundred openly plundered a
rich man's house in the western suburbs of Canton; and in
Shuntch, south of the city, S600 were paid for the ransom of two
persons carried off by them. The ex-governor, in 1831, was
attacked by them near the Mei ling pass on his departure from
Canton, and plundered of about ten thousand dollars. The
magistrates of Hiangshan district, south of Canton, were ordered
by their superiors llie same year to apprehend five hundred of
the robbers. Priests sometimes harbor gangs in their temples,
and divide the spoils with them, and occasionally go out them-
selves on predatory excursions. No mercy is shown these mis-
creants when (hey are taken, but the multiplication of execuliona
has no effect in deterring them from crime.

Cruelty to individual prisoners does not produce so much dis-
turbance to the general peace of Ihe community as the forcible
attempts of officers to collect taxes. The people have the im-
pression that their rulers exact more than is legal, and conse-
quently consider opposition to the demands of the tax-gatherer
as somewhat justifiable, which compels, of course, more stringent
measures on the pari of the authorities, whose station depends
not a little on their punctuality in remitting the taxes. Bad
harvests, freshets, or other public calamities, render the people
still more disinclined to pay the assessments. In 1845, a serious
disturbance arose near Ningpo on this account, which with un-
important differences, could probably be paralleled in every
department of the provinces. The people of Funghwa hien,
having refused to pay an onerous tax, the prefect of Ningpo,
seized three literary men of the place, who had been deputed to
colled it, and put them in prison ; this procedure so irritated the
gentry that the candidates at the literary examination which
occurred at Funghwa soon al^crwards, on being assembled at the
public hall before the ch[hien, rose upon him and beat him
severely. They were still further incensed against him from
having recently detected him in deceitful conduct regarding a
petition they had made at court to have their taxes lightened;
he had kept the answer, and pocketed the difference. He was
consequently superseded by another magistrate, and a deputy of

I Btrouj

400 THE MIDDLE

the inlendant of circuit was sent wiih the new incumbent
restore order, Qui the deputy, full of his importaDce, carried
himseir so huughlily, thai the excited populace treated him ia
the saJUB manuer, and he narrowly escaped to Ningpo with his
life. The intendant and prefect, Ending matters rising to such
a pitch, sent a detachment of twelve hundred troops to restore
orier, but part of these were decoyed within the walla and
attacked with auch vigor, that many of them were made prison-
ers, a colonel and a dozen privates killed, and two or three hun-
dred wounded or beaten, and all deprived of their arms. In thia
plight they returned to Ningpo, and as the distance is not great,
apprehensions were entertained lest the insurgents should follow
up their advantage by organizing themselves, and marching upon
the city to seize the prefect. The officers aent immediately to
Hangchau for assistance, from whence the lieutenant-governor
sent a strong force of ten thousand men to restore order, and soon
after arrived himself. He demanded three persons lo be given
up, who had been active in fomenting llie resistance, threatening
in case of non-compliance that he would destroy the town ; the
prefect and his deputy from the iniendant's office were suspended,
and removed to another post. These measures restored quiet to
a considerable eilent.*

The existence of such evils in Chinese society would rapidly
disorganize it, if it was not for the conservative inRuencc of early
education and training in iaduslry, which forms a public opinion
in favor of good order, and a basis of action on the part of the
government, of which it can avail. But this, and ten thoUBond
similar instances, only exhibit more strongly how great a work
there is lo be done before the Chinese will understand their own
rights ; before they will, on the one hand, pay that regard lo the
authority of their rulers which is necessary for the maintenance
of good order, and on the other, resist official tyranny in prescrv.
ing their own liberties. Nothing but the Gospel is able to do
this ; and the leaven of Christian principles will, it is to be hoped,
diHuse itself through the mass when once the people perceive
their tendency. Chinese society is like a stagnant pool ferment-
iog in its own feculence, whose torpor is disturbed by ilie mon-
Btrous things its own heat brings forth, and becoming more

MiHioMTj' Chxonicle, VoL XIV. , p»ge HO. Smith'* Chiti«, ftge 350

Mi

CHARACTER OF Jl DKIAL PROCEEDINGS. 4C1

and ir.ore polluted, casting up mirr and dirt, by its own inteniaj
commotions : and until tlio river, whose streams maketh glad the
city of God, shall flow through this rotting marsh, there is ii«J
hope of any permanont improvement, — the clear waters of peace,
g«XKl order, purity, and liberty, flow from no other fountain thuu
th'j Gospel.

If the character of officers, therefore, be such as has been
briefly shown,^-opeu to bribery, colluding with criminals, syco-
phantic towards superiors, and crutl to the people ; and the con-
stituents of society present so many repulsive features,-f-op posing
clans engaged in deadly feuds, bandits scouring the country to
rob, policemen joining to oppress, truth universally disregarded,
selfishness the main principle of action, and almost every disor-
ganizing element but imperfectly restrained from violent out-
breaks and convulsions : it will not be expected that the regular
proceedings of the courts, and the execution of the laws, will
prove on examination to be any better than the materials of which
they arc composed. As all cases, both civil and criminal, arc
judged by one ofl?icer, there is but one court to tr\- nearly all the
questions which may arise. A single exception is provided for
in the Code, wherein it is ordered ** Uiat in all cases of adultery,
robbery, fraud, assaults, breach of laws concerning marriage,
landed property or pecuniary contracts, or any other likeotfences,
committed by or against individuals in the military class ; if
any of the pf»ople are implicated or concerned, the military com-
m and ing officer and the civil magistrate shall have a concurrent
jurisdiction."

At the bottom of the judicial scale are the village elders, who
probably settle a large proportion of the disputes among the
people, but the Code provides that all persons having complaints
and informations address themselves in the first instance to the
lowest tribunal of justice in the districi, from which the cogni-
zance of the afiair may be transferred to the superior tribunals.
The statement of the case is made in writing, and the officer is
required to act upon it immediately ; if the parties are dissatis-
fled with the award, the judgments of the lower courts are car-
ried up with the case to the superior ones. No cases can be
carried directly to the emperor, but they must go through the
Board of Punishments ; old men and women, however, sometimes
present petitions to him on his journeys, but such cases seldom

I mi

403 THE MIDDLE KISODOM.

occur, owing lo the difficuUy of access. The caplaina in charge
of tne gates of Peking, in 1831, presented a memorial upon the
Bubjeoi, in whidi they attribute Ihe number of appeals to the
(ibsiinacy of many persons in pressing their cases and ilie remiss-
ness of local office!*, bo that even women and girls of ten years
of age lake long journeys to Peking lo state their cases. The
memorialists recommend that an order be issued requiring the
two high provincial officers to adjudicate all cases, either them-
selves or by a court of errors, and not send the complainants
liack to the district magistrates. These official porters must
have been much troubled with young ladies coming lo see his
majesty, or perhaps were advised lo present such a paper to
afford a text for Uie emperor to preach from ; for, to confer such
power upon the governor and his associates, would almost make
them the irresponsible sovereigns of the provinces. Appeals
frequently arise out of delay in obtaining justice, owing to the
amount of business in the courts; for the calender may be
expected to increase when the magistrate leaves his post to curry
favor with his superiors. The almost utter impossibility of
learning the truth of the case brought before them, either from
the principal parties or th<j witnesses, must be borne in mind
when deciding upon the oppressive proceedings of the magistralea
to elicit the truth. Mention is made of one officer being promoted
for deciding three hitodrE^d coses in a year ; and another, a dis-
trict magistrate, had tried upwards of a thousand within the
same period ; while a third revised and decided more than six
hundred in which ihe parlies had appealed. What becomes of
the appeals in such cases, or whose decision stands, does not
appear; but if such proceedings are common, it accounts for the
constant practice ofsending appeals back to be revised, probably
atler a change in the incumbent.

^ Few or no civil cases are reported in the Gazettes as being
carried up to higher courts, and it is likely that only a small
proportion of them are brought before the authoriiies, the rest
being settled by reference. Appeals to court receive attention,
and it may be inferred, too, that many of them are mentioned in
the Gazette, in order that the carefulness of ihe supreme govern-
ment in revising the unjust decrees against the people should be
known through the country, and this additional check to malver-
onthe part of the lower courts be of some use. Many cues

APPEALS UETTSXEO Tt> TRS LOWEK COrKn^. 409

are reported of widows and daughters, sons and nt'phews, of muN
dered persons, to whom the revenge of kindreii rightly heK>ng«,
appealing against the wicked decn^es of the local magistrates,
and then sent back to the place they came from, which, of Cv^ursie*
was tantamount to a noih prosequi. At other time$« the unjust
judges have been degraded and banished. One case is re'pi^rted
of a man who found his way to the capital from Fuhkien to com-
plain against the magistracy and police, who protected a clan by
whom his only son had been shot, in consideration of a bribe of
92,000. His case could not be understood at Peking in conse-
quence of his local pronunciation, which indicates that all cases
are not reported in writing. One appeal is reported against the
governor of a province for not carrying into execution the sen-
tence of death passed on two convicted murderers ; and another
appellant requests that two persons, who were bribed to undergo
the sentence of the law instead of the real munlerers, might not
be substituted — ^he, perhaps, fearing their subsequent vengeance.

-^N All officers of government are supposed to be accessible at any
time, and the door of justice to be open to all who claim a hear-
ing ; and in fact, courts are held at all hours of night and day,
though the regular time is from sunrise to noonday. Tlie style
of address varies according to the rank ; toj/n, or magnate, for
the highest, ta lauyi, or great Sir, and lauyi, Sir, for tlie lower
grade, are the most common. A drum is said to be placed at the
inferior tribunals, as well as before the Court of IlepreHontation
in Peking, which the plaintiff strikes in ordcir to make his pre-
sence known, though from the number of hangers-on alniul tluj
doors of official residences, the necessity of employing thiN mrxlo
of attracting notice is rare. At the gate of the govcinior's palace
are placed six tablets, having appropriate itiHcriptionN for i\umo
who have been wronged by wicked officers ; for th^m*; who have
suffered from thieves ; for persons falsrjly accusi'd ; for thoiw5
who have been swindled ; for such as liave lK*en grif;ved by
other parties ; and lastly, for those who have Hucrc.i information
to impart. The people seldom inscriU; their h\>\H'n\H ufK^ri th^'M*?
tablets, but draw them out in writing, and carry th<;m up to hi*«
excellency ; the same mode is arJofit';d alnr;, when «p|irott^;hififir
the lieutenant-governor and judge.

--• Magistrates are not allowed v* go abf/a/l lu ordinary *in*.^,
and without their official retinue* which varies for the 4in*in:ui

404 TRK MIULLE l[I.\(ir<U31.

grades ot rank. The uauiil ailendants of tho district magistratea
oODsiat of licturs witli iiliips nml clmins, sigtiiGcanl of llie punish-
menle lliey inflict ; thfv are preceded by two goiig- bearers, who
every few momcats strike a ceriuin nmiibcr of mps lo mlim&t« '
their mosier's rank, and^by two nvani-couriers who bowl out aa f
order for all to make room for ilio great man- A clerk runs by {
tha side of his sLxlan, and liis secretary and messengers, sentMl
in more ordinary chairs or following on foot, make up the cortege.

K

The highest officers are cirricd by eight bearers, uihers by fl
and the lowest by two; lliis and evL'ry olbur particular hailW I
regiilatcil by laws, > Lnnlerns are used at night, and red tobtfltft 1
in ibe daytime, to show his rank. Odtecrs uf higher nuilu an I
attended by a few soldiers in addition. Tbo number and attire 1
of these various attendants are regulated by sumptuary laws. |
When in court, the ofHoer siis behind a doKk witli writing n
rials before him, hia s^gfetarles, clerks, and inlerprelers, b ^
in waiting, and tho licidt''£~y«'iih their instruin^nte of puniBhinmit
and torture, standing around. Persons who are brought befbra
him kneel in from of the tribunal. Hts official seal, and OUps
containing tallies which are thrown down to indicate the number
of blows to be given the culprits, stand upon the table, imd behind
his seat, a kl/in or unicorn, is depicted on tliu wnll. There are
Inscriptions banging around the room, one of which cxboris liim
be merciful.^ There is little pomp or show, either in thooffice
ttandonls, compared with our notions of what is usual in such

[. ESTABLISHMSNTS. 407

mftUers among Asiatica. The Tormer is a dirty, unswcpt, taw.
dry room, and the latter are beggarly and impertinent.

No counsel is allowed to plead, but the writtea accusatjoas,
pleas, or statements required, must be prepared by licensed nota-
ries, who may also read them in court, and who, no doubt, take
opportunity to e.xplain circumstances in favor of their client.
These notaries buy their situationa, and repay themselves by a
fee upon the documents; they are the only persons in Chinese
courts analogous to tlie lawyers in western countries, and most
of Ihem have the reputation of extorting largely for their servi-
ces. Of course, there is no such thing as a jury, or the chief
justice stating the cose to his associate judges to learn their
opinion ; nor is anything like an oath required of the witnesses.
' The presiding officer can call In others lo assist him in iho

, trial, lo any extent he pleases. \ln one Canton court circular, it
is stated that no less than sixteen oiTicers assisted the governor
and fuyuen in the trial of one criminal. The report of tlie trial
is as summary as the recital of the bench of judges is minute.
"H. E. gov, Tfing arrived to join the fuyuen in examining a
criminal ; and nt 8 a.h., under a salute of guns the doors of the
great hall of audience were thrown open, and their excellencies
took their seals, supported by all the other functionaries assem-
bled for the occasion. The police officers of the judge were
then directed to bring forward the prisoner Yeh Aahua, a native
of Tsingyuen hien ; he was forthwith brought in, tried, and led

i^oul." The fuyuen then requested the imperial death-worrani,
and sent a deputation of officers to conduct the criminal to the
market-place, and there decapitate him. Soon after the officers
returned, restored the dealb-warranl to its place, and reported
that they had executed the criminal." The prisoner, or his
friends Ibr him, are allowed to appear in every step of the in-
quiry prior to laying the case before the emperor, and punish-
ment is threatened to all the magistrates through whose hands it
passes if they neglect the appeal ; hut this extract shows the
practice of the courts.

7'he general policy of officers is lo quash cases and repress
appeals, and probably they do so to a great degree, by bringing
extorted confession of the accused party and the witnesses in
proof of the verdict. - Governor Ll ofCanton issued a prohibition
in 1834, against old men and women presenting petitions, com-

-niK MIDDLB XIKSIXIH.

plaining of iht nui«ance at having fata chair ilopped id ofdcr lo
{ijrvo B pvlilion into it, aaii throatrning lo seize and ptuunb Lhe
|jrr'!tunipIuoua intrudora if Ui«y ]>orwKic<l is it. He iiwirucu ibe
diatriot magioiriitM to extkiniao such pcnoos to asceitnin win
jiiixlied Ihom forward, and [lunifh tho inaiigalon, obaerving. "tf
iliit (wople are ImprPMcd with b du«< dread nf punishment, tJioy
will return lo rcspcclful habila." It aeem» to bo the constant
nlKirt on tho pari of iht ofltiKfu ui eviido tha itnportunilicw of the
Injured, and ithove by juatioe, oiid were it not owing to tho p<rr-
wivoranoe of llio piuplu, n nyjiinm of irremediable opprMsion
wciuld aoon be {iiduc<>d. But tlt<> poor have little chance of being
bi-nrj oguinit thp rich, and if they do appeal, they ore in rooat
cnsoa reniandod to tho wcond judgment of Uie very officer against
wliorri [hvy [■(Hiipliiin ; uiid iifeuurse ns lliis ispquivalfiiilo a refu-
Htil frim) lhe hifjh grudf^.i to right them at all, commotions gradu-
ally uniw ool of i(, U'hioh arc mniiagcd according to the exigen-
i-ivH iif Ihf I'lisi; hy llioMc who are likply to be involved in their
rcHi>.iii^ihili[y. Th.' want of nn irrrsistiblp police to compel
i)li('ilirin-.' riirlis thn opprofwion uf llii' rulers, knowing as thfy do
ihiil Lynch htw niiiy pi^rhnps be rrtuliiiled upon them, if they
rxjii-prTtili' lln- |ic(ipli> Mvi far. Amidst such enormities, it ia no
«i>iirl< r ifthci ]ic(n-inl)ly liispnwd part of the community prefer to
niihiiiil ill siti'ni'c U> pi'lty extortions and robberies, than risk lhe
l,.H-.,>r>il1 \.\ uniivoiUni; c<»ii|>hiinls.

'I'h.' ('i«lr' r'linlniii'i iiiiniy scTliims vepulaling the proceedings
>if ronrls. ntid ]irovjih-s hi'iivy piitiislinients for such otliccrs as
lire guilty of illogiililifs or i-ruelly in iheir decisions, but the re-
conled cases prove tlml most of these laws are dead letters.
Section ccccxvi. ordains " llmt after a prisoner has been tried and
convicted of any oifeuce punishable whh temporary or perpetual
banishment or death, he shall, in the last place, be brought be-
fore lhe magistrate, together with his nearest relations and fami-
ly, and informed of the offence whereof he stands convicted, and
of llie aenlencc intended to be pronounced upon him in conse-
quence ; llieir acknowledgment of its justice or protest against
lis injustice, as the case may be, shall then Iw taken down in
writini; : and in every case of their refusing to admit the justice
of the sentence, Iheir protest shall be made the ground of another
and more particular investigation." All capital cases are re.
«;uired lo be reviewed by the highest fiulhorities at lhe inetropo-

^

MODBS iHD SXTBXT OF TOBTURS. 409

Us and in the provinces, and a final report of the case and deci-
sion submitted to the emperor's notice. Section ccccxv. requires
that Ihc law be quoted when deciding. The numerous wise
and merciful provisions in the Code for tlie due admin is! ration of
justice only place the conduct of its authorized executives in a
less excusable light, and prove how impossible it is to procure an
c<]uitahle magistracy by mere legal requirements and penalties.
,.>The confusion of the civil and penat laws in the Code, and the
union of both functions in the same person, together with the
torture and imprisonment employed to elicit a confession, serve
as an indication of the slate of legislation and Jurisprudence.
The common sense of a truthful people would revolt against the
infliction of loriuro lo get out the true deposition of a witness,
and their sense of horror would resist the disgraceful exposure
of the cangue for not paying debts. As the want of truth among
a people indicates a want of honor, the necessity of more stria-
gent modes of procedure suggests the practice of torturing ; its
application is allowed and restricted by several sections of the
Code, but in China, as elsewhere, it has always been abused.
Further investigation ia necessary to obtain a complete account
of the extent of torture, but the universal dread among the people
of coming before courts, and having anything to do with their
magistrates, is owing in great measure to the illegal sufferings they
endure in court and in prison. Neither imprisonment nor tor-
ture are ranked among the five punishments, but they cause more
deaths, probably, antong arrested persons, than all other means.
Among the modes of torture employed in court, and reported
in the Gazette, are some revolting to humanity, but which of
them are legal does not appear. The clauses under Section i. '-
in the Code describe the legal instruments of torture ; they con-
sist of three boards with proper grooves for compressing the
ankles, and five round sticks for squeezing the fingers, to which
may be added the bamboo ; besides these no instruments of
torture are legally allowed, though other ways of putting the
question are so common as to give the impression that some
of them at least are sanctioned. Pulling or twisting the ears
with roughened fingers, and keeping them in a bent position,
while making the prisoner kneel on chains ; or making him
kneel for a long time, are among the illegal modes of torture.
Striking the lips with sticks until they are nearly jellied, putting
10

410 THK nihdi.e kinciwsi.

llie hands in stocks before nr beliintl ilie back, suspending (li«
body by the Uiutnba tuid fiitgcrs, lying the hands to a bar under
the knees, so as to bend the bixly double, and chaining by the
neck close to a stone, are resorted to when the prisone
tumacious.'i One magistrate is accused in the Giizcttc of having
fastened up two criminttls to lx)nrds by nuiU driven through ifaeir
palms; one of ihcm tore his bands loose, and wa» nailed i
again, which caused his death ; using beds of iron, boiling waler,
red hoi spikes, and cutting the tendon Achilles, are also charged
against him, but the emperor exonerated him on accou
atrocious cliuractcr of the criminals. Compelling them to kneel
upon poimded glass, sand, and salt miscd together, until the knees
become excoriated, or simply kneeling upon chains, ia a lighter
mode of the same inJIiciion. Mr. Milne mentions seeing a wretch
undergoing this torture, his hands tied behind hjs bnck to a stake''
held in its position by two policemen ; if he sivervod to relieve
the agony of his position, a blow on his head compelled him to
resume it. The agonies of the poor creature were evident from
hiE quivering lips, his pallid and senseless countenance, and his
tremulous voice imploring relief, which was refused with a ciold
mocking command, " Suffer or confeM," •

Flogging is one of llio five authorized punishmonto, but it i
used more than almost any other means to elicit confession;' ih
bamboo, rattan, cudgel, and whip, are all employed. When
death ensues from these tortures, the magistrate reports that tha
criminal died of sickness, or hushes it up by bribing his friendv
few of whomore ever allowed access within the walls nf tha
prison to see and comfort the sulTerers. ' From the manner i
which such a result is spoken of, ii may be inferred that imn)
iliale death does not oflen take place from torture. A magiatraU
ill Sz'chuen being abused by a man in court, who also Mrud
tile attendants, ordered him lo be put into a coffin which happeoi
cd lo be near, when suffocation ensued ; he was in conseqtieooc
dismissed the service, punished one hundred blows, i
ported three years. One check on outrageous torture is thefeM
that the report of iheir cruelty will come to the ears of tholl
superiors, who are usually ready to avail of any mal-adminislni
lion to get an officer removed, in order lo fill the post with t
own friends. In lliis case, as in other parts of Chinase govern
nt, the dread of one evil prevents ihe commission of aw

411

! MIDUr.E KINGIM'M-

L

there being no condcmnatioa in China without this previous dla-
position, so that it is unnecessary to mention it in their condem-
nation ; this being altvaya UDdcrstood to be their first dish."
When a man is arrested, he is etfeclually prevented from break-
ing loose by putting a chain around his neck, aod lying his Iiands.

Most punishments are redeemable by the payment of money,
if the criminal is under fifteen, or over seventy yeara of age,
and a table la given in the Code for the guidance of the magis-
trate in such cases. An act of grace eoables u criminal con-
demned even to capital punishment to redeem himself, if the
oHenoe be not one of wilful malignity ; but better legislation
would have shown the good effectsof not making the punishments
so severe. It is also ordered in Section xviii," that anyoITender i
under sentence of death for a crime not excluded from the con-
tingent benefit of an act of grace, who shall have infirm parents
or grandparents alive, over seventy years of age, and no other '
male child over sixteen to support lliem, shall be recommended |
to the mercy of his majesty ; and if only condemned to banish- |
ment, shall receive one hundred blous and redeem himself by a
fine," Many airocioua laws in the Chinese Code may be forgiven
for one such exhibition of regard for the care of decrepid
parents. Few governments exhibit such opposing principles
actions as the Chinese : a strange blendin^of cruelty to prisoners J
with a maudlin consideration of their condiliont and a constant I
effort lo coax the people lo obedience, while exercising great I
oppression upon individuals, are everywhere manifest.

Banishment and slavery are punishments for minor official \
delinquencies, and few officers who live long in the emperor's |
employ, do not take an involuntary journey to Mongolia
kestan, or elsewhere, in the course of Iheirlives. The fates and I
conduct of banished criminals are widely unlike; some doggedly i
serve out their time, others try to ingraiiote themselves with their ]
masters, in order to alleviate or shorten the time of servie
hundreds contrive to escape and return lo their homes, though
this subjects them to increased suffering and punishment. Per.
sons banished for treason are severely denit with if they return
without leave and those oonvicled of crime in their place of
banishment are increasingly punished ; one man was sentenced
to be outlawed for an offence at his place of banishment, but a
ing that his aged mother had no other support than his UbtO, t)

COHBECTIOM OF MLNOR OFFKNCES. 413

emperor ordered thai a hniuII sum should be paid for her living
out of the public treasury. Whipping a man through the street* h
as a public example to others ia frequently practised upon persons \
delected in robbery, assault, or sortie other minor offences- The
man is manacled, and one policeman goes before him carrying a
tablet, on which are written his name, crime, and punishment,
accompanied by another holding a gong. In some cases, little
stickd bearing flags are thrust through his ears as an additional
punishnieal. The officer appointed lo oversee the fulfilment of
the sentence follows the executioner, who strikes the criminal
with his whip as the rap on the gong denotes that the appoint-
ed number is not yet complete. ^

Decapitation and strangling are the legal modes of executing
criminals, though K1 Kung, the governor-general of Canton,
having token several incendiaries in 1S43, who were convicted
of iiring the city for pur])ose8 of plunder, starved them to death
in the public squares of the city. The least disgraceful mode of
execution is strangulation, which is performed by tying a man
to a poet, and tighteuing llie cord which goes round his neck, by

414 THE NIDOLE RINDDO-U.

a winch ; tho inlliclioii is very speedy, and apparently less painfiil
tlian hanging. The least crime fur which death iij awarded, ap
pears to be o third and n^ravated ihefi, and defaciDg the brand-
ing inflicted for former offaaces. Decollation is considered mora
disgrHceful than strangling, owing lo the dislike the Chinese have
of dissevering the bodies which their parents gave ihem entire.
There are two modes of deciipitatiun, that of simple dcooll&tion
being considered, again, as less disgraceful than being " cut into
ten thousand pieces," as the phrase iing chih has been rendered.
The military officer who superintends the execution is attended
by a guard, to keep the populace from crowding upon the lirnits,
and prevent resistance on the part of the prisoners. The bodies
are given up to the friends, except when the head is exposed in
a cage where the crime was committed, as a warning. If no
one is present to claim the corpse, it is buried at public expense.
Tlie criminals are generally so far exhausted with the tortuies
and privations they have sutfered, that they make no resistance,
and submit lo their fate without a groan ; — much more, without a
dying speech to the Kpcctators. In ordinary cases, the executions
are postponed until ihc autumnal assiz.e, when the emperor re-
vises and confirms the sentences of the provincial governors ;
criminals guilty of extraordinary offeuccs, as robbery attended
with murder, arson, rape, breaking into foniftcations, highway
robbery, and piracy, may be immediately beheaded without re-
ference to court, and it is probable that criminals condemned for
one or other of these crimes comprise the greater part of the unre-
ferred executions in the provinces. »4'

It is impossible to ascertain the number of persons executed ta
China, for the life of a condemned criminal is thought Utile of;
in the court circular it is merely reported, thai " the executloa
of the criminals was completed," whhout mentioning tiieir Crimea,
residences, or names. At the autumnal revises at Peking, the
number sentenced is given in the Gazelles ; 935 were sentenced
in 1617, of which 133 were from ths province of Kwangtung ;
in 1826, there were 581 ; in 1828, the number was 769, and in
ihe next year, 579 names were marked off", none of whose crimes
it is inferrible, are included in the list of ofiences mentioned
above. The condemnations are sent from the capital by express,
and the executions take place immediately. Most of the persona
condemned in a province are executed in iu capital, and lo hear

MANNER OF PUBLIC EXECUTIONS. 415

of the death of a score or more of felons on a single day is no
uncommon thing. The trials are more summary than comports
with our notions of justice, and the executions are performed in
the most revolting manner ; brutes could not be slaughtered with
more indifference. It is reported on one occasion, that the go-
vernor of Canton ascended his judgment-seat, examined three
prisoners brought before him, and having found them guilty,
condemned them, asked himself for the death-warrant (for he
temporarily filled the office of lieut.-govemor), and having receiv-
ed it, had the three men carried away to execution in about two
hours after they were first brought before him. A few days
after, he granted the warrant to execute a hundred bandits in
prison.

When led out to execution, the prisoners are clothed injiew,
clean clothes, and persons who commit suicide also dress them-
selves in their best, under the idea that in the next world they
will always wear the same dress they died in. The number of
persons annually executed in Kwangtung is reckoned at between
one and five hundred, but the data are very incomplete. A mili-
tary officer is present ; and the criminals are brought on the
ground in cages hardly large enough to hold tliem, and obliged to
kneel towards the emperor's residence, or towards the death-war-
rant, which indicates his presence, as if thanking their sovereign
for his care, when with a single stroke, the head is severed from
the trunk. In the slow and ignominious execution, or ling cfdh,
the criminal is tied to a post, and hacked to pieces, though the
executioner is commonly hired to give the coup-de-grace at the
first blow. It is not uncommon for him to cut out the gall-blad-
der of notorious robbers, and sell it, to be eaten as a specific for
courage. There is an official executioner besides the real one,
the latter being frequently a criminal taken out of the prisons.

Probably the number of persons who suffer by the sword of the
executioner is not one half of those who die from the effects of
torture and privations in prison. Not much is known of the
internal arrangement of the hells, as prisons are called ; they seem
to be managed with a degree of kindness and attention to the com-
fort of the prisoners, so far as the intentions of government are
concerned, but the cruelties of the turnkeys and older prisoners to
exact money from the new comers are terrible. In Canton, there
are jails in the city, under the control of four differcot officers,

tbe largest covering uhoul an acte, anil capable of holdJDg
upwards of five hundred prisoners. Since it is the practice of
dtslanl magistrates lo seod their uon>t prisoners up lo the capital,
these are not large enough, and jail distempers arise from over-
cmwding ; two hundred deaths were reported in 1826, from this
and other causes, and one hundred and seventeen coses in 1831.
L Private jails were hired to ocuommodatB the nuniber, and one

B • lie ut. -governor reports having found Iwenly-two such places ia
H' ' Canton, where every hind of crnclly was practised. Tbe

f witneases and accusers concerned in appellate causes had, he

says, also been brought up Id the city, and imprisoned along with
tlie guilty parly, where they were kepi months, without any just
reason. In one cane, where s defendant and plainlilT were
imprisoned together, the uccu^r fell upon the other and mur-
der^ him. SomelimeG the officer is uiiubte from press of
business to ulleiid lo u case, and confines all the principals and
witnesses concerned until he can examine ihcm, but the govern-
ment lakes no means to provide for them during the interval,
and many of the poorer ones die. No bail is obtainable on tlie
word of a witness or his friends, so that if unable to fee the
jailers, he is in nearly as bad a case as the criminal. Estend-
ing bail to an accuacd criminal is nearly unknown, but female
prisoners are put in charge of their husbands or parents, who are
held responsible for their appearance. The t-onstant succession
of criminals in the provincial head prison, renders the posts of
jailers and turnkeys very lucrative.

The prisons are arranged somewhat on the plan of a Urge
stable, having an open central court occupying nearly one fourth -
of the area, and small cribs or stalls covered by a roof extending-
nearly around it, bo contrived that each company of prisoRera

r shall be separated from each other night and day, though more

by night than by day. Tlio prisoners cook for themselves in the
court, and are secured by manacles and gyves, and a chain join-
I ing the hands to the neck ; one hand is liberated in the daytime

■ in order lo allow them to take care of themselves. Heinous

^k^ criminals are more heavily ironed, and those in the prison
^^^^ attached to the judge's office are worse treated ihan ihe other*.
^^^^^^£ach criminal should receive a daily ration of two pounds of rice,
^^^^^ftzid about two cents to buy fuel, but the jailer starves them on
^^^^^klf this allowance if they are unable to fee him ; olotbiog is also

MANAGEHEKT OF FRrSONS. 4]?

K&ntily provided, but Ihose who have money can procure almost
every conveoience. Each crib full of criniiuals 13 under Ihe
conirol of a lurnkey, who with n few old offenders spend much
time torturing newly arrived persons to force money from ihetn,
by which many lose their lives, and all suffer far more than they
do from the officers of government. Well may the people call
their prisons hella, and say, when a man falla into the clutches
of the jailers or police, "the flesh is under the cleaver."

There are many processes for the recovery of debts, and ful-
filment of contracts, some legal and others customary; the latter
depending upon many circumstances irrelevant to the merits of
the cose. The law allows that debtors be punished by bam-
booing according to the amount of the debt. A creditor of\eD
resorts to illegal means to recover his claim, which give rise to
many excesses ; sometimes he quarters himself upon ihe debtor's
family or premises, at others seizes him or some of his family and
keeps ihera prisoners ; and in extreme cases, sells them. Debtors
are liable, when three monlfis have expired after the stipulated
lime of payment, to be bambooed, and iheir properly attached by
government. In most cases, however, disputes of this sort are
settled without recourse to government, and if the debtor is really
without property, he is not imprisoned till ho can. procure it.
The effects of absconding debtors are seized, and divided by
ihose who can gel them. Long experience, moreover, of each
other's characters has taught them, in contracting debts to
have some security at ihe oulset. and therefore in settling up,
there is not so much loss as might be supposed oonsidering the
difficulty of collecting debts. Accusations for libel, slander,
breach of marriage contract, and other civil or less criminal
offences, are not all brought before the authorities, but are settled
by force or arbitration among llie people themselves and their
elders.

The nominal solaries of Chinese officers have already been
stated (p. 238). It is a common opinion among the people, that
on an average ihey receive about ten limes thetr salories ; in
some cases ihey pay thirty, forty, and more thou.>innd dollars
beforehand for the situation. One encouragement to the harass-
ing vexations of ihe official secretaries and ptjlice is tlie dislike
of the people to carry their cases before ofRcers whom they
linow are almost compelled to fleece and peel them ; they
19*

418 THE MIDDLE KIMGKOM.

it cheaper and safer to bear a small exaction from on underling
than run the risk of a greater from his master. By degrees,
much of the money Ands its way agaia into the community, for
the last spunge «re long sends it out into circulation in one shape
or another.

If the preventatives against popular violence which the suprenw
government has placed around it, could be strengthened by an
efficient military force, its power would be well secured, and
become, by degrees, an intolerable tyranny. The troops are
everywhere present, indeed, ostensibly to support the laws,
protect the innocent, and puiiiah the guilty ; but such of them aa
are employed by the authorities as guards and policemen are
rather instruments of oppression than means of protection, while
the regiments in garrison arc contemptible to both friend and foe.
They are not altogether inefficicni in mointaining order in case
of commotion, for the people know that they must finally submit,
yet it is hard lo say whether they do not cause more riots than
they quell.

The efficacy of the system of checks upon the high court and
provincial officers is increased by iheir intrigues and conflicting
ambition, and long cxpcrir'ncc lins shown that the emperor's
power has Utile to fear from proconsular rebellion. The ineffi-
ciency of the army is a serious evil to the people in one respect,
for more power in ihat arm would repress banditti and pirates ;
while the sober part of the community would cooperate in a
hearty effort to quell them. The greatest difficulty the emperor
finds in upholding his authority lies in the general want of inte-
grity in the oflicers he employs to carry into effect his ordi-
nances ; good laws may be made, but he has no upright agents
to execute them. This has been abundantly manifested in the
laws against opium and gambling ; no one could be found to
carry them into execution, though everybody assented to their
propriety.

The chief security the people have against an unmitigated
oppression, such as now exists in Egypt, besides those already
pointed out, lies as much as anywhere in their general intelli-
gence of the true principles on which the government is founded
and should be executed. With, public opinion on its side, the
government b a strong one, but none is less able to execute its
dengna when it runs counter to that opinion, although tlwe

mPERFECT ADMINnSTBATION OF LAW. 419

designs may be excellent and well-intended. Elements of dis-
cord are found in the social system which would soon effect its
ruin were they not counteracted by other influences, and the
body politic goes on like a heavy, shackly, lumbering van,
which every moment threatens a crashing, crumbling fall, yet
goes on still tottering, owing to the original goodness of its con-
struction. From the enormous population of this ancient van, it
is evident that any attempt to remodel it must seriously affect
one or the other of its parts, and that when once upset, it may be
impossible to reconstruct it in its original form. There is encou-
ragement to hope that the general intelligence and shrewdness
of the government and people of China, their language, institu-
tions, industry, and love of peace, will all act as powerful con-
servative influences in working out the changes which cannot
now be long delayed ; and that she will maintain her unity and
industry while going through a thorough reform of her political,
social, and religious systems.

It is very difficult to convey to the reader a fair view of the
administration of the laws in China. Notwithstanding the cruelty
of officers to the criminals before them, they are not all to be
considered as tyrants ; because insurrections arise, attended with
great loss of life, it must not be supposed that society is every-
where disorganized ; the Chinese are so prone to falsify, that it
is difficult to ascertain the truth, yet it must not be inferred that
every sentence is a lie ; selfishness is a prime motive for their
actions, yet charity, kindness, filial affection, and the unbought
courtesies of life, still exist among tbem. Although there is an
appall ng amount of evil and crime in every shape, it is mixed
with some redeeming traits ; and in China, as elsewhere, good
and bad are intermingled. Some of the evils in the social system
arise from the operation of the principles of mutual responsibility,
while this very feature produces some good effects in restraining
people who have no higher motive than the fear of injuring the
innocent. We hear so much of the shocking cruelties of courts
and prisons, that the vast number of cases before the bench are
all suppascd to exhibit the same fatiguing reiteration of suffering,
injustice, bribery and cruelty. One must live in the country to
see how the antagonistic principles fuund in Chinese society act
and re^ct upon each other, and are affected by the wicked pas-
sions of the heart. Officers and people are bad almost beyond

490

TBB MIDBU KIHflDOH.

belief to one conversant only with ibe courtesy, justice, purity,
and sincerity of Christian gorernnients and society ; and yet we
think they are equal to the old Greelca and Rontume, aod iiave
no more injustice or torture in tlieir courts, nor iropurity or
mandacity in their lives.

CHAPTER IX.

Education and Literary Examinations.

Among the conservative influences in the Chinese system, the
general diffusion of education and respect paid to literary pursuits,
growing out of the mode of obtaining office by literary examina-
tions, holds an important place. Although the powers of mind
exhibited by the greatest writers in China are confessedly inferior
to those of Greece and Rome for genius and original conceptions,
yet the good influence exerted by them over their countrymen is
far greater, even at this day, than was ever obtained by western
sages, as Plato, Seneca, or AristoUe. The thoroughness of Chi-
nese education, the purity and eflectlveness of the examinations,
or the accuracy and excellency of the literature, must not be
compared with those of modem Christian countries, for there is
really no common measure between the two ; they must be taken
with other parts of Chinese character, and comparisons drawn, if
necessary, with nations possessing similar opportunities. The
importance of generally instructing the people was acknow.
lodged even before the time of Confucius, and practised to a good
degree at an age when other nations in the world had no such
system ; and although in his day feudal institutions prevailed, and
offices and rank were not attainable in the same manner as at
present, yet magistrates and noblemen deemed it necessary to be
well acquainted with their ancient writings. In the Book of
Rites is said, " that for the purposes of education among the
ancients, villages had their schools, districts their academies,
departments their colleges, and principalities their universities."
This, so far as we know, was altogether superior to what obtained
among the Jews, Persians, and Syrians of the same period.

The great stimulus to literary pursuits among the people
generally is the hope thereby of obtaining office and honor, and the
only course of education followed is the classical and historical

k

one prescribed by law. Owing to this undue atteniion to tbe
classicH, ihe minds of the scholars are not symmelrically trained,
and tbpv dtsparikge other branches of IJieralure which do no!
directly advance this great end. Every department of letters,
escepl jurisprudence, history, and official statistics, ia disesteemed
in comparison ; and the literary graduate of fourscore wiil be
found deficient in most branches of general learning, ignorant of
hundreds of common things and events in his national history,
which the merest schoolboy in the western world would be
ashamed not to knoiv in his. Thin course of instruction does not
form well balanced minds, but it imbues the future rulers of the
land with a full understanding of the principles on which they
are to govern, and the policy of the supreme power in using those
principles to consolidate its own aulhority. The isolation of tho
people, the nature of the language, and Ihe want of an nri3tocracy>
combine to odd efficiency to ihia syalem ; and when the peculiar-
ities of Chinese character, and the nature of the clafis-books
which do so much lo mould thai character, arc considered, it ia
impossible to devise a belter plan for insuring the perpetuity of
the government, or the contentment of the people under that
govern men I.

It was about a. d. 600, ihat Tailsung of the Tang dynasty,
inalituted the present plan of preparing and selecting civilions hy
means of study and dpgrees, but educalion has always been
highly esteemed, and exerted a dominant influence on ihc man-
ners and tastes of the people. According to native hiatorians,
the rulers of ancient times made ample provision for the cultiva-
tion of literature and promotion of education in all its branches.
They supply some details lo enable us to understand Ihe mode
and Ihe materials of this insiruciion, and glorify it as they do
everything ancient, but probably from the want of authentic
accounts in their own hands, ihey do not clearly describe it. The
essays of M. Edouard Blot on the History of Public Insiruotion
in China, contains all the information extant on this interesting
subject, digested in a very lucid manner. Education is probably
as good now as il ever was, and its ability to maintain and deve-
lop the character of the people as great as at any time ; and it

remarkable how much il really has done lo form, elevate, and
consolidate their national insiiiulions. The present monarchs were
not at first favorably disposed to the system of examinations, and

PLAN AMD OBJECTS OF EDUCATION. 428

frowned upon the literary hierarchy who claimed all honors as
their right ; but the spirit of the people prevailed under Kienlung
to procure their restoration.

Boys commence their studies at the age of six or seven with a
teacher ; for, even if the father be a literary man he seldom
instructs his sons, and very few mothers are able to teach their
ofispring even to read. Maternal training is supposed to consist
in giving a right direction to the morals, and enforcing the
obedience of the child ; but as there are few mothers who do
more than compel obedience by commands, or by the rod, so
there are none who can teach the infantile mind to look up to
its Grpd in prayer and praise. On the contrary, the example of
both parents is bad, and through the conversation of all around
it, the mind of the child is debilitated by the polluting influences
in which it grows up, and its heart and passions become
thoroughly debased.

The general plan and purposes of education may be learned
from the Book of Rites. There are many compilations and
treatises for the guidance of teachers and parents in the nurture
of youth, one of which, called the Siau Hiohj or Juvenile In-
structor, has exerted almost as much influence as the classics
themselves. When establishing the flrst principles of education,
it is recommended to fathers to " choose from among their concu-
bines those who are flt for nurses, seeking such as are mild,
indulgent, aflectionate, benevolent, cheerful, kind, dignified, re-
spectful, and reserved and careful in their conversation, and
make them governesses over their children. When ^able to
talk, lads must be instructed to answer in a quick, bold tone, and
girls in a slow and gentle one. At the age of seven, they
should be taught to count and name the cardinal points ; but at
this age, should not be allowed to sit on the same mat nor eat
from the same table. At eight, they must be taught to wait for
their superiors, and prefer others to themselves. At ten, the
boys must be sent abroad to private tutors, and there remain day
and night, studying writing and arithmetic, wearing plain ap-
parel, learning to demean themselves in a manner becoming
their age, and acting with sincerity of purpose. At thirteen,
they must attend to music and poetry ; at flfleen, they must
practise archery and charioteering. At the age of twenty, they
are in due form to be admitted to the rank of manhood, and learn

I

■ddilimial rules of propriety, be fHilbful in rhe performanDa a
filial aad fraternal duties, and though ih^ possess extensive
knowledge, must not affect to leach oihera. At thirty, they may
marry and commence the management of business. At forty,
they may enter ihe service of the slate ; and if their priaca
maintains the reign of reason, they must serve him, but other-
wiae not. At iifly, they may be promoted to the rank of minis-
ters; and at seventy, they must retire from public life."

Another injunction ia, " Lei children always be taught to speak
the simple truth ; to stand erect and in their proper places,
and listen with respectful altenlion." The way to become s
student, *' is, with gentleness and self-abasement, to receive im-
plicitly every word the master uttere. The pupil, when he sees
virtuous people, must follow them, when he hears good maxims,
conform to them. He must cherish no wicked designs, but
always act uprightly ; whether at home or abroad, he must hare
a fixed residence, and associate with the benevolent, carefully
regulating his personal deportment, and controlling the feelings
of his heart. He must keep his clothes in order. Every morn-
ing he must learn something new, and rehearse the same every
evening." The great end of education, therefore, among the
ancient Chinese, was not so much to fill the head with knowledge,
as to discipline ihe heart and purify the afTeciions. One of
their wrilers says, " Those who respect the virtuous and put
away unlawful pleasures, serve their parents and prince to the
utmost of their sbihly, and are faithful to their word ; — these,
though they should be considered unlearned, we must pronounce
to be educated men." Although such terms a.i purity, filial
a&ection, learning, and truth, have higher meanings in a Chris-
tian education than are given them by Chinese masters, the in-
culcation of them in any degree certainly has no bad eflects.

Id their intercourse with their reluiives, children are taught
to attend to the minutest points of good breeding ; and are in-
structed in everything relating to their personal appearance,
making iheir toilet, saluting their parents, eating, visiting, and
other acts of life. Many of these directions are trivial even to
puerility, but they are perhaps none too minute for the Chinese,
aince they now form llie only basis of good manners, as much
M they did a score of centuries ago ; and it can hardly be aup-
posed that Confucius would have risked his influence and popu-

RULES FOR CONDUCT AND STUDY. 425

larily upon the grave publication of such trifles, if he had not
been well acquainted with the character of his countrymen. If,
with all the mint, anise, and cummin he taught, this remarkable
man had known or inculcated the weightier matters of the law
founded on the beginning of wisdom — ^the fear of the Lord —
China would perhaps have been now the leading Christian nation
in the world.*

Rules are laid down for students to observe in the prosecution
of their studies, which reflect credit on those who set so high a
standard for themselves. Dr. Morrison has given a synopsis of
a treatise of this sort, called the Complete Collection of Family
Jewels, in its general character like Watts' On the Mind, and
containing a minute speciflcation of duties to be performed by all
who would be thorough students. The author directs the tyro
to form a flxed resolution to press forward in his studies, setting
his mark as high as possible, and thoroughly understanding
everything as he goes along. " I have always seen that a man
who covets much and devotes himself to universal knowledge,
when he reads, he presumes on the quickness and celerity of his
genius and perceptions, and chapters and volumes pass before
his eyes, and issue from his mouth as fluently as water rolls
away ; but when does he ever apply his mind to rub and educe
the essence of a subject ? In this manner, although much be
read, what is the use of it ? Better little and fine, than much
and coarse." He also advises persons to have two or three good
volumes lying on their tables, which they can take up at odd
moments, and to keep common-place books in which they can
jot down such things as occur to them. They should get rid of
distracting thoughts if they wish to advance in their studies ; as
" if a man's stomach has been filled by eating greens and other
vegetables, although the most precious dainties with exquisite
tastes should be given him, he cannot swallow them, he must
first get rid of a few portions of the greens : so in reading, the
same is true of the mixed thoughts which distract the mind,
which are about the dusty aflairs of a vulgar world." The
rules given by these writers correspond remarkably to those laid
down among ourselves, and corroborate the truth of the adage
that there is no royal road to learning.f

• Chinese Repoeitory, VoL IV., pp. 83-87, 306-316.

t Morriaon*t Chinese Dictionuy, Vol. I., Part I.» pp. 749-756.

k

4S0 THE MIDDLE Kl.V'IDOM,

For all grades of scholars, tliere is but one mode of study ;
and the imitalive, unprogrcsaive oaiurc of Chinese mind is strik-
JDgly apparent in the few altempls on tli? part of teachers to
improvQ upon ihc slereolyped practice of their predecessors,
nllhough persons of ss original minds as the country affords are
consluntly engaged in education. When the lad commences his
studies, an impressive ceremony takes place, or did formerly, for
it seems to have fallen into desuetude ; the father leads his son
to Ihe leoclier, who kneels down before the name or title of some
one or other of Ihe ancient sages, and supplicates iheir blessing
upon his pupil; aflcr which, seating himself, he receives ihc
homage and petition of ihe lad to guide him in his lessons. A
present is expected to accompany this introduction to literary pur-
suits. The furniture of the school merely consists of a desk
and a stool for each pupil, and an elevated scat for the master;
upon each desk are implements for writing and a few books, In
one comer is placed a tablet or an inscription on the wall, dedi-
cated to Ckinfucius and ihe god of Letters ; Mie sage is called the
Teacher and Pattern for All Ages, and incense is constantly
burned in honor of them both.

The location of school-rooms is usually such as would be con-
sidered bad elsewhere, but by comparison with other things in
China, is not so. A mat shed which barely protects from the
weather, the low, hot upper attic of a shop, a back-room in a
temple, and rarely a house specially built for (he purpose, are oil
used. The room is hired by the master, who regulates his ex-
penses and furnishes his apartment according lo (be number and
condition of his pupils ; their average number is about twenty,
ranging between ten and forty in day schools, and in private
schools, seldom exceeding ten. The most thorough course of edu-
cation is probably pursued in the latter, where a well qualified
teacher is hired by four or five persons living in the same street
or mutually related, to leach their children at a stipulated solaiy.
In such cases the lads are placed in well aired nparimcnis, supe-
rior to the common school-room. The majority (Jf teachers are

iuccessful students or cundidntes for literary degrees, who hav-
ing spent the prime of their days in fruitless attempts lo altoin
office, or disliking manual labor, and unable lo enter on mercantile

<, turn pedagogues. Their remuneration depends on a variety
of circumstances. Id Canton, a teacher of twenty boys receives

; OF SCHOOLS.

