Full text of "The Mikirs; from the papers of the late Edward Stack .."

See other formats

QBf. BLAl^

THE MIKIRS

Frontispiece

Ml KIR MAN.

THE MIKIRS

FROM THE PAPERS OF THE LATE

. EDWARD STACK

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE

SOMETIME DIRECTOR OK LAND RECORDS AND AGRICULTURE, AND
SECRETARY TO THE CHIEF COMMISSIONER, ASSAM

EDITED, ARRANGED, AND SUPPLEMENTED
BY

SIR CHARLES LYALL

(^ublisljeb lutbcr i^c orbcro of ff)c ^joocrnmcnf of
pastern "gikngal anb ^ssam)

ILLUSTRATED

LONDON

DAVID NUTT

57, 59, LONG ACRE
1908

FEINTED BT

WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

LONDON AND BECCLES.

M. R. L.-J
3n /nsemoriani

i-'J'^iiycs

INTEODUCTORY NOTE.

In L882 Edward Stack, appointed the first Director of
the newly-created Department of Land Records and
Agriculture in Assam, entered upon his duties in that
province, and applied himself with ardour to the study
of its people. He had passed just ten years in the
Indian Civil Service, which he joined in 1872 at the
head of his year. These ten years had been fruitful
in varied interest and activity : the strenuous life of
a District and Settlement officer in the North-AVestern
Provinces ; secretariat employment in his own province
and the Government of India ; and, just before his
translation to Assam, six months spent in travel in
Persia.* Activity of mind and body, and keen interest
in the people and speech of all the countries he lived
in, were his strongest characteristics. During the
cold season of 1882-83 he spent several months in
moving up and down the Brahmaputra Valley, learning,
oljserving, and noting. He acquired a working know-
ledge of Assamese with surprising rapidity ; with this
as his foundation and instrument, he attacked the
multitude of tribal languages which he found impinging
on the Aryan pale. To him, more than to any one
else, is due the honourable distinction of the Assam

* The record of tliese travels, under the name Si.i: Months in Persia
'two vols.), was published in 1882; "A really clever and trustworthy,
readable, ])ook," was the judgment on it of the late Sir Frederic Goldsmid —
the l)est of all judges.

h 2

viii INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Province iu the grammars, vocabularies, and phrase-
books of nearly all the most important of its multi-
tudinous varieties of Indo-Chinese speech, which have
been drawn up by officers and others who have served
there. In 1883 the Report on the Census of 1881 in
Assam was published ; and in this Report, mainly the
work of the Chief Commissioner, Sir Charles Elliott,
the chapter on Castes and Tribes was written by
Edward Stack. Paragraphs 131-136 deal with the
Mikirs, and much in these represents the result of his
careful personal inquiries among them. His interest in
this tribe gradually grew. In 1884 he was called to
take up the work of Secretary to the Chief Com-
missioner, and while thus employed he occupied his
leisure in studying Mikir. He became acquainted with
a bright young Mikir lad, a convert of the American
Baptist Mission at Nowgong, named Sardoka, to wliich
he was accustomed to add the names of his sponsor
at baptism, Perrin Kay. With the help of Mr. Neigh-
bor's Vocabulary of English and Mikir, vitli illnsfrativt'
sentences,* Stack and Sardoka worked together at the
language, correcting and largely supplementing the
material contained in their text-ljook. From this they
went on to folk-tales, which were written down, with
a careful attention to systematic orthography, by Stack
from Sardoka's dictation, each day's work being pro-
vided with a series of notes elucidating every difficulty
in it. Thus material gathered ; and in the course of
1886 Stack liad arranged, when relieved at the end of
that year of the duties of Secretary by my return to
Assam, to put together a complete account of the

* See Bibliography, No. 7.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE ix

.Mikirs and their lanfruaofc, fullv illustrated (as his wont
was) l»y ample variety of phrase and idiom, and a
collection of stories in ]\likir with commentary and
vocabulary. But during the latter half of 18HG his
health failed. Partly the moist climate of Assam, and
partly, perhaps, unsuspected flaws of constitution, told
upon his strong and active frame ; and, after some
months of gradually increasing weakness, he died at
sea on the 12th January, 1887, aged 37, just before the
vessel reached Adelaide, in South Australia, where he
had planned to spend his furlough.

A few months after his death his papers were sent
to me at Shillong, and for some time I hoped, with
Sardoka's help, to be able to carry out his purpose.
But the steadily increasing pressure of other duties
prevented this. I left Shillong on a long tour in
November, 1887, and soon after my return in the
spring of 1888 I was transferred to the post of Com-
missioner in the iVssam Valley, eventually leaving the
province in the autumn of 1889 for engrossing work
elsewhere, never to return, except for a brief space
as Chief Commissioner in 1894. It had become evident
from an examination of the materials that to do what
Stack had set before him involved much more labour
than I could give. It was necessary to learn the
language from the beginning, to construct grammar
and dictionary, and to retrace the steps which he had
trodden in his progress ; and this with an aptitude and
power of ac(|uisition far inferior to his. Accordingly.
on my departure from Assam, the papers were made
over to others, with whom they remained until, on the
organization under Dr. G. A. Grierson of the Liii(/ul-'<f/c

X INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Siu-ve/j of Xortherii India, they were again inquired for,
and utilized, so far as the scope of that work admitted,
in preparing an account of the Mikir language for
insertion in the Survey.*

In 1904, when Sir Bampfylde Fuller had ol:>tained
the sanction of the Government of India to his scheme
for the preparation of a series of descriptive monographs
on the more important tribes and castes of Assam,
he proposed to me to undertake an account of the
Mikirs, based on Stack's materials. There were several
reasons why I hesitated to accept the task. It was
many years since I had left the province, and oliicial
work and other studies claimed time and leisure. The
materials were themselves in the rough — mere notes
and jottings, sufficient for the man who carried the
main part of his knowledge in his head, but by no
means easy to interpret or set in order for one who had
no such knowdedge. They dated, too, from twenty
years back, and in the interval great changes had
occurred in the material development of the tract where
the jMikirs live, which is now traversed by the Assam-
Bengal Railway. I decided, nevertheless, to make tht-
attempt, and, however imperfectly, to do something to
perpetuate the work of a man to whom I was most
intimately l)ound by affection, and whose great powers
and attractive personality were the admiration and
delight of all who knew him. The present volume is
the result.

In addition to Stack's notes, I received from Assam
three sets of replies to ethnographical questions which
had been circulated to persons acquainted with the

* See Bibliography, No. 15.

INTR()1HTCT()R\' \(^TE xi

tribe. These were tVoni Mr. W. ( '. M. Ilinultus, Siib-
<livisional OHirer of North Caeliar, aud tlic Rev. P. Iv
Moore ami Mr. Allen of the American Baptist Mission.*
These replies, which were not very detailed, while (juitc
independent in origin, agreed closely with Stack's data,
and showed that the lapse of years had not made the
latter inapplical)le to the present time, hi the follow-
ing pages an}' information drawn from these sources
has been duly acknowledged.

It was explained in tlie Introduction to Major
Gurdon's Monograph on the Kliasis (l*.)07) that the
order and arrangement of subjects to be treated in
dealing with each 'tribe had been prescribed by autho-
rity ; and Stack's notes had to be brought within this
framework. As will be seen, under certain heads not
much information is forthcoming ; and perhaps the
more searching standard of inquiry applied by ethno-
logists in the present day might demand more ex-
haustive treatment of some points in this presentment
of the ^Fikir people. This, liowever, must Ije left for
our successors.

Section I has l)een expanded by adding numerical
data from the last Census (1901), and measurements
from Lieut. -Colonc] L. A. Waddell's Trihcs af th,'
By<tlini<iiiiitr(i Valli'i/ (1900). Section II (Domestic
Life) is entirely due to Stack. The same is the case
with Section III (Laws and Customs), except the
Appendix. Section IV (Religion) is wholly Stack's ;
readino- the careful and minute account which it
contains of the funeral ceremonies, one is strongly

* I must apologi/.e for tlie niisdcscriptioii of tlicse gentlemen at pp. 44
and 70, as of tlie American J'nulifjfrritin Mission.

xii INTRODUCTORY NOTE

impressed by tlie thoroughness which he brought to his
investigations. Section Y (Folk-lore) contains trans-
lations of three of the folk-tales written down in ^likir
b>' Stack, of which the original text, with an inter-
linear rendering, is given in Section VI. These trans-
lations, in both Sections, have been made by me.
Stack's manuscript supplied the Mikir text, which has
been faithfully copied, and a numlter of explanatory
notes, but no connected rendering. I have therefore
had to depend upon my study of the language in the
linguistic materials collected by him, and those con-
tained in Mr. Neighbor's vocabulary and Sardoka's
dictionary and phrase-book. I had hoped t<> have the
assistance of Sardoka himself in revisino- the transla-
tions. He served for many years in tlie Assam Secre-
tariat after Stack's death, and helped in the preparation
of tlie specimens of ]\likir for the LiiKjiiisfic Sarcey in
1902; but in September, 1904, he was transferred as
iiinuzadar, or Revenue collector and administrator, to
the important mauza or territorial division in the ]Mikir
Hills called Duar BagurT, now divided between the
ilistricts of Nowgong and Sibsagar ; and on the 8 th
]\lar(;h, 1905, he most unhappily died there of cholera.
Other help was not fortlicoming. I must, therefore,
ask for the indulgence of those better acquainted than
I with Mikir in regard to these renderings. Probably
they contain many errors of detail ; but at least they
seem to hang together as a whole, and to be consistent
with what I could ascertain elsewhere of the fashion
of Mikir speech. The notes are chiefly from Stack.
The sketch of the Grammar in Section VI is reproduced
(in a somewhat altridged form) from that which I

I\TR()I)UCTOR\' NOTE xiii

contributed to tlie Liin/iiis/l,- Stiri-ii/. Stack liiinscli'
had drawn up no grannnar, though he had put together
much illustrative material fiom whidi the mechanism
of the lanouaoe could be deduced. The main tacts are

o o

clear and comparatively simple, though there are not
a few idiomatic expressions in the texts of wjiiili it is
difficult to give a satisfactory account.

For the last Section, that dealing with the probable
affinities of the ]\[ikir race, I must take the full respon-
sibility, it is the result of the collation and comparison
of materials from many sources, and especially those
contained in the three volumes of tlic /Jii(/ni-^f/c Snrri-j/
treatino- of the Tibeto-Burman familv of speech. The
authorities on whicli T liave relied are indicated in
the text.

In the Bibliography 1 have entered only those
works (so far as known to me) which contribute some-
thino- to our knowledoe of the ^likirs. 1 have not
thought it necessary to specify mere casual allusions
to the tribe, or to quote imperfect lists of words which
have been superseded by more accurate material.

For the coloured illustrations I have to thank ^liss
Eirene Scott-0'(*onnor (now Mrs. Philip liogers), and
for the photographs Major Gurdon and Mr. W. ( '. M.
Dundas ; the reproductions are l)y Messrs. W. Griggs
and Sons. The map (by Mr. -T. G. Bartliolomew)
showing the localities inhabited by the Mikirs is taken
from the new volumes of the Imix i-tal Guzcfto'r i>l
India. An explanation of the system adopted for
rendering Mikir words will be found on p. 74.

C. -I. lAALL.

April, I'JOS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TN'n;i>i»rci<>i;Y \<)TK

I'AGKS

vii— xiii

Section I.

GENERAL.

NiiinlnTs and 1 )istril>iui(

Ill ..... .

1—2

Hal)itat .

■2—:i

riiysit-al characters .

Traditioii.s as to origin

4—5

])re.ss

.-)— fj

Tattooing .

-Icwellery .

Wrai)ons .

Skctiox 11.
DO.MKSTK' LIFK.

< )i(ii]>ations

Houses

7 — it

Furniture .

!>— 10

.\ranut'actures .

Agriculture and ci-ojts

10—11

leads' clubs (rl.'fo-7/inr)

11—12

Hunting and tisliing

Food ....

12—13

Drink

i:{

Luxuries .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section J II.

LAWS AND elSTOMS.

St'i-tiuiis or Divisions

Exogamoiis groups .

IVrsoiial names

Marriage .....

Female cliastity

Polygamy ....

Divorce

Words for i-elationsliiji liy lilood or mairiage

lulieritance

Property i)i land

-Mikir inntcas ......

1 )ecision of disputes : village councils
War

Outsiders admitted to tribe

Ai'i-KNDix : List of exoganiou.s group.s as given
authorities

other

l-AGES

17
17—19

19
19—20

■20
:!<)— I'l

21
21—22

•22,
2Z

.Section IV.

RELIGION.

General character of pojiular V)elief in gho.sts anil .s

jiirit.-

^, am

a future life

2^—2i)

Amulets

:)0

The god^ and tl:eii- worshiji ....

:V)—:>A

l)ivinati<jn and luagic

:i4— ;{7

Oaths and impiecations .....

•M

Funeral ceremonies

:!7- tii

Fi'stivities .......

Tn/>,>

AUtM

44-

-46

k;-

-48

18-

— .")"»

.").")-

-70

TARIJ'. n\' C0XT1:NTS

Si;( iioN \'.
KOI.K-LOKK AND FOLK- TALKS.
Clianictcr ol .Mikir l-'olk-Uik's

Three stories translated : —

1 . Story of a Frog-

•2. The Orphan and liis fnclcs ....
'^. llarata Kui'iwar

Ai'i'KNDix : The Tieneiid ot' Ciration ...

tSECTION VI.

L.XXdUAGE.

Outline of Mikir grammar ....... I'.i — 87

.Mikir text of three stories : —

1. Story of a Frog 88—04

L'. The Orphan and his Tncles . ..... 95—112

3. Harata Kninvar 113— 150

SK( TION \'ll.
AFFINITIES.

The jilace of the Mikirs in the Tiln'td-llunnaii l''aniily . . 151 — \~-2

FjIUMockai-hy 173 — 177

]ni>k\ 17!)— 183

LIST OF ILLUSTiiATlONS.

A .Mikir Mail

Frontispiece

A (Jroup of Mikirs 'North Cachar) — 1

. Ti)Jace pwje 5

A Mikir Ciil

• . „ 0

Plan (.r Mikir House

I'nue 8

Mikir House : Family (iroup .

To face paije 10

A (Jroui) of ^Hkirs (North Cachar) — -1

A Mikir 15oy

All < )kl .NHkir Woman . . . . .

NVomcii pounding l'a<kly ....

132

Map showing Looality of Mikirs

at end of volume

THE MIKIRS

GENERAL.

Numbers — Habitat — Physical appearance — Traditions as to origin —
Attinities — Dress — Tattooing — Ornaments — Weapons.

The Mikirs are one of the most numerous and homogeneous of
the many Tibeto-Burman races inhabiting the Province of
Assam. In the tables of the Eeport on the Census of 1901
the number of Mikirs by race is given as 87,046, and that of
speakers of the Mikir hmgnage as 82,283 ; but there are curious
discrepancies in the details. In no district are the speakers of
Mikir identical in number with those returned as Alikir by
race ; and it is remarkable that in several, more persons are
returned as speaking the language than as lielonging to the
tribe. On the other hand, in the North Cachar Hills none of
the 1446 Mikirs by race are shown as speaking Mikir, which is
manifestly absurd. The following are the figures : —

Speaking Mikir.

72«

166

8,026

3,108

34,273

22,803

nil.
13,142
37

District.

Jlikirs by race

Cachar Plains

717

Sylhet

15()

Kamrup

10,587

Darrang

2,64(5

Nowgong

35,732

Sibsagar

22,909

North Cachar

1,446

Khasi and Jaintia Hills

12,840

Elsewhere

Total

87,046

82,283

In Kamrup, ISTowgong, and Sibsagar it may reasonably be
assumed that the Mikirs returned as speaking some other

2 HABITAT

language (probably Assamese) also spoke the speech of their
tribe, being bilingual like other non- Aryan races in Assam ;
and the 809 persons in Darrang, the Khasi and Jaintia Hills,
and elsewhere, returned as speaking ]\Iikir, though not as Mikirs
by race, must really have belonged to the tribe. Since 1891,
when the number of Mikirs was retm-ned as 94,829, there has
been a considerable falling-oif, due to the terrible ravages of the
disease called KdJd-dzdr * in the Xowgong and Kamrup districts.

The Mikirs inhabit in greatest strength the hills called after
them, the isolated mountainous block which fills the triangle
between the Brahmaputra on the north, the Dhansiri valley on
the east, and the Kopili and Jamuna valleys on the west and
south ; this tract is now divided between the Xowgong and
Sibsagar districts. They are also found in considerable numbers
on the northern skirts of the Assam Eange, in Xowgong, the
Khasi and Jaintia Hills, and Kamrup, and were once numerous,
as testified by the local place- and river-names, in Xorth Cachar.
They have settled in the plains, and taken to plough cultivation,
in Nowgong and Kamrup, and have also established recent
settlements of the same kind north of the Brahmaputra in
Darrang. The great bulk, however, remain a hill tribe, occupy-
ing the forest-clad northern slopes of the central range of
Assam, and practising the primitive method of cultivation by
axe, fire, and hoe.

In the Mikir Hills there are summits which attain 4,000
feet, but the greater part of the block is of much lower eleva-
tion. The rock is chiefly gneiss and granite, with few traces of
overlying formations ; and the whole is clothed with forest
growth, chiefly of bamboo, figs of different species, cinnamon,
Artocarpus, nalior {Mcsua ferrea), and a few other trees valuable
for their timber. The soil is light, and soon exhausted by
cropping ; it is naturally most fertile in the valleys, where the
deepest deposits are found. The Mikir Hills, in 1886 when Mr.
Stack wrote, had been very little explored by Europeans, and
their interior was almost unknown. To the north, from Koliabor
to Kaziranga, they abut on the Brahmaputra, only a narrow
strip of country, traversed by the southern Grand Trunk road,

* This is the official spelling. The real name is KaJa-jwar, pronounced
Kola-jor (or zor), which means "black fever."

HABITAT 3

intervening between them and the river. This stri[) has few
inhabitants and little cultivation, and is covered with hvAi
grass and cotton tree (.ny'//2«/) jungle, the haunt of wild l)uiralo
and rhinoceros. To the east is the great Xfimbar forest, a
■dense area of liigh trees occupying the Dhansiri valley from
Dimapur to within ten miles of Golaghat. To the south-west is
the valley of the Jamuna, now traversed by the railway from
•Gauhati to Lumding, a region of tall grass and sparse tree
jungle. The plain which is formed by the alluvial valley of
the Kopili (or Kupli) river and its affluents, the Jamuna and the
Diyaung (the latter coming from the North Cachar Hills), next
intervenes ; and to the west the land rises again in the northern
skirts of the Jaintia and Khasi Hills. Here the country is of
(the same character as in the Mikir Hills, but better known. It
•consists of a series of plateaus or shelves rising from the level
•of the valley, composed of gneiss and granite, and covered with
a red clay soil, the result of the decomposition of the meta-
morphic sandstones which overlay the igneous rock. The
jungle here also is chiefly of bamboo, with a few patches of
valuable forest, chiefly sal (Shorca rohusta), still surviving ; but
most of the larger timber has been destroyed by the secular
practice of axe and fire cultivation.

It is in this hilly country, and in the plains at its base, that
the Mikir people are found. The region is continuous, and is
distributed, as the figures just given show, between the districts
(from east to west) of Sibsagar, Xowgong, Xorth Cachar, the
Jaintia and Khasi Hills, and Kamrup. It is malarious and
unhealthy for unacclimatized persons, with a very moist climate,
and is wanting in the breezy amenities of the higher plateaus of
the Khasi and Jaintia Hills ; but (save during the recent pre-
valence of Kcdd-dzCir) the inhabitants appear to have acquired
some degree of immunity against the noxious influences of the
locality. Side by side with the Mikirs dwell, in the Mikir
Hills, the Eengma Nagas (who are recent immigrants from the
eastern side of the Dhansiri) ; in the Jamuna and Diyauufr
valleys, the Dimasa or Kacharis ; in the Jaintia Hills, the Kukis
and Syntengs ; and in the Khasi Hills and along the Nowgonn
and Kamrup borders, the Lfilungs and a few settlements of
Khasis.

4 PHYSICAL APPEARANCE

The name Mihir is that given to the race by the Assamese :
its origin is unknown. They call themselves Aiihig, which
means man in general.* In features the men resemble Assa-
mese of the lower classes more than most of the Tibeto-
Burman races. Their colour is light yellowish brown, and the
girls are often fair. The men are as tall as the majority of the
hill races of Assam, Colonel L, A. Waddell's eighteen specimens
averaging 1633 millimetres, or 5"354 feet, in height, the tallest
being 5-583 feet, and the shortest o"108. The average is
noticeably higher than that of their neighbours the Khasis.
The average head measurements in these specimens were —
length, 181 millimetres ; breadth, 141 ; cephalic index, 77'9.
The nose is broad at the base, and often flat, giving a nasal
index of 851, and an orbito-nasal of 107'7. The facial hair is
scanty, and only a thin moustache is worn. The front of the
head is sometimes, but not generally, shorn. The hair is
gathered into a knot behind, which hangs over the nape of the
neck. The body is muscular, and the men are capable of pro-
longed exertion. In frontier expeditions in Assam they have
frequently served (like the Khasis) as porters, and carry heavy-
loads, the burden being borne upon the back and secured by a
plaited bamboo (or cane) strap passing round the forehead
(Mikir, sindm).

The traditions of the race point to the Eastern portion of
the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, bordering on the Kopili (or Kupli)
river (where many still remain), as their original abode. They
sj)eak of this as Nihang, in contradistinction to Xil'ip, the
Daar Baguri or Nowgong region which they now inhabit.
Being harassed by warfare between Khasi (or Synteng) chiefs,

* It has been asserted that Arleng means properly only a Mikir man,.
not a man in general, who would be called momt or riiumt. This, how-
ever, is opposed to usage as exemplified in the folk-tales collected by
IVIr. Stack, and to well-established parallels found elsewhere. Tlius, in
Assam, Mamie (=mau) is the national name of the Garos ; (JliimfpliU'
( = man) is the tribal name of the race so called in the Upper Dehing
valley; lioro (= man) is the proper designation of the Kachari race.
So, in Chutia Nagpur, the Mundii people of Ranchi call themselves lloro
(= man). Similar cases are found all over the world. In Europe, for
example, the name Deutsch for the Germanic race indicates that their
ancestors spoke of themselves as '■'■the people" (diot, diota), ignoring the
other memVjers of humankind. Mumt is a] very recent loan-word from
Assamese, and nowhere occurs in the tales.

GROUP OF MIKIRS (NORTH CACHAR).
(1)

p. 5

TRADITIONS AS TO ORIGIN: DRESS 5

they resolved to move into Aliom territory, and sent emissaries
to claim protection from the Aliom governor of Ralia (Nowgong
District). These unfortunate persons, being unable to make
themselves understood, were straightway buried alive in the
embankment of a tank which the governor was excavating.
The hostilities whicli ensued were concluded by an embassage
to the king himself in Sibsagar, and the Mikirs have ever since
been living peacefully in the territory assigned to them. They
have dim traditions of a king of their own in the good old days,
whom tliey call Sot BhcIio, and are said by Mr. Stack to expect
his return to eartli. His seat is said to have been in lionr/-
Ihdnff (or Rvn(j-]ian<i) , perhaps connected with Ni-hang {Rhng,
village). They had fights with the Dimasa or Hill Kacharis,
and were led by Thong Nbkbe and other captains, who estab-
lished a fort at Diyaung-mukh (the junction of the Diyaung and
Kopili rivers), the ruins of which are still to be seen. Along
the northern skirts of the Mikir Hills there are remains of old
brick buildings and sculptures, which are now ascribed to the
Gods. Old men tell historical legends to the young ones, and
there are also legendary songs, sung at festivals ; but there is no
class specially set apart for the preservation of such traditions,
and the memory of the race is short. They are a mild and
unwarlike people, and are said to have given up the use of arms
when they placed themselves under the protection of tlie Aliom
kings.

They claim kinship with no other tribe in Assam, and are,
in fact, difficult to group with other branches of the great
Tibeto-Burman stock to which they undoubtedly belong. The
conclusions as to their affinities which it seems legitimate to
draw from their institutions, culture, and language, will be
found stated in Section A^ll. of this Monograph.

In dress the Mikir man imitates the Khasi, to whom he
seems to have lived in subjection in former times. On his
head he now wears a turban {'pohu, poho), but formerly the
Khasi cap {pliu-tup), of black or red cloth, was more usually
worn. On his loins he wears a dlioti (rikong) of cotton cloth,
and sometimes, if wealthy, of silk. His coat is a sleeveless
striped jacket (cJioi), with a long fringe covering the buttocks
and coming round in front {choi-dp-i). In cold weather he

6 DRESS: ORNAMENTS: WEAPONS

wears a thick wrapper (called in Assamese hor hiipor) of erl silk
(jje-inkl). The legs are uncovered, and shoes are not worn.

The women wear a petticoat iiiin'i), secured round the waist
by an ornamental girdle (vdnJcbk). The petticoat is of white
and red striped eri cloth. The upper part of the body is
covered with the jl-so, a wrapper passing under the arms and
drawn tight over the breasts. The head is uncovered, and the
hair is draM-n back and tied in a knot behind. In the funeral
dances, however, the head is covered with a black scarf (jl-so
ke-ik).

The men do not tattoo any part of the body. The women,
on attaining puberty, usually tattoo a perpendicular line with
indigo down the middle of the forehead, the nose, upper lip,
and chin ; no other part of the body is tattooed.

A characteristic ornament is a large silver tube inserted
into the lobe of the ear, which is much distended thereby ; this
is called Tcadhigcliinro, and weighs three or four rupees. The
ordinary hanging earring (suspended from the outer part of the
ear) of gold or silver is called no-rlk. Necklaces (lek) are worn,
of gold or silver and coral beads, as by the Khasis. Rings
(drndn) and bracelets (roi), of gold and silver, are worn. The
feathers of the hhlm-rdj are worn in the turban on festal
occasions, as among the Khasis.

The national weapons are the long knife (nbk, nuk-jir), by
the English commonly called by the Hindi name ddo, the
spear (chir), and the bow (thai, hop-thaill) made of bamboo,
with a string of tough bamboo fibre. In these there is nothing
peculiar.

MIKIR GIRL.

P e

II.

DOMESTIC LIFE.

Occupations — Houses — Furniture — Implements and utensils — Manu-
factures— Agriculture — Jlixumdr, or lads' clubs — Crops — Hunting —
Fishing — Food and Drink.

The Mikir people have always been agriculturists. Their
villages, in the hills which are their proper habitat, are set up
in clearings in the forest, and are shifted from place to place
when the soil has been exhausted by cropping. Their houses
are large and substantial, and are strongly put together. The
Mikirs are not now (if they ever were *), as Colonel Dalton
relates in his EtlLiwlocjy of Bengal, in the haljit of lodging
several families, or even the whole village, in one house. The
inhabitants of a house are all of one family, but may often be
numerous, as married sons frequently live with their parents.

The Mikir house is built on posts, and the floor is raised
several feet above the ground. The material of the super-
structure is bamboo, slit and flattened out, and the whole is
thatched with srwi-grass. A moderate elevation, with a flat top,
is preferred for building ; a slope will be taken if no better site
can be found.

The house is divided lengthwise by a partition called drpoiuj,
or nuksek-drjHjnff, into Idm, the guests' or servants' chamber,
and kitt, the living-room of the family. Kdm is on the right
side as you enter, and the only door into the house leads into it.
In lum a platform or chang, called tihung, raised above the floor
the diameter of a bamboo, runs along the outside wall ; this
may be divided off laterally into rooms for sleeping. In InU,

* One is tempted to conjecture that this statement is an error Ijastd
on a confusion between the Miria and the Mikirs in Colonel Daltou's
notebooks. The custom referred to obtains among the Mii'is.

Plan of Mikir House.

Pang (unroofed platform)

Pang-hbngkup (back veranda)

Dhtn-buk

Saiig-
rdngtik

Mi- hip
(fireplace)

(back door)

Dam-thak
paddv stores

o b o

fi replace

?^ <

fi replace

vo-roi-amehan
(dooT^

hling-thu

(front door)

Hbng-kup (front veranda)

Hong or
Hbng-pl'ang

[unroofed platform)

Theng-
roi-rai

Dbndbn.

(ladder)

Hbng-phdrld

T 1 k u p
(Yard or compound before the house, usually fenced round)

HOUSES: FURNITURE 9

separated off by a partition on the side of the outer wall, is a
long, narrow chamber, one bamboo's diameter lower than the
floor, called vo-roi, in which tlie fowls and goats are kept at
night ; it has a separate door, called ro-roi-dmehdn. In Jait,
towards the back, is the fireplace (mehlp). The space Ijefore it
is ddm-thdk, where the family sleep, and the bamboo paddy-
receptacle stands. Behind the fireplace is ddm-bul; a vacant
space, where the grown-up daughter or old woman sleeps.
Between the fire and the vo-roi is the rice-pot {sdng-rdngtih),
holding the stock of husked rice. Between the fire and tlie
partition (drjJong) is the laU-dthhigthhr, a space for miscellaneous
articles. Above the vo-roi a shelf is raised under the roof,
called vd-lidrlq), for pots, etc. Opposite the fireplace is a door
leading into kdm.

In Idm, if the house is large, there are two fireplaces.
Before the fire the space is called Idm-dthe/if/thut, or nolstk.
In the corner of the front wall and tlie partition {drpong) are
put the wa.ter-chungas {Idng-ljoiuj); it is called Idng-tenun .
The front door is called hongthu, the back door ^xt?i, or pdn-
hbngthu.

The front veranda is called hong-hup. The tihung runs out
into it, and the part beyond the front wall of the house is called
theng-roi-rai, " the place for bringing (or storing) firewood "
(theng). Beyond the hhng-kiip the platform extends unroofed
{liong-pldng). If the house be a large one, a hong-pihdrld,
roofed over, for strangers to lodge in, is made on the right side
of the hhng-pldng, but disconnected ^\"ilh tlie thhig-roi-rai ;
between it and the latter is the ladder to gain access to the
platform (dondbn), usually a tree-trunk with notches cut in it
for the feet. The hhng-phdrld may extend also across the front
of the house ; it is roofed over, but open towards the house.
Similarly, at the back of the house is the jMng-honghq), or liack
veranda, and the unroofed ^;d?i^' beyund. Xo ladder gives access
to this.

Under the house are the pigsties, pihdl-roi, and in front is
a yard or compound {tikup), usually fenced round.

Tlie furniture of the house is of the simplest description.
The floor, or a raised platform of bamboo, serves as a bed. A
block of wood (inghoi ; Ass. plrd) is used as a stool to sit on.

lo MANUFACTURES

Baskets of Ijamboo and cane are employed as cupboards in
which to store the household goods, the paddy, and the clothes.
These baskets are of various shapes and sizes, and bear many
different names. Joints of bamboo (Ass. cliungd ; Mikir, laiuj-
Ibng) are used for holding water, and also as l)0xes to contain
valuables of all kinds.

The Mikirs have few manufactures. Weaving is done by
the women of the family on rude wooden looms {loe-thcrang), the
cotton raised in their fields being previously spun on a wheel
{ml-thbngrang). They also raise erl silk (inkl), the cocoon of
the Attacus ricini, fed on the castor-oil plant, and weave it into
coarse fabrics, chiefly the hor-hdpor, or blanket, used in the cold
weather. They dye their thread with indigo (sibu), a small
patch of which is grown near every house. The indigo is not
derived from Indigo/era, but from a species of Strohilanthes,
generally identified as S. fiaccidifolius. Mr. Stack notes that
there are two kinds, hu-thl and hu-jlr ; the latter, he says, is
trained up poles, and has a longer leaf. The leaves of the
plant are bruised in a wooden mortar and mixed with water, and
the blue colour develops, as in ordinary indigo, in a few days'
time by chemical change. Besides indigo, they use a red dye,
the source of which is probal)ly the same as the Khasi red dye
(see Khasi Monograph, p. 60),

Blacksmiths (hemai) have existed among them from remote
times, and they can fashion their own ddos and various kinds of
knives. They also make needles (for which old umbrella-iibs
are in much request), and hooks for fishing.

They also make their own gold and silver ornaments (neck-
laces, bracelets, rings, ear-ornaments).

Pottery is made without the wlieel, as among the Khasis
{Monograph., p. 61). It is thick and durable, and well burnt.
There are few potters among them, and the accomplishment is
not common.

In all these branches of manufacture the tendency, witli the
increase of intercourse and the cessation of isolation, is to give
up domestic workmanship and rely more upon outside markets.

The main crops are summer rice {maikiim), sown with the
first rains and reaped in November — December, and cotton
{phtlb), also grown in the rains and gathered in the cold

tT: 5:

!*1 =

CROPS: LADS' CLUBS ii

weather. The system of jhuming, hy which huij is prepared
for cultivati(jn by cutting down and burning the jungle, is in no
respect different from the practice of all hill-tribes in the
province. They do not plant out their rice, nor use the plough
in cultivating it. There is no irrigation.

Jjesides these main crops, castor-oil is grown for feeding the
erl silkworm ; maize {thengtht), turmeric (fJidrmit), yams (hhi,
Colocasia), red pepper (birik), aubergines (Hindi, hainfjan ; ^likir,
liepi), and ginger (Jidnso) are also cultivated in small patches.
Another crop is lac, grown on branches of the arhar plant
(see Khasi Monograph, p. 47).

When j\Ir. Stack wrote, the most important institution
from the point of view of agriculture was the association
or club of the dclcas (Ass.), or young men (from twelve to
sixteen, eighteen, or twenty years of age) of the village
(Mikir, ri-sd-mdr) ; but it is reported that this useful form
of co-operation is now falling into desuetude. Li former
days the village youths (as in Xaga-land) used to live
together in a house by themselves, called in Mikir metro or
terang (in Assamese, deka-chang)* Now there is no nidro, and
the rlsomdr live in the gaohhurafs house, in the hong-jjhdrld,
the place in which strangers are lodged. They send a boy to
bring their food from their homes, and all eat together. Each
man's share is brought in a leaf-bundle (dn-hur) to keep it
warm. The gctonbura calls the people together, and proposes
that, having so many lads in the village, they should start a
lads' club. If agreed to, the union of the rlsomdr is formed, and
the lads take up their quarters in his hou.se. The club is
organized under regular oificers appointed by themselves. The
gaohhiira has general authority over them, l)ut their (avu chief
is the Jdeng sdrpo. Next comes the Ideng-dvn, then the soddr-
Jcethe, then the soddr-so or phdndiri, then the sdngho-lrrai (" he
who fetches the company"), then the hdrlon ("carrier of the
measuring-rod "). Other officers are the chhig-brup-in and ckeng-
hrup-so (drummers, chief and lieutenant), the i^hdn-h-'i (the

* In the Frocei.-diiKjn cf the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1874, p. 17,
there is uu illustration and description of a Mikir "bachelors' house," or
terang, by ]Mr. C. Brownlow, a tea-planter in Cachar. The group of
Mikirs ainong whom it was found lived at the head of the Kopili river,
looking down on the Cachar valley.

12 HUNTING: FISHING: FOOD

lad who waits on the klhig scirpo), the motan ar-t and motan
drvl (" the right and left outside strips of the field "), the
langhong-po (" carrier of the watev-chunga "), drjjheh-ijo (" carrier
of the broom "), and the chinhak-jjo (" carrier of the basket of
tools "). The risomdr all work in the fields together, each
having his own strip (d-mo) to till. The village fields are
allotted each to one house, and the grown men confine their
work to their own fields ; but the risomdr go the round of all
the fields in the village.

Work is enforced by penalties. They used to roast tliose
who shirked their share ; now they beat them for failure to
work. If the Jdeng sdrpo finds a lad refractory, he reports him
to the gaonhura.

Villages like having delxc clubs. They help greatly in
cultivation, practice dancing and singing, and keep alive the
village usages and tribal customs. They are in great request
at funerals, which are the celebrations in which most spirit is
showTi.

Hunting, with spears and dogs, is practised. The objects
of the chase are deer and wild pig ; also the iguana (Ass. gui)
and tortoise. The dog barks and follows up the track by scent.
They also set traps (drhdng) for tigers, with a spear placed so as
to 1)6 discharged from a spring formed by a bent sapling ; twice
round the tiger's pug gives the height of his chest, at which the
spear is pointed ; a rope of creeper stretched across the path
releases the spring when the tiger passes that way and comes
against it.

Fishing is done with rod and line, but chiefly by means of
traps and baskets, as in Assam generally. The trap (ru) is a
basket of bamboo, constructed so that the fish can get in but
cannot get out, and is fixed in an opening in a fence {d-rn-pdt)
placed in a stone dam built across a stream.

The staple food is rice, which is husked in the usual way,
by being pounded with a long pestle in a wooden mortar, and
cooked by the women of the family. The flesh of cows is not
eaten ; there is said to be a dislike even to keep them, but this
prejudice is now dying out. Milk is not drunk. Fowls, goats,
and pigs are kept for food, but eaten chiefly at sacrifices ; eggs
are eaten. A delicacy is the chrysalis of the trl silkworm

FOOD: DRINK 15

(Atiacus ricini) ; it is eaten roasted and curried. Children (but
not grown folk) cook and eat crabs and rats. In cooking meat,
spits (ok-dknut) are used ; the meat is either cut up and
skewered, or a large lump is placed whole on the embers ; it
is thorougldy cooked. Fish is cut into slices and put in the
sun to dry, or smoked. ]\Ieat also is cut into strips and dried
on frames in the sun.

The vegetaljles are those commonly used by the Assamese.
Sugar-cane (nok) is not much grown. A favourite seasoning is
mint {IdjJong-hrik).

Men and women eat together, within the house. The right
hand is used in eating. Leaf-plates are most used, but platters
of pot-metal are also found. No knife is used in eating : the
meat is cut up beforehand.

The first meal is cooked and eaten at 7 or 8 a.m., and
consists of rice. The evening meal is cooked after the day's
field-work is over, unless there be a cook in the liouse. At
each meal a pinch of the food is put aside for tlie God (a niar/i).

The national drink is rice-beer (hor, hbrpo), which is made
by each household for itself. The rice is cooked, and well
broken up on a mat. It is then mixed with a ferment called
thap (Bengali, hdkhar), made of powdered rice with certain
kinds of leaves pounded into it, and the whole dried for use as
required. After this has been thoroughly mixed with the
boiled rice, the latter is heaped up and covered with plantain
leaves, and put aside in the house. In three or four days, in
the hot weather, fermentation sets in ; in the cold weather a
longer time is required. It is then put into an earthern jar or
kaUl (Beng.) and water added, after which it is emptied into a
conical basket, whence it is allowed to strain through a bamboo
joint into a pot below. To make hur (Ass. modh), rice is taken
from the basket and warmed with water, which is strained ofi',
and is the modh or liorpo ; the rice is thrown to the pigs. The
better and stronger beer is that which was drained oil' the
original conical basket, and is called lior-dlang.

Ardk (Hind.) is the spirit distilled from the fermented rice
mixed with water. The still is a rude one of earthern pots
connected by a bamboo. A stronger stuff is made by distilling
hor-dlang.

14 DRINK: LUXURIES

Hor will keep good for two months if left untouched. It is
a common family drink. Gourds are used for keeping it in and
carrying it about for use.

Drunkenness is not common in the villages, and the cere-
monies and festivities at which beer is drunk are not noisy.
The me or general council, however, when large quantities are
consumed, is sometimes noisy.

Opium is used to a large extent by the Mikirs as by other
Assamese (Mr. Allen states that nearly all male adults indulge
in it). Tobacco is smoked, and also chewed with betel. The
bowl of the tobacco-pipe is made of burnt clay or of bamboo
root. Betel-nut Qcove ; Khasi, hwai) is largely consumed in the
usual way, with lime and pdn-lQoi (bltlil) ; and (as among the
Khasis) time and distance are computed by the interval required
to chew a nut. (The plu-ase is ingtat e-om-td er, " the time it
takes to chew the nut and ^xf?i-leaf red": ingtat, roll for chewing;
i-, one ; bm, chew ; er, red.)

III.

LAWS AND CUSTOMS.

Internal structure — Sections or divisions — Exogamous groups — ^larriage
laws — Counnon names — Marriage ceremony — Female chastity —
Polygamy — Divorce — Words for relati(jnship by blood and marriage
— Inheritance — Property in land — Decision of disjjutes — Village
council — Relations with neighbouring races — Appendix ; Lists of
exogamons groups given by other authorities compared with those
given by Mr. Stack.

The Mikir people proper — that is, those who continue to live in
the hills — are divided into three sections, called Chintonff.
lioughaug, and Amri. In the days of the migration eastward
from the Kopili region, ^mri stayed behind, or loitered, and
Chintbng and Ebnghang waited for him as they moved from
stage to stage. At last, on arriving at tlie Dhansiri river,
Chintbng and Ebnghang resolved to be only two sections in
future. The laggard Amri afterwards arrived, but was not
received back into full fellowship. He has no honour at the
general festivals, and in the distribution of rice-beer at feasts
he gets no gourd for himself, but has to drink from those of the
other two. These are the conditions as they exist in the Mikir
Hills and Nowgong (Duar Baguri) ; in Ni-hang, however (the
region of the Kopili), Amri is on an equality with the others.
The Mikir Hills are chiefly inhabited by the Chintbng section,
North Cachar and the hilly parts of Nowgong by the Ebnghang,
and the Kliasi and Jaintia Hills by Amri ; but individuals of
all three are found dwelling among the others.

These names, however, do not indicate true tribal divisions,
supposed to be derived from a common ancestor and united in
blood, and are probably in reality local- or place-names. Amri,
in particular, seems to be a Khasi river-name, and Ebnghang
is the legendary site of Sbt Eecho's capital. The real tribal

i6 EXOGAMOUS GROUPS

exogamous divisions run through all three, and are called hur
(aKhasi word : Assamese, i)hoid). Each of the three sections of
the race has within it the same kurs, and the individuals belong-
ing to these Icurs, whether in Chintbng, Ebnghang, or Amri,
observe the same rules of exogamy.

The number and names of the kurs, or exogamous groups,
are differently given by different authorities. The differences
appear to be partly explained by the fact that one authority has
taken for a principal group-name what another has entered as
a sub-group under another larger section. In an appendix will
be found the grouping according to several different authorities.
Here the data given by Mr. Stack, who appears to have relied
chiefly on information obtained in Duar Baguri,are reproduced.

He found that the people recognized four Jcurs, called
respectively Infjt'i, Tcranr/* LeJdJie, and Timung, under which
the smaller groups (also called kur) are ranged thus —

I. Ingti. ir. Terang. III. Lekthe. IV. Timung.

(1) Taro. (1) Be. (1) Hanse. (1) Tokbl.

(2) Katar. (2) Kro. (2) Tutso. (2) Sengnar.

(3) Hensek. (3) Ingjar. (3) B5ngrun. (3) Rbngpliar.

(4) Ingleng. (4) Kramsa.

As already mentioned, these kurs are exogamous : an indi-
vidual belonging to kur Ingti must go outside that Icur for his
wife ; and similarly Terang, Lekthe, and Timung cannot marry
wives drawn from within the kur. The sub-groups are, of
course, as parts of the larger groups, also exogamous ; and it is
easy to perceive how one informant may count as a principal
group-division what another may regard as a sub-division. All
the kurs are now socially on an equality, and have no scruples
as to eating together or intermarriage ; their traditional rank
is, however, as given above. Ingti is said to have been in
former times the priestly clan (Ass. gohdin) ; Terang also claims
this dignity, but is thought to be of lower rank ; but in both
cases the office has fallen entirely into desuetude. Lekthe is
said to have been the military clan, while Timung represented
the rest of the people.

The Mikirs who settled in the ^^lains of Nowgong and took
to plough cultivation are called Dumrall by the Mikirs and

* Other authorities mention a fifth, Teruu, which Mr. Stack may have
overlooked because of the similarity of its name to Teramj.

NAMES: MARRIAG]-. LAWS 17

ThohuL by the Assamese. They are said to have acted as
interpreters to the mission which visited the Ahoni kin^f at
Sibsagar. They also have the same lau's as the other three
sections of hill Mikirs.

The children are counted to their fatlier's Inir, and cannot
marry within it. They may, however, marry their first cousins
on the mother's side, and indeed this appears to have been
formerly the most usual match. This absence of matriarchal
institutions strongly marks off the Mikirs from the Khasis,
from whom they have in other respects borrowed mucli.

The following are common personal names among tlie
Mikirs :—

Mkn.

Women.

Sfirdoka.

Burfi.

Kareng.

Kare.

M5n.

Pator.

Kaclie.

Kasang.

Dili.

Long.

Kaban.

Kadoni.

There.

Men.

Kamang.

Dlnil.

Kangther.

Bi.

Ka-et.

Ingle.

Tamoi.

Sotera.

Ka-jir.

Teiuen.

Katfi.

It is said that no meaning is attached to these names ; tliat
is, they are not given because of any meaning which they may
possess. (It is evident that many of them have a meaning:
e.g. Bl is a goat, Lmuj a stone, Pator is a village official among
the Khasis, B^ird is Assamese for " an old man," Tdmoi is
probably the Assamese for the betel-nut (tdmol.) Sotera may
be corrupted from sangtard, orange.) The prefix Ka- in
women's names is manifestly taken from Khasi usage. There
are no surnames, but tlie name of the kur is used to distinguish
one individual from another, as Mon Lektlu", Mon Timung.

The age for marriage is from fourteen to tweuty-iive for
the man, ten to fifteen for the girl; eighteen or nineteen
and fifteen are the most usual ages. Child marriage is
unknown. If a young man fancies a girl (from meeting her
at dances and the like), he sends one or botli parents to
her father's house, and if the girl's parents agree, the lad's
father leaves a betrothal ring or bracelet with the girl (this
is called ke-roi-dun) ; sometimes a gourd of rice beer is taken
and accepted, and in that case, if she subsequently marries
another, the village council fine her family 25 to 35 rupees;
otherwise only the betrothal ring or bracelet is returned. The
C

i8 MARRIAGE

length of the engagement is uncertain, but the actual marriage
does not take place till after puberty. When the marriage day
is fixed, both families prepare beer and spirits ; if the bride-
gi'oom is rich, he provides drink for the whole country-side
(hbr-hak hbr-tibulx). The bridegroom's party, giving a gourd of
beer to each village they pass through, arrive at the bride's
house in the evening. There they sit awhile, and then offer
one gourd of beer and one glass bottle of spirits to the bride's
father on the Mmg. A colloquy ensues : the bride's father asks
the bridegroom's why they have come, and why these offerings.
He answers, "Your sister {i.e. the wife of the speaker) is
becoming old and cannot work, so we have brought our son to
many your daughter." (The custom formerly was that a boy
must marry his first cousin on the mother's side, and if he did not,
the maternal uncle could beat the lad as much as he liked ; but
now they can do as they please.) The reply follows : " My
daughter is unworthy, she does not know weaving and other
household work." " Never mind, we will teach her ourselves."
The bride's father then asks his wife to enquire of the girl if
she will take the lad ; without her consent the beer and spirits
cannot be accepted. If the wife reports consent, the beer and
spirits are drunk by the two fathers. Sometimes they sit the
whole night before the girl's consent is obtained. If any
knowing old men are there, they sing in two parties : " We
cannot send our daughter to your house ! " " Wc cannot leave
our boy to stay with you ! " When the question of consent
is settled, all eat together. Then the bride prepares the bed
inside the house for the bridegroom, in the Ixam ; in the tihung
(see plan *) if there is room : if not, in the thhigtlibr; but if the
lad is ashamed, he sends one of his garments to take his place
in the bed.

What follows depends upon the wealth and standing of the
parties. If the wedding is dl-cjoi — that is, if no payment is to
be made for the bride — the girl goes with her husband next day
to her new home. Her parents accompany her, and are enter-
tained with food and drink, returning the following day. If the
wedding is dkemen (literally, ripe, iJalJai), the lad stays in his
father-in-law's house. He rests one day, and then works for his

* P. 8.

MARRIAGK 19

father-iu-law for a year, or two years, or e\'on it may bo t'oi-
life, according to agreement. There is no money payment in any
case. If the girl is an heiress or only daughter, the marriage
is usually cikcmhi ; ].)ut in tlie great majority of cases it is dlrjoi.
The neighljours of both villages assemble at the marriage, and
when the bride goes to her husband's house, the neighl)0urs of
the village accompany her anil are hospitably entertained.

Before marriage it was reported, when Mr. Stack made his
enquiries, that there was little intercourse between the sexes.
Seduction rarely «»ccurred, but when it did, the parents of the
girl had to give her to the lad in marriage. It was not punished.
Old men, however, couhl rememijer (1885) when the tcrang or
" bachelors' house " used to Ije the abode not only of the lads,
but also of the maids, and illegitimate births were common.
The girls used even to work in the fields with the boys ; there
was not even a matron to look after them !

After marriage adultery is said to be rare. The case is
judged by the me, or village council, who inflict a fine. The
guilty pair are tied up and exposed to the scorn of the neigh-
bours until the fine is paid by the man. Adultery was never
capitally punished. After the fine is paid, the husband has to
take his wife back, unless there are no children, when he might
refuse to do so. The fine is not given to the olfended husband,
but distributed among the elders who compose the me.

The authorities differ on the question whether more than
one wife is allowed. "WTien Mr. Stack wrote, in 1883, the
chapter on "Castes and Tribes" in the Eeport on the Assam
Census of 1881, he stated that " polygamy is permitted if a man
can afford it." His subsequent notes of 1885-86, however,
record tliat monogamy is the rule, and no one is allowed to
marry two wives. Mr. W. C. M. Dundas, Subdivisional Olficor
of Xorth Cachar, writing in 1903, says that an Arleng may
marry only one wife. On the other hand, the Eev. P. E.
Moore, who has a long experience of the ]\likirs, writing in
1902, says, " Polygamy is not common. A man sometimes
takes a second wife. In one instance which came to my notice
recently the two wives were married on the same day. The
man is usually fined Es. 12.8 for this irregularity. Tlie
father of a boy who is now in my service had six wives, and

MARRIAGE: WORDS FOR KINSHIP

was not pimished at all," * Perhaps it may be concluded that
monogamy is the general rule, and that cases of polygamy have
occurred in consequence of the effect of the example of the
Assamese, and the weakening of tribal sanctions.

The young couple live in the bridegroom's father's house.
The old people often get separate rooms allotted to them as they
advance in life, and are supported in idleness.

Widow marriage is allowed. Divorce is rare, but permis-
sible if there is no offspring, or if the girl goes home after
marriage and refuses to return to her husband. In that case
the husband takes a gourd of beer to her parents and declares
himself free. Both parties, after the divorce, can marry again.

[Note by Editor.
The following list of Mikir words for family relationship has some
points of interest : —

Grandfather^ p7r«.
Father, po.
Husband, peng-dn.

Grandmother, pjhi.
Mother, pei, jn.
Wife, jtjesJ.

(Wedded pair, Peng-dn-so, Pengnan-su.)

Wife's father, Inqjo, bngJiai.
Husband's father, Jbk-hai.
Father's brother, punu.
Mother's brother, bng, nihu.

Wife's mother, nipi, nihai.

Father's sister, p'lnu.
Father's brother's wife, ni.

Child, common gender, without reference to parents, so.

Boy, oso.

Son, sopo.

Grandson, supo.

Brother, in general, Tcor, Tcorte.

Brother, when speaker is a female,

cliekle.
Elder brother "» words used (ih
Younger brother/ by both sexeslwit

Brother - in - law : wife's brother,

ong-so.
Sister's husband, me, ingjir-arlo ;

korpo.
Son-in-law, and.
Nephew, generally, phiJipo.
Elder brother's son, ik-dsO.
Brother's son, kor-dso.
Sister's son, osd.

Girl, osopji.
Daughter, mpl.
Granddaughter, supu.
Sister, in general, kor, kbrte.

Ite, when speaker is a
female.
ingjirpjt, when speaker
is a male.
Younger sister, mu.
Brother's wife, for male speaker,

tepl ; for female speaker, neng.
Wife's sister, korpi.

Niece, philipi.

* In the story of Harata Kunwar, p)ost, p. 57, a second or co-wife is
mentioned (Mikir, pjdteng, pdju).

INHERITANCE: I'KolMJM'V I X LAXlJ 21

The remarkalile poiut ahouL tlicse nuines is that most of tlicm
are the same for both sexes, aud that the sexes are <listin,t,Miished only
by words iiidieating «,'eiider where this is required. Po is the index
for the male, jn that for the female.

Again, tlie same word appears to l)e used in diiTercnt senses : cy.
bng is maternal unele, but i)ii<i-sd {so is the syllable indieatiuj,' a
diminutive) is the wife's brother, the " little uncle ; " osa is lx)th
nephew (sister's son) and son-in-law (pointing to the custom of
intermarriage of first cousins on the mother's side). Te is sister,
but tejii (/,i indicates greatness) is brother's wife. Similarly, kur is
sister (or brother), korpl is wife's sister, /cor/w sister's husband.

It will be observed that brothers and sisters, and brothers-in-law
and sisters-in-law, use different forms of address when speaking of
their relationship i/iter sp.

The whole subject seems to demand further investigation, in the
light of comparison with the system of family grouping in other
allied tribes, and the history and etymology, so far as it is possible
to ascertain them, of the words indicating relationship.]

The sons inherit ; if there are none, the brothers ; after them
the deceased's nearest agnate of his own kicr. The wife and
daughters get nothing. But if the deceased has no sous or
brothers, the widow can retain the property by marrying into
her husband's Inr. In any case she retains her personal
property, ornaments, clothes, etc. If the widow will not
surrender the property, the case has to come before the ??ie.

The eldest sou gets somewhat more than the others ou the
father's death. Generally, however, the property is tlivided
beforehand by the father, who often prefers one son to another.
The fauiily usually continues to dwell together, the grown-up
sons supporting the widowed mother. Adoption is unknown.

Villages have no fixed or recognized boundaries, but are
moved from place to place according to the needs of cultivatiou.
Only house-tax is paid, except by Mikirs cultivating land with
the plough in the submontane tracts, who are treated in all
respects like other Assamese raiyats. In the hills the cultur-
able land, at the first settlement of a village in a new locality,
is divided among the householders by the mi', or village council,
presided over by the gaohhura, the head of each household
choosing his own land for cultivation, and any dispute being
referred to the me. Should the dispute not lie settled in this

22 DECISION OF DISPUTES

manner, the majority prevails, and the dissident households, if
they do not acquiesce, may remove elsewhere and set up for
themselves as a new community with a (jao'iibura of their own.

The following are the Mikir mauzas, or territorial divisions
including a number of villages, in the Nowgong district : —

Duar Baguri, Duar Bamuni, Duar Sal(5na, Bbngkhang, Duar
Amla Parbat, Duar Dikhoru, Duar Kothiatali, Jamuna-par,
Langpher, Lumding IMikir. The last two are new mcmzas, the
opening-out of which is due to the Assam-Bengal Eailway,
which traverses the tract. Each mauza has a ]\Iikir mauzaddr
or Wilioya.

The decision of disputes is the business of the village rue, or
council,* presided over by the gaohhura (Mikir, sdr-tlte). The
me is composed of all the male householders. The gaoYibura
is chosen for his personal character by the householders. On
election, he repairs, with beer and spirits, to the head gaoiibura
or mauzadar, bringing with him two or three other gaonburas.
A pig is killed, the company eat and drink together, and the
gaonhiira is declared duly elected. The me is summoned by the
gaoiibura. It decides all village disputes, and inflicts small
fines. It also determines whether the village shall be shifted,
and where it shall be removed to. A me-pl (" great council ")
consists of gaokhuras only, presided over by a mauzadar or head
gaoiibiira. Graver matters, such as charges of adultery, witch-
craft aimed at life {iiiajd Ixelwnglwi), tigers in the mauza,
questions affecting the viauza at large, the arrangements for the
IlhngVer or annual village festival, and such like, are referred to
the rfie-'fi.

The Mikirs have never been a warlike race, nor are there
any traditions of inter-village feuds. Head-hunting has not
been practised, but the tribe have often been the victim of raids
for this purpose by their neighbours, the Angami Nagas. There
are said to have formerly been vendettas between families.

During the Burmese wars in the early part of the last
century, the tribe deserted its settlements in the submontane

* This is an Assamese word, md. The Mikirs cannot pronounce a
final ?, and always omit it or change it to i or y in words adopted from
Assamese; tjj. hell, plough, becomes hay; pitol, brass, jpitoi ; tcimol,
betel-nut, tdmoi.

GROUP OF MlKinS [NORTH CACHAR).

f}. 23

OUTSIDERS ADMITTED: KURS 23

tract, and fled into llie higher hills. Many Assamese are re-
ported to have taken refuge with them dnriiiL,' this time, uml
to have become Mikirs. [Mr. Dundas also mentious that in
North Cachar outsiders are admitted into the tribe and are
enrolled as members of one of the /vys-, after purification by one
of the Ije-kurii /.?</■ (Mr, Stack's 7jV' and Kro, sub-/.»/-.s'of Terang).
In the group opposite, taken from a photograph supplied by
Mr. Dundas, the short man is evidently a Khasi, while the man
to his left appears to be an Assamese.]

The Mikirs call their Kachari neighbours rdro/,-, the ^likir
pronunciation of Boto (in the allied dialect of Tipperah horok
means " man ") ; the Assamese are Ahbm, the I>engalis L'ongnal
{Bongncd-ddin, " British rule "), the Nagas AT^Au. The Khasis
generally are called Chomang, the border race of Khasis,
adjoining the Kopili or Kupli river, being Cliomdng-Kicht.
Keclie is, no doubt, equivalent to Khdsl, the vowel-change being
the same as in Iitcho for PuijCi.

APPENDIX.

1. The Icurs or exogamous groups of the Mikir race are thus
given in the Assam Census Report for isOl (vol. iii. \\\k cii.-ciii) : —

Main Suhdivisions.

I. Ingti. II. Terang. III. Teran. lY. Tmnnng. Y. InLdii
or Hengse.

I. Subdivisions of Ingti —
1. Tnyle.

2. Ingti-Henchek.

3. Ingti-Kiling.

Kathfir.
Turak or Tare.

II. Subdivisions of Terang —

1. Be-bonghaiig (read Be- I 0. Kro-Jingthong.

Boiighwu/). 7. Kro-ghoria.

2. Be-Jiiigtliong. e. Lilipo-kro.

3. Injai. ••• Kongbijiya.

4. Kro. 1<»- Tarang.

5. Kro-bonghiing (read Kro- 11. Terang.

liongldiny.

III. Subdivisions of Teran —

1. Ai. -i- Mihk.

2. kangkat. 1 «■ Tarap.

3. Lanyle.

24 KURS ACCORDING TO OTHER OBSERVERS

IV. Subdivisions of Tumuny —

1. Benar-pfitor.

2. Chenar.

3. Dera.

4. Keleng.

. iSubdivisions of Inghi —

1. Bonrung.

2. Handle.

3. Ke-ap.

4. Lekethe.

5. Ronghanw-crhoria.

5. Rongphar.

6. Rongtar *-Jungthong.

7. Takki.

8. Tumung-pator.

6. Rongpi.

7. Rongchehon.

8. Tuso.

9. Tutab.

An attempt is made in the report to translate some of these
names, but it appears very doubtful whether the meanings assigned
are correct. So far as they go, the explanations show that some of
the names (to which an Assamese form has in some cases been given,
as in those ending in ghorici) are designations of offices {e.g. Pator,
Rongchehon = village watchman), while others are local or place-
names.

Under I. Ingti, (1) InglG is evidently Mr. Stack's Ingleng ; (4)
Kathar is his Katar, (2) [Ingti] -Henchek is his Hensek, and (5)
Taro his Taro.

Under II. Terang, (I and 2) Be is Mr. Stack's Be, (4, 5, G, 7) Kro
is his Kro, and (o) Injai is probably his Ingjar ; the others seem to
be either local names (8, Lilipo-kro = Western Kro, Nilip = west ;
9, Rongbijiya = inhabitants of some particular village), or duplicates
of the group-name Terang (Xos. 10 and 11).

Mr. Stack had no group named Ten'in.

Group lY., Tumung, corresponds to Mr. Stack's Timung ; of the
subdivisions, 2, Chenar is probably his Sengnar, 5, Rongphar agrees
with his list, and 7, Takki is probably his Tokbi. Nos. 1 and 8 are
explained as office-holders, No. 3 is a place-name, No. 4 is a river
(Kiling), and No. 6 seems to be a duplicate of No. 5.

Group v., Inghi, corresponds to Mr. Stack's Lekthe, which occurs
as the name of subdivision 4 in the census list ; 1, Bonrung, is
Mr. Stack's Bongrun ; 2, Hanche, is his Hanse ; 8, Tuso, is his
Tutso. His Kriimsa is not found in the census list, but occurs, as
will be seen below, in other lists.

2. Mr. Dundas, Sul)divisional Officer of North Cachar, writing
in March l'JU3, gives the following groups : —

Main Exogamons Groiips.
1. Inghi. II. Timiing. HI. Teron. IV. Kathar. Y. Be.
YI. Injai.

* Qu. Rongphar?

KURS ACCORDING TO OTIIKR OBSERVERS 25

1. Iii;,']il has tlic folldwiny; sul)(livi,sii>iis : —

1. llongpi, furtliLi- subtUvidei.1 (a) Knngchaichu, (/') Rongclu-hoii,

into (c) Cliiutliniig, ((/) LinclMv.

2. Ronghang ,, ,, ('/) Htimpi, (b) Heiiiso.

3. Inghl ,, ,, («) Hi'inj)!, (/>) H^msG.

4. Hrmsu ,, ,, (a) Duronij, (b) Noiigkfila,

5. Lektlie ,, ,, («) Keap, (6) Tereiig.

6. Bongruiig ,, ,, («) KrilinsiT, (b) Rungcliulii'iii, (c)

H6mso.

7. TutsO ,, „ (rt) Motliu, (6) Roiigphu, (c) Houg-

hing, (d) Rongchitiui, (t) Rung-
chaichu, (/) Rongchehon.

(Nos. 4, fi, and 7 agree with Mr. Stack's list under Li-kthe, and
Mr. Stack's Kramsa appears as a further subdivision of Bongrung.
As regards the others, the names beginuiu'4' with Rong may be
local village names ; Chinthong and Ronghang are the names of
great sections of the Mikir population, not of exogamous groups ;
Hempi and Hemso mean merely " great house " and " little house.")

J I. Tiniung (Mr. Stack has the same spelling) comprises —

1. Timung Liucluk, subdivision (a) R^ngchaichu.

2. Rijngphur ,, (a) HompI, (i) Hemso.

3. Chinthong . , (a) iSeng-ar, {b) Hemjii, (c) HSmso.

4. Phangchu ,, (a) Juiti, ib) Rongphang,

5. Phura „ (a) Dili.

6. Tnkbi ,, .(«) Tuksikf.

7. Kiling

8. Mcii

9. PiltGr

10. Longteroi

11. Yaclii ,, (o) Hempr, (b) Hemso.

12. Dera ,, (w) Hempi, (b) H^mso.
1:3. Rr,ngpi

(Here Nos. 2 and G correspond with jNlr. Stack's subdivisions,
and No. ;-5 (a), Seng-ar, is his Sengniir ; several of the remainder
appear to be local names.)

III.

Teron C(jmprises —

Langne,

subdivision (a) Rongchfiichu

Kongkar

(a) Dcngya.

Mejl

Milik

,, (a) Serang.

Mele

Kiling

(Mr, Stack has none of these names ; but Langne evidently
corresponds to Langle in the census list, and Knugkiir to Kangkiit,
while Milik is in both.)

26 OTHER LISTS OF KURS

IV. Kathfir comprises —

1. Ingti-Kilthar

2. Riso

3. Hensek

4. Ingti-Kiling

5. Ingling, subdivisions (a) Henipi^ (b) Hem so.

6. Ingti-Chinthong

7. Taro

(These names, except Riso, which means "young man," all occur
in Mr. Stack's group Ingti. Nos. 4 and G are evidently local
subdivisions.)

V. Be comprises —

1. Rijnghang

2. Kiling

3. Linclok

4. Seng-ut

0. Terang, subdivisions (ff) Dili, (h) Rongchaichu.

('). Kuru ,, («) Rongchaichu^ (b) Nihang, (c) Nilip.

(This group corresponds to ]\Ir. Stack's Terang ; Kuru is his
Kro. Subdivisions 1, 2, and 3 are apparently local names.)

VI. Injai comprises —

1. Injai

2. Ing-ilr.

(Mr. Stack gives Ingjar as a subdivision of Terang ; the census
list also classes Injai under the same main group. Mr. Dundas
notes that the Injai may not take a wife from the Be (i.e. Terang)
group, from which it may be concluded that they are really a sub-
division of that name, or Terang.)

3. So far the three lists are in general agreement ; but the Rev.
Mr. Moore, writing in August 10u2, gives what at first sight is an
entirely different arrangement. He separates the Mikir people into
the following five groups : —

I. E-jang. II. Tung-G. III. Kr6n-5. IV. Lo-e. V. Ni-e.

I. E-jang he subdivides into —

1. Rungpi.

2. Runghang.

3. Tutso.

4. Hanse.

.">. Bongrung.

II. Tung-e comprises —

1. Tiiiiung.

2. Tukln.

3. Timung-Kiling.

4. Timung-Rongphur.

6. Kramsa.

7. Keap.

8. Lekthe.

9. Rongchehon.

5. Timung-Senar.

6. Timung-Phangchu.

7. Timung-Juiti.

8. Toktiphi.

OTIIICR LISTS OF KURS 27

III. Kr6n-e includes —

1. Teron. 1 3. TtTMn-L;\ngnt'.

2. Teron-Kungk.\t. I

IV. Lo-e is divided into —

1. Be. 4. Ingjfii,

2. Kro. b. Ingnar.

3. Terming.

V. Ni-e comprises —

1. Ingti. I 3. Taro.

2. Ingleng. '

Comparing tlie sublivisions with those given Ity Mr. Siafk, we
perceive that five of the nine shown under Mr. Moore's I. E-jang
(Nos. 3, 4, 0, 7 , and 8) are identical with Mr. Stack's Li'kthc and its
subdivisions; the remaining four (Rongpi, lionghang, liongchehon,
and Keap) are all found in the census list of 1^91 under Inghi,
another name for Lekthe. Evidently, therefore, E-jang is the
equivalent of Mr. Stack's Lekthe and the census Inghi.

Under II. Tung-e all ]\Ir. Stack's names classed under Timung
appear ; of the remainder, some are found in Mr. Dundas's list,
either of subdivisions or smaller sections, under Timung ; Toktiphi is
probal)ly Mr. Dundas's Toksiki ; and Timung-KiHng is the census
"Keleng" (a river-name). It is clear, therefore, that Tung-e is the
same as the Timung (Tumung) of the other lists.

III. Kron-e is evidently the small group Teron or Teran of
Mr. Dundas and the census list, not found in ^Ir. Stack's
enumeration.

IV. Lo-e is also clearly the Terimg of the three other lists,
which account for all the names given under it.

V. Ni-e is the equivalent of Mr. Stack's Ingti, called by the
same name in the census list, and Kathilr in Mr. Dundas's list (the
omission of the name Kathar, or Kiitiir, from ^Mr. ]\Ioore's list is
somewhat noticeable).

It thus appears that all the four lists in reality agree in a re-
markable manner, quite independent as they are in their origin, and
that all observers concur in stating that the Mikir people are
divided into five (or four) great exogamous groujis, whether situated
in the Mikir Hills, in Xorth Cachar, or in the Khasi Hills and the
hilly country to the south of Nowgong.

IV.

RELIGION.

General character of popular belief in ghosts and spirits, and a future
life — No idols, temples or shrines — Amulets — The Gods and their
worship — Divination and magic — Oaths and imprecations — Funeral
ceremonies — Festivities — Taboo.

Beliefs about the Dead.

The Mikirs have borrowed from the Hindu Assamese the
ideas and the names of Boil-untlw (VaiJcuntha, Vishnu's
Paradise) and Noroh {Naraha, Hell) ; but these conceptions do
not play much part in their views of a life to come. Better
known, and more often mentioned, is Jbm Rh:lib {Jam, Yama
Bajd), the Lord of Spirits, with whom the dead remain below
o-round. His abode — the abode of the dead — is Jom-drong*
and the elaborate ceremonies of the funeral are the means
by which the spirit of the dead gains admittance to Jom's
city. Unless they are duly performed he remains outside.

They speak of having seen the shade (image, cirjan) of a
dead man {ne Id drjan tlieUok, " I saw his shade ") ; a sickly
man catches such glimpses in the house, on the road, etc.
Fhdrlo, spirit, is used both of living persons and dead. Tove ne-
2)hdrld ne Id-dhanrj tWeh-long , "Last night in my spirit I saw
him " ; where j)lidrlb is the spirit of the sleeping man. When
such glimpses are experienced, betel and food are set aside in
the house, and after a time thrown away.

On a death occurring, the old women of the village wash
and lay out the body. Then one composes a chant, setting forth
the parentage and life of the dead : " You will now ineet your
grand-parents, father, deceased brother, etc., and will stay with

* This name, which means " Jom or Yama's town," is often incorrectly
written Chomarong or Chumarong.

BELIEFS ABOUT Till': DILAD 29

tliem and eat with them." Then a separate meal of lico and a
boiled egg is placed beside the body, and the dead man is
invited to eat. This is done twice a day, the meal being
cooked separately from the food of the family. After being
offered and placed beside the corpse for a time, the food is
thrown away. This goes on day by day until the funeral
service is held (see below). After that there are no regular
offerings, but occasionally a man or woman puts aside from
his or her own share of food a portion for the dead, as, for
instance, when another funeral reminds them of those who have
died before.

There does not appear to be any fear of the dead coming
back to trouble the living. Some people, however, it is said,
are afraid to pass the burying-place of the dead after dark.

They say that a man called Tltl-rhuj Viing-reng (literally,
" Dead-alive come-alive ") in former times used to travel
between this world and J 6m Eecho's abode ; he taught them
their funeral ceremonies. At last he did not come back.
Everything is different in Jbm-arbng. Thireng Yangi'eng saw
the people there go out to fish, and gather instead pieces of
stick. They asked him why he did not gather them too; he
answered that they were not fish, but sticks. They waved
over them a lighted brand, and he saw them as fish. So, too,
there a crab becomes a tiger, or seems to be a tiger. Men do
not stay in Jbm Eecho's city for ever, but are born again as
children, and this goes on indefinitely (here we seem to have a
borrowing from Hinduism). " The Mikirs give the names of
their dead relations to children born afterwards, and say that
the dead have come back; but they believe that the spirit is
with Jbm all the same." *

A man with unusually keen and alarming eyes is said to be
possessed by a demon (hl-l). The phrase is dhl-l Icdo arll-ng,
and, of the eyes, dmeh dhl-l kedo. But the superstition of the
evil eye, as prevalent elsewhere, seems to be unknown, and
such a man is not avoided ; rather, the In-i is supposed to give
him cleverness. The same phrase is used in familiar abuse
to a child : Ahl-l hedo oso, " You devil-possessed brat ! "

* Sentences enclosed in (juotation marks were so written by Mr. Stack,
and are probably the ipsissiiua verba of his informants.

30 RELIGION

PiELiGiox — Divinities.

The Mikirs have no idols, temples, or shrines. Some
people, however, have fetishes or amulets, called hbr. These
are pieces of stone or metal, by keeping which they become
rich. Sometimes, however, a man unwittingly keeps a hbr that
brings him ill-luck and loss. A man is said to have got a hbr,
hbr 'kclbng ; Bbr do-kbJcIe, planri-pU- jl md ? "If you have got a
hbr, will you not become rich ? " Bbrs are not common ; one
gets them by chance in river, field, or jungle. Or a man dreams
that he can get a hbr in such a place, and finds it there. But
these amulets are not objects of worship or propitiation.

The Gods — Arnam-dtum — are innumerable, and are wor-
shipped in different ways, at different times, and in different
places. The names of some of the most important are given
below.

Arndm Kethi;, in spite of his name, which means "The
Great God," has no definite authority over the other Gods. He
is a house-god, and is sacrificed to once in three years, if no
occasion (in consequence of trouble) arises meanwhile. His
appropriate offering is a pig. The family obtain Arndm Keihe
by asking him to stay with them, and by castrating a young
pig, to be sacrificed three years later. All families liave not got
Arndm Kethe to stay with them, nor does he always come when
invited. If a man is sick, and the uche (diviner) declares that
Arndm Kethe wishes to join the household, the ceremony is
performed, but no offerings are made at the time. After three
years — or earlier, if there is any sickness in the family — the pig
is killed, and a general feast, with rice, beer, and spirits, given
to the village. A booth of leaves is built in the three days
before ; the first day is devoted to cutting the posts for the
booth, and is called iihbnrj-rbnff Icethuj ; the second, to garlanding
leaves round the posts, called 2)hb7ig-rbn(^ Icetbm ; and on the
third day leaves are laid out for the rice, rice-flour {pithaguri,
Ass.) is sprinkled about the ground, and plantains and other
trees are planted around the booth. All these preparations are
done in the early morning before eating. Then follows the
ceremony — Arndm Kethe kdraldi. First, there is the invoca-
tion : " To-day has come, and now we will give you your

RELIGION 31

three-years' offering ; accept it kindly ! " Fowls are killed, iiiid
then the pig (all animals killcil in sacrifice are beheaded with
one stroke of a heavy knife delivered from above). Thu
liver, heart, and lights of both are cooked for the god.
Then the hoof, ear, and tail of the pig are offered, then pieces
of cooked meat. Afterwards the sacrificers eat tekdr Idh'i or
fekdr-so, then tekdr-jn. Both are pieces of flesh, the first
smaller, the latter larger, eaten with rice-beer. Then all the
company set to and eat rice and flesli together. Sometimes
three or four pigs and forty ditlerent kinds of vegetables are
consumed at the sacrificial feast. The women get sixfold or
ninefold the shares of the men, and carry them home bound \x\>
in leaves (aji-hdr and bk-hur).

Pl'n'j is also a household god. His offering is a goat,
sacrificed yearly, in the tikup or space before the house. Some
neighbours are invited to the sacrificial feast. Fhij lives in
the house, Arndm Ketlie in heaven. Peng is also sacrificed to
in sickness. Very few houses have not Peng. JMaize, rice, and
a gourd of rice-beer are placed for him above the veranda of
the house, and the firstfruits of the harvest are offered to him.
" But these two gods only come to eat, and families avoid
taking them if they can."

Hemphu ("head of the house," "householder") owns all
the Mikir people. Everybody can sacrifice to him at any time,
and pray for deliverance from sickness. Mukranj is similar to
IL-mphu, Ijut slightly lower in dignity. These two gods, the
preservers of men, are approached by the sacrifice of a fowl or'
goat. Heinpliu must be invoked first in every sacrifice, being
the peculiar owner of men.

Reh-anglbng ("the mountain of the community") or Inglbng-
pi (" great mountain ") is a house-god, Init is worshipped in the
field, and only men eat the sacrifice, which is a fowl or a goat
once a year. He is the god of the hill they live on, the Dcus
loci, with whom they have to be at peace; but not every family
in the village need have him.

Arndm pdrd (" the hundred god ") is the name of a god who
takes a hundred shares of rice, pithdguri, betel-nut, and the red
spathe of the plantain tree cut up. He is worshipped with a
white goat or a white fowl as the sacrifice. He and PeJc-dnglbng

RELIGION

fifTure particularly in the Rongker, or great annual village
festival, celebrated in June at the beginning of the year's
cultivation. {Arnam-pdro seems to be a colleative name, to
include all gods whom it may concern. Kamakhya, the Hindu
goddess of Xilachal above Gauhati, is mentioned as one of the
deities included in Arnam-jjard.)

The "ods named above are all invoked and propitiated to
wrant prosperity and avert misfortune, both generally and
specially. There are, besides, numerous gods who take their
names from the special diseases over which they preside or
which they are asked to avert ; such are —

Chomcmg-dse (" Khasi fever "), a Khasi god, who lives in
the house and is propitiated with a goat ; he is comparatively
rare. This god appears to be identical with KecJie-ase, which is
the rheumatism. {Chomanr/ is the name for the interior Khasis,
Keche for those immediately in contact with the Mikirs.)

Ajb-cise (" the night fever ") is the deity of cholera (md-vur
or pbk-dvur). The sacrifice to him is two fowls and many eggs,
and is offered at night, on the path outside the village. The
whole village subscribes to furnish the offering, and with the
eatables are combined a load of cotton, a basket of chillies, an
offering of yams, and the image of a gun (because cholera is
thought to be a British disease) ; also sesamum {nempb), many
bundles consisting of six sticks of a soft wood called cJiekndm
(perhaps the cotton tree, homhax) tied together, many bundles
of the false cane (ingsa), and double wedges of cTu'lndm wood.
The god is invoked : " Don't come this way, go that way ! "
The eatables are eaten, and the other articles thrown away. The
houses are then beaten with rods of chehidni and ingsu.

So-meme ("evil pain") is the god to whom barren women
have recourse.

Recurring sicknesses and troubles are ascribed to Tlieng-thon
or dk-ldngno, a devil (Jil-i) ; he is propitiated with a goat and a
pig, or two or three fowls. A man gasping in sickness is being
strangled by Theng-thbn. If, notwithstanding invocations of
the gods, sickness grows worse, a sacrifice is offered to Theng-
thbn without summoning the diviner or sdng-lddng-dhdng.

Mr. Stack gives the following as the names of the chief
•diseases (besides those already mentioned), the averting of which

ri:ligion

forms the main object of worship : goitre, iilmn-hanfj (" swollen
throat ") ; phthisis, .n-l (also cough) ; stone, irKjthak ; diarrlKca,
foh-laniis'i ; rheumatism, la'chv-ds? (" Khasi fever") ; neuralgia,
hub dse ; small-pox, i^i-dimr ("the Mother's flowers"); black
leprosy, sl-i ; white leprosy, drnl- ; elephantiasis, hhui-tviui
{keiifi, leg ; iiuituini, funnel-shaped basket); dysentery, y)'V.; ICipdcl
(" bleeding of belly ").

The house-gods come down in the family; no others w(j\dd
be sacrificed to if the family were uniformly prosperous.

All natural objects of a striking or imposing character have
their divinity. The sun {arm) and moon (chiJdo) are regarded
as divine, but are not specially propitiated. But localities of
an impressive kind, such as mountains,* waterfalls, deep pools
in rivers, great boulders, have each their drndm, who is con-
cerned in the affairs of men and has to be placated by sacrifice.
The expression driuim do, used of a place, means, generally, to
be haunted by something felt as mighty or terrible. All water-
falls {langsnn), in particular, have their drnanis. In Baguri
mauza there are two great waterfalls in the Diyaung river
which are specially venerated as divine ; one of these, the
Lang-kawjtonrj ("Rolling-down water"), can be heard half a
day's journey off. Similarly, there are places where a river
goes underground {lang-lut); these also have their driiam.\
Such local divinities of the jungle are propitiated chietiy to
avert mischief from tigers, which are a terrible plague in many
parts of the Mikir hills.

There is no worship of trees or animals.

Lam-dpliu, " the head or master of words," is a deity pro-
bably of recent origin. He is the god sacrificed to by a man

* Sir .Joseph Hooker {Hi malaydn Journals, e(\.. 1855, vol. ii. p. 182)
relates that at the Donkia Pass, one of his servants, a Lepch.a, being
taken ill, "a Lama of our party offered up prayers to Kinchinjhow for
his recovery." Perching a saddle on a stone; and burning incense before
it, "he scattered rice to the winds, invoking Kinchin, Donkia, and all
the neighbouring peaks."

t Such worship of objects and places of an impressive character is, of
course, connnon throughout India. Thus, in the Pachmarhi Hills the
writer has seen flowers and red lead (sindur) offered at the brink of a
terrible ^ulf of the kind so common in the plateau. Again, at Balhfirpur,
in the Chanda district of the Central Provinces, he has seen worship
offered to a bastion in a solidly built ruined fort adjoining the village. —
(Note by Editor.)

DIVINATION

who has a case in court ; the sacrifice is one young cock, which
should he offered at night, secretly, by the sacrificer alone, in a
secret place.

It should be mentioned that, following an ill-sounding idiom
of the Assamese, the Mikirs use " Arnam" as a common
(propitiatory) form of address to human beings (Assamese,
deutd). Pb-arnam-yb ("god-father") to a man, and _23e-arndm-^«
("god-mother") to a woman, are the phrases. In one of the
stories given in the next Section, the king is addressed as
Hemphu Arndm, " Lord God."

DlVIXATIOX AND MaGIC.

Sickness, if long continued or severe, is frequently attributed
to witchcraft {majd). A man suffering from long sickness is
said to be mcijd helong — " witchcraft has got hold of him." To
discover the author of the spell, or the god or demon who has
brought the trouble and must be propitiated, the services of a
diviner are necessary. Uche, feminine nche-jn (Hindi, bjlici), is
the general name for the cunning in such things. Of these
there are two grades — the humbler, whose craft is acquired
merely by instruction and practice, and the higher, who works
under the inspiration or ajflatus of divine powers. The former
is the sdng-keldng dhdng, " the man who looks at rice," in
Assamese, mangalsud ; the latter, invariably a woman, is the
lodet or lodet-pl. In serious sickness or distress the latter is
called in ; on ordinary and less important occasions, the former.

The sdng-kcldng dhang picks out of the pot the unbroken
grains of rice {sang), and places them, by fives and tens, in
pentacle or other fashion. He then counts by couples. If in
the groups the odd numbers predominate, the omen is good. If
there are no odd grains over, it is very bad. Then all are
swept together again, and arranged in three or four heaps.
Each heap is counted out, a god being named, and if after the
counting, again by couples, three single grains remain, the god
named is the one to be propitiated. If three grains do not
remain, the process is tried over again. Cowries (chohai) are
sometimes used instead of rice in the same way. Also, with
cowries a handful is taken and spread out, and the number

1)I\I.\A 1 I().\ 35

with the slits upwards counted; if thry uic. the iimjorily, the
omeu is good.*

Another mode of divination used liy the iiiioif/d/siui is to
arrange iu a circle, eciuitlistaut from a point marked on a board
(inffJioi), as many little heaps of clay as there are gods suspected
in the case, each hea]> being called by tlie name of its god. An
egg is then sharply thrown into the middle of the board at the
marked point. When it breaks and the yolk is scattered, that
clay heap which receives the largest splash of yolk, or towards
which the largest and longest sjdash points, indicates the god
responsible for the affliction.f

Another mode is to use the nok-j'iv, which is a long-handled
iron dcio with a cross-piece at the handle and two inclined pro-
jecting pieces higher up, before the blade, thus :—

This is held upright iu the hand. It shakes of itself when
the charm is recited and the nok-jlr invoked to become inspii-ed :
Nanrj uche vanrf-iild'ot ! " Let your spirit {ucltc ) come ! " The
holder asks whether the sick person will recover, and goes
over the names of the possibly responsilde gods, and the nbkj'ir
shakes at the right answer and name. The charm (the Assamese
word montro is used) recites the making of the nbkjir, and
ends — " if you tell lies, you will be broken up and made into
needles " ( — the lowest use to which iron can be put, to sew
women's petticoats !).|

The Lodet is an ordinary woman (not belonging to any par-
ticular family or kur), who feels the divine afflatus, and, when
it is upon her, yawns continually and calls out the names and
the will of the gods. Another lodMpi is summoned in to
question her, and ascertain if her possession is really divine ; a
saiig-kdang Cdjung may also be consulted. If the report

* So also among the Khasia ; see Khasi Moiiogra^Ji, i>. ll'.», l)ottom.

t This also is evidently borrowed from the Khasis. See Monograph,
p. L'21.

X Compare the Khasi methods of divinatiun l>y tlio lime-case {shanam),
and the bow {Monoijrai>Ji, p. 11!V.

36 DIVINATION: WITCHCRAFT: CHARMS

is favourable, a purificatory offering of a fowl is made to
Hemphu and Mukrang, the preservers of men, and the woman
is accepted as a lodetpi.

She sits by the bewitched person {majd-lcelowj), and the
neighboui's come in after supper. The lodefpl bathes her hands
and feet and face in water in which the tulsi plant {Ocymuni
sanctum, holy basil) has been steeped, and begins to shake and
yawn. A gourd of rice-beer is brought, of which she drinks
some, and begins to call out the names of gods, and they descend
upon her. She is now inspired, and when questioned indicates,
by indirect and riddling answers, the enemy who has bewitched
the sufferer, or the gods who must be sacrificed to. AVhen tliis
is ascertained she goes aw^ay. The accusation of practising
witchcraft is carried before the me or village assembly. The
sacrifice to placate the gods proceeds next day, and is usually
costly.