427

from Imlf n dollar to n dollar per moDlh from each pupil; tn
country villages, three, four, or five dollars a year are given,
with the addition, in tnost cases, of a small present of eatables
from each scholar three or four times a year. Private tutors
receive from 8150 to 4350 or more per annum, according to pnr-
ticulnr engagement. There nre no boarding-schools, nor any-
thing answering to infant schools; nor are public or charity
schools established by government, or by private benevolence for
ilie education of the poor.

The hours of study are from sunrise till ten a. m., when the
boys go to breakfast ; they reaBsembJe in an hour or more, and
continue at their books till about five p. M., when they disperse
for the day. In summer, llicy have no lessons after dinner, but
an evening session is often held in the winter, and evening
sciiools are opened for mechanics and others who arc occupied
during ilie day. When a boy comes into school in the morning,
he bows first before the tablet of Confucius, ns an act of worship,
and then salutes his teacher ; after which he takes his seal.
There are no vacations during the year, except at newyear's, at
which time the engagement is completed, and the school closes,
to be reopened after the teacher and parents have made a new
arrangement. The common festivals, of which there arc a dozen
or mere, are regarded as holydays, and form very necessary re-
laxations in a country destitute of the rest of the Sabbath. The
requisite qualifications of a teacher nre gravity, severity, nod
patience, and acquaintance with the classics ; he has only to
teach the same series of books he learned himself, and keep a
good watch over hia charge.

When the lads come together at the opening of the school,
their attainments are ascertained ; the teacher endeavors to have
his pupils nearly equal in this respect, but as they all study the
same boohs, a difierence is not material. If the hoys are begin-
ners, they are brought up in a line before the desk, holding the
San-lsz' King, or Trimelrical Classic, in their hands, and taught to
read oiF the first lines after ilio teacher until they can repeat
them without help. The teacher, for instance, reads off the first
four lines as follows; Jm chi Uu, sing pun shen ; Sing ttang kin,
sih aiang yuen ; when all his pupils simultaneously cry out, Jm chi
Isu, sing pun shen ; Sing tiang kin, sih xiang yuen. Mispronun-
oialioiui are corrected until they can read the lesson accurately ;

k

429 THE NIDOLE KINGDOM.

they are then senl lo their seats lo commil the sounds lo memory.
AH the children aludy aioud, and when one is able to recite the
task, he is required to hack it, — come up lo the masler'a desk,
and stand with his back towards him while rehearsing it. In
this way, (he whole of ihe Trinielrical Classic is hacked, aller
which the Rlillenary Classic, and parts of the Four Books and
Five Classics are conned.

This hornbook was compiled by Wang Pihhau of the Sung
dynasty Tor his private school, and from its great influence iu
Chinese education, requires a more extended notice. Ii containn
in all 1068 words, and about half that number of sejjarate cha-
racters, arranged in 176 double lines, and has been commented
upon hy several persons, one of whom calls it " a ford which the
youthful inquirer may readily pass, and thereby reach the foun-
tain-head of the higher courses of learning, or a passport into the
regions of classical and historical lileraiurc." The worth of this
encomium can be better judged by a summary of its contents,
which, with a few extracts, are taken from Dr. Bridgman's trans-

The book begins with the nature of man, and the necessity
and modes of education, and it is a little singular that the liret
sentence, the one quoted above, which a Chinese learns at school,
ooDlainsoneofthe most disputed docirines in the ancient heatfaeoi
world.

" Uen at their birth, are by nature radically good ;
In this, all approximate, but in practice widely diverge.
If not educated, the natural character is changed ;
A cooTBe of education is made valuable by close attention.
Of old, MdDg's mother selected a residence,
And when her son did not learn, cut out the [half-wove] web.
To bring up and not educate is a father's error ;
To educate without rigor showa a teacher's indolence.
That boys should not learn is an Improper thing;
For if they do not learn in youth, what will lliey do when old 7
Gems unwrought can form nothing useful ;
So men untaugbt can never know the proprieties."

The importance of filial and fraternal duties aie theu incuL
cated by precept and example, to which succeeds a synopsis of
the various branches of learning in an ascending series, under

BA\TSZ' KING, Oa TItlMETBlCAL CLASSIC. 429

ihe Beveral heads of numbers ; the three great powers, the four
seasons and four cardinal points, the five elemenia and five oon-
Btant virtues, ihn six hinda of grain and six domestic animals,
the s(?vcn passions, the eight notes of music, nine degrees of
kindred, ond ten relative duties. A few extracts will exhibit the
mode in which these subjects are treated.

"There are three powers, — heaven, earth, and man.
There are three lights, — the sun, moon, and stars.
There are three bonds, — between prince and minister, Jnstice ;
Between father and son, aSeclion ; between man and wife, concord.

HumBfiit;, juitiee, propriety, wisdom, and truth, —
These live cardinal virtues are not to be confused.
Rice, millet, pulse, wheat, rye, and barley.
Are six kinds of grain on which men subaist.

Mutual Direction of father and son, concord of man and wife;
The older brothcr'a kinJneBB, and the younger one's respect;
Order between seniors and juniors, friendship among associates ;
On the prince'E port regard, and on the miniatcr's fidelity ; —
These ten moral duties are invariably binding among men."

To this leclinical summary, which the commentary Ulustrates
and explains a little, succeed rules for a course of academical
studies, with a list of the books to be used and n synopsis of the
general history of China, with an enumeration of the successive
dynasties. The work concludes with incidents and motives to
learning drawn from the conduct of anc-ient sages and stateo-
men, and from considerations of inlrri'St anil glory. The exam*
pica cited are curious instances of pursuit of knowledge under
difficulties, and form the moat inviting part of the treatise.

"Formerly ConfiiciQi had the young Hiang Toh for his trnoher;
Even the sages of antiquity studied with diligence.
Chau, a minister of stale, read Ihe Confucian Dialogues,
And he loo, though high in oBice, studied assiduously.
One cojued lessons on reeda, another on Blips of bamboo;
These, thongh destitute of books, eagerly souglit knowledge.
[To vanquish sleep] one suspended hie head [by the haar] from a beam,

and another pierced his thigh with an awl :
Though destitute of instruction, these ware lal>orious in study.
One read by light of gtowworms, another by reflection from snow ;
Theae, tbcrogb their bmilies were poor, did not omit to study.

4SD TQE MIDCiLE KIKRDON.

One carryiDg TaggoU, aod anotlier wilh his book tied to • covr'a hocn,

And while thus eogsged in tabor, Btmlieit with intensilj.

So LantsiueD, when be wse twenty-seven jean of age,

Commenced usiduous study, and applied bis mind to books;

This man, when old, grieved thai he commenced so late ;

Yoa who are joung ought early to think of these things.

Behold Liang Hau, at the advanced age of eighty-two,

la the icnpcriai hall, amongst many scholars, gains the first rank;

This be accomplished, and was by all regarded as a prodigy;

You youthful readers, shoold now resolve to be dlligenL

Yung, when only eight years old, could recite the Odes ;

And Pi, at the age of seven, understood the game of chess :

These displayed alHlitj, and were by men deemed eitiaordinaty:

And you my youtliful scholarr ought to imitate them.

Tsai WAnki could play upon stringed instruments ;

Bii Tauwin, likewise, could sing and chant;

These two, though girU, were intelligent and well informed;

You, then, my kd^, should sorely rouse lo diligence.

Liu Ngaii of Tang, when only seven years old.

Showing himself a noble lad, was employed to correct wrillDg:

He though very young, was thus highly promoied.

You, young learners should strive to follow his example.

And he who does so, will acquire similnr honors.

" Dogs watch by night ; the cock announces iho morning ;
If any refuse lo learn, how can Ihey be esteemed men ?
The silkworm spins silk, t]ie bee guUicrs honey;
If men neglect to learn, they are inferior to brutes.
He who learns in youth, and acts when of louture sge,
Extends his influence to the prince, benefits the people,
Makes his name renowned, renders illustrious his parents.
Reflects glory on his ancestors, and enriches iiis posterity.
Some for their ol&pring, leave coffers filled with gold ;
While I to teach children, leave but one little book.
lUUgence has merit; pluy yields no profit;
Be ever on your guard ! Rouse all your energies !"

Chi. Rep.,\ol. IV., pp. 106-lia.

These quotations will illustrate the character of the Trimelri-
cal Classic, and show its unfitness aa a book for beginners ; it
being rather a syllabus of studies, than a book itself to bo
learned, and not al all calculated to encourage and instruct (be
youthful mind in its uninviting task.

The tedium of learning the task of tinluiown sounds is ro-
'ed by writing the characters on thin paper placed over copy-

TIME SP£N1 AT SCHOOL. 43 r

ailips. The writing and the reading lessons are the same, and
both are continued for a year or two until the forms and sounds
of a few thousand characters are made familiar, but no particular
effort is taken to teach their meanings. It is after this that the
teacher goes over the same ground, and with the help of the com-
mentary, explains the meaning of the words and phrases one by
one, until they are all understood. It is not usual for the beginner
to attend at all to the meaning of what he is learning to read and
write, and where the labor of committing arbitrary characters is
so great and so irksome, experience has probably shown that it is
not wise to learn too many things at once. No attempt, so far as
we know, has been made'to facilitate the mere acquisition of the
characters by arranging them according to their component
parts; they are learned one by one, as boys are taught the
names and appearance of minerals in a cabinet, or as one would
learn a list of residents in a street. The effects of a course of
study like this, in which the powers of the tender mind are not
developed by their proper nourishment of truthful knowledge,
can hardly be otherwise than to stunt the genius, and drill the
faculties of the mind into a slavish adherence to venerated usage
and dictation, making the intellects of Chinese students like the
trees which their gardeners so toilsomely dwarf into pots and jars
— plants, whose unnaturalness is congruous to the insipidity of
their fruit.

The number of years spent at school depends upon the position
and prospects of the parents. Tradesmen, mechanics, and country
gentlemen, endeavor to give their sons a competent knowledge
of the usual series of books, so that they can creditably manage
the common affairs of life. No other branches of study are pur-
sued than the classics and histories, and practice in composing ;
no arithmetic or any department of mathematics, nothing of the
geography of their own or other countries, of natural philosophy,
natural history, or scientific arts, nor study of other languages,
are attended to. Consequently, persons in these classes of society
are obliged to put their sons into shops or counting-houses to obtain
the routine of business with a knowledge of figures and the style
of letter writing ; they are not kept at school more than three or
four years, nor as long as that if the family be poor. Working
men, desirous of giving their sons at least a smattering, try to
keep them at their books a year or two, but myriads of the poor
grow up in utter ignorance.

B«aiffea tint cnnunoa whnAls, then ue ^
mni colli^i^. but :hi^r ar- fif Leaa «S«eti*«- la Cmaioa. there w
feutUAn srammar whojLi. bu: Oiine if them ant in good cooditkiD.
Th*r* art »Iari thirty ccJ.^gei, lome of which are quite uicieDt,
but ttvjn 'i( them are at^./xxed. Thrms of th* largest cootain
each ahnut two hundred itudenrj acui two or three professora.
1^ chief object of iheM iaadtn'ji>oa u to iiutruct adranced
•cholara in composiltoo uA elegsat wntiof ; the ttiton do a little
to turn their atteation to jreneral literatcre. but hare neither die
geniiu nor the means to make many Mljmaeea. In rural dis.
tricla, ttudenti are encouraged ro meet at stated times in ibe
town-bouse, where the headman or president of tbe r^ examioes
them on themes prerioiisly proposed by him.* In large towns,
too, the local officers, assisted by the gentry and graduates, boM
annual eitmiiiiauotis of students in the place, at which premiums
are given to the best essayUts- At such an e^iaimnation in Amoy
in March, l%4ii, there were about a thousand candidates, forty of
whom received sums varj-in^ from sLtty to sixteen cents. The
KttQh-tm' Kirn, nr National College at Peking, is regarded as the
nighest collegiate institution in the land, but we have few notices
of its actual condition. Officers of high rank are allowed to send
a »on to it at the eJrpcnse of the government, where they attend to
general literature and studies fitted for some particular service.
Onn of the acts of grace at the present emperor's coronation was
to extend this privilege to the sons of officers of the third and
fourth rank. There arc slated examinations of the students
held, preparatory to tbcir leaving the institution, but this does
not supersede the necessity of their competing at the regular
examinations.

IIow great a proportion of the people in China can read is a
difficult question to answer. More of the men in cities can read
than in the country, and more in some provinces than in others.
In the district of Nanhai, which forms part of the city of Canton,
an imperfect examination led to ihe belief that nearly all the
men are able to read, except gardeners, fishermen, agriculturists.

Chin«u R«p(MitoT7, Vol. IV., pu^ 414. See aUo Vol. V[., pp. 339-
; Vol, TV., pp. i-10 ; Vol. XI., pp. 5J3-«7 ; and Vol. XIII., pp. 63»-
( for ftuthcr Qoticei ai the mode* and object* of education ; aod BioHs
M Mr I'Histixn de llwtruction Publiqae en Chine.

PROPORTION OF READERS IN CHINA. 498

ooolies, boat-people, and fuelers, and two or three in ten devote
their lives to literary pursuits. In less thickly settled districts^
not more than four or five tenths, and even less, can read. In
Macao, perhaps half of the men can read. From an examination
of the patients in his hospital at Ningpo, one of the missionaries
there estimated the readers to form not more than five per cent,
of the men ; while another missionary at the same place, who
made inquiry in a higher grade of society, reckoned them at
twenty per cent. The villagers about Amoy have been found
to be deplorably ignorant ; and probably throughout the empire,
the ability to understand books is not commensurate with the
ability to read the sounds of their characters, and both have been
somewhat exaggerated. Owing to the manner in which educa-
tion is commenced, — learning the form and names of characters
before their meaning and connexion are understood, it comes to
pass that many persons can run over the names of the characters
on a page while they do not comprehend the meaning of what
they read. They can pick out a word here and there which
they know, it may be a phrase or a sentence, but they derive no
clearer meaning from what they read than a lad who has just
learned to scan, and had proceeded half through the Latin
Reader, does from reading Virgil ; while in both cases an intel-
ligent audience, unacquainted with the circumstances, might
justly infer that the reader understood what he was reading as
well as his hearers did. Moreover, among the Chinese, different
subjects demand the use of diflferent characters ; and although a
man may be well versed in the classics or in legal writings, he
may be easily posed by being asked to explain a simple treatise
in medicine or in mathematics, in consequence of the many new
or unfamiliar words on every page. This is a serious obstacle in
<he way of obtaining a general acquaintance with books. The
mind becomes weary with the labor of study where its toil is
neither rewarded by knowledge nor beguiled by wit ; and there
are, consequently, few Chinese well read in their national litera-
ture even among the most intelligent. Literature being generally
Dursued as a means of attaining an end, not for the instruction
v*eceived or the pleasure conferred, or to maintain one's station
u society, a man is less disposed to attend to general reading or
turn author, when he has in a measure attained the object he had

in view.

30

^^^^ tieedet

^^^^^ the lei

WnUir or offictal parenu, who witk tbetr ksu I
Mienxy booorc, give tbem the adTuna^M uf a full t
iag umI rbeloric under the best mviten. Compocitkia u ife*
■nod ilifficnlt pari of the trajojag of a Chioeae student, and r»>-
4]uirea unweaned ap[dicatkia, and a retentice mtatoiy. He vT
can moot readily ijuole ilie classics, and appfoach ibe neamt
ibeir terse, comprehensive, energetic dicliou and style, b, cwCn
fmribvM, most likely to succeed ; obile the maa «)» can m
quickly lhn>w ofi* well rhytbmed reraea lakes the palm from all
competitora. In noveU. (be ability to compose elegant veise!
fftst as the pencil can fly is Dsually aacribed to the ben> of
ptot. How many of iboae who lutend to compete for
attend at the district colleges or btgh schools ia not known, bu^
they are reaofted to by students about the time of tlie exi
in order to make the acquaintance of tliose who are to eompe
with them. No public examinations take place in either <tay
private scbools, nor do parents often viut them, but rewards
excite the ambition of the pupils are occasionally confei
There is little gradation of studies, nor are any diplomaa ea
ferred on students to show that they have gone through a certai
course. Punishments are severe, and ihe rattan or bamboo ban|
coDspicuously near the master, and its liberal use is coasderi
necessBfy : " To educate without rigor, shows the teacher's iuil
lence," is the doctrine, and by scolding, starving, castigatioa, ai
imprisonment, the master tries to instil habits of obedience, ai
conipel his scholars to learn their distasteful task.

Notwithstanding the high opinion in which education u bet
and the diffusion of knowledge to a greater or less extent, and d
respect paid to learaing in comparison with BKttf title and wealt
the defects of ihe luition here briefly dewribed, in extent, mean
purposes, and results, are very great. Such, too, must unavu
ably be the case until new principles and new information H
infused into it. Considering it in its best poiniof view, ihissytfe
of education has effected all it can in enlafg;ing the undenlall
ing, purifying the heart, and strengthening tlic mtnils of tl
pi'ople ; but in none of these, nor in any of the essential poiq
which a eound education aims at, has it accomplished half that
needed. The stream never rises even as high as its source, oi
the teachings of Confucius and Mencius have done alt they
to make their countrymen thinking, useful, and inteHigeot

DEFICIENCIES OF CHISESE EmrcATlQJfl. 435

In conjparison with other Asiatic natioaa, (he Chinese have made
JisiiDguished atlainments in general intelligence, and in good
government so far ns security of lire and property goes, and the
tone of public opinion is more in favor of morality and sobriety
than among their neighbors. The deficiencies consist mostly in
those things which Christianity alone can supply, and until that
comcH to their aid they cannot bo expected to advance. It is a
remarkable thing that the writings of Confucius and his disciples
sjiould have been regarded ivilh such reverence ; and we are dis-
posed to look upon their teachings as sustained and invigorated
by the all-wise Governor of nations for his own gracious designs,
more directly than perliaps second causes would lead us to con-
clude. "The Chinese student, nol being secured from error by the
light of revealed religion, can only derive his moral precepts from
his school learning. He is certainly therefore fortunate in the pos-
session of a body of ancient national literature, which, while it cul-
tivates his taste and improves his understanding, contains nothing
to influence his passions or corrupt his heart. The Chinese are
not compelled, as we are, upon the authority of great names, and
for the sahe of the graces of style and language, to place in the
hands of their youth, works containing passages which put modesty
to the blush, — works in which the most admirable maxims of
morality are mixed and confounded together in the same page
with avowata and descriptions of the most disgusting licentious-
ness. The writings which the Chinese put into the hands of
their youthful students are in this respect wholly unexception-
able." This testimony is unimpeachable ; but he who receives
the Bible as the only sure exposition of depraved human charac-
ter, will slill inquire, how is it that in China these writings have
exerted so commanding an influence, when those of Seneca, Plato,
Socrates, and others, decidedly superior to them for genius, and
fully equal in mora! elevation, so slightly improved the mass of
their countrymen ! Human nature there is no less impure, irri-
table, and debased than it was in Greece and Rome, and no answer
so satisfactory can be obtained, when seeking an explanation of
the influence these ancient works have exerted over the Chinese,
ns by considering them to have been granted from the Source of
all wisdom for tlie end, by his blessing, of producing iheae elfecls.

Turn we now from this brief sketch of primary education
among the Chinese, lo a description of ihe mode of examining

^^1

4S6 . TUG MIDI

Mudenta and conferring iho degrees which hnve fwen made lbs
passport to office, and lenm what ore ihe real meriis of the sy»-
tem. Peraona from almost every class of Bociely may becomo
candidates for degrees under the certificates
.noDe are eligible for the second diploma who huve not already
received the first. It therefore happens that the republican
license apparently allowed of almost every subject struggling for
these academic honors is really confined to a few, and those u
ally the most talented or wealthy persons in the community. Most
of the clever, restless, ambitious, and intelligent spirits in the land
look forward lo these examinations as the only field worthy of
their etfoits, and where they are most likely to find their equals
( How much better for the good of society, too, is

T the feudul court, the toui

and iriends. I

this arena than the c.

the monastery !

There are four literary degrees, the first of which is called
gm-lKti, meaning flowering talent, because of the promise held
out of Ihe future success of the scholar. The examinaU
obtain it are held under the supervision of the ehihien in a pub.
lie building erected in the district town ; and.ihe chief literary
officer, called hiohching, " corrector of learning," or kiait-yu,
"teacher of the commands," has the immediate control. WheB-
ossembled at the hall of examination, the district magistrate t
lects the theme, and allows one day for writing the essays. Tha
number of candidates depends upon the population and literary-
spirit of the district ; in the districltt of Nanhni and Pwanyu, up.
wards of 2,000 persons competed for the prize in 1832, while in
Hiangshan not half of this number came together. When the ■
essays are handed in, they are looked over by the board of ex-
aminers, and the names of the successful students entered on b
roll, and pasted upon the walls of the magistrate's hall; this
honor is called Men ming, i. e. " having a name in the village."
Out of the 4000 candidales referred to above, only thirteen in one
district, and fourteen in Ihe other, obtained a name in the vil-
lage ; the entire population of these two districts is not much
under a million and a half. Those who pass the first examina-
tion are entered us candidates for the second, which takes ^Anc
in the chief town of the deportment before the literary chancellor
and the prefect, assisted by a literary magistrate called the kiau-
»hmi, " giver of insirticliona ;" it is more rigorous than th&l held

EXAMINATION FOR SIUT8AI OR BACHELOR. 437

before the chihien, though similar to it in nature. If the pro*
portion given above of successful candidates at the district exami-
nations hold for each district, there would not be more than 200
students assembled at the prefect's hall, but the number is some-
what increased by persons who have purchased the privilege ;
still the second trial is made among a small number in proportion
to the first, and still more trifling compared with the amount of
population. The names of the successful students at the second
trial are exposed on the walls of the office, which is called /u
ming, i. e. *' having a name in the department," and these only
are eligible as candidates for the third trial before the literary
chancellor of the province. This dignitary exercises a superin-
tendance over the previous examinations, and makes the circuit
of the province to attend them in each department, twice in three
years. At the third trial in the provincial capital, he confers the
first degree of sitUsaiy which has been translated *' bachelor of
arts," upon those who are chosen out of the whole list as the best
scholars.

There are several classes of bachelors, depending somewhat
on the manner in which they obtained their degree ; those who
get it in the manner here described take the precedence. The
possession of this degree protects the person from corporeal pu-
nishment, raises him above the common people, renders him a
conspicuous man in his native place, and eligible to enter the
triennial examination for the second dejjree. Those who have
more money than learning, purchase this degree for sums vary-
ing from $200 up to $1000, and even higher ; such are called
kiensdng, and, as might be supposed, are looked upon somewhat
contemptuously by those who have passed through the regular
examinations, and " won the battle with their own lance." A
degree called kungs&ng is purchased by or bestowed upon the
siutsai, which does not entitle them to the full honors of a kUjin.
What proportion of scholars are rewarded by degrees is not
known, but it is a small number compared with the candidates.
A graduate of considerable intelligence at Ningpo estimated the
number of siutsai in that city at 400, and in the department at
nearly a thousand. In Canton city, the number of sJunkin, or
gentry, who are allowed to wear the sash of honor, and have
obtained literary degrees, is not over 300 ; but in the whole pro-
vince there are about 12,000 bachelors.

I

436 THE MIDDLE KI.\GDO.M.

The oandidatea for this degree are narrowly e^ainioed when
they enler the hall, their pockeis, shoea, wadded robes, and ink-
stones, all being searched, lest precomposed essays or other aids
to compoBition ba smuggled ia. When they are all sealed in the
hall in their proper places, the wickets, doors, windows, and
other entrances are all guarded by men, and pasted over with
strips of paper. The room is filled with anxious oompelitora
arranged in long seals, pencil in hand, and ready to begin. The
theme is given out, and every one immedialeiy writes off his
essay, carefully noting how many eharacters he erases id com-
posing it, and hands it up to ihe board of examiners ; the whols
day is allotted lo the task, and a signal-gun announces the hour
when the doors are thrown open, and the students can disperBe.
The first two trials thin olT the crowd amazingly, and the ex-
aminers can easily reduce the number of hopeless competitors,
so that not one-lenth of those who appear at the first struggle are
seen at the third. A man is constantly Huble to lose his acquired
honor of siulsai, if at a subsequent inspection he is found to have
discarded his studies, and be is therefore impelled lo pursue them
in order lo escape disgrace, even if he dues not reach the next
degree.*

Since the first degree is sometimes procured by influence and
money, it is the e.iaminalion for the second, called trU-jm, or
" promoted men," held Irienoially in ihe provincial capitals be-
fore [wo imperial commissioners, that separates the candidates
into students and officers, though all the students who receive a
diploma by no means become ollicers. This examination is held
at (he same time in all the eighteen provincial capitals, viz, on
the 9th, 12th, and 15th days of the 8th moon, or about the
middle of September ; while it is going on, the city appears
exceedingly animated, in consequence of the great number of
relatives ond friends assembled with tlie students. The persons
who preside at Ihe examination, besides the imperial commission-
ers, are ten provincial officers, with the fuyuen at their hea^,-'
who jointly form a board of examiners, and decide upon th'a
merits of the essays. The number of candidates who entered
the lists at Canton in Ihe two years 1828 and 1831, was 4800;
in 1832, there were 6000, which is nearer the usual number. In

• ChineM Repoeitory, Vol. II., p, 340; Vol. XVI., pp. 67-73.

SECOND DEGREE OF LICENTIATES. 439

the lai^est provinces it reaches as many as 7000, 8000, and
upwards. The examinations are held in the Kung ytten, a
large and spacious building built expressly for this purpose, and
which contains a great number of cloisters and halU, where the
candidates can write their essays, and the examiners look at
them. The hall at Canton is capable of accommodating over
ten thousand persons, and in some of the northern cities they are
still larger, and generally filled with students, assistants, and
other persons connected with the examinations.

Before a candidate can enter the hall, he must give in an
account of himself to the chancellor, stating all the particulars
of his lineage, residence, birthplace, age, dec, and where he
received his first degree. He enters the establishment the pight
before, and is searched on entering, to see that no manuscript
essay, or miniature edition of the classics, is secreted on his
person, or anything which can assist in the task he is to under-
take. If anything of the sort is discovered, he is punished with
the cangue, degraded from his first degree, and forbidden again
to compete at the examination ; his father and tutor are likewise
punished. The practice is, however, quite common, notwith-
standing the penalties, and one censor requested a law to be
passed forbidding small editions to be printed, and booksellers'
shops to be searched for them.

The hall at Canton contains 7500 cells, measuring four feet
by three, and high enough to stand up in ; the furniture consists
of two boards, one for sitting, and the other contrived to serve
both for an eating-table and a writing-desk ; all these things,
as well as the writing materials, cooking apparatus, and every
officer, porter, and menial about the establishment, are carefully
searched. The cells are arranged around a number of open
courts, receiving all their light and air from the central area,
and exposed to the observation of the soldiers who guard the
place, and watch that no one has the least intercourse with the
imprisoned students. Confinement in this cramped position,
where it is impossible to lie down, is exceedingly irksome, and is
said to cause the death of many old students, who are unable to
go through the fatigue, but who still enter the arena in hopes of
at last succeeding. Cases have occurred where father, son, and
grandson, appeared at the same time to compete for the same
prize. The unpleasantness of the strait cell is much increased

440 TUB MIDDLE KJNGDOM.

by the smoke arising from the cooking, which ia al! done m (hs
court, and by tlie heat of tlie wcaiher. Wlienever a student
dies in his cell, the body is pulled ibroiigh a hole made in tlio
wall, and left there for his friends to can-y away. Whenever ft
candidate breaks any of tlie prescribed regulations of the conleal,
his name and oifence arc reported, and his name ia " pasted out "
bv placarding it on the outer door of the hall, after which he is
not allowed to enter until another exaininatii>n comes around.
19 " pasted out " each sea*
) attach to them in conse-

I

More than a hundred person:
son, but no heavy disgrace
quence.

There are four themes given out on the first day, selected
from the Four Books, one of which must be in poetry. The
minimum length of the coiiipo»ilions is u hundred characters,
and they must be written plainly and elegantly, and sent in
without any names attached. In 1S28, the acumen of 4B00
candidates wbb exercised on the first day on these themes;
"Tsilngtsz' said, 'To passess ability, and yet ask of those
who do not ; to know much, and yet inquire of those who know
little ; to possess, and yet appear not lo possess ; to be full, and
yet appear empty.' " — " He look hold of things by the two ex-
tremes, and in his treatment of the people maintained the golden
medium." " A man from his youth studies eight principles,
and when be arrives al manhood, be wishes to reduce ihem ta
practice." — The fourth essay, to be written in pentameters, had
for its Bubjecl, " The sound of the oar, and the green of tbe
hills and water." Among the themes given uul in 1843, were
ivho is sincere will be intelligeni, and the inlelli-
11 be faithful." — " In currying out benevolence,
rules," In lfi35, one wus, -' He acts as he ought,
both to the common people und official men, receives his revenua
from heaven, and by il is protected and highly esteemed."

The three or five themes (for the number seems to be oplionsl),
selected from the Five Classics, are similar to these, but as those
works are regarded as more recondite than ihe F
must the essayists try to take a higher style. An officer goes
around and collects the corn positions, and tlie students
missed the next morning till ihe second trial takes place. When
Ihey reissemble for the last time, five topics concerning daubtfut
of government, or upon such questions as might

these:

EYAHPLE OF AN |;SSAV. 441

administering the afTairs of slate, are proposed by tlie examiners,
end more freedom of observation is allowed in illusirating them.
The quesIioOB proposed on this trial lake a more extended
range, including topics relating to thi? laws, history, geography,
and customs of the empire in former times, doubtful points touch-
ing the classical works, and the interpretation of obscure pas-
sages, and biographical notices of statesmen. Il is forbidden,
however, to discuss any points relating to the policy of the pre-
sent family, or the character end learning of living statesmen ;
but the conduct of their rulers is now and then alluded to by the
candidates.

The manner in which these subjects are handled can be best
illustrated by introducing a single essay written in 1S18, upon
litis theme : " When persons in high stations are sincere in the
performance of relative and domestic duties, the people generally
will be stimulated to the practice of virtue." It ia a fair speci-
men of the jejune style of Chinese essayists, and the mode of
reasoning in a circle which pervades their writings.

" When the upper classes are really virtaous, the common people will
Inevitably become so. For, thougb the sincere peKonnsnce of relative
duties by superiors dace not originate In a wish to stimulaie the people,
yet (he people do become virtuous, which is a prcof of the e%ct of rin-
cerily. Ab benevolence ia the radic&l principle of all good govenuDent
in the world, so also benevolence is the radical principle of relative duties
amongst the people. Traced bnck to its source, benevolent feeling refer*
to a first progenitor : traced farwardn. It branches out to n hundred gene-
rations yet to come. The source of personal existence is one's parents,
the relations which originate from heaven are most intimate ; aitd that
in which natural feeling blends is felt moct deeply. That which is given
by heaven and by natural feeling to aU, is done without any distinction
between noble or ignoble. One feeling pervades all. My tlioughta now
refer to him who is placed in a station of eminence, and who may ba
called a good man. The good man who is placed in so eminent station,
ought to load forward the practice of virtue ; bnt Ihe way to do so is to
begin with his own Tclaliuns, and perforhi his duties to them,

" In the middle ages of antiquity, the minds of ilie people were not
yet dissipated — how came it that they were not humble and observant
of relative duties, when they were' taught the principles of the five social
relations ? This having been the case, makes it evident that the en-
lightening of the people must depend entirely on the cordial perfori
of immediate relative duties. The person in
20-

may be called k good man, U he who ftppenrs Rt tlie hMd of alt oUmi* li
ill ustraling by hia practice the relative diilie*. In tge* Mouier la ol^]
own, the RiaDoerB of Ihe people were not for removed thun iW dotiralfi
liow ume it that any were disobedient to parents, and without bmtJiette'l
alTcction, and that it was yet necesearj to re&lrain men by inflicting mw
ti^ht forniB or piiDi«liment 7 Thin liaving been the case, abowe tjiat JvJ
Ilic vaiious inodea of obtaining promotion in (he sUile, there ia nothiqf J
rcgaj^led of more importance than filial and fraternal duties. The pd^'J
son in an eminent slation who may bo called a gond man. ia he whk'3
Btands fortji ae an example of tLe perlbrmsnce of relative duties;

" The dilferenc« between a person tilling a high aiatioa and one of thB'i
common people, consiste in the departmenl assigned tbem, not in tbe^fl
relation to heaven ; it consists in n difference of rank, not in a di^renos J
of natural fooling ; but the comnoo people constantly obaerve Uw sine __
performance of relulivp dutjp? in peppio of lilpli sUitions. In being at
the head of il familv :iii(l pn-."n ii!^' nr'l. r lunniii;--! llif |n'r-iiri-- nf wfiich
it is composed, there plioiild be tiincore alti'iilioji to |icilitcne»s and deco-
rum. A good man placed in a liigh station says, ' Who of all these are
not related to me, and shall 1 receive them with mere external forms 7'
The elegant entertainment, the neatly arranged tables, and tlie exhilarat-
ing sonp, some men esteem mere forms, but the good mnn esteems that
which dictates them as a divinely instilieii feeling, and attends to it with
a truly benevolent heart. And who of llie common people does not
feel a share of the delight arising from father)^, and brothers, and kin-
dred ? Is this joy resigned entirely to princes and kings I

" In favors conferred to display the Wnignily of a sovereign, there
should be sincerity in the kindness done. The good man says, ' Are
not all these persons whom I love, and shall I merely enrich them by
largesses ?- lie gives a branch as the sceptre of authority to a delicate
7 another he gives a kingdom with bis best in-,
n deem Ibis as merely extraordinary good fortune,
» it the exercise of a virtue of the first order,
essible benevolence. But have the common
people no regard for the spring whence the water flows, nor for the root
which gives life to the tree and its branches ? Have lliey no regard
for their kindred ? It is necessary both to reprehend and to urge tiiera
to exercise these feelings. The good man in a high station is sincere
in the performance of relative duties, because to do so is virtuous, and
not on account of the common people. But the (leople, withoiLt know-
ing whence the impulse comes, with joy and delight are influenced to
act with zeal in this career of virtue ; the moral distillation proceeds
with rapidity, and a vaal change is effected.

" The rank of men is exceedingly different; some lilt the imperial
throne, but every one equally wishes to do his utmost to accomplish hia

younger brother, and It

but the good man es
and the effort of in

TEMOM OF EX*MI.\ING THE ESSAVS. 443

duly ; and aaccefs depends on every individuil himself. TTig upper
classes begin and piiur the wine into the rich goUcl ; llie poor man aiiws
his gTBin to maintain his parents : the men in high slalionti granp ihf
Eilver bowl, the poor present a, pigeon ; the; rouss eath other lo un-
wearied cheerful eSbrts, and the principles implanted by heaven are
moved to action. Home Liilogs are difficult to be done, except by those
who possess the glory of national rule ; but the kind feeling is what I
myself possess, and may increase lo an unlimited degree. The prince
may write verses appropriate lo his vine bower ; the poor man can
think of bis gourd shelter : the prince may sing his classic odes on
rrslemal regards ; the poor man can muse on his more simple allusiuna
to the uime subject, and asleep or awake indulge his recolteclions ; for
the feehng is iuslilled into his nature. When the people are aroused to
relative virtues, they will be sincere ; Ibr where are there any of tbe
comnwn people that do not desire lo perform relative duties 7 But
' without Ibe upper classes performing relative duties, this virtuous desire
would have no point from which to originate, and therefore it is said,
' Good men in high stations, as a general at the head of his armies, will
lead forward tbe world to the practice of bocIbI virtues.' "

Twenty-live days are allowed for the examiDing board to look
over the essays ; and Tew t&ska can be instanced more irksome
lo a board of honest eiiaminers than the peruaal of between fihy
and seveiily-five thousand papers on a dozen subjects, through
which ihe moat monotonous uniformity must necessarily run,
and oul of which ihey have to choose the seventy or eighty best
— for the number of successful candidates cannot vary far from
this, according to the size of the province. The examiners are
of difTerent ranks, and those in the lower board throw aside many
of the essays, which consequenlly never reach the chancellors.
If ihe number of students be five thousand, and each writes thir-
teen essays, there will be slsty-five thousand papers, which
bIIoIs two hund red and sixty essays for each of the ten examiners
to peruse daily. One of them, in 1832, who sought lo invigo-
rate his nerves or clear his intellects for the task, by a pipe of
opium, fell asleep in consequence, and on awaking, found that
many of the essays had caught fire and been consumed. It is
generally supposed thai hundreds of them are returned unread,
but the exciienieni of the occasion, and the dread on the part of
the examining board to irritate the body of students, acts as
checks against gross omissions. Very slight errors are enough
to condemn an essay, especially if the examiners have not been

L

444 THB MIDDLB KINGDOM.

gained to look upon it kindly. Section lii. of the Code regulates
die conduct of the examiners, but the punishments are slight*
One candidate, whose essay had been condemned without being
read, printed it, which led to the punishment of the examiner,
degradation of the graduate, and promulgation of a law forbid-
ding this mode of appealing to the public. Another essay was
rejected because the writer had abbreviated a single character.

When the graduates are decided upon, their names are pub-
lished by a crier at midnight, on or before the 10th of the 9th
moon ; he mounts the highest tower in the city, and, afler a
salute, announces them to the expectant city ; the next morning,
lists of the lucky scholars are hawked about the streets, and
rapidly sent to all parts of the province. The proclamation
which contains their names is pasted upon the fuyuen's office
under a salute of three guns ; his excellency comes out and
bows three times towards the names of the promoted men, and
retires under another salute. The disappointed multitude
must then rejoice in the success of the few, and solace them-
selves with the hope of better luck next time ; while the suc-
cessful ones are honored and feasted in a very distinguished
manner, and are the objects of flattering attention from the
whole city. On an appointed day, the governors, commissioners,
and high provincial oflicers, banquet them all al the fuyuen's
palace ; inferior officers attend as servants, and two lads, fan-
tastically dressed, and holding olive branches in their hands,
grace the scene with this symbol of literary attainments. The
number of licentiates, or kujin, who triennially receive their
degrees in the empire, is upwards of thirteen hundred, and the
expense of the examinations to the government in various ways,
including the presents conferred on the graduates, can hardly
be less than a third of a million of taels. Besides the triennial
examination, special ones are held every ten years, and on extra-
ordinary occasions ; one was granted in 1835 because the em-
press dowager had reached her sixtieth year.

The third degree of tsinsz\ " entered scholars," or doctors, is
conferred triennially at Peking upon the successful licentiates
who compete for it, and only those among the kujin^ who have
not already taken office, are eligible as candidates. In some
cases, their travelling expenses to court are paid, but it doubtless
requires some interest to get the mileage granted, for many poor

THIRD AMD FOURTH DEGREES OR DOCTORS. 445

icholars are detained from the metropolitan examination, or must
beg or borrow to reach it. The procedure on this trial is the
same as in the provinces, but the examiners are of higher rank ;
the themes are taken from the same works, and the essays are
but little else than repetitions of the same train of thought and
aigument. After the degrees are conferred upon all who are
deemed worthy, which varies from 150 to 400 each time, the
(ioctors are introduced to the emperor, and do him reverence, the
three highest receiving rewards from him. At thb examination,
candidates, instead of being promoted, are occasionally degraded
from their acquired standing for iucompetency, and forbidden
to appear at them sgain. The graduates are all inscribed upon
the list of candidates for promotion by the Board of Civil Office,
to be appointed on the first vacancy ; most of them do in fact
enter on official life in some way or other, by attaching them-
selves to high dignitaries, or getting employment in some of the
departments at the capital. One instance is recorded of a stu-
dent taking all the degrees within nine months ; and some become
hanHn before entering office. Others try again and again, till
grey hairs compel them to retire. There are many subordinate
offices in the Academy, the Censorate, or the Boards, which
seem almost to have been instituted for the employment of gra-
duates, whose success has given them a partial claim upon the
country. The emperor sometimes selects clever graduates to
prepare works for the use of government, or nominates them
upon special literary commissions ;* for it would cause heart-
burnings among them, if, after all their effi>rts, they were ne-
glected.

The fourth and highest degree of hanHn is rather an office
than a degree, for those who attain it are enrolled as members
of the Imperial Academy, and receive salaries. The triennial
examination for this distinction is held in the emperor's palace,
and is conducted on much the same plan as all preceding ones,
though being in the presence of the highest personages in the
empire, it exceeds them in honor.f The Manchus and Mongols
compete at these trials with the Chinese, but many facts show
thai, they are generally favored at the expense of the latter ; and

* ChineM Repository, Vol. IX., p. 541 ; Vol. III., p. 118.
t See Morrison's Chinese Dictionary, Vol. I., Part I., pp. 759-779, te
the laws and usages of the several trials.

446 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

the large proportion of men belonging to these races filling high
offices indicates who are the rulers of the land. The candidates
are all examined at Peking, and one instance is recorded of a
Chinese who passed himself off for a Manchu, but afterwards
confessed the dissimulation ; the head of the division was tried
in consequence of his oversight. It is the professed policy of the
government to discourage literary pursuits among them, in order
to maintain the ancient energy of the race ; but where the real
power is lodged in the hands of civilians, it is impossible to pre-
vent them striving for its possession.

The present dynasty introduced examinations and gradations
among the troops on the same principles as obtain in the civil
service ; being held in public they attract great crowds, though
the number of competitors is much less than for the civil degrees.
They consist in trials of skill in horsemanship, archery, and
strength, the last being shown by bending strong bows, wielding
heavy swords, and lifting weights. The competitors are mar-
shalled on the parade-ground near the provincial capital, and go
through the prescribed exercises. The forty-nine successful
candidates out of several thousands at the triennial examination
for kttjin in Canton, Nov. 1832, all hit the target on foot six
times successively, and on horseback six times ; once with the
arrow they hit a ball lying on the ground as they passed it at a
gallop ; and all were of the first class in wielding the iron-han-
died battle-axe, and lifting the stone-loaded beam. The candi-
dates are all persons of properly, who find their own horses,
dresses, arms, dec. ; and Mr. Ellis, who describes one of the ex-
aminations, says they were handsomely dressed, the horses,
trimmings, and accoutrements in good order, and the arrows
without barbs, to prevent accidents. He says, " the marks at
which they fired, covered with white paper, wer6 about the height
of a man and somewhat wider, placed at intervals of fifty yards ;
the object was to strike these marks successively with their three
arrows, the horses being kept at full speed. Although the bull's-
eye was not always hit, the target was never missed : the dis-
tance did not exceed fifteen or twenty feet."*

Since military honors depend so entirely on personal skill, it
may partly account for the inferior rank the graduates hold in

• Embassy to China, p 87 Chinese Repository, Vol. XVI., p. 62 ; VoL
IV., p. 125.

MILITARY EXAMINATIONS. 447

comparison with civilians. No knowledge of tactics, gunnery,
engineering, fortifications, or even letters in general, seems to be
required of them ; and this explains at once the inefficiency of
the army, and the low estimation its officers are held in. Sir J.
Davis mentions one military officer of enormous size and strength,
whom he saw on the Pei ho, who had lately been promoted for
his personal prowess ; and speaks of another attached to the
guard on one of the boats, who was such a foolish fellow that
none of the civilians would associate with him.* All the classes
eligible to civil promotion can enter the lists for military honors ;
the emperor is present at the examination for the highest, and
awards prizes, such as a cap decorated with a peacock's feather ;
but no system of prizes or examinations can supply the want of
knowledge and courage, and military distinctions not being much
sought by the people, and conferring but little emolument or
power, do not stand as high in public estimation as the present
government wishes. The selection of officers for the naval ser-
vice is made from the land force, and a man is considered quite
as fit for that branch afler his feats of archery, as if the trials had
been in yacht-sailing or manning the yards.

Such is the outline of the remarkable system of examinations
through which the civil and military services of the Chinese go-
vernment are supplied, and the only part of their system not to
be paralleled in one or other of the great monarchies of past
or present times ; though the counterpart of this may have also
existed in ancient Egypt. "It is the only one of their inven-
tions," as has been remarked, " which is perhaps worth preserv-
ing, and has not been adopted by other countries, and carried to
greater perfection than they were equal to." But such a sys-
tem would be unnecessary in an enlightened Christian country,
where the people, pursuing study for its own sake, are able and
willing to become as learned as their rulers desire without any
such inducement. Nor would they submit, except in a coun-
try like China, to the trammels and trickery attendant on com-
petition for office ; and the ablest politicians are by no means
found among the most learned scholars. The system could not
well be transplanted ; it is fitted for the genius of the Chinese,
and they have become well satisfied with its workings. Its

^ Davis* Sketches, Vol. I., pp 99, 101.

446 TB£ BUBBLE KINOBOM.

purification would do great good, doubtless, if the mass of the
people are to be led in their present state of ignorance, but their
elevation in knowledge would, erelong, revolutionize the whole.
There can be no doubt as to the important and beneficial results
it has accomplished, with all its defects, in perpetuating and
strengthening the present government, and securing to the peo-
ple a more equitable and vigorous body of magistrates than they
could get in any other way. Most of the real benefits of Chinese
education and tbis system of examinations, are reached before
the conferment of the degree of kujin. These consist in di^
fusing a general respect and taste for letters among the people ;
in calling out the true talent of the country to the notice of the
rulers in an honorable path of efibrt ; in making all persona so
thoroughly acquainted with the best moral books in the language
that they cannot fail to exercise some salutary restraint ; in
elevating the general standard of education so much that every
man is almost compelled to give his son a little learning in order
that he may get along in life ; and finally, through all these
influences, powerfully contributing to uphold the existing institu-
tions of the empire. Educated men form the only aristocracy
hi the land ; and the attainment of the first degree, by intro-
ducing its owner into the class of geniry, is considered ample
compensation for all the expense and study spent in getting it.
On the whole, it may safely be asserted that these examinations
do more to maintain the stability, and explain the continuance,
of the Chinese government than any other single cause.

A few extracts from recorded documents and facts will exhibit
the principal defects and malversations in the system, and show
how China has stopped short of perfection in this as in all her
sciences and arts. One great difiiculty in the way of the gra-
duated students attaining ofiice according to their merits is the
favor shown to those who can buy nominal and real honors.
Two censors in 1822, laid a document before his majesty, in
which the evils attendant on selling ofiice are shown ; viz.,
elevating priests, highwaymen, merchants, and other unworthy
or uneducated men, to responsible stations, and placing insur-
mountable difiiculties in the way of hard-working, worthy stu-
dents attaining the reward of their toil. They state that the
plan of selling ofiices commenced during the Han dynasty, but
speak of the greater disgrace attendant upon the plan at the

EXCELLENCIES AND DEFECTS OF THE EXAMIMATIOMS. 440

present time, because the avails all go into the privy purse in-
stead of being applied to the public service ; they recommend,
therefore, a reduction in the disbursements of the imperial
establishment. Among the items mentioned by these oriental
Joseph Humes, which they consider extravagant, are a lac of
taels (100,000) for flowers and rouge in the seraglio, and 120,000
in salaries to waiting- boys ; two lacs were expended on the
gardens of Yuenming, and almost half a million of taels upon
the parks at Jeh ho, while the salaries to ofllicers and presents to
women at Yuenming were over four lacs. " If^ese few items
of expense were abolished," they add, " there would be a saving
of more than a million of taels of useless expenditure ; talent
might be brought forward to the service of the country, and the
people's wealth be secured."

In consequence of the extensive sale of offices, they state that
more than five thousand Uinsz^ doctors, and more than twenty-
seven thousand kajin licentiates, are waiting for employmedt ;
and those first on the list obtained their degrees thirty years
ago, so that the probability is that when at last employed, they
will be too old for service, and be declared superannuated in the
first examination of oflicial merits and demerits. The rules to
be observed at the regular examinations are strict, but no ques-
tions are asked the buyers of oflice ; and they enter too on their
duties as soon as the money is paid. The censors quote three
sales, whose united proceeds only amounted to a quarter of a
million of taels, and state that the whole income from this source
for twenty years was only a ^QVi lacs. Examples of the flagi-
tious conduct of these purse.proud magistrates are quoted in
proof of the bad results of the plan. " Thus the priest Siang
Yang, prohibited from holding oflice, bought his way to one ;
the intendant at Ningpo, from being a mounted highwayman,
bought his way to office ; besides others of the vilest parentage.
But the covetousness and cruelty of these men are denominated
purity and intelligence ; they inflict severe punishments, which
make the people terrified, and their superiors point them out as
possessing decision : these are our able officers !"

Af\er animadverting on the general practice " of all officers,
from governor-generals down to village magistrates, combining
to gain their purposes by hiding the truth from the sovereign,"
and specifying the malversations of Tohtsin, the premier, io

450 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

particular, they close their paper with a protestation of their
iniegrity : •• U* your majesty deems what we have now stated
to be right, and will act thereon in the government, you will
realize the designs of the souls of your sacred ancestors ; and
the army, the nation, and the poor people, will have cause for
gladness of heart. Should we be subjected to the operation of
the hatchet, or suffer death in the boiling caldron, we will not
decline it."