To bewitch a person, it is necessary to have some of his hair,
or a piece of his clothes ; these are buried with one egg, some
bones, and some charcoal. A good lodetpl can produce these
things by the power of her inspiration. A white cloth is tied
up into the shape of a bag. She conjures the things into it,
and on opening the bag next morning they are found inside.
When they are thus recovered, the spirit Qcdrjong) of the
sufferer returns with them, and he gets well.

Charms {ijlierhn) are much used for medicinal purposes, either
alone or in combination with other remedies. For an ordinary
stomach-ache (pbl-Jcesd), a little mud rubbed on the abdomen,
with a muttered charm, is the specific. For rheumatism {heche-
dse), a castor-oil leaf is struck on the place, and a charm
muttered ; if this fails, a sacrifice must be offered to the god
Keche-dse. The worker of these remedial measures is called
hhigtok dhdnfj, and the verb is inrjtoJc. Charms are not, as a
rule, carried on the person.

The expression vnr kdclictlidt^ " to kill for oneself (a fowl) for
disease," means to prevent evil by sacrifice after a dream w^hich
had previously been followed by mischance.

If a child does not thrive, it is imputed to the sin, or devil
{dhi-i) of the maternal uncle (pn(j), or, if tliere is no maternal
uncle, of one of the child's mother's I'v.r. The family apply

OATHS, 0RDI-:ALS: FL'XI'.kAL ri:ivi:.M().\I i:S 17

ti) the persou held to Ije responsible, ami he gives a Vn'aas
ring to 1)6 hung vduikI the child's neck, ami a rice-ball (an
Cidum).

There is no entertaining of friends on recovery from sickness.
The sick person is tended by his wife and relations.

Tcken', 'Thckeri', means a man who knows a spell or montro,
especially one which protects him against tigers {ttli').

Oaths and Oudeals.

Oaths and imprecations take the place of ordeals. Earth is
put on the head, and the man says — " May I be like this dust ! "
A tiger's tooth is scraped, and the scrapings drunk in water :
" May the tiger eat me ! " Similarly, an elephant's tusk is
scraped, and the scrapings drunk : " May the elephant tranqde
me to death!" {Inrjndr ne pcdhnfi-nang !) The copper ring
worn l)y the vxhe is dipped in water, and the water drunk, the
man saying," May the tiger catch me ! " Another form of oath
is Tdmhitiii J,un;/Jir ds(j)itot ni- pdmjjir'ndiKj, "May I be melted
like molten copper (or pot-metal) ! " Such oaths are used to
confirm promises, and also to attest evidence ami iiroclaim
innocence of a charge.

Funeral Ceremonie^^.

The funeral is the most elaborate, costly, and important of
all the ceremonies performed by the Mikirs. Such ceremonies
are considered obligatory in all cases except that of a child who
has been born dead, or who has died l)efore the after-l>irth has
left the mother; such a child is Imrit-d without any ceremony.
Victims of small-pox or cholera are buritnl shortly after death,
but the funeral service is performed for them later on, the bones
being sometimes dug up and duly cremated. "When a person
is killed by a tiger, if the body or clotlies are found, they are
buried at a distance from the village, because the tiger is
supposed to visit the burial-place. Such persons cannot gain
admittance to Jom-arung unless there are elaborate funeral
ceremonies performed for them. IJeing killed by a tiger is
generally imputed to the victim's sin. His spirit is believed

38 THE FUNERAL

to dwell iu tlie most dreary of the places "where dead men's
spirits go ; there is no notion (such as is found among some races
in India) that it animates the tiger who killed him. Except in
these cases the dead are disposed of by cremation, the burnt
bones being afterwards buried.

The elaborateness of the funeral depends on the means of
the family. The description which follows applies to a case
where the household is well-to-do. In any case the body
is kept in the house for one day after death; if a regular
service is held, it may lie as long as from a week to twelve
days.

The body lies in the Jc^d. The persons occupied with the
funeral ceremonies live in the hung-phdrld ; the rest of the
family cook and eat in the kam, but the officiants, male and
female, must go across a stream or creek to cook and eat. As
already mentioned, the old women of the family wash and lay
out the corpse. Then beer is prepared, rice husked and got
ready, and a convenient day fixed for the service. If the house
has not a big enough hong (front platform), the neighbours join
and build one on to it. From the date of the death, each
household in the village gives a man to sleep in the house (in
the IwiKj-iilidrUC). "When it is settled that the beer and rice
required can be provided in four or five days, the village lads
are summoned about 8 o'clock in the evening. They bring
their drum {cheng), and drum up to the tiJaq') (front yard) ; they
drum there awhile, and then, w^hile one keeps time with the
drum, dance by pairs, holding in their left hands shields (chbng-
Jcechengndn), and in their right hands sticks. They go round
twice in a circle ; then they all dance round, holding each the
other's hands (this is called chomdng-hdn, " Khasi dance ").
After an hour spent in this way they go back to the gaonbura's
house to sleep. Early next morning they come without beat
of drum, and dance the chomd)ig-ldn to the drum ; they then
dance the shield-dance as before (chbng-kcchhigndn) to the
drum, and go home. Next night they come as before, but a
little later, and go through the same ceremonies. Next morning
they proceed as before, and in the usual course they kill a
fowl and roast it in pieces on spits in the tilaip, and eat it there.
The third and last night is that of the hln-jn {" great dance ").

THE FUNERAL 39

Meautime, durin^^ the day, the rlsomdr have to work at
getting ready the tele — the stout bamboo to which the corpse
is to be slung : the hanjiir — a bamboo ornamented with curled
shavings (hii) hung in tufts to projecting arms; and the scrosij —
shorter bamboo sticks similarly ornamented and tipped witli
leaves. The men have to go to the ilun (village Inirning-place)
and prepare there a cluing or platform, with logs for burning
the body arranged \mder it ; this chaiifj is built in a peculiar
manner, known only to adepts. The uchep'i (a skilled old
woman) is summoned to prepare the viaticurn for the dead, and
the duhuidl, with an assistant, who beat the two drums which
have now been hung up in the Icam-Citheiujtlivt: the duhuidl
is one skilled in tolling on these drums. Then comes the girl
called ohbl'pl (not necessarily a maid), that is, the "carrier"
of the dead man ; but in place of the dead she carries on her
back a gourd for holding beer ; she must belong to his mother's
ku7\ Also the niJnc, the maternal uncle or other male repre-
sentative of the mother's l-u.r, and the infjjlr-arlo, sister's
husband, or father's sister's husband, of the deceased ; it is
his office to kill the goat for the dead, if they can afford one.

About midnight the villagers, with torches, drums, and the
attendant risomdr, assemble in the tikuj). The neighbouring
villages, if so minded, may come too {drong drl is the phrase for
the contingents as they arrive). Each contingent is welcomed
with the drum, and joins in the drumming concert ; the lads
and girls are dressed in their best, and provided with betel.
The chief of the village lads {Weng-sdrpo) then calls the other
rlsomdr to touch (not taste) the beer, hbr kdchcme* Then
follows the shield-dance, first by the rlsomdr of the village,
then by the outside contingents in order of arrival or merit.
Then all together take hands and dance in a circle. The young
women join in the line, taking hold of the lads' coats, while
the lads take hold of them by the belt (rdnkbk) ; the girls
cover their heads and faces with a black scarf (Jlso kc-lk) : the
petticoat is a red-striped Mikir trl cloth. Near the first cock-
crow, seven young men go up on the hung or house-platform
from the dancing, with the duhuidl and his assistant ; one lad

* Mr. Stack notes that there was some reluctance on the part vi his
informant to explain what was meant.

40 THE FUNERAL

goes in and dances in the inside of Icam, in the space by the
partition-wall {nolcsel:), while the six others stand at the door
{hbngthu, or inghcip angho = " door's mouth"), and dance there.
The six whoop three times together as they dance. After a
quarter of an hour they return to the circle of dancers in the
tikiq). At dawn they go up again, and dance till sunrise. The
cii'cle breaks up at daylight, and then follows the shield-dance.
Then all the drums go round the circle where they dance ten to
twenty times, playing a different tune each time. Then, while
they all drum standing, a pig is brought forth, tied up for
killing. The risomdr in successive parties recount over the
tied-up pig the history of the funeral service ; this is called
jjhah dphu kcicholanrj. Then the pig is killed and cut up for
the risomdr, and for the men engaged in the funeral service.
The latter have to cook and eat their shares of the meat, which
is given in leaf-bundles (bk-hbr) or on spits (bk-kron), beyond
the river. The risomdr also get their shares in the same way,
and cook them in the dancing-ring. A small piece of flesh
is cooked by the ucJiejn for the dead man, and this is put in the
plate of the dead and carried by the ingjir-drlo up to the body
in the hut, the duliuidl tolling the drum as he goes in; this
ceremony is called I'dsole. Meantime the old experienced men,
braving the horrid stench, have been performing certain rites *
about the body. The remainder of the cooked Hesh, with rice,
is distributed to the young girls. The risomdr then, provided
with rice, beer, salt, chillies, and greens from the dead man's
liouse, disperse to houses in the village to eat, and the officiants
go off beyond the river to prepare and eat their food. This part
of the ceremony is called rlso I'dchiru, " the lads' entertain-
ment."

Then two or three of the risomdr take a cock on the road to
the burning-place, and kill, cook, and eat it there. A small
pig is killed by the other lads where they dance, and the head
and one leg are sent to the road-side risomdr. The blood is
caught in a bamboo-joint, and smeared on the hdnjdr, which is
set up in the road like a maypole ; it is a thick bamboo about
seven feet long, with sticks projecting on three sides, from
which hang tassels of curled bamboo shavings {Idnjar abu)
* Not further explained.

TIIK FUNERAL 41

These shavings also are smeared with the l)hjod, so as to look
like liowers. Six shorter pieces of bamboo, three feet long, also
ornamented with tufts of shavings, are called seronus, and these
too are smeared with blood : likewise the tele for carrying the
corpse to the pyre. Six young men, each taking a serosa, dance
round tlie hanjCir.

The iicliepl has now prepared all the food. The ohbJqji
takes the beer-gourd on her back, and one egg in her hand, and
the ucliepi a beer-gourd, and they break the egg and the gourd
against the fele as it lies upon the house-ladder {dundon). The
duhuidl tolls the drum, and dancing as before takes place on
the hdiifj and in the Lcim, but not with the scrosos. The vxhe'pl
and the oholqn then go on to the burning-place. The tele is
now taken up by the old men into the house, and the corpse
tied to it and brought down ; all the dead man's clothes are
hung over the bamboo. Then a pair of ducks and another of
pigeons are killed by the nihu, and a goat by the ingjlr-drlo,
each previously going thrice round the dancing cu-cle with the
sun. The goat is called hungvat-dhl ; the heads are thrown to
the rlsomdr, the rest of the meat kept and cooked later on by
those who remain. Preceded by the duhuidl and his assistant
tolling the drums, they all march in procession, carrying the
hdnjdr and serusos, to the burning-place. The body is untied
from the tele and placed on the pyre, which is lighted. While
the pyre is burning, knowing women sing the Icdchdrhe — a
chant describing the dead man's life, whither he is going on
leaving this earth, how he will see his dead relations, and the
messages he has to carry to them. A few of the lads dance
while the cremation is proceeding.

The body is thoroughly burnt, and the liones tliat remain
are tied up in a cloth and buried. The felt is either laid down
whole or cut into three pieces, which are split again into six,
and placed in the little house which is then erected over the
grave. This is built with the hdnjdr and the scrosos, the former
being in the middle and the latter used as props for the roof.
The food prepared by the ucJiejJl is now placed on a Hat stone
over the grave, and the ceremony is at an end.

The company, returning, clean and wash the house, and
cook and eat and drink on the hun(/. On coming back from the

42 THE FUNERAL

cremation, the niluc gets some money, clothes, salt, and a knife
He shares the salt with his own lair, if any are present. The
ingj'w-drlo next morning has to clean up the dancing ring {rung-
rii kangru, or tihivp kdrJcol).

The ceremonies of the funeral are performed by the neigh-
bours and cunning men and women of the village, and the old
people of the family. The wife, children, parents, brothers and
sisters of the dead sit beside him and mourn, in spite of corrup-
tion, or even sleep beside the decomposing corpse. " It is
genuine grief, a national characteristic. Even after the funeral
service, they remember and mourn ; and the death of another
renews their grief." The mourners continue their lamentation,
heedless of the dancing.

If a great man, such as a riiauzadar (hihhdyd) or leading
gaonbura {sdrldr, sdrthe), dies, in addition to the ceremonial
described above, there is another, called Ldiujtuk ("the well").
A well or pit is dug outside the village, four-square, w^ith sides
ten to fifteen feet : it need not be carried down to the water ;
stairs are made to the bottom. At the corners are planted
various trees. A tall upright stone {Ibng-chbng) and a broad
flat stone {Ibng-pdk), supported on short uprights, are brought
and set up, as in the Khasi hills. The risomdr come and dance
there the whole day, with manifold apparatus. The nchepl
sings and places food of different kinds on the flat stone for the
dead man ; his clothes and umbrella are put upon the tall
stone, with flowers. A fowl is killed for the well at the bottom
of the pit, and a goat, two ducks, and two pigeons are killed at
the top, and their heads thrown to the risomdr. Then the
people of thirty to forty villages assemble. The uchejn sings
extemporaneously before the memorial stone, and the people
dance and eat there until dark. After dark the company go to
the liouse and perform the usual service already described.
The Idngtuk is very costly, for people have to be fed at two
places, and double the quantity of food for an ordinary funeral
has to be provided.

FESTIVITIES 43

Festivities.

The Iivnjiier is the anuual compulsory village festival, held
at the time of the beginning of cultivation (June), or in some
villages during the cold season. Goats and fowls are sacrificed.
Arnam-pdro gets a goat, and so do the local gods of hills and
rivers. A small village will sacrifice two or three goats, a large
village ten or twelve. The flesh of the victims is eaten, with
rice and rice-beer, but only men can partake of the sacrifice.
They must sleep on the hbnri apart from their wives that night.
The gods are invoked in the following terms : " We live in
your district : save us and help us ! send no tigers or sickness,
prosper our crops and keep us in good health, and year by year
we will sacrifice like this. We depend wholly upon you ! " There
is no music or dancing at the Rangier.

At harvest-home there is no sacrifice, but the whole village
help mutually in getting the crops in, and feast together on
rice and beer, and dried fish and dried flesh saved up against
this celebration, or fresh fish if procurable. No animals are
killed, except in some houses a fowl, lest the paddy brought
home should decrease ; this fowl is eaten. On this occasion
there is a little dancing on the hong, but with this exception
music and dancing take place only at funerals.

Occasionally there is a Eongl-er-pl {"great Rougher") for
the whole viauza, as, for instance, to expel man-eating tigers.
Each village, headed by its gaoiihura, brings its contribution
to the great sacrifice, and repairs to the mauzadars or lor-
gaonburas house, where the feast is celebrated.

Mr. Stack's notes do not mention the observance by the
Mikirs of general talus, called in Assamese genua, such as are
common among the Xaga tribes ; * but personal tahts of various
kinds, entailing separate eating of food and abstinence from
commerce of the sexes, have already been indicated. Women
during menstruation are said to be unclean and unable to touch
the cooking-pots.

* See, liowever, wliat is said aliove as to the Rmgker, wliich agrees
with the observances elsewhere known as <jtnnas.

FOLK-LOEE AND FOLK-TALES.
Three INIikir stories — Legend of creation (Mr. Allen).

The Mikirs are fond of tellincj stories, but the historical material
which they contain does not appear to be of very ancient date.
Eeference has already been made to the deliverance of the
Arlengs from slavery to the Khasis, and their contests with the
Kacharis under the leadership of Thoug-Xokbe ; also to their
early relations with the Ahoms. They have also myths dealing
with the creation of the earth and man, one of which has been
related Ijy ]Mr. Allen, of the American Presbyterian Mission,
and will be found in the Appendix to this Section ; it seems
doubtful, however, whether it is a genuine legend, or due to
imagination stimulated by questions : the concluding episode
strongly resembles the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel.
These legends have not been handled by Mr. Stack, and are
therefore not reproduced here. The Picv. Mr. Moore notes that
" Mikir stories in general do not agree very minutely," and this
appears to be particularly the case in respect of tales of the
intervention of the gods in human affairs.

Mr. Stack wrote down, chiefly from the dictation of a Mikir
named Sardoka, who had become a Christian, a number of
excellent stories, which well deserve separate publication. Three
specimens of these are given here. They correspond in every
respect, as will be seen, with the general characteristics of
folk-literature all over the world. Folk-tales containing the
same incidents, as is w^ell known, aie found from Icekind to
Japan, from Alaska to Patagonia. The original source of
such a tale is now incapaljle of identification. The same
sequence of events and general form recur everywhere ; what

I-OLK-TALES 45

is tlistinctive and characteristic is not the progress of incident,
l»ut the local dressin^^ the narrator's point of view, the
colour of his daily life which he lends to the details of the
story.

The first of the three specimens is the favourite Indian form
of a sequence, well known in Sanskrit literature, Init quite as
popular in Europe and in general folk-lore. It is given here,
because another version of the same narrative has been included
by Dr. Grierson in his Liiujuistic Survey, vol. iii. Part III.
p. 223, as found among the Aimol Kukis, a race of Tibeto-
Burmans dwelling, far away from the Mikir country, in the
hills bordering the valley of Manipur on the east.

The second specimen tells of the adventures of an orphan,
the son of a widow, a stock figure in Mikir folk-tales, and
abounds in local colour. Here too the incidents in part coincide
with those of a folk-tale belonging to a very distant country,
the part of Kumaon bordering on Tibet, which will be found in
vol. iii.. Part I. of the Linguistic Survey, pp. 483, 495, 510, 522.
The third is a remarkably complete and interesting version
of the wide-spread folk-tale of the Swan-maidens. It was
most probably derived from some Indian source, though, so far
as known, no version of the tale in its entirety, as told by
Hindus, has yet been published. The name of the hero,
Hdrdtd-Kiiinoar, may be the Indian Sarat-Kumdr, and is
evidently not Mikir. But all the setting — the colloquies of
the six brothers and their father, the attempt on Harata-
Kun war's life, his methods in defeating his treacherous kinsmen,
his device for winning his fairy wife, and many other features
of the story — seems genuinely local. The narrative is an
excellent specimen of Mikir diction, and shows no little skill
in composition. In vol. iii. Part II. of the Linguistic Survey,
there will be found, at pp. 218-220, a short story, entitled,
" How Jesu got a goddess for his wife," which is identical
in motive with this tale of Harata-Kunwar. It is current
among the Angiimi ISTagas, a race much less influenced by
Hindu culture than the Mikirs.

The original Mikir text of these tales will be found in the
next Section ; the English translation here given is as literal as
it was possible to make it. In the Linguistic Survey, vol. iii.

46 STORY OF A FROG

Part II. pp. 395-403, two other short stories of the same
character, both text and translation, have been printed. The
second of these, the story of the clever swindler Tentbn, evi-
dently belongs to the cycle of tales called Tcnton-Charity
mentioned, in its Assamese version, as existing in manuscript
l)y Mr. E. A. Gait, at page G8 of his Report on the Progress of
Historical Research in Assam, 1897.

1. Story of a Frog.

One day a big black ant went to carry a meal of rice to his
uncle. A frog sat down in the road and blocked it. The ant
said, " Please make way for me, frog ; I want to carry this
rice to my uncle." The frog answered, " You can get by if you
creep under me. Every one has to pass under me who goes
this "way." The ant said, " My uncle's rice is tied up in a
bundle of leaves ; how can I possibly creep under you ? " But
the frog would not give way, so the ant would not go. In this
manner things went on till noon. Then the ant said, " Oh,
my uncle will be hungry for his rice and angry with me
because he does not get it ! " And he crept under the frog.
Then the frog sat down flat on the top of the ant. Thereupon
the ant gave the frog a sharp bite in the loins. Then the frog,
becoming angry, jumped on the ladder of a big old squirrel,
and broke it. The old squirrel, becoming angry, cut in two
the stem of a gourd.* The gourd, becoming angry, fell plump
on the back of a wild boar. The wild boar, becoming angry,
rooted up a plantain-tree. The plantain- tree, becoming angry,
fell upon a sparrow's t nest and broke it. The sparrow, becoming
angry, flew into the ear of a deaf elephant. The deaf elephant,

* ''Gourd'': the word hunthdr in the original is explained by
Mr. Stack as the name of "a creeper, with a fruit as big as a small
jtumpkin, with a hard kernel in soft rind ; the kernel is the size of a
mango-stone ; the marrow inside is in two slices ; when washed, it loses
its bitter taste, and can be fried, oil exuding. It is a favourite dish with
the Mikirs." It is, therefore, not really a gourd, but I api unable to
identify the species.

t ''Sparrow": vo-dr-bipi, explained as a small bird, the size of a
sparrow. In the Ainiol version the corresponding word is rendered
'•' bat " ; but a bat in Mikir is vo-drplak, and a bat has no nest {tar) as the
bird has here.

STORY OF A FROG 47

becoming angry, rooted up a rock. The rock, becoming angry,
rolled down and killed the Eaja's son.

Then the Eaja held a court to try the case. '"Who is it
that killed my son?" " Oh, the rock rolled down and killed
him," they said. So they summoned the rock. " O rock,
rock ! why did you roll down and slay my son ? " The rock
answered, "Oh, Lord God I^ing! how was I to help rolling
down and killing him ? The deaf elephant uprooted me on a
sudden from my place, and then gave me a push. As for me,
I have no hands or legs ; how then could I withstand him ?
Your son being in the way where I was rolling down, I rolled
upon him and killed him."

Then the Eaja said, " Oh, then that deaf elephant was the
cause of all this trouble," and summoned the elephant. " 0
elephant, elephant ' what did you root up the rock for ? " The
elephant answered, " Oh ! how could I help uprooting it. Lord
God ? The sparrow flew into my ear, and I lost all control of
myself, and so I tore Tip the rock."

Then the Eaja said, "Oh, then that sparrow was the cause
of it all," and summoned the sparrow. " 0 sparrow, sparrow I
why did you fly into the elephant's ear ? " The sparrow
answered, " Oh, Lord, how could I help it ? The plantain-
stalk fell upon my nest and smashed it, and being very disturbed
in mind, I flew into the elephant's ear."

Then the Eaja said, " Oh ! then that plantain-tree was the
cause of the trouble," and called the plantain. " 0 plantain,
plantain ! what did you tumble on the sparrow's nest and smash
it for?" The plantain answered, "Oh, how could I help it.
Lord God ? The wild boar tore me up out of the ground, and
I had no root left at all. How was I to go on standing in my
place ? I have neither hands nor feet."

" Oh ! then that pig was the cause of it all," the Eaja said,
and summoned the pig. " 0 pig, pig I what did you tear up
the plantain for ? " The pig answered, " How could I help it ?
As I was feeding quietly by myself, the gourd fell plump on
my back. I was in great pain, and therefore tore up the
plantain tree."

Then the king said, " Oh, the gourd caused all this trouble,"
and summoned the gourd. " 0 gourd, gourd ! what did you

48 STORY OF A FROG

tumble ou the wild boar's back for ? " " How was I to help it,
Lord God ? The sqiiii-rel cut through my stem. I have neither
hands nor feet, nothing but a stalk ; if that is cut through, I
cannot but fall. So I was obliged to tumble on the wild boar's
back."

Then the Eaja said, " Oh, that squirrel caused all the
mischief," and summoned the squirrel. " 0 squirrel, squirrel !
what did you cut through the stem of the gourd for ? " The
squirrel answered, " Oh, how could I help it, Lord God ? The
frog jumped on my ladder and broke it. Then I had no road
to get out, and I had to cut the stalk of the gourd."

The Eaja said, " Oh, then that frog caused the mischief,"
and summoned the frog. " 0 frog, frog ! what did you jump
on the squiiTel's ladder and break it for ? " The frog answered,
" How^ was I to help it ? A big black ant bit me sharply in
the loins, and with the pain of the bite, not knowing what I
was doing, I jumped on the squirrel's ladder and broke it."

Again the Eaja said, " Oh, it was the ant that caused all the
trouble," and summoned the ant. " 0 ant, ant ! what did you
bite the frog in the loins for ? " The ant said, " How could I
help biting him ? In the morning I was carrying my uncle's
rice along the road. The frog sat down and blocked the way. I
said, ' Please make room for me to pass.' ' Creep under me,'
said he. I crept under him, and he sat down tight on the top
of me. That was why I bit his loins."

Then said the king, " You are both of you guilty." They
tied the ant fast w^ith a hair from a man's head ; so now his
waist is very small. The frog they beat severely with a stinging-
nettle,* so now he is spotty all over.

2. Stoey of an Okphan and his Uncles.

Once upon a time a widow woman liad an only sou. His
mother had six brothers. One day at evening his uncles said
to the orphan, " Xephew, let us go and set up a lish-trap." f So

* "Stinging-nettle": tarnte-lhu'jhorKjj this is probably iiot a nettle
(tirtica), but some other kind of blistering j^lant found in tlie Assam
jungles ; ttlrme means a creeper, langhortg a vessel made of bamboo to
hold water.

t Fish-trap, ru, : a bamboo cage placed in an opening in a weir or dam

STORY OI- A\ OR I' MAX 49

the oiiiliiin went \vitli thcni. Then the six brothers, his uncles,
lijiving built a good weir u[)-streani, set the trap. The ori)han,
having put together a few stones down-stream, behjw his uncle's
trap- weir, set his own trap carelessly in the middle of them,
and returned home. The next morning they all came to look
at their traps. The uncles' trap, though very well put together,
had not caught so much as a cray-fish ; as for the orphan's trap,
it was quite full of fish. Then the uncles said, "Nepliew, we
will set up our trap here ; do you go down-stream and set up
your trap again." Then, after the uncles liad set up their trap
in the orphan's trap-weir, the orphan again set up his trap down-
stream. But again the fish entered it just in the same way ;
while not one fish had got into the uncles' trap, the orphan's
trap was quite full of fish. Every morning the uncles continued
to take for themselves the place where the orplian's trap had
been. At last the orphan, becoming very tired of continually
setting up Ids trap in a different place, one morning, instead
of fixing the trap in the stream, placed it on a cluni]) of grass
and left it there. Next morning his uncles came and called to
the orphan : " Xephew, let us go and look at the traps." The
orphan answered, " For my part, I have not set up my trap
at all; nevertheless I will go with you as your companion."
So saying, he went with them. Then he went to look at his
trap, and found that a wood-pigeon had got inside it. He tied
this wood-pigeon with a noose and brought it home.

That orphan had one calf ; you could not imagine how fat
and sleek it was. His uncles, being unable through envy to look
at that calf, killed it. Then the orphan, having taken off the
calf's skin, took one leg and secretly hid it in the house of a
rich brahman who lived at a distance. Then the orphan said,
" Oh ! how strongly the house smells of cow's flesh ! " The
brahman, becoming angry, said, " i\Iay a tiger eat you, you
wicked boy ! * How should tliere be any cow's flesh here ? I

built of stones or constriicteil of wattled boughs, so that the fish enterino-
cannot get out. The same v>un\ is used later (see note p. 53) for the
iron cage (ingchiu dni) in which the orphan is confined.

* " May a tiger eat you, you wicked boy ! " Te/cc nun<j kordutpi d-osu,
literally, "You tiger-bitten boy!" 2>i is a syllable used in abuse, as jio
("father") is used in the oppo.site sense, e.g. po-dinum-pu, "My good
sir!" literally, "father-god-father;" lower down, addressing a girl, we
(" mother") is similarly used : '' pc-dnmm-})!," "dear girl ! "

50 STORY OF AN ORPHAN

am a brahman — produce it, if you can : if you cannot, I will
take your life." The orphan said, " Very well, I will make a
search." He began to search in a careless, lounging way ; but
coming to the place where he had hidden the calf's leg, he
suddenly pulled it out. " See, this is cow's flesh," said he ; "I
told you so." Then the brahman, fearing lest, if other people
came in and saw this, his caste would be destroyed, said to the
orphan, " Orphan, my good sir ! don't tell any one. I will give
you a cloth-full of money." * So saying, he gave him a cloth-
full of silver, which the orphan took with him to his home.
When he arrived there, he said to his mother ; " Go and ask
my uncles for their basket." His mother went and called out :
" Brothers ! your nephew says he wants a basket." Then the
widow's brothers, having given her a basket, said among them-
selves, " What does he w^ant to do with the basket ? Go and
watch." So they sent the youngest of them, and he went and
watched, and saw the orphan measuring the money with the
basket. Then the one who had watched returned home and
told his brothers : " Where did that nephew of ours get all
this money ? He is actually measuring the rupees with a
basket ! " After they had finished measuring the money, the
orphan's mother went and returned the basket. Her brothers
said to her, " Send our nephew here." When the widow reached
her house she said to her son, " Your uncles bid me ask you to
go and see them ; they want to speak to you." So the orphan
went, and his uncles asked him, " Where did you get all that
money ? " He answered, " It is the price of cow's flesh ; I
went a-selling the flesh of my cow which you killed. The
people said, 'There is not enough of it for us,' and they all
bade me to bring more." His uncles asked him again, " Then
if we go selling cow's flesh, they will take more of it ? " The
orphan replied, " Certainly they will take more ; you have
many cows, and if you kill them all and go and sell their flesh,
how much money Avill you bring back ! " Then each one of his
six uncles killed a cow, and having made the flesh into loads
went to sell it. The orphan explained to them, " When you
arrive at the village of that rich brahman, offer your meat for

* Cloth-full, manfliung : a cloth or wrapper {pe) folded cylindrically
into a bag, and tied at the top and bottom Avith slit bamboo (jingfak).

STORY OF AX OKl'lIAX 51

sale. Call out iu the villaf,'e as suou us you reach it, ' Who
will take more cow's flesh ? ' " So these six brothers, taking up
tlieir beef, went on their way, and, arriving at the brahman's
village, they cried, '■ Who will take more cow's flesh ? " The
people answered, " We will take more ; bring it here," and
called them in. So when they arrived at the brahman's house, all
the inhabitants of the village, having gathered together, seized
those six brothers who had come to sell cow's flesh, and having
tied their hands, beat them soundly, and said, " AVe are brah-
mans ; do you dare to come here and traffic, offering cow's
flesh for sale ? " So saying, they let them go. Then those men
who had brought the beef returned homewards, and on the way
took counsel together : " Oh, how that orphan has cheated us !
Not only has he caused us to kill our cattle ; over and above
that, he has got us skins that smart all over. As soon as we
get home, let us set fire to his house ! " So when they reached
home, they set fire to the orphan's house. Then the orphan,
having woven two baskets, collected the ashes of his burnt
house, and made them into a load, and went to a distant village
where the people suffered from sore eyes. In that village there
was not a man who had not a pain in his eyes. Wlien they saw
the orphan coming with his load of ashes, they asked him
" Why have you come hither ? " The orphan answered, " Oh !
when I heard that your whole village was suffering severely
from sore eyes, I came to sell medicine to cure the complaint."
" Oh, that is very good indeed, dear sir," said they, and all the
people of the village collected a load of money, and gave it to
the orphan. Then the orphan said, " Do not apply this medicine
to your eyes just yet ; after I have gone a bit of the way I will
call out to you, ' Apply it ' ; then rub it in." So the orphan,
having got a load of money in exchange for his ashes, started
for home; and when he had got a little bit of the way, the
people with sore eyes called out to liim, " Shall we not apply
the medicine yet ? " He answered " Wait a bit ! " ; and he con-
tinued telling them to wait so long as he was near the village.
But when he arrived at a distance where he thought they could
not catch him, he called out, " Now apply the medicine ! "
Then the sore-eyed people applied to their eyes the ashes they
had bought from the orphan. As soon as the medicine touched

52 STORY OF AN ORPHAN

them, their eyes began to smart as you cannot imagine ! The
pain in their eyes became much worse than ever before. They
said among themselves, " Oh ! liow that fellow has cheated us,
and gone away ! if he comes again, let us bind his hands fast
and beat him ' "

"When the orphan reached home, he sent his mother again to

fetch his uncles' basket. The widow went to her brothers'

house, and, having lent her the basket, those six brothers said

among themselves, " Go, young one, watch again ; what is he

going to do with the basket ? " So the youngest went again

secretly to watch. Again he saw the orphan measuring money ;

and again he went back and carried the news to his brothers :

" Our nephew has returned, bringing with him much more

money than the last time." Then the six brothers went to

the orphan, and asked him, " Where did you get so much more

money ? " The orphan answered, " It is the price of the ashes

of my house that you set lire to. The people in the place

where I sold the ashes were crying, ' It is not enough, bring

us as much more again ! ' Now, my house was but a little

one, and so the ashes were not much. But your houses are

big, and if you set fire to them and sell the ashes, how much

money will you get for them ! It will be more than you can

possildy carry." Then the six brothers, his uncles, said one

to another, "Let us too set fire to our houses." So, having

burned down their houses, they gathered together the ashes,

and each brother took as heavy a load as he could carry.

Then the orphan exj)lained to them : " Take the loads to the

village of sore-eyed people, and, when you arrive near it, say,

' Will any one take ashes V" So these six brothers went theii-

way, and, when they came near the village of sore eyes, they

called out, "Will any one take ashes ? " Then the sore-eyed

folk called out, "Bring them here." So they went into the

village. As soon as they got inside, all the people bound them

fast with ropes, and rubbed into their eyes the ashes which

they themselves had brought, and thrashed them soundly.

When the thrashing was over, the six brothers started to

return home. On the way they took counsel again together :

" Oh, how that villain has deceived us ! Not only has he got

us smarting skins ; he has, over and above that, caused us to

STORY OF AN ORPHAN 53

burn ilowii our housi-s ami mir liaivcsts. Xow, iiiiniediately we
get home, let us make him fast iu an imu cage,* and throw liim
into the river."

So when they got home they seized tlie orphan, and liaving
shut him up in an iron cage they took him to the bank of a
great pool in a river in the jungle. Then they said, "In a
little while we will drown him ; now there is no chance for
him to escape us, so let us go and eat our rice." So saying,
they went to eat their food. When they had gone away, a
certain king's son, who was hunting deer, came hy. "When
he arrived where the orphan was, he asked him, " Wliat is the
reason why you are tied up in that iron cage ? " The orphan
answered, " My uncles have a daughter, so lovely ! You cannot
imagine how fair she is. They tell me to marry her, but 1
always answer that I will not. So my uncles, becoming angry,
liave shut me up in this cage." Then the king's son said,
" Oh ! then can I get her to wife ? " " If you get into this
cage and stay there, you will be able to get her," the orphan
answered; "after a while my uncles will come, and will
say, ' Have you nothing more to say ? ' If they ask you this,
then answer them, ' All I have to say is that I will take her,
uncles.' " " Very good then," said the prince. Then the
orphan said to the king's son, " If you go into the cage
wearing your own fine clothes, they will recognize you at
once. So let me out. I will give you my clothes, and then
you can enter the cage." So the king's son opened the cage
and let out the orphan, and tlie orphan gave his clothes to the
prince, while the prince gave his coat, dltoti, necklace, and
bracelets in exchange to the orphan, and entered into the
cage. Then the orphan made fast the door of the cage, and
having dressed himself iu the prince's clothes, necklace, and
bracelets, went away to his home. Then the orphan's uncles
returned from eating their rice, and coming up to the cage
asked, " Have you anything more to say, nephew ? " " All
right, uncles, I agree to take her," answered the king's son, as
the orphan had told him to say. Then they threw him in the
iron cage into the deep pool. Thereupon the six brothers, the
orphan's uncles, said one to anotlier, " How much trouble tliac
* '' Ii'oii cage " : see note on p. 48 above.

54 STORY OF AN ORPHAN

fellow caused us all ! Now, however, he is dead and done
with ! " Then they returned home.

"Wlien they got there, lo ! they saw the orphan again, not
dead at all, wearing the king's son's clothes, necklace, and
bracelets, splendidly adorned and decked out as you could not
imagine ! They said one to another, " The orphan is not dead
after all 1 There he is, decked out and strutting in his finery ! "
They went up to him and asked, " Nephew, how is it that you
arrived here so soon ? " The orphan answered, " Oh, uncles, my
grandmothers and grandfathers sent me back here in a pdlkl
very quickly. Immediately I arrived there, my grandparents
gave me these fine clothes, this necklace, and these bracelets.
Only look at them ! They sent w^ord, too, that they wanted
you also to be told to come to them ; as a token, they sent this
gold knife — see ! " So saying, he showed it to them. Then his
uncles said, " How shall we manage to get there ? " " Let each
one of you take an iron cage with him to the river bank, and
get into it there," answered the orphan. So each man took a
cage to the river bank and got inside. Then the orphan tied
each tightly up in his iron cage, and threw the eldest brother
in his cage into the deep pool. As he fell, quantities of bubbles
came up on the surface of the water. The orphan cried, " Look,
uncles ! My eldest uncle has drunk so much of the rice-beer
which my grandparents have given him, that he is vomiting."
Then he brought the next brother and threw him into the
water ; and so having cast all his six uncles, one after another,
into the stream, the orphan returned to his home. Then his
aunts, his uncles' wives, asked him, " When will your uncles
come back again ? " " They will not come -s'ery soon ; have
they not just met their parents, after being separated from them
for so long a time ? " replied the orphan. So after waiting
three or four nights his aunts asked the orphan again, " Why
have your uncles not come back by this time ? " He answered,
"They will come very soon." Then after waiting two or three
nights more they asked again, " Why have not your uncles
come yet ? " Then the orj^han spoke clearly, " Put each man's
share of rice in the ndJcsel." * So his aunts cried, " Ah ! they are

* The nbksek : tlie part of tlie liouse (in lam : see plan, p. 8) between

STORY OF HARATA KUXWAR 55

dead and gone!" Ami umlci.staiuliug this at last, they wept
and made lamentation.

So the orphan became rich, antl there was no one left to
envy him. And having become a great king, he lived a happy
life.

Note. — Two incidents in this story, viz. tlie pmfit made by tlie
orplian by disposing of the riesli of his shvughtered calf, and his gain l)y
selling the ashes of his burnt house, and the disappointment of liis uncles
when they endeavoured to imitate him. much resemble the incidents of a
folk-tale given as an illustration of the Tiljeto-Burman dialects of Kangkas,
Darma, Chaudangs, and Bj'fings in vol. iii. Part I., of the Lingnistic Siirmj.
The.se dialects are spoken in the northern j)ortion of Kumaon, on the
borders of Tibet. In this version the animals slaughtered are goats and
sheep, and the protit is made out of their skins, while the ashes of the
burnt house are by an accident exchanged for a h)ad of dour. Still, the
motif is the same, and the great distance of the country where this tale
is current from that of the Mikirs, and the impossibility of inter-
communication, make the coincidences interesting.

3. Story of Harata Kuxwar

Harata Kunwar was one of six brothers, the youngest of
them. From his very birth he spent his time in shooting
deer and wild pig, and never laboured in the fields. His elder
brothers, the five, did the field work. Then they, the five
brothers, took counsel together with their father, saying, " This
Harata Kunwar does no field work, but spends his time in
hunting. Let us talk the matter over at night." So that night
they talked it over. The father said to his eldest son, " How
will you supply me with rice ? " He answered, " As for me,
I will become a head man of a village, and sit in assembly
night and day ; from the rice-beer which people will bring me
as the head man's perquisites, I will supply you with good
white rice and beer." " And you, the second son, how will you
supply me with rice ? " " As for mo, I will become a black-
smith; night and day will I spend in forging knives and ddos ;
with the money produced by these I will furnish you with beer,
betel, jx'in, good white rice, and all kinds of spirit." '' And you,
the third son, how \vill you suj^ply nie Avith rice ? " "As for
me, I will labour in the fields, and having filled granaries and

tlie tireplace and the middle partition, where the offerings of food for the
spirits of the dead are placed.

56 STORY OF HARATA KUXWAR

barns with produce I will give }'oa good beer and good white
rice." " And you, the fourth, how will you provide for me ? "
" As for me, I will go as a companion to some one, and what that
person gives me of rice and beer I will give you." " And you,
the fifth, how will you provide for me ? " " As for me, I will
become some one's slave, and will support you with the rice and
beer he gives me." " And you, Harata Kunwar, in what way
will you furnish me with rice ? " " As for me, I will marry
a daughter of the Sun-god, and ha\ing become a great king,
I will seat you on a throne, on a fine couch, I will cause slaves,
male aud female, to bathe your arms and legs, and I will give you
beer, rice, and spirits." So they finished their talk. Xext day,
in the place where they worked at their field, Harata Kunwar
not being with them, those five brothers consulted again
together with theii' father. " This Harata Kunwar says he
will take to wife the daughter of the Sun-god and become
a king, forsooth ! "Where will he get his kingship ? Let us
kill him, and let us talk about it again to-night." That night,
after they had eaten and drunk, they consulted together about
the way in which the killing was to be done. " Let us build
a field-watcher's hut * for Harata Kunwar, on the border
of the jungle let us build it, and make him watch there ; then
at night let us go and thrust him through with a spear."
Harata Kun war's sister-in-law overheard them as they were con-
spiring together. Xext morning, after they had eaten and druuk
and gone away to their work in the fields, Harata Kunwar came
home from his hunting. His sister-in-law gave him his rice, aud
after he had eaten and drunk she said, " Let me kill that
insect on you, Harata Kunwar." Then she killed a louse,
and as she killed it a tear fell upon Harata Kunwar's leg. He
asked her, " Sister-in-law, are you crying ? " And his sister-
in-law said, " I am not crying, a raindrop fell upon you."
Again, as she killed a louse, a tear fell the second time.
Harata Kunwar asked her again, "You really are crying,
sister-in-law ; tell me why you are weeping." So she told

* '"A field-watcher's hut," hem-thap : a small hut, raised liigh upon
posts and thatched over, built in a clearing for cultivation, in which the
cultivator passes the night for the purpose of scaring wild pigs and deer
away from the cr<-»p.