These censoiq^place the proceeds of *' button scrip " far too
low, for in 1826, the sale produced about six millions of taels,
and was continued at intervals during the three following years.
In 1831, one of the sons of Howqua was created a kUjin by
patent for having subscribed nearly $50,000 to repair the dikes
near Canton ; and upon another was conferred the rank and
title of " director of the salt monopoly " for a lac of taels
towards the war in Turkestan. Neither of these persons ever
held any office of power, nor probably did they expect it ; and
such may be the case with many of those who are satisfied with
the titles and buttons, feathers and robes, which their money
procures. During the present dynasty, military men have been
frequently appointed to magistracies, and the detail of their
offices intrusted to needy scholars, which has tended, still further,
to disgust and dishearten the Chinese from resorting to the lite-
rary arena.

Another evil which infects the system is the bribery practised
to attain the degrees. By certain signs placed on the essays, the
examiner can easily pick out those he is to approve ; eight thou-
sand dollars was said to be the price of a bachelor's degree in
Canton, but this sum is within the reach of few out of the six
thousand candidates. The poor scholars sell their services to the
rich, and for a certain price will enter the hall of examination,
and personate their employer, running the risk and penalties of
a disgraceful exposure if detected ; for a less sum they will drill
them before examination, or write the essays entirely, which the
rich booby must commit to memory. The purchase of forged
diplomas is another mode of obtaining a graduate's honors, which,
from some discoveries made at Peking, is so extensively prac-
tised, that when this and other corruptions are considered, it
is surprising that any person can be so eager in his studies, or con-
fident of his abilities, as ever to think he can get into office by them

SALE OF DEGiiEES AND FORGED DIPLOMAS. 451

alone. In 1830, the Gazettes contained some documents show,
ing that an inferior officer, aided by some of the clerks in the
Board of Revenue, during the successive superintendence of
twenty presidents of the Board had sold 20,419 forged diplomas ;
and in the province of Nganhwui, the writers in the office attached
to the Board of Revenue had carried on the same practice for
four years, and forty-six persons in that province were convicted
of possessing them. All the principal criminals convicted at this
time were sentenced to decapitation, but these ^ises are enough
to show that the real talent of the country does not oflen find its
way into the magistrate's seat without the aid of money ; nor is
it likely that the tales of such delinquencies often appear in
the Gazettes. Literary chancellors also sell bachelors' degrees
to the exclusion of deserving poor scholars ; the office of the
hiohching of Kiangsf was searched in 1828 by Apecial commis-
sion, and four lacs of taels found in it ; he hung himself to avoid
further punishment, as did also the same dignitary in Canton in
1833, as was supposed, for a similar cause. It is in this way no
doubt that the ill-gotten gains of most officers return to the gene-
ral circulation.

Notwithstanding these startling corruptions, which seem to
involve the principle on which the harmony and efficiency of the
whole machinery of state stand, it cannot be denied, judging from
the results, that the highest officers of the Chinese government do
possess a very respectable rank of talent and knowledge, and
carry on the unwieldy machine with a degree of integrity, patri-
otism, industry, and good order, which shows that the leading
minds in it are well chosen. The person who has originally
obtained his rank by a forged diploma, or by direct purchase, can-
not hope to rise or to maintain even his first standing, without
some knowledge and parts. One of the three commissioners
whom Klying associated with himself in his negotiations with the
American minister in 1844, was a supernumerary chihien of for-
bidding appearance, who could hardly write a common document,
but it was easy to see the low estimation the ignoramus was held
m. It may therefore be fairly inferred that enough large prizes
are drawn to incite successive generations of scholars to compete
for them, and thus to maintain the literary spirit of the people.
Here too is a legitimate channel for the efforts and talents of every
person, while their development tends to consolidate and not dis-

452 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

turb or overturn the existing order of things. At these examina-
tions the superior minds of the country are brought together in
large bodies, and thus they learn each other's views, and are able
to check official oppressions with something like a public opinion.
The enjoyment of no small degree of power and influence in their
native village, is also to be considered in estimating the rewards
of studious toil, whether the student get a diploma or not ; and
this local consideration is the most common reward attending the
life of a scholar. In those villages where no governmental officer
is specially appMted, such men are almost sure to become the
headmen and most influential persons in the very spot where a
Chinese loves to be distinguished. Graduates are likewise
allowed to have a red sign over the door of their houses showing
the degree they have obtained, which is both a harmless and gra-
tifying reward j^ study ; like the additions of Cantab, or Oxon*^
D.D., or LL.D., in other lands.

The fortune attending the unsuccessful candidates is various.
Thousands of them get employment as school-teachers, pettifog-
ging notaries, and clerks in the public offices, and others who
are rich return to their families. Some are reduced by degrees
to beggary, and resort to medicine, fortune-telling, letter- writing,
and other such shifls to eke out a living. Many turn their atten-
tion to learning the modes of drawing up deeds and forms used
in dealings regarding property ; others look to aiding military
men in their duties, and a few turn authors, and thus in one
way or another contrive to turn their learning to account.

During the period of the examinations, when the students are
assembled in the capital, the officers of government are careful
not to irritate them by punishment, or offend their esprit du
corps, but rather, by admonitions and warnings, induce them to set
a good example. The personal reputation of the officer himself
has much to do with the influence he exerts over the students,
and whether they will heed his caveats. One of the examiners
in Chchkiang, irritated by the impertinence of a bachelor, who
presumed upon his immunity from corporeal chastisement, twisted
his ears to teach him better manners ; soon afler, the student and
two others of equal degree were accused before the same magis-
trate for a libel, and one of them beaten forty strokes upon his
palms. At the ensuing examination, ten of the siutsai, indignant
at this unauthorized treatment, refused to appear, and all the

SPIRIT OF AND RESPECT PAID TO STUDENTS. 458

candidates, when they saw who was to preside, dispersed imme-
diately. In his memorial upon the matter, the governor-general
recommends this officer, and another one who talked much about
the affair and produced a great effect upon the public mind, both
to be degraded, and the bachelors to be stripped of their honors.
A magistrate of Honan, having punished a student with twenty
blows, the assembled body of students rose and threw their caps
on the ground, and walked off leaving him alone. The prefect
of Canton in 1842, having become obnoxious to Um citizens from
the part he took in ransoming the city, the students refused to
receive him as their examiner, and when he appeared in the hall
to take his seat, drove him out of the room by throwing their
ink-stones at him ; he soon after resigned his station. Perhaps
the siutsai are more impatient than the kujin from being better
acquainted with each other, and being examined by local officers,
while the kojin are overawed by the rank of the commissioners,
and, coming from distant parts of a large province, have little
mutual sympathy or acquaintance. The examining boards, how-
ever, take pains to avoid displeasing any class of graduates, when
thus assembled.

With regard to female education, it is a singular anomaly
among Chinese writers, that while they lay great stress upon
maternal instruction in forming the infant mind, and leading it
on to excellence, no more of them should have turned their atten-
tion to the preparation of books for girls, and the establishment
of female schools. There are some reasons for the absence of
the latter to be found in the state of society ; parents would feel
unwilling to put their daughters at any age under the care of a
male teacher, .where they could not themselves exert a constant
supervision ; and it would be impossible to procure many quali-
fied schoolmistresses. Added to this is the hazard of sending
girls out into the streets alone, where they would run some risk
of being stolen. The principal stimulus for boys to study — the
hope and prospect of office — is taken away from girls, and Chi-
nese literature offers little to repay them for the labor of learning
it in addition to all the domestic duties which devolve upon them.
Still literary attainments are considered creditable to a woman,
more than is the case in India or Siam, and the names of au-
thoresses mentioned in Chinese annals would make a long list.
Tuen Yuen, the governor-general of Canton, in 1820, while in

464 THB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

office, published a volume of his deceased daughter's poetical
effusions ; and literary men are usually desirous of having their
daughters accomplished in music and poetry, as well as in com-
position and classical lore. Such an education is considered
befitting their station, and reflecting credit on the family.

One of the most celebrated female writers in China is Pan
Hwuipan, who flourished about a. d. 80 ; she wrote a work enti-
tled Female Precepts, which has formed the basis of many suc-
ceeding books ^n female education. The aim of her writings
was to elevat^emale character, and make it virtuous. She
says, " The virtue of a female does not consist altogether in extra-
ordinary abilities or intelligence, but in being modestly grave
and inviolably chaste, observing the requirements of virtuous
widowhood, and in being tidy in her person and everything about
her ; in whatever she does to be unassuming, and whenever she
moves or sits to be decorous. This is female virtue." Instruc-
tion in morals and the various branches of domestic economy are
more insisted upon in the writings of this and other authoresses,
than a knowledge of the classics or histories of the country.

One of the most distinguished Chinese essayists of modem
times, Luhchau, published a work for the benefit of the sex,
called the Female Instructor ; an extract from his preface will
show what ideas are generally entertained on female education
by Chinese moralists.

'* The basis of the government of the empire lies in the habits of the
people, and the surety that their usages will be correct is in the orderly
management of families, which last depends chiefly upon the females.
In the good old times of Chau, the virtuous women set such an excel-
lent example, that it influenced the customs of the empire — an influence
that descended even to the times of the Ching and Wei states. If the
curtain of the inner apartment gets thin, or is hung awry (i. e. if the
sexes are not kept apart), disorder will enter the family, and ultimately
pervade the empire. Females are doubtless the sources of good man-
ners ; from ancient times to the present this has been the case. The
inclination to virtue and vice in women difiers exceedingly ; their dispo-
sitions incline contrary ways, and if it is wished to form them alike,
there is nothing like education. In ancient times, youth of both sexes
were instructed. According to the Ritual of Chau, * the imperial wives
*«gulated the law for educating females, in order to instruct the ladies
of the palace in morals, conversation, manners, and work ; and each led
ont their respective classes, at proper times, and arranged them for

LUHCHAU ON FEMALE EDUCATION. 456

enmination in the imperial presence.' But these treatises have not
reached us, and it cannot be distinctly ascertained what was their plan of
arrangement. * * ♦ « *

*' The education of a woman and that of a man are very dissimilar.
Thus, a man can study during his whole life ; whether he is abroad or
at home, he can always look into the classics and history, and become
thoroughly acquainted with the whole range of authors. But a woman
does not study more than ten years, when she takes upon her the ma-
nagement of a &mily, where a multiplicity of cares distract her attention,
and having no leisure for undisturbed study, she cannot easily under-
stand learned authors; not having obtained a though acquaintance
with letters, she does not fully comprehend their principles ; and like
water that has flowed from its fountain, she cannot regulate her conduct
by their guidance. How can it be said that a standard work on female
education is not wanted ! Every profession and trade has its appropriate
• master ; and ought not those also who possess such an influence over
manners [as females] to be taught their duties and their proper limits ?
It is a matter of regret, that in these books no extracts have been made
from the works of Confucius in order to make them introductory to the
writings on polite literature ; and it is also to be regretted that selections
have not been made from the commentaries of Ching, Chu, and other
scholars, who have explained his writings clearly, as also from the whole
range of writers, gathering from them all that which was appropriate,
and omitting the rest. These are circulated among mankind, together
with such books as the Juvenile Instructor ; yet if they are put into the
hands of females, they cause tliem to become like a blind man without
a guide, wandering hither and thither without knowing where he is
going. There has been this great deficiency from very remote timea
until now.

** Woman's influence is according to her moral character, therefore
that point is largely explained. First, concerning her obedience to
her husband and to his parents; then in regard to her complaisance
to his brothers and sisters, and kindness to her sisters-in-law. If un-
married, she has duties towards her parents, and to the wives of her
elder brothers ; if a principal wife, a woman must have no jealous feel-
ings ; if in straitened circumstances, she must be contented with her
lot ; if rich and honorable, she must avoid extravagance and haughtiness*
Then teach her, in times of trouble and in days of ease, how to main-
tain her purity, how to give importance to right principles, how to
observe widowhood, and how to avenge the murder of a relative. Is she
a mother, let her teach her children ; is she a step-mother, let her love
and cherish her husband's children ; is her rank in life high, let her be
condescending to her inferiors; let her wholly discard all sorcerers,
superstitious nuns, and witches ; in a word let her adhere to propriety, \
and avoid vice.

456 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

*< In coDvereation, a female should not be froward and gamknu, but
observe strictly what is correct, whether in suggesting advice to her
husband, in remonstrating with him, or teaching her children ; in main-
taining etiquette, humbly imparting her experience, or in averting mis-
fortune. The deportment of females should be strictly grave and sober,
and yet adapted to the occasion; whether in waiting on her parents,
receiving or reverencing her husband, rising up or sitting down, when
pregnant, in times of mourning, or when fleeing in war, she should be
perfectly decorous. Rearing the silkworm and working cloth are the
most important of the employments of a female ; preparing and serving
up the food for th^ousehold, and setting in order the sacrifices, follow
next, each of which must be attended to ; after them, study and leamiog
can fill up the time." — Chi, Rep,^ vol. IX., p. 642.

The work thus prefaced, is a sort of Young Lady's Book, in-
tended to be read rather than studied ; and the time allowed them
for literary pursuits, after other avocations have been^ attended
to, is small indeed. Happy would it be for the country, however,
it can be truly said, if the instructions given by this moralist
were followed ; and it is a credit to a pagan to write such senti-
ments as the following : " During infancy, a child ardently loves
its mother, who knows all its traits of goodness ; while the father,
perhaps, cannot know about it, there is nothing which the mother
does not see. Wherefore the mother teaches more effectually,
and only by her unwise fondness does her son become more and
more proud (as must by age becomes sourer and stronger), and
is thereby nearly ruined." — " Heavenly order is to bless the good
and curse the vile ; he who sins against it will certainly receive
his pimishment sooner or later : from lucid instruction springs
the happiness of the world. If females are unlearned, they will
be like one looking at a wall, they will know nothing : if they
are taught, they will know, and knowing they will imitate their
examples."

It is vain to expect, however, that any change in the standing
of females, or extent of their education, will take place until in-
fluences from abroad are brought to bear upon them, until the
same work that is elsewhere elevating them to their proper place
in society by teaching them the principles on which that eleva-
tion is founded, and how they can themselves maintain it, is
begun. The Chinese do not, by any means, make slaves of their
females and if a comparison be made between their condition

EXTENT OF FEMALE BDUCATIOlf.

457

in China and other modern unevangelized oountriesi or even
with ancient ones, it will in many points acquit them of much
of the ohloquy they have received on this behalf. There are
some things which tend to show that more of the sex read and
write sufficiently for the ordinary purposes of life, than a slight
examination would at first indicate. Among these may be men-
tioned, the letter- writers compiled for their use, in which instruc-
tions are given for every variety of note and epistle, except,
perhaps, love letters. The works just mentioned, intended ^r
their improvement, form an additional fact. TM pride taken
by girls in showing their knowledge of letters is evidence that it
is not common, while the general respect in which literary ladies
are held, proves them not be so very rare ; though for all practi-
cal good, it may be said that half of the Chinese people know
nothing of books. The fact that female education is so favor-
ably regarded is encouraging to those philanthropic persons and
ladies who are endeavoring to establish female schools at the
mission stations, since they have not prejudice to contend with in
addition to igrnorance. ^

21

CHAPTER X.
Structure of the Chinese Language.

It might reasonably be inferred, judging from the attention paid
to learning, and the honors conferred upon its successful votariea,
that the literature of the Chinese would contain much to repay
investigation. Such is not the case, however, to one already
acquainted with the treasures of western science, though it still
has claims to the regard of the general student, from its being the
literature of so vast a portion of the human species, and the re*
suit of the labors of its wisest and wittiest minds during many
successive ages. The fact that it has been developed under a
peculiar civilization, and breathes a spirit so totally different
from the writings of western sages and philosophers, perhaps
increases the curiosity to learn what are its excellences and
defects, and obtain some criteria by which to compare it with
the literature of other Asiatic or even European nations. The
language in which it is written — one peculiarly mystical and
diverse from all other media of thought — has also added to its
singular reputation, for it has been surmised that what is
" wrapped up " in such complex characters must be preemi-
nently valuable for matter or elegant for manner, and not less
curious than profound. Although a candid examination of it
will divest it of all its supposed extraordinary qualities, and
disclose its real mediocrity in points of research, learning, and
genius, still there remains enough to render it worthy the
attention of the oriental or general student.

Some of its peculiarities are owing to the nature of the language,
and the mode of instruction, both which have affected the style and
the thoughts of writers : for, having, when young, been taught to
form their sentences upon the models of antiquity, their efforts
to do so have moulded their thoughts in the same channel.
Imitation, from being a duty, soon became a necessity ; and
the Chinese scholar, forsaking nature and the Readings of hif

ORIGINAUTT OF CHINESE LITERATUEB. 459

own genius, soon learned to regard his models much as the
schoolmen did the Bible and its scholiasts, as not only being all
truth themselves, but that everything not in them was vulgar or
doubtful. The intractable nature of the language, making it
difficult to study other tongues through the medium of his own,
and to naturalize their words and expressions, moreover tended
to repress all desire to become acquainted with books in them ;
and as he knew nothing of them or their authors, it was easy to
conclude that there was nothing worth knowing in them, nothing
to repay the toil of study, or make amends for the condescension
of ascertaining. The neighbors of the Chinese have unques-
tionably been their inferiors in civilization, good government,
learning, and wealth ; and this fact has nourished their conceit,
and repressed the wish to travel beyond them, and ascertain
what there was in remoter regions. In judging of the character
of Chinese literature, therefore, these circumstances among others
under which it has risen to its present bulk, must not be over-
looked ; and we shall conclude that the uniformity running
through it is perhaps owing as much to the isolation of the peo-
ple and servile imitation of their models, as to their genius : each
has, in fact, mutually acted upon and influenced the other.

In this short account of the Chinese tongue, it will be sufficient
to give such notices of the origin and construction of the charac-
ters, and of the idioms and sounds of the written and spoken
language, as shall convey a general notion of all its parts, and
tend to remove the mbapprehension regarding its structure, and
the difficulty attending its acquisition. Upon these points there
has, apparently, been a want of clearness, arising in some
measure from the different or imperfect sources of information,
available to those who have written upon the subject.

Chinese writers, unable to trace the gradual formation of their
characters (for, of course, there could be no intelligible histori-
cal data until long after their formation), have ascribed them
to Hwangtl, one of their primeval monarchs, or to Tsangkieh,
a statesman of the same period, which according to Chinese
chronology was about 2700 years before Christ. He is said to
have derived the first ideas which led to this important invention
from careful observation of the varied forms in nature, which he
endeavored to imitate, in order to contrive a better mode of record-
ing facts than the knotted cords then in use. At this crisis, when

^

460 THE MIDDLB KINGDOM.

a medium for conveying and giving permanency to ideas n
formed, Chinese hiatorians soy, " the heavens, the earth, and the
gods, were all agitated. The inhabitants of hades wept at
night ; and the heavens, as an expression of Joy, rained down
ripe grain. From the invention of writing, the machinations of
the human heart began to operate ; stories false and erroneous
daily increased, litigations and imprisonments sprang up ; hence,
also, specious and artful language, which causes so much con-
fusion in the world. It was for these reasons that the shades of
the departed wept at night. But from the invention of writing,
polite intercourse and music proceeded ; reason and justice
were made manifest ; the relations of social life were illustrated,
and laws became fixed. Governors had rules to refer to;
scholars had authorities to venerate ; and hence, the heavens, de-
lighted, rained down ripe grain. The classical scholar, the his-
torian, the mathematician, and the astronomer, can none of them
do without writing; were there no written language to afTord
proof of passing events, the shades might weep at noonday, and
the heavens rain down blood."

The date of the origin of this language, like that of the letters
of western alphabets, is lost in the earliest periods of postdiluvian
history, but there can be no doubt that it is the most luicienl
language now spoken, and perhaps, with the single exception of
the Hebrew, the oldest written language used by man. The
Ethiopic and Coptic, the Sanscrit and Pali, the Syriac and
Pehlvic, have all become dead languages ; and the Greek,
Latin, and Persian, now spoken, differ so much from the ancient
style, as lo require special study to understand the books in
tliem : while during successive eras, the written and spoken
language of the Chinese has undergone few alterations, and done
much to deepen the broad line of demarkation between them and
other branches of the human race. The languages abovemen-
tioned, although spoken by powerful and learned nations, and
containing treasures of learning and wit lo attract admiring
students, were spoken simultaneously by only a few millions of
people ; but ai a moderate estimate, the Chinese language is now
understood by all the learned men among four hundred milHonB
of people, including not only all the races subjet
but also the Cochinchinese, Coreans, Lewchewans, and Japax
the fbraier of whom have no other written mediui

9emperen
Japane^H

ANTIQUITY AMD ORIGIN OF THB CBARACTEBS. 401

The primitive characters of the Chinese language are derived
from the natural or artificial objects, of which they were at first
the rude outlines. Most of the original forms are preserved in
the treatises of native philologists, where the changes they have
gradually undergone are shown. The number of objects chosen
at first was not great ; among them were symbols for the sue,
moon, hills, objects in nature, animals, parts of the body, dec. ;
and in drawing them the limners seem to have proposed to them-
selves nothing further than an outline sketch, which, by the aid of
a little explanation, would be intelligible. Thus the picture ^
would probably be recognised by all who saw it as representing
the moon ; that of r§: as 9kfi»h ; and so of others. It is apparent
that the number of pictures which could be made in this manner
would bear no proportion to the wants and uses of a language,
and therefore recourse must soon be had to more complicated
symbols, to combining those already understood, or to the adop-
tion of arbitrary or phonetic signs. All these modes have been
more or less employed.

Chinese philologists arrange all the characters in their language
into six classes, called Ivh shu, or six writings. The first, called
tiofig hingy or imitative symbols, are those in which a plain
resemblance can be traced between the original form and the
object represented ; they are among the first characters invented,
although the 608 placed in this class do not include all the
original symbols. These pristine forms have since been modified
80 much that the resemblance has disappeared in most of them,
caused chiefly by the use of paper, ink, and pencils, for writing
instead of the iron style and bamboo tablets formerly in use ; for
circular strokes can be more distinctly made with an iron point
upon Ihe hard wood than they can with a hair pencil upon thin
paper; angular strokes and square forms therefore gradually
took the place of round or curved ones, and contracted characters
came into use in place of the original imitative symbols. In
this class such characters as the following are given.

.^^ muh, the eye ; now written ^

i^ shan^ a hill ; now written |2|

^ isx\ a child ; now written ^

^ ch^f a chariot ; now written ^

The second class, only 107 in number, is called ehi st^^ i. e.

46S THE MIDDLE EIKGDOM.

■yniboU indicating thought ; which dilftr from ihe preceding
chieflv in that the characters are formed by combining previously
formed symbols in such a way as to indicate some idea easily
deducible from their position or corabinnlion, and pointing out
some property or relative circumstance belonging. to ihem.
nese philologists consider iheae two classes as'comprising all tba
ideographics in the language, that is, all those characters which
depict objects either in whole or in part, and whose meaning is
apparent from the resemblance to the object, or from the portion
of the pans. Among those placed in this class are,

^ moon half appearing, signifies evening ; now written Jf
© sun above the horizon, denotes morning ; now written g
y something in the mouth, meaning aweel ; now writiea ^
The third class, amounting to 740 characters, is called hvtu i,
i. e. combined ideas, and comprises characters made up of two
or three symbols to form a single idea, whose meanings are dedu-
cible either from their position, or supposed relative influence upon
each other. Thus the union of tiie sun and moon, ^ maig,
expresses brightness ; ^ tiert, a piece of wood in a doorway,
denotes obstruction; two trees stand for a forest, as ^ ilni/
and three for a thicket, as A; Jan ,- two men upon the ground
conveys the idea of sitting ; a mouth in a door signifies to ask
heart and death imports forgetful n ess ; dog and mouth means t
bark ; woman and broom denotes a wife, referring to her houae-
hold duties ; pencil and to speak is a book, or to write. But in
none of these compounded characters is there anything like that
perfection of picture writing slated by some writers lo belong to
the Chinese language, which will enable one unacquainted witli
the meaning of the separate symbols to decide upon the sij
cation of the combined group. On the contrary, i( is in moat
cases certain that the third idea made by combining two already
known symbols, usually required more or less explanation to fix
its precise meaning, and remove the doubt which would otherwise
n of the sun and moon might
OS readily mean a solar or lunar eclipse, or denote the idea of
lime, as brightness. A piece of wood in a doorway would alrooot
as naturally suggest a threshold as an obitruction ; and so of
Others. A bar or straight line in a doorway would more readily
' suggest a closed or bolted door, which is the signiiicalioa of BS

SIX CLAS8BS OF CHAEACTBBS. 408

«

dkm, anciently written ^ ; but the idea intended to be con-
veyed by these combinations would need prior explanation as
much as the primitive symbol, though it would thenceforth readily
recur to mind when noticing the construction.

It is somewhat singular that the opinion should have obtained
80 much credence, that Du Ponceau deemed it worth while in an
elaborate dissertation to refute the idea that Chinese characters
addressed themselves so plainly to the eye that their meaning
was easily deducible from their shape and construction. It might
almost be said, that not a single character can be accurately
defined from a mere inspection of its parts ; and the meanings
now given of some of those which come under this class are so
arbitrary and far fetched, as to show that Chinese characters have
not been formed by rule and plummet more than words in other
languages. The mistake which Du Ponceau so learnedly com-
bats arose, probably, from confounding sound with construction,
and inferring that because persons of different nations who used
this as their written language could understand it when written,
though mutually unintelligible when speaking, that it addressed
itself so entirely to the eye, as to need no previous explanation.

The fourth class, called chuen chu, <* inverted significations,"
ihcludes only 372 characters, being such as by some inversion,
contraction, or alteration of their parts, acquire different mean-
ings. This class is not large, but these and other modifications
of the original symbols to express abstract and new ideas show
that those who used the Chinese language either soon saw how
cumbrous it would become if they went on forming imitative
signs, or else their invention failed, and they resorted to changes
more or less arbitrary in characters already known to furnish
distinctive signs for different ideas. Thus yu^j^ the Jiand turning
towards the right means the right ; inclined in the other direction,
as too ^ it means the lefl. The hetart placed beneath slavey sig-
nifies anger ; threads obstmcted, as |§ » means to sunder ; but
turned the other way, as [|| , signifies continuous.

The fiflh class, called kiai sJdng, L e. uniting sound sym-
bols, contains 21,810 characters, or nearly all in the language.
They are formed of a picture or imitative symbol united to one
which merely imparts its sound to the compound ; the former
usually partakes more or less of the new idea, while the latter

464 TUB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

loses its own oieaDing, and gives only its name. In this respeol;
Chinese characters dificr from, and are superior to the Arabic
numerals to which they have oflen been likened, for combina-
tions like 25, 101, &c., although conveying the same meaning to
all nations using them, can never indicate sound. This plan
of forming new combinations by the union of symbob expressing
idea and sound, enables the Chinese to increase the number of
their characters to any extent, without multiplying the original
symbols ; and it is to this doss that the term lexigraphic used by
Du Ponceau is properly applicable. The probable mode io
which this arose is easily explained. Supposing a new insect
was to be described, whose name had never yet been written,
but which was well known in its native localities by the term
nan. It would be sufficient to designate this insect to all persons
living where it was found by selecting a well understood cha-
racter, like ^ << south," but without reference to its meaning,
only having (he exact sound nan, such as the insect itself was
called in that place, and joining it to the symbol chungy ^
meaning insect ; it would then signify, to every one who knew
the sound and meaning of the component parts, the insect nan ^
and be read nan, meaning an insect. Some would perhaps call
it the insect south, i. e. the southern insect, but the design of the
new combination would be the guide, and the number of such
ideophonous compounds direct as to the mode of interpretation.
If this new combination of two known characters was carried to
a distant part of the country, where the insect itself was ua-
known, it would convey no more information to the Chinese who
saw the united symbol, than the sounds insect nan would to an
Englishman who heard them ; to both persons a meaning must
be given by describing the insect. If, however, the people
living in this region of the country called the phonetic part of
the new character by another sound, as nam, nem, or lam, they
would attach the same name to the whole combination when they
saw it ; and the people on the spot would, perhaps, not under-
stand them when they spoke of it by that name, until they had
written it, when both would give it the same signification, but a
different sound. In this way, and the example of the insect nan
here cited is not a supposed case, most Chinese characters have
probably originated. This rule of sounding them according to
the phonetic part is not in all cases certain ; for in the lapse of

MODE OF COMBINING PHONETIC CHARACTERS. 465

Ume, the sounds of many characters have changed, while those
of the parts themselves have not altered ; in other cases, the parts
have altered, and the sounds remained ; so that now only a
great degree of probahility as to the correct sound can be obtained
by inspecting the component parts. The similarity in sound
between most of the characters having the same phonetic part
or primitive is a great assistance in reading Chinese, though
very little in understanding it ; while the large proportion
of characters formed on this principle has induced some sino-
logues to arrange the whole language according to the phonetic
part, but there are too many exceptions to make it a very useful
arrangement in practice. The most elaborate work of the kind
is the Systema Phoneticum of Gallery. There are a few in-
stances of an almost inadvertent arrival at a true syllabic sys-
tem, by which the initial consonant of one part when joined to
the final vowel of the other, gives the sound of the character ; as

ma hndfi, in the character ^, when united in this way, make
mi. The meanings of the components are Jientp and not, that of
the compound is extravagant, wasteful, &c., showing little or no
relation to the primary signification. The number of such cha-
racters is very small, and the syllabic composition here noticed
is probably fortuitous, and not intentional.

The sixth class, called Ida tsi^, i. e. borrowed uses, includes
metaphoric symbols and combinations, in which the meaning is
deduced by a somewhat fanciful accommodation ; the total num-
ber of such characters is 598. They differ but little from the
second class of indicative symbols. For instance, the symbol
"^ or jf\ , meaning a written character, is composed of a cMId
under a «A«/ter,— characters being considered as the well nur-
tured offspring of hieroglyphics. The character for hall means
also mother, because she constantly abides there. The word for

mind or heart is sin <j^, originally intended to represent that
organ, but now used entirely in a metaphorical sense. Chinese
grammarians find abundant scope for the display of their fancy
in explaining the etymology and origin of the characters, but the
aid which their researches give towards understanding the Ian-
guage as at present used is small. This classification under six
heads is modern, and was devised as a means of arranging what
existed already, for they confess that their characters were not

21*

466 TH£ MIDDLB KINGDOM.

formed according to fixed rules, and have gradually undergone
many changes.

The total number in the six classes is 24,285, being many less
than are found in Kanghi's Dictionary, which amount to 44,449 ;
but in the larger sum are included the obsolete and s3monymou8
characters, which, if deducted, would reduce it to nearly the
same number. It is probable that the total of really dififerent
characters in the language sanctioned by good usage, does not
vary greatly from 25,000, though authors have stated them at
from 54,409, as Magaillans does, up to 260,899, as Montucci.
The Chinese editor of the large lexicon on which Dr. Morrison
founded his Dictionary, gives it as his opinion that there are fifty
thousand characters, including synonyms and different forms ;
and taking in every variety of tones given to the words, and
sounds for which no characters exist, that there are five thousand
different words. But even the sum of 25,000 different charac-
ters contains thousands of unusual ones which are seldom met
with, and which, as is the case with old words in English, are
not oflen learned. The burden of remembering so many com-
plicated symbols, whose form, sound, and meanings are all ne-
cessary to enable the student to read and write inteHigibly, is so
great that the literati have abridged those in common use, and
increased their meanings, by which they save no little toil. This
course of procedure really occurs in most languages, and in the
Chinese greatly reduces the labor of acquiring it, though it can-
not be ascertained how many are indispensable to enable the
student to read common books. It may, however, be safely said
that a good knowledge of ten thousand characters will enable
one to read any work in Chinese, and write intelligibly on any
subject ; and Pr^mare says a good knowledge of four or five
thousand characters is sufficient for all common purposes, and
two thirds of that number might in fact suffice. The nine cano-
nical works contain altogether only 4601 different characters,
while in the Five Classics alone there are over two hundred
thousand words. The entire number of different characters in
the code of laws translated by Staunton is under two thousand.

The invention of printing and the compilation of dictionaries
nave given to the form of modern characters a greater degree of
certainty than they had in ancient times. The variants of some
of the most common ones were exceedingly numerous before this

MODBS OF ARRAiroiMG CBABilCTBRS. 467

period ; Gallery gives 42 different modes of writing poti, *< pre-
cious ;" and 41 for writing tsun, " honorable ;" this shows both the
absence of an acknowledged standard, and the slight intercourse
there was between learned men. The best mode of arranging
the characters so as to find them easily, has been a subject of
considerable trouble to Chinese lexicographers, and the various
methods they have adopted renders it somewhat difficult to con-
sult their dictionaries without considerable previous knowledge
of the language. In some of them, those having the same sound
have been grouped together, so that it is necessary to know what
a character is called before it can be found ; and this arrange-
ment has been followed in several small vocabularies designed
principally for the use of the common people. One well-known
vocabulary used at Canton, called the Fdn Ftift, or Divider of
Sounds, is arranged on this plan, the words being placed under
thirty-three orders, according to their terminations. Each order
is subdivided into three or four classes according to the tones,
and all the characters having the same tone and termination are
placed together, as kam, lam^ tarn, nam, &c. As might be readily
supposed, it requires considerable time to find a character whose
tone is not exactly known ; and even when the tone is known,
the uncertainty is equally troublesome if the termination is not
familiar : for singular as it may seem to those who are acquaint-
ed with phonetic languages only, a Chinese can, if anything,
more readily distinguish between two words ^ming and bmtn^,
whose tones are unlike, than he can between ^ming and ^meng,
^ming or ^Mng, where the initial or final differs a little, and
the tones are the same.

An improvement on this plan of arrangement was made by
adopting the mode of expressing the sounds of Chinese charac-
ters introduced by the Budhists, which was to take the initial of
the sound of one character and the final of another, and combine
them to indicate the sound of the given character ; as from fi-en
and y-ing to form Hng, The inhabitants of Amoy use a small
lexicon called the Shih-wu Ym, or Fifleen Sounds, in which the
characters are ingeniously classified on this principle, by first
arranging them all under fifty finals, and then placing all those
having the same termination in a regular series under fifteen
initials. Common, well-known characters are selected to indi-
cate both the initials and finals. Supposing a new character^

468 THS MIDDLE KinCDOH.

cAien, is seen, whoae Bound is given, or the word is heard in con.
versaticoi and lis meaQings are wanted, the person turns to the
part of the book contaiDing tiio final ten, which is designated per.
haps by the charcicter kien, and looks along the inilidls until ha
comes to ch, which is indicated by the cliaracler ehang. In
this column, all the words in the book rend or spoken chien, of
whatever tone Ihey may be, are placed together according U>
their tones ; and a litllc practice readily enables a person speak,
ing the dialect to use tliis manual. It is, however, of little or no
avail to persons speaking other dialecta, or to those whose ver.
nacular differs much from that of the compiler, whose own ear
was his only guide. Complete dictionaries have been published
on the phonetic plan, the largest of which, the Wu Chf Yiin Fu,
is arranged with so much minuteness of intonotioa as to puszla
even the best educated natives, and consequently abridge its use-
fulness as an expounder of wonls.

The unfitness of either of these modes of arrangement to find
a new oharacter, led to another cTassiHcation according to their
GompositioD, by selecting the most prominent parts of each ch&.
racter as its key, and piecing those together in which the sai
key occurred, totally irrespective of their sounds. It is not
certain that this plan was adopted subsetjucnily to that of arrang-
ing the characters according to the sounds, lor the objects aimed
at are apparently unlike ; the latter being designed for the I
of natives speaking the language, while the classificalion under
keys is intended for liie benefit of those who, like the Manchua,
are ignorant of its sounds. Lexicographers ditTer us to the iium*
ber of keys, some having more than 50(f, others about 300, but
the dictionary called Kangki Tn' Tien, arranges all charac-
ters under 214 keys, or radiciila. This number is entirely arhi-
trary, and could have been advantageously reduced, as has been
shown by Gonijalves ; but its universal adoption, more tlian any.
thing else, renders it the beat system now in use- All charactera
found under the same radical arc placed consecutively, according
to the number of strokes necessary to write tliem, but no regu.
larily is observed in placing those having the same number of
strokes. The term primitive has been technically applied to lbs
remaining part of the character, which, though perhaps no older
kUian the radical, is cnnvcnienlly denoted by this word. The
I'fiharacters selected for the 314 radicals are all common ooea,

EABICALS AND PBIMITITX8 COMPRISING CHAEACTB1US. 469

and among the most ancient in the language; they are here
grouped according to their meanings in order to show something
of the leading ideas iR>llbwed in combination.

Part* cf bodies, — ^Body, corpse, head, hair, down, whiskers, face, eye,
ear, nose, mouth, teeth, task, tongue, hand, heart, foot, hide, leather,
skin, wings, feathers, blood, flesh, talons, horn, bones.

Zoological radicals. — Man, woman, child ; horse, sheep, tiger, dog,
ox, hog, hog*s head, deer ; tortoise, dragon, reptile, mouse, toad ; bird,
gallinaceous fowls ; fish ; insect.

Botanical. — Herb, grain, rice, wheat, millet, hemp, leeks, melon
pulse, bamboo, sacrificial herb ; wood, branch, sprout, petal.

Mineral. — Metal, stone, gems, salt, earth.

Meteorological. — ^Rain, wind, fire, water, icicle, vapor, sound ; sun,
moon, evening ; time.

Utensils. — A chest, a measure, a mortar, spoon, knife, bench, couch*
crockery, clothes, tiles, dishes, napkin, net, plough, vase, tripod, boat,
carriage, pencil; bow, halberd, arrow, dart, ax, musical reed, drum,
seal.

Qualiiies. — Black, white, yellow, azure, carnation, sombre; color;
high, long, sweet, square, large, small, strong, lame, slender, old, fra-
grant, acrid, perverse, base, opposed.

Actums. — To enter, to follow, to walk slowly, to arrive at, to stride, to
walk, to run, to reach to, to touch, to stop, to fly, to overspread, to en*
velop, to encircle, to establish, to overshadow, to adjust, to distinguish,
to divine, to see, to eat, to speak, to kill, to fight, to oppose, to stop, to
embroider, to owe, to compare, to imitate, to bring forth, to use, to pro-
mulge.

Parts cf the world, and dwellings ; figures ; miscellaneous. — ^A desert,
cave, field, den, mound, hill, valley, rivulet, clifl^ retreat A city ; roof,
gate, door, portico. One, two, eight, ten. Demon ; an inch, mile ; with-
out, not, false ; a scholar, statesman, letters ; art, wealth ; motion ; sdf^
myself, father ; a point ; again ; wine ; silk ; joined hands ; a long
journey ; print of a bear's foot ; a surname ; classifier of cloth.

The number of characters found under each of these radicals
in Kanghf's Dictionary varies from five up to 1854. The radical
is not uniformly placed in the character, but its usual position is
on the lefl of the primitive. Some radicals occur on the top,
others on the bottom ; some inclose the primitive, and many
have no fixed place, making it evident that no uniform plan was
adopted in the original construction. The 214 radicals must be
thoroughly learned before the dictionary can be readily used, and

470 THB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

0ome practice had before a character can be quickly fimnd, even
by this method.* This arrangement is not arbitrary, and the
groups found under a majority of the radicals are more or leas
natural in their general meaning, a feature of the language
which has already been noticed (page 292). Some of the radi-
cals are interchanged, and characters having the same meaning
sometimes occur under two or three different ones — ^variations
which seem to have arisen from the little importance which of
two or three similar radicals was taken. Thus the same word
tsien, " a small cup," is written under the three radicals gem,
parcekdnf and horn, originally, no doubt, referring to the material
for mcdcing it. This interchange of radicals adds greatly to the
number of duplicate forms, which are still further increased by
a similar interchange of primitives having precisely the same
sound. These two changes very seldom occur in the same
character, but there are numerous instances of synonymous
forms under almost every radical, arising from an interchange
of primitives, and also under analogous radicals caused by their
reciprocal use. Thus, from both these causes, there are, under
the radical ma, " a horse," 118 duplicate forms, leaving 293 di^
ferent words ; of the 204 characters under mM, " an ox," 89 are
synonymous forms ; and so under other radicals. These charac-
ters do not differ in meaning more than ^avor SLnd favour, or lady
and ladye ; they are mere variations in the form of writing, and
though apparently adding greatly to the number of characters,
do not seriously increase the difficulty of learning the language.
Variants of other descriptions frequently occur in books,
which do, however, needlessly add to the labor of learning the
language. They arise from various causes. Ancient forms are
sometimes adopted by pedantic writers to show their learning,
while ignorant and careless writers use abridged or vulgar
fbrms, because they either do not know the correct form, or are
too heedless in using it. When such is the case, and the cha-
racter cannot be found in the dictionary, the reader is entirely at
fault, especially if he be a foreigner, though in China itself he
would not experience much difficulty where the natives were at
hand to refer to. Vulgar forms are very common in cheap

• Eisy Lessons in Chinese, pp. 3-29; Chinese Repository, VoL IIL,
►.1-37.

VARIANTS AMD VlfAUTHOKlZBD CHARACTERS. 471

books and letters, which are as unsanctioned by the dictionaries
and good use, as cockney phrases or miner's slang are in pure
English. They arise, either from a desire on the part of the
writer to save time by making a contracted form of few strokes in-
stead of the correct character of many strokes ; or he uses com-
mon words to express an energetic vulgar phrase, for which there
are no authorized characters, but which will be easily understood
phonetically by his readers. These characters would perchance
not be understood at all at a distance by any Chinese, because
the phrase itself was new ; their individual meaning, indeed, has
nothing to do with the sense of the sentence, for in this case they
are merely signs of sound, like words in other languages, and
lose their lexigraphic character. For instance, the words kia-fi
for coffee, kap-ian for capUmif mi-ST^ for Mr., huni'pa'Jang for aU^
dec, however they were written at Canton, would be intelligible
to a native of that city if they expressed those sounds, because
he was familiar with the words themselves ; but a native of
Shensi would not understand them, because, not knowing the
things intended, he would naturally refer to the characters them-
selves for the meaning of the phrase, and thus be wholly misled.
Thus kia-fiy or coffee, is usually written to mean a frame and noi;
Mr,, when analysed in this way, means beautiful scholar, neither
of which, of course, indicates the idea of those words. In such
cases, the characters become mere syllables of a phonetic
word. Purely phonetic phrases or characters are, however, sel-
dom met with in other than the most common books, for the
language is fully competent to express all the ideas of its em-
ployers; when used they are frequently designated by adding the
radical mouth on the left side to show that their sounds only are
to be taken, and not their meanings.

In addition to the variations in the forms of characters, the
Chinese have six different styles of writing them, which cor-
respond to black-letter, script, italic, roman, dec, in English,
but are much nrK)re unlike than those. The first is called Ckuen
shu, from the name of the person who invented it, but foreigners
usually call it the seal character, from its most common use in
seals and ornamental inscriptions. It is the most ancient style of
writing next to the picture hieroglyphics, and has undergone
many changes in the course of ages. It is studied by those who
cut seals or inscriptions, but no books are ever printed in it.

472 THS XmDLl KINGDOM.

The second is the K shu^ or style of official attendants,
was introduced about the Christian era, as an elegant style to be
employed in engrossing documents. It is now seen in prefaces
and formal inscriptions, though to a small extent, and requires
little or no special study to read it, as it differs but slightly from
the following.

The third is the kiai shu, or pattern style, and has been gradu-
ally formed by the improvements in good writing. It is the usual
form of Chinese characters, and no one can claim a literary name
among his countrymen if he cannot write neatly and correctly in
this style ; books are sometimes printed in it.

The fourth is called king shu, or running hand, and is the com-
mon hand of a neat writer. It is frequently used in prefaces and
inscriptions, scrolls and tablets, and there are books prepared in
parallel columns having this and the pattern style arranged for
school-boys to learn to write both at the same time. The two
differ so much that the running hand cannot be read without a
special study ; and although this labor is not very serious when
the language of books is familiar, still to become well acquainted
with both of them withdraws many days and months of the pupil
from progress in acquiring knowledge to learning two modes of
writing the same word. Shopmen use the running hand, and
are sometimes better acquainted with its abridged forms than they
are with the fuller one of books.

The fiflh style is called tsau tsz% or plant character, and is
a freer description of running hand than the preceding, being full
of abbreviations, and the pencil runs from character to character,
without taking it from the paper, almost at the writer's fancy. It
is more difficult to read than the preceding, but as the abbrevia-
tions are somewhat optional, the tsau tsz* varies considerably, and
more or less resembles the running-hand according to the will of
the writer. The fancy of the Chinese for a " flowing pencil,"
and a mode of writing where the elegance and freedom of the
caligraphy can be admired as much or more than the style or
sentiment of the writing, as well as the desire to contract their
multangular characters as much as possible, has contributed to
introduce and perpetuate these two styles of writing. How much
all these varieties of form superadd to the difficulty of learning
the mere apparatus of knowledge need hardly be stated.

The sixth style is called Sung shu, and was introduced under

If

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J

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^

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EJ

5t
EI

EJ

5^

e
ft

B

a

n

L^

SIX STYLES OF WRITING. 475

the Sung dynasty in the tenth century, soon after printing on
wooden blocks was invented, and still continues to be more used
than any other in well printed books. It differs from the kiai shu^
or pattern style, merely in a certain squareness of shape and
angularity of stroke, which transcribers for the press only are
obliged to learn. Of these six forms of writing, the pattern style
and running hand are the only two which the people learn to any
great extent, although many acquire the knowledge of some words
in the seal character, and the running hand of every person,
especially those engaged in business, approaches more or less to
the plant character. But it is not necessary to learn more thai^
one style of writing, to be able to read and communicate on all
occasions, and foreigners will seldom find it worth their while to
learn to write the Jung shu.

Besides these six styles of characters, there are a few fanciful
forms, which are found in books and inscriptions, but are not
commonly learned. Kienlung brought together all the known
forms when printing his £loge du Moukden, and that work pro-
bably contains the most complete collection extant. No better
evidence of the efiete condition of the national mind of China
could be demanded, than the toilsome study and childish pains
bestowed by her scholars upon the mere insignia and represen-
tations of thought, instead of turning their attention to indepen-
dent original investigation, and thus enlarging the bounds of
knowledge. If they had done so, the cumbrous vehicle they
now use to express their ideas would perhaps have been
materially modified and simplified, and the literature of other
tongues been studied and availed of to enrich it ; nor b there
any means so likely to induce them to reduce the labor of
learning the characters as to teach them the treasures of thought
contained in other languages, now almost inaccessible to them.
The degree to which punning upon the forms, construction, and
sounds of characters is carried is very great, and is only another
exemplification of the same waste of mind and study.

The Chinese regard their characters as highly elegant, and
take unwearied pains to learn to write them in a beautiful,
uniform, well-proportioned manner. Students are generally
provided with a painted board upon which they practise with a
brush dipped in blackened water, until they acquire the easy
■tyle and symmetrical shape, so difficult to attain in writing

476 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

Chinese. The articles used in writiDg, collectively called
wdnfang sz^ pau, or four precious things of the library, ana
the pencil, ink, paper, and ink-stone. The best pencils are
made of the bristly hair of the sable and fox, and cheaper ones
from the deer, cat, wolf, and rabbit. A combination of softness
and elasticity is required in the pencils, and those who are
skilled in their use discern a difference and an excellence
altogether imperceptible to a novice. The hairs are laid in a
regular manner, and when tied up are brought to a delicate tip ;
the handle is made of the twigs of a bamboo cultivated for the
purpose. The ink, usually known as India ink, is made from
the soot of burning oil, pine, fir, and other substances, mixed
with glue or isinglass, and scented. It is cast or pressed Into
small oblong cakes or cylinders, usually inscribed with a name
and advertisement, and the best kinds are put up in a very
tasteful manner. A singular error formerly obtained credence
regarding this ink, that it was inspissated from the fluid found in
the cuttle-fish. When used, the ink is rubbed with water upon
argiliite, marble, or other stones, some of which are cut and
ground in a beautiful manner. Most of the paper used is made
from the bamboo, by triturating the woody fibre to a pulp in
mortars afler the pieces have been soaked in mud, and then
taking it up in moulds ; the pulp is sometimes mixed with a little
cotton fibre, and inferior sorts are made entirely from cotton or
from the bark of the paper tree (BroussoneUa). The paper
made from bamboo is sofl and thin, of a yellow tint, and when
wetted has little consistency ; no sizing is put in it.

In the days of Confucius, pieces of bamboo pared thin, leaves,
and reeds, were all used for writing upon with a sharp stick or
stile. About the third century before Christ, silk and cloth
were employed, and hair pencils made for writing upon them.
Paper was invented about the first century, and India ink came
into use during the seventh ; and the present mode of printing
upon blocks was adopted from the discovery of Fungtau in the
tenth century, of taking impressions from engraved stones. In
the style of their notes and letters, the Chinese show much neat-
ness and elegance ; narrow slips of tinted paper are employed,
on which various emblematic designs are stamped in water lines,
and inclosed in fanciful envelops. It is common to affix a
cypher instead of the name, or to close with a periphrasiB or

SLEMENTART STROKES OP THE CRAEACTERS. 477

sentence well understood by the parties, and thereby avoid any
signature ; this, which originated no doubt in a fear of intercep*
tion and unpleasant consequences, has gradually become a com*
mon mode of subscribing friendly epistles.

All the strokes in the characters are reduced to eight elemen-
tary ones by copy writers, which in their view are all contained

in the single character y^^ ywig, eternal.

A d«t, • IbM, a papmdiealar, a lM«k, a Vika^ & "vmPi & Mraka, a daab-lint.

Each of these is subdivided into many forms in copy-books,
having particular names, with directions how to write them,
and numerous examples introduced under each stroke.*

The mode of printing first adopted by the Chinese was so well
fitted for their language that few improvements have since been
made in its manipulations, while the cheapness with which books
can be manufactured, brings them within reach of the poorest.
Cutting the blocks, and writing the characters, form two distinct
branches of the business, besides which, printing the sheets,
binding the volumes, and publishing the books, furnish employ,
ment to other craftsmen. The first step in the manufacture is to
write the characters upon thin paper, ruled with lines for the sepa-
ration of the columns and the division of the pages, two pages
always being cut upon one blocfk, and a heavy double line sur-
rounding them. The title of the work, chapter, and paging are
cut in a column between the pages, and when the leaf is printed
it is folded through this column so as to bring the characters on
the edge and partly on both pages, which renders it easy to
refer to a page or chapter. Marginal notes are placed on the top
of the page ; comments, when greatly extended, occupy the upper
part, separated from the text by a heavy line, or when mere
scholia, are interlined in the same column in characters of half
the size. Sometimes two works are printed together, one running
through the volume on the upper half of the leaves, and separated

* Chinese Chrestomathy, chap. I., Sects. 5 and 6, where the rules for
writing Chinese are given in fiill with numerous examples ; Ea^ Lessons
in Chinese, page 59 ; Chinese Repository, Vol. III., page 37.

478 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

from that occupying the lower half hy a heavy line. lUustnu
tions usually occupy separate pages at the commenoement of tbs
hook, but there are a few works with wood cuts of a wretched
description, inserted in the body of the page. In books
printed by government, each page is sometimes surrounded with
dragons, or the title-page is surmounted by this emblem of imperial
authority.

When the leaf has been completely written out, just as it is to
be printed, it is turned over and pasted upon the block, face down-
wards, to invert the whole page. The wood usually used by
blockcutters is pear or plum ; the boards are half or three-fburtltt
of an inch thick, eind planed for cutting on both sides, of various
dimensions according to the size of the book. The paper, whm
dried upon the board, is carefully rubbed off with the wetted
finger, leaving every character and stroke plainly delineated upon
the block. The cutter then, with his chisels, cuts away all the
bleink spots in and around the characters, to the depth of a line
or more, after which the block is ready for the printer. Thn
new workman employs very simple machinery. Seated before a
bench, he lays the block carefully on a bed of paper so that it
will not move and chafe the under side. The pile of paper lies
on one side, the pot of ink before him, and the pressing brush on
the other. Taking the ink brush, he slightly rubs it across the
block twice in such a way as to lay the ink equably over the
whole surface ; he then places a sheet of paper upon it, and over
that another, which serves as a tympanum. The utensil with
which the impression is taken, is the fibrous bark of the gomuti
palm, and well fitted for the purpose ; one or two sweeps of it
across the block complete the impression, for only one side of the
paper is printed. Besides printing from wooden blocks, there is
also a cheaper way used for publishing slips of news, court cir-
culars. &c., to cut the characters on hard wax, and print the
impressions as long as they are legible. The ink used in printing
is manufactured from lampblack mixed with cheap vegetable oil ;
the printers grind it up for themselves ; they also cut the paper
into such forms as they require from the long sheets obtained
from the paper-makers.

The sheets are taken from the printer by the binder, who folds
them through the middle by the line around the pages, and those
across the sheet between them, so that the columns shall register

PAPER, one, AKD MODS OP PRINTINO. 470

with each other, and then collatee them into volumes, plaoing the
leaves evenly in the book by their folded edge, when the whole
are arranged, and the covers laid on each side. Two pieces of
paper are merely run through the back, the book is trimmed, and
sent forthwith to the bookseller. If required, it is stitched along
the back with thread, which holds the leaves firmly together, but
this part of the manufacture, as well as writing the title on the
lower end of the volume, and making the pasteboard wrapper,
are usually deferred till the taste of a purchaser is ascertained.
Books made of such materials are not as durable as European
books, and those who can afford the expense frequently have
their valuable works inclosed in wooden boxes. They are
printed of all sizes between small sleeve editions (as the Chinese
call 24 and 32 mos.) up to quartos, 12 or 14 m. square, larger
than which it is difficult to get blocks. The price varies accord-
ing to the demand and character of the work, from twenty-five
or thirty pages for a single cent up to a dollar and more a volume.
The volumes seldom contain more than a hundred leaves, and
their thickness is increased in fine books by inserting an extra
sheet inside of each leaf. The iSon Ktooh Chi, or History of the
Three States, may be cited as a cheap book ; it is bound in twenty-
one volumes 12 mo., printed on white paper, and is usually sold for
seventy-five cents or a dollar. Kanghi's Dictionary in twenty-
one volumes 8vo. on yellow paper sells for four dollars ; and all
the nine classics can be purchased (of less than two. Books are
hawked about the streets, circulating libraries are carried from
house to house upon movable stands, and booksellers' shops are
frequent in large towns. No censorship, other than a prohibition
to write about the present dynasty, is exercised upon the press ;
nor are authors protected by a copyright law. Men of wealth
sometimes show their literary taste by defraying the expense of
getting the blocks of extensive works cut, and publishing them.
Pwan Sz'ching, usually known by foreigners as Tingqua, lately
published an edition of the Pei W&n Yun Fu, a large thesaurus,
in one hundred and thirty thick octavo volumes, the blocks for
which must have cost him more than ten thousand dollars. The
blocks for a small edition of the Chinese New Testament cost
about 91100. The number of good impressions which can be
obtained from a set of blocks is about 16,000, and by pb-
touching the characters, ten thousand more can be struok off.

4S0 TRB MIDI

The principal d I sad vantages of this mode of printing B.re lh«l 4
oilier languogcB cannol easily be introduced into the page wilh \
the Chinese characlere; the blocks occupy much room, and
easily spoiled or lost ; and are incapable of correction without \
much expense. It possesses some compensatory ndvamagea t
peculiar lo the Chinese and its ct^nate languages, as Manchu, ■
Coreon, Japanese, &c., all of whicb are written wilh a brush and ,
have few or no circular strokes ; for these it is belter fitted ihaa (
it would be for European languages, but even for them, it ia Qot
so cheap in the long run as metallic movable types, and our corn.
mon mode of printing by presses. At first, it requires a very
small outlay lo publish a book by block culling, yet a millioD of
volumes can be printed cheaper with types than by blocks, even ,
including all the initiatory expense of cutting punches, driving
matrices, casting type, and furnishing presses.

The experiment of printing Chinese books with metallic type*
has been tried with complete success in the missions established
in the country, and there are now several fonts of type so far
completed as to be used in the manufacture of books. The first
font was made by Mr. P. P. Thorns, for printing Dr. Morrison's
Dictionary, by cutting every separate character upon blocks of
tin or lead with a chisel ; the cost of the two sets he made in this
tedious manner would have furnished matrices for a completa
font far more uniform in style than it was possible to obtain In 1
this way, though the Ibnt has been of great use. A small ona
was cast from matrices at Serampore, by Dr. Marshman, aiul is
stili in use. Mr. Dyer of Malacca turned his attention to the
subject in 1833, and commenced the preparation of type from steel
punches, which he completed sufticiently to be able lo print
simple tracts ; he also undertook the manufacture of punches for
a smaller font, both of them much more elegant than anything
heretofore attempted, but his death suspended their complelioo
for a time. Previous lo this, a font had been made in Paris by
costing a thick ma.ss of metal from finely cut blocks, and then 1
sawing it into separate types ; the plan was a cheap one, but tba
type were rough and inelegant, Another plan was also adopted
in that city of making itivisible type for characters componed
radical and primitive, by which the number of ptmcbw
required is materially lessened ; it is similar to that of maldng
logotypes in English of the Latin prefixes ad, con, du, &o., aad

MOYABLB TTPB FOR PEIMTING CHINS8B. 481

joining tfaem to verbs, also cast solid, as dtice, vert, d^.^ forming
the words adduce, deduce, educe, reduce, conduce, subvert, pervert^
d^c. This mode of making type has been found to combine
the qualities of cheapness and variety better than any other
plan ; and although the parts of some combined characters
are so disproportionate as to be unseemly, still the number
of such appearing on a page of printed matter is so small
as not to detract at all from its general beauty. A second
font of larger size is now making on the same plan in Berlin,
under the direction of A. Beyerhaus. All these fonts, except
that made in Paris from blocks, have been planned or completed
by missionaries, and the type used chiefly in printing religious
or philological works under their direction.*

Nothing has conduced more to a misapprehension of the nature
of the Chinese language than the way in which its phonetic cha-
racter has been spoken of by different authors. Some, describing
the ancient, primitive symbols, and the modifications they have
undergone, have conveyed the impression that the whole lan-
guage consisted of hieroglyphic or ideographic signs, which de-
picted ideas, and conveyed their meaning entirely to the eye,
irrespective of the sound. For instance, R^musat says, " The
character is not the delineation of the sound, nor the sound the
expression of the character;" but yet every character has a
sound as much as in alphabetic languages, and some have more
than one to express their different meanings ; so that although
the character was not originally intended to delineate the sound
of the thing it denoted, still the sound is the expression of the
character. Others, as Mr. Lay (Chinese as They Are, chap.
XXXIV.), have dissected the characters as they are now found,
and endeavored to trace back some analogy in the meanings of
all those in which the same primitive is found, by a sort of
analysb, something like determining the amount of profit and loss
accruing to each individual stockholder in a bank or canal, to
find out how much of the signification of the radical was infused
into the primitive to form the present meaning. His plan, in
general terms, is to take all the characters in the language con«
taining a certain primitive, and find out how much of the mean-
ing of that primitive is contained in each one ; then he reoon-

• Chinese Repository, Vol. III., pp. 346—252, 538 ; Vol. XIV., pegs 194.

22

F

I 483

THE UISPLB KINfiDOK.

k

stnicts the series by dfilining llie primitive, incidentally showui
the inleDlion of the framers of the characters in choosiiig t
pHrticular one, and ap[>(irtioniiig so much of its aggregate n
ing lo each character as is needed, aHd adding the meaning of 1
Ihe radical to form its whole sigm'ficalion. If wo understand h'
plan, he wishes to construct a formula for each group contain
the same primitive, in which the signification of the primili
certain function in that of all the characters containing it ;
up the total of their meanings, and divide the amount Among U
characters, allotting a quotient to each one. Languog
so formed, however, and the Chinese is no exception.
Mr. Lay's statements are correct, hut his theory is unfbuDdi
It is impossible to decide now what proportion of the c^u
tera were made by combining a r&dica! and a primitive, i
reference entirely to their meanings, according to Mr. Layi
theory, and how many of them are syllabic combinations, v
the sound and not the aense of the latter has guided in its i
tion i the probability ia that most of the cam|>ound ch&nLCI«
have been constructed on the latter principle.

The fifth class of syllabic symbols were in most c
as has been stated, by combining the symbolic and syllabic sySrl
terns, so as to represent sound chiefly, but bearin|
alruction of each one some reference to its general significatkl
The original hieroglyphics contained no sound, i. e> were i
formed of phonetic conslituenis, though of course The obiH
depicted had a name ; but there was no clue to it. It was 'at
possible to do both — depict the object, and write its name in tl
same character. At tirst, the numbertif people using 1
ideographic symbols being probably small, every one called ll
by the same name, as soon as he knew what ihey re presented $9
but at no time could learning the name be dispensed with, m
more than the infant's learning the alphabet from ita i
mouth. But when the ideas attempted to be wrilten far e
ceeded in number the symbols, or what is more likely, the is
tion of the limners, recourse was had to the combination of tl
symbols already understood to express the new idea. This •»
done in several modes, as noticed above, but the syllabic »
needs further explanation, from the extent to which it baa b
carried. The character ^ nan, to denote the chrysalis
locust, has been adduced. The same principle would be sp|^

APPLICATION OF THE SOUNDS TO CHARACTERS. 4^3

in reading every new character, of which the phonetic primitive
merely was recognised, although its meaning might not he known.
Probably all the characters in the fiflh class were sounded in
strict accordance with their phonetic primitives when constructed,
but usage has cheinged some of their sounds, and many cha-
racters belonging to other classes, apparently containing the same
primitive, are sounded quite differently ; this tends to mislead
those who infer the sound from the primitive. This mode of
constructing and naming the characters also explains the reason
why there are so few sounds in the Chinese language, compared
with the number of characters ; the phonetic primitive perpe-
tuated its name in all its progeny.

Nearly seven eighths of all the characters in the language have
been formed from less than 2000 symbols, and it is difficult to
imagine how it could have been used to the extent it has, and for
80 long a period, without some such method to relieve the memo-
ry of the burden of retaining thousands of arbitrary marks. But,
until the names and meanings of the original symbols are learned,
neither the sound nor sense of the compound characters will be
more apparent to e^ Chinese than they are to any one else ; until
those are known, their combinations cannot be understood, though
even then the meaning cannot be wholly deduced ; each charac-
ter must be learned by itself, just as words in other languages.
The sounds given the original symbols doubtless began to vary
early ailer coming into use, although they have not, even to this
day, lost their monosyllabic nature. Intercommunication be-
tween the people in different parts of the country was not so
frequent as to prevent local dialects from arising ; but that no
character should have had a dissyllabic name is most probably
referrible to the already well-known monosyllabic name of the
primitive, contained in the character itself, and also the impossi-
bility of joining two characters to make one word, even where
they conveyed but one idea. If the characters could have
coalesced, their names would soon have run together, and been
modified as they are in other languages. But the sounds of the
original must be learned by ear, and in this way the numerous
patois now existing arose. The classics and other books, dic-
tionaries, and the endless uses of a written language, maintained
ike same meaning to the characters, wherever these books were
tMsd or the language written ; but as the sound must be learned

traditional] jr, endless variations gradually a
new circumsiances and increasing knowledge give rise to neV
words in all countries, so in China, new scenes and expressiow<
would arise, requiring lo be incorporated into the written language. ,
Originally they were unwrillen though well understood sounda; ,
and when Arst written must be explained, as words tike (
ukoM, vixier, &c., are when introduced into English. Difiereot
writers mighl, however, employ different primitives to expreai
the sound, not aware that it had already been written, and heno*
would arise synonynis; Uiey might use dissimilar radicals, a
this would also increase the modes of writing the sound. But '
inconvenience of multiplying characters in this way would 1m|
soon perceived in the obscurity of the sentence, Tor if the DeV'
character was not in the dictionary, its sound and contpositiaa
were not enough to explain the meaning. When the languags.
had attained n certain copiousness, the mode of education a
the style of literary works almost compelled scholars to empltf
such characiers only as were sanctioned by good use, or ron tfc
risk of not being understood.

The unwritten sounds arc, however, written by the people il
any and all ways they choose, as is seen at Canton in the rarioll
modes of writing the names of foreigners, and of foreign conn
tries and imports ; but scholars are fastidious as to the intmdui
tion of merely phonetic words into their com posit ions, and p(i
fer to translate everything they can. This is illustrated bj ili
common terms Hungmau jni, or Red Bristled men, Ibr EngluA
men ; Hieaki, or Flowery Flag, for Americans ; Hioangti,
Yellow Flog, for Danes, used instead of the proper i
countries. Cause and effect have acted reciprocally upon »
other in this instance : the effect of using unsanctioned chuaB*
ters to express unwritten sounds, would be to render a compoA
tion obscure, while the restriction to a set of characters c
their meaning to be sufficiently comprehensive lo include all ocf
cosions. Local, unwritten phrases, and unauthorized charKctei%
are so common, however, owing lo the partial communication
between distant parts of so great a country and mass of peo]
that it is evident, if this bond of imion was removed by the s
stitutioii of an alphabetical language, the Chinese would soon b
split into many small nations, as is the cose in India. Howev<
deairable, therefore, the introduction of a medium of oommu

MODB OF AVOmmG MISAPPREHENSION. 485

tkm less difficult of acquisition, and more flexible, might be, in
order to promote the diffusion of knowledge among the people,
there are some reasons for wishing it to be delayed until more
intelligence is diflused and juster principles of government obtain,
and the people themselves feel the need of it.

The monosyllabic sound of the primitive being, as has been
shown, imparted to the combined ideophonous compound, ex-
plains the existence of so many characters having the same
sound. When these various characters were presented to the
eye of the scholar, no trouble was felt in recognising their sense
and sound, but confusion was experienced in speaking. This
has been obviated in two ways. One is by repeating a word, or
joining two of similar meanings but of different sounds, to convey
a single idea ; or else by adding a classifying word to express
its nature. Both these modes do in fact form a real dissyllable,
and would appear so in an alphabetical language. The flrst
sort of these hien-hioh sz\ or clam-shell words as the Chinese
call them, are not unfrequent in books, but they are much more
common in conversation, and render the spoken more difluse
than the written language, — more so, perhaps, than is the case
in other tongues. Similar combinations of three, four, and more
characters occur, especially where a foreign article or term is
translated, but the genius of the language is against the use of
polysyllables. Such combinations in English as kouseholdy
housctoarmingj houseioife^ hauseroom, hottseleeks, hot-house, wood-
houscy household-stuff, &c., illustrate these dissyllables in Chi-
nese ; but they are not so easily understood as those are, and
such terms as understand, courtship, toiihdraw, upright, &c.,
present better analogies to the Chinese compounds. In some
the real meaning is totally unlike either of the terms, as tungkia
(lit. east house), for master ; tungsi (lit. east west), for thing ;
kungchu (lit. lord ruler), for princess, &c. The classiflers par-
take of the nature of adjectives, and serve not only to sort differ-
ent words, but the same word when used in different senses.
They correspond to such words in English as herd, fieet, troop,
dec. ; and to say a fleet of cows, a troop of ships, or a herd of
soldiers, would be ridiculous only in English, while a similar
misapplication would confuse the sense in Chinese.

The other way of avoiding the confusion of homophonous mo-
nosyllables, which, notwithstanding the '< clam-shell words," and

486 TH£ MIDDLE KINGDOM.

the extensive use of classifiers. Are still liable to nuBappreheB-
sion, is by accurately marking its right sound or tone- The
tones are eight, divided into an upper and lower series of four
each, but as nothing analogous to them is found in European
leinguages, it is rather difficult to describe them. In practice,
they are oflen reduced to five, but only four are ever in fact
marked, which is done by a semicircle attached to one comer of
the character ; this is, however, seldom seen in books, as every
one wiio can read is supposed to know how to speak, and oooae-
quently to be familiar with the right tone. These feur tones are
called pingf shangy kUy and jihy meaning, respectively, the even,
ascending, departing, and entering tone. The ping is divided into
an upper and lower, making, with the other three, which are
collectively called tgih, or deflected tones, the five ; or by some,
and more correctly, the upper and lower series of the four are
distinguished, making eight in all. These tones are applied to
every word, and have nothing to do either with accent or em-
phasis ; in asking or answering, entreating or refusing, railing or
flattering, soothing or recriminating, they remain ever the same.
The unlettered natives, even children and females, who know
almost nothing of the learned distinctions into four, Hve, seven, or
eight tones, observe them closely in their speech, and detect a
mispronunciation as soon as the learned man. A single illustra-
tion of them will suffice. The even tone is the natural expressioD
of the voice, and native writers consider it the most important.
In the sentence,

" When I asked him, ' Will you let me see it 7' he said, ' No, 111 do
no such thing,' "

the diflcrent cadence of the question and reply illustrate the
upper and lower even tone. The ascending tone, or shangshing^
is heard in exclamatory words as-aA / indeed ! It is a little like
the crescendo in music, while the departing tone, or ka shing, cor-
responds in the same degree to the diminuendo. The drawling tone
of repressed discontent, grumbling and eking out a reply, is not
unlike the departing tone. The juh shing, or entering tone, is an
abrupt ending, in the same modulation that the even tone is, bat
as if broken ofl*; a man about to say lack, and taken with a hic-
cup in the middle so that he leaves ofl* the last two letters, or the
Snai consonant, pronounces the jtth shing. The same character

NATURE OF THE TODTSS. 487

frequently has two tones, which give different meanings to it ;
the even tone oflen denotes the substantive, and the kii shing, the
verb, but there is no regularity in this respect.

The tones are observed by natives of all ranks, speaking all
patois and dialects, and on all occasions, but they are much more
marked in the dialects of Fuhkicn and Canton than in other parts
of the country, or than in the court dialect, though not the less
important in this than in those. TThey present a serious difficulty
to the adult foreigner of preaching or speaking acceptably to the
natives, for although by a proper use of classifiers, observance
of idioms, and multiplication of synonyms, he may be understood,
his speech will be rude and his words distasteful, if he does not
learn the tones accurately. In Amoy and Fuhchau, he will also
run a risk of being wholly misunderstood. If the reader, in perus-
ing the following sentence, will accent the italicized syllables,
he will have an imperfect illustration of the confusion a wrong
intonation produces. ** The present of that oh^cl occasioned such
a transport as to attract my mind from all around." In Chinese,
however, it is not accent upon one of two syllables which must be
learned, but the integral tone of a dngle sound, as much as in the
musical octave.

It is unnecessary here to enter into any detailed description or
enumeration of the words in the Chinese language. One remark,
able feature is the frequency of the termination ng preceded by
all the vowels, which imparts a peculiar singing character to
Chinese speech, as Kwangtung, Yangtsx^ kiang, 6dc. In a list
of sounds in the court dialect, about one-sixth of the syllables
have this termination, but a far larger proportion of characters
would be found under those syllables, than the mere list indicates.
The total number of sounds in the court dialect as given in Mor-
rison's Dictionary is 411, but if the aspirated syllables be dis-
tinguished, there are 533. In the Canton dialect, there are,
including aspirated words, 646 ; and in that spoken at Amoy,
according to Medhurst's Dictionary, 840. The largest part of
the sounds are common to the three dialects, but the distinctions
between them are such as to render it easy to detect each when
spoken ; the court dialect is the most mellifluous of the whole
and easiest to acquire, though the others are not without euphony.
For a comparative view of the sounds in the three dialects, see
Williams' English and Chinese Vocabulary. All the consonants

488 THE MIDDLE XINGDOBI.

in E^lisfa are foand in one or other of the dialects, liesidev
manj not occurring in that language, as but, chw, gWj jw^ ho, muff
nwy dec. There are also several imperfect vowel sounds not
known in any European language, which are consequently hard
to be expressed by Roman letters, as ^ or 'm, hn or 'n, ^S (a
high nasa) sound), sz\ VA, ch\ disc. The phrase 'm ^tigUUc in the
Canton dialect, meaning carmot he pushed, or chai'^ ma^ lemg^ *' a
blind man,'' in the Fuhkicn, cannot be so accurately expressed
by these or any other letters that one can learn the sound from
them. If it is difficult ibr us to express their sounds by Roman
letters, it is still stranger for the Chinese to write Ekiglish words.
For instance, baptize in the Canton dialect becomes pa-pi-Uti'ST^j
fiannel becomes faUhin-yin ; stairs becomes sz^-ta-ss^ ; impregfM-
bie becontes im-piluk-na'pU'll ; dec. Such words as Washing''
ton, midshipmitti, tongue, dec, can be written nearer their true
sound, but the indivisible words of Chinese offer a serious obsta-
cle in the way of introducing foreign words and knowledge into
the language.

The preceding observations explain how the numerous local
variations from the general language found in all parts of China
have arisen. Diilicult as the spoken language is for a foreigner
to acquire, from the brevity of the words and nicety of their
tones, the variety of the local pronunciations given to the same
character adds not a little to the labor, especially if the ft>reigner
be situated where he is likely to come in contact with persons
from different placee. Amid such a diversity of pronunciation,
and where one sound is really as correct as another, it is not easy
to define what should constitute a dialect, a patois, or a corrup-
tion. A dialect in other languages is usually described as a
local variation in pronunciation, or the use of peculiar words
and expressions, not affecting the idiom or grammar of the
tongue ; but in ihe Chinese, where the written character unites
the mass of people in one language, a dialect has been usually
regarded by those who have written on the subject, as extending
to variations in the idiom, and not restricted to differences in pro-
nunciation and local expressions. According to this definition,
there are only three principal dialects, which would in fact be as
many languages if they were not united by the written character,
at an endless variety of patois or local pronunciations. So fai
I is known the Chinese have published books to illustrate only

THE COURT DIALBCT. 489

three, viz. the court, Canton, and Fuhkien dialects. The differ-
ences in the idioms and pronunciation are such as to render per.
sons speaking them mutually unintelligible, but do not affect the
style of writing, whose idioms are founded upon the usage of the ^
best writers, and remain unchanged.

The court language, the kioan kway or mandarin dialect, is rather
the proper language of the country, the Chinese language^ than a
dialect. It is studied and spoken by all educated men, and no one
can make any pretence to learning or accomplishments who can-
not converse in it in whatever part of the empire he may be bom.
It is the common language throughout five or six of the north-
eastern provinces, especially Honan, Shantung, and Nganhwui,
though presenting more or less variations even in them from the
standard of the court and capital. This speech is characterized
by its soft and mellifluous tones, the absence of all harsh, conso-
nantal endings, and the prevalence of liquids and labials. In
parts of the provinces where it is spoken, as the eastern portions
of Chehkiang and Kiangsu, gutturals are common, and the initials
softened or changed.

This tongue is the most ancient speech now spoken in Asia, for
stanzas of poetry written twenty-five centuries ago in the times
previous to Confucius, are now read with the same rhymes as
when penned. The expressions of the kwan hwa, although
resembling the written language more than the other dialects, are
still unlike it, being more diffuse and containing many synonyms
and particles, not required to make the sense clear when it is
addressed to the eye. The difference is such in this respect that
two well educated Chinese speaking in the terse style of books
would hardly understand each other, and be obliged to use more
words to convey their meaning when speaking than they would
consider elegant or necessary in an essay. This is, to be sure,
more or less the case in all languages, but from the small variety
of sounds and their monosyllabic brevity, it is unavoidable in
Chinese, though it must not be inferred that the language cannot
be written so as to be understood when read off; it can of course
be written as diffusely as it is spoken, but such a style is not con-
sidered very elegant. There are books written in the colloquial,
however, from which it is not difficult to learn the style of conver-
sation, and such books are among the best to put into the handii

of a foreigner when beginning the study.

22*

490 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

The local patois of a place is called tu tan or kiimg iamf u «.
local or village brogue, eind there is an interpreter of it attached
to almost every officer's court for the purpose of translating the
^peculiar phrases of witnesses and others brought before him.
The term dialect cannot, strictly, in its previous definition, be ap-
plied to the tu tarty though it is usually so called ; it is a patois
or brogue. The Canton dialect is called by the citizens of that
cityjMzA: toa^ ** the plain speech," because it is more intelligible to
them than the court dialect. It is comparatively easy of acqui-
sition, and differs less from the ktoan hway in its pronunciation and
idioms, than that of Amoy and its vicinity ; but the diversity is
still enough to render it unintelligible to people from the north.
A very few books have been written in it, but none which can
afibrd much assistance in learning it. A native scholar would
consider his character for literary attainments almost degraded if
he should write books in the provincial dialects, and forsake the
style of the immortal classics. The principal feature in the pro-
nunciation of the Canton dialect which distinguishes it from the
general language, is the change of the abrupt vowel terminationst
as hhj kiahy pihy into the well defmed consonants A', jp, and t, as
loky kapy pit ; a change that considerably facilitates the discrimi-
nation of the syllables. The idioms of the two cannot well be
illustrated without the help of the written character, but the dif-
ferences between the sounds of two or three sentences can be
exhibited. The phrase, I do not understand what he says^ is in
the

Court dialect. Wo min puh tung teh ta kiang shim mo.

Canton dialect. Ngo 'm hiu ku kong mdt y^.
The rice contains sand in it.

Court dialect. Na ko mi yu sha tsz\

Canton dialect. Ko Uk mai yau sha tsoi noi.

None of the provincial patois differ so much from the kwan
hu^y and afford so many peculiarities, as those spoken in the pro-
vince of Fuhkien and eastern portions of Kwangtung, all of which
have been collectively called the Fuhkien dialect. All of them
are nasal, and compared with those spoken elsewhere, harsh and
rough, and more difficult to acquire. This difficulty is not owing,
however, so much to the nature and minute variations in the
spoken language as to the large number of unwritten sounds in
\ and to the difierent name given to the same character when it

CANTON AND FUHKXIN DIALECTS. 401

is read or spoken. The number of characters which are called
by one name when spoken, and by another when read, is but a
small proportion of the whole language, indeed, but they are all
in common use. This obstacle is, again, far less than that
resulting from the great dissimilarity between the colloquial and
the written languages in respect to their idioms, which is much
more than in the court or Canton dialects, and really forms
almost two distinct languages, requiring separate study. It is
necessary to translate constantly from one into the other, and the
foreigner is obliged to learn two parallel languages when study-
ing this dialect, so intimate and yet so distinct are the two. The
difference between them will be more apparent by quoting a sen-
tence : '^ He first performed that which was difficult, and after-
wards imitated what was easier." The corresponding words of
the colloquial are placed underneath the reading sounds.

Sim A'i »u eki ti Urn, ji k9 k'i hmu cki m4 Uk.

Tui te^r ek6i i tu i si «*, ji tuiau k*w^a i 4 kau giem4 ti tit Mk.

The colloquial in the Fuhkien dialects cannot be written with
the character as the other two are, nor is a book when read off
in the hearing of an illiterate peasant intelligible without a run-
ning translation into the colloquial. The changes from one into
the other are exceedingly various both in sound and idiom.
Thus, bien chien, '^ before one's face," becomes bin chan when
spoken ; while in the phrase clietig jU, << a former day," the same
word chien becomes cheng and not chan ; ho^ cku^ ** pupil of the
eye," becomes ang a ; sit Juoany " to eat rice," becomes chictkjnW*.
These four phrases in the court dialect are read mien Uien^ tsien
jihf mau tsz\ and chih hwan ; in the Canton, they are min teiit,
tsin yaif mau tsz\ and shik fan. Their dialect, not less than
their trafficking spirit, point out the Fuhkienese wherever they
are met, and as they are usually found along the whole coast
and in the Archipelago, and are not understood except by their
provincial compatriots, they everywhere clan together, and form
separate communities. This peculiar speech is found chiefly
along the coast and in Formosa, for in the northern parts of Fuh-
kien and Kwangtung, the colloquial approaches nearer the gene-
ral language. Dr. Medhurst has published a dictionary of the
Fuhkien dialect, in which the sounds of the characters are given.
as they are read, but the vast vocabulary of sounds and phrases,
both written and unwritten, used in the colloquial, has never

492 THE HIDIILS KIlieDOM.

been collected. If the universal written character ahoidd be
discarded, the people of this province would have perhaps the
most extensive vocabulary of sounds^ but they would also aoon
have the greatest number of different languages.

The extent to which the three dialects are used has not been
ascertained, nor the degree of modification each undergoes in
those parts where it is spoken ; for villagers within a few miles,
although able to understand each other perfectly, still give difier-
ent sounds to a few characters, and have ^ few local phrases,
enough to distinguish their several inhabitants, while towns one
or two hundred miles apart are still more unlike. For instance,
the citizen of Canton always says shui for water, and toz' for child,
but the native of Macao says sui and chi for these two words ;
and if his life depended upon his uttering them as they are
spoken in Canton, they would prove a Shibboleth which he could
not possibly enunciate. Strong peculiarities of speech also exist
in the villages between Canton and Macao, which are found
in neither of those places. Yet whatever sound ihey give to a
character, these persons generally give it the same tone, and a
Chinese would be much less surprised to hear water called
^chwui, than he would to hear it called ^shui in the lower even
tone, instead of its proper ascending tone. The Fuhkienese also
frequently interchange the initials /, m, and h, in their words, but
not the tones. It is by this nice discrimination, that the people
are able to understand each other with less difficulty than when
their pronunciation varies ; and herein too they can easily detect
a foreigner, for few adults can learn these delicate intonations so
accurately as to deceive a native ear.

This accurate discrimination in the vowel sounds, and compa-
rative indifference to consonants, which characterize the Chinese
spoken languages, has arisen, no doubt, from the monosyllabic
nature, and the constant though slight variations the names of
characters undergo from the traditionary mode in which they
must be learned. There being no integral sound in any charac-
ter, each and all of them are, of course, equally correct, per *e,
though the Dictionary of Kanghf, the Divider of Sounds, and the
Fifteen Sounds, have each tended somewhat to fix the pronun-
ciation in their respective dialects. But the Chinese, no more
than other nations, do not learn to pronounce their mother tongue
'^m dictionaries, and the variations are but partially restrained

PRINCIPLBS OF CRINBSE ORABIMAR. 498

by them ; the court dialect probably differs less than the others.
It may, however, be said, that no two Chinese speak all words
alike, while yet, through means of the universally understood
character, the greatest mass of human beings ever collected
under one government are enabled to express themselves without
difficulty, and carry on all the business and concerns of life.

The grammar of the Chinese language is unique, but those
writers who say it has no grammar at all must have overlooked
the prime signification of the word ; since no language can be
understood without the interlocutors agree upon certain rules,
and those rules, inflections, and changes, constitute its grammar.
These rules the Chinese language possesses, and their right ap-
plication, the proper collocation of words, and use of particles,
which supply the place of inflection, constitute a difficult part in
its acquisition. It has no etymology, properly speaking, for
neither the characters nor their names undergo any change;
whether used as verbs or nouns, adjectives or particles, they re-
main the same ; number, gender, case, mood, tense, and voice, all
are indicated by adjuncts, the character itself and its sound
never alter. This imparts a peculiarity to the language, viz.
that the same word may be a noun, a verb, an adverb, or any
part of speech, nor can its character be certainly known till it is
placed in a sentence, when its meaning becomes as definite as
words in any language. Its grammar, therefore, is confined
chiefly to its syntax and prosody. This feature of the Chinese
language is paralleled in English by such words as Hght, used
as a noun, adjective, and verb ; Hke, used as a verb, adjective,
and adverb ; sheep and deer used both in the singular and plu-
ral ; read used in the past, present, and future tenses ; and in all
cases without undergoing any change. But what is occasional
and the exception in that tongue, becomes the rule in Chinese ;
nor is there any more confusion in the last than in the first.

A good summary of the principles of Chinese grammar is given
by R^musat, who says that generally,

** In every Chinese sentence, in which nothing is anderstood, the ele-
ments of which it is composed are arnmged in the following order : the
subject, the verb, the complement direct, and the complement indirect

** Modifying expressions precede those to which they belong : tbni^
the adjective is placed before the substantive, subject, or complement;
the substantive governed before the verb that governs it ; the adverb

494 THE MIDDLE XIliaDOM.

before the verb ; the propoeitioa incidental, circnmitaiitMdy mr hy|iotlMti-
cal, before the principal proposition, to which it attaches itself by a ooo-
janction expressed or understood.

^ The relative position of words and phrases thus determined, supplies
the place often of every other mark intended to denote their mutual
dependence, their character whether adjective or adverbial, positive, cod-
ditional, or circumstantial.

** If the subject be understood, it is because it is a personal pronoun,
or that it is expressed above, and that the same substantive that is omit-
ted is found in the preceding sentence, and in the same quali^ of sul^
ject, and not in any other.

" If the verb be wanting, it is because it is the substantive verb, or
some other easily supplied, or one which has already found place in the
preceding sentences, with a subject or complement not the same.

**If several substantives follow each other, either they are in coostmo-
tion with eac^ other, or they fbrm an enumeration, or they are synonyms
which explain and determine each other.

** If several verbs succeed each other, which are not sjoionymons and
are not employed as auxiliaries, the first ones should be taken as adverbs
or verbal nouns, the subjects of those which follow ; or these latter as
verbal nouns, the complements of those which precede.'*

Chinese grammarians divide all words into shih tsz^ and hu tsi^,
i. e. essential words and particles. The former are subdivided
into sz^ Ux^ and hiooh tsz\ i. e. nouns and verbs ; the latter into
initials or introductory words, conjunctions, exclamations, finals,
transitive particles, &c. They furnish examples under each,
and to assist the young student, there are model books, in which
the principles of the language and all rhetorical terms are ex-
plained, which he is required to follow and observe in his exer-
cises. The number and variety of grammatical and philological
works prove that they have not neglected the elucidation and ar-
rangement of their mother tongue, though a cursory glance
plainly shows their ignorance of the general laws of language.
The rules above cited are applicable chiefly to the written lan-
guage, and the native treatises also refer entirely to that ; the
changes in the phraseology of the colloquial do not affect its
grammar, however, which is formed upon the same rules.

Although the characters are, when isolated, somewhat in-
definite, there are many ways of defining them in sentei'jces.
Nouns are ofien made by suffixing formative particles, as n» Iri,
''angry spirit," merely means anger; i ki, " righteous spirit," is

PAET8 OF SPBBGH. 406

redHude ; chin VA, " needle child," is a needle, ^. ; the suffix,
in these cases, simply materializing the word. These fbrmatives
occur most frequently in works of light literature. Gender is
formed by distinctive particles, prefixed or suffixed by appropriate
words for each gender, or by denoting one gender always by a
dissyllabic compound ; as ma^e-being, for the masculine ; horse-
sirCy or horse-ma(^, for stallion or dam ; herOi heroine^ emperor^
empress, &c. ; and lastly as wnng-hau, i. e. king-^^en, for queen,
while wang alone means king. Number is formed by prefixing
a numeral, as ** Yung, Tsin, itoo men ;" by suffixing a formative,
mun, idng, and others, as jin-tang, man.«or<, or men ; tct-mun, he-#
or they ; by repeating the word, BLSjin-jin, man-man or men; chu-
chu, place-place, or places, i. e. everywhere ; and lastly, by the
scope of the passage. The nominative, accusative, and vocative
cases are commonly known by their position ; the genitive, dative^
and ablative are formed by appropriate prepositions, expressed or
understood. The vocative is quite common in Chinese, espe-
cially in light reading and hbtorical stories.

Adjectives pceoede nouns, by which position they are usually
determined. Comparisons are made in many ways. Hau ia
good, kdng hau is better, and chi hau is best ; hau hau is very
good ; hau hau tih is preUy good, &c. The position of an adjec-
tive determines its comparison, as chang yih chUi means longer by
one cubU ; yih chih chang is a cubit long. The comparison of
ideas is made by placing the two sentences parallel to each
other ; for instance, " Bntering the hills and seizing a tiger is
easy, opening the mouth and getting men to lean to is difficult,"
is the way of expressing the comparison, *' It is easier to seize
a tiger in the hills, than to obtain the good offices of men." The
proper use of antithesis and parallelism is considered one of the
highest attainments in composition. The numerals are thirteen
in number, and all amounts are written just as they are to be
read, as yih peh sx' shih san, — W E9 ~H H ^* ®* ^^^ hundred
four tens three. They are here introduced with their pronuncia-
tion in three dialects.

IS 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q^' 10 100 1.000 10,000

SSS^ yih VA san sx* wu luh isih pah kiu shih peh tsien von.
^SSl. y^ ^ ^om sz' *ng luk tsai pat kau shap pak tsin man,
^HS^ it ji sam su ngou liok cMt pat kiu sip pek chien ban.

496 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

The Chinese, like the Greeks, enumerate only up to a myriad,
expresaing Bums higher than that by stating how many myriads
there are ; the notation of 362,447,130 is three myriads, six
thousand, two hundred and forty-four myriads, seven thousand,
one hundred, and eighty. Pronouns are few in number, and
their use ia avoided whenever the sense is clear without tbem.
The personal pronouns are three, lOO, ni, and ta, but other pro-
nouns can all be readily expressed by adjectives, by colloca-
tion, and by participial phrases. The classifiers sometimes par-
take of the nature of adjective pronouns, but usually are mere
distributive or numerical adjectives.

Verbs, or " living characters," conslitule the most important
part of speech in the estimation of Chinese grammarians, and the
tkun tiih, or easy flow of expression, in their use, is carefully
studied. The dissyllabic compounds, called clam-shell teord*, are
usually verbs, and are made in many ways; by uniting two
similar words, as kwei-kien (lit. peep-look), to spy ; by doubling
the verb, hskitn-kien, meaning lo look earnestly; by prciixiDg
a formalive denoting action, as ta thioui (lit. do sleep), to sleep ;
by sulfiiing a modifying word, as grasp-hall, means to grasp
firmly ; tkijik-arUc means lo cogitate, &o. No part of the study
of the language requires more attention than the right selection ol
these formativea in both nouns and verbs, and perfection in ths
shun luh and use of antitheses, is the result only of years of
study ; children at school are taught to learn antithetic words and
sentences in their copy-slips, and thus their style becomes formed.

The various accidents of voice, mood, tense, number, and per-
son, can all be expressed by corresponding particles, but tha
genius of the language disfavors their frequent use. The pas-
sive voice is formed by prefixing particles indicative of agency,
before the active verb, as " The villain received my sword'a
culling," for "The villain was wounded by my sword." TTia
imperative, potential, and subjunctive moods are formed by pu-
ticlea or adjuncts, but the indicative and in/initive are not de-
signated, nor are the number and person of verba usually distin-
guished. The number of auxiliaries, particles, adjuncts, and
suffixes of various kinds, employed to express what in other lan-
guages is denoted by inflections, is great, and the nice discrinu.
auioa exbibiced in their use indicates the finished scholar.*
•Chinene Repoiitorj, Vol, VIII.. p. 347.

DEFECTS OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 497

A defect in the Chinese language is the indistinct manner in
which time is expressed ; not that there is any want of terms to
denote all its varieties, past, present, and future, but the terseness
of expression admired by Chinese writers, leads them to discard
every unessential word, and especially those relating to time.
This defect is more noticed by the foreigner than the native, who
has no knowledge of the precision of time expressed by inflec-
tion in other languages. The past tense is usually expressed by
the suffix liau, as si-HaUj toash-ed ; but if the connexion denotes
that the act is past by or wholly completed, no attention is paid
to this particular. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and inter-
jections, are not distinguished by native grammarians ; the for-
mer are classed with adjectives, of which indeed they are only
a subdivision, while the others are collectively called hii isz*f i. e.
" empty words," or particles.

No distinction is made between proper and common names in
writing Chinese, and as the numbeV of strictly proper names is
very small, they become a source of confusion to the translator ;
in some books a single line drawn on the side of characters de-
notes the names of persons, and a double line the names of places ;
important words are denoted by commencing a new line with
them, raised one or two characters above the other columns,
which answers to capitalizing them. In most books an entire
absence of all marks of punctuation, and division into sentences
and paragraphs, causes needless doubt in the mind of the reader.
The great convenience experienced in European languages from
the use of capital letters, to designate proper names, marks of
punctuation, separation into sentences and paragraphs, and the
distinction of time, is more plainly seen when a translation is to
be made from languages like the Chinese and Japanese, in which
they are generally disregarded. The Chinese possess these fa-
cilities, but a false taste prevents them from using them ; they
admire a page of plain characters so much that a student who
should punctuate his essay, would run a risk of being ridiculed
on that account.

The rules of syntax and prosody are taught solely by exam-
ples, for although native scholars have attentively studied their
language, they have not deduced the general rules which govern
it, nor philosophically classed the parts of speech which compose
it. There are several distinct styles recognised by them : the

498 TH£ MIDDLE KINGDOM.

ku wan, or the terse, antithetic style of the ancient claadcsy is
considered as inimitable and unimprovable, and really possesses
the qualities of energy, vivacity, and brevity in a superior degree;
the wdn change or style of elevated composition, adopted in essays,
histories, and grave works ; and the siau shtooh, or colloquial style
used in stories.

If there are serious defects in Chinese, the language also pos-
sesses some striking beauties. The expressive nature of the
characters, afler their component parts have become familiar,
causes much of the meaning of a sentence to pass instantly be-
fore the eye, while the energy and life arising from the brevity
attainable by the absence of all inflections and partial use of
particles, add a vigor to the style, that cannot be reached by any
alphabetic language. Dr. Morrison observes that *' the Chinese
fine writing darts upon the mind with a vivid flash, a force and
a beauty, of which alphabetic language is incapable.'' It is
also better fitted than any other language for becoming a univer-
sal medium of communication, and has actually become so to a
much greater extent than any other ; but the history of its dif-
fusion, and the modifications it has undergone among the ^ye
nations who use it, though presenting a curious topic for philolo-
gical inquiry, is one far too extensive to be discussed here. So
general a use of one language, however, affords some peculiar
facilities for the diffusion of knowledge by means of books as
introductory to the general elevation of the people using it, and
their preparation for substituting an alphabetic language for so
laborious and unwieldy a vehicle of thought, which it seems
impossible to avoid as Christian civilization and knowledge ex-
tend.

It is oflen asked, is the Chinese language hard to learn ? The
preceding account of it shows that to become familiar with its
numerous characters, to be able to speak the delicately marked
tones of its short monosyllables, and to compose in it with per-
spicuity and elegance, is the labor of years of close application.
To do so in Greek, Latin, English, or indeed any settled tongue,
is also a toilsome task, and excepting the barren labor of remem-
bering so many different characters, it is not more so in Chinese
than in others. But a partial knowledge, sufficient to talk intel-
ligibly, tc write perspicuously, and read with considerable ease,
is not 80 herculean a task as some suppose, though this degree is

MODE OF STUDVfnc CHINESE. 490

not to be atlained without much hard study. Ajtaiaiancc cao
now be obtained irom dictiouaries, grammars, and translations,
which materially diminish the labor.

The rifles for studying Chinese cannot be laid down so that
they will answer equally well for all persons. Some, having
good ears, readily catch the most delicate inllectionB of ihe voice,
and imitate and remember the words they hear without dilliculty ;
such persoDs soon team to speak and to preach to the people, and
can make themselves understood on almost any common subject
with merely the help of a vocabulary. Others prefer to sit
down with a teaclier and learn to read, and for most persons this
is the bent course at the commencement. At first, the principsl
labor should be directed to the characters, reading them over
with a teacher and learning iheir form. Commence with the
214 radicals, and commit tliem to memory, so that (hey can be
repealed and written in their order ; then learn the primitives, or
at least become familiar with tlio names and meaning of all the
common ones, as given by Gallery. The aid this preliminary
study gives in remembering the composition of characters ia
worth all the time it takes, and almost every character acquired
is in common use. Students, especially missionaries, make a
mistake in beginning with the Testament or a tract, and at once
proceeding to translate ; Ihey can learn more characters in the
same period, ar.d lay a better foundation for acquiring olhera,
by commencing with the radicals and primitives. Meanwhile,
they will also be learning sounds and becoming familiar with the
tones, which should be most carefully attended to as a particular
study from the living voice.

When these characters are learned, short sentences or read-
ing lessons selected from good Chinese authors, should be taken
up with a translation attached, and committed to memory.
Phrases may also be learned at the same lime, for using in con-
versation ; a good way to do this is to learn one or two hundred
common words, and then practise putting them together in sen-
tences. The study of reading le^ssons and phrases, with practice
in speaking and writing them — such as are given in the Chinese
Chrealomathy, Easy Lessons in Chinese, Noiiiia Lingus Slnics,
Chinese Dialogues, tlic, will prepare the way for commencing
ibe regular study of the classics or other native authors ; but
Chinese books written by foreigners should never be tludied by

600 THE MIDDLS KINODOM.

those who wish to make satisfactoxy progress in the language.
By the time the student has reached this point, he needs no far-
ther directions ; the path he wishes thenceforth to pursue can
easily he marked out by himself. It is not amiss here to remaric
that many persons, ardently desirous of fitting themselves soon
for preaching or talking to the people, weary their minds and
hinder their ultimate progress, by too hard study at first upon
the dry characters ; the student, intent upon his final aim, fbi^eta
that his mind requires variety in the subject of his pursuit, and
ere he is aware, he has become disgusted with the continuous
attention necessary to remember so many arbitrary signs. A
slower progress, in many cases, will conduce to greater ultimate
attainments.

Before translating into English, a knowledge of the principles
of Chinese grammar is indispensable. Chinese sentences do not
mean everything and anything, and in translating them but one
definite idea is to be derived from them, viz. that which the
author had in his mind when he wrote them. Translations from
Chinese have often been obnoxious to the charges of rudeness
and obscurity, owing partly to ignorance of the grammatical
construction of the original, and partly to too close an adherence
to its idiom. Knowledge of the meaning of the characters
merely, is not sufiicient to make a persoA a good translator ; he
must attend to the force of the word or phrase in its connexion,
so as to select an apt expression to render it ; and give the author
an opportunity of appearing as well in his foreign garb as he
does in his native costume, so far as the nature of the two Ian-
guages will allow.