MIKIR BOY.

p. 56

STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR 57

him : " My fatber-in-law and your elder brothers have plotted
togutlier to make you watch l»y ni.dit iu a jungle liut, and tlien
they will thrust you through there with a spear, they say; that
is why I am weeping." Harata Kiinwar said, "You need not
be afraid ; you have told me : it is well. To-morrow morning
you Avill see what hap[)ens. If I am not dead, I will
come home to you after they have gone, and I will throw
six clods, taken from the worm-castings, on the roof of this
house. If you don't hear the noise of them on the roof, you
will know that I am dead." So in the evening his brothers came
home from the field, and his father said, " This night Harata
Kunwar must go and watch for us in the jungle hut. Wild
pigs are eating up our paddy. There, by the side of the jungle-
clearing, we have built for you a watcher's hut." So, having
eaten and drunk, Harata Kunwar took with him his bow and
went. Then having gathered the fruit of the puroi-sdl-* he put
the juice of it iuto the sheath of a plantain-stalk, and having
made it like the form of a sleeping man he put some clothes
on it and laid it as though sleeping in the hut. He himself hid
quietly under the shelter of the rice plants. Then, after their
first sleep, his father and brothers awoke one another : " Come !
let us go and kill Harata Kunwar." Then, each one takinir
with him a spear, they ^\■ent to Harata Kunwar's jungle hut.
Then the father said, " Go thou, eldest, climb up and thrust
him through." The eldest said, " How should i dare to put
my spear through him ? he is our brother, our youngest brother,
we have one mother and father, and besides, we have sucked
both of us at the same breast, the same nipple. Since we are
brothers, how should I dare to kill him ? I dare not." " Go,
then, you, the second." The second answered, " Oh ! he is not
the son of a second wife, own brother he is, our younger
brother ; how then should I dare to kill him ? I dare not."
*' Go, then, you, the third." He answered, " Our thigh is one,
our foot is one, our arm is one, our hand is one ; we have grown
up together, lie is our brother. How could I possibly kill him ?
I cannot." " Go, then, tlum, the fourth." He said, " We sucked
together at one nipple, own brothers are we, no sister has he,

* A species of potherb, so-called in Assamese : Bengali j^tutilal,
Basella lucida. It has red juicy fruit.

SS STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

how could I venture to kill him ? I dare not." " Go, then,
vou, the vounfTest." " Oh ! why do you send me on such an
errand ? I am the next to him. From childhood it was I who
nrew up with him together. We ate our rice together from one
platter ; we drank our beer from the same mug. How should I
dare to kill such a one ? I dare not ! " Then their father became
ansrv. " Then why did you dare to say, ' We must kill Harata
Kunwar ' ? If you cannot bring yourselves to do it, you will
never become men." So saying, he climbed up the posts of the
hut, and thrust his spear through that plantain-sheath, and the
juice of the 'jjuroi sdk came dropping out from it. Then he called
out, " Harata Kunwar, strong though he be, has got his deserts
now at last ! Let him marry the Sun-god's daughter and make
himself a king now ! " Harata Kunwar overheard all this.
" What, what are you saying, my brothers ? " he called out.
Then, saying " Harata Kunwar has his bow with him ! " they
ran away in fear, stumbling and falling as they ran. When
they got to their own jungle hut, they vomited, and on the
night clearing away, with great difficulty in the morning they
reached home. Then Harata Kunwar, after they had come,
himself came up, and took six clods from the worm-casts and
threw them on the roof. So after they had eaten and drunk,
his brothers went away to their field. Then Harata Kunwar
came in, and his sister-in-law .gave him his rice. After eating
and drinking, he said, " Sister ! I cannot remain here with you ;
my own brothers, nay, even my own father, aim at my life,
and are plotting to kill me. I must therefore go a-wandering.
Get ready and give me a store of rice to take with me, bread,
and parched grain." So his sister-in-law prepared food for him,
1 tread and parched rice. And he said to her when he parted :
" If I do not come by my death, then when I come here again
I will throw six clods from the worm-castings on the roof ;
tlieu, when you hear them, wash and make ready the stools and
benches 1 " So they wept together, and parted. Then Harata
Kunwar, taking his bow with him, went on his way. At last
he arrived at his grandmother's house. " Oh, granny ! are you
there ? " The old woman answered, " Who is there ? as for
this place, I have neither kin nor helper. AVho is come?"
llarata Kunwar answered, " It is I, granny." Then the old

OLD MI KIR WOMAN.

p. 59

STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR 59

woman said, " Why are you come, my dear ? 1 uin a pour
^vido^v. I have neither house nor field. I live only hy begging
my food. Why have you come ? " Harata Kunwar answered,
" I will stay here with you and be your companion." The old
woman said, " You, who are fit to l>e a king, a gi-eat man, how
will you be able to live with me here ? " Harata Kunwar
answered, "Yery good, granny; here I will stay." So he
became her companion there. Then his granny the widow said,
" Harata Kunwar, spread the paddy out in the sun to dry. I
will go and beg paddy in the king's village. After you have
spread out the paddy, if you want to bathe in the river, don't
go up-stream ; bathe on the shore close by this house of ours."
So having spread out the paddy, his granny the widow went to
the king's village. Harata Kunwar took charge of the paddy ;
frequently turning it over, in a very short time he dried it.
Then he collected the paddy together and went to bathe in the
river. He thought in his own mind, " for what reason did
my granny, when she went away, tell me not to go up-stream to
bathe ? I will go up-stream and see for myself." So saying,
he went up-stream. There he saM' shards of broken water-
vessels of gold and silver lying. " Oh ! that is why granny
told me when she went away not to go up-stream. At night I
will ask her whose glu'it (watering-place) this is." So he
returned home. Then his granny the widow in the evening also
came home again from the king's village. So at night, after
they had eaten and drunk, Harata Kunwar asked her, " Whose
ghat is that up-stream ? There are broken pieces of gold and
silver water-vessels strewn all about it." Then the widow said,
" I told you when I went away not to go up-stream. You
have been disobeying me and have gone up there, I know ? "
Harata Kunwar answered, " Yes, I did go, granny ; now tell me
whose ghat it is." So his granny the widow told him : " It is
the ghiit of the King of the Great Palace. His daughters, six
sisters, come to that place to bathe ; don't go there any more."
Then Harata Kunwar considered again by himself : " My
granny tells me not to go again, liut go I will and see for
myself." So up-stream he went again, and hid himself quietly
under the river bank. At midday the six daughters of the
King of the Great Palace came to bathe there in the river.

Co STORY OF HARATA KUXWAR

Descending beautifully, each one laid aside her clothes and
jumped into the water. This did one after the other, and fair
it was to see — like the brightness of the moon and sun ; there
they bathed and frolicked in the water. Then when the day
became cool, the eldest sister admonished the rest : * " 0 my
dears, it is cooking time ! time to serve up the food : time to
house for the night our fowls and our pigs. Our mother will
scold us, our father will scold us, if we stay any longer. Let us
go." So they ended their bathing and playing in the water.
One after another they shook out their clothes in the breeze and
put them on, and beautifully flew away ; but the youngest of
them flew away last of all, lovely like the brightness of the moon
or the sun. Until they were lost to sight in the heaven Harata
Kunwar continued gazing after them till his neck got a crook in
it. So they entered heaven, and he saw them no more. And
he returned to his house, thinking to himself, " How fair, how
lovely ! (I will not rest) until I get one of them to be my wife !
To-night I will ask granny about it." So home he came, and
after supper Harata Kunwar asked his granny : " Oh, granny !
such beautiful, such lovely ones I never saw ; how shall I get
one to wife ? Tell me a plan." His granny said, " Oh, Harata
Kunwar, these are children of the Sun-god, children of a great
king ; how should you, who are a man's son, succeed in getting
one to wife ? " Harata Kunwar said, " Not so, granny : get
one to wife I must and will. Show me a plan ! " Since he
continued to press her with questions, at last she said to him,
" If you must and will get one for your wife, then clear a field
on the river bank." " Very good, granny," said Harata Kunwar,
" to-morrow, this very next day, I will go and clear it." So
he remained watching for the dawn to break, until the sun
fully rose. Then, taking with him a dc'io, he went. From the
moment he reached the place he rested not, but cut and hacked
ilown the jungle there, till in a single day he had finished the
clearing. Then, having heaped the fallen trees together, he set
tire to them, and the fire devoured them there, till there was
not a single piece or stock left that was not burnt. Then he
dibbled in maize, small millet, sugar cane, plantains ; besides

* X<jtice the simplicity of life indicated by the occupations the fairy
princesses have to attend to on their return to their celestial home.

STORY ()!• IIARATA KL'XWAR 6i

these be planted flowers — luaivel of I'eni, white lilies. marir;olds,*
many kinds of flowers. Then the daughters of tlu^ Kin,L( (»f
the Great Palace came down to Ijathe in the river; beaiitifnllv
they descended, fair as never was seen ; like the moon, like tin-
sun in splendour, tliey came right down there. 80, having
finished bathing and splasliing al)Out in the water, they sjnetl
Harata Kunwar's garden plot. They said, " Oii, whose field is
tliis ? It is very pretty indeed ' " The eldest answered, " It
must be our brother-in-law Harata Kunwar's field." So tliey
flew away beautifully again to heaven together. Harata Kunwar
there pondered in his mind : " Shall I ever succeed in getting
her to wife ? " And again he asked his grandmother, " Granny,
when shall I succeed in getting one to wife ? " His granny
answered, "Not in that way, grandson. Build for yourself a
jungle hut." So next morning a jungle hut he went to build.
In a single day he finished building one, great and big, and
came home again. "The jungle-hut is finished, granny," lie
said. " Then cut for yourself a flute," advised his granny. So
he cut several flutes for himself, and bored holes in them. Then
the time for maize and millet to ripen came. And his granny
advised him : " Go and watch in your jungle hut, and play the
flute." As for his field, in a very short time flowers blossomed
there as you never saw ! Then the daughters of the King of
the Great Palace arrived to bathe in the river; flying down
beautifully one after another they laid aside their clothes and
jumped into the \vater, and bathed and frolicked. Then the
eldest admonished them : " Come, my dears, let us go." There-
upon Harata Kunwar began to play on his flute so beautifully
that you never heard the like. " Oh ! this flute-playing is very
pretty to hear ! Surely it is the man (called) Harata Kunwar.
Come, dears, let us go and ask for a fe\v flowers." So they
went. " Harata Kunwar, we would like to pluck for ourselves
a few flow^ers. May we pluck and take some, sir?" "Yes,"
said Harata Kunwar, " you can pluck as many as you like."
Then each one plucked some flowers and went away. Gracefully
they flew away with the flowers. Until they disappeared in
the sky, Harata Kunwar gazed after tliem, until liis eyes became

* The exact species of tliese flowers is not vouclied for ; those named
are common in the house-f'ardens of Assamese cultivators.

62 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

quite sore with gazing. So they returned into heaven. When
he could see them no more, Harata Kunwar also returned home.
And his granny the widow asked him, " Did you have any talk
to-day with the daughters of the King of the Great Palace ? "
" Yes, we had some talk ; they even asked to be allowed to
gather some of my flowers." Then his granny explained a plan :
" To-morrow is a lucky day. Go, you, before the Great King's
daughters come down to bathe, and hide yourself as I tell you,
and watch by the river. The elder sisters, all five, have got
husbands already. As for the youngest, the King of the Winds
is asking for her to marry her to his son ; already the gourds and
chunrjas of beer (for the wedding-feast) have arrived. Neverthe-
less, having singled out her petticoat from among the others,
while they are all bathing, bring it here to me. I ^^•ill weave a
petticoat just like it in exchange for it ; take that one back
there and put it down again in the same place where her real
petticoat was ; her own petticoat let us hide away. Then she
will not be able to fly away. If she asks for her petticoat back
again, say ' One or other of you must marry me.' " " Yes, very
good indeed, granny," said Harata Kunwar. From the time that
his granny imparted to him that plan, Harata Kunwar's mind
was so cheerful as you could not imagine. All night long he
could not close his eyes, but went on thinking continually. So
morning dawned. Then, having breakfasted, he went to his
field. " Oh, when will it be midday?" he said, as he went on
waiting. Then he hid himself quietly under the sand. Then
at midday the daughters of the King of the Great Palace came.
Gracefully they flew down there, and one after another removed
her garments and plunged into the stream. So when they
were all in the water, Harata Kunwar rose stealthily and seized
the petticoat and striped cloth of that youngest one, and carried
them off straightw^ay to his granny the widow. And his granny
wove in place of them another petticoat and striped cloth just
like them. In a very short time she had done them, and
Harata Kunwar ran back again there, and having put .the new
petticoat and striped cloth in the same place, himself went
into his jungle hut and played the flute. Wonderfully he
played it there ; never was heard such playing.

So when they had had enough of bathing and sporting in the

STORY OF IIARATA KUXWAR 63

water, tlie eldest admonished lier sisters : * "0 my sisters, let
us go ! it is time to pound the rice, time to clean it after pountl-
ing : time to cook, time to serve up : time to heat the beer, time to
squeeze it from the rice-grains." So having put on her clothes
she said again, " Come, let us go and ask for a few flowers."
Then, having plucked some flowers, first the eldest flew up, tlien
the younger sisters also flew up to her gracefully, and last of
all the youngest also tried to fly, but found she could not. If
she flew she fell back again there ; if she got up and tried to fly
again, she fell back a second time. Then the eldest said, " Oli !
what in the world is the matter ? " So the elder sisters also came
down again there, and went and said to Harata Kunwar, " O
Harata Kunwar, without doubt it is you who have changed our
youngest sister's petticoat ; therefore, bring it back ! " So they
called out, and Harata Kunwar answered, " One or other of
you must be my wife." The daughters of the King of the
Great Palace said, " How is it possible that any of us should
stay here and be your wife ? AVe have each of us got husbands
already." Harata Kunwar said, " Then I cannot give you the
petticoat ; one of you must positively marry me." Then the
daughters of the King of the Great Palace said to one another,
'' Sister ! do you marry him." The eldest answered, " How
should I marry him ? I have a number of children already."
" Then you, the next, you marry him." " How can I marry
him ? I also have four children already." " You, the tliird,
you marry him, then." " How can I, when I also have
three children already ? " " Then you, the fourth, you marry
him." '' I also have two children already ; how should I marry
him?" " You, the fifth, you marry him." " I cannot marry
him ; don't you know that I also have one child already ? "
"Then you, the youngest, you marry him." The youngest
answered, " As for me, the King of the Winds is asking for me
to marry me to his son, the gourds and chungas of beer (for the
wedding feast) have arrived already. How can I possibly
marry him ? " Her eldest sisters said, " Well, but you are not
married yet. You must marry him, dear. It is getting dark ;
we must "0. There at home our fowls and our pigs will be
calling out for us ; besides, our mother and father will be looking
* See the note on p. GO.

64 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

out for us. And we will come and visit you from time to
time." Then the youngest one said, "AVhat is to be done,
sisters ? Well, I will marry him ; you go. Our mother and
father will be angry." Then the eldest one said : " Harata
Kunwar, you would not listen to our instructions, therefore we
are leaving our youngest sister here with you ; but be careful
not to grieve or trouble her. Do not make her cook or serve
lip ; moreover, touch not her hand or her foot." So, after
giving parting instructions to their youngest sister, they flew
away gracefully to heaven again together. The pair who were
left behind continued gazing after them till they were lost in
the heaven and they could see them no more. Then Harata
Kunwar said : " It is getting dark, let us two also go home." So
Harata Kunwar was happy and joyful. Night and day he shot
deer and wild pig, and his platform and drying stand * (for
drying flesh on) were never dry {i. e. without flesh exposed on
them to dry).

So one year came to an end. *' 0 Granny, I say to myself,
' I will go home ' ; what am I to do ? " said Harata Kunwar.
" Sure, you have your own house, you have your own field ;
you can go if you like ; nevertheless your wife is not yet
entirely at one with you here." "Nay, but," said Harata
Kunwar, "is it not a whole year (since we were married),
granny ? " " Nevertheless, you have not come to perfect agree-
ment yet." " Oh, then," said Harata Kunwar, " I cannot go yet."
So Harata Kunwar stayed there, working in the field and
labouring, and getting barns and granaries stored with the
produce to such an extent that the widow's house was filled
up with baskets and barrels full of grain. And God gave
Harata Kunwar a child, one son only. Then he asked his
grandmother again : " Granny ! I keep saying to myself, ' we
will go home to my mother and father.' " The widow answered,
" Your wife has not yet thoroughly accommodated herself to
you, grandson." "Not so, granny; she has indeed. Has she
not already borne me a son ? " " Go, then. You w.ould not
listen to the warnings I gave you from time to time. Go

* The flesh of animals killed liy hunter.s is cut into strips and dried in
tlie sun on frames of bamboo, for future use. The frames are called in
Mikir ur and rap.

STORY OF IIARATA KUNWAR 65

together. But your wife has not yet made u[) her mind to
stay with you, I assure you." 80 Harata Kunwar said to
his wife, " My dear ! let us two go together to our home."
His wife answered, " Go. Wherever you take me (I will go too),"
Then the morning dawned, and they took their breakfast and
started. They went a bit of the way. Now, his child and his
wife Harata Kunwar bound firmly to his waist with his turban,
and so carried them. And so as they went on they saw a
jungle-cock* scratching the ground in a wonderful way on
the mountain side, Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, jungle-cock,
■what are you doing there? I am in a hurry to get liome;
leave the road open to me." The jungle-cock answered, " I
will not leave the road open to you. I say to myself,
* Harata Kunwar to-day will bring along his wife and
child,' and I am watching the way he is coming." Harata
Kunwar rejoined, " What jest is this ? Be careful, lest in a
little you have to say, ' when Harata Kunwar brought his
wife and child to his home and field, my life was lost.' " The
jungle-cock said, " I don't say so ; to-day (we will see whether)
you or I will prevail." Harata Kunwar said, " Is that true ? "
" True." " Do you swear it ? " "I swear it." Then Harata
Kunwar, setting an arrow to his bow, shot him.

Then as he went on a little further (he came upon)
a cock-pheasant f blocking the road, and scratching in a
wonderful way on the mountain side. And Harata Kunwar
said again, " Oh, cock-pheasant, what are you doing there ? I
am in a hurry to get home ; leave the road free to me." The
cock-pheasant answered, " I \von't leave the road free to you.
I say to myself, * To-day Harata Kunwar will bring along his
■wife and child,' and I am watching here the way he is coming."
Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, don't be silly, lest you have to say
in a little while, ' when Harata Kunwar brought along his wife
and child, I lost my life.' " The cock-pheasant said, " I don't
say so." Harata Kunwar said again, " Are you in earnest ? "
" In earnest." " Do you swear it ? " "I swear it." Then
Harata Kunwar set his bow and shot him.

* "Jungle-cock" : Gall us ferr>t[/iiic lo', the wild fowl of Assam jungles.
t "Cock-pheasant": vorek ciJdpd, the doi-tk (Ass.) or "derrick,''
Oennocus Horsfieldi, the black- breasted kalij pheasant of north-east India.

66 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

Then, as they went ou still further, a -^ild boar, so big as
you never saw or imagined, with his tusks overlapping his
mouth, was straddling across the road, and rooting up the earth
there on the mountain side in an extraordinary way. And
Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, wild boar, what are you doing
there ? leave me the road open, I want to get home quickly."
The wild boar answered, " I will by no means leave you the
road ; saying to myself, ' To-day Harata Kunwar will bring
along his wife and child,' I am watching the road he is coming."
Harata Kunwar said, " Oh, don't joke ! is it true or not ? " The
wild boar answered, " It is true." Harata Kunwar said, " Be
careful, lest in a little while you have to say, ' when Harata
Kunwar brought along his wife and child, my life was lost.' "
The wild boar said, " I don't say so." " Are you in earnest ? "

" Yes." " Do you swear it ? " "I swear it." " Oh, then "

So saying, Harata Kunwar set his bow and shot him.

Then, when he had nearly arrived at his house, he collected six
clods from the worm-casts, and threw them on the roof. Then his
sister-in-law said, " Harata Kunwar has come home ! Wash the
stools and the benches ! " Then they washed all the stools and
seats and planks and benches. And Harata Kunwar, bringing
along with him that wild boar, put it down beside the hedge,
and entered the house. And as soon as he arrived, his sister-
in-law gave him there beer, bread, and parched rice. His wife
was so very beautiful that no one could look her in the face, as
one cannot look straight at the brightness of the sun. Then
his brothers were perplexed, saying, " What in the world has
happened to us this night ? " And Harata Kunwar said, " A
short time ago I shot a little pig on the road. I just put
it down there beside the hedge. Go and get it and scorch it
(for cooking)." So his five brothers went, but the boar was so
veiy big tliat they could not even move it ; they could do
nothing with it at all. So Harata Kunwar went with them.
With one hand he easily lifted it and brought it away; and
they scorclied it and cut it up. So home they brought it and
cooked it and served it up, and joyful, noisy, laughing and jesting,
they ate and drank.

Then next morning dawned. Hearing that Harata Kunwar
had brought his wife home, all the people of the whole

STORY OF IIARATA KUNVVAR 67

country-side kept coming and going to gaze upon her, in
such crowds as you never saw. And Ilarata Ivunwar put,
away carefully in a bamljoo chunga liis wife's own petticoat
aud striped cloth, with her gohl ornaments, her necklace, and
her gold drum (Ass. mddoll) worn on the breast, and tied tliem
up in the pitch of the roof So Harata Kunwar Ment to pay
visits to the people of the village, aud tlie ryots of the country-
side came to visit him ; and then they went on to gaze upon
his wife. And all the women — aunts on mother's and father's
side, sisters-in-law, elder brothers' wive.s — each one said, " Oh !
is she not lovely, sister ! " Thus they wondered at her. Then
Harata Kunwar's wife answered, " Not so lovely yet as I mi^ht
be. If I were to put on again my own petticoat, my striped
cloth, my necklace and my bracelets, then, indeed, there would
be something to see ! " Then some old woman said, " Oh, then,
give them to her." And Harata Kunwar's old father said,
" Where in the world did that idiot of a boy put them away ?
Why did he not give her her own petticoat and striped cloth ? "
Then Harata Kunwar's wife explained : " They are there in the
roof-pitch where he has tied them up." So his father untied
the bundle and gave it to her. Then she put the things on and
arrayed herself. Thereupon she became inconceivably beautiful.
" Oh ! " they cried, " lovely ! beautiful indeed ! It is not for
nothing that she is called child of the Sun-god ! " Thereupon
Harata Kunwar's wife rose up to her full height, and flapped
her clothes, and gracefully flew away back to her own place.
Then Harata Kunwar, happening to see her from where he was
on a distant road, kept continually bending his bow. And his
wife said, as she left him : " Wait, wait ! hereafter we shall meet
again." So Harata Kunwar, weeping bitterly, sick and sorry at
heart, came to his house. Immediately he got there, without
eating or drinking, he took his child on his back, and straight-
way set out for the house of his grandmother the widow woman.
Thus he went on till he arrived, and at once on arrival began
to weep and wail as you could not imagine. Then his grand-
mother said : " I told you from the flrst that your wife was not
yet reconciled to her lot with you. How will you get to see her
now ? How will you be able to reach her in heaven ? " This
only aggravated his weeping ; refusing meat and drink, he

68 STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR

followed liis grandmother wherever she went, continually
dogging her steps, and was like to die of grief. At last his
grandmother said, " Harata Kunwar, take a little food, and then
I will tell you of a plan." So he took something to eat, bread
and parched rice, and then his grandmother told him her scheme.
" To-morrow," she said, " the son of the King of the Winds will
come there to marry your wife. Before that, your father-in-law's
elephant will come here to bathe. Do you go and hide yourself
there under the sand. When the elephant (after its bath) is
just about to go, hold on tight to its tail, and bind your child
firmly to your waist with your turban. If the elephant asks
you anything, say that you also are going to the place where
your wife is. Then to-morrow, in the evening, you will arrive
there. Remain concealed on the river bank. Then male and
female slaves will come to draw water there in order to bathe
your wife. Call out to them, ' Give me one draught of water
for the child.' Then, if they give you the water, drop into the
water-pot a gold ring. Then she {i.e. your wife) will call for
you. Go to her, and when you arrive, put down your child
on the ground ; then the child will go of itself towards its
mother."

The morning dawned, and Harata Kunwar, after eating and
drinking, went to the river bank and hid himself quietly under
the sand. Then the elephant came down to bathe in the river,
and having bathed, was just about to go away, when Harata
Kunwar grasped firmly liold of its tail, and with his turban tied
his child securely to liis waist. Then the elephant flew up with
him to heaven, and put him down on the river bank there. And
all the people of tlie King of the Winds had come to the house
of the King of the Great Palace in order to celebrate the
marriage of the son of the King of the Winds with Harata
Kunwar's wife. And the King's slaves, male and female, came
to draw water in order to batlie Harata Kunwar's wife. And
Harata Kunwar called out to them for water for liis child :
"Give me just one draught of water for my son, good rnothers!"
One after another paid no attention to his request, till at last
an old woman came up. So Harata Kuuwar called out again :
" Give me water, one draught only, good madam, for my child."
So the old woman gave him some water. Making as though he

STORY OF HARATA KUNWAR 69

would take lioM of the water-jar, Harata Kunwar <ln))i))e<l into it
a gold ring. Then they brought the water for Harata Kuiiwar's
wife's hath. After washing delicately her arms and her legs,
tliey poured the old woman's water-jar over her head, and the gold
ring fell out. Then Harata Kunwar's wife asked, " Oh ! who is
the person whose water-jar lias just reached me?" Then one
after another they said, " It's not my water-jar." Then all called
out together, " It is the old woman's jar." Then she said to the
old woman : " "Wliere did you get hold of this ring ? Seize that
man and bring him here at once. If you cannot bring him, it
will be a matter of your life." So the old woman, weeping and
lamenting, came to Harata Kunwar and called out to him, " Be
pleased to come with me ! What was the reason why your
Honour, under pretence of asking me to give you water, had it
in your mind to make me lose my life ? " So Harata Kunwar,
taking the child on his back, went with her. Immediately on
arriving he put the l)oy down on the ground, and the child ran
straight into its mother's lap and began to suck her l^reast.
Then the King of the Great Palace said : " Why ! such a thing as
this was never seen ! They have got a child big Ijetween them
already ! " So the King of the Winds' folk were ashamed and
disgusted, and returned home sad and sorry. So they celebrated
the wedding of Harata Kunwar and the daughter of the King
of the Great Palace.

So Harata Kunwar remained there one year, two years, and
laboured at tilling the fields, so that he got twelve barns,
twelve granaries full of grain. Then said Harata Kunwar to
his wife : " My dear ! we two, like the sparrow or the dove,
should have a nest at least, a roosting-place of our own. There-
fore let us go away together. Do you ask father-in-law and
mother-in-law." So at night Harata Kunwar's wife asked her
parents: "0 father and mother, your son-in-law says, 'we
two, like a sparrow or a dove, should at least have a nest, a
roosting-place of our own. Let us go away together,' and he
bade me ask you about it. What are your commands in the
matter?" So the King of the Great Palace said : "My daughter!
I have once for all given you away to this man like a bundle
of greens, and have nothing more to do with you. Go away
together, to-morrow if you like, or to-day if you prefer it."

70 LEGEND OF CREATION

Then he went on to say, " What do you two desire of me ? slaves,
male or female ? ryots, husbandmen ? gold ? silver ? " So she
went and told Harata Kunwar : " My dear ! my mother and
father say, ' You may go away together to-day or to-morrow as
you please : moreover, slaves, male and female, ryots, husband-
men, gold, silver, — mention whatever you desire ' — so they say."
And Harata Kunwar said, " I want nothing at all." And
morning dawned. Then Harata Kunwar went and did obei-
sance to his father and mother-in-law. And his father-in-law
said to him, "What do you desire? slaves — handmaids — ryots —
husbandmen — gold — silver ? " Harata Kunwar said, " I need
nothing." Then Harata Kunwar and his wife, the wedded
pair, and their son started for home, and in due course arrived
there. A king he became, a great man, and night and day he
lived in happiness and greatness, and his kingdom was great
and stable.

APPENDIX.

THE LEGEND OF CREATIOX.

Condensed from Mr. Allen's (of the American Presb3'terian Mission) replies
to ethnographical questions, dated October, 1900.

Long ago the gods Hemphu and Mukrang took counsel together
for the creation of the world. They marked the limits of their
work, setting up four great posts to fix the boundaries of things,
and fastened them immovably with six of their mother's hairs.
Then they looked for seed to produce the earth, but found
none. Then they consulted a hundred other gods, with their wives,
making, with themselves and their wives, two hundred and four in
all. It was decided to send one of the wives to beg for some earth
from the god Hajong, and Bamon's wife was sent on this errand.
But Hiljong refused to give any earth from his world from which a
rival world might be fashioned, and sent the goddess Bamonpi away
empty-handed. But as she returned she noticed the worin-casts on
the road, and carried off one and hid it in her bosom. But even
with this piece of warm earth nothing could be done, until the gods
sent for Htdong Recho, the king of the earth-worms, who came and
worked up the piece of earth, till in one day it became a heap many

LEGEND OF CREATION 71

feet in diameter ; so be continued, till eventually it became tbis
eaitb of ours. But it was still soft moist eartb, on wbicb no one
could travel. So tbey called Kriprang tbc blaeksmitb, wbo witb bis
bellows produced a wind wbicb dried tbe mud to solid eartb. Tben
the gods said, " "We must cause plants to grow on it." Tbey searched
everywhere for seed, and at last sent to Rekbepi in tbe west, by tbe
great post that marked tbe place of tbe setting sun, to ask her for
seed. Rekbepi came, and herself brought seed and sowed it.
(Another version states that Rekbepi and Rek-kropi, wives of two
gods, went to Kanii, ])eyond the boundaries of tbis world, and
obtained from bim tbe various seeds of trees and plants. As they
were returning, the sindm, or bead-strap, wbich beld the baskets on
their heads broke, and tbe winds scattered tbe seeds on the surface of
the earth. This occurred on the bank of the river Kallang, in tbe
south-eastern part of Nowgong. But all tbe bamboos that grew
from these seeds were jointless, and therefore weak : strong winds
would break down tbe entire crop in a single storm. So tbe
goddesses who 1)rougbt tbe seed tied round tbe stems pieces of thread
to strengthen them ; tbe threads made scars, until at last all the
bamboos we have now are marked witb scars at the joints.)

Next came the creation of animals. Hempbu and Mukrang were
the leaders, but tbey were helped by Pitbe and Pothe ("great
motber " and " great father "). The elephant was tirst created to be
a servant to man. Tben the tiger was made, and bidden to eat the
wicked ; any one killed by a tiger is still tbougbt to have committed
some great crime.

Tben a great council was held, and it was decided to create a
being called arlhiff (man). The first man's name was Bamon-po,
and be bad created for him two wives, one a Mikir and the other
an Assamese. But no offspring was born to the man for a long
time. At lust the Assamese wife sent her husband to her elder
brotber, who understood the secrets of nature. He sent Banionpo
into his garden, and bade bim pick an orange for eacb of bis wives,
and give it to her to eat, when all would be well. Biimonpo did so,
and went bomewards with bis two oranges. On tbe way, becoming
bot, be stopped at a river to bathe. While he was in tbe water, a
crow came and carried away one of tbe oranges. Bamonpo sadly
returned to bis home, and gave tbe one orange left to bis Assamese
wife, who ate it. But tbe Mikir wife picked up a piece of tbe peel
and ate it, and in process of tune she had a son, whom she named
Ram. Tbe Assamese wife also bad a son, whom she called Chiiputi.
He, however, was weak and puny, w'hile Ram was strung and valiant.
Ram could pull up trees by the roots, and break them down as he

72 LEGEND OF CREATION

pleased. He could fight and conquer any demon who attacked him,
and any man whom he met. But he had no wife. One day while
out hunting he became thirsty, and climbed a tree to look for water.
He saw a pool, at which he quenched his thirst. As he did so, he
noticed in the grass a white thing, which he put in his basket and
carried home. It was a large egg. For some days he forgot to
look at it, and later on, when he went to see it, he found that the
eiro- was broken, and a beautiful woman had come forth from it.
The demons tried to seize her and carry her off, but Ram vanquished
them all, and made her his wife. She was very fruitful, and her
children multiplied until they were numbered by thousands. Ram's
fame spread throughout the world, till at last he disappeared, and
was deified by a race of his descendants, called Hindus. They were
a mighty race of men, and in the course of time, becoming dissatisfied
with the mastery of the earth, they determined to conquer heaven,
and began to build a tower to reach up to the skies. Higher and
higher rose the building, till at last the gods and demons feared lest
these giants should become the masters of heaven, as they already
were of earth. So they confounded their speech, and scattered
them to the four corners of the earth. Hence arose all the various
tongues of men.

Additional note to 2^. 45. — A very exact parallel to the story of Harata
Kunwar will be found in Mr. S. .J. Hickson's book entitled ^-1 Naturalist
in North Celebes (London, 1889), pp. 2(j4-(J. It is a story current among
the Minahassa people of that region, of heavenly nymphs in whose clothes
resided their power to Hy, and one of whom was captured by a man who
made her his wife ; other details agree closely with those of the Mikir
story.

VI.

LANGUAGE.

Outline of Mikir grammar — The original text of the three stories trans-
lated in Section V., analysed and elucidated.

The language spoken by the Mikirs belongs to the great family
of Indo-Chinese speech called Tibeto-Burman, the general
characteristics of which have been fully set forth in TJtr
Linguistic Survey of India, vol. iii. ]\Iikir itself is treated on
pp. 380 ff. of Part II. of that volume, and is described by
Dr. Griersou as a member of the Naga-Bodo sub-group, in which
it is classed together with Empeo or Kachcha Naga, Kabul,
and Khoirao. It is unnecessary here to occupy space with any
demonstration of the fact that Mikir is a Tibeto-liurman
language, or to cite lists of words in it agreeing with those of
other languages of the same great class. In the next section
an attempt will be made to examine its affinities with other
varieties of Tibeto-Burman speech, and to define more clearly
its place in the family ; in this the language will be dealt with
in its internal structure only, and, as specimens, the original
text of the three stories translated in Section V. will be given,
with an interlinear rendering and a running commentary.

A grammatical sketch of Mikir was printed at pp. 381-391
of Part II. vol. iii. of the Lintjidstic Survey. What follows
is mainly borrowed from that source, which was the first
published attempt to explain systematically tlie facts and
mechanism of the language.

Sounds.

Mikir has no written character of its own. The lirsL publi-
cation printed in it, a short catechism issued by a missionary

74 GRAMMAR

press at Sibsagar in 1875, used the Assamese character ; since
then, so far as is known, the Roman alphabet has always been
employed to express the sounds of the language. Mr. Stack,
from whose materials this monograph has been compiled, dis-
tinguished the following vowel sounds : —

(/, long a as in father (chiefly in open syllables) ;

a, the same shortened and pronounced abruptly, as in the
German Mann, always in closed syllables ;

(N.B. The language does not possess the short Hindi a,
representing the 'tc in Tjitt.)

e, the long c in the French scene ;

e, the same sound shortened, as in helief',

e, the sharp e in the English men (always in closed
syllables) ;

I, the long i in maehine ;

i, the short i'mit ;

0, the long o in lone ;

0, the same shortened, as in obey ;

0, the sharp abrupt sound in pot (always in closed syllables) ;

ii, the long u in June ;

u, the short u in full.
The diphthongs are —

ai, as in aisle ;

eiy almost as in feign, with the i audible ;

oi, as in hail ;

ui, long M with i added : no English equivalent.

The consonants used in Mikir are b, eh, d, h, j, k, I, m, n, ng,
'p, r, s, t, V (all with their value as in English), and the aspirates
kh, ph, th (pronounced as in cooJchouse, haphazard, anthill).
Bh, dh, and g occur only in a few borrowed words, and hh and
dh are commonly resolved, as bahdr (for Hindi bhdr), " a load,"
and dohbn (for Ass. dhon), " money." F, sh, w, y, and z are
not used. Ng is never initial, and the g is not separately
heard (always as in singer, never as in younger).

Monosyllabic Roots.

The root words of the language, whether nouns, adjectives,
pronouns, verbs, or adverbs, are generally monosyllabic ; where

GRAMMAR 75

simple roots have more than one syllable, the additions are
formative jprejixcs, once probably separate words, which have
become incorporated, Sucli are the prefix h-, M-, La-, used to
form adjectives, present particiides, and verbal nouns ; and the
prefixes ar- (in ami, "sun," drlbng, "stone," dr/lnr/, " niau,"
etc.), ing- (in inylbng, "mountain"; infjlion, "pity," etc.), and
tc-, ti-, to- (in tcram, " call," /cld/i(/, " abandon," tlhup, " house-
yard," tovdr, " voad," etc.), of which the precise significance is
not now traceable. In compound roots, formed by combining
monosyllabic elements, the force of each individual syllable is
still fully felt ; such compounds are exceedingly common.

Words are not inflected, but are located in sense by their
position in the sentence or by the addition of particles. These
particles may often be omitted where ambiguity is not likely
to occur ; such omission is particularly frequent as regards the
postpositions indicating case, and the tense-affixes of the verb.

Gender.

Gender is not distinguished except for animated beings, and
in them either (1) by added words indicating sex (as so-pu,
*' boy," s6-pi, " girl " ; dso-pinsd, " male child " ; cisd-pl,
"daughter"; chcdnbng-dld, "bull"; chainong-dpi, "cow"), or
(2) by the use of difterent terms {po, " father," ^^e or pci,
" mother," plm, " grandfather," -phi, " grandmother," etc.).

Number.

The ordinary suffix for the plural is -//<??i (which is originally
a separate word meaning " company," " followers ") ; but other
words are occasionally employed, as mco', a " mass, quantity,
or company " ; bng, " many " ; and U, a respectful form used
in addressing a number of persons. When -turn is suffixed to
a noun, it takes the prefixed a- of relation, as drrenrj-atum,
" men " ; when added to a personal pronoun it does not require
this adjunct, as will be explained below {ne, " I," ne-tuni,
" we " ; nang, " thou," ndng-tnm, " ye " ; Id, " he, she, it," Id-
tum, " they ").

ye GRAMMAR

Case.

Case is indicated by position, or by postpositions. The
nominative, and, generally speaking, the accusative, have no
postpositions, but are ascertained by theii- position in the
sentence, the nominative at the beginning, the accusative
following it before the verb. Both, when necessarj^, can be
emphasised by the addition of the particles -kh and -si, which
in some sort play the part of the definite article ; but these are
not case-postpositions. There is no device (as in Tibetan) for
distinguishing the case of the agent with transitive verbs.

The genitive always precedes the noun on which it is
dependent. When the word in the genitive is a pronoun of
the first or second person, nothing intervenes between them :
ne-men, " my name " ; nang-pt, " thy clothes." But when the
pronoun is in the third person, or a noun is in the genitive
case, the following noun has a- prefixed : e.g. la d-po, " his
father"; Arnam a-hem, "God's house"; hijai-dtuiii d-kdm,
" the jackals' work " ; drnl-kdngsdm d-jior, " day- becoming-cool
time." This prefixed d- is really the pronoun of the third
person, and means his, her, its, their ; the full meaning of the
combinations given above is therefore " he, his father" : " God,
his house " : " the jackals, their work " : " day becoming cool,
its time." As in many other languages of the Tibeto-Burman
family, nouns (especially those denoting personal relations,
parts of the body, etc.) are seldom conceived as abstract and
self-contained ; they most often occur in relation to some other
noun, and thus the syllable d- is more often prefixed to them
than not. Especially is this the case with adjectives; these
ordinarily follow the noun which they qualify, and almost
always have d- prefixed ; e.g. Arndm d-kethe, " God Almighty " :
Id d-kibl d-bdng, " that younger one." Sometimes this prefixed
d- is thinned down to e-, as in hem-e-pl, hem-e-po, " widow,
widower," literally " female or male owner of the house " :
hijai e-hur, "a pack of jackals." Most postpositions (originally
nouns joined to the genitive of the qualified word) similarly
require d- before them ; and the suffix -turn of the plural, since
it means " a company," also in this manner assumes the form

GRAMMAR yy

d-titm. Before ing- the prefix a- is absorbed, and the result
is dng.

The other cases are formed by postpositions. The instru-
mental is generally indicated by phi (sometimes with prefixed
a- or e-, as dphi, epen, but more often without), or phi-sl. The
dative takes d-phdn, " to or for," which is also occasionally used
for the accusative. The sign of the dative of purpose is dpot :
pl-dpot, " what for, why ? " Icopi-dpotsl,, id. The ablative is
formed with pen or penst : non-pien, " from now " ; ddk-phi,
" from here " ; dpdrd (Ass. j'xmy?) is also used, generally with
pen as well. The locative has a number of postpositions,
according to the position required : -si is used for " in," as
hern-sl, " in the house," ddtt-s'i, " in his country " ; drlo is also
used for " in, inside." Ze (properly the conjunctive participle
of a verb meaning " arrive, reach to a place ") is often used as
a postposition for " at, in." Other common locative post-
positions are d-thdk, "upon, on," dngsong, "above, upon,"
iirum, " below," dber, " below," dlbng " together with " (long
means " place "), ddun, ddimg, " beside, next to " (du7i is a verb
meaning " to be with, accompany "), dddk, " between," daghbng,
" in the middle of," dplu, " after."

Adjectives.

Adjectives are regularly formed by prefixing Jcc-, hi-, or Ld-
to the root, and do not change for gender, number, or case.
Thus, from the root me, " to be good," we have leme, " good " ;
held, "distance," l-dhelo, "far off"; dol\ "to have savour,"
kedbl-, " savoury " ; ho, " to be bitter," keho, " bitter " ; Ibl; " to
be white," Mbk, " white " ; rl, " to be rich," lirl, " rich." Ke-
and Id- are generally used with monosyllables, Jed- witli longer
words ; kd- with ing- forms kdng.

The form of the adjective is precisely the same as that of
the present participle of the verbal root, used to form the
present tense, and also as that of the infinitive or abstract of
that root, and the collocation of the sentence alone determines
the meaning of the word used. When particles of comparison
or other modifying elements are added to the adjective, the
prefix ke- etc. is often dropped as unnecessary ; thus —

yS GRAMMAR

Mbk, " white " ; Ibk-hik, " whitish."
kerne, "good"; me-7nu, "better"; me-ne, "best."
keding, "tall"; ding-mu, "taller."
'QMt kangtui, *'high"; kangtui-mu, "higher"; kangtui-ne,
" highest."
Comparison is effected by means of the postpositions djidr
and dphan ; " his brother is taller than his sister," d-te dpdr (or
dphdn) d-kbr ding-mil.

Adjectives commonly follow the noun qualified; when
they precede, the construction corresponds to what in Aryan
languages would be indicated by the relative pronoun (see
below, p. 80).

Numerals.

The cardinal numerals are Isl, one ; hml, two ; ketliom, three ;
2yhill, four ; phbngo, five ; thcrbk, six ; therbk-s'i, seven ; nerkep,
eight; sirkep, nine; kep, ten. It will be seen that seven is
six plus one, eight ten minus two, nine ten mi^ius one. From
eleven to nineteen kj^e takes the place of kep : kre-lsl, eleven ;
kre-hhii, twelve; kre-kethbm, thirteen, etc. A score is ingkoi,
and from this point onwards the syllable rd is inserted between
the multiple of ten and the added units : ingkoi-rd-isl , twenty-
one ; ingkoi-rd-hlnl, twenty-two, etc. Thirty, forty, etc. are
formed by adding kep to the multiplier unit : thbm-kep, phili-kep,
etc. Eighty is therbk-nerkhp, ninety thcrbk-serk£p. A hundred
is plidrb or ydrb, a thousand suri.

The numeral follows the noun. In composition liinl (except
with hang, " person ") is reduced to nl, and kethbin to thbm, as
jb-nl jo-thbm, " two or three nights." Fhili and therbk are often
contracted to phlt and thrbk.

Generic determinatives, as in many other Tibeto-Burman
languages, are commonly used with numbers : —

with persons, hang, as d-bng-mdr kbrte hdng-therok, " his
uncles, the six brothers " ;

with animals, jbn (perhaps an Assamese loan-word), as
chelbng jbn-phili, " four buffaloes " ;

with trees and things standing up, rbng : tkengpi rong-therbh
" six trees " ;

with houses, hum, as hem Imm-therbk-kep, " sixty houses " ;

GRAMMAR

with ilat things, as a mat, a leaf, a knife, jja/.- as tar j^ak-
2')libngd, " five mats " ; Jo pdk-jjhil'i, " four leaves " ; voke pak-thom,
" three knives " ;

with globular things, as an egg, a gourd, a vessel, piun: as
vo-tl pum-nl, " two eggs " ; hojir/ 2^i^f'fn-therbksi, " seven gourds " ;

with parts of the body, and also with rings, bracelets, and
other ornaments, hour/ : as keng e-hbmj, " one leg " ; roi hbn;j-m,
" two bracelets."

One of anything is not formed with tsr, but, if a person is
spoken of, limt (a Khasi loan-word) is used: if anything else,
e- is prefixed to the generic determinative ; " one cow," chainbny
e-jbn ; "one tree," tliengpl e-rbiig; "one book," ^:>?///d e-pak ;
" one egg," vo-tl e-imm. This e- appears to be borrowed from
Assamese, where it is shortened from elc.

Ordinals are formed by prefixing hdtai to the cardinal, as
hdtai-kethbm, "third," hdtai phill, "fourth." They seem to
be little used : in the story of Harata Kunwar it will be seen
that clumsy periphrases are employed to designate the second,
third, fourth, and fifth brother of the family to which the hero
belonged. Distributive numeral adverbs are formed by pre-
fixing pur or 2^^i'bng to the cardinal : piir-tliom or phbng-thbm,
" thrice."

Pronouns.

The following are the ijersonal pronouns : —

1st Person : 7ie, I ; ne-tum, ne-ll, ne-h-tum, we, excluding
the person addressed : l-tum, l-ll, we, including the person
addressed ;

2ad Person : ndng, thou ; ndng-tum, ndng-ll, ndng-ll-tum, ye ;

!ld, he, she, it ; Id-tum, they ;
dldng, he, she; aldng-ll, dldng-dtvm, dldng-l'i-
fum, they.
(The pronoun Id is really a demonstrative, = this, that : it
is probable that the original pronoun of the third person was d.)
These pronouns take the postpositions like nouns. The
possessive or genitive prefixes are ne, my, our, excluding the
person addressed ; e- or I-, our, including the person addressed ;
ndng-, thy, your ; a-, his, her, its, their.

8o GRAMMAR

The dcmonslrative pronouns are — Id, Idhangso, hdngm, this ;
pi. Idlangso-idum, these : hdla, hdldhangso, that ; pi. hdld-tum,
hdldhangso-dtum, those. The syllable lid- connotes distance, as
ddksl, Iddak, here ; M-dak, there ; lid dlihn che-voi-lo, " he
returned home from a distance."

(There appears once to have been another demonstrative
pronoun, pi, 2^^, i^«> still preserved in the compound words pi-ni,
" to-day," _29e»dp, " to-morrow," pcdd2), this morning," pd-
ninqve, "to-night." Instead of ^n and p)e we also find mi, me,
as mi-ni, me-ndp. This survival is important for the purpose
of comparison with other Tibeto-Burman languages.)

As in other Tibeto-Burman languages, there is no relative
pronowi ; its place is taken by descriptive adjectival phrases.
Thus " those six brothers who had gone to sell cow's flesh " is —
Id cliainong d-hh Iccjor-ddm-d-tum Forte hdng-therok.
Those cow 's flesh to sell going (plural) brothers persons-six ;
" The man whom Teuton had tied with an iron chain " is —
Teuton ingcliin d-nl-pen Ice-lcbk drlhig.
Teuton iron chaiu-with tied-up man.

In these constructions, it will be seen, the adjective or
qualifying participle precedes the noun.

The interrogative syllable, used to form interrogative pro-
nouns, is ko- : komdt, komdt-sl, who ? kopl, pi, what ? ko-pu,
ko-pu-si, kolopu, kolopu-son, how ? ko-dn, ko-dnsl, how many ?
kondt, kondthu, where ? kondm-tu, ndm-tu, ndm-tu-si, when ?
Always when the sentence does not contain an interrogative
pronoun, and sometimes when it does, the syllable md at the
end marks a question: "Are you atva^id," ndng j^kere-det md ?
Ne (probably an Assamese loan-word) is also used instead of
md : " Will you marry him or not ? " do-jl-ne do-de-ne ?

The reflexive pronoun is dmcthdng, self; hinong, own ; but the
most usual way of indicating that the action affects oneself is
to prefix the particle die- (clii-, ehing-, clieng-, and rarely clio-)
to the verbal root : Id hem che-voi-lo, " he returned home," i.e. to
his own house ; d-bng-mdr-dtum che-pu-lo, " his uncles said to
one another " ; che-hdng-jo, " they asked for themselves." With
initial ing-, die- coalesces to cliing : with dr- it unites to form
chiir.

GRAMMAR 8i

Verbs.

The Mikir verb indicates time, past, present, or future, by
means of particles prefixed or suffixed to the root. It does not
vary for number,* gender, or person. There is no separate
verb-substantive, though there are several ways of expressing
existence, as do, " stay, abide," used also for " have, possess " ;
pldng, " hecome" ; I dnr/, " exist, continue (with a sense of in-
completeness) " ; h', " arrive, happen," etc. Great use is made
of adjectival or participial forms, and, in narrative, of the con-
junctive participle. Compound roots are very extensively used,
the i)rincipal verb being put first, then the modifying supple-
ments, and last the time-index.

The simj^ile, or indeterminate inesent is expressed by the
participle with Ice-, led-, without any suffix : hondtsi ndng kedo,
"where do you live?"; vo I'd nf/Jdr, " the bird flies " ; mrhurd
thl'lbt-sl ne kd-chirii, " the old man having died, I am weeping " ;
ne-phu ke-so-kbn, " my head is aching badly." This tense, as
in other languages, is often used historically for the past.

The definite or determinate present is expressed by the
same participle with -lo added : Id kopl kdnghoi-lo 1 " What is
he doing (now) ? "

The habitual present is expressed by the verbal root with
-lo : as vo-dtum-ke ne-p)hu-dtJidk inejjdr-lo, " the birds fly above
our heads."

The simple or narrative piast is formed by the verbal root
with -lo or -det added : Id fu-lo or pu-d'et, " he said " ; ne-phu
sb-det, " my head was aching " ; Id kcrl-dphi-sl Ibng-lo, " he,
after searching, found it." Sometimes del and lo are used
together : Id ne ingtbn-det-lo, " he abused me." Bet may also
be used for the present when the state indicated by the verb
is one that began in the past and still continues : e.g. " Why
are you afraid ? " may be rendered kojn dpbtsl ndng phere-det, or
kopl dpbtsl ndng kdphere ?

The eomp)lete p)ast is indicated by the root with tdnglo added :
Id-dpbtsl ne ddm-tdnglo, " I went, or had gone, on his account " ;

* There are certain particles, jo, j'lm, hiir, hbr, and hri, used to
indicate j'lurality when tliis is necessary ; but they are inserted between
the root and the tense-suttix, wliich is invariable.

82 GRAMMAR

telbng longle pho-tanglo, " the boat lias touched ground." Tang
is a verb meaning " to finish." There are besides a great
number of other particles indicating past time used with par-
ticular verbs. Thus, with verbs meaning "to fall," hup and
huk are common : halci che-koi-lup, " he fell down " ; hem ru-
hup, " the house collapsed " ; Ibiuj-chong Ml-bup, " the upright
memorial stone fell down " ; Ibiig-pah klo-huk, " the liat memorial
stone fell down"; thengpl ang song -pen nang-Ho-huk, "he fell
down from the top of the tree." Such particles generally
indicate not only past time but abruptness.

A periphrastic past, with the root followed by inghoi-Io,
" did," frequently occurs ; this is probably an imitation of
Assamese idiom.

Here may be noticed the prefix nd)ig, used, as the specimens
show, with great frequency in narrative. It has the effect of
fixing the occurrence to a known place, and may generally be
rendered " there." It is probable that this particle is originally
the pronoun of the second person, and that it refers to the
knowledge of the person addressed : " as you know," " as you
see."

The future is represented in two ways : (1) by -po added to
the root, to indicate an action beginning now and continuing in
the future ; as itum nbnJce labangsb dlxcim dpbtsl pu-po, " we will
talk about this affair now ; " and (2) by -jl added, for an action
which commences later on ; as hddu drVeng-td thl-j'i, " all men
will die " {i.e. at some future time). As -po includes the present
in the case of continuing action, it may be, and often is, used
in a present sense ; -jl is restricted to future time,

A corivpound future may be formed by adding to the root
with -fi the words dbkdbk-lo : Id thl-jl dbkdbk-lo, "he is just
about to die " ; an chb-jl dbkdbk-lo, " it is near breakfast- time "
(rice-eating); an Ik-jl dbkdbk-lo, "the rice is nearly all done."
A doubtful future may be expressed by -jl added to the present
participle : kondt cliainbng d-bk-sl ddk-sl kedo-jl, " where should
cow's flesh be here ? "

From the above it will be seen that there is much indefinite-
uess in the indications of time afforded by the Mikir verb :
except tang for the past complete, and -jl for the future, the
other suffixes may, according to circumstances, be rendered by

GRAMMAR 83

the past, present, or future ; they may also ou occasion bo
omitted altogether. But the context generally removes all
ambiguity.

Conditional jihrascs are formed by putting -ti}. or -A', " if," at
the end of the first member, and the second generally in the
future with -jl or -jjo. Of the conditional future an example is
nang ddm-ie, ndng Id thek-ddm-jl, "if you go, you will see him."
The conditional past inserts dsmi ("like, supposing that,")
before -te : doJibn do-dsbn-te, ne Id ndm-jl, " if I had money, I
would buy it." The conditional pluperfect modifies the second
member thus : ndng dam dsbn-te, ndng Id Ibng-loJc dpbtlo, " if
you had gone, you would have got it " ; ndng ne than dsbn-te,
ne Id Idem tdng-lo, " if you had explained to me, I would have
done it."

The imperative is, for the second person, the bare root, or
more usually the root strengthened by the addition of nbn or
thd, and dialectically of noi; nbn (= "now ") is the strongest
form. The other persons are formed by the addition of ndng
(a verb meaning " to be necessary ") to the future in -jjo or
present in -lo : " let us go " is l-tum ddm-po-ndng ; " let us go
to the field and plough," rlt hai-hai ddm-lo-ndng. "We may, for
the third person, use the causative form of the verb : Id-Jce
peddm-nbn, " let him go."

Participles. The p)rcsent participle has the form of the
adjective, with the prefixed Ice- (In-) or iCi- ; as keddm, " going,"
kd-chiru, "weeping." The past participle is the root or the
present participle with tdng added : ddm-tdng, " gone," thek-
tdng, " having seen," kd-pdngtu-tdng, " fattened."

Perhaps the most used form of the verb, especially in
narrative, is the conjunctive picLrticiplc, which is either the bare
root, or the root with -si ; hem che-voi-sl thek-lo, " having
returned home, he saw." When the past is indicated, det is
used, either with or without -si, as clio-d'et jun-det, sdrhurd, tbn-
drlo kaibbng pdtu-joi-sl, l-lo, "having finished eating and drink-
ing, the old man, having quietly hidden his club in a basket,
lay down " ; Tentbn, dohbn-dldnghbng Ibng-si, rlt ddm-de-det-sl,
kdt-jui-lo, "Teuton, having got the bamboo-joint with the
money, without returning to the field, ran away."

When the phrase in which the conjunctive participle occurs

84 GRAMMAR

is terminated by an imperative, the sufl&x is not -si but -rd :
"having eaten your rice, go," is an cho-rd ddm-non ; but
"having eaten his rice, he went," is an chodef-s'i dara-lo. "While
-SI links together parts of a narrative, -rd links together a string
of imperatives.

The infinitive or verbal noun is identical in form with the
present participle; kum-lirht tangte Jceldn drk'i ndng drju-Vonglo,
" he heard (got to hear) there {ndng) the sound {drki) of fiddle
(kiim) scraping {M-rot) and dancing (ke-lcin)." All words
beginning with 7:e-, ki-, and Id- may therefore be regarded as
(1) adjectives, (2) participles forming tenses of the verb, or
(3) verbal nouns ; and it will be seen from the analysis of the
specimens how clearly this at first sight strange allocation of
forms can be made to express the required sense.

In all Tibeto-Burman languages the passive voice is either
non-existent or little used ; a sentence which in English would
be stated passively is turned the other way, and appears in an
active form. Thus — " Four trees were uprooted by the wind"
would be rendered tombn tJiengjn rbng-pJiill pi-pur-Jm-lo, "the
wind uprooted four trees " ; " this house has been thrown down
by an earthquake " is chikli-si Idhdngso dliem pi-m-hup-lo, " an
earthquake has thrown down this house." Sometimes a passive
may be expressed by a periphrasis, as " I was beaten," ne kechbk
en-tang, lit, " I received a beating." The only unquestionable
example of a passive is in the case of past participles, and here
the passive is expressed by the simple expedient of putting the
participle before instead of after the noun : Idng kevdyi dlwi\
" the drink brought by people " ; mdjd heVong drleng, " a man
bewitched " ; ne ke-pi d-dn dJior, " the to-me-given rice and
beer." This construction is exactly parallel to the method
(explained above) of expressing the relative phrase by putting
the adjective first, instead of after the noun, and is in fact
another case of the same idiom. The participle, which may
also (as just explained) be regarded as a verbal noun, comes
before the subject of the sentence, because the action passes on
to the subject, instead of emanating from it, as in an active
construction. We are tempted to think that languages which
lack what seems to European modes of thought such essential
elements as a relative pronoun and a passive voice cannot be

GIL\MMAR 85

capable of any subtlety of expression ; yet this phenomenon is
common to forms of speech like Tibetan, Burmese, and Chinese,
which possess vast literatures dealing vdth all kinds of subjects,
and in which it is possible to render ideas of the greatest com-
plexity and variety. Even in Europe, the clearest and most
logical of languages, French, prefers to use the active form of
phrase {with on) rather than the passive.

The negative verb is a very interesting and remarkable
feature of the language. A separate negative root, formed by
prefixing or suffixing a negative paiticle, and conjugated in the
same way as the positive, is indeed a common property of
Tibeto-Burman speech; but in Mikir this secondary root is
formed in a peculiar manner. The negating syllable -e is added
to the primitive, as an, " can," un-e, " cannot" ; bn^, " be much,"
bng-e, " be not much " ; 7, " lie down," i-i, " not lie down." But
when the root begins with a consonant or a nexus of consonants,
and is monosyllabic, the consonant or nexus is repeated before
the added vowel : thek, " see, be able " ; thtk-the, " not see, be
unable"; dam, "go" ddm-de, "not go"; kroi, "believe, obey,"
kroi-kre, " disbelieve, disobey " ; mek-prdng, " eye-open, awake,"
meh-prdng-pre, " not awake." When the verb is of two or more
syllables, the last is chosen for reduplication : inghoi, " do,"
inghoi-he, "not do"; ingjinso, " show mercy," ingjin-so-se, "not
show mercy"; chini (Ass. loan-word), "recognise," chini-ne,
" not recognise."

The secondary root thus obtained is treated in construction
just like the positive root, and takes the tense-suffixes : pKik-td
pi-vdng-ve-det-lo, " anybody to give him (anything) came not."
The time-index is, however, with negative verbs more often
dropped as unnecessar}', owing to the context showing what the
time-relation is.

In the imperative the reduplication is not used ; the particle
-rl is added to the positive root, with or without non as well :
tKek-non, " see ! " ; thek-ri, or thek-rl-nbn, " see not ! "

It may be added that this method of forming the negative
by reduplication is also applied to verbal adjectives in h:-, ki-,
kd-, which thereupon usually drop the prefix : keso, " in pain,
sick " ; so-se, " not sick, well " ; but kdngjiiiso, " merciful " ;
kdng-jinsb-se, " merciless."

86 GRAMMAR

Besides this organic negative, there is a periphrastic negative
formed by adding the word dve, " is not " : Arnam abang dve,
kecheng dve, kdjjetdng dve, " God has no body, no beginning, no
end" (lit. "God his body is not, beginning is not, end is not").
The a in dve is the usual d of relation, and may be dropped:
dldm-dve " without a word " ; Idm-ve, " word-less, dumb." Kd-
may be prefixed, forming have, used as an adjectival nega-
tive : koixd (Ass. kopdl), " fortune," kopoA-kdve, " unfortunate."
Another negative used separately, in emphatic assertions, is
kdli : tovdr ndng kepek-jl kdl'i, *' the way I will by no means
yield to you " ; ne-thibvk hall, " it is not my water-jar."

The causal verb is formed by prefixing the syllable 2^<^-, P^-,
pd- * to the root : this is probably the verb pi, meaning '' to
give"; e.g. cJio, "eat," p)<^chd, "feed"; tang, "finish," p)^i^^9>
" cause to finish, end " ; ingrum, " be gathered together," pdng-
rww, " collect " ; vhxlet, " be lost," pi-wircTet, " destroy." This
syllable takes procedure of che- in reflexive verbs : e-chainbng
e-pd-cM-thu-koi-ldng , " he has caused us to slaughter all our
cows " : here e- is the pronoun of the first person plural inclusive
of the addressee ; pd-, the causal prefix ; elii-, the reflexive par-
ticle, indicating that the cattle slaughtered were their own ;
thu, a verb, " to kill liy cutting " ; koi, a particle indicating
completeness ; Idiig, the tense-sufiix.

Compound verbs meet us at every step in Mikir. Roots are
heaped together, and the compound is closed by the tense-suffix.
Ordinarily the first root determines the general meaning of the
compound, the rest being adverbial supplements of modifying
force : — cJiiru-pl-Vem-lo, " he pretended to weep " (chiru, " weep,"
lem, " seem, appear," pl-lem, " cause to seem, pretend ") ; ke-
pMbng-ddm abang, "somebody who will go and set fire (to the
funeral pile) {" iMbng, " kindle," dam, " go ") ; kroi-dini-lo, " she
consented " {kroi, " agree, obey," dim, " go or be with another ") ;
ne do-dun-jl-7iid, " will you stay with me ? " (do, " stay," du7i, as
above). The texts which follow supply a multitude of other
examples.

These adverbial supplements to verbs, inserted between the
principal verb and the tense-suffixes, are a very characteristic

* Pe- and pi- are used with monosyllables, ^u- with most polysyllables ;
2>d + iit<j = iMiKj.

GRAMMAR %y

feature of the language, and their proper use is one of the most
difficult things for a learner to master. Certain roots take
constant supplements of this kind, and are scarcely ever found
without them ; thus the verbs tli't, " die," l, " lie down to sleep,"
and jang, "close the eyes," are almost invariably followed by
lot ; reiKj, " to live," takes et before verljal suffixes ; long, " to
get," takes Ibk; chinghdr, "to be equal (in size, weight, height),"
and chingdon, " to be equal in length," take chit ; inghbii, " to
love," and ingjinsd, " to pity," both take duk ; jbh and thcf, both
meaning " to escape, get loose," take ^^/i/o^. The complements
for verbs meaning " to fall " have been mentioned above (p. 82).
These supplements frequently cause the tense-endings to be dis-
pensed with, in which case the action is understood to be in the
narrative past or historic present. Xo doubt most of them
were originally separate verbal roots, but are not ncnv capa])le
of being used separately.

The brief outline given above will, it is hoped, enable tlie
reader to apprehend the general construction of the narratives
which follow, and display the language in action ; for further
analysis reference should be made to the notes appended to
the texts.

OHONGHOLOSO ATOMO.
FROG ST0B7.

Arni-si miso-rbngpo a-bng an cbe-thbn-damlo.

Day-one a big Mack ant (to) Ms uncle rice to carry went.
ChoDgholoso tovar ingnl-thip. Ansi miso

a frog the way sat down and hlocked. Then the ant

pulo : " Tovar ne pek-tha, chbnglioloso ; ne ne-bng
said: " The tvay forme leave free, frog; I my-nnde

an chethbn-dam-ji." Chbngholosb j)^^^6t : " Ne-rum
rice carry-go-vnll." The frog answo'cd : " Under me

ne-lut-thbt-ra dam-te : pakta ne-rum-si dtim-

entering {creeping') go your way : every one under me
hbr-le." Miso pudet : " Ne-bng a-an bbr do-

passes." Tlie ant said : " My uncle's rice leaf -bundle being
kbk-le, pusi nang-rum-le n<\ng-kelut-thek-ji ? "

tied up, how you-underneath enter, creep, shall I be able '. "

Ansi chbngho-ta pek-pe, miso-ta dam-de.

So the frog would not give way, the ant could not go.

Ansi nerlo chitim-lo. Ansi mis5 — " Ai, ne-bng

So day became middle. So the ant — " Oh, my iinclc
an-ingchir-si aning-ne-thi-po " pulo ; chbnglioloso-arum
rice-hunger -in angry vnth me will be" said ; the frog -under

lut-thbt-lo, An-lo chbugholoso miso-athak ingni-dun-
he entered, crept. Then the frog the ant-upon sat-down-
chet-lo. Lilsi miso-rbngpo chbngholoso a-mi kbr-rak.
fiat. Thereupon the big black ant the frog' s loins bit-severely.
Ansi chbngho aning-thi-ning-thi karle-sarpo-a-dbn

Then the frog becoming very angry squirrcl-hig-old's ladder

STORY OF A FROG 89

chon-iai. Karle-sfirpu finin^llii-ninglhi

(on) jit77i2}cd and broLc. The hi<j old squirrel hccoming very awjnj

hiinthiTr-a-kok rot-pet. Huuthar aningtln-ningtlii

(jonrd's stem rut in two. The gourd hecominy very unyry

phak-belengpi fi-iuoi klo-diip. Phiik-belengpi aningtlii-

a wild hoar' s hack {on) fell plump. The wild hoar hccoming

ningthi lo-bong thimur-phak. Lobbng

vcinj anyry a 2ilantain-trce rooted up. The j^lantain-tree

aningthi-ningthi vo-ail»ipi a-tar siip-rai.

becoming very anyry a sparrow 's nest struck and broke.
Vo-arbipi aniiigtbi-ningtlii ingmir no-thbng-pO a-no
The sparrow hecominy very anyry an elephant deaf-hig 's ear

lut-tbbt. Ingnar no-thong-po aningthi-ningtlii arlbng
entered. The elephant deaf-hig becoming very angry a rock
beliing-pblut. Arlbng iiningtbi-ningtbi Eecbo- a-so

tore up suddenly. The rock hecominy very anyry the King 's son
kbnglbng-pi-bup. AnSi Eecbo naug-bisar-lo : " Mat-si
rolling-doion killed. Then the King made an enquiry : " IV ho
ne-po pitbl-lbtlo ? " " Ai, arlbng-si kbnglbng-bup,"

my son has killed !- " " Ob, the rock rolled doicn on him,"
pulo. Ansi arlbng arju-damlo : " 0 arlbng,

they said. Then the rock he summoned to ansiver : " 0 rock,
arlbng ! pi-apbt nang ne-so kbnglbng-bup ? "

rock ! for luhat reason you my son did roll down upon ! "
Arlbng pudet: " die ! Hemphti-arnam-recbo, pi ne kbnglbng-
The rock said : " Oh ! Lord- God- King, how I to roll

bup-be-ji ? Ingnar uo-tbbngp5-si ne belang-

down-not ivcts I ? The elepltant biy-dcaf me torn up

pblut-le ne doi-pbit-lo ; ne-ke ne-ri five,

suddenly having, me pushed out ; as for me, {to) me hands are not,

ne-keng ave, kolo-pu-si cher-cbak-tbek-ji ? Nang-

{to) me legs are not, how then withstand could I ? Your

sopb ne kekbnglbng a-tovar dokbksi, ne kbnglbng-

honourahle son my rolliny down-path beiny-in, I rolled down

bup-lo-te."
upon him accordingly.^'

90 STORY OF A FROG

Ansi Eecho pulo : " Mai ! la iuguar no-thbng-po
Then the king said: "Oh! that elei^hant deaf -big
la-anset bbn-he " — pusi, ingnar no-thbng-po

tlMt so much {trouble} caused" — saying, elephant deaf -big
arju-dam-lo. " 0 ingnar ingnar ! kopi-apbt nang

summoned. " 0 elephant, elephant ! for ivhat reason you

arlbng helang-phlut ? " Ingnar pudet : " Che !

the rock tore up suddenly ? " Tltc elephant OMstvercd : " Oh,

pi ne helang-phlut-phle-ji, Hemphu arnam ? Vo-arbipi
hovj I vjo.s to help tearing it up), Lord God f The sparrow

ne-n5 ne-keliit-thbt-si, ne a-bidi thek-the-det-lo-le,
my ear having entered into, my wits halving lost control of me,

la-helo ne arlbng helang-phlut,"
therefore I the rock tore up suddenly.

AnsI Eecho pudet — " Mai ! la vo-arbipi la-anpin
Then the King said — "Oh! that sparrow that so viuch

bbn-he " pu, arju-damlo. " 0 vo-arbipi voarbipi !

(trouble) caused" saying, summoned. " 0 sparroio, sparrow!
ingnar a-no kopi-apbt nang lut-thbt ? " Voarbipi

elephant's ear for vjhat reason did you enter ! " The sparrow
'thakdet — "Che! Hemphu! pi ne lut-le-ji ?

answered — " Oh ! Lord ! how I was I not to enter ?
lobbng ne-tar kesap-rai-le, la-helo

the plantain-stalk my nest falling on having broken, therefore
ne-ning oi-bng, ne ingnar a-no lut-thbt."

my mind being very disturbed, L elephant's ear entered."

Ansi Eecho pu — " Mai ! la lobbng lapu

Then the King said — "Oh! that p)lantain-stalk, it seems,

anpin bbn-he " — pusi arju-dam-lo. " 0 lobbug

so much (trouble) caused " — saying he summoned. " 0 lolantain^

lobbng! nang kopi-apbt vo-arbipi a-tar sap-

'plantain! you for what reason the sparrow's nest fell upon

rai ? " Lobbng pudet — " Che ! pi ne sap-rai-

and broke ! " The p)lantain said — " Oh ! hoiv L was not to

re-ji, Hemphu arnam ? Phak-beleng-pi-si ne

fall and break. Lord God ? The wild boar me

STORY OF A FROG 91

kathliniir-pliak-le : lu' tlriiiiiir-[tliiik-li)-tr' in" iiigkur
rooted me iqi suddenl// : f Ji(ivin(/ hern roofed up, I root
kiive-det-lo-le : kopu-si ue kurji'ip tlu'k-ji-laiig ?

none had at cdl : hoiv I standi iifj-ui) was to he able to ruitliauc ?
Thangbak ne-ri ne-keng le-kedo kali-det-le."

Ani/ to me-liaiid to me-leg being, existing, not-at-all there is."
"Mail la phak pu aii-piu bon-hC-," pvi

"Oh! that ]}ig, it seems, all the (trouhlc) caused," sajjing
Eech5 pulo. Ansi phtlk-aphan arju-dam-lo. " 0 pbak pbak !
the King said. So the2ng (accus.) he summoned. " 0 pig, pig !

pi-apbt nang loljong thimur-phak " ? Pliak pudet

for what reason you the 2Jli(ntain rooted up" ! The ing ansivercd

" Pi nc tbimur-phak-phe-ji ? Ne cbopan-vek,

" How I eould, help rooting it up ? (as) I icas feeding, grazing,
maraatsi bautbar ne-moi keklo-dap-lC- : b'l-belo

suddenly, the gourd my hack (on) came tumbling down : therefore

keso-bng ue lobong tbmiur-pbak."
being in great pain I the plantain rooted up."

Ansi Eecbo — " Mai ! bautbar pu au-piu bbu-be "

So the king — " Oh ! the gourd, then, all this (trouble) caused,"

pusi bautbar arju-dam-lo. " 0 bautbar bautbar! pi-iipbt

saying the gourd summoned. " 0 gourd, gourd ! for what

pbak-beleug-pi a-moi uaug klo-dup ? " " Pi ne

reason the wild boar 'shack (on) you fell-plump?" '^ How I

klo-dup-de-ji, Hempbii Arnam ? Karle-si ue-k()k
eould help falling'': Lord God': The squirrel my stern (to me)

ne-kerot-pet-le, ne-ke tbangbak ne-ri, ne-keng

having cut through, I at all to mc hand, to me foot

le-kedo kali-det, ne-kbk isi-pet au-belo, la-le

there-not-existing, my stem, one-only, so much having, that if
ne rbt-pet-lo-te, ne klo-naug-po. Pbak-beleng-pi

to me is cut through, I must necessarily fall. The wild boar

a-moi keklo-nang-dup."

's back (on) falling became necessary."

Ansi Eecbo pu-le-lo — " Mai ! la karle pu au-piu
So the King said again — " Oh ! that squirrel t/ien so much

92 STORY OF A FROG

bbnhe" pusi kaiie arju-dam-lo. " 0 kiirle

{trouble) caused " saying the squirrel summoned. " 0 squirrel,

kiirle ! kopi-fipot nang hanthar a-kbk rot-pet ? "
squirrel! for wliat reason did you the gourd 's stein cut through ? "
Karle pudet — " Che ! pi ne rot-re-ji, Hemphu

The squirrel said — " Oh, hoio I tvas not to cut it, Lord
Amam ? Chbngh6loso-si ne-dbn clibn-rai-le. La-

God? The frog my ladder {on) jumijing hroJic : There-

si ne tovar ave-det-lo : ne hanthar a-kbk rbt-

fore to me a road did not remain: I the gourd 's stem had

pet."
to cut."

Eecho pudet — " Mai ! la chbngho la-pu an-pin

TheKiTig said — " Oh ! that frog, it seems, so much {trouble)
bbn-he" pusi arju-dam-lo. "0 chbngholoso chbngholoso !
caused" saying he summoned. " 0 frog, f'>'og !

kopi-apbt nang karle a-dbn chbn-rai ? "

for what reason you the squirrel's ladder jumping on broke ? "
Chbngho thakdet — " Pi ne chbn-rai-re-ji ?

The frog ansiuered — " Hoio I ivas to help jumping on and breaking?
Miso-rbng-p6-si ne-mi ne-ke kbr-rak-le : la keso-bng-
Tlie big black ant my loins, even me, bit hard : that pain-great-

si ne karle-adbn-bo-po ne chini-ne-det-si chbn-

from I squirrel's ladder (honorific) / not knowingly jumped upon

rai-te."
and broker

Eechb pu-le-lo — " Mai ! miso pu an-pin

The King said again — "Oh! the ant, then, caused all the
bbn-he " pusi arju-dam-lo. " 0 miso miso ! pi-apbt nang
trouble" saying summoned. " 0 ant, ant! ivhat-for did yoit
chbngholoso-a-mi kbr-rak ? " Miso pudet — " Pi ne kbr-
the frog's loins bite severely? " The ant said — "How I was to

rak-re-ji ? Adap ne-bng an che-thbn-

hclp biting him ? In the morning to my uncle rice I was going

dam-lo : Chbngho tovar ingni-thip. La-lo

alcm,g carrying : the frog the road sitting down blocked. Thereupon

STORY OF A FROG 93

11c ' toviir ne pek-tlia ' piilo : ' nr'-ruiu-lc lu(-U()U ' pu.

/ ' road to me free-leave ' said : ' me undernea.th creep ' he said.
Ne lut-thbt-lo : chbngho nc'-thiik nO ingni-tlii]) ;

/ C7'ept imder him : the frog on the top of me sat doivn tiyhi ;
lasi ne a-mi kbr-rak."

therefore I his loins hit-severely."

Ansi Eeclio pulo — " NJing bung-liliii kelct-dJ't." Misb-kr'
Then the King said — " You pcrsons-tivo gitdtij-arc." TItc ant
cliujbng-pen kbk-chek-lo : nbn a-vam cheng-jan.

hair of head-with they tied-firmly : now his-waist is very slender.

Clibiighb-ke tarme-lang-bbng-pen sap-phrut-phrat ;

The frog a hlistering erccper-witJi they soundly thrashti/ ;
lasi nbn phrbk-se-nbk-tbk.

therefore noio he is speckled all over.

NOTES.

This simple and direct narrative, easy of analysis, affords an excellent
illustration of the mechanism of Mikir sjieech. First, we observe that
the indication of time is put at the beginning of the sentence : drnl-si,
"one day"; udap, "in the morning." Then follows the subject, then
the object, and last the verb, with all its (qualifications. Tlie most
frequent conjunction is ansi, " and, so," which appears to be made uj) of
all, the particle indicating quantity, and si, the particle indicating locality,
used also for the conjunctive participle ; the meaning would then l)e —
"so much having passed (what follows conies next)." Au-hP, an-U- and
an-lo have the same force.

For the tenses we find the usual suffixes, -lo, -det, for the narrative
])ast, -po for the present-future, and -jl for the future. In the narrative
a much-used auxiliary is -Uj, which means "having ai'rived." Tlie passage
is remarkable for the number of cases in which, no ambiguity being
])ossible, the tense-pai-ticle is omitted, and the past is expressed by the
bare root, without, or more commonly with, an adverliial supplement.
Tluis, we \\;\\e pulo, pndU, and^-iu for " said " ; infjni-tJiip, " he sat down
and blocked," kbr-rak, "bit severely," dtun-rai, "jumped upon and
broke," rbt-pef, "cut in two," Mu-dup, "fell plump," thimur-phak,
"rooted up," sa/»-?-ai, " struck and broke," /(/^M?^/, " entered," htlawi-
phlut, " tore up suddenly," ^j-6tiy^ "killed by tumbling on him," chh-phn-
vek, "was feeding, grazing," shp-2)]irht-phrht, "beat soundly." Then,
we notice that the great majority of tliese cases are examples of roots
(qualified by the addition of a particle whicli, while not used separately by
itself, gives energy and definiteness to the verbal root ; this method of
heightening the force of verbs is a great characteristic of ^likir diction,
and is at once the chi(!f beauty and the chief difficulty (to a fi>reigner) of
the language. The adverbial i)articles so used are vcrj' numerous, but
they are appropriated to particular verbal roots, and if they were wronglj'
applied the result would l)e nonsense. Thus, the particle lot is used witli
three verbs only, thi, "die," /, "lie down," and jaiKj "close the eyes,"

94 STORY OF A FROG

and always jn-ecedes tlie verbal suffixes with these roots : it cannot be
used with any other. Thot, again, always occurs with lut, "to enter,"
fok and vnr, " to throw." Bup conveys the idea of a sudden blow or fall,
and is used with verbs of falling or striking. Dap and dup seem to have
much the same force. PH, hoi, klip are particles used to indicate com-
pleteness ; hit-pet-Io, "all have gone in," rht-pet-lo, "he cut through,"
dio-koi-lo, "he ate up," thu-koi-lo, " he killed them all," chd-kUp-lo, "he
devoured them." Several of these auxiliary particles seem to be
onomatopoetic.

Much resembling the use of these particles are the cases in which
verbal roots are combined together to form a single expression. Thus,
in our story, thtn-dum-Io "he carrying went"; do-kbk-Je "remaining
tied-up " ; ingnl-dun-chet-Io " he sat down suddenly (chet) when the ant
was passing (dim) " (dun means " to be with," and is constantly used as
an auxiliary, but can also be employed alone in the sense " to go with ") ;
arju-dum-lo "he summoned to answer"; ne Mu-nang-po "I must
necessarily fall" (nung, verb of necessity).

The story gives a number of examples of the remarkable Mikir
negative verb: pek-pe, "did not give way (pek)" ; dam-de, "did not
go" ; pi ne konglb7iy-bup-he-ji, "how was I not to roll down upon him
and smash him ? " where the negative syllable bt borrows the initial
consonant of tlie qualifying particle bup; similarly, hiUtng-phlut-phle
" not suddenly root up " ; sap-ral-re " not strike and break " ; cJiun-rai-re
"not jump upon and break"; cliini-ne-det-si "not know^ing " (where
chini is a loan-word from Assamese).

As regards vocabulary, tha in ne-pek-thd is the imperative particle :
another such jiarticle (rarely occurring) is te in ne lut-thot-ra dam-te ; ra
is used as the suffix of the conjunctive participle in a string of imperatives.
Jlhr in dum-hhr-le indicates plurality : " every one has to pass under me " ;
other such particles are yo and jarrt. Td in chonghO-td and mlso-td gives
definiteness and emphasis ; so also ke in ne-ke, &c. Sdrpo in kdrle sdrpo
means "big chief": puia a syllable added to give honour and dignity.
Notice intensiveness indicated by reduplication in dningthi-ningthl, " very
angry " ; ning-thl, angry, is made up of ning, mind, and thl to be vexed
(also to die). Hanthur : see note on p. 46. Rot-pM means to cut down
a slender stem or twig by drawing a knife across it : pi-pit to cut down a
thick trunk of a tree ; rot is used for drawing a bow across a liddle in
kn in-klrut ' ' fiddle-scraping. " Beleng means a shovel or tray for winnowing
rice ; phhk-btJing-pjl is a wild j^ig, because he roots about in the earth
with his snout like a shovel ; -pfi is a syllable used to form augmentatives,
as -so indicates a diminutive. Bisdr, to hold a judicial inquiry, is
Assamese. HhnplM, "owner," the God Mikirs belong to. Vo-drblpi, '^ a
small bird, the size of a sparrow " (not the sparrow itself, which in
Mikir is vu-pmru). Ne chopan-vek, "I was grazing"; chOpan is used of
feeding for animals only ; vek (or vek-vek) is a particle indicating con-
tinuance. Mamatid is used of some sudden and unpleasant interruption :
klem-vek-vek mamafsl thl-lo, " he died suddenly as he was working" ; ne
(tn cho-vek mamatsl ne chbk-det, " he beat me while I was eating." Notice,
finally, imn, the particle most often used to indicate a strong imperative,
here in its original sense of " now " ; in this meaning it is usually
emphasised by adding ke or le, nbnke, nbnle.

II.

jAngreso pen a-ong-atum atomo.
tee obpean and eis uncles ' story.

Hako inut ahein-epi asopo iuut-pet do ; la

Once on a time one luidow a so7i only one had ; she

fichekle-mar korte bang-therbk do. Ansi

(ivoman's) brothers (plural) brothers ijcrsoiis-six had. Now

arni-si arni-kangsam a-bngmar-atum

one day in the cool of the day {evening) his rnaternal uncles

NOTES.

Here we have a narrative of a more complex character than that of
the first story, with a richer vocabulary, and abounding in the descriptive
adverbial particles which are tlie main feature of the language.

Jangre, orphan : so is a diminutive particle. Janr/n' indicates that
one parent is dead ; juNgren;/ is used when neither survives.

Inut, a loan-word from the Khasi ngut, used for tlie enumeration of
persons : in Mikir initial ng is inadmissible.

Hem-epl, widow, literally, " sole mistress of the house " (hem) ; the
syllable e is perhaps a thinning down of (7 ; juZ is the feminine affix, here
of dignity.

Achekle, brother, used oidy by a woman speaking of her brothers ; Ik
is used by both sexes ; mdr, collective particle, used to form [jlurals :
often (Itum is added ; korte, brother : both k(jr and te separately may be
used for either brother or sister ; hang, the class-word used for human
beings before numerals.

Do, a verb meaning to stay, dwell, exist ; specially, it has the meaning
"to live with as a wife," and is the correlative of en, "to take (to wife)."

Arnl-kangsam, "day-becoming-cool-time," the late afternoon. As is
natural where there are no clocks, the divij^ions of the day are marked by
other means than the count of hours. Ami is a day (or sun), regarded
without reference to the lapse of time = French Jour ; anerlo is a day's
si)ace = journee. Similarly, djo is a nig-ht, jlrlo a night's space. The
first indication of coming day is vo-khu e-the, "first cock-crow" ; then
follows vo-khu the-n'i, "second cock-crow," and vo-khu the-thhm, "third
cock-crow " : then thP-dng prinpre-le, " just before dawn " ; then wlap
kang-thang, dawn (ddup, general word for morning) ; then nerlo-chitim,
"day-middle," noon ; then ariil tlii-Mo, "tlie sun at its height" ; then
drnl-kdngsdm, "the sun becoming cool," afternoon ; then ingting lim-rim,
or iugting-rim, dusk. Then begins djo, night, when the evening meal is

96 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

vaug-si jangreso-aphan nang-hanglo — " Osa !

having come the orphan (accus.) called-to — ""Nephew!

rii cho-du-dc\m-nang." Ansi j<\iigres6-ta dun-lo.

juh-tra'p set up-go-let-us." So the orphan went vnth them.
Ansi aoug-mar kbrte bang-therbk-ke laug-thak-si pat
Then his uncles, the hrothers persons-six, up-stream a dam
me-sen-si rii dii-lo. Jangreso-ke a-ongmar-atum

having well built the trap set up. The orj)han his uncles

a-rn-pat a-ber-si arlong dii-i pbang-o-phang-a-si

' trap-dam helow stones having set up carelessly, disorderly,
ru dii-lo, ansi bem nang-cbe-voi-lo. Ansi latum adap

traiJ set up, and home returned Then they in the morning

ru cbe-vat-dam-lo. A-bngmar-atum a-rii-pat

the trap-their went to inspect. His uncles ' trap)-dam

an kepat-peme-ta, cbikuug-cbikang-ta cbe-var-

so very well-huilt though, one cr ay -fish even had not thrown
thbt-tbe ; jangreso a-rii puke, bk kejang

itself into it ; the orphans trap as for, fis/o holding, entering

a-rii tengset, Ansi a-bngmar-atum pulo — " Osa !

his trap ivas quite full. Tlien his uncles said "Ncpliew!

taken, after which soon comes the first sleep, an-chu mek-hur, "rice-
having-eaten eye-close " ; then /E/'?o chitim, midnight.