It is to be hoped that the study of Chinese will receive more
attention than it has done, now that books to aid in learning it,
and opportunities for using it, have multiplied. The merchant
and the traveller, as well as the philologist and missionary,
should attend to it, if their pursuits call them to that country ;
and we hazard little in saying, that had this been done, most of
the ill-will between foreigners and natives, and many of the trou-
bles which have jeoparded life and property at Canton, would have
been avoided ; and that the contempt which the people feel for their
visitors, and the restricted intercourse which has been carried on
for the past century, have been mainly owing to an ignorance of
the Chinese language. The native traders there have managed to

ADVANTAGES OP STUDYING CHINBSB. 601

pick up a meagre jargon of uncouth words, and comparing its
scantiness with their own copious vocabulary, have inferred thence
the ignorance and barbarism of those who use it, and judged of
their civilization by this wretched scantling of words.* The
writer once saw a good illustration of this feeling. He was return-
ing home one evening on a narrow causeway running across the
rice fields, when just ahead he saw an infant standing by the
side of his father. The child began to whimper on seeing the
ogre of a barbarian coming, but the parent instantly pacified it
by saying, " Don't cry ; he wo'nt hurt you, he can talk Chi-
nese."

A knowledge of their language is a passport to the confidence
of the people, and when foreigners generally learn it, the Chi-
nese will begin to divest themselves of their prejudices and con-
tempt. As an inducement to study it, the scholar and the phi-
lanthropist have the prospect of benefiting and informing through
it vast numbers of their fellow-men, of imparting to them what
will elevate their minds, purify their hearts, instruct their under-
standings, and strengthen their desire for more knowledge ; they
have an opportunity of doing much to counteract the tremen-
dous evils of the opium trade by teaching the Chinese the only
sure grounds on which they can be restrained, and at the same
time of making them acquainted with the discoveries in science,
medicine, and arts, among western nations. Far above all in
importance, the missionary can show them the secrets of another
world, and teach them their obligations to obey the commands
of their Maker, and accept the profiered grace of their Redeem-
er. These benefits will amply repay the labor of acquiring this
language to those who wish to aid in the Christianization of so
vast a people, and even a partial knowledge of the language
will enable one to do great good.

* Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., page 190.

Clanical Lltenture

TnE literature conloined in the language now briefly described,
is very ample and diiicursive, but wanting in truthfulness, Hnd
unenlivened by genius. The bcmks of the Chinese are the

transcripts of their national taate; everything lias conspired la
produce a tedious uniformity; while the unbounded admiration
felt for Ilie classics and their iminaculate authors, fostered by
the examinations, has further tended to this resuh ; and caused
these writings, remarkable in many respects, considering the
times and their authors, to become slill more famous from the
unequalled influence they have exerted.

In lading a genera! survey of this lileralurc, the S:' Fu Tsiuen
Shu Tsvng-muh, or Catalogue of all the Books in the Four Libra-
ries, will be the best guide to follow, since it goes over the
whole range of letters, and ntTords a complete (ind succinct
synopsis of the contents of the best books in the language. It is
itself a valuable work, especially to a foreigner, and one whose
existence would hardly have been e.vpected in a country so
despotic ; it is comprised in one hundred and twelve octavo vo-
lumes of about three hundred pages eoch, and probably contains
the names of upwards of twenty thousand works. The liooks

isical. Historical, and

ritings, and Belles-lettres.

n the first division are ranged under nine sections ;
ich of the five Classics, and with a subsidiary
whole, one lo the memoir on Filial Duty, one
one to musical works, and the ninth includes

At the head of the Wu King, or Five Classics, is placed the
Yik King, or Book of Changes, which is held by the Chinese in
great veneration for its antiquity and the occult wisdom, which
only sages can understand, supposed to be contained in its mys-

are arranged i

Professional wi

The works i

to the Four Books,

NOTICE OF THB TIR KINO OE BOOK OF CHANGES. 508

tic lines. It was composed in prison by W&n wang, ** the Lite-
rary prince," about b. c. 1150, and is doubtless one of the most
ancient books extant in any language. The Yih King treats of
general philosophy and the first cause as supposed to have been
taught by Fuh-hl, whose institutes were founded upon the pah
kuHij or eight diagrams, which he invented, and by subsequent
combinations increased to sixty-four. These diagrams are
merely trinities of straight lines, upon which have been found-
ed a system of ethics, deduced by giving names to each dia-
gram, and then associating the meanings of these names accord-
ing to the changes which could be rung upon the sixty- four
combinations. The evolution of the eight diagrams from two
original principles is as follows :

Liang /, or TSto Principles,

Sz* Siang, or Four Figures.

Pah JTwa, or Eight Diagrams.

kien tui li chin siuen kan kin kwSn

w. t. c. BE. IT. me.

1. Kien is the Yang or expanse, celestial matter, that prin-

ciple of things which generates ; the fluid ether.

2. 7\tt is vapor, the ascending influence from water; lakes,

fountains issuing from mountains.
8. Lij fire, the beautiful element light, heat ; actuating power.

4. CMuy thunder, igneous exhalation or the mover of sound

and heat.

5. Siuen, wind, the moving action of wind.

3. Kan, the liquid element, water.

7. Kdn, mountains, solidity, quiet, what sustains motion.

6. Kwdn is the Yin or earth, terrestrial matter, the principle of

change in things by generation and corruption.
The appellations hundd, light, hoi, rigid, fiexihle, cold, heavy,
and dry, are also given to the eight diagrams, which, with the
application of the eight points of the compass, altogether form
the material for a cabalistic logomancy, peculiarly pleasing to
Chinese habiu of thought. They have also supplied the

I

504 THE MIDDLE

for many species of divination by shells, lines, letters, &cc., by
which the mass of people are deluded into the belief of pena-
trating futurity, and Gtill more wedded to their superslilioDS,
By uniting two of ihe diagrams and ringing ihe changes around*
sixty-four more are made, each of which haa
chapter in the work of nix sections to explain it, showing how
principles of good and bad conduct are evolved from the originfd
dual powers. The leading idea of this curious relic of antiquity
seems lo have been founded upon the Chinese notions of the cre-
ation of the world, according to which all material things pro-
ceeding from two great male and female vivifying elements, tbfl
Yin and Yang, were made in harmony, because acted upon by
the same harmonious powers. Man being also formed by Iheso
same powers, would naturally come under their
if nothing interfered, would likewise move in harmony, as did
nature around him, of which he was originally a part. The de-
duction of principles of good action for humaii conduct, acconL
ing to these notions, followed from observing tlie combinalioD*
and successive evolutions of the Yin and Yang
diagrams are the symbols of these multiform changes. Of coum
anything and everything could be deduced from such a fancifid
groundwork, but the Chinese have taken Up the discussion IQ'
the most serious manner, and endeavored to find the hidden mean
ing of the diagrams. Confucius spent years in the vain search
his object was also more fully to explain Wan wong's commen-
tary on them, and his observations, now incorporated with thai
commentary, constitute the chief value of the work. ThoM
who study it depend entirely upon the explanations of CoDfuciua
and Chu Hi, for the meaning of its aphoristic expressions ; about
1450 treatises on the Yih King alone, conaisting of memoir^,
digests, expositions, &c., are enumerated in the Catalogue.

The second section contains the treatises upon the seoond of
the Five Classics, called the Shu King, or Book of Records. It
consists of a series of dialogues designed to give a brief history
of China from the times of Yau, about b. c. 2350, down lo Ping
Wang, of the Chau dynasty, b. c. 770, including some docU'
ments explaining the principles upon which the early sovoreigiii
conducted the alToirs of state, and proclamations and addressei
to the people. The internal evidence leads to the ccmoluaion
that Confucius allied principally as editor of dooumenta

MOnCB OF THE iku Eliro OR BOOK OP BBCOBDB. 505

in his day, but the changes that this ancient work underwent in
his hands cannot now be ascertained. It contains six different
kinds of state papers, issued by the ancient monarchs, viz. im-
perial ordinances regarded as unalterable, plans drawn up by
statesmen as guides for their sovereign, instructions prepared for
the guidance of the prince, imperial proclamations to admonish
the people, vows taken before Shangtl, the High Ruler, by the
monarch when going out to battle, and lastly, mandates sent
down from the throne to high ministers of state.

The morality of the Shu King, for a pagan work, is very good,
and the principles of administration laid down in it, founded on a
regard to the welfare of the people, would, if carried out, insure
universal prosperity. A quotation from the answer of Kauyau
to the monarch Yu, is expressive of a mild spirit : '< If a prince
punishes, the punishment passes not from the parents to the
children, but if he bestow rewards, they reach to descendants.
In regard to involuntary faults, he pardons them without inquir-
ing whether they be great or small, but wilful offences, although
apparently trifling, are punished. In the case of doubtful faults
the punishment is light, but a service rendered, though doubtful,
receives a large recompense. He will rather not execute the
laws against criminals than punish an innocent person. A virtue
that delights in preserving the lives of the subjects, gains the
hearts of the people."*

The answer of Yu to Shun partakes of patriarchal simplicity :
** Ah ! Prince, think carefully ! Virtue is the basis of good go-
vernment : and this consists, first, in procuring to the people the
things necessary for preservation, i. e. water, fire, metals, wood,
and grain. The ruler must think also of rendering them virtu-
ous, and preserving them from whatever can injure life and
health. These nine points ought to be the subject of songs ;
when you would teach, employ eulogiums ; when you would go-
vern, employ authority. These nine songs serve to animate, and
it is thus that the people are preserved. "f

The Shu King contains the seeds of all things that are valua-
ble in the estimation of the Chinese ; it is at once the foundation
of their political system, their history, and their religious rites,
the basis of their tactics, music, and astronomy. The knowledge

* Oaabil'f Chou King, page 3d. f Choo King, page 34.

28

I

SOS

of the true God under the uppellaljon of Shangti is not obscure
tnlimatcd in this work, and the precepts for governing a. count
scattered through its dialogues and procbmalions do their wriie
credit, however little Lhey may liuve been followed in practiM
The astronomy of the Booli of Records has attracted much iovai
ligation, but whether ihe remarks of the oommeniaiors are to 1
ascribed to the times they themselves flourished, or to the krnn
ledge lhey had of the ancient state of the science, is doublAd4
The chronological series of kings is often inierrupled in (he SiM
King, which has induced the belief that it has suffered mntii
lation since the days of its editor, ^

A list of commentators upon the Ski King, or Book of Odes, i
contained in the third section ; this is one of ihe most ancia^
collections of odes extant, though it is impossible to specify thi
dales of the several parts. They are arranged under four I
viz. Km>k Fung, or Nalional Airs, Siau ¥a and Ta Ya,
Lesser and Greater Eulogies, and Tfutig, or Songs of PnuMI '_
used bI the imperial eacrilices ; each head is subdivided ii
canticles, with its appropriate name, and these again iuto stana
There is nothing of an epic character in this work, nor evenai
lengthened narrative ; it is rather a collection of sonnets on «
rioua subjects, drawn either from the recesses of fcelin
scriptive of the state of public aflairs. Many of the met&plu
and illustrations are unexpected, but there arc no high (
taincd flights of imagination in the odes, while some border i
puerility ; Iheir acknowledged antiquity is perhaps the i
interesting circumstance connected with them. In the sevi
oda of the third canticle in the Nalional Airs, Ihere aeemi )
be a refrain, as if intended to be sung by two voices.

" T)ie blund south wind breatlies upon and cherishes the heartwDod

these plants, hence the grove flourislies and seems renovated. Boti
mother is en'rironed with cares and diBlreesed with labors.

" The bland south wind chetiehcs, by its breatli, the wood of i
grove. Our mother excels In prudence and understanding, but we
men of no estimation.

" The cool fountain welling forth, waters the lower part of the regH4
Tsun. We are seven sons, whose mother is burdened with vaiiM
carea and labors.

•Chinesa Repository. Vol. IX , p. 573; Vol. VIII., p. 3S9.

CHABACTER OP THE SHf KING OB BOOK OF ODES. 507

" Sweetly, tanefully, and with unbroken voice, sings the saffion color-
ed phceniz. We seven sons are no solace to onr parent."*

In the Lesser Eulogies is a complaint of severed friendship,
similar in its construction.

** The soft and balmy wind brings with it the rain. I and thou were
sharers in labors and privations, when, in truth, our minds were closely
united ; but after you became prosperous and happy, you changed your
mind and deserted me.

" The soft and balmy wind as it rises in the whirlwind gradually be-
comes more vehement. When we shared our labors and poverty, you
cherished me in your bosom ; now, having become happy, you have left
me and I am lost to you.

'* The wind is soft and balmy, but when it blows over the mountain
tops, no plant but withers, no tree but crackles. But you forget my ac*
knowledged virtues, and remember my petty complaints."!

Many marriage songs are found in the collection, one of which
describes a king's daughter with somewhat different metaphors
than would occur in a Grecian epithalamium.

'* Our high dame is of lofty stature, and wears splendid robes beneath
others of a darker color Her hands are like a budding and ten-
der plant ; the skin of her face resembles hardened lard. Her neck is
comparable to the white larve of the sphinx ; her teeth can be equalled
to the seeds of the gourd. The temples of her head are like the cicada,
her eyebrows to the winged silk-moth. She smiles most sweetly, and
her laagh is agreeable. The pupil of her eye is black, and how well are
the black and white distinguished."^

The metre of these ancient sonnets varies, some of the lines
ci>nsisting of three, but most of them of four syllables. The fi>l-
lowing tetrameter exhibits the rhyme.

Kien kia tsang isangy Su hvmi isung cAI,

Pih lu wei shtoang ; Tau tsu tsU chang;

So wei ijin, Su yu tsung cMy

Tsai shwui yth fang ; Wan isai shwui chung yang,

" Green yet are the reeds and rushes.
Though the white dew congeab in hoar-frost ;

* Lacharme's Sh( King, p. 13. j Lacharme's Shi King, page 113.

t Sh( King, page 35.

ft08 THE MIDDLE KDCODOM.

That man of whom I speak,
Is on the water's further shore ;
Up the stream have I followed him,
Long and harassed was the voyage ;
Down the river have I sought him,
Seeming to see him in the water's midst"

Most of them are remarkably simple in their construction, and
are rather of a plaintive character.

" Even the solitary larch
Has leaves to form a green shade ;
But I must wander alone and forlorn :
Do I say that there are no human beings 7
No, but none to me as kindred.
Ah ! ye who pass by.
Will none of you consort with me 7
A man bereft of his brothers,
Alas, will none assist him !"

Some are, however, of a more martial character, and not des-
titute of animation corresponding to the subject.

" The royal legions, how numerous and ardent.
As if flying in winged crowds,
Or as the restless sea and bounding torrent ;
They are Arm as the mountain's base.
Resistless as the flowing stream.
In serried ranks they are marshalled well.
Their motions inscrutable, their prowess invincible ; *
Thus they passed over to conquer Su."

The following refers to the queen of Yu wang, of the Chau
dynasty, who lived b. c. 780.

*' A talented man builds up the city,
^r^ But a shrewd woman throws it in rains ;

A beautiful and clever woman
Is like the owl and like the kite ;
Women with long tongues.
Are stepping stones to misery.
Commotions come not from heaven alone,
They are produced by women.
Tongues which neither teach nor reprove.
Are those of women and eunuchs."

ACCOUNT OF THB l! Kf OB BOOK OF BIT£S. 509

One more extract of a rural nature will be syfficient to exhibit
the character of these odes.

" Crash, crash, resound the falling trees,
Chirp, chirp, respond the birds to their fellows.
They come from the shady dells.
Flitting upon the lofty trees,
Answering each other in their songs,
And seeking their friends with their notes :
Behold these songsters !
Like friends they ask for replies.
Shall it be then that men
Desire not their hving friends ?
The gods listen to those
Who to the end are peaceful and united.'*

These quotations partially exhibit the parallelism so generally
observed in oriental poetry. Chinese scholars commit large
portions of the work to memory, and their writers are fond of
introducing its stanzas into their compositions, using them both
for argument and illustration, for the sentiments are considered
of much more weight with them than are the style and versifica-
tion regarded as elegant. It is not unlikely, indeed, that the
rhythm and form of some of these canticles are owing to the edi-
tor, or at least have been polished by him ; and that Confucius,
finding these expressions and sentiments current among his coun-
trymen, collected and embellished or versified them, to a con-
siderable extent.

The next section comprises writings upon the L% Ki, '* Ritual
Remembrancer," or Book of Rites, the work which has perhaps
had the most practical effect upon Chinese manners and life. It is
the largest of the Five Classics, and was partly written by Chau
kungj or lord Chau, the author of the Chau Ritual, upon which
two brothers called Tai commented ; the two form the present
Book of Rites, which for the most part doubtless contains the
teachings of Confucius. It gives directions for all actions of life,
forming a code of etiquette upon the polite behavior of men, their
sitting, standing, eating, sleeping, talking, weeping, walking, dec,
in all circumstances and for all periods of life. These regula-
tions do not refer only to the external conduct, but are inter-
spersed with truly excellent observations regarding mutual
Ibrbearance and kindness in society, which is regarded as the

510 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

true principle of etiquette. The Board of Rites at Peking is eft
tablished for the purpose of carrying out the instructions of thii
work, and in it, too, are found the models for the Six Boards.
The religion of state is founded upon it, and children are earlj
instructed in all the details it contains respecting their conduci
towards parents. Reference has already been made to it (page
423), and one or two more extracts will suffice to exhibit tb€
spirit and style of this remarkable work, singular in its objed
and scope among all the bequests of antiquity.

Affection between father and son.

In the Domestic Rules it is said, " Men in serving their parents, al
the first cock-crowing, must all wash their bands ; rinse their mouth ;
comb their hair ; bind it together with a net ; fasten it with a bodkin
forming it into a tuft ; brush off the dust ; put on the hat, tying the
strings, ornamented with tassels ; also the waistcoat, frock, and girdle
with the note-sticks placed in it, and the indispensables attached on the
right and left ; bind on the greaves ; and put on the shoes, tying up the
strings. Wives must serve their husband's father and mother as theii
own ; at the first cock-crowing, they must wash their hands ; rinse theii
mouth ; comb their hair ; bind it together with a net ; fasten it with a
bodkin, forming it into a tuil ; put on their frocks and girdles, with the
indispensables attached on the right and left ; fasten on their bags of
perfumery ; put on and tie up their shoes. Then go to the chamber of
their father and mother, and father-in-law and mother-in-law, and having
entered, in a low and placid tone, they must inquire whether their drea
is too warm or too cool ; if the parents have pain or itching, themselvec
must respectfully press or rub [the part afiected] ; and if they enter oi
leave the room, themselves either going before or following, must re-
spectfully support them. In bringing the apparatus for washing, the
younger must present the bowl ; the elder, the water, begging them to
pour it and wash ; and after they have washed, hand them the towd.
In asking and respectfully presenting what they wish to eat, they must
cheer them by their mild manner ; and must wait till their father alid
mother, and father-in-law and mother-in-law have eaten, and then retire.
Boys and girls, who have not arrived at the age of manhood and woman-
hood, at the first cock-crowing must wsLsh their hands; rinse their
moutli ; comb their hair ; bind it together with a net ; and form it into a
tuft ; brush off the dust ; tie on their bags, having them well supplied
with perfumery : then hasten at early dawn to see their parents, and in-
quire if they have eaten and drunk ; if they have, they must immediate-
ly retire ; but if not, they must assist their superiors in seeing tlMit
everything is duly made ready."

11BA80NS FOR THE IXFLUBNCE OF THE CLASSICS* 511

Of Reproving Parents,

** When his parents are in error, the son with a humble spirit, pleas-
ing countenance, and gentle tone, must point it out to them. If they do
not receive his reproof, he must strive more and more to be dutifol and
respectful towards them till they are pleased, and then he must again
point out their error. But if he does not succeed in pleasing them, it is
better that he should continue to reiterate reproof, than permit them to
do injury to the whole department, district, village, or neighborhood.
And if the parents, irritated and displeased, chastise their son till the
blood flows from him, even then he must not dare to harbor the least
resentment ; but, on the contrary, should treat them with increased re-
spect and dutifulness."

Respect to be paid Parents in one^s eonducL
'* Although your father and mother are dead, if yon propose to your-
self any good work, only reflect how it will make their names illustrious,
and your purpose will be fixed. So if you propose to do what is not good,
only consider how it will disgrace the names of your father and mother,
and you will desist from your purpose." — Chi. JR^p., Vol. V., pp. 306, 312.

These extracts are enough to show something of the moulding
principles which operate on Chinese youth from earliest years.
The lad is instructed in these precepts, and his parents, teachers,
and seniors, can all refer to what he is studying for reasons
for everything they may do in the way of education or coercion.
The position of females, too, in that country, has remained, under
these dogmas, much the same for hundreds of years. Nor is it
difllicult to account for the influence which they have had.
Those who were most aware of their excellence, and had had some
experience in the tortuous dealings of the human heart, as hus-
bands, fathers, mothers, officers, and seniors, were those who had
the power to enforce obedience upon wives, children, daughters,
subjects, and juniors, as well as teach it to them. These must
wait till increasing years brought about their turn to fill the
upper rank in the social system, by which time habit would lead
them to exercise their sway over the rising generation in the
same manner. Thus it would be perpetuated, for the man could
not depart from the way his childhood was trained ; — though it
the results had been difl^erent from what they are, it would have
been easy for us to explain why, amid the ignorance, crafl, am-
bition, and discontent found in a populous, uneducated, pagan
country, such formal rules had failed of benefiting society to any

512 THfi SIIBDLB KITCGDOJX-.

lasting extent. We must look higher for this result, md ao-
knowledge the degree of wholesome restraint upon the passions
of the Chinese which the Author of whatever is good in these
tenets has seen fit to confer with thero^ in order to the preserva-
tion of society.

The fifth section includes commentaries upon the last of the
Five Classics, the Chun TsiUy or Spring and Autamn Annals, an
liistorical work of Confucius, so called because '* their commen-
dations are life-giving like spring, and the censures life-wither-
ing like autumn." It contains a series of historical incidents
extending through 242 years, from the reign of Pii^ wang to
about B. c. 5G0, or near his own times ; they were compiled
from the records of his native state Lu, and the author intended
to complete the Shu King, which ended with the reign of that
monarch, it is but little better than a dry detail of ^cts> enli-
vened by few incidents, but containing many of those practical
observations which distinguish the writings of the sage. His
principal object in writing it seems to have been to compare the
misgovernment and anarchy which characterized the feudal
times of the Chau dynasty, with the better rule of the ancient
kings, and thereby to enforce those principles of good govern-
ment on which he considered the welfare of a state to depend.
This and the Book of Records arc regarded as the most authen-
tic works the Chinese have upon the history of the times prior to
Confucius, though the industry of subsequent historians has doue
something to supply their deficiencies by an examination of an-
cient inscriptions and records.

The seventh section in this division of the Catalogue contains
a list of works written to elucidate the Five Classics as a whole,
and if their character for originality of thought, variety of re-
search, extent of illustration, and explanation of obscurities, was
comparable to their size and numbers, no books in any language
could boast of the aids possessed by the Wu King for their right
comprehension. Of these commentators, Chu Hi of Kiangsf,
who lived during the Sung dynasty, has so greatly exceeded all
others in illustrating and expounding them, that his explanations
arc now considered of almost equal authority with the text, and
are always given to the beginner to assist him in ascertaining
its true meaning. The sixth section is devoted to works upoo
the Hiau Kingy or Memoir on Filial Duty, a collection of eight-

THE HIAU XING OR MEMOIR ON FILIAL DUTY. 513

een short chapters consisting of the apothegms of Confucius,
and his conversations with Ts&ng Tsan, his disciple, upon this
virtue. Its author is unknown, but it is highly reve red and
studied, and many commentators, among whom was the emperor
Yuentsung of the Tang dyneisty (a.d. 700), have opened out its
meanings. A translation of it has been made by Dr. Bridg.
man,* from which one extract will suffice to show its character.
It is the first section On the origin and nature of filial duty.

** Confacins sitting at leisure, with his pupil Ts&ng Tsan by his side,
said to him, *■ Do you understand how the ancient kings, who possessed
the greatest virtue and the best moral principles, rendered the whole
empire so obedient, that the people lived iu peace and harmony, and no
ill will existed between superiors and inferiors ?' Ts&ng Tsan, rising
from his seat, replied, * Destitute as I am of discernment, how can I
understand the subject V * Filial duty,' said the sage, ' is the root of
virtue, and the stem from which instruction in moral principles springs
forth. Sit down and I will explain this to you. The first thing which
filial duty requires of us is, that we carefully preserve from all injury,
and in a perfect state, the bodies which we have received from our
parents. And when we acquire for ourselves a station in the world, we
should regulate our conduct by correct principles, so as to transmit our
names to future generations, and reflect glory on our parents : this is
the ultimate aim of filial duty. Thus it commences in attention to pa-
rents ; is continued through a series of services rendered to the prince ;
and is completed by the elevation of ourselves.* It is said in the Book
of Odes, *■ Thinik always of your ancestors ;

Talk of and imitate their virtues.' "

The highest place in the list of virtues and obligations is ac-
corded to filial duty, not only in this but in other writings of
Confucius and those of his school. " There are," to quote from
another section, *' three thousand crimes to which one or the
other of the five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty ;
and of these no one is greater than disobedience to parents.
When ministers exercise control over the monarch, then there is
no supremacy ; when the maxims of the sages are set aside,
then the law is abrogated ; and so those who disregard filial
duty are as though they had no parents. These three evils
prepare the way for universal rebellion."

This social virtue has been highly lauded by all Chinese

* Chinese Repository, Vol. V., pp. 345-353.
28*

514 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

writers, and its observance inculcated upon youth and children
by precept and example. Stories are written to show the good
effects of obedience, and the bad results of its contrary sin,
which are put into their hands, and form also subjects for picto-
rial illustration, stanzas for poetry, and materials for conversa-
tion. The following examples are taken from a toy-book of
this sort, called the Twenty-four Filials, one of the nxnt popu-
lar collections on the subject.

** During the Chau dynasty there lived a lad named Ts&ng Tsan (also
called Tsz'yu), who served his mother very dutifuUy. Ts&ng was in
the habit of going to the hills to collect faggots ; and once, while he
was thus absent, many guests came to his house, towards whom his
mother was at a loss how to act. She, while expecting her son, who
delayed his return, began to gnaw her fingers. Ts&ng suddenly feh a
pain in his heart, and took up his bundle of faggots in order to r^ora
home ; and when he saw his mother, he kneeled and begged to know
what was the cause of her anxiety. She replied, * there have been
some guests here, who came from a great distance, and I bit my finger
in order to arouse vou to return to me.*

" In the Chau dynasty lived Chung Yu, named also Tszla, who,
because his family was poor, usually ate herbs and coarse pulse ; and
he also went more than a hundred li to procure rice for his parents.
Afterwards, when they were dead, he went south to the country of
Tsu, where he was made commander of a hundred companies of
chariots ; there he became rich, storing up grain in myriads of measures,
reclining upon cushions, and eating food served to him in numerous
dishes ; but sighing, he said, * although I should now desire to eat coarse
herbs and bring rice for my parents, it cannot be !'

" In the Chau dynasty there flourished tlie venerable Lai, who was
very obedient and reverential towards his parents, manifesting his
dutifulness by exerting himself to provide them with every delicacy.
Although upwards of seventy years of age, he declared that he was
not yet old ; and usually dressed himself in party-colored embroidered
garments, and like a child would playfully stand by the side of his pa-
rents. He would also take up buckets of water, and try to carry them
into the house ; but feigning to slip, would fall to the ground, wailing
and crying like a child : and all these things he did in order to divert
bis parents.

" During the Han dynasty lived Tung Yung, whose family was so
very poor, that when his father died he was obliged to sell himself in
order to procure money to bury his remains. After this, he went to
another place to gain the means of redeeming himself; and on his way
he met a lady who desired to become his wife, and go with him to bis

BXAMPLES (IF f

51S

iDMler'e residence, She went with him, and wove ihrec hundred
pieces of silk, whicli being completed in two months, they returned
hojiie ; on the way, having reached the shade or the r&sria tree where
they belbre met. the liuty bowed and i^ccnded upwards from his sight

" During the Hon dyimaty lived Ting Lan, wjiose parenli both died
when he was young, before he could obey and support them ; and he
rejected timt for nil the trouble and aniiiety he had cau^ them, no
recompense had yet been given. He then carved wooden images of
his parents, and served them as if they had been alive. For a long tiros
his wife would not reverence (hem ; but one day, taking a bodkin, she
in derision pricked their fingers. Blood immediately flowed front the
wound ; and seeing Ting coming, the images wept. He exnminod into
the circumslances, and ibrthwlth divorced his wife.

" In the days of the Hail dynasty lived Koh Ku, who was very poor.
[Ie had one child three years old; and such was bis poverty that his
luollier usually divided her portion of food with this little one. Koh says
to hi? wife, ' wp are so poor thai our mother cannot be supported, for
the child divides with ber the portion of food that belongs to her. Why
not bnry this child ? Another child may be born to <ib, but a mother
once gone will tiever return ' HU wife did not venture lo object to the
proposal ; and Koh immediately dug a hole of aboat three cubits deep,
when suddenly he lighted upon a pot of gold, and on the metal read the
following inscription : ' Heaven bestows this treisure upon Koh Kil, the
dutiful son; the magistrate may not seiie It, nor shall the neighbors
take it from him.'

" M&ng Tsung, who lived in the Tsin dynasty, when young lost his
father. His mother was very »ick; and one winter's day she longed to
lAste a soup made of bamboo sprouls, but MSog could oat procure any.
At lost be went into the grove of bamboos, clasped the trees with his
hands, and wept Utterly. His lilial afiection moved nature, and the
ground slowly opened, sending forth several shoots, which be gathered
and carried home. He made a soup with them, of which bis mother
ate and immediately recovered from ber malady.

" Wu M&ng, a lad eight years of age, who lived under the Tsin
dynasty, was very dutiful to hi* parents. They u'ere so poor that they
could not affotd to fnruish their beds with mosquito-curtains ; and every
aummer'fi night, myriad* of mosquitoes attacked them unrestrainedly,
feastiog upon their flesh and blood. Although there were so many,
yet Wu would not drive lliem away, lest they should go to his parents,
and annoy tliem. Such was his aflection," — Chi. Rqt., Vol. VI., p. 131.

The eighth section of the Catalogue comprises n
ommenla upon the Si* Shu, or Four Books, which have been
neafly m influential in forming Chinese mind as the Wu King.

516 THE MIDDLE KIN6lK>lf.

They are by different authors, and since their pablioatioo bare
perhaps undergone a few alterations and interpolations, but the
changes either in these or the Five Classics cannot be very nu-
merous or great, since the large body of disciples who followed
and admired Confucius, and had copies of his writings, would
carefully preserve uncorrupt those which he edited, and hand
down unimpaired those which contained his sayings. None of
the Four Books were actually written by Confucius himself, but
three of them are considered to be a digest of his sentiments ;
they were arranged in their present form by Ching futsz', who
flourished about eight centuries ago.

The first of the Four Books is the Ta Hioh, u e. Superk>r
Lessons, or School of Adults, which originally formed one chap-
ter of the comment of the brothers Tai upon the Ritual of
Chau, in the Book of Rites. It is now divided into eleven sec-
tions, only the first of which is ascribed to the sage, and the
remainder form the comment upon them ; the whole does not con-
tain two thousand words. The argument of the Superior Les-
sons is briefly summed up in four heads, "the improvement of
one's self, the regulation of a family, the government of a state,
and the rule of an empire." In the first section, this idea is
thus developed in a circle peculiarly Chinese.

''The ancients, who wished to restore reason to its due lustre
throughout the empire, first regnlated the province which they each go-
verned ; desirous of governing well their own kingdoms, they previously
established order and virtue in their own houses ; for the sake of esta-
blishing domestic order, they began with self-renovation ; to renovate
their own minds, they first gave a right direction to their afiections;
wishing to direct their passions aright, ihey previously corrected their
ideas and desires ; and to rectify these, they enlarged their knowledo^e
to the utmost. Now this enlargement of knowled^ consists in a most
thorough and minute acquaintance with the nature of things around us.
A thorough acquaintance with the nature of things renders knowledge
deep and consummate ; from hence proceed just ideas and desires ;
erroneous ideas once corrected, the afi&ctions of the soul move in the
right direction ; the passions thus rectified, the mind naturally obe}'8
reason, and the empire of reason restored in the soul, domestic order
follows of course ; from hence flows order throughout the whole pro-
vince ; and one province rightly governed may serve as a model for the
whole empire."*

* Marshman^s Ta Hioh, p. 4.

THB SUPERIOR LESSONS AND TECTE MEDIUM. 517

The subsequent sections consist of the recorded remarks of
ancient kings and statesmen upon this subject, most or all of
which must be regarded, like Livy's orations, as put into their
mouths. Among them is the following : — " The prince of Chin
said, Had I but one minister sincere and upright ! Though he
possessed no other ability, yet did he possess a heart enlarged
and generous ; would he, when he found talents in another, regard
them with the same satisfaction as though possessed by himself;
if another manifest wisdom and ability, would he, not merely
expressing a favorable opinion with the lips, cordially esteem
him and employ him in affairs : such a minister might preserve
my posterity and my people for ages to come. But an able
minister, who, seeing a man of wisdom and integrity, would dis-
like him through envy ; would prevent a man of known ability
and integrity rising into notice, nor employ him in any business
of importance : such a minister, however able, would be incapa-
ble of protecting my children and my people." It will be wil-
lingly allowed, when reading these extracts, that, destitute as
they were of the high sanctions and animating hopes and pro-
mises of the word of God, these Chinese moralists began at the
right place in their endeavors to reform and benefit their coun-
trymen, and that they did not fully succeed was owing to causes
beyond their reforming power.

The second of the Four Books is called Chung Yung, or the
True Medium, and is, in some respects, the most elaborate trea-
tise in the seriies. It was composed by Tsz'sz', the grandson of
Confucius, and originally formed part of the Li Ki ; it consists
of thirty-three sections, and a great number of commentators
have spent much time in minute amplification of its pages. The
plan of the Chung Yung is to illustrate the nature of human
virtue, and to exhibit its conduct in the actions of an ideal kiun
isx\ or " princely man " of immaculate propriety, who always
demeans himself correctly, without going to extremes. He
carries out the advice of Hesiod :

" Let every action prove a mean confeas'd ;
A moderation is, in all, the best/'

True virtue consists in never going to extremes, though it does
not appear that by this tlie sage meant to repress active benoYO-
lence on the one hand, or encourage selfish stolidity on the other.

518 THE MIDDLE KINODOM.

Chingj or uprightness, is said to be the basis of all things ; and
hoj harmony, the all-pervading principle of the universe ; " ex-
tend uprightness and harmony to the utmost, and heaven and
earth will be at rest, and all things be produced and nourished
according to their nature." The general character of the work
is monotonous, but relieved with some animated passages, among
which the description of the kitm isz\ or princely man, is one.
" The princely man, in dealing with others, does not descend to
anything low or improper. How unbending his valor ! He
stands in the middle, and leans not to either side. The princely
man enters into no situation where he is not himself. If he
holds a high situation, he does not treat with contempt those
below him ; if he occupies an inferior statiop, he uses no mean
arts to gain the favor of his superiors. He corrects himself and
blames not others ; he feels no dissatisfaction. On the one hand,
he murmurs not at heaven ; nor, on the other, does he feel
resentment towards man. Hence, the superior man dwells at
ease, entirely waiting the will of heaven." — Collie's Four Bocdcs,
pp. 6-10.

Chinese moralists divide mankind into three classes, on these
principles : — " Men of the highest order, as sages, worthies,
philanthropists, and heroes, are good without instruction ; men
of the middling classes are so afler instruction, such as husband-
men, physicians, astrologers, soldiers, &c. ; whilst those of the
lowest are bad in spite of instruction, as playactors, pettifoggers,
slaves, swindlers, dec." The first are the sJung, or sages ; the
second are called Juen, or worthies ; the last are yu, or worthless ;
and Davis notices the similarity of this triplicate classification
with that of Hesiod. The Just Medium thus describes the first
character : —

** It is only the sage who is possessed of that clear discrimination and
profound intelligence which fit him for filling a high station ; who pos-
sesses that enlarged liberality and mild benignity which fit him for bear-
ing with others ; who manifests that firmness and magnanimity that
enable him to hold fast good principles ; who is actuated by that bene-
volence, justice, propriety, and knowledge, which command reverence ;
and who is so deeply learned in polite learning and good principles, as to
qualify him rightly to discriminate. Vast and extensive are the eflfects
of his virtue ; it is like the deep and living stream which flows unceas-
ingly ; it is substantial and extensive as heaven, and profound as the

THE LUN YU OB CONVERSATIONS OF CONFUCIUS. 519

great abyss. Wherever ships sail or chariots run ; wherever the heavens
overshadow and the earth sustains ; wherever the sun and moon shinot
or frosts and dews &11, among all who have blood and breath, there is not
one who does not honor and love him." — Colliers Four Books, p. 28.

Sincerity holds a high place among the attributes of the supe-
rior or princely man ; but in translating the Chinese terms into
English, it is sometimes puzzling enough to find those which will
exhibit the exact idea of the original. For instance, sincerity is
described <' as the origin or consummation of all things ; without
it, there would be nothing. It is benevolence by which a man's
self is perfected, and knowledge by which he perfects others.'*
In another place, it is said << that one sincere wish would move
heaven and earth." The completely superior man is supposed
to possess these qualities. It is observable that Chinese moralists
have placed the standard of excellence so high as to be absolutely
unattainable without assistance from above, that they have invested
virtue in robes so white, and characters so inviting, that none can
unaided clothe themselves with the spotless mantle ; a proof that
they, like other men, knew better than they did.

The third of the Four Books called the Lun Yu, or Conversa-
tions of Confucius, is divided into twenty chapters, in which the
collective body of his disciples recorded his words and actions,
much in the same way that Boswell did those of Johnson. It
has not however the merit of chronological arrangement, and
parts of it are so sententious as to be obscure, if not almost unin-
telligible. The Lun Yu, however, contains many sayings which
teach morality, and which have had great effect upon the Chi-
nese mind. It shows the shrewd insight Confucius had of the cha-
racter of his countrymen, and knowledge of the manner in which
they could best be approached and influenced, when he began
as a reformer and teacher by reviving the instructions of the
ancients, and as he went on in his instructions, and found his in-
fluence strengthening, ingrafling his own ideas and tenets upon
their authority. If propounded as his own, they would hardly
have been received in his day, and, perhaps, through the con-
tempt felt for him by liis contemporaries, have been lost entirely.

Perhaps the most remarkable passages of the Four Books are
the following. The first is the reply given to the question
whether any one toord could express the conduct most fitting for
one's whole life, he replied, " Will not the word siu serve ?"

530 THE MIDDLE KIICGDOM.

which he explained as meaning, Do not unto others what yoa
would not have them do to you. The other is quoted in the Im*
penal Dictionary ; " The people of the west have sages," or
" There is a sage (or holy man) among the people of the west."
As Confucius was contemporary with Ezra, it is not impossible
that he had heard something of the history of the Israelites scat-
tered throughout the 127 provinces of the Persian monarchy, or
of the writings of their prophets, though there is not the least
historical evidence that he knew anything of the countries in
western Asia, or of the books extant in their languages.

Some idea of the character of the Lun Yu may be gathered
from a few detached sentences, selected from Marshman's trans-
lation.

** Grieve not that men know you not, but be grieved that you are igno-
rant of men.

" Governing with equity resembles the north star, which is fixed, and
all the stars surround it.

" Have no friends unlike yourself.

" Learning without reflection will profit nothing ; reflection without
learning will leave the mind uneasy and miserable.

'* Knowledge produces pleasure clear as water ; complete virtue brings
happiness solid as a mountain : knowledge pervades ail things ; viitoe
is tranquil and happy : knowledge is delight ; virtue is long life.

'* Without virtue, both riches and honor seem to me like the passing
cloud.

'* The sage's conduct is afiection and benevolence in operation.

*' The man who possesses complete virtue wishes to fix his own mind
therein, and also to fix the minds of others ; he wishes to be wise him-
self, and would fain render others equally wise.

" Those who, searching for virtue, refuse to stay among the virtnoos,
how can they obtain knowledge ?

" The rich and honorable are those with whom men desire to asso-
ciate ; not obtaining their company in the paths of virtue, however, do
not remain in it.

** In your appearance, to fall below decency would be to resemble a
savage rustic, to exceed it would be to resemble a fop ; let your appear-
ance be decent and moderate, then you will resemble the honorable man.

" When I first began with men, I heard words and gave credit for
conduct ; now I hear words and observe conduct.

** I have found no man who esteems virtue, as men esteem pleasure.

** The perfect man loves all men ; he is not governed by private afieo
tion or interest, but only regards the public good or right reason. The

WRITINGS OF MBNCinS. 52]

wicked man, on the contrary, loves if you give, and likes if you commend
him.

" The perfect man is never satisfied with himself. He that is'batisfied
with himself is not perfect.

*' He that is sedulous and desires to improve in his studies, is not
ashamed to stoop to ask of others.

** Sin in a virtuous man is like an eclipse of the sun and moon, all
men gaze at and it passes away ; the virtuous man mends, and the world
stands in admiration of his fall.

^ Patience is the most necessary thing to have in this world."

The Lun Yu furnishes many of the themes given at the ex-
aminations, and in the numerous comments upon it, the essayists
have no lack of expressions to till up their compositions. The
words of the sage stand for them as the acts of Yau and Shun,
and the sayings of king Win and lord Chau, did for him, — the
embodiment of ever^'thing wise and good.

The last of the Four Books is nearly as large as the other
three united, and consists entirely of the writings of Mencius,
M&ng tsz', or Miing futsz', as he is called by the Chinese. It may
here be remarked, that the terms tsz^ or futsz* do not properly
form a part of the name, but are titles, meaning rabbi or eminent
teacher f and arc added to the surnames of some of the most dis-
tinguished writers, by way of peculiar distinction ; and in the
names of Mencius and Confucius have been Latinized with the
names M&ng and Kung of the persons themselves into one word.
The names of other distinguished scholars as Chu futsz', Ching
futsz', &c., have not undergone this change into Chufucius, Ching-
fucius. Custom has now brought the compellation into univer-
sal use as a distinctive title, somewhat like the term venerable
applied to Bede. Mencius flourished about 80 years afler the
death of his master, and, although in estimating his character, it
must not be forgotten that he had the advantages of his example,
still in mast respects he displayed an originality of thought, in-
flexibility of purpose, and extensive, views, superior to Confucius,
and must be regarded as one of the greatest men Asiatic nations
lutve ever produced. An account of his life and writings has
been drawn by R6musat, in his usual clear manner, which will
furnish all the data requisite.

Mencius was born about 400 b. c, in the city of Tsau, now ia
the proviDce of ShaDtUDg. His father died a short time after

\^

S32 THE MltmLE nNQOOH.

liis son's hirili, ami Ml ihc guimiiaiiKhip of ihc boy to Iiis wide
CImngsliI. " Tlio caro of [his prvidrnl nnd nllcntivo rnoihcr,"
ijuote from IWmUBiit, " Ims been cited as a modd fur all virtaoi
parents. Tlie house she occupied was near ihat of a butcfaoi
slie observed Ihiit at the first cry of tlie animals that were twin
slaughtered, the little M&ag rati to be prrHciU at the sight, so
ilmt on his return he sought to imitolG what hn Knd soon. Fcai
ful that his heart might hecome hantcneil, and be ocousloincd I
the sight of blood, she removed to another house which was t
ihf.' neighborhood of a cemetery. The relations of tboae «rh
were buried there came often to weep upon their graves, bdi
malcQ the customary libations ; Meocius soon took pleasure u
their curcmonies, and amused himsolf in imilatiug them. Thi
was a new subject of uneasiness to Changshi ; she feared he
son might crime to consider as a jest whut is of ul! things tb
most serious, and that he would acquire a habit of perforniinj
with levity, and as a matter of routine merely, ceremonies whiol
demand the most exact allenliori and respect. Again, therefore
aha anxiously changed her duelling and went to lite in the cilv
opposite to a school, where htr win found examples the moa
worthy of imitation, and soon began lo profit bv ihem I abouli
nor have spoken of this iridmg anecdote but for the allnsioi
whitb the Chinese cnnslontly m ikc tu it m tht common proverb
' Formerly the mother of Mentms chose out a neighborhood ' '
On another occasion, her son f.tLing persons slaughtering piga
asked her why they did it. lo fLcd jou," she replied, bu

j'cflccling that this was leaching her son to lightly regard thi
truth, went and bought some (wrk and ga\e him

i^Ioncios devolMi himself early to the lIassics, and becarne th<
discipir iif Tn/'r-'/.', tlin i^rnndson and not nnwarlliy imitator ol
Confiiiius. .\fler his studies were completed he ofllred hi
services 111 ihe ft'uiiul princes of thi country, and was rccenei
by Hwui wimg, king of Wei, but though much rcoprcted bj thi
ruler, his instructions were not regarded Ht saw too erelong
Iluil among llie numerous pcllv rulers and intriguing slalesmei
of the day, there was no prospi ct of reslonng iranquilhlv lo the
ipiro, and that discoursis upon the mild government ant
iceful virtues of Yau and Shun, king Wan and Cbingtang
!'red little to interest p' r'.on'i whose minds were engrossed witl
schemes of conquest or pleasure. Ha therefore, at length, re-

/

EDUCATION AND CBJBACTER OF HEKCIUS. S28

turned to his own cotiulry, and in concert with his disciples,
employed himself in composing the work which bears his name,
and in compieling the editorial labors of his great predecessor.
He died about 314 b. c, aged eighly-four years.

His own treatise on political morality is divided into two parts,
which together contain fourteen short chapters. After his death,
Mencius was honored, by public act, with the title of Holy Prince
of the country of Tsau, and in the temple of the literati be re-
ceives the same honors as Confucius ; his descendants bear the
title of Masters of the Traditions concerning the Classics, and
he himself is called Ashing, which signifies the Second Saint,
Confucius being regarded as the first. His writings are in the
form of dialogues held with the great personages of his time,
and abound with irony and ridicule directed against vice and
oppression, which only make his praises of virtue and integrity
more weighty. He contests nothing with his adversaries, but
while he grants their premises, he seeks to draw from them
consequences the most absurd, which cover his opponents with
confusion.

The king of Wei, one of the turbulent princes of the time, was
complaining to Mencius how ill he succeeded tn his endeavors to
make his people happy and his kingdom flourishing. " Prince,"
said the philosopher, "you love war; permit me lo draw a com.
parison from thence ; two armies are in presence ; the charge is
sounded, the battle begins, one of the parties is conquered ; half
its soldiers have fled a hundred paces, the other half has stopped
at fifty. Will the last have any right to mock at those who have
fled further than themselves V'

" No," said the king, " they have equally taken flight, and the
same disgrace must attend them both."

"Prince," says Mencius quickly, "cease then to boast of your
efibrts as greater than your neighbors. You have all deserved
the same reproach, and not one has a right to take credit to him-
self over another." Pursuing then his bitter interrogations, he
asked, "Is there a difference, O king! between killing a man
with a club or with a sword ?" — " No," said the prince. — " Be-
tween him who kills with the sword, or destroys by an inhuman
tyranny T" — "No," again replied the prince.

" Well," said Mencius, " your kitchens are incumbered with
food, your sheds are full of horses, while your subjects, with

524 THE MIDDLB KINGDOM.

emaciated countenances, are worn down with misery, or iband
dead of hunger in the middle of the fields or the deserts. What
is this but to breed animals to prey on men ? And what is the
difierence between destroying them by the sword or by unfeeling
conduct? If we detest those savage animals which mutually
tear and devour each other, how much more should we abhor
a prince who, instead of being a father to his people, does not
hesitate to rear animals to destroy them. What kind of father
to his people is he who treats his children so unfeelingly, and
has less care of them than of the wild beasts he provides for ?"

On one occasion, addressing the prince of Tsi, Mencius remark,
ed, " It is not the ancient forests of a country which do it honor,
but its families devoted for many generations to the duties of the
magistracy. Oh king ! in all your service there are none such ;
those whom you yesterday raised to honor, what are they to-
day ?"

" In what way," replied the king, " can I know beforehand
that they are without virtue, and remove them ?"

" In raising a sage to the highest dignities of the state," re-
plied the philosopher, " a king acts only as he is of necessity
bound to do. But to put a man of obscure condition over the
nobles of his kingdom, or one of his remote kindred over princes
more nearly connected witli him, demands most careful delibera-
tion. Do liis courtiers unite in speaking of a man as wise : let
him distrust them. If all the magistrates of his kingdom concur
in the same assurance, let him not rest satisfied with their testi-
mony, but if his subjects confirm the story, tlien let him con-
vince himself; and if he finds that the individual is indeed a
sage, let him raise him to of!ice and honor. So also, if all his
courtiers would oppose his placing confidence in a minister, let
him not give heed to them ; and if all the magistrates are of thb
opinion, let him be deaf to their solicitations ; but if the people
unite in the same request, then let him examine the object of
their ill-will, and if guilty, remove him. In short, if all the
courtiers think that a minister should suffer death, the prince
must not content himself with their opinion merely. If all the
high officers entertain the same sentiment, still he must not yield
to their convictions ; but if the people declare that such a man
IS unfit to live, then the prince, inquiring himself, and being
satisfied that the charge is true, must condemn the guilty to

lealh : in such a case, we may say that the people are his
judges. Id aating thus, a prioce becomea the parent of bis sub

The win of the people is always referred to as the supreme
power in the state, and Menciue warns princes that they must
both please and benefit their people, observing that " if the
couDtry is not subdued in heart, there will be no stioh thing as
governing it ;" and also, " He who gains the hearts of the people
secures the throne, and he who loses the people's hearts loses
the throne." A prince should "give and take whal is pleasing
to them, and not do that which they hate," " Good laws," he
further remarlis, " are not equal to winning the people by good
instruction. " Being consulted by a sovereign, whether ho
ought to attempt the conquest of a neighboring territory, he
answered, " If the people of Yen are delighted, then take it j
but if otherwise, not." He also countenances the dethroning of
a king who does not rule his people with a regard to their happi-
ness, and adduces the example of the founders of the Shang and
Chau dynasties in proof of its propriety. " When the prince is
guilty of great errors," is his doctrine, " the minister should
reprove him ; if, after doing so again and again, he does not
listen, he ought to dethrone him, and put another in his place."

His estimate of human nature, like many of the Chinese
sages, is high, believing it to be originally good, and " that all
men are naturally virtuous, as all water flows downward. All
men have compassionate hearts, all feel ashamed of vice." But
he says also, " Shame is of great moment 1o men ; it is only the
designing and artful that find r
nature must be tried by sulTering, and t
virtuous character, a man must cndur
was about to place Shun and others ii
generally tried iheir minds, inured iher
them to poverty and adversity ;
taught ihem patience." Hi
from the servilif

," Yet human
n energetic and

■nng 1

mportant trusts, it first
to abstinence, exposed
t moved their hearts and
n character presents traits widely -
r and baseness usually i

Asiatics, and especially to the Chinese ; and he seems to have

been ready to sacrifice everything to his principles. " I love

_ life, and I love justice," he observes, " but if I cannot preserve

both, I would give up life and hold fast justice. Although I

"'i, there is that which I love more than life; although I

536 T1I& MiDULK amaiioni.

hate dealli. (here is ibnl which I hate more than death." And
as if referring to his own iniegrily, he elsewhere says, *"Th«
nature of the superior man is such that, aUhough in a high and
praspeiuiTs siluatioa, it HtJils nothing to his virtue ; and aJthough
in low aod distressed circumstances, it impairs it in ootliing.''
In many points, especially in the imporlance he gives to filial
duly, hia reverence for the ancient books and princes, and bis
adherence to old usages, Mencius imitated and upheld Coofu.
oius ; in native vigor, and carelessness of the reproaches of his
compatriots, he exceeded him.

A few facts respecting the life, and observations on the ohR'
racier, of the great sage of Chinese letters, may here be added,
though the extracts already made from his writings, are sufficient
to show his style. Confucius was horn about B. c. 549, during
the reign of Ling wang (the same year in which Cyrus became
king of Persia), in the petty kingdom of Lu, now included iu
the province of Shantung. His father was a district magtstmlc.
and dying when he was only three years old, left his care and
education to his mother, .who, although not so celebrated as the
mother of Mencius, seems to have nurtured in him a reEpect for
morality, and directed his studies.', During his youth, he wu
remarkable for a grave demeanor and knowledge of ancient
learning, which gained him the respect and admiration of his
townsmen, so that at the age of seventeen he was intrusted
with the duties of a subordinate office in Ilie revenue depart-
ment, and afterwards appointed a supervisor of fields and henb.
In his twenty-fourth year, he lost his mother by drath, and in
conformity with the ancient usage, which had then fallen into
disuse, immediately resigned all his employments to mourn for
her three years, during which lime he devoted himself to study.
This practice has continued to the present day.

His examination of the ancient writings led him to resolve upoo
instructing his counirymen in them, and to revive tlie usages of
the former hings ; he also visited one of the neighboring princes
by invitation, bnt declined remaining in his territories, and re-
turned to Lu, where at the age of thirty he formally set himself
up as a teacher. His scholars and admirers increased in num-
bers, and a corresponding extension of fame followed, so thai
erelong he had on invitation to the court of the prince of Ts(,'
but on arrival ther«, was mortified to learn that mere ouriodty

= <i-;=^

flOTICKS OF THE LIFE OF cosFncius. 527

hsd beta Uie prevailing cause or the invilation, and not a desire
to adopt his principles. He accordingly le(\ him, and went else-
where, actuated, it would seem, as much by a wish to sec other
countries and oblain office or extend his influence, as to propagate
his doclrines. Many years of his life were spent in this manner,
and about the age of forty-live he returned to his native country,
and went into reliromenl. Hia own prince, lately oome to the
Throne, at lost afforded him the ogiportunlty of carrying his priD-
oipies of government into practice by appointing him to a judge-
ship, from which he soon alter raised him to the head of aflairs.
He was not, according to the records of his life, found wanting,
but administered the affairs of state wiih such a mixture of zeal,
prudence, severity, and careful regard for the wants of all, that
it soon bid fair to become the envy and dread of all other princi-
palities. One, in particular, an usurper, excited by the advice
of Confucius lo hia own sovereign to take up nrms and depose
him, sent an envoy and a conciliatory present to the king of Lu,
consisting of thirty horses beouiifully caparisoned, and a number
of curious rarities, with a score of the most accomplished cour-
tesans he couid procure in his territories. This scheme of
gaining the favor of the youthful monarch and driving the
obnoxious cynic from his councils, succeeded, and Confucius
soon after retired by compulsion into private iifo. ' He moved
into tbe dominions of the prince of Wpi, accompanied by such
of his disciples as chose to follow him, where he employed him-
self in extending his doclrines, and travelling into the adjaining

He was at times applauded and patronized, but quite as often
the object of persecution and contumely ; more than once his life
was endangered. ' He compared himself lo a dog driven from his
home ; " 1 hnvo the fidelity of that animal, and 1 am treated like
it. But what matters the ingratitude of men ? They cannot
hinder me from doing all the good that has been appointed me.
If my precepts are disregarded, 1 have the consolation of know-
ing in my own breast that 1 have faithfully performed my duty."
He sometimes spoke in a manner that showed hia own impression
lo be that heaven had conferred on him a special commission to
instruct the world. On one or Iwo occasions, when he was in
jeopardy, he said, ■' If heaven means not lo obtiternte ihia doc-
trine from the earth, the men of Kwang c&D do nothing to me."

538 TBS KIDDLE KHTODOX.

And, " as heaven has produced such a degree of virtue in me,
what can Hwantui do to me ?" \

In his instructions, he improved passing events to afibrd use-
ful lessons, and some of those recorded are at least ingenious.
Observing a fowler one day sorting his birds into different cages,
he said, " I do not see any old birds here, where have you put
them ?" " The old birds," replied the fowler, " are too wary to
be caught ; they are on the lookout, and if they see a net or cage,
far from falling into the snare, they escape and never return.
Those young ones which are in company with them likewise
escape, but only such as separate into a flock by themselves and
rashly approach are the birds I take. If perchance I catch an
old bird it is because he follows the young ones." "You have
heard him," observed the sage, turning to his disciples; "the
words of this fowler afford us matter for instruction. The young
birds escape the snare only when they keep with the old ones, the
old ones are taken when they follow the young : it is thus with
mankind. Presumption, hardihood, want of forethought and inat-
tention, are the principal reasons why young people are led astray.
Inflated with their small attainments they have scarcely made a
commencement in learning, before they think they know every-
thing ; they have scarcely performed a few common virtuous
acts, and straight they fancy themselves at the height of wis-
dom. Under this false impression, they doubt nothing, hesitate
at nothing, pay attention to nothing ; they rashly undertake acts
without consulting the aged and experienced, and thus securely
following their own notions, they arc misled and fall into the first
snare laid for thom. If you see an old man of sober years so
badly advised as to be taken with the sprightliness of a youth,
attached to him, and thinking and acting with him, he is led
astray by him and soon taken in the same snare. Do not forget
the answer of the fowler." Once, when looking at a stream, he
compared its ceaseless current to the transmission of good doc-
trine through succeeding generations, and as one race had re-
ceived it, they should hand it down to others. " Do not imitate
those isolated men (the Rationalists) who are wise only for them-
selves ; to communicate the modicum of knowledge and virtue
we possess to others, will never impoverish ourselves." He
seems to have entertained only faint hopes of the general recep-
ion of his doctrine, though towards the latter end of his life he

? THE IKSTHtrcTlONS OP CONFUCirS,

529

! rps{>ec[ paid liitn personally
IS he could reasonably have

had fts much encouragement ij
and the increase of his scholo
wished.

Confucius returned to his native country nl ihe age of sixty*
eight, and devoted his lime lo the completion of his edition of the
classics, and in teaching his now large band of both esoteric and
exoteric disciples. This work being done, he collected them
around him, and made a solemn dedication of his literary labors to
heaven, as the concluding act of his life. '"He assembled all
his disciples, and led ihcm out of the town to one of the hilla
where sacrifices had usually been offered for mony years. Here
he erected a table or altar, upon which he placed the books ; and
then turning his face lo the north, adored heaven, and relumed
thanks upon hia knees in a humble manner for having had life
and strength granted him to enable him to accomplish this labo-' i
rioufl undertaking ; he implored heaven to grant that the benefit. 1
to his countrymen from so arduous a labor might not be small.
He had prepared himself for this ceremony by privacy, fasting,
and prayer, Chinese pictures represent the sage in the attitude
of supplication, and a beam of light or a rainbow descending
from the sky upon the books, while his scholars stand around in
admiring wonder."*

A few days before his death he tottered about the house, sigh-
ing out,
Tai slian, kitiii huf — Liang muh, kiUtraihu ! — Chijin, IntBeihuf

The great mountsin la broken !
The strong beam is thrown down !
The wise man is decayed !

He died soon after, b. c. 479, mt. 73, leaving a single descendant)
his grandson Tsz'sz', through whom the succession has been
transmitted to the present day. During his life, the return of
the Jews from Babylon, the invasion of Greece by Xerxes, and
conquest of Egypt by the Persians, took place. Posthumous
honors in great variety amounting to idolatrous worship, have
been conferred upon him. Hia title is the most Holy Ancient
Teacher Rung tsz', and the Holy Duke. In Ihe reign of Kanghf,
S150 years after his death, there were eleven thousand males

* Chiaese RepMitorr, Vol XI , p. 431. P*athi«t's China, pp. 131-194.

530 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

alive bearing his name, and most of them of the 74th generatioo,
being undoubtedly one of the oldest families in the world. In
the Sacrificial Ritual a short account of his life is given, which
closes with the following paean.

Confucins ! Confucius ! How great is Confacins !
Before Confucius there never was a Confucius !
Since Confucius there never has been a ConfacioB !
Confucius ! Confucius ! How great is Confucius !

The leading features of the philosophy of Confucius are sub-
ordination to superiors, and kind upright dealing with our fellow,
men ; destitute of all reference to an unseen Power to whom all
mon are accountable, they look only to this world for their sanc-
tions, and make the monarch himself only partially amenable to
a higher tribunal. From the duty, honor, and obedience owed by
a child to his parents, he proceeds to inculcate the obligations of
wives to tlieir husbands, subjects to their prince, and ministers to
their king, together with all the obligations arising from the va-
rious social relations. Political morality must be founded on pri-
vate rectitude, and the beginning of all real advance in hii
opinion was comprised in nosce ieipsum. It cannot be denied that
among much that is commendable, there are a few exceptionable
doixmas among his tenets, but , compared with the precepts of
Grecian and Roman sages, the general tendency of his writings
is j^ood, while in their general adaptation to the society in which he
lived, and their eminently practical character, thoy exceed those
of western philosophers. He did not deal much in sublime and
iinaltuinable descriptions of virtue, but rather taught how the
common intercourse of life was to be maintained, how children
should conduct themselves towards their parents, when a man
should enter on office, when to marry, Arc, &c., which, although
they may seem somewhat trifling to us, were probably well
calculated for the times and people among whom he lived.

If Confucius had transmitted to posterity such works as the
Iliad, the De Officiis, or the Dialogues of Plato, he would no doubt
have taken a higher rank among the commanding intellects of
the world, but it may be reasonably doubted whether his influ-
ence among his own countrymen would have been as good or as
lasting. The variety and minuteness of his instructions lor the

roHE OF coNFUciDs' ■H-RlTl^GS. 531

nurture and educnlion or children, the stress lie lays upon RMbI
du[y, the detail of etiquette and conduct he gives for the inter-
courae of all classes and ranks in society, ciiaraclerize hia wril-
inga from those of all pliilosophers in other coiinlries, who, com-
paratively speaking, gave small thought to the educalion of the
young. The Four Books and the Five Classics would not, so
far as regards their intrinsic character in comparison with other
productions, be considered as anything more than curiosities in
literature for their antiquity and language, were it not for the
incomparable iufluence they have exerted over so many millions
of minds; in this view they are invested with an interest which
no book, besides the Bible, can claim. In concluding tbb very
brief notice of the Chinese classics and their two principal authors,
one redeeming quality they possess compared with the claasio&l
writings of Grecian and Roman genius must not be overlooked,
which is their freedom from descriptions of impurity and ticen-
tiousnesa, and allusions to whatever debases and vitiates tbe heart.
Chinese literature contains enough, indeed, to pollute even (he
mind of a heathen, but its scum has become the sediment ; and
little or nothing can be found in the writings which nre most
highly prized, which will not bear perusal by any person in any
country. Every one in the least acquainted with the writings
of Hindu, Greek, and Roman poets, know sthe glowing descrip-
tions of the amours and obscenities of gods and goddesses which
fill their pages, and the purity of the Chincae canonical books in
this respect niust be considered as remarkable.

The hornbooks put into (he bunds ofschuolbioys consist chielly
of digests of the classical writings, intermixed with exhortations
to observe their instructions, and enforced uy examples of emi-
nent honors attained by persona nho obeyed them and the bad
reputation left by thase who disregarded them. These works,
though small and few in number, exert a powerful influence over
the people from their constituting the primary books in tuition,
hundreds and thousands of those who learn them by heart, never
having the opportunity of proceeding any further in their studies.
The one first put into the hands of children, the Trimetrical
Classic, has already been noticed (page 428), and a short extract
given from it. Next to it is the Pilt Eia Sing, or Century of
Surnames, though in fact it contains 454, thirty of which are
dfMible. The nstur* of the work forbids lis being studied, for it

532 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

is a mere list of surnames, as Kung, Wei, Sz'ma, &c., like Lord,
Richards, Younghusband, dec, in English, and though the use-
fulness of a list of the characters used for proper names, where
they are likely to be mistaken for others having the same sound,
is plain enough, it is not so easy to see why it should form one
of a series of school books.

The third in the list is the Tsien Tsz' Wdn, Or Millenary Qas-
sic, unique among all books in the Chinese language, and whose
like could not probably be produced in any other, in that it con-
sists of just a thousand characters, no two of which are alike in
form or meaning. The author, Chau Hingtsz', flourished about
A. D. 550, and according to an account given in the history of the
Liang dynasty, wrote it at the emperor's request, who had order-
ed his minister Wang Hlchl to write out a thousand characters,
and give them to him, to see if he could make a connected ode
with them. This he did, and presented his performance to his
majesty, who rewarded him with rich presents in token of his
approval. Some accounls, in order that so singular a work might
not want for corresponding wonders, add that he did the task in
a single night, under the fear of condign punishment if he failed,
and the mental exertion was so great as to turn his hair white.
It consists of 250 lines, in which rliyme and rhythm are both
carefully observed, though there is no more poetry in it than in
a multiplication-table. The contents of the book are similar but
more discursive than those of the Trimetrical Classic. From the
1st to the 102d line, the productions of nature and virtues of the
early monarchs, the power and capacities of man, his social du-
ties and mode of conduct, with instructions as to the manner of
living, are summarily treated. Thence to the 162d line, the
splendor of the palace, and its high dignitaries, with other illus-
trious persons and places, are referred to. The last part of the
work treats of private and literary life, the pursuits of agricul-
ture, household government, and education, interspersed with some
exhortations, and a few illustrations. A few disconnected extracts
from Dr. Bridgman's faithful translation will show the mode in
which these subjects are handled. The opening lines are,

" The heavens are of a sombre hue : the earth is yellow :
The whole universe [at the creation] was one wide waste ;*'

after which it takes a survey of the world and its products, and

THE THOUSAND CHARACTER CLASSIC. 533

Chinese history, in a very sententious manner, down to the 37th
line, which opens a new subject.

*' Now this our human body is endowed
With four great powers and five cardinal virtues :
Preserve with reverence what your parents nourished^^
How can you dare to destroy or injure it ?
Let females guard their chastity and purity,
And let men imitate the talented and virtuous.
When you know your own errors then reform ;
And when you have made acquisitions do not lose them.
Forbear to complain of the defects of other people,
And cease to rely [too much] on your own superiority.
Let your truth be such as may be verified,
Your capacities, as to be measured with difficulty.

" Observe and imitate the conduct of the virtuous.
And command your thoughts that you may be wise.
Your virtue once fize^, your reputation will be established ;
Your habits once rectified, your example will be correct
Sounds are reverberated in the deep valleys.
And are reechoed through the vacant halls :
Even so misery is the reward of accumulated vice,
And happiness the reward of illustrious virtue.

- A foot of precious jade stone is not to be valued.
But for an inch of time you ought earnestly to contend."

" Mencius esteemed plainness and simplicity ;
And Yu the historian held firmly to rectitude.
These nearly approached the golden medium.
Being laborious, humble, diligent, and moderate.
Listen to what is said, and investigate the principles explained :
Examine men's conduct, that you may distinguish their characten.
Leave behind you none but purposes of good ;
And strive to act in such a manner as to command respect
When satirized and admonished examine yourself^
And do this more thoroughly when fieivors increase."

'* Years fly away like arrows, one pushing on another ;
The sun shines brightly through his whole course.
The planetarium where it is suspended constantly revolves ;
And the bright moon also repeats her revolutions.
To support fire, add fuel ; so cultivate the root of happiness,
And you will obtain eternal peace and endless felicity."

The commentary on the Thousand Character Classic containt
many just observations and curious anecdotes in illustration of

tlie text, and if ivcstorn echolars ivcrr oa fumiliar with the acta
aiiU Bxyinss '•{ king Wan, of Su Tsin, or of Kw«d Chung, as
Iln'V iiri' U'illi lliosL' of SesosTris, Pericles, or Horace, these inci-
(ii'iila nil'! pliio's would be deeraerl inorp interesting than they
ii'i"- iirr. Iliil uhyre the power of genius, or the vivid pictures
<'f II brilliiint iiii^gi nation, arc wuniiDg to illustrule or beautify a
siilij' cl, lliiri' is comparatively little to interest Europeans in the
jiiiiln.is [iiiil si.'Lifsmen of a distant country and remote periods.

Tim f.urlli ill this scries, called the Odes for Children, is wriu
ten ill riniiiii! pentameters, and contains only thirty-four stanzas
of four lilies. A single eslniet will be enough to show its
characler, which io, in general, a brief description and praise of
literary life, and allusion to the changes of the seasons, and the
faeKulies of nature.

" It ia of the atnxwt importance to edneate ehlUraD ;
Do not say that your families are poor,
For ihosfi who can handle well liiu pencil,
Go whpro thoy will need never ask for favore.

" One at iho age of seven, ahowed liimKclt a divinely endowed yonth,
' Heaven,' aui he, ' gam me mj inlelligonco :
Men of talent appear in the courts of the holy munuch.
Nor need they wail iti atiendanca on lorda and nobles.

" ' In tbekmorOing I wae an humble cottager,
In tlie evening 1 entered tlie court of the ean of heaven :
Civil and railitary ofEces are not hereditary.
Men niUBt, therefore, rely on their own cffiirta.

* ' A paaBB{[e for the eea haa been cut through mountains.
And Etonea have been melted In repair the beavena ;
In all tlie world there is nothing tl»t ia intpoaaible ;

It ia llie heart of man iiloiip lliiil is wanlinp renolutiMl.

"'Once I my pelf was a poor iii(lij.'eiit echiphr.
Now 1 ride mounted in my four-horse chariot,
And all my fellow-viUagerB exclaim with eurprise,'
Let those who have children thoroughly educate them."

The examples of intelligent ^outh rismg to the highest offices
of state are numerous in nil the works designed fir beginners,
and stories illustrative of their preeocitv are sometimes given in
toybooks and novels. One of the most common instances is here

EXTRACT FROM THE ODES FOR CfllLDRE.N. .^35

quoted from the Eastern Gardon'a Miscellany, that of Confuuius
and Hiang Toh, which is as well known lo every Chinese as the
story of George Washington barking the cherry-lree with his
hatchet is to AmericBO youth.

" The nnme of Confucius wns Yu, anil his style ChungTii ; he esub-
liiibed himself as on InstriietDr in the western part of Llie kingdom of
La.* One <Uy, followed by all bis disciples, riding in a carriage, he
went oat to ramble, and on the road, came across several children at
their spnrl<i; among ihem was one who did not join in them. Confneius,
stopping his carriage, asked him. saying, ' Why is il thai you ainne do
not playT' The lad replied. •AW play is withont any profit: uub'm
clothes get torn, and they are not easily mended; above me, I disgrace
my father and mother ; below me, even to the lowest, there is fighlingnnd
altercation ; so much toil and no reward, how can it be a good bueincssf
Il is for thesD reasons that I dn not play.' Then dropping his head, be
began making a city out of pieces of tile.

"Confucius, reproving him, «aW, "Why do yon not turn out for the
carriage ?' The hoy replied, ' From ancient limea till now it has always
been considered proper for a carriage to turn out tor a city, and not for ■
city lo turn out for a carriage,' t ConfuciuB Iben slopped his vehicle In
order lo discoorse of reason. ) He gnc out of the carriagv, and asked him,
' You are siill young in years, how is It that yon are bo quick !'4 The
boy replied, saying, ' A human being, at the age of three years, discrlmi-
naies between his father and his mother; a hare, Ihroe days after It ia
bom, runs over the ground and furrows of the fields; Rsh, throe days
after their bltth, wander in riveni and lakes I'l what heaven tliiis pro-
dneea naturally, how can it be called brisk 7'

"Confucius added, 'In what village and neighborhood do yon reside,
what is yonr surname and name, and what your alylet' The boy an-
swered, ' I live in a mean village and in an insignificant land ; my sur-
name is Hiang, my name is Toh, and 1 have yet no stylo.'

" Confucius rejoined, ' I wish to have you come and ramble with mc ;
what do you think of it T' The youth replied, * A stern father ts at
home, wliom I am bound to serve ; an alTectionatc mother is there,
whom it is my duly lo clieri^ ; a worthy elder brother is at home,
whom it is proper for me to obey, wilh a tender younger brother
whom I must leach ; and an intelligent leachor is there from whom I
am reqalred lo learn. How have I leisure to go a rambling with you ?*

" Cunfuclus said, ' 1 liave in my carriage Uiirty-lwo chessmen : what
do yon say to having a game logether?' The lad answered, 'If the
emperor love gaming, the empire will not bo governed ; if the nobles
love play, the government will be impeded ; if scholars love it, learning
and investigation will be lost and thrown t^ i if the lower olasaea are

536 THF. 3lll>t)LE KI.\GDaN.

fond of gtmbling, tiicy will utlerl; Iimd the support of llieir families ; if
MTvanta and elavps low lo gnme, Ihpy will gel ■ cudgeling ; if lannera
kve it ihey mias tha time ictr plotj);hiiig ind sowing ; fur IheEC ceiisoiiB I
nball not play with you.'

" ConfaciuB Tejoinpd, ' I wiih lo have you go n-ilh m», and Tally equal-
ize the empire; wlial do you ihink of tltin?' The Ind replied, 'The
empire eanool be equalized ; here sre tiigli liilU, there are lakps and
rivers ; cither iliere are ptiaces and iioblcB, or there are alaves and »cr-
vanU. If the high hills be levelled, Uie birds and beasts will have no
resort ; if the rivers and lakes be tilled up, the tithes and tiie turtles will
have nowhere to go; do away with kings and Dobles, and the cmnraon
people will have mucb dUpute about right nod wrong ; obliterate alavea
and Nrvantd, and who will there be to renre the prince ! If the empira
be so vast aiid unsettled, how can it be equalised ?'

"Confucius again asked, ' Can yon tell, uixlcr the whole sky, what fire
baa DO smoke, what wal^r no hsh ; what hill has no stones, what
tree no branches; what man has no wite, what woman no hasbe-iul;
what cow has no calf, what mare no colt ; what cock has no hen, nbat
ben Qo cock ; what constitutes an excellent man, and what an infe-
rior man ; what is that which has not enough, and what that which has
ui overplus ; what city is withogt a market, and who is the man without
a style V

" The boy replied, ' A glowworm's Gre has do smoke, and well'Water
DO fish ; a mound of ea.rtb has no stones, and a rotten tree no branches ;
genii have no wives, and fairies no huiibatids ; earthen cows bave no
calves, not wooden mares any colts ; lonely cocks have no hens, and
widowed hens no cocks; he who Is worthy is an excellent man, and a
Ibol is an inferior man ; a winter's day is not long enough, and a sum-
mer's day is too long; the imperial city has no market, and little folks

"Coafucius inqoiring said, ' Do you know what are the connecting;
bonds between heaven and earth, and what is the beginning and ending
of the dual powers 1 What is left, and what is right ; what is out, and
what is in ; who Is tiitber, and who is mother ; who is husband, aikd wbo
is wife } [Do you know] where the wind comes from, and from
whence the rain ? From whence the cloods issnc, and the dew arises 1
And for bow many Ien« of thousands of miles the sky and earth go pi-
rsllel r

"The youth answering said, 'Nine moltiplied nine limes roabe
eighty-one, which is the controlling bond of heaven and earth : eight
mulriplied into nine makes seveniy-lwo, ti;e beginning and end of Ihir
dual powers. Heaven is father, and earth is mother ; the sun is hu»-
baud, and the moon is wife ; east is h(t, and west is right ; without is
out, and inside is in ; the winds come from Tsang-wn. and the rainc
d from wastes and wilds ; the clouds issue from the bills, ami the

STOHT OF RUNG TOH AMI (-ONFDPIDS. MT

dew rises (rum the groond. Skf and earth go psnillel foi ten thousand
times (en thoostnd miles, and the four pMots of the compass l»ve each
their slat ion.'

" Conriiciua asking, said, ' Which do you say is the nearoBl relation,
father and mother, or husband and wife V The boy reeponded, ' One's
parents are near ; husband and wife are not [so] near.'

" Confucius rejoined, ' While hnabHiid and wife are nlive, they sleep
under the same oovoriot [ when they are dead they lie in the Baine
grave ; how then ciin you say that they are not near?" The boy re-
phed. * A man without a wife is like a carriage without a whiKt; if
there be no wheel, another one is made, for he can douhlless gel a new
one ; so, if one's wife die, he seeks a^in, fcir he also iMtn obtain a new
one. The daughter of a worthy fiitnily must certainly tnarry an iionor-
able husband ; a house having ten rooms always has a plate end a ridge-
pole ; three windows and six lattices do not give llie light of n single
door ; tlie whole host of slurs with all their sparkling brilliancy do not
equal the splendor ol the solitary moon ; the uSection of a father and
mother — slaa, if it be once loal !'

"Confucius sighing, said, ' E low clever! how worthy I' The boy
asking the sage said, * You have just been giving me (juestions. which I
have answered one by one ; I now wish to seek information ; will the
teacher In one sentence aObrd m« some plain instruction 1 I shall be
much gratified if my requeel be not rejected.' He then said, ' Why la it
that maJlarda and ducks are able lo swim ; how is it that wild geeee and
cranes sing ; and why are tirs and pines green through the winter ?'
Confucius replied, ' Mallards and ducks can swim because their feet are
bro«d ; wild geese and cranes can sing because they hnve long necks ;
tirs and pines remain green throughout the winter, because they have
strong hearts." The youth rejmned, ' Not so; fiahea and turtles can
Hwim, is it because they all have broad feet? Progs and loads can
sing, is it because their necks are long? The green bamboo keeps fresh
in winter, is it on account of its strong heart 1'

" Again interrogating, he said, ' How many stars are there altogether
in the sky V Confucius replied, ' At this time inquire aboat the earth ;
how can we converse ahont the sky with certainty V The boy said,
' Then how mauy houses in all are there on the earth ?' The sage an-
swered, ' Come now, speak about something that's before our eyes ; why
roust you converse about henvcn and earth ?' The lad resumed, ■ Well,
speak about what's before our eyes — how many hairs are there in your
eyebrows V

" Confucius smiled, but did not answer, and turning round Co hia dla~
ciples called them and said, ' This bo; is lo be feared ; for it is easy to
•ee that the subsequent man will not be like the child.' He then got
inta his carriage and rode off." — CM. Rep., Vid. X., p. 614-

24*

539 THK MJDOLE KINGDOM.

The exhortations and examples these primary works conlain,
can hardly fail of powerfully impressing the youthful studeDt
with a respect for literary pursuits which must lend to restrain
him somewhat from vieioua habits, and implani a strong desire
to emulate the conduct of these ensamples, and attain the same
honorahle stations they so worthily tilled. Inculcated iu evi
possible way, it produces and aecoiints for the general prevalence
of literary habits among the Chinese, and the iionorable preenii-
nance accorded to that class which is exclusively devoted 10
literary pursuits. Amid all the nlteralioDs which have passed
upon the government, the revolutions which have dismembered
and rouniled ihe empire, and changed the reigning families, and
s caused throughout society by foreign invasior
strifes, the reverence of Ihe govemmenl and people for
tlie name of Confucius, and the close study of his writings, have
survived every change. So deeply implanted in the minds a
habits of the people is the respect paid to letters, that everything
connected with or subservient to literary objects, is carried la 1
degree of reGnemeut, and blended with other concerns of life ii
D way that seems extravagant or puerile, but which could hardly
exist, without some regard for knowledge itself. If we are mi
times disposed to smile at the solemn nonsense and inconsequent
reasoning of Chiness literati of the present day, it should be n
membered that the same taste for reading and desire for know-
ledge only requires the proper aliment which we can give them
to form intelligent and useful men ; and perhaps this devotion to
their classical works will incite ihcm to give the same careful
study to the Sacred Scriptures when made known to them.

In addition to these books, and the nine clasajeal works, there
is, besides the Hiau King already referred to, another work by
Chu Hi, which demands a passing notice. It is called Siau Hioh,
Primary Lessons or Juvenile Instructor, and was intended by i
compiler to be a counterpart to the Ta Hioh or Superior Lcasonr,
one of the Four Books, rfcne of the works of later scholars
so well calculated to show the ideas of the Chinese in all ages
upon the principles of education, intercourse of life, and rules o
conduct to be observed by all people as this ; precepts are illus.
trsted by examples, and the examples referred back to precepts
frr their moving cause. One of its fifty commenlatora sayi^
" We confide in the Siau Hioh as we do in the gods ; and rew

THE S!*ll HIOH OR JPVeMU. INSTllUCTOB. 5W

it Ks we do our parents." Ii is divided into mo books, the firs!
of which is the " founlnin of learning,'' and ihe latter " iho strenm
flowing from it." Tht- first book ia divided into four parts nnd
123 sections, and irents of Iho first priociples of eduoatioo ; of
ihe duties we owe our icindred, rulers, and fellow-meii ; of lliosc
we owe ourselves in regard to study, demeanor, food, and dress;
and lastly gives numeroua examples from ancient liialory confir-
motory of the maxims inculcated, and the j^ood efiecta resulting
from their observance. The second Itoolt contains, in its first
part, R collection of good sayings of eminent men who flourished
oRer B. c. 200, succeeded by a series of examples of distin-
guished persons calculated to sliow the effects of good principles ;
ilicGC^ paris arc designed to establish the truth of the teachings of
ihn first book. From the celebrity of the compiler, and the
plainness of ll|0 slyte, it is probable that the precepts of the
higher olassics have been more extensively difiused arnong the
lower oUsses through means of the Siau Hioh, than they would
otherwise have been. One or two quotations, themselves ex-
tracted from other works, will suffice lo show something of its

"Confuciua sail], 'Friends most sharply and frankly ad moniBh each
other, and brothers must be gentle towards one another.' "

" Tsu'hung, askJDg about friendship, Confucius Mid, ' Faithfully lo
inrorm and kindly Co instrud another is the duty of ■ friend ; if he ia
not trartable, desist ; do not di»gmee yourself."'

" Wlioever enters with hi* gucats, yields precwlence lo (hem ul every
lituT ; when they reacli llie innermost one, he begs leave to po in and
nrrangi! Ihc seats, and then returns to receive the gnests ; aad after they
hme repeatedly declined he bows to them and enters. Hepawestlirough
ihi- ritihT dunr, they thtougli the led. He ascends Ihe easlero, they the
«c«lprfi, slope. ]f a guest !» of a lower grade, he must approach the
etepH of tlie host, while the latter must repeatedly decline this ailentioo ;
Ihen the guest may retom to the western steps, be ascending, bolb host
und guest must mutuaJty yield precedeoce: tben the hoet must ascend
Itrst, and Ilic guedts follow. From step to step they most bring tbeir
feet together, gradually ascending. — those on the east moving the right
foot first, iJiose on the west the left."

The examples of filial piety contained In It are more interest-
ing lo a foreigner than the minute directions about intercourse
and behavior. Still these lael all go to form Chinese characier,

540 TBE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

and give it that development which makes it the strange com-
pound of ignorance and scholastic erudition, the union of cruelty
and politeness, of condescension and contempt, of civilization and
barbarism, which it really is. Their defect is in the absence of
those powerful motives which the Bible contains as the sanctions
of its precepts, and hence the result is such a medley as might
be expected from the training given the mind in such morals
under a despotic government, and where there was so little con-
scientious restraint.

The ninth section of this division in the catalogue contains a
list of musical works, and a few on dancing or posture-making ;
they hold this distinguished place in the list from the importance
attached to music as a branch of learning. The tenth gives the
names of the principal grammars and dictionaries, most of them
confined to the Chinese language, though a few arc in Manchu.
The Chinese government has excelled in the attention it has given
to the compilation of lexicons and encyclopaedias. The number
of works of this sort, and the extent of quotation in them ; the
variety of separate disquisitions upon the form, origin, and com-
position of characters ; and treatises upon subjects connected
with the language, are very great, and indicate the careful labor
native scholars have bestowed upon the elucidation of their own
tongue.

One thesaurus, the Pei Wan Yun Fu, or Treasury of com-
pared Characters and Sounds, is so extensive and profound, as to
deserve a short notice, which cannot be better made than by an
extract from the preface of M. Callcry to his prospectus to a
translation of it. He says the emperor Kanghi, who planned
its preparation, " assembled in his palace the most distinguished
literati of the empire, and laying before them all the works that
could be got, whether ancient or modem, commanded them
carefully to collect all the words, allusions, forms, and figures of
speech, of which examples might be found in the Chinese lan-
guage of every style ; to class the principal articles according to
the pronunciation of the words ; to devote a distinct paragraph to
each expression ; and to give in support of every paragraph
several quotations from the original works. Stimulated by the
munificence, as well as the example, of the emperor, who
reviewed the performances of every day, seventy-six literati
assembled at Peking, labored with such assiduity, and kept up

DICTIONARIES OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 541

such an active correspondence with the learned in all parts of
the empire, that at the end of eight years the work was com-
pleted (1711), and printed at the public expense, in 130 thick
volumes." The somewhat peculiar nature of the Chinese lan-
guage, in the formation of many dissyllabic compounds by com-
bining two or more characters to express a third and new idea,
renders such a work as this Thesaurus more necessary and use-
ful, perhaps, than it would be in any other language. Under
some of the common characters as many as 300, 400, and even
up to 600 combinations are noticed, all of which modify its sense
more or less, and form a complete monograph of the character,
of the highest utility to the scholar in composing idiomatic
Chinese. This megnificent monument of literary labor reflects
great credit on the monarch who took so much interest in its
compilation, as he remarks in his preface, to devote the leisure
hours of every day, notwithstanding his manifold occupations,
for eight years, to overlooking the labors of the scholars engaged
upon it.

M. Callery notices many other lexicons of high repute among
the Chinese,* one of which, the Shtooh W&n Kiai Tsz\ or Trea-
tise on the Meaning of Words, was published a. d. 150, and is
still good authority. Two of them were issued under the Ming
dynasty, and the one published a. d. 1397, formed the basis of
Dr. Morrison's Syllabic Dictionary, printed 425 years after-
wards ; no stronger proof of the fixedness of the Chinese lan-
guage could be adduced.

* Systema Phoneticum, Part I., p. 77 Chinese Repository, Vol. XII.«
p. 303

. ■ i.

I » . /

CHAPTER XII.

Polite Literature of the Chinese.

The three remaining divisions of the Imperial Catalogue oom-
prise lists of Historical, Professional, and Poetical works. With
regard to their value it would he difficult to give a satisfactory
decision, without furnishing very copious extracts ; hut R^musat,
Staunton, the two Morrisons, and others who have studied them
the longest, speak of them with the most respect, — whether it
arose from a higher appreciation of their worth as they learned
more, or that the zealousnoss of their studies imparted a tinge of
enthusiasm to their descriptions. A writer in the Quarterly
Review places the polite literature of the Chinese first, for the
insight it is likely to give Europeans into their habits of thought.
" The Chinese stand eminently distinguished from other Asiatics,
by their early possession and extensive use of the important art
of printing,— of printing, too, in that particular shape, the stereo-
type, which is best calculated, by multiplying the copies and
cheapening the price, to promote the circulation of every spe-
cies of their literature. Hence they are, as might be expected,
a reading people ; a certain degree of education is common
among even the lower classes, and among the higher it is super-
fluous to insist on the great estimation in which letters must be
held under a system where learning forms the very threshold
of the gate that conducts to fame, honors, and civil employment.
Amid the vast mass of printed books, which is the natural off-
spring of such a state of things, we make no scruple to avow that
the circle of their belles-lettres, comprised under the heads of
drama, poetry, and novels, has always possessed the highest
place in our esteem ; and we must say, that there appears no
readier or more agreeable mode of becoming intimately ac-
quainted with a people from whom Europe can have so little to
learn on the score of either moral or physical science, than by
drawing largely on the inexhaustible stores of their ornamental

CHARACTER OF CHINSSS HISTORICAL WRITINGS. 548

literature." This decision of the reviewer is equally applica-
ble to the writings of all Asiatic nations, and although the histo-
ries, laws, and ethical works of the Chinese are not destitute of
interest in illustrating their civilization, government, and religious
opinions, as the translations of Mailla, Staunton, and R^musat,
in each of these departments prove, still it is true that their
works of imagination are best fitted for showing their character.

The division of Sz* Pu, or Historical Writings, is subdivided
into fifteen sections. These writings are very extensive ; even
their mere list conveys a high idea of the vast amount of
labor expended upon them ; and it is impossible to withhold
respect, at least, to the industry displayed in compilations like
the Seventeen Histories in two hundred and seventeen chapters,
or volumes, and its continuation, the Twenty-two Histories, a
still larger work. But the entertaining episodes and sketches of
character found in Herodotus and other ancient European histo-
rians are wanting ; they are little else than barren annals of the
succession and demise of kings and emperors, stating the length*
of their reigns, the wars ^ey engaged in, and the various names
they took from their birth to their death. Instead of weighing
the testimony presented to them, and considering the rise and fall
of successive dynasties in a philosophical manner, and making
the exhibition of the faults and wickedness of past monarchsa means
of instruction to subsequent sovereigns, the majority of Chinese
historians content themselves with collecting the statements of
their predecessors, and placing them together in a chronological
series. With them the emperor is everything, and common
mortals are his servants, soldiers, and subjects, — mere puppets
to be moved at the pleasure of the autocrat ; the whole nation
is represented by and absorbed in him. Among the immense
mass of historical works, the Tung Kien Kang-muhy or Greneral
Mirror of History, and a compiled abridgment of it, the Ka$ig
Kien I Chi, or History made Easy, are the most useful.

The earliest historian among the Chinese is Sz'ma Tsien, who
flourished about b.c. 104, in which year he commenced the Si^
Kty or Historical Memoirs, in 130 chapters. In this great work,
which, like the Muses of Herodotus in Greek, forms the com-
mencement of credible modem history with the Chinese, the
author relates the actions of the emperors in regular succession,
and the principal events which happened during their reigns,

644 THE Hmi

together with detwls nnd essays respecting music, astrai-Jtny,
religious ooremoaies, weights, public works, &c., and the changes
ihey hfld undergone during the twenty-two centuries embraced
in his Memoirs. It is staled by R^niusat that there are in the
whole work 526,900 characters, Tor the Chinese, like the ancient
Hebrews, number the words in their standard authors. The Sz'
Kl is in live parts, and its arrangement has served as a model
for subsequent historians, few of whom have equalled its author
in the vivacity of their style, ot carefulness of their research.

The General Mirror to aid in Governing, by Sz'ma Kwang of
the Sung dynasty, in 294 chapters, is one of the best digested
and moat lucid annals thai Chinese scholars have produced.
Both the historians, Sz'ma Tslen and Sz'ma Kwang, filled high
offices in the state, were both of lliem alternately disgraced and
honored, and were mixed up with all the political movements of
the day. R^musat speaks in terms of deserved commendation
of their writings, and lo a notice of llieir works adds some account
Df their lives. One or two incidents in the life of Sz'ma Kwang
exhibit a readiness of action, and freedq^n in expressing his sen-
timents, which are more common among the Chinese than ia
usually supposed. In his youth he was standing with some com-
panions near a large vase used to rear gold fish, when one of
them fell in. Too terrified themselves to do anything, all but
young Kwang ran to seek succor ; he looked around for a stone
with which to break the vase and let the water flow out, and thus
saved the life of liis companion. In subsequent life, the same
common sense was joined with a boldness which led him to
declare his sentiments on all occasions. Some souliiem peojrie
once sent a present to the emperor of a strange quadruped which
his flatterers said was the kllin. Sz'ma Kwang, being consulted
on the matter, replied, " I have never seen the kilin, therefore I
cannot tell whether this be one or not. Wliat I do know is thai
the real kilin could never be brought hilher by foreigners; he
appears of himself when the stale is well governed.""

Few works in Chinese literature are more famous than a histo-
rical novel by Chin Shau, about a. d. 350, called the San Evok
Chi, or History of the Three Slates ; its scenes are laid in the
northern parts of China, and include the period between a< s.

', Vol. IX., pigei 210, 3-74.

8z'ma kwano, a chimsss historian. 545

170 to 317, when several ambitious chieflains conspired against
the imbecile princes of the once famous Han dynasty, and after
that was overthrown, fought among themselves, until the empire
was again reconsolidated under the Tsin dynasty. This perform-
ance, from its double character, and the long period over which it
extends, necessarily lacks that unity which a novel should have.
Its charms, to a Chinese, consist in the animated descriptions of
plots and counterplots,- in the relations of battles, sieges, and
retreats, and the admirable manner in which the characters are
delineated, and their acts intermixed with entertaining episodes.
The work opens with describing the distracted state of the empire
under the misrule of Ling tl and Hiuen tt, the last two monarchs
of the house of Han, who were entirely swayed by eunuchs,
and lefl the administration of government to reckless oppressors,
until ambitious men, taking advantage of the general discontent,
raised the standard of rebellion. The leaders ordered their par-
tisans to wear yellow headdresses, whence the rebellion was
called that of the Yellow Caps, and was suppressed only after
several years of hard struggle by a few distinguished generals
who upheld the throne. Among these was Tung Choh, who,
gradually drawing to himself all the power in the state, thereby
arrayed against himself others equally as ambitious and unscru-
pulous. Disorganization had not yet proceeded so far that all
hope of supporting the rightful throne had left the minds of its
adherents, among whom was Wang Yun, a chancellor of the
empire, who, seeing the danger of the state, devised a scheme to
inveigle Tung Choh to his ruin, which is thus narrated :

** One day, Tung Choh gave a great entertainment to the officers of
government. When the wine had circulated several times, LA Pu (his
adopted son) whispered something in his ear, whereupon he ordered the
attendants to take Chang Wftn from the table into Uie hall below, and
presently one of them returned, handing Up his head in a charger. The
spirits of aU present left their bodies, but Tung, laughing, said, ' Pray,
sirs, do not be alarmed. Chang Wftn has been leaguing with Yuen
Shuh how to destroy me ; a messenger just now brought a letter for
him, and inadvertently gave it to my son ; for which he has lost his life.
You, gentlemen, have no cause for dread.' All the officers replied,
* Yes ! yes !' and immediately separated.

" Chancellor Wang Yun returned home in deep thought : * The pro-
ceedings of this day's feast are enough to make my seat an uneasy

646

THE HIDQLB KtlilODOM.

one ;' and Liking his cane kle al night be walked out in the mooDlight
into liis rear garden, n-hen eUticting nnr a rose arliar nod weeping as
he lunked up, he heard a person sighing aod groaning witliin the peanj
pavilion. Carerully stepping and u-atching, bu saw it was Tiau Cheji,
a aioging-girl belonging to the hou^e, who had been lalicn I
famllf in early youth and taught to sing and dance ; she was nt
teen, and both beaulirnl atid accomplished, and Wang treated ber at
if she lud been his own daughter.

" Listening eome time, he spoke out, ' What underhand plot a
at now, ineignificant menial ?' Tiau Chen, mnch alarmed, 1
said, ' What treachery can year slave dare to device V — ' It you bavs
nothing secret, why then are you here late at night sighing it
manner ?' Tiati replied, ' Permit your haQdmaid to declare her inmost
tboughta. I am very gralerul fiir jour excellency's kind nnrture, for
teaching me singing and dancing, and for the treatment I have received.
If my body should be crushed to powder [in your service], I could not
requite a myriad to one [for these favors]. But lately 1 have seen yonr
eyeWwB anxiously knit, doubtless from some state afiiiirs, thotigh I
presumed not to ask ; this evening, too. I saw you restless in yoor tt
On this account I sighed, not [magining your honor was overlooking
me. If 1 can be of the least use, I woiiU not decline the sacriGco of a
thousand lives.' Wang, striking his cane on the ground, exclaimed,
' Who would have thought the rulp of Han was lodged in your bands I
Come with me into the picture-gallery.' Tiau Chen following in, be
ordered his lemales all to retire, and placing her in a seat, tuned him-
self around and did her obeisance. She, much surprised, prostnted
herself before him, and ashed the reason o( such conduct, to which ba
replied, ' You are able to compassionale all the people in the dominioni
of Han.' His words ended, the tears gushed like a fountain. She
added, ' 1 just now said, if 1 can be of any service I wtU not decline,
though I should lose my life.'

" Wang, kneeling, rqtuned, ' The people are in most imminent danger,
atid the notulity in a haxard like tliat of eggs piled up ; neither, can be
rescued without your assistance. The traitor Tung Choh wishes won
to seize the throne, and none of the civil or military officers have any
practicable means of defence. . He has an ada|)ted son, Lij Pu, a re-
markably daring and brave man, who, like himself, is the slave of luat
Now I wish to contrive a scheme to inveigle them both, by first promiung
to wed you to LiJ, and then oSering you to Tung, while yon must aeiza
the opportunity to raise suspicions in them, sod slander one to the other
GO as to sever them, and cause La to kill Tung, whereby the prewat
great evils will be terminated, the throne upheld, and the government
re^eslabUshed. All this is in your power, but I do not know how tlie
plan strikes yon.' Tiau answered, 'I have promised your cxcellenej'

EXTBACT rRO.ll THE SAN KWOH CHI. 54T

atj utmoel aenice, and you may [rust me that I will devise eome good
■cbeme when I am aSbred to [hem.'

" • You must bo aware thai it thin design leaks out, we slinl! all tie
ntterly extCTminalcd.' — ' Your excellency need not be anxioua, and if I
do not Bid in accomplishing yonr patriotic deaigna, let me die a thousand

" Wang, bowing, thanked her. The next day, taking several of the
brilliant pearls preserved in the family, lie ordered a Ekilfu! workman to
inlay them into a golden coronet, which he secretly sent as a present to
LU Pu. Highly gratified, Lii himself went to Wang's honse to liiank him,
where a well prepared feast of viands and wine awaited his arrivB).
Wang went oat to meet him, and wailing npon him into the rear hall,
invited him to sit at the top of the table, hut Lii objected ; ' I am only a
general in the prime minister's department, while your excellency is a
high minister in his majesty's court ; why this mistaken respect V

" Wang rejoined, ' There is no hero in the country now besides you ;
1 do not pay this honor to your office, but lo your talents.' Lii was
excessively pleased. Wang ceased not in engaging him lo drink, the
while speaking of Tung Cboh's high qualities, and praising his guest's
virtues, who, on hisslde, wildly laughe-d for joy. Most of the attendant*
were ordered lo retire, a few wailing maids stopping to serve oat wine,
when, being lialf drunk, he ordered them to tell the young child to come
in. Shortly after, two pages led in Tiau Chen gorgeouely dressed, and
Lii, much astonished, asked, ' Who is this !'