Narig-, a particle used, prefixed to verbs, to give vividness, is reallj'
the pronoun of the 2nd person singular, emphasis being given by referring
the verb to the person addressed. Nhng at the end of the phrase is the
verb of necessity = must ; it often means " let us do this or that."

Piit, as a noun, is a stone dam or fence, put across a stream with an
opening in the middle in which the bamboo cage or fish-trap, ru, is
placed ; as a verb, it means to build such a dam or fence ; du means tO'
place a thing so that it will catch or intercept something else.

Lang, water, stream : lang-thhlc up-stream, Idng-her down-stream.

Che- prefixed to verbs gives them a reflexive meaning, and indicates
that the action relates to the subject ; hem che-voi-lo, "he went home, to
his ov)n house " ; che-pu-Io, " they said to one another " ; ru clic-vht-dum-loy
" they went to inspect their ovni fish-trap."

C'/nknng, a cray-fish ; chikang is an imitative sec^uent ; similarly
2>}ihng-u, carelessly, is followed by phang-d.

Jang, as a verb, means to fill up, or, of the containing vessel, to hold
— hk-hejung d-ru, " fish-to-hold-traij." Notice that hk means both fish
and flesh ; alone, it has usually the former meaning, or that of game,
animals hunted ; when joined to the name of an animal, the latter :
chaiiihiig-d-hk, beef ; phdk-u-(jk, pork ; bl-d-hk, goat's flesla.

Tt:)ig and plf^ng both mean to be full : set is a particle added tcv
strengthen the verb, taking the place of the tense-affi.\.

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES 97

netum duk ru put-po, uangli-ke lang-bcT-lt' pal-dam-
we here trap vrill build, do yoii down-streain go and set
thu-non." Ansi jangreso iT-ru-put fv-bng-

your dam againy So tlic orphuis trap-dam (in) his

mar-atum a-ru du-si, jangreso-ke langbersi

uncles their trap having set vp, the orphan down stream

psit-dajn-thu-lo ; bonta ok kejang lapu-thak-thak,
again built his dam; but the fish holding just that same wag,
a-ODgmar-atum a-ni-ke ok-ejon-nat-ta jang-thbt-the,

the uncles ' trap one single fish even did not hold,

jangreso a-rii-ke ok kejang plbngset-plengset. Ansi
tliC orphan's trap fi^h holding icas quite full. So

adap-vang-ta jangreso a-ru-pat a-bng-atum che-

niorning-every the orphan's trap-dam his uncles took for

rai-ver-lo. Lasi adap-vang along

themselves continually. Therefore every morning a palace
kaprek ni-pat selet-bng-si, adap-isi-ke

different (in) trap-set-up becoming very weary, morning one

rii dti-tekang-ke-detsi, bap a-phang-athak bi

the trap not setting iip at all, grass clump upon p)lacing
tekang-kbk. Ansi adap le-lo, a-bngmar-atum vang-si

he left it. So morning arrived, his uncles having come

jiingreso-aphan nang-hang-lo : " Osa, ni chevat-dam-

to the orphan called out: " Ncpheiv .' our traps let us go

le-lo-naug." Ansi jangreso pulo : " Neli-ke rii-ta

again and visit." Then the orphan said : " As for me, a trap

dn-tekang-ke ; da bbnta, uanglitum-firi

/ have not even set up; come, nevertheless, (as) your companion

nang-dun-ji," piisi dim-lo. Ansi fi-rii

/ will go ivith you^ so saying he went ivith them. Then his trap

Adap-vang, " every morning " ; literally, " as (each) morning came."
Ohe-rai-ver-lo ; here che- is the reflexive particle, rai a verb, to occupy,
take up, irr a particle indicating continuance, to the tense-aftix ; the
whole therefore means " they kept on taking up for themselves."

Du-tehang-ke-det-si ; du, verb, to place, set; iiktnKj, a verb, to leave,
depart ; ke, negative syllable, reduplicated from last syllable of tckajig,
det, particle of past time, si affix of conjunctive participle ; the whole
therefore means "not having placed and left," "without setting up
at all."

98 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

che-lang-damlo. Vo-thung lut-thbt thek-dam-lo.

he went to look at. A wood-pigeon having entered he found.
Ansi labangso a-vo-thung ari chekbksi hem

So that wood pigeon his cord (with) having tied 'up home
che-van-lo.
he bought.

Labangsd a-jangres6 chainong-as5-ta e-joii do, la

TJiat orphan a cone's child (a calf) also one had, it

kangtu puke matba-thek-the jadi-thek-the, nei-bot an-

fat so very, as coidd not he imagined (doublet) very sleek so

pin. Anke a-6ngmar-atuni lang-un-e-si

greatly. Noio his uncles to look at-heing tinahlc (through envy)

labangso a-chainbng-aso thri-pet-lo. Ansi jangreso

that calf killed (entirely). TJicn the orphan

labangso a-chainbng-as5 a-reng lumsi akeng-ehbng

that calf's skin having taken off, leg one

ha bambn kiri-p6 a-hem pbu-si patu-dam-

to a distance a hrahman rich-hig's house (to) taking, hid it

joi-lo. Ansi jangresb : " Mai ! hem-ta chainbng-

quietly. Tlien the orphan (said) : " Oh ! the house cow's

a-bk angnim-hai-bng-he ! " Anke bambn-p6

flesh (of) smells strongly ! " Then the hig hrahman,

aningthi-si pulo : " Teke nang-kbrdut-pi a-os6 ! konat

becoming angry, said : " Tiger -bitten boy ! where

Ej7m : jhn is the class word for animals, as hang is for persons, used
with numerals; e- is the prehx for "one" ; the other numerals follow —
phuk fon-nl,j7)n-thom, two, three pigs.

Mdthu thek-the ; milthd, verb, to think, imagine ; thek, verb, to be able
(also to see); the neji^ative affix: the whole therefore means "as could
not be imagined " ; judi-thek-the is a doublet of the same meaning. An-
pin : an, particle of quantity ; pin up to ; also tik ; dn-jnn or an-tik
therefore means " to such a degree.'

Aktng e-Jcung : a its (the calf's), keng, leg, e-, one (as before), hong
class-word for enumerating parts of the body ; hd, particle indicating
distance ; La, this, hd-Ia that : Id-dak, here, hd-ddk, there.

Teke-nhng-kurdut-pl d-osu: ieke, "tiger" ; ndng, particle of vividness,
or, possibly, "you"; ^cr, verb, to bite, duf, particle strengthening the
verb and dispensing with tense-affix, 2^1 syllable used in abuse, d- syllable
of relation, osO boy : the substantive being put last indicates that the verb
is to be taken passively: "you tiger-bitten scoundrel of a boy!" As
the Mikirs consider that to be eaten by a tiger is conclusive evidence of

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLKS

achainbng-ri-oksl dak-h" ke-do-ji ? NO-kr; l>fiiiii)ii-l(-.

cows flesh here should he > I am a hrahvmn.

Nang peklung tlu'k-ser-mH-sI : tliekthe-le ming-prun
You xtroducc, show, must he ahle to : you cannot-if, yunr life
nang-en-ji." AnsI jangreso pulo— "Dei, tangte ne
I will tahe here." Then the orphan said — " Verij well, then I
ri-po,". pu-si ri-lo. Ri-phang-o-phang-a-si, fdiing

tvill search," saying he searched: seanddng carelessly, he

kapatu-albng diim-si chainong-aso a-keug vuug-dam-phlut
hiding-place (to) going the calf's leg ^m^/ out suddenly

iuglioi-lo : " Laiig-ubn, chainbng a-bk do," pu —

did: See-now, cow's flesh there is," saying —

" ne nang pu-lo-he ! " Ansi bumbn po — " Bang-kaprek-

" / tuld you so ! " Tlien the hig hrahman — '' pec^le other
atiun vang-thek-dun-te, ne-jat virdet-jl " pu,

(plur.) come-see-together-if, my-easte ivill he destroyed " saying,
phere-si jangreso-aphan pulo : " Jangreso, p6-arnam-po ! pak-ta
fearing the orphan-to said : " Orpihan, my good sir ! any one
than-ri-nbn ! dohbn mantung-isi nang pi-po " — pusi
do not tell ! money a cloth-full-one you I will give" saying
dohbn mantung-isi pilo. Ansi jangi-eso labJingso adohbn
money a cloth-full gave. Then the orphan that money

the wickedness of the victim, the phrase is equivalent to "you wicked
Av retch of a boy ! "

Nung iJcMiing tlick-scr mn-sl ; nang, "you," kiting, verb, "to see,
observe " ; pe-, causative particle, so that pek/ang means " to show, to
produce"; ^Ae^-, verb, to be able, sci' strengthening particle, "fully";
711(1, syllable used for direct or indirect questions: dujl-md ? "will you
marry me ? " Nang peso en-taug-ina ? " have you taken a wife ?" ; then,
for alternatives, do-jl-ma do-de-ma? "will you marry him or not?"; and
lastlj% as here, ^' if you are not able to produce — then," etc. ; si, affix of
conjunctive participle, i)roperly a locative particle.

Dei, " very good," a loan-word from Khasi. Tang-te, "then," — pro-
perly " not having tinished " ; titng is the verb meaning to be ended, com-
pleted, tJi tlie negative syllable.

Vimg-dam-ptilut inghoi-lo. This periphrastic construction, in which
inglioi, to do, is used to strengthen the verb, seems to be borrowed from
Assamese ; many examples occur further on.

Pu-arnam-pr>! a honoritic form of address ; ^o, literal!}', "father,"
but used also of a son {cf. the Hindustani hilha) nrnam, (iod (Ass. deutu),
pu, big, honourable. For a girl the corresponding phrase is pe-drnam-pi.
Dohon, Assamese dhX)n {dhun), wealth, money ; notice that the dli is
resolved by the insertion of a vowel ; similarly, further on, hahdr occurs
for hhdr (Ass.), a load ; neither dli nor bh is used in purely Mikir words.

lOO THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

p6u-si hem che-voi-lo. Hem che-le-lo, ansi

taking with him, home returned. House his he arrived, and

a-pei che-pu-lo : " ne-bng-atum a-tbn hang-dam-tha."

his mother {to) said : my uncles basket go-ash-for."

Ansi fipei da,m-si hang-dam-lo : " Ik-mar-li ! nangli

So his mother going asked for it : "Brothers! your
osii kipn, ' ton tangho.' " Ansi ton nang-lo-lo. Ansi

nephew says, ' a basket I want.' " So a basket they sent. Then

hem-epi a-ik-mar-atum ton pisi che-

the widow's brothers the basket having given said among

pu-lo " Ton pi kanghoi-i-ji-ne ? lang-dun-tbn-

themselvcs — " The basket what is to do with / go and fecp

tha" — pusi akibi-abang toi-dim-lo; ansi la nang-

(imper.) — saying their youngest one they sent and he there

lang-dun-tbn-lo, anke hotbn-pen dohbn keteng
loent and ivatchcd, and the basket-ivith money measuring
nang-thek-dun-lo. Ansi nang-kelang-dun-tbn-abang

there he saw. Tlien there-the-one-who-had-ivatched-person
hem che-voi-si, a-ik-mar than-dam-lo — "La

house his having returned to, his brothers informed — " That

e-osa konat-tbng kelbng-dam-lo-ne ? hotbn-pen

our-nepheio wherever get-did he {all this money) !■ with a basket
dohbn keteng chinam sai-se." Ansi dohbn

money measure really he has to." So the money

teng-tang-det jangreso a-pei-ta tbn

measuring-finished-having the orphans mother the basket

thbn-dam-lo, anke achekle-mar nang-pu-dun-lo "Osa

returned, and her brothers there said to her " Nephew

Ton, hotoit, one of the numerous words for basket. Ttmg-lid, a word
used by a messenger to express the wish of hiia who sent him to ask for
something: not used in other phrases. Tun pi khnfihoi-i-jl ne "the
l)asket for the purpose of doing wliat is ? " Pi, what, khrxjhoi, infinitive,
to do, -I syUaVjle added to indicate purpose, jt affix of future, ne, particle
of enquiry, an Assamese loan-word. Lhng-dun-thn-thd : long, verb, to
look, dim, verb, to go with, to be with, fon, verb, to peep, pry, thu,
imperative particle. 'Teng, to measure, with a vessel of known contents ;
originally, to fill (see above, tPngsct = plhigsH). Konut-thng kelhng-dhni-lo-
iii : konut, where : tung, a particle expressing xnicertainty : ' ' where on
earth did he get it " ? Sai-se "■ in order to " ; "he really (rJdnam) has to
use a basket in order to measure this mass of money ! " Tfih)i, to return

THE ORPIIAX AND IIIS L'NCLKS loi

nang-toi-tha." Ansi hem-fpi lieia naiig-clic-le-si asopO-
hcrc send." So the icidoiv home haviny arrived her son

aphau cbe-pulo — " Nang ong-atum kipu ' Vaug-tha-tu tangho
to said — " Your uncles say ' Come here, we want you,

po.' " Ansi jaugresO-ta damlo. AnkO a-bng-atum naug
father'" So tlic orplian v:ent. And his uncles there

arju-lo — " Konat adolibii-si uangli kelong-dam ? " Ansi
asked — "Where all this money you obtained V Ami

jiingreso pulo : " Chainbug-a-bk a-uam : nangli-tum-ue-
tlie orphan said: " Cow's Jlesh {of) i^ricc {it is) : (hy) yoic my

kithii-pi-pet a-chainbng a-bk-si neli kejbr-dam ;

hilled-entirely eows flesh I vxnt a-seUiny ;

clietangte cbehang-jo ' an-pin lang ? ' "

it not being sufficient, togetlicr they ashed ' is there only so much / ' "

Ansi abng-mar arju-thu-le-lo : " Tangte chainbng-a-bk jbr-
Then his uncles asked again: "Then cow's Jlesh go

dam-te la-tuiu enji-lang-ma ? " Ansi jangreso

a-selling if (we), they will taking-go on ! " And the oriihan

pulo — " En-ji lang-te ; nangli-tum-ke

said — " They loill go on taking certainly ; you

chaiubng-do-6-para lale tliu-koi-ra a-bk

cows having many hecause, therefore killing tliem all their flesh

a thing borrowed. Vurxj-thu-tu taiiy-lnl-po : notice the use of ])u, father,
as a res2)ectfiil address, by the mother to her son ; so also the uncles
address their ne2)he\v resjjectfully with nhtig-U. N(ni(jIl-funi-iiP-fci(hri-]>l-
pet dchainhng : notice tlie string of descriptive words prefixed adjectivally
to tiie noun : this is an excellent example of the manner in which Mikir
deals M'ith what in English would be a relative sentence — *' the cow of
mine which you put to death by cutting her up " ; literallj', " l)y-}'ou-my-
killed-and-cut-up cow." Thn, to kill by cutting : iil, here a verb meaning
to cut a large mass (see note to preceding story, p. 1)4) ; pet adverbial
sui)j)lement indicating completeness.

Chetaiig-te, " It is not enough " : che, reflexive particle, Hm;}, verb, to
complete, finish; (e, negative : literally, " it does not tinish our business,
it does not do all we want." Che-hhng-jO : hang, to call out, summon ; che,
as before, indicates that they all called out togetlier ; Ju is one of the
particles used to indicate jjlurality ; others (which will be found further
on) are Jfiin and kreri. Lang, an auxiliary verb which seems to indicate
continuousness, to go on being or doing. Observe that -(r is used to
indicate the two parts of a conditional sentence: " chuiiihng a-i)k jhr-
dum-te, cn-jl lang-te " if we go selling cow's Hesh, they will go on taking
it." In chainhng-du-o-pdru, ci is a syllable indicating multitude, perhaps

102 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

jbr-dam-te, ko-ausi dohon kevan-ji ? " Ansi

if you (JO selling lioiu much money you vjill hring ! " So
a-6ngmar korte-bang-therbk abang-phu ejbn chainbng
his uncles hr others the six each one one cow

thii-si a-bk bahar pbn-si jbr-dam-lo, ansi

having killed, its flesh load having tal:en, vjent to sell it, and

jangreso than-dun-lo — "Nangli-tum hala

the orphan explained to them — " Yoit that {distant)

bambn kiri-po a-rbng-le jbr-dam-nbn : la-rbng
hrahman rich-big's village in go and sell : that village (at) ivhcn

le-lo-te ' chainbng a-bk en-ji-lang-ma ' pu-ra

you arrive, ' cow's flesh ivill {any one) go on taking !■ ' saying
arju-nbn." Ansi latum kbrte-bang-therbk chainbng a-bk
ask." So these brothers six coius flesh

pbnsi damlo, ha bambn-arbng le-si, " Chainbng-

taking went, that Brahman's village having arrived, " Coiv's
a-bk en-ji lang ma ? " pu arju-lo. Ansi

flesh will {any one) take more ? " saying asked. And

" en-ji-lang, van-nbn," pu nang-hang-lo. Ansi

" loe will take more, bring it here," saying they called out. So

bambn-po a-hem le-lo. Ansi bambn-po

the big brahman's house they reached. Then the big brahman's
rbng-isi asangho che-pangrum-pet-si, la

village-whole inhabitants, having collected all together, those
chainbng-a-bk kejbr-dam-atuin kbrte bang-therbk,

cow's flesh bringing to sell-'people, the six brothers,

nep-si, a-ri kbk-krei-si, jasemet chbk-si

having seized, their hands tied firmly having, severely having beaten,
pulo : " Netum bambn-le : ' chainbng-abk en-ji ma ? '
said: "We brahmans are : 'coiv's flesh will any one take .^ '

pu nang nang-katirva-hai ? " pu-si lo-lo.

saying, you here-solicit a customer dare ! " saying let them go.

another form of ong ; piird is a loan-word from Assamese. Abnng-j)hu,
"each one"; also ubang-phu-isl {used further on) : phu means "head,"
isi " one " ; the hitter is used m hunibn-pu-rhng-lsl in the sense of "the
whole," "as one man." A-rl-lwk-krei-sl : d-rl "their hands," /i^Vc, verb,
"to tie with a noose^" krei, particle of plurality. KCUircu, "to ofler for

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLICS 103

La chainong-a-uk kovun-atuiu-ta luiu cbu-voi-l<j, iinsi

These cow's-jiesh hringing ijcrsons home their own went, and

tovar chingvai-pon-lo : " Mai ! an-le lilang

on the way took counsel together : " Oh .' how much that

jangreso e-kechobei ! e-cliainong e-haidi e-pfi-chi-thu-

orplicin us has cheated ! our cattle (doublet) he has cu. used us to
koi-lang.; apbu-tbak-ta e-reng e-hu O-ka-

kill all ; over and above that our skin (doublet) to us he has

peso. Apot-ke kele-pen a-hem

caused to smart. Therefore immediately on arriving his house
me-kei-dam-po-nang." Ansi bem che-le-lo anke jang-

Jire-set-to Ict-us-go." So home they arrived, and the

res5 a-hem me-kei-dam-dut inghoi-lo. Ansi jangreso
orphan's house fire-setting did. Then the orphan

atum hini chibu-si hem me-kecho aphelo

baskets-two having ivoven, house-fire-catcn, devoured (of) ashes
hum-si bahar p6n-lo, ansi hii mek-keso

having collected a load toojc, and that (distant) sore-eyed
arong le-lo. Lal)angso iirong arleng abang-

(peoplcs) village luent to. That village (of) men, each one
phu-ta amek-keso-abang angse. Anke phelo

of them, sore-eyed folk were only. So ashes (of)
a-bahiir-pen jangreso latum nang-theksi nang-firju-lo —
a load-with the orphan they having seen, called out to him —
*' Nang kopi kevang ladak ? " Jangreso thak-dct —

" Thou what for comest thou hither ! " The orphan answered —

" Ai nangtum arong mek-keso a-vur do-tang-pu

"Oh! your milage sore eyes disease has finished getting, thus
arju-longsi ne mek-keso a-bap nang-

having got to hear, I (for) sore-eyed people medicine here am

sale," a loan-word from Kliasi (tijrwa). E-ke-chubei, " us he has cheated,''
e- is the pronoun of the tirst person pkiral including the person addressed.
Notice the doublets — Tchaiahng Ihaidi "our cattle," Irt'ng P-hu, "our
skins" (/m, "hide, bark of a tree"), and observe how c- is prefixed to
each part of the sentence. Attim chihusl : turn is here a bamboo basket in
which to carry a load on the back ; hfi, "to plait or weave." Hem mi-
Jcechu " the house that had been eaten (c/id) by tire (mt-) " ; huia, to pick up^
collect, rhclu means both " a^hes " and " cotton." Arju-lhng-sl, " having
^ot (Jong) to hear (arju)." Arja means both "to hear" and "to ask."

104 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

kejor." Ansi latum pulo— " Ai ! tangte me-bug-cbbt-lo,

selling." TJien they said—" Oh .' then (that) is venj good indeed,

p6-arnam-p5 ! " pusi rbng-isi asaughd dohbn

my good sir ! " so saying the whole village inhaUtants money

chi-rung-si dohbn-bahar-isi jangreso nang-pilo.

having collected, of money load one to the orphan there-gave.

Ansi jaugreso pulo : " Laljaiigso a-lmp nbnke

Tlien the orphan said : " That medicine immediately

chi-hi-ri-tha : mo ne tovar ebeng

do not apply {rub) to yourselves : afterwards I the road a piece

lelo-te, 'cbi-hi-nbu' pu ne nang-pupo,

have gone ivhen, 'apply {rub) it' saying I will tell you,

an-le cbi-bi-nbn." Ansi dobbn-babar-isi pbelo

then {and not before) apply it." Then mo7iey -load-one ashes {of)
a-nam jangreso Ibng-si, bem cbevoilo. Anke la

irrice the orphan having got, home to his returned. When he
tovar me naug-le-lo, mek-a-vur-kelbng-atum

road a little had gone eye disease who had got people
jaugreso-apban ' cbi-bi-nbn-tu-ma ? ' pu bang-lo.

The orphan-to " shall we apply it 7iow / " saying called out.
Jangreso nang-tbak-det " tba " ; tebbk-bet tik-ke
The orphan answered " v)ait " ; near so long as,
"tba" pu-bbm-si la ba beloving le-lo ; anke

" wait " saying having continued, he to a distance arrived ; and

" nang-pho-dun-un-e-lo " pu matba-lo,

" he7x reach to me they cannot " saying lie thought, " the
" bap cbi-bi-nbn " pu jangreso nang-bang-lo. Ansi

medAcine rub in now " saying, the orphan there called out. Tlien

mek-keso-atum jangreso-kevan-apbelo a-mek

eyes the sufferers from pain orphan-brought-ashes on their eyes

cbe-bi-lo. La bap kacbi-bi-pen-apara, amek ki-kru

rubbed. That medicine applying from at once their eyes smarted

puke matba-tbek-tbe jadi tbek-tbe : amek keso

so much, it cannot be imagined (doublet) ; their eyes sore

Chi-hl-rl-thu, chi reflexive particle ; hi, verb, " to rub in " ; rl particle for
the negative imperative, " do not " ; thd, ordinary imperative affix, whicli
may be dispensed with when the negative particle is used. T/id ! " wait " !

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLKS 105

taii-niuchot che-pluug-lo. Aiisi hltuui cliipulo :

more mud b became. Then they mid to one another:

" Mai ! aii-le iilaii'' O-ke-cliobei tekiiiii' : la

" Oh ! so much he us having cheated lias left : he

vaug-thu-lo-te, a-ri kbk-dbng-ra clibk-nang." Jangresu-ku
comes-again-if, his hands tying fast let us heat him." The orphan

hem che-le-si lipei-aphau " ne-biig-atum ahotJju eii-dum-
home having come his mother-to " my uncles basket take-go-

le-tha" pu toi-le-lo. Ansi hem-epi a-ikmar-atuin

again" saying he sent again. Then the undoio her brothers

a-hem hotou haug-dam-le-lo. Ansi hotoii naug-l6-si
house basket to ask-went again. Then the basket having sent

latum korte-bang-therok clii-pu-le-lo — " Da,

they brothers six said again among themselves — " Go,

akibi, lang-duu-le-tha ; liotbn pi-tbng

youngest, watch again ; [with) the basket what in the world

kaiighoi-i-ji-ne ? " Ausi akibi-aliang nang-laug-dun-

is lie going to do / " Then the youngest ivent there to watch

tbn-le-lo. Jangreso dohbn keteng nang-thek-dun-

secretly again. The ori^han the money measuring there he saw

le-lo. Anke iiang-kelaug-dun-tbn abang hem che-voi-si

again. Then there watching -secretly person home returning

a-ikmar che-thaii-dam-le-lo — "E-osiL chu-

liis brothers (to) explained, r'elated, again — " Our neijhew than

aphau-te nbn dohbn kevan bng-muchbt le-lo." Anke

last time noiu money bringing much more has arrived." Then

latum kbrte-bang-therbk jangreso-albng dam-si arju-dam-lo —
they the six brothers the orphan-near going asked —

" Konat adohbn-si nangli Ibng-dam-o-lo ? "

" Where {all) this money you have got so much more ! "
Ansi jangreso nang-thak-dun-lo — " Nangli-tum-me-ne

Then the orphan there answered them — " {By) you fire my

loan-word from Assamese. TiDi-mu-chht : mil is the comparative particle,
" more," rhht is the constant sutt'ix to mu ; tan, a verb, to be severe, burden-
some. Chu-aphan, "than last time : " ('iplihn is the postpositi(.n of com-
parison = " than." Lhng-dhm-O-lo " have y(ni got so ninch more " : o is, as

io6 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

kekei-pidut a-hem a-phel6 a-nam. Neli phelo

applied having house, its ashes 2^''^ce {it is). I ashes
kejbr-dam-along ' kedor-de ' pu liang-jo : ' an-pin

selling-place {in) ' it is not enoiujh ' saying tlicij cried : 'just so much
van-thu-tha ' pusi pu. Ne-li hem-ke bihek-si,

briTig again ' saying they said. My house being small,
a-phelo ong-e-det ; nangli-tum ahem-ke the-dung-para,
its ashes not much were ; Your houses, since they are large,

lale me kei-ra a-phelo jor-dam-te, dohon-le nangli-tuin
therefore fire applying the ashes go selling -if, wealth ye

ko-ansi kevan-ji ? Kevan-si nangli-tum un-e."

hoiu much ivoidd bring / To bring it you looidd be unable."
Ansi a-bngmar korte-bang-therok chi-pulo :

Then his uncles the six brethren said, among themselves :
" Tangte itum-ta e-hem me chekei-dam-po-nang." Anke

Then to our also houses fire having applied let us go." Then
hem me chekei-dam-si, hem a-phel5 hum-si

houses fire their having -set-to, house-ashes having gathered,
kbrte abang-phu-ta bahar-un-tik bahar-un-tik j)bn-lo.

the brothers each individually as much as he coidd carry took.
Ansi jangreso than-dun-le-lo : " Ha mek-keso-

Thcn the orphan explained to them again : " To that eye-sore-

arbng-le pbn-nbn ; ha rbng-a-kung le-lo-te,

village up to take, carry ; that distant village near v:hen you arrive,
' Phelo en-ji-ma ? ' pura-punbn." Ansi latum kbrte-

Ashes will you take / ' saying say." So they brothers
bang-therbk damlo. Ha mek-keso-atum arbng pang-le-lo,
six went. That sore eyed pcopdc's village near arrived,

ansi arju-lo — "Phelo en-ji-ma?" Ansi mek-keso-

and asked — " Ashes will you take ! " Then the people vjith

atum " Yan-tha " pu niing-hang-lo ; ansi latum dam-si

sore eyes " Bring it here " saying called out ; then they going

before, the particle of multitude. Kedhr-dc : dor, "to suffice, be enough " ;
de negative syllable ; hany-jo, " they cried i)i crowds " (ju, particle of
plurality). Ony-e-det; hng "much,"' particle of quantity; ?, negative;
<IU tense-suffix. The-duny " big " ; kt-thc great, duny particle ; on its
addition the kt- is dropped.

Tin-: ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES 107

rung Ic-lo ; kelu-peu firi

the village arrived; immediately they arrived their hands
kbk-krei-inghoi-si, Ifi ulaug-tuiii-kepbii-aphelo-peu

tying each, all, having done, thuse hy-tJicin-hrouglU ashes-vji/h

amek hi-si jasemet cliuklo ; alike

their eyes having ruhhcd severely they heat them ; then
• chbk-tlicng-det, latum korte-baug-therbk

having hcen beaten and pnmmelcd, those brothers sic

hem Diing-chevoilo. Anke tovar nang-cheugvai-thu-

home returned. Then (on) the road they eonsidtcd together
le-lo — " Mai ! an-le aluiig e-kechobei-ra e-renii

again — "Oh! so vucch he us-having-cheatcd our sicins

e-kapeso, fiplm-thak-ta e-hem i-rit

he has caused to smart, over and above that our houses our fields
e-pa-che-kei-koi ; nbnke

'US he has caused to set fire to and burn up ,• noiu

kele-peii iogchin-aru beiig-ra

immediately we arrive iron-of a cage {in) having firmly secured

lang jbk-thbt-lo-nang." Anke kele-pen

{him) water {into) let us throio him." So at once on arriving
jangreso nep-chek ingchin-arii-pen Leng-cliek inghoi-lo,
the orphan seizing of iron-a cage-in firmly secure they did,
ansi habit lang-bi akethe-pi a-kung

and in the jungle a pool very great (deej)) on the bank

bi-dain-kbk-lo. " Mb-le hiug

putting doton they jL>/act(Z. " After a little while water {in)
nim-po-nang ; iibiiko kat-athai ave-lo ; apbtke

let us drown him ; noiv run away-powcr he has not ; therefore
an che-cho-dam-si-nang " pusi, an che-cho-dain-lo.

rice our-eat-go-lct-us saying, rice-their they ivent to eat.
Anke a-bngmar an ehecbo-dc\m-aphi, konilne

Then his uncles their rice had gone to eat cftcr, someone or other

Ildh'tt, "in the jungle," locative of Assamese hdli, forest. It is
noticeable that many, if not most, Assamese nouns borrowed by IVIikir
iire taken over in the locative case (of which tlie final t is the proper
ending in Assamese), as here: thus (/e/, " country '' = Asa. drh ; munlt,
"man ' = Ass., muni; nhrukht, hull = Ass. nurhk. Konnni: "some one or

io8 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

recho-asopo ok nang-kehung viiiig-lo, ansi jangreso a-dung
King's son deer there-hunting came, and the orphan near

nang-le-si, jangreso-aphan arju-lo " Kopi apotsi
having arrived, the orphan (accus.) asked " What on account of

iugcliin-aru-arlo nang-kebeng-chek-lo ? " Ansi jangreso
iron-cage-inside you are here firmly secured 1 " Then the orphan

pulo : " Ne-6ng-mar-atum asopi kerne pu matha-thek-
said : " My maternal U7icles a daughter, how fair ! as one cannot

the an-pin do. Lasi ' en-tu ' pu ne-phan

imagine so greatly have. Her ' take to wife ' saying to me

ne-kipu, bbnta ne-ke ' en-e ' pu kipusi,

me they say, but I ' will not take ' saying replying,

ne-bng-mar-atum aning-kithi-si ru ne-kebeng-

my uncles lecoming very angry cage (in) me have

chek-lo." Ansi recho-asopo pulo — " Che ! tangte ne

fastened up." Then the King's son said — "Oh! then I

en-long-ji-ma ? " " La ru-arlo-le nang

(Aer) take {to wife') shall he able / " " This cage into you

nang-do-te, en-long-ji-te " pu jangreso pulo :

here-get-in-if, you icill be able to get her " saying the orphan said :

" elom-te ne-bng-atum vang-po, anke- — • ' Anhelo-

" in a little tvhile my uncles will come and — ' Save you

ma?' pu naug arju-lo-te, 'anhelo, en-po,

anything to say !- ' saying you if they ask, ' all right, Ivnll take her,

bnguiar-li ' — pura punbn." " To, tangte," pu recho-asopo
uncles ' — saying reply." " Yes, then," saying the King's son

pulo. Ansi jangreso recho-aso^io-aphan pulo — " La
said. Then the orphan the King's son-to said — " That

other," Ass. loan-word. Keme-pu " slie is so lovelj' ! " me, " to be fair,
Vjeautiful," pu, literally, " saying." En-tu : here en, " take," lias the special
sense of "take to wife, niarrj' " (see wliat is said of do, ante, p. '.^5) ; tu,
one i)i the signs of the imperative mood, is j^erhaps borrowed from the
Khasi to. Bhntd, " but," perhaps aKhasi loan-word. An-helo-inn, a difficult
expression to translate : au '* so muoli," particle of ipiantity ; Ju-lo " far " ;
mu particle of questioning ; it might be rendered " how are you getting
on ? " litei-ally " thus-far-what " ? But it is also used in the answer
bo the question: an-lielo there seems to mean " all right" — "so far so
good." TO-tungtt ; tu is a Khasi loan-word: in tliat language it is

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES 109

nang-pe imng-ri-pen mainatlr naii;^' ru-arlo Jiaiii^'-liu-ln-te,
your coat your dhoti-with bedecked you cage-into here enter-if,
nang chinl-dct-po ; iTpbtke ne ingpu-nnii :

yoiL tlicy ivill rccoynizc at once ; ilwrcfore mc let out :

\\v-\)ii iR'-ii nung pipo, anke rfi-arlo hU-iiim."
my coat my dhoti you I will yive, then caye-into enter."
Ansi recho-asopo rii ingpu-si jangreso nang-bar-

So the Kiwjs son the caye haviny opened the orplian there cavic
lo, ansi jangresO a-jH' a-ri recho-asOpO })llo,

out, and the orphan his coat his dhoti to the king's son gave,

la recho-asopo a-pe, a-ri, a-lek, a-roi,

that King's son his coat, his dhoti, his nccldacc, his hracclcts

jangreso pi-tliu-lo, ankt' recho-asopo

to the orphan gave in exchange, and the King's son
ru-arlo lut-lo, ansi jangreso ingkir-dun-thip-lo.

into the cage entered, and the orphan the door made fast.
Ansi jangreso-ta recho-asopo a-pe a-ri a-lek

Then the orphan the King's son's clothes, dhoti, necklace,
a-roi che-pindeng, ahormu kedo-an chepindeng-si,
bracelets, having put on, his things all having pint on,

ha ahem che-dam-lo. Ansi jangreso a-bngmar-ta

away to his house went. And the orphan's uncles also

an cho-dam-pen nang-che-voi-lo, ru-along nang-le-lo,

•rice eating-from there returned, at the cage's pilace arrived

ansi arju-lo — " an-helo-ina osa ? " " Anhelo

and asked — " have you anything to say, nepheio 1 " " All right,
bngmarli, en-po " pu jangreso-kethan-

uncles, I vnll take," saying the orphan (by) instructed
kang-ason-thot recho-asopo pulo. Ansi ingchin-firii-pen

according to the King's son said. Then the iron cage-with

langbi var-chui inghoilo. Anke

deep pool (into) throw into loater (him) they did. Then

jangres5-a-bngmar kbrte-bang-therbk chi-pu-lo —

the orphan's uncles brothers six said one to the other —

used in answer to a question to express assent = " very well." Vdr-chui,
"to throw into water," "drown": so aho nhn-chul. It seems possible
that chul here maybe an old word for water, corresponding to the Tibetaii

no THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

" An rdang i-duk e-kanglioi a-pot, nbu anke
" So much he iis-trouhlc iis-causing on account of, noiv however
alang thi-lo " ; ansi hem che-voi-lo. Anke jangreso

he is dead " ; and home they rehirned. Then the oiyhan
puke — kithi-ji kali, recho-asopo a-pe, a-ri, a-lek,

as for — dead not at all, the King's son's coat, dhoti, necklace,
a-roi che-pindeng mesen keraat matha-thek-the

bracelets having 7:>m^ 07i, heautifully adorned inconceivaUy ,
jadi-thek-the-det thek-dam-thii-le-lo ! Ansi latum

unimaginably, they saiu again on arrival/ Then they
chi-pu-le-lo — " Jangreso thi-lot-lo kali !

said among themselves again — " The orjyhan is not dead at all!

Ha-la-le, kemat-lep-ra ka-pang-elim-ke." Auke a-dung
There he is, adorned, and strutting in his finery." Then near him

le-lo, jangreso-aj^han arju-thii-lelo — " Osa ! namtu-si
they went, the orphan (accus.) ashed-again — " Nepheiu ! hoiv

nangli nang-kele-toug-rbk ? " Ansi jangreso thak-lelo —
you here arrived, so soon ! " Then the orjyhan answered —

" Che, bngmarli, ne-phi-ne-plm-atum dola-

" OA, uncles, my grandmothei^s and grandfathers a 2)alanquin-
peu-si ne nang-kapethbn-dun-kok-le ; hali ne-li

vnth me here-caused to he escorted hack ; there I

le-rbk-pen-apara ne-phi-ne-phii-

frmn the first moment of arriving my grandmothers and

atum pe-keme, ri-keme, lek roi ne-kepi :

grandfathers coat-good, dhoti-good, necklace hraxelets me gave :

la lang-nbn ! Nanglitum-aphan-ta pevang-tu-po-nang
them look at ! You-to also eause-to-come it is necessary

kepha-dun-par : asin nang-kelo, la ser a-tari-lbn,

they sent word urgently : a sign they have sent, this gold-of knife,

lang-tha ! " pu pe-klang-lo. Ansi a-bngmar

look at it!" so saying he showed it to them. Then his uncles

chhu. Che-pindeng " having i)ut on himself " : 2^indeng, " to i)ut on," is
an Assamese loan-word. Kithl-jl kuli : the use of ji, the particle of the
future, seems anomalous here : possibly the phrase means " lie is not
going to die, not looking as if he •were going to die ; " kiill is the emphatic
separate negative. DOlu, " a palanquin," Ass. loan-word. Ke-plui-dun-
yur : 2>1iu, verb, to send a message : dun, verb, to be with : par intensive

THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLKS m

piilo — " Kopusi nC'litum knlain-ilitk-po ? " " Ingchiu nvU
said — " Ifow ive <jo shall he able '. " " Iron cayc

abang-phu-isi che-pbn-ra lifi

person-head-one (i.e. each one of you) tnkhuj for himself that
liiiig-kung lut-dam-ik-iioii " pu jangmsO pulo.

river hank {to) get into it, good sirs" saying the orphan said.
Ansi latum ingchin-ani che-pbn-sl ha laiK'-kuu"

So they iron cages having taken that river-hank (fu)

lut-dam-lo. Ansi jangreso iugcliin fuu lakduu-

got into them. Then the orphan {in the) iron cages tightly
liet-rakdunhet-lo. Ansi jangreso akleng-si-abang ingchin-
tied up {each one). Then the orphan the eldest one with the
aru-pen laugln var-dam-chui inghoilo. Anke-phbng

iron cage deep pool {into) throiu did So then

lang-abuk-l)uruk vang-jam-cheplang-lo ; anke jangreso
ivater-huhhles coming tq) many-continued ; then the orphan

pu-Ui-lo ! " Ja ! ongmarli, lang-tha ! ne-ong-a-kleng-ko

said again ! " TJiere ! uncles, look ! my uncle eldest

la ne-phi ne-phii hbr kipi-.si hbr

him my grandmother my grandfather heer having given heer

kangri-si ka-cheng-bk-lo." Ansi adak-van-tfi

having drunk is vomiting." Then the next one also

lang-var-lo. Anke kbrte-bang-therbk-ta lang-

he threw into the water. Then the brothers six having all
var-klip-si jangresb hem nang-chc-voi-lo. An.'^i

throivn into the river the orpthan home returned. Tlien

jangreso-aphan a-ni-mar-atum nang-arju-lo —

the orphan (accus.) his aunts {uneles wives) there asked —
" Nangli bng-atum namtusi vang-ii ! " " Tbng-tbnc:

"Your uncles when will they come?" "Quickly

particle, " urgently." NungTcelo " they have sent " : 7o is a verb, " to send
a thing," while toi means "to send a pev.son." Ser, gold ; it is remarkable
that the Tibetan word {qsT'i; pronoiniced scr) is used for this object of
cultux-e both in Khasi (ksktr) and Mikir, and not the Assamese {sdii,hOn);
for silver, on the other hand, the Aryan rup is in general use. Lut-dum-
Ik-mm ; hit, verb, " enter," dhtu, verb, " go " ; Ik, honorific address = " elder
brother " (though he is speaking to his maternal uncles) ; iihn imperative
particle. Note the doubling of the verb rhk-duii-hct-lo to indicate repe-
tition of the action in the case of each person.

112 THE ORPHAN AND HIS UNCLES

Vi\ng-ve : an kachepho-phe apbtsi,

they ivill not come: so long not having met together on account of,
nbn kachepho-le-ma ? " pu jangreso pulo.

now have they not met at last ? " saying the orphan said.
Ansi jo-thbm j6-phili do-si ako a-ni-inar

Then nights-three nights-four having waited again his aunts

jangreso aphan nang-arju-thu-le-lo — "Nangli ong-atiim
the orphan (accus.) ashed again there — " Your uncles

pi-apot vang-ve-rek-ma ? " Ansi jangreso

ivhat for have not come hy this time ? " Then the orphan

thak-lo — " Vang-dap-prang-po," Ansi jo-ni

ansioered — " They will come to-morrow morning T Then nights-two

j5-thbm dosi latum jangreso-aphan arju-

nights-three having waited they the orphan (accus.) ashed

dam-thu-le-lo — "Nangli bng-atum kopi-apbtsi nbn-pu-ta

again — " Your uncles for what reason up to now

vang-ve-det-ma ? " Ansi jangreso than-lo — " Nbksek-le

have not come ? " Then the orphan explained — " In the nbksek

an deng-pi-ik-krei-nbn." Ansi jangreso a-ni-mar-atum
rice set on (honoxi^o) for each." Then the orphan's aunts

" thi-koi-lo ! " pu chini-si, chirulo,

" they are really dead ! " saging having recognized, wept,
chernap-lo, mbn-duk-lo, mbn-sa-lo. Ansi jangreso

lamented, and were plunged in sorroio. So the orphan
planglo-philo, pak-ta lang-un-e-abang ave-lo. Ansi

became rich, any one to looh on with envy there urns not. So

jangreso recho kethe chosi reng-me-reng-dbk-lo.

the orphan hing great hccoming, lived a happy and pleasant life.

l^ksek-ie. The noJcsek (see plan of Mikir house at p. 8) is the part of
the house where the food (a/i, cooked rice) is placed as an offering to the
Manes. Deng, " to place a share, leave a share " ; jn " give " ; Ik honorific
•(as above); h-ei particle of multitude = "for each one." Mhn-duk-lo,
Assamese loan-words (raon, mind, heart, dukh, grief). Lang-un-e-uhang "
a person who cannot {un-t) look on {Uing) another (for envy)."

III.

IIAEATA KUNWAK ATOMO.

HA RATA KUN WAR'S STORY.

Harata Kuiiwar kbitc baug-tlierbk,

Sarata Kunwar {and) his brothers {were) six j^^^sons,
akibi-si Harata Kunwar. Amehang-kethek-pun-

thc yoiinged {being) Harata Kumvar. From the time of Ids

apara thijbk, pliak-leng ke-ap, tiki-ke inghoi-he ;

birth deer J ivild jng shooting, he never did any field-work ,-
a-ikmar bang-phongo-ke sai-katiki. Ansi latum

his brothers, the five of them, laboured in the fields. Tlien they,

kbrte bang-pbbugo a-po-pen bfing-therbk chingvai-

the five brothers, with their father six persons, took counsel

lo : " Alang Harata Kunwar-ke tiki-ke inghoi-he ok

together : " This Harata Kumvar doing no v)ork deer
hung-chbt; apara ningve chingvai-nbn." Ansi

hunts only ; therefore at night take counsel together." So
aningve cbingvai-lo. Apo aso akleng-aphan

that night they took counsel. His father his son eldest (accus.)

NOTES.

This story is a much more elaborate piece of composition tliaii the last,
and may be said to exhibit distinct marks of literary style. Its vocabulary
is copious and varied, and it makes large use of a device wliich is
employed in Mikir, as in Khasi,* to give amplitude to the plirase by
duplicating the leading words ; nearly eveiy important term has its
doublet, with the same meaning, following it.

Amehang-ktthek-pt'ii-npnrtl : fnnehnng-kethe/i, "^to see tlie face," is
ecjuivalent to "being born"; ^xm and Cipuru, the latter borrowed from
the Assamese para, have the same signification, and the latter is really
superfluous. Phak-lt'itg, shortened ior 2>liak-be/ciig, "wild boar" ; see the
explanation of the term in the notes to No. I, p. 94. Tiki-ke inghoi-he:
notice that loth verbs are given in the negative form; this is unusual.

* See "Khasi Monograph," p. 211.

114 HARATA KUNWAR

arju-lo — " Nang kopusi an ne-hi-po ? " " Ne-pu-tangte

asked — "You how rice me-will-supply V " As for me,

sarlar plangsi jo-arni me do-ji ;

a headman having become night and day I toill hold assembly ;
sarlar a-man bang-kevan ahor-ahan-pen-si an-

headman's perquisites by people brought the rice-beer -from rice-
16k an-me hbr-lang hbr-p6 nang pi-ji." "Tangte
white rice-good beer (doublet) to you I will give!' " Then
nang adak-vam-ke kopnsi an ne-hi-po ? " " Ne-pu-tangte
you the next, how rice me will supply V " As for me,
hemai hansari plang-si j6-arni noke no-pak

a blaclsmith (doublet) hccoming night and day hiives daos

thip-ji ; la noke nopak nang-ketbip-atum

/ ivill forge ; by those knives and daos there made by me
kevan a-hbr a-han akove abithi pensi

brought (i.e. procured) beer (douldet) betel-nut pan-leaf together
an-lbk an-me arak-chidhir nang-piji." "Nang
with rice-white rice-good spirit (doublet) you I will give!' " You
adak-vam adunke, kopusi an ne-hi-po ? " " Ne-pu-tangte
the second next to, hoio rice will you supply me ? " " As for me,

sai-tiki-si puru phandar pelbng-si anlbk

field-work-doing granary store having got together rice-white
an-me hbr-lang hbr-p6 nang-piji." " Nang adakvam

rice-good beer (doublet) you I vjill give." "You the second
adun le-thbt-ke, kopusi tin nehipo ? " " Ne-pu

next corning after, how rice loill you supply me / " " As for
tangte bang-ahem do-dun-si, labang

me, {other) person's house inhabiting as a companion, that person

ne-kepi a-an fihbr ahan-si nang pipo." " Nang

me given rice and beer (doublet) you I ivill give." " You

adakvam-adun-le-thbt-ke kopusi an nehipo ? "

the second next coming after, hoio rice will you supply ! "

Man, "' perquisites " ; Assamese loan-word.

Kove, "betel-nut," Khasi kiuai, Ass. f/uwi'i. Chidhir, "spirit," the
doublet of uriik (itself a Hindi loan-word) is perhaps the Khasi kiad-hiar.
Notice how, instead of using the ordinal numbers for second, third,
fourth, and fifth brothers, the father employs clumsy periphrases to
indicate the sequence. Phandar, "store," Ass. loan-word {hhandar).

HARATA KUNWAR 115

" Xe-pu-ti\ngtr' hunfr-iiban usbt plungsi ne-

" As for me, another person's slave (doublet) hecoming me

kepi a-an ahor ahan- jx-usi ue-an nang jii-

(jiven rice and l)eer-{^0Vi\AQt) withy from, my rice you I will

po." "Tiingte nang Harata-Kunwar-ke, kolopu-si an ne-
give." " Then you Harata-Kunwar, in what way rice me

hipo ^ " • " Nepu-tangte Arnam-asO Arni-aso

will you supply ?" " As for me, God's child, Sun's child

en-si recho kethe plangsi, inghoi athak

having married, a king great having hecorae, throne upon

inghu-athak, kapbt-athak kapleng-athak nang pangni-

(doublet) plank-upon (doublet) you having caused

si ban-sbt-atum nang-ri nang-keng nang-pecham-

to sit slaves and maids your hands your feet having caused to

si, libr an arak-chidhir nang-pi-ji." Ansi chingvai-
wash, heer rice spirits you I tvill give." So they finished
tanglo. Anerlo sai-tiki-albng, Harata-

constdting together. That day^ cultivation-jylacc-in, Hurata-
Kunwar abang-kave-aphi, alangtum korte bang-phbngo fipo-
Kunwar not being there, those brothers five, with

pen bang-therbk chingvai-thu-voi-phak-lo. " Alang

their father persons-six, began to consult together again. " That
Harata-Kunwar Arnam Arni-aso en-si recho

Harata-Kunwar God Suns child having wedded a king

plang-ji-si pu ? Konat arechb-si alangke plting-ji-ma ?
vjill become, indeed ! Where a king is he to become !

apara pethi-lbt-lo-naug. Apara ningve cbingwai-thu

so then kill let us {him). So tlien at night time let 7cs considt
si-nang." Aningve an-chbdet jundet

together again." That night rice having eaten having drunk
alangtum chingvai-lo, kopusi kapethi apbtlo.

tJiey eonsidted together, how the killing was to be done.

A-hun (i-sht : in tliis doublet the second member, M>f, properly means
"■female slave"; a similar use of a word of ditierent meaning as a
duplicate term will be found below (p. 11'!*), where d-intk "his eye" is
followed by d-nO "his ear," the meaning being ''his eyes."

ii6 HARATA KUNWAR

" Apara hem-tliap kim-po-nang ; Harata-Kunwar-aphan-ke
" So then a field-hut let us huild ; Harata-Kummr (accus.)
naidung-ahoi-le kim-pi-rfi pehbn-po-nang. Anke

clearing-on the harder having built it let us cause to uatch. Then
etum ajo dam-ra chir-pen tbk-bt-nang."

let us hy night going ivith a spear thrust-and-kill-him."

Alangtum kachingvai Harata-Kunwar

Them taking counsel together Harata-Kunwar' s eldest

atepi arju-dun-lo. Ansi adap an-chodet

sister-in-law overheard. Then in the morning rice having eaten

jundet alangtum kado-kave sai-tiki-dam-aphi

having drunk they all having gone to vjork after,

Harata-Kunwar ok-hung-pen hem vanglo. Ansi
Harata-KiLnwar from hunting home came. Then his sister-

atepi an pilo ; an-chodet jundet

in-lavj rice gave him ; rice having eaten having drunk

atepi pulo — "Nang miso nang-

his sister-in-law said — " (On) you a black ant (here = louse) tliere

prolang, Harata-Kunwar." Ansi a-rek pelo, pe-ma-

let me kill, Harata-Kunwar." So a louse she killed, while

pe-lo amek-kri H. K. akeng-athak nang-klo-

she was killing it a tear H. K.'s Icg-on fell with a

bup. Ansi H. K. arju-lo — " Tepi, nang chiru-det-

splash. Then H. K. asked — " Sister -in-laiv ! you are

ma-da ? " Ansi atepi pulo — " Chiru-re :

iveeping ?- " And. his sister-in-law said — " / am not weeping :

arve a-mu-si nang-ke-klo." Ak5 pe-ma-pe

rain-of a drop has fallen on you." Again while she was killing,

amek-kri nang-kl5-thii-voi-phak. H. K, arju-thu-le-lo —

a tear fell upon him a second time. H. K. asked again —

" Nang chiru-det avi, tepi ! ne-than-non, kopi-

" You crying are really, sister -in-lavj ! me explain to, for

Kudo-kuve, literally, "being-not-being," a periphrasis for "all of
then).' Miso, "a black ant," used verecundia: causa for rl-k, "louse."
Notice the idiom pe-mu-pe-lo, uhere the insertion of nul between the
repeated roots indicates the time during Avhich an act is done.

HARATA KUNWAR 117

apotsi nang kricliiru-uul." Ansi than-lo : " ne-

luhat reason you are crijing." Then she explained : " my
lokhcai an-tiingte iiang-ik-atum kachingvai,

father-in-laiv and also your Irethrcn have taken counsel together,
hem-thap niing pehbn-si ajo cliir-

a jungle-hut {in) you having made to wateh, hy night icith a
pen nang- tok-ot-ji-si-pu : lasi ne ka-

spear you loill pierce and kill-they say : that is why I am
chiru." Ansi H. K. pulo — " Phere nang-ne ; nang
weeping." Then H. K. said — " You need not he afraid ; you
ne-tMn-lo, me-lo ; menap il-dap niing proman long-
me have told, it is well ; to-morrow morning you proof will

ji. Ne thi-the-tang-te, alangtum aphi-aphi hem nang-
get. I not dead am-if, them after home here

dunsi chilonghe tham-therbk ne sarnung niing-

coming, ivorm-castings clods six I roof {upon) here
var-po: Lale sarnung ne-niingkevar arki ave-det,
will throw: that if roof {on) my -here-throwing noise there is not,
tangte ne kithi-lo." Ansi arni-kangsiim apbr fi-ik-

then I shall he dead!' Then day-lccoming cool-time his
atum rit-pen nang-clie-voi-lo, ansi apo pulo :

brothers from the field there rettorned, and his father said :
" Mngve-ke H. K,-ta hem-thap hon-dun niing-po ;

This night our JI. K. jungle hut (in) go watching must ;

sbk phak cho-koi-lo; ha naidung-ahoi netum
the paddy pigs are eating up ; there clearing-on horder we

hem-thap nang-kim-pi-koi-lo." Ansi an-cho-det

a jungle-hut have finished building." Then rice having eaten

jun-det, H. K. a-thai che-pbn-si hem-thap

having drunk, H. K. his bote taking with him the jungle-hut
dam-lo : ansi chitii- a-the lik-pbn-si a-lang

went-to ; and {name of a plant) fruit having gather edy itsjtuce

An-tangte, "and also," literally, "so much not finished." Phtre
nang-ne : nang is the verb of necessity, ne the negative j^article : " there
is no need for fear." Pro/nun, " proof," Ass.

Chiti'i, the plant called in Assamese puroi-suk, Basella lucida ; its fruit
lias a red juice.

iiS HARATA KUNWAR

phingu-a-bp-pen Iji-si, urleng ki-i a-sonthbt-si-

plantain-sheath-in having iiut, man sleeping {(rf) likeness
athak pe pachap-si pi-i-lo; H. K.-ke

V-iwn clothes having put round he jjut it to sleep ; H. K. himself
sbk a-se arlo chepatu-joi-lo. Ansi an-cho-mek-

rice-arch underneath hid himself quietly. Then after their first
bur a-p6 a-ik-atum chingthurlo : — " Yang-noi,

sleep his father hishrothcrs awoke one another : — " Come now,

H. K. pithi-dam-po nang." Ansi aljang-phii chir-epak

H. K. to kill let us go I " Then each one of them a spear-one

chi-van-si, H. K. ahem-thap-albng vang-lo. Ansi

taking with him, H. K.'s junglc-hut-place {to) came. Then

apo pulo — " Da-naug, akleng ! arlu-ra tbk-dam-

his father said — " Go you, the eldest, clinibing up pierce him
nbn!" Akleng pudet — " Kopusi ne tbk-dam-

throughl" Tlie eldest ansivered — "How I go and pierce
hai-ji-ma ? e-kbr tang-det, e-mu tang-det-le ;

dare shall ? our brother he is, our younger brother he is ;

ipi isi-pet, i-po isi-pet ; aphiithak chubbng isi-pet
our mother is one, our father is one ; inoreover nipple one

chithe isi-pet tbng-rap-chbm : akbrte tang-det, kopusi

breast one we sucked together : brothers-full-being, how

pithi hai-ji-ma ? ne hai-he 1 " " Da tangte nang

kill-him shovM I dare ! I dare not!" '' Go then, you
adakvam ! " Adakvam pu-voi-phak — " Mai ! pateng-

the second ! " The second son rejoined — " Ah ! (of a) second
kali, psiju-kali: kbrte-apbk, mu-te-

wife he is not (the son) (doublet) : brother of one ivomb younger

Arltng ki-l, "a sleeping man" : observe that drleng here evidently
means a human being in general (see note, p. 4). An-cho-mcJi~-hur : see
note, p. 96. Viiiirj-noi ; «oi is a variant of jh^??, imperative particle. Chir-
epak: "one spear"; notice that the generic class-word for flat things,
pak, is used with dnr, a spear^ referring of course to the head only.
_ Du in Bd-nitnf/ seems to be a shortened imperative of dam, to go.
Arlu-rd thk-dum-nhn : notice how urhi, usually a postposition (= up in),
becomes a verb when necessary ; similarly, further on, in T'-khr UmydH,
khr, "brother," is furnished dii-ectly with the sufhx for the past tense ;
e- and 1- are used interchangeably for the j^ronoun of the 1st jierson
plural inclusive ; the second is perhaps employed when the vowel-
harmony calls for it. 7o)H/-rdp-clbm : rap, "to he]])," is emploj^ed as an
adverbial supplement to indicate that two persons do the same thing
together ; chhm is a doublet of rap. Putenfj, paju, words for a second wife.

HARATA KUNWAR 119

iipok tangdot-l«l, kopusi pithi-hai-ji-iml ?

brother of one ivonib since he is, lioio (him) slay should J (htre !

uc hai-he." " Da-tangte nang adak-vam-aduu." La pu-

/ dare-not." " Go, then, you second-to the next!' He re-
voi-phtik — "Keng-tham isl-pet, keng-pak isi-put, li-deng
joined — ''Our thigh is one, our foot is one, ourujyperarin
isi-pet, ri-pek isi-pet-si, kethe-rap-chom akbrtc tang

is one, our hand is one, ivc grcio up together, our Ijrotlicr siricc

det-le, kopusi pithi-thek-ji-ma ? ne thek-the ! " " Da-

he is, hoio could I possibly kill him ? I cannot ! " " Go

nang adakvam-adun-lethbt." La pudet — " Mbk e-bbng-pet

noiv you, sccond-next-next." He said — " Nipple-one (at)

tbng-rap-chbm akbrte tang-det, aplni-thak-ta Ijhin

having sucked together brothers fully being, moreover sister

kali bha kali le, kopusi kupithi hai-ji-ma ? ne hai-liO."
he has none (doublet) hoiu kill him shoidd I venture 1 I dare not."

" Da-tangte nang akibi." " Mai ! kopusi nele ne

"Go-then, you the youngest." "Ah! liow me are you

ketoi-mfi ? Ne duu-taugdet, ne-pu-tiing-te, akibi-pen

sending ! I being next him, as for me, ehildhood-frorn

the-rap-rap : apln"itliak-ta an e-van-pet

we grew up together : over and above that, rice (from) one j^lattcr

kecho-rap, hbr harlung isipet kejun-rap :

we ate together, beer mug one (from) ive drank together :

abang-le ne pitlii-hai-ji-ma ? ne hai-he." Ansi
stich a 2^7^8071 I to kill should dare ? I dare not." Then his

apo auing-thi-lo : " Tangte kopusi ' H. K, pithi-naug '
father became angry : "Then Jiow ' H. Iv. must be killed '

pu nangtum kepu-hai ? plaug-ple-ple-le,

saying ye dared to say 1 if you cannot bring yourselves to this

nangtum pinso plang-vangve," pusi nujbk arlu-si,
you male ivill never become," saying, the post climbing up,

Bldn kail, hlid h'di : hJiin is Ass. hahiii, sister ; Ihd must be Ass. bli(n,
brother, but is used as a doublet of hhin.

Notice tlie energetic reduplication of the negative in 'pluny-pU-ple-tv .
I'insO, male, virile, "worthy of being called men."

I20 HARATA KUNWAR

chir-pen lobong-a-op tbk-proi-lo ; ansi

ivith a spear the jjldntaiii-sheath he pierced through; then
chitu-alang nang-bii-lo ; ansi " H. K. kang-

(narae of plantyjuice came dropping out : so "U.K. strong
tang-ma-kangtang nbnke nang-dan-lo-bo ! Arnam

though he he, noiv here he has got his deserts ! God

Arni aso ensi, recho kethe peplang-bbm-

of the suns daughter having wedded, a great king let him riial:e
lo-nang non-anke." Ansi H. K. nang-arju-dunlo : " Kopi-
himself novj.'''' Now U.K. there overheard all this : "What,
kopi tang-a, ikmar-li ? " pulo : anke " H. K. athai

what are you saying, 'brothers ! " he said : and " H. K. his boiu
do " pu, phere-si kat-lo ; chingthvi-cherbu-si

has" saying, fearing they ran aioay ; stumbling and falling
kat-lo ; ahemthap kachile aning-vangphak-

they ran; at their f angle hut their own arriving, they vomited (lit.
vangphak, ansi ajd-pangthang bbr-i-det-si

their breast came up), and night-clearing away with great difficulty

adap hem chevoilo. Ansi H. K.-ta alangtum-

in the morning home they returned. Then H. K. also them
apbi-aphi dun-si, chilbnghe tbam-therok sarnung var-dnn-lo.

after coming, the loorm-casts clods six on the roof threw.
Ansi an-chodet jundet a-ikmar rit

Then rice having eaten having drunk his brothers field (to)
damlo; aphi H. K. vanglo. Ansi atepi

luent afterwards H. K. came. Then his sister-in-law

an pilo. Chddet j undet pulo, " Ai tepi !

rice gave him. Having eaten and drunk he said,'' 0 sister-in-law!
ne dak nang-do-dun thek-the-lo : kbrte-apbk

I here remain with you cannot : my brothers own

inu-te-apbk aphu-thak e-po-apbk-ta ne-pran ne-mui-si
(douljlet) nay even our father own even my life (doublet)

Kopi luny-d " what are you saying?" tanfjd is only used in this way
as a (juestion, as iangho (see above, p. 100) is used in carrying a message,
fr)r jm, to say.

Jfi>r-l-dH-sl " witli great difficulty "; hhr-l-hhr-d, "by hook or by
crook."

HARATA KUNWAR I2i

ne rirleu-thuron<j; : ur-pctlii-ji nO-pejang-jI-si mutlui-

mc aim at (plur.) ; mc to kill mc to slai/ they are

thurong. Apotke ne cliongvir-po. Sang-tet

2')lottln(j {\)\\\v.). Therefore I willcjoa-wainleriiaj. A procisio/i
sangti him sJingpher-lc ne sik-p'i-nim." Aiisi

of rice Irr cad parched rice also tonic ^^rc/mn'/i^^^iyc." Then
atepi pu-tekang-lo — " Lfilr- nr thi-dam-de

to his sister -in-lcno he stnd on leaving — " //' / do not die
jaag-dam-de-dct, tangte ne-kevang-apbr chelbnghu

(doublet), then my-retiLrning-time {at) worm-cast

tham-therbk nang-varpo ; anke inghoi-ingliu kapbt-

elods-six here I lu ill throw ; then the stools the

kapleng cham-nbn." Chiru-rap-j6-si cliekak-lo.

planhs vjash clean." Having wept together they parted.
Ansi H. K. athai che-pbn-si kedam-ma-kedam, }\nsi
Then H. K. his how having taken went along, and

a-phi hem-('p'i filiem le-lo. " 0 phi ! iiaiig baug-

his granny the loidow's liouse {at) arrived. "0 granny! are you
do ? " Sarpi nang-thak-det " Komat-ma ? dak

there ? " The old looman there ansicered " Who is there ' as for
piitang-te, ne-dbn ne-rap avedet-pile : komatsi kevang-

this place, to me kith and kin there is not any : Who is

ma ? " H. K. thak-det, " Ai ne phi." Ansi sarpi
come?" U.K. answered, " Oh, I, granny." Then the oldicoman
pulo — " kopi-kevang-ma, pb ? neke hem-epi :

said — " Wliy have you come, my dear ! I am hut a lone ividow :
ne hem ave ne rit ave : chO-hang chbrek-chbt-si

I house have not I field have not: food-hegging (doublet) only (from)
kechb : kopi kevang-lo ? H. K. thakdet — " Nang-lbng

/ eat : why have you come " / Ii. K. answered — " With you
nang-do-dun-po." Sarpi pudet —

/ idHI remain here as a companion." Tlie old woman said —

Arliii-thu-rong, mathu-thu-rong : urlen is "to aim at," miithn "to
tliink about " ; thu a particle meaning " again," and rung one of the
cirtixes indicating thu plural. Cldru-rup-ju-sl : jo is an affix indicating
the plural.

Nang-bang-do ? " are you tliere ? '.' lit. " is your Lody {l'<ii,g) present ? "
Kopi keuhtifi ma pn ? po, " father," is used as an endearing word in
addressing a son, w as here a grandson (see ante, I'p. W, lUlj.

122 HARATA KUNWAR

" Nangke recho-atheng kethe-atheng le, kopusi ne-

" Yoit that Jit-to-be-a-ldng, Jit-to-be-a-great-man are, hoio in my
hem nang nang-kedo-dun-thek-ji ma ? H. K. tliak-det —
house you can keep me company ? H. K. answered —

" Me phi : nang-do-dun-po." Ansi do-dun-lo

" Good, granny ,- here I will stay." So he stayed with her
thak-dun-lo. Ansi aphi hemepi pulo — " H. K., nang

(doublet). Then his granny the widow said — " H.K., do you

sok te-dun-non ; ne recho-arong sbk-sang

the paddy spread out to dry ; I in the king's village px^'ddy-rice

rek-dam-po. Mo sok te-det nang

to heg am goiiig. After paddy you have spread out, you

lang-chinglu dam-ji-set-ta, lang-thak diim-ri : hi

in the stream bathe to go if ivant, up-stream go not : this
etum a-hem a-longle chinglu." Ansi sbk-te-

of us two .house ground (upon) bathe. Then piaddy having
det aphi hem-epi recho-arong dam-lo.

spread out his granny the vndow to king's village went.
H. K. sok pbn-lo : harlo-dun-lotsi

H. K. the paddy took : having turned it over frequently

palbm-pet pe-reng-det-si sbk

in a very short time having thoroughly dried- it the paddy

oi-si lang chinglu-dam-lo.

having collected together in the stream he went to bathe.

Ansi H. K. matha-voi-phak " kopi-aj)btsi ne-phi

Then H. K. thought again — "/or %vhat reason my granny
'langthak dam-ri' pu ne-kepu-tekang-lo-ma ? Lang-thak
' up stream go not ' saying me telling went away ? Up stream
nang-dam-si nang-laug-dam-ji-lang," pusi laugthak

there going I will go and see for myself : " so saying tip stream

Sok is paddy, rice in the husk ; sung is rice freed from husk and ready
for cocjking; an is boiled rice ; fe, a verb, " to spread out paddy to dry."

" Hf'aio," a verl), "to turn over" (the spread-out paddy); reny, a
verb, of the spread-out paddy, " to become dry " ; oi, a verb, " to collect
into a heap" the dried paddy. Lang-thak nang-dam-si nung-lang-dum-ji-
I'ang : in this sentence the word ?ang, which occurs thrice, has three
diflerent significations: the first Uiny is a noun, "water, river"; the
second is a verb, " to see, look at " ; the third Jang is an auxiliary verb,
" to continue doing, or being," used here pleonastically.

HARATA KUNWAR 123

dfiralo. Ser ulaug-tlie lup alan;5tli<'' kei»luik

he went. Gold water-vessels silver vjater-vessels broken

tliek-dani-lo. " 0 lasi * langthak dani-il ' pu

he, going, saw. "Oh, that 7cas v:hij ' ui)-strcam go not' saging

ne-phi ne-ke pu-tekang-le. Ningvc neng-arju-ji,

mg granny told mewhenshcioentaioay. To-night Iv:ill a^khrr,

komat-ching a-liinglie ne." Ausi hem uang-chevoilo.
whose ivatering-place it is." So home he returned.

Ansi a-phi hem-epi-ta recho-arbng-pea arni-

Then his granny the ividow-also king's village-from in the

kangsam hem uang-chevoilo. AusI a-ningve an-cho-det
afternoon home returned. Then that night rice having eaten

jun-det H. K. arju-lo : " Komat-ching a-langhe ma,
having drank H. K. asked : " Whose u-atering-i^lace is it,

h'l lang-thak? Ser alangthe rup fdaugthe kephuk
that up stream ? Gold v'ater-vessels silver ivater-vessds broken

oi-cho." Ansi hem-epi pulo : " Langthak dam-ri pu
are strewn." Then the vjidow said " Up-stream go-not saying
no uang kepu-tekang : nang arju-je-det-si nang langthak
/ you told at parting : you not hearing (obeying) there u2)-st nam
dam avi-le ? " Ansi H. K. thak-lo — " Dam-te-ma, phi :
vjent surely J Then H. K. ansiocrcd — " Yes, I did go, granny :
ne-than-tha, komat-ching a-langhe ma." Ansi aphi
explain to me, ivhose vxdering iilace it is." Tlicn his granny

hem-epi than-lo : " Bari-the Recho a-langhe ;

the ividoio explained : " Palace-great king's watering place ;

asomiir, korte bang-ther»)k, lang-nang-kachinglu-adim :
his children, sisters six, in the water bathing-place {it is) :
dam-ri-nbn aparke." Ansi H. K. matha-voiphak — " Ne-
go not now any more." Then H. K. considered again — My

Ser, rup, "gold, silver," see note, p. Ill, ante. Notice the rare form
"neng for ne, "I" ; nasals seem occasionally to be added or dropped at
will at the end of words: e.g. da and (Uim. "go"; hit(j and <7, " much,
many"; lii and Unuj, auxiliary verb. Komht-cliing-a-Vunghe ne : chiug is
a particle strengthening the interrt)gative komat,— " who-ever ? "' Vunghe, a
ghat or watering place : ne the interrogative particle borrowed from
Assamese, = mu in Mikir.

Barl-the Beclw, " king of the Great Palace " ; harl, "a large house,"
loan-wurd from Assamese : thi, " great."

124 HARATA KUNWAR

phi dam-ri-thu pusi, ne-pii nang-dam-thu-

granny ' ffo not again' having said, as for mc, thei'e going again

ji-lang." , Ansi langthak dam-thu-lo. Lang-

/ will continue." Then wp stream he went again. Paver

kung chipatu-joi-si nerlo-chitim Bari-the

hank (under) hiding hiinself quietly, day-middle Palace-great

Recho asomar korte bang-therbk lang-nang-chinglu-

King's children, sister's six, (in) the river f 07^ the purpose

ji-si vanglo. Nang-klo-et-jo akan

of hathing came. Descending there 'beautifully their clothes

nang-chi-bi-kbk Ling sun-phit :

there having laid aside into the water they jumped all at once :

inut akan nang-chibi-kok lang sun-

each one her clothes having laid aside into the luater jumped

phit, keme-bng cliiklo-tur-det arni tur-det lale

at once, most lovely ! moon-splendour sun-splendour (like), there

kachinglu lale kachingthi. Ansi arni ingsam-

they bathed, there they washed themselves. So the day became
jin-lo. Akleng nang-pinkhat-lo : " Ai etmarli !

cool gradually. The eldest therc-admonishcd-thern : "0 my dears/
kitun apbrlo, kedang apbiio, e-vo chibeng

cooking-time it is, serving-up-time it is, our fowls to house

apbr, e-phak chibeng apbrlo : e-pi e-tampo,

time it is, our pigs to hoicse time it is : our mother us will scold,

e-po e-tampo, dam-po-nang." Ansi chinglu-tanglo,
our father us will scold, let us go ! " So bathing-they finished,
chingthi-tanglo : inut akan nang-chihijir-

washing themselves they finished : one her clothes shaking out

Nimg-khl-t't-jr) "there tliey descendetl beautifully"; MO, "to fall or
sink down from a height" ; ht a syllable indicating beauty or charm; Mr.
Stack notes that it is perhaps connected with the word etpl, ' ' yellow,
golden " ; it is also used as an affectionate form of address in H-miir-ti,
" my dears ! " jo, plural afhx. Kan, a ceremonious word for clothes ; the
ordmary expression is pc or r't. 8un-phit: phit means "all at once,"
" suddenly." Tur, " the brightness, splendour " (of the moon and sun).

The syllable jin in urnl ingsam-jln-lo indicates the day (jradually
drawing on to evening. Apur-Io : notice the verbal afhx -lo appended
to the noun phr, " time." -B(:'<g, " to house animals for the night." Ilij'ir,
" to shake out," as a bird its wings before starting to My.

HARATA KUNWAR 125

phluni-i)liluin chi-i-lok-si iiigjar-M, inut

so as to flap, having -piU on Jlcio away hcautifully, another

akiin chihijii'-phlum inffjar-i-t,

her clothes having shahen out so as to flap JJeir aiuaij hcautifuih/,

uusi akibi-si-ke aphi ingjar-et-ju,

and the youiigest of all afterwards flew away heautifully

chiklo-atur arni-atur thelfiluk. 8inin<'

riioon^ s-hrightticss sun's hrighiness just like. The heaven

lut-le-tik, lale H. K. kelang-dun puke angphim

not enter ed-until, there H. K. stood gazing so that his neck {in)

chepekek-koi. Ansi sining lutkoi-lo,

he got a crook altogether. So the heaven they entered quite,

thek-dun-de-lo : ansi hem chevoilo. H. K. aning
he saiv them no more : so home he returned. H. K. in his mind

mathalo " an akeme, an akechbk, nang en-16ng-le-tik
thought " so heatitiful / so lovely.' here until I can get one to wife,

nang-klm-long-le-tik
hej^e until 1 can huild the wedding hotver (subaud, I will not rest) ;

ningve ne-phi nang-arju-le-po." Ansi hem le-

to-night my granny I will ask again about them." So home having

rok an-cho-det jun-det H. K. aphi arjulo : —

arrived rice having eaten having drunk H.K. his granny asked :

" Mai ! phi ! la-sbntbt akeme la-sbntbt akechbk ne thek-lbng-
" Oh.' graniiy ! that-like heautiful, that-like lovely I saw got
le-h\ng; kopusi ke-en Ibng-po-ma? bidi ne

never; how to take one to loife shall I attain to?- apian tome
than-tha ! " Aphi pudet— " Ai H. K. ! baug-k."

explain ! " His granny answered — " 0 IT. K. ! those ones

PA?i<m-/jA/«??i, onomatopoetic adverb imitating the souiul of tiapping;
i, " to put on one's clothes " : (i-rl knchi-l, " he is putting on his dhoti " ;
plnl kdchi-l, " she is putting on her petticoat " ; in this sense the verb i
takes Jok as its constant adverbial supplement : when it means " to lie
down," "to sleep," it takes Iht. Observe how the distril)Utive force of
the sentence is expressed by repeating the whole phrase. Antjphuii
chepekek-koi "he made his neck (i)if/phvi)) crooked (kik-dang ov kik-Juk)'' ;
koi, a particle meaning " completely, altogether." En '" take," and /.•///(,
"build," both mean "to marry"; the latter implies the building of a
separate house for the newly wedded couple, or perhaps the wedding
bower.

126 HARATA KUNWAR

ilriiuin-aso arni-aso rechu-aso kethe-aso

god's children suns children king's children greed ones children
kopusi nangke arleng-as6-le ke-en-

(are): how should yoio, vjho are hut a child of man, succeed in
IbnfT-ji-ma ? " H. K. pulo — " kali, phi ! en-lbng

getting one to wife I " H. K. said — " not so, granny ! get one
nanf^-ii : bidi ne th{\n-non."

to wife I must: a plan to me explain."

Thiin-the tik-tak arju-ver-si

Did net-explain (she) so-long-as {he) continuing to ask,

than-lo : " Xang ke-en-ji-pet-tangte, la lang-kimg-

she explained: " You are-hent-on-wcdding-one-if, that river-bank-

le rit pan-dam-nbn." Ansi H. K. pulo — " Me-bng-chot-lo,

on afield to clear go." And H. K. said — " Very good,

phi : menap-pen-apara pan-dam-po." Ansi

granny : to-morroio-from I will go anel clcecr it." And

adap the-ang the-ang-e lang-ding:

the morning deiwning not daivning he contimted to watch :
ansi adap ing-thanglo. Ansi nopak e-pak

so (at last) the morning elawneel fully. Then a eleio one

che-pbn-si dam-lo, Le-rbk-pen do-de,

teiking with him he went. Arriving-from he waited not,

sang-se, lale kepan lale kepan, arni-si-pet

he rested not there clearing there clearing, in one day only

pan-det pi-det, ansi mam tliilo, me keilo :

he cleareel it fully (doublet), then jungle cut, fire set-to-it :
lale kecho puke, abeng akbk

there it (the fire) ate it up so quickly, ei piece of tvooel, a stalk
thi-rok-re cho-et. Ansi thengthe, hanjsing, nbk,

lying-not it devoured. TJien meiize, millet, sugar-cane,

Arlfmfj'Uiid : notice that here the word arling evidently means a
human being-, opposed to urnam-dsu, the cliild of a divine person. J'an,
" to cut down and clear the jungle for cultivation." Lang-dinf/ " continue
to watch " : ding a particle of continuance (cf. keeling, tall, long). I'an-det
jii-det ; here jjI has the sense of " to cut down " (a tree, or something
thick): so also tlii. Mam, "the jungle." Further on, in fhl-rhk-rP, thl
means " to lie " : Pist dak-le kethi-rhk-mu ? " why are you lying here?"
r'ok is an adverbial supplement.

HARATA KUNWAR 127

pliingu, firche-lo, aplin-thuk-til m\v ])lick-t",

plantain he dibbled in, over and above also {name of a fiowcr),

tfido, inii-kildorapLui, ilsbn-son mir e-lo.

ivhitc lUij, marii/o/d, various Jcinds flowers he 2^l"'if''d.
Aiisi Ijilri-the liechO asomar lang nang-chiuglu-

Thcii Falace-great Kind's daughters {in the) river there-to bathc-
lelo : nang-klo-et-jo kerne thek-the-ong

arrived: there theij descended beaufifalh/, lovehj to iia'possibilUij
puke — chiklo-le vang-phlbt, arni-le vaug-phlbt thelalak.
so — moon-as-if came down sun-as-if came down just like.
Absi chinglu-tangdet chingthi-tangdet,

The7i having finis] I cd bathing having finished washing themselves,
H. K. ateran nang-theklo. Ansi pulo — " Mai !

H. ICs garden-plot they saw there. So they said — " Oh 1
koraat iint-ina ? me-bng-he." Akleng thak-det —

whose field is it I it is very pretty.'' The eldest answered —

" E-kbrpo H. K. ateran-le-ma."

" Our cousin (brother-in-law) H. K!s garden plot it must be."
Ansi sining chingjar-thn-et-j6-lo. H. K.

Then to heaven they fiew away againbeauti fully together. H. K.
" namtusi ke-en-lbng-po-ma ? " pu matha-ding,

" hoio shall I succeed in getting her } " saying continued to think,
ansi aphi arju-tbu-le-lo — " Ai phi !

ajul his granny tvent and asked again — " Oh, granny !
namtu-chiug-si ke-en-lbng-apbtlo-ma ? " Aphi

when and how am I to succeed in getting one / " His granny

Arche is used of sowing or planting many things together, as liere :
to sow or plant only one thing is e : thtngilic ke-<', " he is sowing maize " ;
suk kc-rlk, "he is sowing rice broatl-cast "' ; shk ke-e, " he is transplanting
rice." Mlr-phek-T: : mir, " flower," pliek-e, " rice-husks " : " a flower that
grows out of heajis of rice-husks ; has a long narrow leaf and a flower
which is red and white mixed " (Stack) ; tndo, " a kind of white lily or
arum with a yellow style" (id.). Ktiiu-tlilk-the-hnii fuke : "so (juule)
beautiful (kcme) excessively (hntj) as never was seen (thrk-th?).'" Vang-
phlht : phlht, a particle indicating suddenness. Terhn, an individual plot,
as distinguished from the rit or general field. E-khrjul II. K. ateriin-
le-md : khrpo, " cousin (nn)tlier's brother's son)," also indicates the
relationship between a woman and her sister's husband ; here of course
it is used in the latter sense, proleptically ; it is characteristic of this
story-teller that he discloses the denouement of his tale well in advance.
Notice the idiom -If: -md, " it must be," an indirect (juestion = " is
it not ? "

128 HARATA KUNWAR

thakdet— " La-pu-pe-loug, ilsu-po : hem-thap

answered — " That-way-not, grandson-dear : a jungle hut

chi-kim-tha." Ansi adap hem-thap kim-dam-

huild for yourself ." So in the mmming a jungle hiit he went to
lo. Arni-si-pet hem-thap thepi kim-det-si hem

build. In one day only a jungle hut very hig having-huilt home

chevoilo, ansi "hem-tbip taiiglo, phi," pii

he returned, and " the jungle hut I have finished, granny," saying

than-lo. "Tangte pbngsi che-et-non,"

he explained. " TJien (in) a flute bore a hole for yourself,"

• pusi aphi pinkhat-lo. Ansi pbngsi che-

saying his granny advised him. Then flutes he hored several
et-6. Ansi thengthe-apbr hanjang-apbrlo.

for himself. So maize-time millet-time it became.

Aphi pinkhat-lo — "Hem-thap chehbn-dam-ra

His granny advised him — " In your jungle hut going to watch

pbngsi but-nbn." Arit putangte, palbm-pet lale

flute blow." His field as for, in a very little time there

mir kangthn-puke, mathii thek-the-det. Ansi

flowers blossomed-so, it could not be imagined. Then

Bari-the Recho asomar lang nang-ehinglu-le-lo :

great-Palace King's cliildren in the river there to bathe arrived :

nang-ingjar-et-jo inut akan chi-bi-kbk lang

there flying beautifidly one her clothes laying aside in the river

sun-phit, inut akan chi-bi-kbk lang

jumped straight, another her clothes laying aside in the Oliver

sun-phit, lale kachinglu lale kachingthi. Ansi

jumped straight, there bathed there tvashed themselves. Then

akleng nang-pinkhat-le-lo — "Da, etmiirli, dam-po-

the eldest there advised them again — " Come, dears, let us

nang." H. K. lale pbngsi kebut puke, matha-thek-
go." H. K. thereupon his flute blew so, it could not be

Pungsl, Ass. harlsl, "a flute," made of a piece of l)amboo ; H, to bore
a hole. Che-et-O "he (cut and) bored holes in a number of flutes"; 0
seems to be a shortened form of hng, many : hem klm-d, " they built a
number of huts" ; ne vo num-O-lo, " 1 have bought a lot of fowls."

IIARATA KLNWAR 129

th('-dct. "Mai! poiigsi-kclnii-ta ju-nu'-oiiir :

imagined. "Oh! jinte-playi/if/ indeed is veri/ qood /» Imir:

H. K. abang do-avi : du J'tniuili, iiilr cht'-liaiig-

H. K. a person it is surel// : rorar, drfir>i, flour rs fo hiy
dam-si-nang " ; ansi vauglo. "]{. K., nitiim mir

let us go"; so they loent. " JT. K., vr ji.owers
chilok-pon-chot-lang, chilok-pon iiiug-

for ourselves pluck take a few irisit, 2duck and take are you
ke-ma, po ? " " Chilok-pon uiugke-iiul,"

ivllling that we, sir ! " " Pluck and take, I am willing certainly,"

pu, H. K. pule. Ansi abang-phii-tii mir chil()k-

sayiiig, H. K. said. So each <nv' of them jiowers having
p6n-si damlo, ingjar-pbn-et-jo.

jducked and taken went away, they flew away gracefully together.

Sining lut-le-tilcttik, H. K. Ifdc kel}\ng-dnn-puke

In heaven {they) not entered so long, H. K. there continued gazing so,

amek chi-peso-koi, ano clii-pesd-koi.