" ' It is my little daughter, Tian Chen, whom I have ordered to come
in and see you, for I am very grateful for your honor's misapplied kind-
ness lo me, which has been like that to near relatives,' He llien bade
her present a goblet of wine to liim, and as she did so, their eyes glanced
lo and from each other.

" Wang, feigning to be drunk, said, ' The child strongly requests
your honor lo drink many cups ; my honse entirely depends upon your
eixcellency.' Lii requested her to be seated, but she acting as if about
lo retire, Wang remarked, ' The general is my intimate friend ; be
seated, my child ; what are you afraid of V She then sat down at his
side, while Lu's eyes never strayed from iheir gaze upon her, drinking
and looking.

" Wang, pointing to Tiau, said to Lii, ' I wif,h lo g|ye this girl to you
as a concubine, but know not whether you will receive her?' Lu,
leaving the table to thank him, said, ' If 1 could obtain such a girl as
this, I would emulate the requital dogs and horses give for the care
taken of Ibam,'

" Wang rejoined, ' I will immediately aelect a lucky day, and send
her lo your house." Lu was dehghted beyond measure, and never
took his eyes ofl* her, while Tiau herself, with ogling glances, intimated
ber passion. The feast ahoitly after broke up, and LO departed."

648 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

The scheme here devised was successful, and Tung Choh was
assassinated by his son, when be was on his way to depose the
monarch, although many evil omens were granted to deter him
from his unlawful course. His death, however, brought no peace
to the country, and three chieflains, Tsau Tsau, Liu Pi, and Sun
Kiuen, soon distinguished themselves in their struggles for power,
and afterwards divided the empire of the Han princes into the three
states of Wu, Shuhy and Wei, from which the work derives its
name. Many of the personages who figure in this work have
since been deified, among whom are Liu Pf 's sworn brother Kwan
YU, who is now the Mars, and Hwa To, since made the 'Escu-
lapius, of Chinese mythology. Its scenes and characters have
all been fruitful subjects for the pencil and the pen of artists
and poetasters, while all classes delight to dwell upon and recount
the exploits of its heroes. One commentator has thrown his re-
marks between the text itself in the shape of such expressions
as " Wonderful speech ! What rhodomontade ! This man was
a fool before, and shows himself one now!" Davis very ap-
positely likens this work to the Iliad for its general arrange-
ment and blustering character of the heroes ; and like that work,
it was composed when the scenes described and their leading
actors existed chiefly in personal recollection, and the remem-
brances of both were fading away in the twilight of popular
legends.

There are many other works catalogued in this division deserv-
ing notice, only a few of which can be referred to, and their
names and design merely mentioned. Biographies of distin-
guished men and women are numerous, and their preparation
forms a favorite branch of literary labor. It is noticeable to
observe the consideration paid to literary women in these memoirs,
and the praises bestowed upon discreet mothers whose talented
children are considered to be the criteria of their careful training.
There is one biographical work in 120 volumes, called Sing Pu,
but it docs not ^ssess the incident and animation which are
found in some less formal biographical dictionaries. The Lieh
iVu Chuerty or Memoirs of Distinguished Ladies of ancient times
by Liu Hiang, b. c. 125, is often cited by writers on female edu-
cation, who wish to show how women were anciently trained to
the practice of every virtue and accomplishment. If a Chi-
nese author cannot quote a case to illustrate his position at least

ANTIQUARIAN BSSBABCHES OF KA TWAMLIN. M9

eight or ten centuries old, he thinks half its force abated by its
youth. Biographical works are almost as numerous as statistical,
and afford one of the best sources for studying the national cha-
racter ; some of them, like the lives of Washington or Cromwell
in our own literature, combine both history and biography.

Some of the statistical and geographical works mentioned in
this division are noticed on page 48. Among those on the Ck>n-
stitution, is the Ck>mplete Antiquarian Researches of Ma Twanlin,
who lived a. d. 1275. It is in 348 chapters, and forms a most
extensive and profound work, containing researches upon every
matter relating to government, and extending through a series of
dynasties which held the throne nearly forty centuries. R^musat
goes so far as to say, " This excellent work is a library by itself,
and if Chinese literature possessed no other, the language would
be worth learning for the sake of reading this alone." No book has
been more drawn upon by Europeans for information concerning
matters relating to Eastern Asia than this; Visdelot and De
Guignes took from it much of their information relating to the
Tartars and Huns ; and Pings6 extracted his account of the
comets and aerolites from its pages, besides some geographical
and ethnographical papers. R6musat has drawn upon its stores,
and remarks that many parts of Ma Twanlin's work merit an
entire translation — ^which can be said, indeed, of few Chinese
authors. A supplement to it has been prepared and published by
the present dynasty, bringing it down to the present time.'" It
elevates our opinion of a nation whose literature can boast of a
work like this, exhibiting such patient investigation and candid
comparison of authorities, such varied research and just discrimi-
nation of what is truly important, and so extensive a mass of
facts and opinions upon every subject of historic interest.
Although there be no quotations in it from what we call classic
authors, and the ignorance of the compiler of what was known
upon the same subjects in other countries disqualified him from
giving his remarks the completeness they would otherwise have
had ; yet, when the stores of knowledge from western lands are
made known to a people whose scholars can produce such works
as this, the Memoirs of Sz'ma Tsien, and others equally as
good, it may reasonably be expected that they will not lack in
industry or ability to carry on their researches.

* Melanges Asiatiquet ; Chinese Repository, Vol IX., p. 143.

*-6S0 THE MIDDLE ElttGDOH.

The third division of Te:' Pu, ScTiolaslic or Profe^ional
WritingH, is arranged under fourteen sections, vis. Philoaophi-
cat, Military, Legal, Agricultural, Medical, MaLhemalical, and
Magical writings, works on the Liberal Arts, Collections, Mis.
cellanies, EncyclopEcdias, Novels, and treatises on the tenets of
the Budhists and Rationalists. I'he first section la called Ju
Hia Lui, meaning the works of the Literary Family, under
which name is included schoolmen, or followers of Chu HI, who
have specially treated upon mental and tcoral philosophy, and
discussed the cause and continualioo of things. A few extracts
from a. discussion by Chu H{, the founder of the school, will
show the Way in which he reasons on ihe primum nnobile.

" Under the whole heaven there is no primary matter (Ji) withoDt the
immaterial principle ((i'),aiid no immaterial principle apart from Ibe pri-
mary matter. Subsequent to lite existence of the immaterial principle
is produced primary lualter, which is deducible from Ihe axiom thai Ihe
cue male and the one female principle of nature may be denominated
laii or Ingos (Ihe active principle from which all Ihioge enianate) ; thai
natnre in Bpontaneousty possessed of benevolence and righteousiiBSi
(which are included In the idea of (nu).

" Firet of all eninted lien ii (the celestial principle or sool of the oni-
verse), and then came primary matter; primary matter accumulated
constituted chUi (body, substance, or the accidents and qualities of mat
ter), and nature was arranged.

" Should any ask whether Ihe immaterial principle or primary maUer
existed first, I shoald say that the immaterial principle on aaaumiog a
figure ascended, and primary matter on assuming form descended ; when
we come to speak of assuming form and ascending or descending, how
can we divest ourselves of the idea of priority and aubsequenee 7 When
the immaterial princljile does not assume a form, primary matter then
becomes coarse, and forms a sediment.

" Originally, however, no priority or subsequence can be predicated of
the immaterial principle and primary matter, and yet If you insist m
carrying out the reasoning to the question of ttieir origin, then yon moat
say that the immaterial principle has the priority ; but It is nnt a sepa-
late and distinct thing ; it is just contained in the centre of the primary
matter, so that were Ihere no primary matter, then iJiis immaterial prin-
ciple would have no place of attachment. Primary matter consists, in
feet, of the four elements of metal, wood, water, and fire, while Ihe Im-
nialerial principle is no other than the four c&rdinal virtues of benevolence,
righleousness, propriety, and wisdom

" Should any one ask for an explanation of the aaaertion that the lui-

BEMARK3 OF can Hf ON THE PBIMCM MOBILE. 551

material principle has first exislence, and alter th»t comee primarf mat-
ter, I eay, it ie not neceraary to speak thua ; but when we know that
the; are uombiaed, is it tbat the imnmCerial principle holds the prece-
dence, and the primary matter tbe subsequence ; or ia it that the immate-
rial principle is subsequent to the primary matter ? We cannot thua
carry our reasoning ; but should we endeavor to form some idea of it,
then we may suppose that the primary matter relies on IJie immaterial
principle lo come into action, and whererar the primary matter ia coagu-
lated, there the immaterial principle ia preEent. For the primary matter
can concrete and coagulate, act and do, but the immaterial principle has
neither will nor wi^, plan nor operation : but only where the primary
matter it collected and coagulated, then the immaterial principle is in the
midst of iL Just as in nature, men and things, grass and trees, birds
ai>d beMla, in their propagation invariably require seed, and certainly
cannot without seed from nothingness produce anything ; all thia then
is the primary mailer, but the Immaterial principle is merely a pure,
empty, wide-atretched void, without form or footstep, and incapable of
action or creation; but the primary mailer can ferment and coagulate,
collect and produce things

" Should any one ask, with regard to those ejipressions, ' The Supreme
Ruler confers the due medium on tlie people, and when Heaven is about
to send down a great trust upon men, out of regard to the people it sets
up princes over them :' and, ' Heaven in producing things treats them
according to their attainments ; on those who da good, it sends down a
hundred blessings, and on those who do evil, a hundred calamities ;' and,
' When Heaven is about to send down some uncommon calamity upon a
generation, it first produces some uncommon genius lo determine it:'
do these and such like expressions imply that above the azure shy there
is a. Lord and Ruler who acts thus ; or ia it still true that heaven has no
mind, and men only carry out their reasonings In thia style 1 I reply,
these three things are but (me idea; it ia that the immaterial principle
of order is llius. The primary matter in its evolutions hitherto, after
one season of fuloeas has experienced one of decay ; and after a period
of decline it again flourishes ; Just as if lltinga were going on in a circle.
There never was a decay without a revival.

"When men blow out li. sir breath their bellies pufl* out, and when
^ey inhale their belliea sink in, while we should have thought that at
each expiration the stomach would fall In and swell up at each inspi-
ration ; but the reason of it is that when men expire, though tlie mouthful
of breath goes out, the itecond mouthful is again produced, therefore the
belly is pnffed up ; and when men Inspire, the breath which is introduced
from wllhin,drives the other out, so that the belly sinks in. X^ntsx' said,
nature ia like an open pipe or hag ; it moves, and yet is not compelled
to stop. It is empty, and still more comes out ; just like a fan-case open
at botli enda

THE HIDDLE

"The great extreme (loi kih) is merel)' the iaunateri&l principle. It
la not an independent separate existence ; it is found In (be male a.nd fe-
male principles of nature, in the five elemiMils, In ail things ; it is inerelj
ftn iminalenat principle, and because uf its extending to the extreme
limit, ia therefore called the^ifiU exlitme. If It were not for it, heaven

and earth would not have been set afloat From the time when

the ^eat extreme came Into operation, all things were produced by
transfonnBtian. This uiie doctrine inctudee the whole ; it was not be-
cause this WDM firEt in existence and then that, but altogether there it
only one great origin, which from the Eubetance extends to tiie use, and
from li;e subtle reaches to that which is manifesL Should one ask, be-
cause all things partalce of it, is the great extreme split up and divided ?
I should reply, that orj^nally there is only one great extreme lanima
mundi) of wUch all things partake, »o that each one is provided nritb ■
great extreme; just as the moon in the heavens Is only one, and yM is
dispersed over ttie hills and lakes, being seen from every place in anc-
(lesslon ; still you cannot say that the moon is divided.

" The great eilierae has neither repidence, nor fona, nor place which
you can assign to it. If yon speak of it before its development, tfaea pre-
vious to that emanation it was perfect stillness; raolion and rest, with
the male and female principles of nalnre, are only the embodiment and
descent of this principle. Motion is the motion of the great extreme,
and rest is its rest, but these same motion and rest are not to be consi-
dered the great extreme itself Should any one ask, what ia the

great extreme 1 I should say, it is simply the principle of extreme good-
ness and extreme perfection. Every man has a great extreme, every-
thing has one ; that which Chaulaz' called the great extreme is the
exemplified virtue of everything that Is extremely good and perfect in
heaven and earth, men and things.

"The great extreme is simply the exi
cannot go ; that which is most elevated,
and most divine, beyond which there Is ni
lest people should think that the great
fi)re called it the boundless extreme,

having an infinite extent It is

powers, the four forms, and the eight changes of nalare ; we cannot ny
that it does not exist, and yet no form or corporeity can be ascribed to it.
Prom this point is produced the one male and the one female principle*
of ruture, which are called the dnal powers ; the four forms and eight
changes also proceed from this, alt according to a certain natural order.
Irrespective of human strength in its arrangemenL But from (he time
of Confucius no one has been able to get hdd of this idea,"*

ime point, beyond which one
nost mysterious, most subtle,
passing. LJenki was afraid

xtreme possessed form, and then-
principle centred in nothing, and

tlie immaterial principle of the two

le Repository, Vol. XIIL. psgei ^52, fl(

PLATBS AND OSBS ON TILLAGE AND WEAVING. 658

And, it might be added, no one will ever be able to get hold
of it himself. Such discussions as this have occupied the minds
and pens of Chinese metaphysicians for centuries, and in their
endeavors to explain the nonsensical notions of the Book of
Changes, they have wandered far away from the road which
would have led them in the path of true knowledge, namely, the
observation and record of the works and operations of nature
around them ; and one afler another have continued to roll this
stone of Sisyphus until fatigue and bewilderment have come over
them all.

Some works on female education are found in this section,
which seems designed as much to include whateveraphilosophers
wrote, as all they wrote on philosophy. The work of Luhchau,
a modem writer on this subject, is noticed on page 454, and a
translation of his compilation would not be unreadable to a per-
son curious to learn how a Chinese, who is supposed to look upon
woman as a mere slave to gratify the wants and appetites of
men, discusses such a subject.

The second and third sections, on military and legal subjects,
contain no books worthy of notice. Among the fourth, on Agri-
cultural treatises, is the Kdng CMh Tu Shi, or Plates and Odes
on Tillage and Weaving, in a thin quarto, which was written
during the Sung dynasty, and has been widely circulated by the
present government in order " to evince its regard for the peo-
ple's support." The first half contains twenty-three plates on
the various processes to be followed in raising rice, the last of
which represents the husbandmen and their families returning
thanks to the gods of the land for a good harvest, and ofiering a
portion of the fruits of the earth ; the last plate in the second
part of the work, also represents a similar scene of returning
thanks for a good crop of silk, and presenting an offering to the
gods. The drawings in this work are among, the best for per-
spective and general composition which Chinese art has produced ;
and probably their merit was the chief inducement to publish the
work at governmental expense, for the odes are both too brief to
contain much information, and too difficult to be generally un-
derstood.

Among all the numerous writings published for the improve-
ment and instruction of the people by their rulers, none has been

so celebrated as the Shing Yti, or Sacred Commands, a sort of

25

554 THB MIDDLE KINODOK.

politico-moral treatise, which has been made known to BngliA
readers by the translation of Dr. Milne. The groundwork of
the book consists of sixteen apothegms, written by the emperor
Kanghl, containing general rules for the peace, prosperity, and
wealth of all classes of his subjects. In order that none should
plead ignorance in excuse for not knowing the Sacred Com-
mands, it is by law required that they be proclaimed throughout
the empire by the local officers on the first and fifleenth day of
every month. in a public hall set apart for the purpose, where the
people are not only permitted, but requested and encouraged, to
attend. In point of fact, however, this political preaching, as it
has been called, is neglected except in large towns, though the
design is not the less commendable. It is a somewhat singular
fact, that monarchs, secure in their thrones as Kangh! and Yung-
ching were, should take upon themselves the character of writers
and teachers of morality to their subjects, and institute a special
service every fortnight to have their precepts communicated to
them. If too, it should soon be seen that their designs had
utterly failed of all real good results from the mendacity of their
officers and the ignorance or opposition of the people, still the
merit due them is not diminished. The sixteen apothegms are
as follows, each consisting of seven characters : —

1. Pay just regard to filial and fraternal duties, in order to
give due importance to the relations of life.

2. Respect kindred in order to dbplay the excellence of har-
mony.

3. Let concord abound among those who dwell in the same
neighborhood, thereby preventing litigations.

4. Give the chief place to husbandry and the culture of the
mulberry, that adequate supplies of food and raiment be secured.

5. Esteem economy, that money be not lavishly wasted.

6. Magnify academical learning, in order to direct the scholar's
progress.

7. Degrade strange religions, in order to exalt the orthodoi
ooctrines.

8. Explain the laws, in order to warn the ignorant and obsti-
nate.

9. Illustrate the principles of a polite and yielding carriage,
in order to improve manners.

BXTSACT FROM THE SHINO YTT OR SACBBD COMMANDS. 555

10. Attend to the essential employments, in order to give
unvarying determination to the will of the people.

11. Instruct the youth, in order to restrain them from evil.

12. Suppress all false accusing, in order to secure protection
to the innocent.

13. Warn those who hide deserters, that they may not be
involved in their downfall.

14. Complete the payment of taxes in order to prevent frequept
urging.

15. Unite the pau and kia in order to extirpate robbery and
theft.

16. Settle animosities that lives may be duly valued.

The amplifications of these maxims by Yungching contain
much information respecting the theory of his government, and
the position of the writer entitles him to speak from knowledge ;
his amplification of the 14th maxim shows their character.

^ From of old the country was divided into districts, and a tribute paid
proportioned to the produce of the land. From hence arose revenues,
upon which the expense of the five /i, and the whole charges of govern-
ment depended. These expenses a prince must receive from the people,
and they are what inferiors should offer to superiors. Both in ancient
and modem times tliis principle has been the same and cannot be changed.
Again, the expenses of the salaries of magistrates that they may role
our people ; of pay to the army tliat they may protect them ; of preparing
for years of scarcity that they may be fed ; as all these are collected
from the empire, so they are all employed for its use. How then can it
be supposed that the granaries and treasury of the sovereign are intended
to injure the people that he may nourish himself? Since the establish-
ment of our dynasty till now, the proportions of the revenue have been
fixed by an universaUy approved statute, and all unjust items completely
cancelled, not a thread or hair too much has been demanded from the
people. In the days of our sacred &ther, the emperor Pious, his abound-
ing benevolence and liberal favor fed this people upwards of sixty years.
Daily desirous to promote their abundance and happiness, he greatly
diminished the revenue, not limiting the reduction to hondreds, thou-
sands, myriads, or lacs of taels. The mean and the remote have experi-
enced his favor ; even now it enters the muscles, and penetrates to the
marrow. To exact with moderation, diminish the revenue, and confer
favors on the multitude, are the virtues of a prince : to serve superiors,
and to give the first place to public service and second to their own, are
the duties of a people. Soldiers and people should all understand this.

i

Become not laiy and trifling, iior prodigally throw away your propertj-
Linger not to pay in Ihe revenue, looking and hoping for some unusual
occurrence to avoid il, nor intruKt your imposts to others, leal bad n
appropriate them to their own use.

"l4y in at the lerine, and wait not to be urged, Thcu with the oi
pins, yon can nourish your parents, complete llie marriHgea of y<
children, satisfy your daily wants, and provide for the annual fcasls and
BBcrifices. District officers may then sleep at ease in llieir public halla,
and viUagers will no longer be vexed in the night by calls from the tax-
gatherers ; on neither hand will any be involved. Your wives and chiL-
dren will be easy and at rest, than which you have no greater joy.
unaware of the importance of the revenue to government, and that lb*
laws must be enforced, perhaps you will positivoly refuse or deliberately-
put off the payment, when the majpstrates, obliged to balance their
accounts, and give in tlieir repurts at slated times, muet be rigorously
severe. The assessors, sufTertng the pain of the whip, cannot help
mdulgingtheirntparious demands on you; knocking and pecking al your
doors like hungry haivks, they will devise nnmeraus methods of getii
their wants supplied. These nameless ways of spending will pn>bahly
nmount to more than the sum which ought to have been paid, and that
sum, after all, cannot be dispensed with.

"We know not what benefit can accrue from this. Rather than give
presents to satisfy Ihe rapacity of policemen, how much better to clear
off iJie just assessments ! Rather than prove an obstinate race and
refuse the payment of the revenue, would il not be better to keep the
law ? Every one, even 'he most stupid, knows this. Furthermore,
when superiors display benevolence, inferiors should manifest justice;
this belongs to tlie idea of their being one body. Reflect that the con-
elanl labors aiid cares of the palace are all to serve the people. When
freshes occur, dikes must be raised lo restrain them; if the demon of
drought appear, prayer must be offered for rain ; when the locuats come,
they must be destroyed. If the calamitiesi be averted, you reap the
advantage; but if they overwhelm yon, your taxes are forborne, and
ahns Uberally expended for you. If it be thus, and the people afill can
suffer themselves to evade the payment of taxes, and hinder the anpply
of government, how, I ask, can you be easy ? Such conduct is like thai
of an unduliful son. We use Ihoae repeated admonitions, only wishing
you, soldiers and people, to think of the army and nation, and also of
your persons and families. Then abroad you will have the fame of
faitlrfulnesH, and at home peacefully enjoy its fruits, Officers will not
trouble you, nor their clerks vex you— what joy equal to this ! O sol-
diers and people, meditate on these things in the silent night, and let all
accord with our wishes, "—Socrerf Edkt, pp. 2ii-'269.

Wang Yupl, a high officer under Yungching, paraphrased the

WA.NG YVei S HIDICOLE OF BUOHISM. 557

amplifications in a colloquial manner. His remarks on ihe doc-
Irincs of llie Budiiisis and Rationalists show his style and matter.
The quotation here given is found under the 7th maxim.

" You simple people know not how to discriminate ; for even accord-
ing to what the books of Budha say, he was tlie liratborn eon of the
king Fan ; but retiring from the world he fled away alone to the top of
(lie Snowy mountaioa in order to cultivate virtue. If he regarded not
his own father, mother, wife, and children, are you such foola as to eup-
poBc that he regards the multitude of the living, or would deliver hia
laws and doctrines to you 1 The imperial residence, the queen's palace,
the dmgon'a chamber, and halls of state — if he rejected these, is it Dot
marvellous to suppose that he should delight in the nunneries, monas-
teries, temples, and religioua houses, which yon con build Tor him? As
to tlie Gemioeous Emperor, the most honorable in heaven, if there be
indeed such a god, it is strange to think he should not enjoy himself at
his own ease in the high heavens, but must have you to give him a
body of molten gold, and build him a house to dwell in 1

" All these nonsensical tales about keeping fasis, collecting assembhes,
building temples, and fashioning images, are feigned by those sauntering,
worthies? priests and monks to deceive you. Still you believe them,
and not only go youTselvea to worship and bum incense in the temples,
but also sufier your wives and daughters to go. With their hair oiled,
and faces painted, dressed in scarlet and trimmed with green, they go
to burn incense in the temples, associating with Ihe priests of Budho,
doctors of Reason, and barestick attorneys, touching shoulders, rubbing
arms, and pressed In the moving crowd. I see not where the good they
talk of doing is: on the contrary, they do many shomcrul tilings that
create vexalion, and give people occasion for laughter and ridicule.

" Further, there are some persons, who, fearing thai their good boya
and girls may not attain to maturity, take and give tliem to the leinplea
to become pricsld and priestesses of Budlia and Reason : supposing, that
after having removed them from their own houses, and placed them at
the foot of grandfather Full (Budha), they are then Boie of prolonging
life ! Now I would ask you, if those who in this age are priests of
these sects, all reach Uio age of 70 or 80, and that there is not a shorl-
livod person among tbem ?

" Again ; there is another very stupid class of persons, who, because
their parents are sick, pledge their own persons by a vow before the
gods, tliat if llieir parents be restored^ to health, they will worship and
burn incense on the hills, prostrating themselves at every step, till they
arrive at the summit, whence Uiey will dash Uiemselves down? If they
do not lose their lives, they are sure to break a leg or an arm. They
say tliemselves, ' To give up our own lives lo save our parents is Ihe

558 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

highest display of filial duty.' Bystanders also praise them as dntifiil
children, but they do not consider that to slight the bodies received from
their parents, in this manner, discovers an extreme want of filial duty.

'* Moreover, you say that serving Fuh is a profitable service ; that if
you bum paper money, present ofierings, and keep fasts before the fiice
of your god Fuh, he will dissipate calamities, blot out your sins, in-
crease your happiness, and prolong your age ! Now reflect : from of
old it has been said, < The golds are intelligent and just.' Were Budha
a god of this description, how could he avariciously desire your gilt pa-
per, and your ofierings to engage him to a^rd you protection ? If you
do not bum gilt paper to him, and spread oflferings on his altar, the god
Fuh will be displeased with you, and send down judgments on you !
Then your god Fuh is a scoundrel ! Take, for example, the district
magistrate. Should yon never go to compliment and flatter him, yet, if
you are good people and attend to your duty, he will pay marked atten-
tion to you. But transgress the law, commit violence, or usurp the
rights of others, and though you should use a thousand ways and means
to flatter him, he will still be displeased with you, and will, without fail,
remove such pests from society.

" You say that worshipping Fuh atones for your sins. Suppose yon
have violated the law, and are hauled to the judgment-seat to be punished ;
if you should bawl out several thousand times, * O your excellency ! O
your excellency !' do you think the magistrate would spare you ? You
will, however, at all risks, invite several Budhist and Rationalist priests
to your houses to recite their canonical books and make confession, sup-
posing that to chant their mummery drives away misery, secures peace,
and prolongs happiness and life. But suppose you rest satisfied with
merely reading over the sections of these Sacred Commands several
thousands or myriads of times without acting conformably thereto;
would it not be vain to suppose that his imperial majesty should delight
in you, reward you with money, and promote you to office ?" — Sacred
Edict, p. 146.

This ridicule of the popular superstitions has no doubt had
some efiTect, repeated as it is in all parts of the country, but since
the literati merely tear down and build up nothing, giving the
people no substitute for what they take away, it has not destroyed
the general respect. The Shing Yu has also been versified for
the benefit of children, and colloquial explanations added. The
paraphrase of the first maxim is thus rendered.

^ The parents' tender care can be dispensed,
Not till three anxious years their child they 've nursed ;
A father's watchful toil, a mother's love —
E'en with high Heaven equality demand.

* I^, then, the son tiis parenlfl' bounl provida
With meat nulritinua,— and frain winter's rold
With warmest silk their feeble frames defend;
Nor with their downward yeara his eKitls ceue.

" When walking, let liiB arm their Hlepa aupport ;
When aittlng, let him in attendance wait.
With tender c«re let bim their comfort seek;
With fond alfecttoa all their wisbea meet

" When pain and Bicknesa do their strength impair.
Be all his fears and all his love aroused ; —
Let him with quickened stops good physic seek.
And the most skilled physicians' care invite.

"And when, aJ length, tiie great event dolh come,
Be ahroud and coffin carefully prepared.
Yea, throughout life, by oQerings and by prajer,
Be parenia present to liia rev'rent Ihoughta.

** Ye children, who this Sacred Edict hear.
Obey its mandates, and yoar steps direct
Tow'rds duty's patlis; — fur whoso doth not thus.
How is he worthy of the name of man 1

" The senior brother tirst, the junior next,
Sach is the order in which men are bom ;
Let then the junior, with sincere respect.
Obey the sage's rule, — ^the lower station keep.

" Let him, in walking, to the elder yield ;
At festive boards, to th' elder give first place :
Whether at home he stay, or walk abroad.
Ne'er let him treat the elder with neglect

** BbouU some flight cause oecaf'toa angry slrile.
Let each recal liis thoughts once and again ;
Nor act till ev'ry point he thrjce bath turned.
Remembering whence tliey both at first have «prung.

*• Though, like two twigs which from one stem diverge.
Their growth perhaps dolh lend low 'ri different points ;
Vet search unto the root, they etiti are joined ;
One MP narwdci the twigi

MO THE MIDDLE EINGDQH*

** In boyish sports, how ollen have they joined !
Or played together round their parents' knee ?
And now, when old, shall love quick turn to hate^
While but few days are left them yet to love ?

<* Hear, then, this Sacred Edict and obey ;
Leave evVy unkind thought ; what 's past forget.
While singing of fraternal union's joys.
Remember that there 's pleasure yet behind."

Cki. Rep. Yd. I., p. 246.

In the fifth section on medical writings, separate works are
mentioned on the treatment of all domestic animals ; among them
is one on veterinary surgery, whose writers have versified most
of their observations and prescriptions. Works on medicine and
surgery arc numerous, in which the surface of the body is
minutely represented in pictures, together with drawings of the
mode of performing various operations. Works on judicial
astrology, chiromancy, and other modes of divination, on the rules
for finding lucky spots for houses, graves, and temples, are
exceedingly numerous, a large number of them written by Ra-
tionalists.

In the ninth section, entitled Collections or Memoirs, are
found the names of books on natural history, among which are
the Herbal of Lt Shichin, noticed on page 288, and mono-
graphs on tea, bamboo, wine, diet, &c. Under the head of ency-
clopaedias, a list of summaries, compends, and treasuries of
knowledge is given, which for extent a'nd bulkiness cannot be
equalled in any language. Among them is the Tai TieUy or
Great Classic of the emperor Yungloh of the Ming dynasty, a.d.
1403, in 22,877 chapters, and nearly that number of volumes.
The San Tsai Tu, or plates illustrative of the Three Powers
(i. e. heaven, earth, and man, by which is meant the entire
universe), in 130 vols., is one of the most valuable compilations,
by reason of the great number of plates it contains, which exhibit
the ideas of the compilers much better than their descriptions.
These works are not much read, for their compilers, contenting
themselves with simply quoting the authors cited, have not
digested their remarks into an entertaining form.

The twelfth section, containing novels and tales, called Siau
Shwoh, or Trifling Talk, gives the titles of but few of the

STORIES FROM THE PASTIMES OF THE STPDV. 561

thousands and myriads of works of this class in the language.

Works of ficlion ore among [tie most popular and exceptionable
books the Chinese have, the larger part of them being more or
less demoralizing. The books on the stalls along the sidesof the
streets are chiefly of this class of writings, conaisiing of tales and
stories generally destitute of all intricacy of plot, fertility of
illustration, or elevation of sentiment. They form the common
menial aliment of the lower classes, being read by those who are
able, and talked about by all, and consequently exert a great
influence. Many of them are written in the purest style, among
which a collection called Liau Choi, or Pastimes of the Study, in
18 vols., is preeminent for its variety and force of expressions,
and its perusal can be recommended lo every one who wishes to
study the copiousness of the Chinese language. The preface is
dated in 1679 ; most of the tales are short, and few have any
ostensible moral to them, while those which are objectionable for
their immoralily, or ridiculous from their magic whimsies, form
a large proportion. A quotation or two will iilustmte the au-
thor's

" A villager was once Koiling plums in the market, which were rather
delicioua and fra^rrant, nnd high in price ; and there was a Tau priest,
clad in ragged garments of coarse cotton, begging before his wagon.
The villager xcotded him, hut he would not go off-, whereupon, becom-
ing angry, he refiled and hooted at him. The prieat said, ' The wagon
contains many hundred jilums, and I have only begged one of them,
which, for yoD, regpecteJ sir, would certainly be no great loss ; why then
are you so angry?' The xpcctulors advised to give him a poor plam and
send him away, bnt the villager wonld not consent. The workmen in
the market disliking the noise and clamor, riimished a few coppers and
bought a plum, which tirey gave the prieat. He bowing thanked them,
and turning to the crowd said, ' I do not wish to be stingy, and reqncxt
you, my friends, to partake with me of this delicious plum.' One of
them replied, ' Now you have it, why do you not eat it yourself 7' ' I
want only the stona to plant,' said he, eating it up at a munch. When
eaten, he held the stone in his hand, and taking a spado ofThis shoulder,
dug a hole in the ground several inches deep, into which he put il and
covered it with earth. Then turning to the market people, he procured
some broth with which he watered and fertilized it ; and others, wishing
to see what would turn up, brought him Itoiling dregs from shops near
by, which ha poored upon the hole juat dug. Every one's eyes being
fixed upon the spot, they saw a crooked shoot iasDing forth, which gradn-
26"

562 THB MIDDLE KINGDOM.

ally increased till it became a tree, having branches and leaves ; fioweis
and then frnit sncceeded, large and very fragrant, which covered the
tree. The priest then approached the tree, placked the fruit and gave
the beholders ; and when all were consumed, he felled the tree with a
colter,— -chopping, chopping for a good while, until at last, having cut
it ofl^ he shouldered the foliage in an easy manner, and leisurely walked
away.

^ When first the priest began to perform his magic arts, the villager
was also among the crowd, with outstretched neck and gazing eyes, and
completely forgot his own business. When the priest had gone, he
began to look into his wagon, and lo ! it was empty of plums ; and for
the first time perceived that what had just been distributed were all his
own goods. Moreover, looking narrowly about his wagon, he saw that
the dashboard was gone, having just been cut off with a chisel. Much
excited and incensed he ran after him, and as he turned the comer of the
wall, he saw the board thrown down beneath the hedge, it being that
with which the plum-tree was felled. Nobody knew where the priest
had gone, and all the market folks laughed heartily."

The Rationalists are considered as tho chief magicians among
the Chinese, and they figure in most of the tales in this work,
whose object probably was to exalt their craft, and add to their
reputation. Like the foregoing against hardheartedness, the
following contains a little sideway admonition against thefl.

** On the west of the city in the hamlet of the White family lived a
rustic who stole his neighbor's duck and cooked it. At night, he felt his
skin itch, and on looking at it in the morning saw a thick growth of
duck's feathers, which, when irritated, pained him. He was much
alarmed, for he had no remedy to cure it ; but, in a dream of the night,
a man informed him, * Your disease is a judgment from heaven ; you
must get the loser to reprimand you, and the feathers will fall ofi^' Now
this gentleman, his neighbor, was always liberal and courteous, nor dur-
ing his whole life, whenever he lost anything, had he even manifested
any displeasure in his countenance. The thief craftily told him, * The
fellow who stole your duck is exceedingly afraid of a reprimand ; but
reprove him, and he will no doubt then fear in future.' He, laughing,
replied, 'Who has the time or disposition to scold wicked men,' and
altogether refused to do so; so the man, being hardly bestead, was
obliged to tell the truUi, upon which the gentleman gave him a scolding,
and his disorder was removed."

R^musat compares the construction of Chinese novels to those
of Richardson, in which the *< authors render their characters

CHARACTER AND PLAN OF CHINESE NOVELS. 568

interesting cufid natural by reiterated strokes of the pencil, which
finally produce a high degree of illusion. The interest in their
pages arose precisely in proportion to the stage of my progress ;
and in approaching to the termination, I fouad myself about to
part with some agreeable peopley just as I had duly learned to
relish their society," He briefly describes the defects in Chinese
romances bs pridoipaliy consisting in long descriptions of trifling
particulars, and delineations of localities, and the characters and
circumstances of the interlocutors, while the thread of the narra-
tive is carried on mostly in a conversational way, which, from
its minuteness, soon becomes tedious. The length of their poetic
descriptions and prolix display of the wonders of art or the beau-
ties of nature, thrown in at; the least hint in the narrative, or
moral reflections introduced in the most serious manner in the
midst of diverting incidents, like a long metre psalm in a come-
dy, tend to confuse the main story, and dislocate the unity requi-
site to produce an eflTect.

The greater part of Chinese novels contain more or less of a
plot, and the characters are sometimes well sustained. ** Visits
and the formalities of polished statesmen ^ assemblies, and above
all, the conversations which make them agreeable ; repasts, and
the social amusements which prolong them; walks of the admirers
of beautiful nature ; journeys ; the manosuvres of adventurers ;
lawsuits; the literary examinations; and in the sequel, marriage;
form their most frequent episodes and ordinary conclusions." The
hero of these plots is usually a young academician, endowed with
an amiable disposition and devotedly attached to the study of
classic authors, who meets with every kind of obstacle and ill
luck in the way of attaining the literary honors he has set his
heart on. The heroine is also well acquainted with letters ; her
own inclinations and her father's desires, are that she may And a
man of suitable accomplishments, but after having heard of one,
every sort of difficulty is thrown in the way of getting him ;
which, of course, on the part of both are at last happily sur-
mounted.

The adventures which distinguished persons meet in wander-
ing over the country incognito, and the happy denouement of
their interviews with some whom they have been able to elevate
when their real characters have been let out, form the plan of
other tales. There is little or nothing of high wrought descrip*

564

THE MIDDLE KIXGDOyi.

tion of passion, nor acta of atrocious Tcngeance inlroduced 10
remove n troublesome person, but everything is kept wiiliin the
bounds of probability ; and at the end the vicious nre punished
by seeing their bad designs fail of tlicir end in ihc rewards sjid
Buocess given those u'ho have doDe well. In most of the stories,
whose length and style are such as to enlilie them to the name
of novel, and which huwc allained any repuiatiofi, ihe slory is not
disgraced by anything oflensive ; it is rather in the shorter tales
that decency is violated. Among ihem the H'jing Lou M«»g, or
Dreams of the Red Chamber, is one of the most popular slories,
and open not a little to this objection.

The fourth division of the Catalogue is called TwA Pu, or
MiscelUniea, and the works mentioned in ii are chiefly |>ocm8 or
collections of songs, occupying nearly olio third of the iv^iole eol-
lecdoo. They are arranged in five sce'.ions, namely. Poetry of
Tsa, Complete Worlts of Individuals, and General Collections, On
the Art of Poetry, and Odes and Songs. The most aBcicot poel
in the language is Yuh Yuen, a lalenlod minisier of stole in tho
Cttu dynasty, who wrote the Dissipation of Sorrows; in memory
of bis suicide by drowning the festival of dragon boats wns insli-
ttited. The two most cclebraled poets in Chinese csiimaiioa
■re Li Taipeh of ihe Tang dynasty, and Su Tuagpo of the Sung,
both of whom combined iho three leading traits of a iwrd, being
lovers of flowers, wine, and song, and attaining distinctioo in the
service of government. The incidents in Iho life of the former
of these bards were so varied, and his reckles love of drink
brought him into so many scrapes, Ihol he is no less famed for
his adventures than for bis sonnets. The following slory ia told
of him in the Rcmartcablft Facts of all Times, which is here
abridged from the translation of T, Parid.

" Li, called Tavpfh, or Great-white, from the phnel Venus, was
endowed with a beauiiful cotintenance and a well made person, exhibit-
ing in all his nxiremeDla a gentle nobility which indicated a man des-
tined to rise aboi'B his »ge. When only ten yeans old, he could read tho
classics and histories, and his conversation showed tbe briltiain;y of his
thoughts as well as purity of his diction. Ho was, in consequence of his
precocity, called tbe Exiled Immortal, but named himself the Retired
Scholar of tbe Blue Lotus, Some one having extolled ihe quality of
the wine of Nianching, be straightway went there, altboagh more Hun
diree hiudred miles distant, and abandoned liimself to his appetite Itar

POETS AND POETRY OF CHINA. 565

liquor. While Binging and orouiiiiig in a tavern, a milinry coniniBD'
danl passed, wbo hearing his nong cent in to inquin? wlio it was, attd
carried the poet oft' lo his own tiouee. On departing, he urged LI to go
to tlie cajMtal, and compete for literary honors, which he doubted not
could be easily attained, and at last induced liim to b<<nil his steps to ihe
capital. On his arrival there, he luckily met Ihe ncademician Ho near
the palncc, who invited him to an alehouse, and laying aside his robes
drank wine with him till night, and then carried him home. The two
were bood well acquainted, and di»cuBHed the merits of poetry and wine
till they were much charmed with each other.

" Ab the day of exnmination approached, Hn gave the poel some advice.
'The examiners for tliia spring are Yang and Kan, one a brother of the
empresB, the other commander of his majeBly's body-guard ; both of them
love those who nmke tliem presents, and if you have no means lo buy
their favor, the road of promotion will be shut lo you. f know them both
very well, and will write a note lo each of them, which may perhaps
obtain you some favor.' Id spile of his merit and high reputation, Li
found liimselr in such circtitniilances as to make it desirable to avail of
the goodwill of bia friond tlo ; but on perusing the notes he brought, the
examiners disdainfully exclaimed, ' After having lingered his proton's
money, the academician contenis himKelf witli sending us a billet which
merely rings its sound, anil bespeaks our altention and favors towards an
upstart without degree or lille. On the day of decision we will remem-
ber the name of Li, and any composition signed by him shall be thrown
aside without further notice.' The day of examination came, and the
distinguished scholars of the empire assembled eager to hand in their
compositions. Li, fully c:apable to go through the trial, wrote ofl' his
essay on a sheet witlioul eHlirt, and handed it in first. As soon aa he
saw the name of Li, the examiner Vang did not even give himself tln^
to glance over the page, but with long strokes of hie pencil erased the
composition, saying, ' Such a scmwler as this is good for nothing but
to grind my ink !' ' To grind your ink !' iutcrrnpled the other examiner
Kau ; ' say rather he is only fit to put on my stockings, uud lace up my

" With these pleasantries, the essay of Li was rejected, but he, trans-
ported with anger at such a contemptuous refusal at the public examina-
tion, returned homo, and exclaimed, * I swear that if ever my wishes for
promotion are accomplished, I will onjer Yang to grind my ink, and Kau
lo put on my stockings and lace up my buskins ; then my vows will be
accomplished.' Ho endeavored to calm the indignation of The poet ;
' Slay here with me till a new examination is ordered in three years, and
live in plenty ; Ihe examiners will not be the same then, and you will
surely succeed.' They therefore contiuued lo live as tliey had done,
drinking and making verses.

i

THE J

: ELNSDOM.

" After many monlha h»i! Iranapired, eame foreign ambassadore came
to the capital charged wilh ■ letlor from their eovereign, whom be wtt
ordered to receive and entertain in the hall of ambas«adora. The next
day, the officerB handed in their letter to his majesty's council, who or-
dered the doctora to open and read it, bat they could none or them decy-
plwr a single word, humbly declaring it contained nothing but fly-tracks ;
' your subjects,' tliey added, * have only a limited knowledge, k Bhallo»
Bcquaint&nce with things; they are unable to rend n word.' On bearing
ibis, the emperor turned to the e:<amiDer Yang and ordered him to re«d
the letter, but his eyes wandered over the characlera 8s If be bad been
blind, and be knew notlung of them. In vain did his majesty address
himself to the civil and military officers who hlled the court, not one
among them could say whether Ihe letter contained words of good or
evil import. Highly Incensed, he broke out in reproaches Bgsin«t the
grandees of liis palace ; ' What 1 among so many magistrates, so many
■cholara and warriors, cannot thero be found n single one who knows
enough to relieve us of the vexation of this o^lr 1 If this letter cannot
be read, how can it be answered T If the ambassadors are dismissed in
this style, we shall be the ridicule of the barbarians, and foreign klogs
will mock the court of Nanking, and doubllcsa follnw It up by seinng
their lance and buckler and join to iuviide our fmnliers. Wlial then?
If in tliree day^, no one is able to decypher this letter, every one of jronr
appcnntmenlH shall be suepended ; if in six days, you do not teJI me what
it means, your offices sluill every one be taken away ; and death ahall
execute justice uu such Ignorant men. if I wuit nine days In vain for Its
ex)rianalit>n, and others of our subjects shall be elevated lo power whow
virtue and talents will rentier some service to their country.'

" Terrified by these words, the grandees kept a mournful silence, and
no one ventured a single reply, which only irritated the monai^ tl»
more. On his return home, Ho related to his friend Li cveiything that
had traiMplred at court, who hearing him with a chilly smile, replied,
' How to be regretted, how unlucky It ia that 1 could not obtain a degree
at the examination lost year, which would have given me a magistrv^j ;
for now, alas, it is impossible for me to relieve bis majesty of tiie chagrin
which troubles bim.' ' But truly,' said Ho suddenly, ' 1 think you are
versed in more than one science, and will be able to read this unlucky
letter. I shall go to his majesty and propose you on my own responsi-
bility.' The next day he went to the palace, and passing through thtt
crowd of couniera, approached the throne, saying, 'Your subject pre-
■nmes to announce to your majesty that there is a scholar of great merit
called li, at bis house, who is profouodly acquainted with more than one
Bcience', commund him to read this letter, for there Is nothing of which
he is not capable.'

" This advice pleased the emperor, who presently sent a nieaaenger to

STORY OF LI TAIPEH, THB POET. 567

the house of the academician, ordering him to present himself at conrt
But Li ofiered some objections : * I am a man still without degree or title »
I have neither talents nor information, while the court abounds in civil
and military officers, all equally famous for their profound learning. How
then can you have recourse to such a contemptible and useless man as 1 7
If I presume to accept this behest, I fear that I shall deeply offend the
nobles of the palace ' — referring especially to the premier Yang and the
general Kau. When his reply was announced to the emperor, he de-
manded of Ho why his guest did not come when ordered. Ho replied,
* I can assure your majesty that Li is a man of parts beyond all those of
the age, one whose compositions astonish all who read them. At the
trial of last year, his essay was marked out and thrown aside by the
examiners, and he himself shamefully put out of the hall. Your majesty
now calling him to court, and he having neither title nor rank, his self-
love is touched ; but if your majesty would hear your minister's prayer,
and shed your favors upon his friend, and send a high officer to him, I
am sure he will hasten to obey the imperial will.' * Let it be so,' re-
joined the emperor ; ' at the instance of ouracademician, we confer on
Li Peh the title of doctor of the first rank, with the purple robe, yellow
girdle, and silken bonnet ; and herewith also issue an order for him to
present himself at court. Our academician Ho will charge himself with
carrying this order, and bring Li Pch to our presence without fail."

" Ho returned home to Li, and begged him to go to court to read the
letter, adding how his majesty depended on his help to relieve him from
his present embarrassment. As soon as he had put on his new robes,
which were those of a high examiner, he made his obeisance towards the
palace, and hasted to mount his horse and enter it, following after the
academician. Seated on his throne, Hwantsnng impatiently awaitedlhe
arrival of the poet, who, prostrating himself before its steps, went through
the ceremony of salutation and acknowledgment for the favors he had
received, and then stood in his place. The emperor, as soon as he saw
li, rejoiced as poor men do on finding a treasure^or starvelings on sitting
at a loaded table ; his heart was like dark clouds suddenly illuminated*
or parched and arid soil on the approach of rain. * Some foreign ambas-
sadors have brought us a letter which no one can read, and we have sent
for you, doctor, to relieve our anxiety.' * Your minister's knowledge is
very limited,' politely replied Li, with a bow, * for his essay was rejected
by the judges at the examination, and lord Kau turned him out of doors.
Now that he is called upon to read this letter from a foreign prince, how
«8 it that the examiners are not charged with the answer, since too, the
ambassadors have already been kept so long waiting ? Since, I, a student
turned off from the trial, could not satisfy the wishes of the examiners,
how can I hope to meet the expectation of your majesty ? * We know
what you are good for,' said the emperor, * a truce to your excuses,' put-

608 TBE MIDDLE KIN6D0M.

tiDg the letter into his hands. Ronning his eyes over H, he &diihifiiSy
nniled, and standiDg before the throne^ reed off m Chinese the mysteri-
ous letter, as follows.

" < Letter from the mighty Eo To of the kingdom of Po Hai to the
prince of the dynasty of Tang : Since yoar usnrpation of Corea, and
carrying yonr conqnests to the frontiers of onr states, yoar soidierB
have violated our territory in frequent raids. We trust yon can fully
explain to us this matter, and as we cannot patiently bear such a state
of things, we have sent our ambassadors to announce to you that you
must give up the hundred and sixtynsix towns of Corea into onr hands.
We have some precious things to ofSsr you in compensation, namdy,
the medicinal plants from the mountains of Tai Peh, and the byssus
from the southern sea, gongs of Tsiching, stags from Fuyu, and horses
from Sopin, silk of Wuchan, black fish from the river Meito, prunes
from Kiutu, and building materials fromLoyu ; some of all these articles
shall be sent you. If you do not accept these propositions, we shaU
raise troops and carry war and destruction into your borders, and then
see on whose side victory will remain.'

'* After its perusal, to which they had given an attentive ear, the gran-
dees were stupified with astonishment, and looked at each other, knowing
how improbable it was that the emperor would accept the propositions of
Ko To. Nor was the mind of his majesty by any means satisfied, and
after remaining silent for some time, he turned himself to the civil and
military officers about him, and asked what means were available to re-
pulse the attacks of the barbarians in case their forces invaded Corea.
Scholars and generals remained mute as idols of clay or statues of wood,
no one said a word, until Ho ventured to observe, ' Your venerable grand-
fatner Taitsung, in three expeditions against Corea, lost an untold num-
ber of soldiers, without succeeding in his enterprise, and impoverished
his treasury. Thanks to heaven Kai-su-w&n died, and profiting by the
dissensions between the usurper's sons, the glorious emperor Taitsung
oonfided the direction of a million of veterans to the old generals lA S\i
and Pi Jinkwei, who after a hundred engagements more or less impor-
tant, finally conquered the kingdom. But now having been at peace
for a long time, we have neither generals nor soldiers ; if we seize
the buckler and lance, it will not be easy to resist, and our defeat will be
certain. I a wait the wise determination of your majesty.'

" * Since such is the case, what answer shall we make to the ambas-
sadors ?' said Hwantsung. * Deign to ask Li,' said the doctor, * he will
speak to the purpose.' On being interrogated by his sovereign, Li replied,
* Let not this matter trouble your clear mind. Give orders for an audience
to the ambassadors, and I will speak to them face to fiice in their own
language. The terms of the answer will make the barbarians Unsh, and

STORY OF l1 TAIPBH, THE POET. 569

their Ko To will be obliged to make his respects at the foot of yonr
throne.' ' And who is this Ko To V demanded Hwantsung. ' It is the
name the people of Po Hai give to their king ader the usage of their
country ; just as the Hwui Hwui call theirs Kokan ; the Tibetans^
Tsangpo ; the Lochau, Chau ; the Holing, Si-mo-wei : each one accord-
ing to the custom of his nation.'

" At this rapid flood of explanations, the mind of the wise Hwantsung
experienced a lively joy, and the same day he honored Li with the title
of academician ; a lodging was prepared for him in the palace of the
Golden Bell ; musicians made the place reecho with their harmony ;
women poured out the wine, and young girls handed him the goblets, and
celebrated the glory of Li with the same voices that lauded the emperor.
What a delicious, ravishing banquet ! He could hardly keep within the
limits of propriety, but ate and drank until he was unconscious of any-
thing, when the emperor ordered the attendants to carry him into the
palace, abd lay him on a b?d.

'* The next morning, when the gong announced the fifth watch, the
emperor repaired to the hall of audience ; but Li*s faculties, on awaking,
were not very clear, though the officers hastened to bring him. When
all had gone through their prostrations, Hwantsung called the poet near
him, but perceiving that the visage of the new-made doctor still bore the
marks of his debauch, and discovered the discomposure of his mind, he
sent into the kitchen for a little wine and some well spiced fish broth, to
arouse the sleepy bard. The servants presently sent it up on a golden
tray, and the emperor seeing the cup was fuming, condescended to stir
and cool the broth a long time witli the ivory chopsticks, and served it
out himself to Li, who receiving it on his knees, ate and drenk, while a
pleasing joy illumined his countenance. While this was going on, some
among the courtiers were much provoked and displeased at the strange
familiarity, while others rejoiced to see how \^ell the emperor knew to
conciliate the goodwill of men. The two examiners Yang and Kau,
betrayed in their features the dislike they felt.

'* At the command of the emperor, the ambassadors were introduced,
and saluted his majesty by acclamation, whilst Li Taipeh, clad in a pur-
ple robe and silken bonnet, easy and gracious as an immortal, stood in
the historiographer's place before the led of the throne, holding the let-
ter in his hand, and read it off* in a clear tone, without mistaking a word.
Then turning towards the frightened envoys, he said, * Your little pro-
vince has failed in its etiquette, but our wise ruler, whose power is com-
parable to the heavens for vastness, disdains to take advantage of it
This is the answer which he grants you : hear and be silent.' The ter-
rified ambassadors fell trembling at the foot of the throne. The emperor
had already prepared near him an ornamented cushion, and taking a jade
stone with which to mb the ink, a pencil of leveret's hair boimd ia ta

S70

THE WtOmE KINCtlOBt.

jvorj' tube, a cake of perfumi'd ink, and a sheet of flowery paper, gxet
them to li, and senlnl him cm the ciiehion ready to draw up the answer.

" 'Maj it please your msjesty,' objected Li, ' my buuta are not at all
suitable, for tliey went soiled at Ihe banquet last eveiiiof, and I trait
your majesty in yoor ^nerosily will (rnint me some new buskins and
stiickings fit for ttBcending tlie [ilatfonn.' The emperor acceded lo his
request, and ordered a servant to procure them; when Li resumed,
■ Your minislBT has slill a ward lo add, and begs beforehand that his un-
loword conduct may be excused ; then he will prefer his request.* ' Your
notions are misplaced and useless, but I will not be oSended at Ihetu ; goon.
speak,' said Hwantsung; Id which Li, notliing daunted, said, ' Ai the last
examination, your minister was turned oS'by Yang, and put out of doors
by Kau. The sight of Iheae persons here to-day at the head of the cour-
tiers casta a certain discomposure over his spirits ; let your voice deign
to command Yang to rub my ink, whilst Kau puts on my stockjoga and
laces up my buskins ; then will my mind and wits begin lo recover their
energies, aitd my pencil can trace your answer in the language of the
foreigners. In transmitting the reply in the name of the son of heaven,
he will then not disappoint the confidence with which he is honored.'
Afraid to displease lA when he had need of him, the emperor gave the
sliange order ; and ivhile Yang rubbed the ink and Kau put on the hu»-
kina of the poet, they could not help reflecting, that this student, so budly
received and treated by them, only fit at the best to render such services
to them, availed himself now of the sudden favors of the emperor to take
their own words pronounced against him as a text, ond revenge himielf
upon them for past injuries. But what could Ihey do ? They could not
oppose the sovereign will, and if they did feel chagrined, they did ooC
dare at least to express it. The proverb hath it true :

" ' Do not draw upon you a person's enmity, for enmity is never ap-
peased ; injury returns upon him who injures, and sharp words recoil
against him who says tliem.'

" The poet triumphed, and his oath was accomplished. BusJuoed oi
bo desired, he mounted the platform on the carpet and sealed himself on
the cushton, while Yang stood at lys side and rubbed the ink. Of a
truth, the disparity was great between an Ink-grinder and tlie magnate
who counselled the emperor. But why did Ihe poet sjl while the pre-
mier stood like a servant at his side ! It was because Li was the organ
of the monarch's words, while Yang, reduced to act the part of an ink-
rubber, could not request permission to sit With one hand Li stroked
hia beard, and seiung his pencil in the other, applied it lo the paper,
which was soon covered with strange characters, well turned and evrn.
without a fault or rasure, and then laid upon tlie dragon's table. The
emperor gated at in amaxe, for it was identicaJ with that of the bartxt-
IB, not a character In it resembled the Chinese ; and as he handed

STORY OF l1 TAIPEH, THE POST. 571

it about ftmoDg the nobles, their surprise was great When requested
to read it, Li, placed before the throne, read in a clear loud tone the an-
swer to the strangers :

" * The mighty emperor of the Tang dynasty, whose reign is called
Kiayuen, sends his instructions to Ko To of the Po Hai.

" * From ancient times the rock and the egg have not hit each other,
nor the serpent and dragon made war. Our dynasty, favored by fate,
extends its power, and reigns even to the four seas ; it has under its or-
ders brave generals and tried soldiers, solid bucklers and glittering
swords. Your neighbor, king Hiehli, who refused our alliance, was
taken prisoner ; but the people of Putsau, after offering a present of a metal
bird, took an oath of obedience.

^ * The Sinlo, at the southern end of Corea, have sent us praises written
on the finest tissues of silk ; Persia, serpents which can catch rats ; In-
dia, birds that can speak ; and Rome, dogs which lead horses, holding a
lantern in their mouth ; the white parrot is a present from the kingdom
of Koling, the carbuncle which illumines the night comes from Cambodia,
and famous horses are sent by the tribe of Koli, while precious vases are
brought from Nipal : in short, there is not a nation which does not re-
spect G^r imposing power, and does not testify their regard for the virtue
which distinguishes us. Corea alone resisted the will of heaven, but
the divine vengeance has fallen heavily upon it, and a kingdom which
reckoned nine centuries of duration was overthrown as in a morning.
Why then do you not profit by the terrible prognostics heaven vouch-
safes you as examples ? Would it not evince your sagacity 7

« < Moreover, your little country, situated beyond the peninsula, is
little more than as a province of Corea, or as a principality to the Ce-
lestial empire ; your resources in men and horses are not a millionth
part those of China. You are like a chafed locust trying to stop a
chariot, like a stifinecked goose which will not submit. Under the
arms of our warriors your blood will run a thousand H. You, prince,
resemble that audacious one who refused our alliance, and whose king-
dom became annexed to Corea. The designs of our sage emperor are
vast as the ocean, and he now bears with your culpable and ulireason-
able conduct, but hasten to prevent misfortune by repentance, and
cheerfully pay the tribute of each year, and you will prevent the shame
and opprobrium which will cover you and expose you to the ridicule of
your neighbors. Reflect thrice on these instructions.'

" The reading of this answer filled the emperor with joy, who oidered
Li to make known its contents to the ambassadors ; he then sealed it
with the imperial seal. The poet called Kau to put on the boots which
he had taken off, and he then returned to the palace of Golden Bells to
inform the envoys concerning his sovereign's orders, reading the letter

572 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

to them in a loud tone, while they heard tremUingly. The academiciaa
Ho reconducted them to the gates of the capital, and there the ambassa-
dors asked who it was who had read the imperial instructions. * He is
called li, and has the title of doctor of the Hanlin.'— * But among so
many dignitaries, why did the first minister of state rub his ink, and the
general of the guards lace up his buskins 7' * Hear,' added Ho ; ' those
two personages are indeed intimate ministers of his majesty, but they
are only noble courtiers who do not transcend common humanity, while
Doctor Li, on the contrary, is an immortal descended from heaven on
the earth to aid the sovereign of the Celestial empire. How can any
one equal him 7' The ambassadors bowed the head and departed, and
on their return rendered an account of their mission to their sovereign.
On reading the answer of Li, the Ko To was terrified, and deliberated
with his counsellora ; ' The Celestial empire is upheld by an Immortal
descended from the skies ! Is it possible to attack it 7' He tbereapoo
wrote a letter of submission, testifying his desire to send tribute each
year, which was thenceforth allowed.

" Li Taipeh afterwards drowned himself from fear of the machina-
tions of his enemies, exclaiming, as he leaped into the water, ' Vm going
to catch the moon in the midst of the sea !' " ,

The poetry of the Chinese has been investigated by Sir John
Davis, who notices the parallelisms which pervade it, as well as
the character of its versification in regard to rhymes, ceesural
pauses, and length of lines ; but as the subject is one of con-
siderable nicety, and cannot well be illustrated without intro-
ducing the native character, the reader is referred to his work,
Vol. II., pages 189-195, for brief outlines of a longer paper in
the Royal Asiatic Society's Transactions. Artificial poetry,
where the sound and jingle is regarded more than the sense, is
not uncommon ; the great number of characters having the
same sound enables versifiers to do this with greater facility than
is possible in other languages. Such stanzas as the following
occur, where each word in the line ends alike.

Liang h'ang, siang niang, yang hiang tsiangf
Ki ni, pi chi. It hi mi, &c.

Lines consisting of characters all containing t^ same radical
are also constructed in this manner, in which the sound is some-
what subservient to the composition and meaning of the charac-
ters. This kind of curious writing is, however, considered fit
only for pedants.

The Augustan age of poetry and letters was in the 9th and

CHABACTBB OF CHINBSB POETRY. 6T8

10th centuries, during the Tang dynasty, when the brightest day
of Chinese civilization was the darkest one of European. No
entire collection of poems has yet been translated into any
European language, and perhaps none would bear an entire
version. The poems of Li Taipeh form thirty -volumes, and
those of Su Tungpo are contained in 115 volumes, while the
collected poems of the times of the Tang dynasty have been
published by imperial authority in 900 volumes. The proportion
of descriptive poetry in it is small compared with the sentimental.
Probably the foreign sinologues, who should undertake to read
this immense mass, would soon find that only a small part of it
contained the spirit of poetry, or was aught else than prose cut
up into rhymes, according to certain rules. It is a common
pastime for literary gentlemen to try their skill in versification ;
epigrams and pasquinades are usually put into metre, and at
the examinations, every candidate must hand in a sonnet. Con-
sequently, much more attention is paid by such rhymesters to the
jingle of the words, and artificial structure of the lines, than
to the elevation of sentiment or copiousness of illustrations ;
and it is therefore as easy for them to write a sonnet on shipping
a cargo of tea as to indite a love-epistle to their mistress. Ex-
temporaneous verses are made on every subject, and to illustrate
occurrences that elsewhere are regarded as rather too prosaic to
call upon the muse to describe. The following description of a
steamer in pentameter was attached to drawings made by the
Chinese when the English attacked Canton in 1841.

''^be 's more than three hundred cubits long,
And thirty odd in height and breadth ;
Iron is used to bend her stiff and stout,
And she *8 painted black all round about ;
Like a weaver^s shuttle is her shape ;
On both sides carriage wheels are fixed,
And, using fossil coal to make a fire,
They whirl around as the racehorse flies.
Of white cloth all the sails are made.
In winds both fair and foul she goes ;
On her bow is the god of the waves.
At stem and stem is a revolving gun ;
Her form is truly terrific to men.
The god of the North displaying his itncti^,

574 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

The sanken rocks there shoaled the steamer ;
All who saw it witnessed to the justice of heaven.
None of the plans of the foreigners took efl^t.
Which greatly delighted the hearts of men."

Another extemporaneous sonnet, written by Ma, a gentleman
of respectable literary attainments, who was successfully ope-
rated upon for cataract in Dr. Parker's Ophthalmic Hospital at
Canton, which he presented his benefactor on leaving, is of a
higher order.

" A fluid, darksome and opaque, long time had dimmed my sight.

For seven revolving weary years one eye was lost to light ;

The other darkened by a film, during three years saw no day,

High heaven's bright and gladdening light could not pierce it with its ray,

^ Long, long, I sought the hoped relief, but still I sought in vain,
My treasures lavished in the search, bought no relief from pain ;
Till, at length, I thought my garments I must either pawn or sell,
And plenty in my house I feared was never more to dwell.

" Then loudly did I ask, for what cause such pain I bore, —

For transgressions in a former life unatoned for before ?

But again came the reflection, how, of yore, oft, men of worth,

For slight errors had borne sufl*'ring great as drew my sorrow forth.

" * And shall not one,' said I then, * whose worth is but as naught,
Bear patiently, as heaven's gift, what it ordains V The thought
Was scarce completely formed, when of a friend the footstep fell
On my threshold, and I breathed a hope he had words of joy to tell.

" * I *ve heard,' the friend who enter'd said, * there's come to us of late
A native of the " Flowery Flag's " far oflT and foreign state ;
O'er tens of thousand miles of sea to the Inner Land he 's come ;
His hope and aim to heal men's pain, he leaves his native home.'

'* I quick went forth, this man I sought, this gen'rous doctor found ;
He gained my heart, he 's kind and good ; for, high up from the ground
He gave a room, to which he came, at mom, at eve, at night, —
Words were but vain were I to try his kindness to recite.

" With needle argentine, he pierced the cradle of the tear.
What fears I felt ! Su Tungpo's words rung threat'ning in my ear :
Glass hung in mist,' the poet says, ' take heed you do not shake '
(The words of fear rung in my ear); * how if it chance to break !'

POEM BY MA ON REOAINING BIS SIGHT. 575

** The fragile lens his needle pierced : the dread, the ating, the pain,
I thought on these, and that the cup of sorrow I must drain ;
But then my memory faithful showed the work of fell disease.
How long the orbs of sight were dark, and I deprived of ease.

** And thus I tliought : ' if now, indeed, I were to find relief;
T were not too much to bear the pain, to bear the present grief.'
Then the words of kindness which I heard, sunk deep into my soul,
And free from fear I gave myself to the foreigner's control.

** His silver needle sought the lens, and quickly from it drew
The opaque and darksome fluid, whose efiect so well I knew ;
His golden probe soon cleared the lens, and then my eyes he bound,
And laved with water sweet as is the dew to thirsty ground.

** Three days thus lay I, prostrate, still ; no food then could I eat.
My limbs relax'd were stretched as though th* approach of death to meet ;
With thoughts astray — mind ill at ease — away from home and wife,
I often thought that by a thread was hung my precious life.

** Three days I lay, no food had I, and nothing did I feel ;
Nor hunger, sorrow, pain, nor hope, nor thought of woe or weal ;
My vigor fled, my life seemed gone, when, sudden, in my pain,
There came one ray — one glimmering ray, I see, — I live again !

** As starts from visions of the night, he who dreams a fearful dream,
As from the tomb, uprushing comes, one restored to day's bright beam.
Thus I, with gladness and surprise, with joy, with keen delight,
See friends and kindred crowd around ; I hail the blessed light

** With grateful heart, with heaving breast, with feelings flowing o'er,

I cried, * O lead me quick to him who can the sight restore !'

To kneel I tried, but he forbade ; and, forcing me to rise,

' To mortal man bend not the knee ;' then pointing to the skies : —

** < I 'm but,' said he, ' the workman's tool, another's is the hand ;
Before his might, and in his sight, men, feeble, helpless, stand :
Go, virtue learn to cultivate, and never thou forget
That for some work of future good thy life is spared thee yet !'

** The offering, token of my thanks, he refused ; nor would he take
Silver or gold, they seemed as dust ; 'tis but for virtue's sake
His works are done. His skill divine I ever must adore.
Nor loee remembrance of his name till life's last day is o'er.

576 THB UXDDLR KHfODOIC.

"Thofl have I toU, in these brief words, this leaned doctor's peusi^
Well does his worth deserve that I shoold taUets to him raise.**

This practice of versification being quite common, one or too
more specimens on different subjects may be quoted, inasmuch
OS they also illustrate some of the better shades of feeling and
sentiment. One has already been given, written by Chu K wel-
ching (page 365). A more finished piece of poetry is one writ-
ten B. c. 250, by Su Hwui, whose husband was banished. Its
authoress is considered as remarkably talented, and is said to
have written more than five thousand lines, and a curious
anagram of about eight hundred characters, which was so dis-
posed that when read up or down, crosswise, backward, or ibr-
ward, it would make sense. Nothing from her pen remains
except this ode, interesting for its antiquity as well as sentiment.

** When you received his majesty's commands to qniet the distant fnmtier,
Going with you to the river's bridge we there bade our sad fiu«well :
Restraining my grief, and hiding my tears, I left with you this word,
* O do not forget my love and afiection, nor tarry long away.'
Who would have guessed that since you leil, not a word should I receive:
Have you th9ught that to your lone wife e'en the spring is bleak and

cold? *
At the foot of the gemmeons stairs, the greensward is left nnmown,
And our nuptial chamber with dust and webs is all o'erstrown.
Even now, when I speak of our farewell, my soul with dread doth start,
And my mind revolves what I would be my lord again to see.
One time, to be the deep sea moon, I much desire.
And then to be the cloud upon the mountain's brow is my heart's wish:
For the giddy mountain clouds for aye my husband's face do meet,
And the deep sea moon year by year shines down upon the land abroad.
The first flying here and flying there, reach my beloved's place ;
And in that, for thousand, thousand miles, we see each other's fisice.
Far, far along the distant road, tlic mountain pass while us dividing,
Do I bemoan my lord, so long beyond the marches, he 's absent been.
When yon left, as we bade good-by, the leaves of the reeds were yeUow ;
Who then would have thought, that the plum boughs would have blos-
somed so oft 7
Each kind of flower, scattering its leaves abroad, has met the early

spring:
The genial spring urges men to commune : but to whom shall I turn t
The pendent willows cover the ground, which for you I oft puH down,
The fieilling flowers bestrew the earth, which none do sweep away,

ABSENCE . ST7

Before the li&ll, the vernal herbage grows most rich and fiB|rrant.
Taking the lute ol Tsun in my Nrms I turn me lo the pictured hull,
Where for your Eake. I try to thrum tJie ballad of departed frienda,
Senditie my iiimnal lhout;ht« away, they reach the northern bounds —
The nortliem bounds — how far Ihey arc, o'erpSBsed the hiUa and streams.
Along the dreary distant way, the word of a letter haa ceased so loDg,
My silvery dress, upon my pillotv. with my tears ia deeply dyed.
And on my gilded robe and satin coatrthe flowers are wholly spoiled.
The spring cry of thegeeso and storks, we heard in their passage north,
It seemed to me, whose friend is tbert, like tearing my henrtstriDga out.
The strings of my lute were whole, but my feelings were itll sabdued ;
My grief was at ita utmost bent, while my song was still unsung.
I feel that your present love for me is stable as [he hills.
And my thoughts from you, my lord, for a moment never Biray.
When I had woven but lalf my task, lo my prince did I present it.
Wishing him to free my husbiuid. tliat be may quick return to me.

A translation is given in the Chinese Repository (vol. IX., page
508), of a suppas^ complaini made by a cow of her sad lot ia
being obliged lo work hard and Iotq jioorly during life, and then
be cut up and ealen when dead ; the ballad is arranged in the
form of the animal herself, and a herclboy Ifldding her, who in his
own form praises the happiness of a rural life. This ballad is a
Budhist iroctale, and that fraternity print many such an broad-
sheets ; onecommon collection of prayers is arranged like a pagoda,
witli images of Budha sitting in the windows of each slory.

The ballads and songs of the Chinese have not oHen been
translated, nor apan from iho works of their poets, have tliey
many popular songs. The art is culiivated, but the spirit of song
i^ShsMly known; perhaps the excitements of war or the blan-
^otabmcnls of female society are wonted to stir up enthusiasm
pa.'^ion among them. Among their best ballads, if regard be had '
to the harmony of the measure, and the character of the ae
ment ond metaphors, is one on Picking Tea, which the girls and
women sing as they collect the leaves.

^ Ballad on Pitking Tea in the Gardeni in Springtime.

" Our honsehold dwells amidst ten thousand bills,
Where the tea, north and saulh of the village, abundantly grown ;
From ehinihi lo kuhya, unceasingly hurried.
Every irmming i must early rise to do my task of t^.

678 THE MIDDLE KUCGIKIH.

" By earliest dswn, I, at my loilet, only balf-drem m; hair,
And, seiziiig uiy basket, puss the door, white yet the mist is tliick
The little muib and graver dames liaod in hand winding alongi
Ask me, ' which stceji of Sunglo do jou climb to-day V

" The sky ia thick, and the dutJty twilight hides the hill-topa;
The dewy leaves aud cloudy buds cannot be easily plucked-
We know not for whom, their diinit lo quench.
We're caused to tinl and labor, and daily two by two to go.

" In social couples, each to aid her fellow, we seize the tea twigt.
And in low words urge one another, ' Don't delay.
Lest on the topmost bough, the bud has even now grown old.
And leat with the morrow come the driizling, silky rain.'

" We've picked enough ; the topmost twigs are sparse of leftvea ;
We lift our baskets filled brimful, aiid talk of going hutne;
IdiU^ing, we pass along ; wlien just against the pod,
A pair of scared mallards rise and fly diverse away.

■■ This pool has limpid n-ater, and there deep the lotus E"iwa,
Its little leaves are round as coins, and only yet h&lf-blowD :
Gciug to the jutting verge, near a clear and shallow spot,
I try my present looks, mark how of late my face appears.

" My curls and hair are all awry, my face is quite begrim'd ;
It) whose house lives the girl go ugly as your slave }
'Tis only because that ev'ry day the tea I'm farced to pick ;
The soeJung rains and driving winds have spoiled my early cfaanns.

" With the morning cornea the wind and rain, together fierce and Id
But the little hat end basket toll, still must I take along ;
The lender leaHets fully picked, we to our homes return,
When each sees ber fellow's dress, half^duubed with miiy slime.

" This mom, without the door, I beheld a pleasant sky.
Quickly I comb'd my girlish tufts, and firmly set my pin ;
With rapid steps away 1 apeed toward the garden's path.
And forgetful of the muddy way, omit to change my shoes.

" When jost within the garden bounds, I hoar the thunder roll ;
My bowing shoes are soak'd quite through, yet still I can't letsn^
I call my distant comrade, lo send my message home,
Aitd have my green umbrella-hat sent hither to tne soon-

BALLAD ON PICKING TEA. 579

" The little bail, when oq my head, does do! protect ro]' limbs,
Hy drcEB and gown are wet b&If-through, like eonie poor fisherman's;
Hy green and line meEhed basket, I carry closely in my band ;
I only lack his tapering pole, his thin and slender line.

" The rain ifl paae'd, the outmost leaflets nhow their graeniah veins ;
Pull down a brand], and the fragrant scent's difliiaed around.
Bolli high und low, the yoUow golden threads are now quite cnUed;
And my clothes and frock are dyed with odors through and through.

" The sweet and fragrant perfume's like that from the Aglaia ;
In goodness and appearance, my tea'll be the best in Wnynen,
When all arc picked, tlie new buds, by next term, will again bnratfottl^
And ihJB morning, the last third gatiiering is quite done.

" Each picking is with toilsome labor, but yel 1 shun il not,
Hy maiden curls are all askew, my pearly Biigera all benumbed;
Bat 1 CHiiy wish our tea to be of a superfine kind.
To have it equal his ' sparrow's tongue,' and their ' dragon's pellet'

" For a whole month, where can I catch a single leisure day ?
For at earliest dawn 1 go to pick, and not till dusk return;
Then tlie deep midnight sees me still before the tiring pan;
Will not labor like this my pearly complexion de&ce T

■* But if my face is lank, my mind is firmly fixed,
So to lire my golden buds that they shall cxc«l all beside.
But how know I who'll put them in the jewelled cup ?
Whose taper fingers will leisurely give them tu the maid to draw T

" At a bright 6re she makes the tea, her sorrows flee away ;
Where shall she learn our toil, who so tender picked it all T
How that without a sign, the fierce winds and rain did rise.
Drenching and soaking our petsons, as if plunged into a batb.

** In driving rains and howling winds, the birds forsake their nMta ;
Yet many a couple seem to linger upon the fiowery boughs.
Why did my loving lord with pettish words drive me away i
Ai my grief swells in my heart, my hands forget to pick.

" But though my heaving bosom, like a well-sweep rise and bll,
Still patient in my poverty and care, I'll never shun my usual toU ;
My only thought shall be to have new lea well fired.
That the fiag and awl* be well rolled, and allow their whiten'd dovm.

• The *(, or " flag," ii the term by which the lealleM aw called whsn
they Just bc^n to unroll; the (nung', or " owl," desigaatea those leavn
which ore still wrapped up and somewhat sharp.

" BdI my own toil And weary steps, bow daie I inentioa Ibem ?
Still I Me that in our bouse ie muif a sort of work :
Am mod aa ibe tea JB fired and dried, I iflnit qnickli; go and )uek ;
This morning, even, muaC I reaacend the sleep Songlo.

" My splint-basket slung on my ann, my hair adorn'd with Bowers,
1 go to the Bide o( ihe Sunglo hills, and pick the mounlaia te*.
Amid the pathway going, we eislers one another rally.
And laughing, 1 point to yonder village — ' there's oar hanse !'

" Yonr handmaid's house and home is at the weeping willow's nde.
In a place where the gr«en shade the gtusy dwelling hides ;
To-morrow, if you're content, come, be my boon companions,
Neaiing the door, you'll know it by the fragrance of the firing tea.

" Awhile 'tis warm, and then 'tis cold, the weather's ever changing;
The sky how unsettled whoa one wants to fire good lea,
For as the sun bides in the wa^r^'cr the eastern hills there's rain.
Promising much lair weather, ^rt in truth but little cornea.

" But tonlay, the tint of the western bills betokens fair :
Taking my basket, [ wait for my fellow at the village stile.*
There the little lasa is seen, the simple girl most tenderly brODghl gp ;

P She's bat aaleep, leaning on the rail -, I call, but none awaJtea.

■■ When at length, to my loud call, she tries to answer me.
She half opes her pretty eyes, she's like one staggering;
Quick she starts, and in the op'ning path before her goes ;
Takes up her basket, and quite forgets to put its cover on.

" Together we trudge the sidcway path, and pass the soathem lodge,
By its aide, tlie sea poincgntnatc displays its yellow flowers;
We'd like to stop and pluck them, for each to adoraher hair,

iBut the tree is high, and the outer boughs beyond our reach.
" The yellow Wrds. perched on the bouglis, warble their sweetest aonga ;
The weather most grateful is when the sky's half cloud half clear,
While pulling down the twigs, each vents her troubled thoughts.
We talk till our hearts are wounded, and tears are not restrained.
•upp

i supporting a roof, <
kvenieDce of wayfarer

y 1 slile. being a kind of shed, or four poata
is often erected by villagers for tlie con-
can stop there and rest. It eomctitnea con-
usually over or near a spring of water.

DRAMAS OF THE

"Out task is done, bnt our baBkets are not hnir filled ;
Oq the Dorth the twigs are Karched. we think we'll He the south ;
JuBl then I sDapp'd a twig, whoee leaves were all in pain,
Ami with my taper fingers, I fastened it upon my curis.

" Among the kind of leas, the bitter still exceeds the sweet,
But among them all, these tastes can botJi be found ;
We know not indeed for whom they may be sweet or Wtter ;
We've picked till the ends of our pearly lingers are quite marred.

" You, twittering swbIIows, may fly just as your wills iacUne.
Going to pluck now tea, I'll change to my old gown ;
I'll grasp the cnff, and rolling it high up.
Will thus display my line and slender arm."

Chin. Rep., Vol. VOX., p. 196.

In the department of plays and dramas, Chinese literature
shows a long list of names, few or none of which have ever beea
heard of out of the Middle Kingdom. Some of their pieces have
been translated by Julien, Bazin, Davis, and other sinologues,
most of which were selected from the Hundred Plays of Yuen.
The origin of the present Chinese drama does not date back, ac-
cording to M. Bazin ainf, beyond the Tang dynasty, though
many performances designed to be played and sung in pan-
tomime hud been written before that epoch. He cites the names
of eighty-one persons, besides mentioning other ploys of unknown
authors, whose combined writings amount to five hundred and
Mxly-four separate plays ; all of whom flourished during the
Mongol dynasty. The plays that have been translated from this
collection give a (olerably good idea of Chinese talent in this dif-
ticutt department; and generally speaking, whatever atHciures
may be made upon the management of the plot, exhibition of
character, unity of action, or illustration of manners, the ten-
dency of the play is on tlie side of virtue and morality. The
first drama made known to Europeans was Iransloted by P^re
Prfmarein 1731, under ilie title of the Orphan of Chau, and was
taken by Voltaire as the groundwork of one of hia plays.
The Heir in Old Age, and the Sorrows of Han, are the names of
two translated by Sir J. F. Davis, and published by the Oriental
Translation Fund, in 1930- The Circle of Chalk, translated by
Julien, was also published by that society, iHdltt a volume,
the work of M. Bazin- ain^, containing four plays, the Intrigues

THE MIDDLE KINODOHI.

of an Abigail, ilie Compared Tunic, Ihe Songstress, and Resent-
ment of Tau Ngo, was issued in I83§, (it the imprimerie Royals
in Palis. None of ilieuc pieces exhibit much intricacy of plot,
nor would the simple armogeineota of Chinese theatres allow
much increase to the dramatis persona without confusion. M.
fiazin has also translated the Pipa Ki, or History of a Lute, a
drama in twenty-four acts of the Ming dynasty, of more pre-
tenskmsi partaking of the novel as well na the drama.

Besides plays in the higher walks of the drama, which form
the principal part of the performanoes at theatres, there are
bye-plays or farces, which being conRned lo two or three
interlocutors, depend for tlieir attractiveness upon the droll ges-
ticulations, impromptu allusions to passing occurrences, and
excellent pantomimic action of the performers. They are
usually brought on at the conclusion of the bill, and from the
Ireedom given in them to an exhibiticn of the humor or wil of
the playera, are much liked by the people. A single illustration
will exhibit the simple range and characler of these burletlas.

Tke Mender of crjcked CmHiWARE.

I tViu Chau, A wnndering tinker.

\ Wang JViang, . . A young girl.
Scene — A Slrrel.
NiV CkA-U enKri, — ocrou his ikouUer is a bamboo, lo each eTuH of icAtcA
are mtpenJed baxa coalaining Ihe tariout looli and implemenJi ef
hii tradt, and a small slool. He is dressed meanly, his /ace and AeoJ
are painUd and deeoraled in afantasik mamxr.
(Sing-s) Seeking a livelihood by the work of my hands.

Daily do I traverBO the streels of the city.
^Sptakt) Well, here I am, a mender ot broken jar»,

An unrortuimle victim of ever clianging plans.

To repair old fractured jars,

Is my sde occupation and support.

T is even so. I bave no other employment.

(Takes his boxes from hi» shuiilder, jUaaa than on ihe
ground, ails bEside litem, and draicing mU hit fan, een-
tinaes speaking — )
A discoiiHilate old man — I am a slave to inconveniences.
Fot.Beveral days past, I have been unable to go abroad,
Alb observing this morning a clear eky iind Gne air,
I was induced to recommence my street wanderings.

FARCE OF THE MENDEE 01 CBINAWAftE,

588

(Stii^f} At daWQ 1 left my home.

But as yet hftvo hud no job.

Hitber ami yon, and on oil sides,

From the east gate to tbo west.

From the Eouth gate to the north,

And nil over within the walls,

IIbvi! I liepti, but no one Ims callod

For the mender of cracked jara. Unfortunate man '.

But this being my first vtait lo tlie city of Nanking^

Socoe extra exertion m necesnary ;

Ttmc is tt>5t gittinf! idle here, nnd ho to roam agnin I go.
(Shoulden his boxes and stool, and tcalks aboul, cryii^)—

Plalee mended 1 Bowls mended!

Jara and pola neaily repalr'd !
IioJa/ Wang (heard williin). Did 1 uol hear the cry ot the mender of

I'll open the donr anil look. — (Shn tnlers ioekbig omir^}

Ve», Ihere oomee Ihe ropnirer ot jars.
Niu Chau. Pray have you a jar lo mend ?

1 have long been aceklQg a job.

Did you not call t
Lady W. Whit ia your charge for a large jar —

And how much (or a email one 7
AVu Chau, For large jara, one mace five.
Lady W. And far amall uiiea 1
Niu Chav. Fifty pair of cash.
ZoJy W. To one mace live, and fifty pair of cash.

Add nine candareens — and a new jar nuy be had.
A'lii Cfcaii. What then will yon give 1
Lady W. I will give one candareen for either size.
JViu Chau. Well, lady, how many cash can I get for this candaieen 1
/iody H'. Why, if the price be high, yon will get eight cash.
Niu Chau. And if low 1

Lady W. You will get but seven cash and a half
Niu Chati. Oh, you wicked tantalizing thing !
(Sings) Since leaving home this morning,

I have met but with a trider.

Who in the shape of an old wife.

Tortures and gives me no job ;

1 '11 ahoulder again my boxes, and continue my walk,

And never again will I rclum to the houae of Wang.

(HemuvaDf iloiBly.)

Lady W. Jar-mender! return, quickly return; with a knd voice, I

entreat you ; for I have aometfaing on which I wish lo conault

inend ■ \iuee fu.

i wortb

What is it on wliicii you w

I vrin give yon a hundred a

And br mending a tiinall ane /

And for mending a sDinll one. thirty fmjt of cash.

One hundred, and lliirty pair, — truly, laily. this

consulting about.
Lady Wang, where shall I mend Ihem I
Follow me, (They mme (oimrda the dixa- of the Aotite.)

Before wbIIeb the lady Wang.
And behind comes the pii-kang (or jar-mender).
Here then is the place.
lady Wang, permit me lo pay my reapecte.

rrrpealedly in a rtdkvlimi manner.)

We can exchange
1 congratulate yoa
Lndy W. Here ia llie jar ; nc
Takes ihejar '

AfJH Chau.
Lady W.
JS'tK Chati.
Lady W.

ly you prosper — before ard behind.

go to work and mend it
hand, and Uistei it abojil examinmg if.)
This jar has certainly a very appalling fracture.
Therefore it requires the more care in mending.
That IB self evident.

Now lady Wang will retire ngain lo her dressing room,
And, after closing the doors, will resume her loilet,
BVtffeB.mKe she will beauiify.

On As iett, her hnir she will comb into n dmgun's b<«d tuft.
On Ae right, she will arrange it tastefully with llowera.
Her lips she will color with blood red v'ermiUion,
And a gem of chiysopraae will she place in the dtagon**

head tufl.
Then, having completed her toilet, ahe will return la the

And ait down to look at the jar.mender. (£xtf.)

■iff doun, ulrapi the jar on his kitee, and arrangen ftis fool*
bffore him, ami as he drills holes for the clam/ii, ttTigi, —
Every hole drilled requires a pin.
And every two holes diilled reijulre pins a pair.
As I raise my head and look aronnd,

(Al this moment lady Wang re-enler» beaulifuO)
drtiaed, and fill dmtin by the JoorJ)
There sits, I see, a delicate young lady ;
Before she had the appearance of an old wife.
Now she IB transfonned into a handsome young girl ;
On the left, her hair is comb'd into a dragon's h^ tuft ;
Ob the right it is adorn'd tastefully with flowen.
Her lips are like plums, her mouth is all smiles.
Her eyes are as brilltnut as tbe phiEnix's ; and

DEFII.-IENCIES OF CHINESE LITEIlATirni; . 585

She atutda on golden lilies, but In-o inebes long.
1 look Bg>in, anolhcr look, — down drops the Jnr.

(The jar at this momenl/alli, tnd is brnkcn lo pieces.)
(SpeoAs) Heigh-y« ! Here then it adreikdliil smash I
Lady W. Vou have but lo replace it with another, and do bo quickly.
Niu Chau. For one that was broken, a good one tnual be given-
Had Iwo b£en broken, tljen were a pair to be supplied ;
Ad old tine being smashed, a new one must replace it.
Laili/ IV. You have ilestroyad the jar, aiul return me nothing bul

Give mo a new one, then you may return home, — not

JViu Chau. Here on my koeea upon the hard ground, I beg lady Wang,
while she eita above, to listen to a few norda. Let me receive
pardon for ihe accident her beauty bos occasioned, and I will at
once make her my wife.
Lady W. Impudent old man ! How presumo to.think

That I ever can become your wife !
Niu Chau. Ves, it ia true, 1 am somewhat older than lady Wcng,

Yet would 1 make ber my wife.
Lady W. No matter Ibcn for tlie accident, but leave me now at onM.
iVtu Chau. Since you have forgiven me, I again shoulder nty boxee.
And I will go eleewhcre in search of a wila.
And here, before high heaven, I swear never again to come

near Ihe houne of Wang,
You a great lady I You are but a vile ragged girl,
And will yet be glad to lake up with a much worse
companion ! ^Qoing aviay.he luddeniy thraies

nff his upper dnss, and appeart as a handtmnr young man.)
Lady W. Henceforth, give up your wandering proleaaion.
And marrying me, quit the trade of a jar-mender.
Witli the lady Wang pass happily the remainder of your
life. t^fy embrace, and rxeunt.)

— Chi. Rep. Voi. VI., p. 576.

Such is Uie general range and survey of Chinese literature,
according to the oatulogu'e of the Itnperial Libraries. Il is,
lake it ia a tnasB, s stupendous monument of human toil, fitly
compared, so far as il Is calculated to instruct ils readers in
useful knowledge, to llieir Great Wall, which can neither pro-
tect from its eneiiiies, nor be of any real use to its makers.
Its deficiencies are glaring. No treatises on the geography of
foreign countries, nor truthful narratives of travels abroad, are
conlained in it, nor any accoiinl of the languages of their in-

k

habilanis, iheir hislory, or their ^vemnientB. Pliilologic J 1
works in olhor Innguagea than those spoken within the empire
nre almost unknown, and » ill remain so until foreigners prepare
them. Works on natural liistory, medicine, and physiology an
few and useless, while those on maihemalica and tho exact <
scionoes are much less popular and useful ihan they might be ;
ond in the great range of theology, founded on the true ba^
of the Bible, there is almost nothing. The character of tba
people has boen greatly modified by their ancient tK>oks, and
this correlate influence has tended lo repress independent i
tigolion in the pursuit of truth, though not lo destroy it. A new
infusion of science will perhaps bring it out to the great good of
ihc whole race.

A survey of thia body of literature shows the eflcct of govern-
mental patronage, !n keeping the minds of the people in Ihe
same unvarying channel. If tlio scholar knows thai the goal he
strives ibr is lo be attained by proticiency in the single channel
of clasfdcal knowledge, he cannot be espected lo attend to other
studies until he has secured the prize. A knowledge of niedi*
cine, mathematics, geography, or foreign languages, might,
indeed, do the candidate much more good than all he gets o
the classics, but knowledge is not lils object ; and where all run
the some race, all must study the same works. Bui let there be
a different programme of themes and essays, and a wider rangtt
of suhjeoU required of the students, and the present system of _
governmenttil examinations in China, with all its imperfection^ i
ean lie mode of great benefit to the people.

The Chinese are fond of proverbs and aphorisms, and employ 1
ihem in their wrilings and conversation as much aa any people, j
and surpass them in adorning their houses by copying ihem I
ujKin elegant scrolls, carving them upon pillars, and cmbroidar- '
ing them upon banners. A complete collection of the proverbi |
of the Chinese has never been made, even among the poopU J
themselves, and would be almost impossible, as many of them i
are looal and unwriitcn. Davis has given a collection of Dineiy^ I
lome years since lie published a volume colled Mont I
Maxims, containing 200 aphorisms, with the text nnd a verfad'J

inslation. He quotes the Ming Sin Pau Kien, or Jewellod Mifr I

r for Illumining Ihe Mind, as containing a large number of (
proverbs ; it is used to a great extent by writers of scrolU sntf J

CHINESE PROVERBS. 587

copyists who furnish ihese ornaments. The Ka Sz* Kiimg Lin,
or Coral Forest of Ancient Mallets, is k similar collection ; but
if that be compared to a dictionary of quotations, tliia is better
likened to a classical dictionary, fod the notes which fallow tho
eenlences leave the reader iu no Soubl as to their meaning. A
few from the lotler collection are here given, together with
leveral from other sources.

Not to distinguish properly between the beautifnl and ugly, i$ liho
Btlacbing a dog's tail to a squirreJ'a body.

An avaricious man, who can never have enough, ia as a serpent
wishing to swallow an elephant.

While one misfortune is going, to have another coming, is libe
driving a tiger out or the front door, while a wolf is entering (he back.

The tiger'a cub cannot be caught without gning into bis ilen.

To paint a snake and add legs. (Exaggeration.)

To nkelcb a tiger and make It a dog, Is to imitate a work of genius
and spoil it.

A Qerce woUish man is like the scathed branchless trunk o{ a tree,

To ride a (iercc dog to Caleb a lame rabbit. (Useless power over a
contemptible enemy.)

To attack a thousand tigers with ten men ; (to attempt a difficulty
with incommensurate means).

To cut oS* a hen's head with a battle-axe ; (unnecesaary valor.)

To cherish a bad man is like nourishing a tiger ; if not well fed
he will devour you : or like rearing a hawk ; if hungry he will stay by
you, but Ity away when fed.

Human joys aro like the akipplngs of a sparrow.

To instigate a villain to do wrong, is Uko leaching a monkey to

To catch a fish and throw away the net ; — not to requite benefits.

To take a locust's shank for the shaft of a carriage ; — an inefficient
person doing important work.

A pigeon aneering at a roc ; — a mean man dcBpiatng a prince.

To climb a tree to catch a fish, is to talk much and got nothing.

To test one good liorso by judging the portrait of another.

As a ftih out of water so Is a poor homeless man.

A fish eporta in the kettle, but his life will not be long.

Like a swallow building her neat on a hut, is an anxious Btalesman.

Like a frog in a welt is a man of sRiall thoughla.

Like a crane among hens Is a man of part) among foola.

Like a sheep dressed in a tiger's skin is a superficial schoUir.

Like a cuckoo in a magpie'a neat, is one who enjoys anolher**
labor.

ta-L

I

THE WIDPLB SISGDOM.

L

To hang OD tfae tail Of a beautiful horse ; (to teek promoUoD^

Do nol pull up your Blockings in a melon Getd. or ftrrantie yont h*I
uader a peach tree^ leet people think jou are steallDg.

An ojil man marrying a. youcig wife <e like a withered wOUnv
sprouting.

By a long journey we know a horse's strength ; so length of daja
shows a man's heart.

Lei us get drunk lo-day while we have wine ; the sorrows of tt^
mtirrow may be borne Uf-morrow.

U the blind lead the blind, iliey n'ill both go to the pit.

Good iron is not used for nails, nor are soldiers made of good iDen.

A fair wind raises no slorm.

A little impatience subverts great undertakings.

Vast chasms can be filled, but the heart of man is never satisfied.

The body may be healed, but tlie mind is incurable.

When the tree falls the monkeys flee.

The tiger does not wilh with the hind.

Trouble neglected becomes still more troublesome-
Wood is not sold in the forest, nor fish at the pool.

He who looks at the sun is dazzled, he who hears the thnoiler is
deafened. (Not come tuo near the powerful.)

He desires to hide his tracks, and walks on the snow.

He seeks the aas, and to '. he sits upon him.

An illiterate person is like a dry inkatone.

Speak not of others, but convict yourself.

A man who has a tongue may go to Rome.

A man is not always known by liis looks, nor the sea raeoaured by a
bushel.

A gem is not polished without rubbing, nor Is a man perfected wilbont

Ivory does not come from a rat's mouth.

IT a chattering bird be not placed in the moutli, vexiUion will not sit
between the eyebrows.
Prevention is better than cnre.
Pot tlio emperor to break the laws is one with the people's

Doubt and distraction are un earth, the brightness of truth in heaven.

I'uniEhment can oppose a barrier to open crime, laws cannot reach
to secret offences.

Wine and good dinners make abundance of fnends, but in time uf
adversity not one is to be found.

Let every man sweep the snow from before his own doors, and
not trouble himseli about the hoarfrost on bis neighbor's tiles.

Better be upright with poverty than depraved with abuadaiice. He

1

CHINESE PROVERBS. 5S9

wbo«e virtoe exceeds hie UJenU is the good man ; he whose taleola
exceed his virtues is The fool.

Though a man may be utterly htujjid, ho ia very perepicuoua when
reprehending tlie bad actions of others ; though he may be very inteUi-
gent. he is dull enough when excusing bis own faults : do you only cor-
rect yourselves on the same principle that you correct otliers, and eiotue
others on tlie same principles you excuse yourselves.

In making a candle we seek for light, in reading a book we seek
for reason ; light toilluminate a dark chamber, reason to enlighten meu's

If I do not debauch oilier men's wives, my own will not be polluted.

Better not be than tie nothing.

The egg fights with the rock-, — hopeless reBiatatice,

One thread does not make a rope -, oue swallow dues not make a
aununer.

To be fully fed and warmly clothed, and dwell at ease without lean»-
ing, is little better than a bestial state.

A woman in one house cannot eat the rice of two. (A wise woman
does not marry again.)

Though the sword be sharp, it will not woond the innocent

SensiuJity is the chief of sins, hlial duty the best of acts.

Prosperity is a blessing to the good, but to the evil it is a curse.

Instruction pervades the heart of the wise, but cannot penetrate the ears
of a fool.

The straightest trees are first felled ; the cleanest wells iirst ilruiik up-

The yielding tongue endures; the stubborn teeth perish.

Old age is like a candle in the wind, easily blown out.

The blind have the best ears, and the deaf the sharpest eyes.

The horse's back is not so safe as the bubo's. (The politician )•
not BO secure as the husbandman.)

A wife should excel in four tldagm virtue, speech, person, and
needlework.

He who is willing to inquire will excel, but the self-sufficieut man
will ^il.

Anger is like a little lire, which if not timely checked may burn down
a lofty pile.

Every day canoot be a feast of lanterns.

Too much lenity multiplies crime.

If you love your wn, give him plenty ot the cudgel; if yon hate
him cram him with dainties.

When the mirror is highly polished, the dust will not defile it ;
when the heart is enlightened with wisdom, impure tliuughts will not

600 TBB MIDDLE KINGDOK;

Do not consider taxy vice as trivial, and therefore pnctiee it ; m
any virtue as unimportent and therefore omit it

A stubborn wife and stifi&iecked son no laws can govern.

He is my teacher who tells me my fiiolts, my enemy who apeaki
my virtues.

He has little courage who knows the right and does it not

To sue a flea, and catch a bite ; — ^the results of litigation.

Would you understand the character of a prince, look at his ministers ;
or the disposition of a man, observe his companions ; or that of a
&ther, first mark his son.

The &me of good deeds does not leave a man's door, but his evil
acts are known a thousand miles oflT.

The advantages of good laws are to be found only in tfaeir strict
observance.

A virtuous woman is a source of honor to her husband, a vidons
one disgraces him.

The original tendency of man's heart is to do right, and if weU
ordered will not of itself be mistaken.

They who respect themselves will be honored, but diaesteeming
ourselves we shall be despised.

The light of one star illumines the mountains of many regions, so
one unguarded expression injures a whole life of virtue.

KMD OF VOL. 1.

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