Ills eyes became quite sore, his ears (i.e. eyes) became quite sore.
Ansi siniug lut-koi-lo : thck-dun-de-

So the heaven they entered complete/ y : hc-could-no-longer-see-
lo-pu-ansi, H. K. ta liem chevoilo. Ansi aphi

ihem-when, H. K. aUo home retiirned. Then his granny

hem-epi nang-arjulo — " Mini Bari-tlu'! Kt-cho

the loidow there asked him — " To-day great-Palace King's

asoinar nang chingki-pon-mii ? " " Chingki-pbn-te ;

children ivith you did converse ' " "Yes, they conversed;

mir-ta nu keliang-pbn-langle." Ansi

fl,owers even nic lliey asked to be allouxd to gather." Then

'Ju-iiie-'()ng, " it is very good to liear" ; Ju is shortonecl from lirjii ; the
prefix «?•- is separable in this word and in tirni, "day, sun," rirlimt/
"stone," and several other words, which appear in coin])ositi<)n as /li
and Ihny, etc. ; it seems probable that it is connected with the 'I'ibetan
prefix r-, to wliich the Mikir relative i)article, d-, has been pretixed.
Notice nituvi for itetnm, possibly by vowel-harmony with the folIowitiLj
words mir and chiJhk. Cln'lok-pHi niugkc-inri : observe that this i)hrase
stands both for the request and its answer — ningkr, "willing"; rtiug,
" mind " ;^/?u7 is thus not only the interrogative particle, but also
indicates its corresponding affirmative reply. A-in<k, d-nCi, "eyes and
oars" = eyes only. Mini, mvniip {minnj)), alternative terms for pinl,
2>cnup, " to-day, to-moiTow."

130 HARATA KUXWAR

aphi bidi thanlo : " Menap-ta ami kerne :

his granny a plan explained : " To^morroic {is) a day good. :

Bari-the Eecho asomar lang nang-chinglu-le-ji-

Greof palace King's children in the rice r there to hafhc-arriving-

apbtke, chipatu-joi-ra lang-dun-ton-nbn. La

on-as-soon-as, hiding yourself quietly watch secrretly. Those
akleng-atum kbrte bang-phbngo-ke apengnan do-angse-lo.
elder (plural) sisters persons five husbands have all got.

Akibi-si det-lo, latu Mbn Eecho
The youngest &nly, her M&n Rdjd (King of the vAnds)
asopb-aphan kerai-dun ; hbrbbng hbrte

his son for is asking in marriage ; the heer-gourds (doublet)
le-koi-lo, Bbnta la-det-lo, la-apini-le

hare all arrived. Neverrtheless her only, her petticoat (accus.)

pangthek-dun-ra lang kachinglu-aphi

having carefully singled oat, in the river tJiey-have-plunged-aftery
dak van-nbn. Xe la-sbntbt apini alar-thak-po :

here bring to me. I it-just like a petticoat in exchange vjill weave :
lale pbn-ra adim-thbt bi-pi-dam-thii-nbn.

that toMng in tha,t same place go and set it down again.
La-apini-binbng-ke patu-joi-po-nang. Ansi alang ingiar-

Her-'petticoat-owii hide-quietly-let-us. Then she to fly away
dun-thek-the-lo. Lale apini nang

vjith the others will not he able. TJiere her petticoaJ- you
che-hang-lo-te, * inut-le-inut ne-do-nbn' pu-ra

she ashs for-if, ' one or other of you become my v:ife ' saying
pu-nbu," "To, me-bng-chbt-lo. Phi," pu H. K. pulo.
say." " Yes, ve^ry good indeed, granny^' saying H. K. saAd.
Aphi labangsb abidi than-chek-pen-apara, H. K.

Kis granny that plan hacrng exploAncd.-after, H. K.'s
rining arbng kedo matha-thek-the-det ; aj6-ta

mind cheerful beca.me as you cannot imagine ; the vjhole night

Do-angse-lo = do-kcn-lo, " have all got."

M'lm Recho, probably shortened for Twiiim-Itechrj ■. toraon, "wind."
liai-dun, special verb for "to ask in marriage." B'img, "gourd for
holding beer": ti, doublet. Ttuih, "to weave." Thhn rMk, _"■ to
explain " ; du-^k strengthens verbs for impartiing information. Aning
arw,gkedo: rong, "delight/' Ass. loan-word.

HA RATA KL'XWAR 131

amek jangthek-the a-no jang-thek-the matha-diug.

his eyes close he could not (doublet), but continued thinl-ing.
Ansi adap ing-thanglo: an-cbodet jundet

77i':n moming fully daicned : ha ring (at':n rice having drunk
aiit cbedamlo. " Namtu-cbing-si nerlo cbitim-po-ma ? "
his field {to) he went. "When day middle will it he f"

pu ingbong-ding : ansi saugti-arlo chi-patu-dam-

saying h*: eontinHtd icaiting ; then Aind-btnaifh he hid hihi^lf
joL Alike nerlo-cbitini Bari-tbe KecbO asomar

quietly. iSo at mid-day Great Palace king's children
vanglo: nang-iiigjai--et-jo, inut akan nang-clu-

came: there they ficicdoini gracefully, one her clotlus putting
bi-kbk liing-sun-pbit inut akan nang-cbi-bi-kok

asid^ plunged into the ricer, another her clothes laying asiiic

lang-sun-pbit, ansi biugkacbinglu-apbi H. K.

plunged into the river, and they had entered the icater after U. K.

tbur-joi-si la-kibi-si apini ajiso ingbu-

rising quietly that youngest one's jxtticoat striped cloth stealing
pim-det-si apbi bem-epi along pon-pbit-lo.

and taking axcay his granny the icidoic- to t>Jok it straight tea i/.
Ansi apbi la-sbntot tipini ajlso tliak-

And his granny it Just like a petticoat a striped cloth icore in

tbii-lo, piilom-pet tbiik-det. Ansi H. K. nan^-

ed'change, in a very short time site icove them. Then IT. IC. there

kat-tbu-voi-lo, adiui-tbbt-si pini jiso bi-dani-

ran back again, place-thcU-samt-in petticoat striped cloth putting

tbii-si, abem-tbap cbeviingsi pbngsi but-lo :

doicn in e^%'h<inge, his Jungle-hut going into, thefiute played:

lale kebut puke niatba-tbek-tbe jadi-tbek-tbe. Ansi
there he played so that it could not be imagined (doublet). Then

cbinglu dor-lo, cbiugtbi-dbr-lo.

they had enough of bath ing they had enough of icash ing themselre^.

Ansi iikleng nimg-pinkbiit-le-lo — "Ai etmarli.

Tlien the eldest there admonished them again — " 0 my dears.'

Notice i^aiu uinek unO for " eyes " only.

132 HARATA KUNWAR

{l:mi-i)o-nung ; ketbk-apbr, keset-

let us go; it is {rice) pcmndAng time, it is time for the second

iipbrlo ; ketun-apbr kedang-aporlo ; kebe-

poviutiiuj ; it is cooking-time, it is setting-on time; it is time to

apor, kesbr-apbrlo." Ansi akan naiig-

hcat the heer, time to squeeze it out" Then her clothes there
cbi-i-det-si pu-tlm-le-lo — "Da, mir che-hang-dam-si-nang."
having 23i('t on she said again — " Come, flowers let vs go and beg."
Ansi mir chelbk-dam-det anke aphrangsi akleng

Then flowers having gone to pluck thereupon first the eldest
iugjarlo : ansi akibi-atum-ta ingjrir-dim-et-ju-

jlev: up ; then the younger ones also flevj up with her gracefully
\o ; ansi akibi-ta ingjar-dim-lo

oil together ; then the youngest also tried to fly with them,

ingjar-dun-tbek-the-det : ingjtir-tang-te, nang-kbj-thii-
hut found she i'MS unable to fly : if she flciv up, there she fell back
bup ; ingjar-dun-chbt, nang-klo-thi'i-lnip.

again; if she tried to fly with them, there she fell hack again.
Ansi akb'nig pulo — " Mai ! kopi-cbing apbtlo-ma ? "

Tlicn the eldest said — " Oh ! what in the world is the matter '. "
Ansi akleng-atum-ta nang-cbibir-tbii-voipbak-lo, ansi

Then the elder ones also there came down again, and

H. K. along vangsi pulo — " Ai H. K., nang si
H.K.'s place coming said—"0 If. K., you it is u'ho our younger
ne-mu apini lar-det avi, apbt-ke

sister's petticoat have changed loithout doubt, therefore
van-nbn " pu-bang-lo. Ansi H. K. tbak-det —

hring if back" saying they called out. Then U.K. answered —

" Inut-b'-inut ne-do-te." Bari-tbe Eecbo asomar

" Oi\e or other of you be my wife." Great-Palace King's children

Talc, a verb with the general meaning " to thrust, poke '' ; used
jiheady above (p. 11(5) for thrusting with a spear ; here for pounding tlie rice
with a hjng pestle {Ihigjnim') in the mortar (Jlmg) ; another sense is "to
write " (" to poke with a pen "). Set, " to give the half-cleaned rice a
second pounding." Dang, "to serve up the cooked food." Be "to heat
tlie fermented rice " ; shr, " to press out tlie beer " from the grains, mixed
w itli warm water, wliich have been put in tlie conical strainer of woven
)»amboo, si, ])y pressing down upon them a gourd, h(mg.

HARATA K UN WAR 133

piidcl : 'Kopusi miug-kedo uputlo ? ii»"ium iir'-pi'iij^'aii
said: " Hoio ijoutomarrijUltiw^sihh'! m- oi'r-Iii>sh<i,i,/s

kedo-tJing, iie-pengan kcdo-tiuig iv|.-l.\"

have got alveadij, our hn.sbands have got alnadi/ viarvial to i(n."
H. K. pudet — "Tangte ne piui naiig-pi-tht-k-thr :

Jf. K. said — " Theti I petticoat goic give up cannot :
iniit-leTiimt ne-do-ma-si." Aiisi Brin-thr- \U\-hn

one or other of you me must marry." Then Grcat-L\dact King's
tlsomar chepulo : " Te, nung-do-uon."

children said one to another : " Sister {elder), do you marry him."

Akleiig thak-det: "KopusI nG-lo kodo-jW

The eldest answered: "How s/wuld I marry him !
ne-s6 kechsin-jai-lO." " Tangte jldak-vam, naiig-

I-ehildren several have already." " Then the next, do you
le do-non." "KopusI ne kedo-thek-po ? ne

marry him." "How I should be able to marry him .' /
ningke ne-sO bang-phili tang-det-le." " Adakvani-

myself also my children four have got already y " Second sistrr-
adun, nung-le do-nbn tangte." "KopusI kedo-

next-to, do you marry him then." "How can I possibly

tliek-ji ? ne ningke ne-so biing-kethoiii

marry him ! I cdso my children three

tang-det-le." " Tangte adakvam-adun-le-thot, naiiglr-

hace got already" " Tlien second sister-next-to-ncxl, do yon

do-non." " Ne-ta ne-so bang-liini tang-det-le,

marry him" "I too children two have got already,

kopusi kedo-po ? " " Nang adak-vani-adim-

liow should I marry him ?- " " You^ second -sister-ncxt-to-

le-thot, nang-le do-non." " Do-tliek-tlie, ne-ta

next folloiving, do you marry him." "■ I cannot marry him, I tmt

ne-so inut tiing-det-le-ma ? " " 'IViiigte uaug

my child one have I not already ! " '' Then you

akibi-si-le do-nbu." Akibi-si thak-det —

the youngest, do you marry him." " The youngest ansvjcrcd —

liP-p seems to be a variant of rup (explained above, p. 118), ami indicates
that all of tlieni have been married together. Chan-Jai, " to liavi- several
children."

134 HARATA KUNWAR

" Xe-tu, ]\lbn ROchO usopo-iiphan ne kerai-dun

" As for me, Mon Rdjd Ids son-for mc is asking in marriage

tang-det-le : hor-bbng hbr-te naiig-le-koi-lo ; pusi

already : the gourds of heer there a7Tived all have ; hov)

kedo-thek-po ? " Akleng-atum pudet — " Bonta

can I 'possibly marry him !" The elder sisters said— "But

niiiig pangri-re-det-lang-le-ma : uang-le do-nbn-et I

you arc not married yet : do you marry him, dear !

Ingting-po, netum dam-po : ha hem-ta e-vo

It 70 ill he da rJi soon, ice must he going : there at home our foivls
f'-phiik ingreng-jo-si-do-po ; aphii-thak-ta e-pi

our pigs ivill all he calling out for us ; moreover our mother

e-p6 nang-lang-phrbng-si-do-po. Netura-ta

our father there will he looldng out for us. We also,

vang-bbm-ji-le-ma ? " Ansi akibi-ta

shall ive not continue to come and see you } " Then the youngest
pulo — " Pu lang-ma te-marli ? do-po,

said — " Wliat is to he done, sisters } I will marry him,
nang-tum dam-nbn ; e-pi e-po aningthi-det-ji."

do you go ; our mother our father will he vei^y angry T

Ansi akleng-abjing pulo — " H. K., nang fchan-

Then the eldest one said — " H. K., you (our) instruction from
bbm-ta arju-je-det-lo, apbtke ne-mu

time to time vjoidd not listen to, therefore our Tjoungest sister

nang-tekang-po ; bbnta aduk pi-ri alak

/teve toe are leaving; nevertheless grief give her not, trouhle

pi-ri ; ketiin toi-ri, kedang toi-ri ;

give her not ; to cool: send her not, to serve 7ip send her not ;

rfiiigrl-r7-dH-ltnig-l7i-mu ; here again two verbs each liave the negative
affix, phn<irl and Vang, the hitter an auxiliary signifying "to continue
to be." Puiujrl in the sense "to marry," is the causal of iii(jr'i, "to
drink copiously of li(iu()r"; the description of tlie marriage ceremony
at p. 18 shows the important part which is taken in it by alcoholic drinks.
TiKjtiiKj-jjo, "it will be dark": observe the impersonal use of the verb,
without a substantive ; Ave may say fiJCi hhngtin(j-j)dr, *' the night is very
dark."

-\"7ig-lfii(rj-jjh)-oug-sl-d(i-]ju ; 2^}irhng is one of the particles nsed to
indicate plurality : " they will all be looking out for {Ihng) us there
(""".'/)•" Jioyi, one of the verbs indicating continuance may be rendered
" from time to time."

IIARA'IA KL'WVAR 135

aphu-thiik-til Ti-ii sti-ri-tlifi, akeug su-ri-thfi." A 11 si

moreover her hand lonrh not, her foot. loncJi nut." So

a-mu che-perr'-tekring-si siiiiiig

their yomiger sister }i(iciii;j instna-ti'd and left behind to lintcni

chingjur-tliu-t't-ju-lo. Sining 1 11 1 - 1 >

they fieio tip again heautifullij together. Heaven not intend

tiktuk, L'hi-lang-dun-ding :

so-long-as, they {11. K. and his icife) eontinued yazi/iy together :
ansi thek-dim-dc-lo. Pu-ansi H. K. pulo —

then they could see them no more. Then 11. K. said —
"Ingting-po, t'-tum-tri di\in-po-nang." Ausi H. K.

" It is getting dark, let its also go our way." So II. A',

aning firbng do-lo, jo-arnl tliijok ke-up phak-leng

his mind joyful lived, night-and-day deer shooting ivild-jng
ke-ap ii-ur kreng-kre a-rap

shooting, his platform {for drying flesh) was never dry hvi shelf

kreng-kre.
vjas never dry.

Ansi ningkau isi iugtiiug-lo. " Ai phi, ur hem
So a year one came to an end. " 0 granny, ' / A owe
chedampo pusi ne-kepulo, kolopu-lo-ina ? " pu

I vjill go' saying I say to myself , what am I to do? " saying
H. K. pulo. " Niing hem-tiing-det, naiig rit-tiing-

H. K. said. " You have your oion house, you have your own
det-le-ma, cliedam-ta mO ; bonta iiang-pesO naug-che-nu-
field indeed, you can go, v:cll ; hut your wife with you does
me-laDg," " Bbntfi," H. K, piidet, " ningkan-isi-lo-

not get on tvell yet." ''But," IF. K. said, " a year one (whole)

A-ri su-fl-th(l, a-kt'i(fj su-rl-thn : this injunction not to touch tlu-
hand or foot of the fairy jirincoss has ditterent i)arallels in other hinds;
in the Celebes version referred to on p. 72 it is the Jtair that is not to
be touched, re-ir, causal of n; "to be knowing, clever." Ur, a jilatforui
or screen for drying flesh in the sun ; rhp includes also a shelf in the house.

Kring, to be dry, Ijears the same relation to ring, dry (ante, p. 122),
as klhng (p. 09), to perceive, does to lang, to look at ; in both the prefix
ke- has apparently been incorpt)rated in tlie root.

Chedhm-fd-rm " You can go if you like " : oljserve the force of uu;
" well, good." C/if-riu'-i7ii':-/aiig : the verb )ne liere seems to be the
Assamese mPt, "agreement," not the IVlikir word for "good.'" Observe
the idiomatic expression ningkan isi-lv-Ic-ina thi, in answer to an objection :

136 HARATA KUNWAR

le-mfi-thi, i»lii." " Boutu nang clie-me-me-lu,"

it is, thouf//i, (/7'((n/ii/." " Xercrfhelc.s.'i, yoii hare not hit it off yet."
AnsI " Ai tungte, tlKm-thek-tlie-King-po " H. K. pulo. Ansi
TJien "Oh, then, go I cannot yet," H. K. said. Then

H. K. laic katiki laK- kanglioi purii kelong

JT. K. there vjorkiny in the field (doublet) barns-fidl getting

j)hundrir kelong, hem-epi ahem })ukr' ingkro

granary-f nil getting, the v:idonfs house so cylindrieal receptavje

ingtoDg ardung-dung, Ansi

for rice conical basket were so mcmy (i.e. tuas filled I'nth). And
H. K. iiso Arnam pllo, asO iuut-lo. Ansi aphi
H. K. a eJiild. God gave, a child one only. Then his granny
arju-tliu-le-lo : " Ai phi ne-pi ne-po-atum si-long

Itc asked ((gain : " Oh, granny, ' my mother my father s place (to)

chedanipo-si ne kepu." Hem-epi th<\kdet : " Nang-

I will go' I say to myself ." The icidoiu ansivered : "Your
peso nang cheme-me-LiDg-ti, .isupo." "Kali

wife (to) yon is not yet well reconciled, grandson dear." "Not so,
phi, chemelo : ne so inut tang-det-lo-

granny, she is reconciled : me child one has she not already
le-ma?" " Da tsingtr' : u.tng than-bbm-ta, nang arju-

giren rue ! " Go then : yon I repeatedly advised, you loouUl

thek-the-det-lo ; chedfim-non ; bontJi nJing-peso nang-
not listen to me; go together ; nevertheless your tvifc is not
cheme-me-lang de." Ansi H. K. apeso chepulo

thoroii.ghly reconciled, indeed." Then H. K. his wife (to) said
"Ai nang-pi, i-li-ta e-heiu chedain-po-nang." Apeso
" 0 thou dear one, ice two to our home let us go." His wife
thakdet, " Da, nang ne kepbn aling-lo-he." Ansi adap-
replied, -'Go, you metaling wherever you, iviliy Ho itheearne
lo: iin-cho-det jun-det damlo. Tovar

morning: rice having eaten hating drunk they darted. Itoad

so one says, in reply to a retjuest for i)ayinent, iiT: nang pi-tang-det-lo-
U-mu-thl "but I have paid you already! " Observe that in nang che-mT-
mv-la the last syllable = ////«/ without its nasal. Asu Arnam pl-lo, " (iod
gave a child" : possibly tliis i)luase is due to the narrator, who it will
be reniuTiibered was a Chri.stiaii. T't, a particle = " not yet reconcilt-d."
I)e, a particle of asseveration, ''indeed," pn^bably the Assamese del.

IIAKAIA K IN WAR

^17

f'-beng lelo. .Viisi risr»|iu-|»rii riiir'si't-jnu ;i\iiiii

a piece (of) they arrived. Then his eliihl und his n-ifc his irttisf.

trimpong-het-si, ItolKi-jieii

putting hetweeih waist and girdle firmh/, v:ith his Imlian

che-vam-phong-liM-l(i. Ansi clam dam dam,

he hound tvell round his hudg. So as thig vnil on their irug,

vo-har filopo iuglong nung ilikr-diit,

a jimgle-foid male on the inountnin {sidi ) there vns serntrhing,

arlok uaug-firkC'-dut mathri-tln'k-thr' jadi-tliik-llir. Aiisi
the precipiec was scratching inconceivahlg (doublet). Then
H. K. pulo — " Chi, vohur-filopo, kopi kricheplung-mfi { m-
H. K. said — " Oh, jungle-cock, tuhat are you, doing there '. I
hem kfichediim-toug tovar in" ](c'k-ni>ii."

home ain-going-in-a-liurry, the way to inc leacc free." Tlic
Vohfir alopO thiikdet — " Tovfir iiang kepek-jl

jangle cock ansicered — " The vjay to you I u-ill leave free by no
kali : ' mini H. K. apt'so fiso chcvau-po ' Imig

means: 'to-day H. K. his tcife his ehild will bring' so nineh

pusi akhat akhat amang amang nr nang

saying to myself, the way he is coming (doublet ) / h<re

ketbii-le." H. K. pu-voipbak — " Cbr, })ub"ni-<lil-ii ! rmfikr

amwatcliing. H. K. rejoined — "Oh, johc do not ! hen after

' H. K. ilpeso aso hem lit ebevan-ansi iir-prau

' H. K. his vjifc his child house field (to) b/inging while, my life

ne-niui damlo ' pu pupa-na." Yobrir fdopo pudi-t,

/ny soul is gone' thus do not have to say." The jungle cock so id,

" Pupe. Mini naug-ta-me ne-ta-rae." II. K.

" I do not say so. To-day either you or I {will ptrevail)." H. K.

pulo " Sakhit-ma ? " " Sakhit." " Doliai-mii \ "

said " Is that true !■ " " Yes, true." "Do you swear it .' "

Jltf,, a particle used with verl)s meaning to tie, l»iuil, in tlie sense *>f
" tirnily, securely."' I)iif. a particle used with verbs of scratching <ir
cutting. T(>ng, a i)article indicating luu'ry or haste. L'/iw/cr "in a
little time"; mo, "space or interval of time," *'- particle of unity,
as in P-jhn, e-hrng. FiUinn, " to say in Joke : jnt, '" say, ' tint, "seem, pre
tend." Fran, Assamese. Fu-pn-ua " don't have to say " : ufi As-samese.
iVT/H^-^i-mr", «('-<«-ynf", idiomatic, " it will be well witli you or it will be
well with me," i.f. " eitiier you (U- 1 will come off the better." Jto/iai,
"an oath" ; probably tlie Assamese do/u'ii, "call for justice": stmr (th<-
Kliasi amai) is also used.

138 HARATA KUNWAR

" Dohai." Ausi H. K. tXthai chepaching-kangsi fibbp.
" / swear" So H. K. his how having set shot him.

Ansi (lam-thfi-chbt, vo-rek filopo toviir nang-

TIlcii a little further he went, a cock pheasant the vxiy right

pfirpan-pet inglong nang-arkr-dut, ilrlok nang-

across the mountain there ivas scratching, tJie precipice there

iirkedut matha-thek-the jadi-thek-the. Ansi H. K.

was scratching in an extraordinary manner. Then H. K.

pulelo " Clii vo-rek-alopo, kopi nang-cheplang-ma ? ne hem
said again " Oh, cock pheasant, what are you doing there !■ I home

kache-dam-tbng, tovar ue-pek-nbn." Vo-rek

am in a hurry to go, tlic -loay leave free for me." The code

filopo pudet — " Tovar nang kepek-ji kali :

pheasant said — " The road to you I will yield by no means :

' mini H. K. apeso aso cheviin-po-tang ' pusi akhiit
' to-day S. K. his wife his son will bring along ' saying the icay

akhat amang amang ne nang-ketbn-le." H. K. pudet — " Chi,
he is coming (doublet) / am watching T H. K. said — " Oh,

pulem-det-ri ! emdke ' H. K. apeso aso chevan-ansi

dontjohel hereafter ' H. K. his vfife his son bringing-while
iiC'-pran ne-niui dam-lo ' pupa-na." Vorek alopo

my life my soul departed ' dont have to say.'^ The cock-pheasant
pudet " pupe." H. K. pu-le-lo— " Sakhit-ma ? "

said " I dont say so." H. K. said again " Is that true /
"Sakhit." "])ohai-nia?" "Dohai." Ansi H. K. athai
" True." " Do you swear ! " " / sioear." Then H. K. his bow
chej)achiug-kaugsi abbp.
having set shot him.

Ako dam dam dam, phak-leng fdopo kethe puke matha
Fortcard as they went, a wild hoar {male) great so as could
thek-the jfidi-thbk-the, angthur angni pan-lbk-phbng,

not he imagined (doublet), his snout his tiisJcs ocerlapping so,
tovar nang-par-pan-pet inglbng nang-thimur-phak arlbk
road there-right-aeross the mountain there was rooting the precipice
nang-thimur-phak abidi thek-the-det. Ansi H. K. pulo :

there was rooting in an extraordinary way. Then H. K. said :

HAKA'JA KINWAR 139

" Chi, phuk-long ulopu, kopi iiani,^ clieiilaiig-iiiri ? Tuvar

"Oh, vAld loar, what you arc doiiuj there? Thr wai/

ne-pek-tha : ne bem kfipelO serarjik-ji." riiukli'iig filojiM
leave free for me: I Iwiac nxiiU to ijcl quWldijy Tin u-ihl hom-
thiikdet — " Tovfir iiaiig kepek-jl kali :

answered — "The road for ijoil I ivill tea re free hij no imnns:
'mini H. K. upcso fiso chevan-po-taiig ' ]»usi

* to-day H. K. his wife and child will briny alony,' t^ayiny to /nystlf
akhat-akhiit amanci-amaag no nang ketbn-lO." H. K. itudi-L
the tvay he is coming (dowhlet) I here am watching." H.K. -^aid
" Chi, pulem-det-ri ! jasemot ina-pu-ma ? " Pliak-h-iig al<)i»r>
"Oh, don't jest! is it true or not !" The v:i Id hoar

pulo "Jasemet." H. K. pudet — "Emoke 'H.K. a) (("so
said "It is true." IT. K. said "Hereafter 'If. K. his wife

aso hem chevau-aiisi ne-prau diim-lo ne-mui dam-lo '
his son home lohilc hringiny my life is yone, my soul is gone '

pupa-na." Phakleug alopu pudet — "Pu-pe."

don't have to say." The vjild hoar said — *' / don't say so."
"Sakhit-ma?" " Sakhit." " Dohai-ma ? " "Dohai."

" Is that true ! " " It is true." " Do you sicear ! " " / surar ! "
" Chi, tangte " — pu a-thai chei)achiug-kangsi aboi». An.'^i
"Oh, then" — saying hishov^ having set he shot him. So

hem-le-ji-dbk-dbk-lo, chilbnghe tham-therbk

(when) he had nearly arrived at his home, ivorm casts clods six

pangrum-si H. K. sainung vaidamlo. Ansi

having collected H. K. the roof {on) went and threw thna. Thi's

atepi pulo—" H. K. vanglo ! To inghoi

his elder sister-in-law said " Jf. K. has arrived ! Then the stools

kecham inghu kecham." AnsI iughoi inghu kapat kilpleng

wash the seats wash ! " So the stools seats j)lanlc^ benches

cham-lo. Ansi H. K. phakleng e-jbn vAn-si,

they washed. Then H. K. wdd-hmr one having hnmyht.

Bop, to shoot a bird or animal ; hp, U> let ofl' a bow or gun.

IToh-dhk, particles used to indicate tliat an event has ?«(i/7»/ haitpened
(withy^ future affix). To. imperative particle borrowed from Khasi, and
prefixed, as in that language.

I40 HARATA KUNWAR

pai-ri-iC- niing-bikJik-sI honi v<\nf,f|o. AnsI

tJic hedge heside tltere having net it duicii home came. Then

kelepen iitepi librlang horpd him

on his arrival his eldest sister-in-laia heer (doublet) hread

sang-pher nang-pi-lo. Apeso keme-bng puke, ami

parched rice gave him there. His wife very heavtifid so, su/iis

atur tht'lfilak charsap iin-e. Ausi a-ik-

splendonr lllr, he loohcd in the face could not. Then his

atumke — " paningve kopi-ching ahuu-lo-ma ? " pu

hrothers — " To-night what in the world has happened !■ " saying

ning-ri-jo. Ansi H. K. pulo : " Ne mb tovar

ivere 'perplexed. Then H. K. said " / a while ago on the way

phakso nang-abbp : jfi pai-are-si me bi-tekang-

a little pig thcrc-sliot: there heside the hedge well I placed and

kbk : lale chu-pbi dam-nbn." Ausi a-ikmar-atumke

left it: there scorch it for eating go!' Tlien his hrothers,

korte-bang-phbngo damlo ; aphak kethe-bng peklem-

the brothers five, v:cnt ; the hoar (ivas) so ve7'y hig, move it
an-til uu-e : thaugta chbnghoi thek-the.

even they coidd not : anything do hy themselves they could, not.
Ansi H. K. dun-lo : ari e-li()ng rum-djim-

Then IT. K. accompanied them : hand one (with) he lifted and
kbk: finsi phi-si ingthan-lo, ansi

brought it aicay : then having scorched it they cut it up, cmd
hern vau-lo, chu-tun-lo chOdanglo. Ansi arbng bohbng
home brought, cooked it, served it up. And joy fid, noisy,
chingnek chingni-si chb-lo, jun-lo.

laughing and. nn'ting inerry, they ate, they drank.

Ansi puthbt-adaplo. " H. K. apesb cbevanlo "

>S'c> next morning davned. " H. K. his wife has brought "

Pai-d-r? " beside the liedge (pai) " = jxii-n-knii;/. CliO-pJii ; the Mikirs
scorch (ptii) every bird or .luimal before prepnring it for cooking.
(Jhhnijlioi, reflexive form of inglioi, "to do," = "to do by theiaselves."
A-rl-?-lthiig : Jihng is tlio geuei'ic chiss-word for a limb (see ante, j). 79).
Iwitltiin, "to cut up fish or llesli, whether raw or cooked." CliiiKjnik
reflexive of inqneic, to laugli, '' huighing together." CliitKjni, reflexive
of ifigni, doublet of ingnetc ; the verb also means " to sit."

Pidltiif,-ndai>-Jo ; putliht, "next": cf. lii-tfihf in ddnlc-vhi a tl-diDt-IPthht on
j>. 114 above; the time-affix -to is joined directly to ^7'/^'/^, "morning."

IIARATA KLXWAK i.ji

t;ing i.ii riijii-i;)ii<r-si fi-rat-isi u<lrl-isi

so much saijliuj liacimj (jol to linir Ihr whole munirt/sidr
luing kelaiif,' cbethbr-pre iniltlia-tliik-tli.'

there to see kept coming and going as ijon ivufil not imagine
judi-tliek-the. Ans! H. K. fipOso upini biubng, ujiHi)

(doublet). And H. K. his loife's petticoat own striped cloth
biubng, • fisC'i- filek, pbug-ting-ke, b\ng-pbiig

ovni, gold jewels, neeJclaee, gold-drum (in a) hamhoo joint
ibap nieseu-si kardfmg raklbk. Ansi

putting away carefully, {in the) piteli of tlte roof lird up. So
H. K.-ke ibug-i)bu-n dauilo, rup-pbu-ri-dainlo :

H. K. the village people each, went to visit (donblot) ;

firiit fidet cbi-phii-ri (b\iu : apbi

the ryots, the country in turn came to visit him: afterivards

apeso uaug kelang vang-pre. Mfim'-kc"

his vjifc there to gaze ou they Kept coming and going. Sonic

" ui " mane-ke " neng " manr'-kr- " tO "

" aunt " some " sister-in-law " {brother's v:ife), some " ddcr
uiani'-ke " pinu " pu-abaug-ta-dolo. " Vai I

sister" some " j'afernal aunt" saying each one n-as. "Oh!
me-bug-te-ma ? " ]tu pasingmik-jb. Ausi

is she not heautiful, sister ! " saying they all admired. Then
H. K. apeso tliak-dun-lo — "An-cbbt kali lauglie ! Xe pini
H. K.'s wife ansvercd them — " So much not yet ! My petticoat
binbug, lie jiso biubng, ue lek biubng, ue roi

ovm, my striped cloth own, my necklace oivn, my hracclet
biubng le ue chepiudeng-lbng-te, aparta so-se-lang."

own again I to put on were to gct-if, it would not he thus only."

A-rlit, il-di't, l)oth Assamese loan-words ; rhl is raii/a(, " ryots," </</, <f<"/j,
" country." Chethhr-prr, rang-jrrP, are l)oth used for "continuallj- coming
and going, of many people"; the former expression indicates greater
numbers and frc(iuency tlian the latter. Fhutj-tiiig,'-'' a gold drum, woni
on the breast, strung in the middle of a set <>f strings on which black,
coral, and gold beads are arranged in alternate rows six deep " (Stack) ;
in Assamese 7utidqli. N'i,ni'iiii, ti,p'nin: see the table t)f terms of relation-
ship on J). 20. Apdr-tu-so-sr-liirn/ : this sentence appears to be made up
thus : (Ipdr, " greatly, much," td, corroborative particle : so, diminutive
particle, negatived by .sr, /««</, auxiliary verb, "continue"; the force of
it, then, would be — " the effect w(juld not be only the jioor result you see,
fine though that is, but ever so much more ! "

142 HARATA KUNWAR

Ansi maue iisarpi pulo — " Chi, tangte nang pi-tha."
Tlicn some old woman said " Oh, then do you give them to lier"
Ansi H. K. fisarpo pulo — " Kouat-tbng la oso ingcham
Then H. K.'s old father said — " Where ever {did) that hoy mad
Lipikbk-lo-ne-le ? kopi athe-tang apini jiso

stow them away 'I for wha.t rea.son her I'^etticoat striped cloth
binbng kepi-pe-det ? " Ansi H. K. apeso than-lo —

ovjii did he not give her ? Then H. K.'s wife explained —
" Hala kardong-le kerak-chek-ke." Ansi pliri-

" That pitch of roof -in he has tied them in a hmdlc. Then having
dam-si nang-pi-lo. Ansi chepindeng-

vntied there he gave her (the things). Then she put them on
lo che-sum-pbt-lo. Lale keme-puke matha-thek-the-det
herself (doublet) Thereupon beautiful so inconceivably
chi-plang-lo. Ansi " Ai ! me-ke mesen-te-ma ! arnam-aso
she became. Then " Oh ! beautiful, lovely indeed ! God's child,
arni-aso pu pai-pe-lo." Ankephbng H. K.

the sun's child, ccdled not for nothing is she." Thereupon H. K.'s
apeso thur-phlut-si chehijir-phlum-phlum-lo,

wife rising up her full height shook out her clothes flap-fiap,
ingjar-et-dan-lo. Anke H. K.

Jlew away gra^^efully {thither ichence she came). Tlicn H. K.

ha-tovar-pen nang-chethek-dun-si, thai-pen

from a distant path there having vmtched her, bow (accus.)

jo-dun-rang-rang-lo. Ansi iipeso pu-tekang-lo,

continually kept bending. Then his wife said on leaving him,
" Tha, tha, mo chiphoji." Ansi H. K.

" Wait, 'Wait, hereafter we shall meet again." Then H. K.

chiru chernap mbn-duk mbn-sa-si hem nang-le-lo.
weeping lamenting sad and sorry at his house arrived.

Konht-thng = kojiat-chi/ig," wherever ? " Kojn-othe = lcopi-('i]^H)t.

Pai-pe-lo : this idiom is illustrated, by the following phrases : Jdhn-
diiirt jiai-pii-Io, "he is not working gratis, for nothing"; lii nklhi<j pai-
pc-lo, "he is not the elder for nothing" ; ir. he can do better than his
younger brothers. lrnjjnr-H-d(in-lo : the element dhn gives the force of
returning to her own place whence she came. Jfi, verb, " to bend a
bow," rang, particle of continuance. T]id, " wait ! " Assamese loan-word.
I'hu, verb, " to touch, arrive at," as a boat comes to the shore with
t:hi, "to touch (me another, to meet" (see p. 112, lines 1 and 2).

lIAkATA KL'WVAK 143

Niiug-kelc-pcii chu-chr- .i"i»-j»' u-oso

Immediately on arrival, not eat in;/, nut drinkintj, liis ihilil
nang-chi-bu-det-si lul riplii liJ-ni-r-jji alinu

hacing talxn on his had,-, lo his t/rann// the tvidoiv's house
chediim-pliit-lo. Ausi dam dam dam aplii hem-Opi

he started to go. So going alung his gntn/n/ the iridoic's
ahem lelo: kele-pen lair kacliiru h'di- kach('rmip

house {at) he arrived: on arriving there he vept there lie lamented
matha-thc'k-tho jildi-thuk the. Ausi aphi piilo — " Haku-

as you could not imagine. Then his granny said — " From

pen ' Nang-peso nang-cheme-me-King * nang-pulo-hr- ;

the first ' Your ■v:ife is not yet united with you ' / tuld yon. verily ;

kopusi nbn-h'; nang-keh"ing-ji-L\ng ? Nang sining-le kopusi

how noiv u'illyougettoseeheragaiji! Yon heaven-to how

kedun-thekjl ? " Anke chiru-pet an-muchot

vjill you he able to follow leer J Then weeping so mv.eh the more

cho-che jun-je aphi kediim-aling dun-kri,

not eating not drinking his granny loent-ivherever followiiuf,

bar-pi bar-so4e kedam-ta hundun-kii.

outgoings-great outgoings-little-in going also lie kept dogging lor,

kethi kejaug-si kedo-po. Ansi aphi

one-dying, one-perishing {like) he remained. At last his granny
pulo : " H. K, akhi h')-du-det-le cho-tha :

said : " If. K., food, leaf {in) having vjrapped up eat (imper.) :
ne in5 bidi niiDg-than-ji." Ansi likhi-lu-

/ thereafter apian to you vjill explain." Then food-in-a-leaf-
du him sangpher cho-lo. Ausi ilj)hi bidi

wrapped bread parehed riee he ate. Then his granny apian
than-lo: "Minap-ke uaug-pesO Mon EechO asopO nJiug-
explained : " To-viorroiv your wife Mou liaja's son there
kachepangri-Ji vaug-pu. AkO uaug-lmpo

to marry v:ill come. Before that your father-in-law's
angnar-ta uaug-lang-chinglu-ji viingpo. Lale nang
elephant-also there in the river to bathe will come. There do you

Akhl'lo-du ; dkhl, "something to u:it,"' to, ''leaf," di(, " wraji u}i/" =
" so much food as can be wrapped up in a loaf," a morsel.

144 HARATA KUNWAR

Si\u<nI-riilo chi-patu-dam-joi-non ; ingnar dam-ji

sand-UTiderneath go and hide yourself quietly ; the elephant to go

dokdbk-lo-te, la-arme rip-het-ra uaiig-

is-making-ready-whcn, if.s tail (to) holding on, tightly your-

poho-pen iiang-so che-vam-plibng-het-nbn. Lale

turhan-icith your child to your luaist hind firmly. There

ingnur uang-firju-lo-te, * Ne-ta ha ne-peso along iiJlng-

the elephant you asks if, ' I also to my-wife s place am going

kechedun-ji' pu-ra pu-nbn. Anke menap arni-kangsam-si

along with you' saying say. TJicn to-morrow in the afternoon

nangtum lO-po. Xangke lang-kung-le dokbk-non. Anke

youhoth will arrive. Do you the-river-bank-on wait. Then

uang-peso lang-kepanglu-ji-fiphan aban-atum

your wife with-icater-to-'bathefor-thc-purpose her male slaves

asbt-iitum lang nang-sbk-po. Anke ' oso-aphan

Jlct female slaves water v-ill-dravj-there. Then ' For the child
liing-ejoi-pet ne pi-tha ' piirfi hang-dun-nbn. Anke

xijater one draught only me give' saying call out. Then

lang n<\ng-pi-lo-te thibuk-arlo nang-ser-arnan jbk-dun-
water you-give-if, the ivater pot-into your-gold-ring drop

thbt-nbn. Anke nang-phan nang-hang-po : anke dun-
in. Then for you there she will call : then go with

nbn : kele-pen nang-sopu o-dam-kbk-nbn ; iinke

tlteni : on arriving your child set down on the ground ; then

oso iipe-albng chedampo." Ansi adap

ihe child its mother -towards vnll go of itself. So the morning
ingthang-lo : chodet jimdet H. K. ha lang-kung

dawned: ha cing eaten and drunk H. K. to the river hank
damsi sangti-ilrlo chipatu-dam-joi-lo.

having gone under the sand went and hid himself quietly.
Ansi ingnar lang nang-chinglu-ji vanglo. .\nke

I'licn the elephant in the river there to bathe came. Then
chinglu-det damji dbkdbklo. H. K. arme rip-dun-

ho ring bathed toga it made ready. H. K. its tail holding-on-

E-joi, " one tlruught " ; joi is perliaps Ass. Jol, " water." O, verb, " to
leave, set down."

HARATA KUNVVAR 145

Ibk-si, npoho-pt'ii u-so cli(^-Vi\in-i)lii)iig-dt''t-lt). Aiisi

tight-to, his turban-u-ifh ///.s rhi/d tiril Jlnuli/ to /lis mfisf. Then

ingnar ha sining ingjrir-i)()ii-lo, aiisi Ini

the elephant to hcavoi jlciv up, luliiuj him vifh him, aiid there

lang-kimg u-duui-kiMc-lo. Aiikr IMou lu'cho-atum-ta
on the river hanh set Idm down. Then Mon liaja's people also
H. K. fipeso-pt'ii iisopo iiaiig-kai»uiign-ji-si Bari-thr!
H. K.'s 'icifc-vjith his son in order fo marry great palace
li("cbo ahc'in vaiiglo. Aiisi liaii-thO Keeho aban-

King's house (to) had come. TJien great-palace King's male
sXtum asbt-atum H. K. apeso laiig-kaiKiiiglu-ji-

slaves female slaves If. K.'s vnfe vnth-icatcr-to-hallti-for-thv
rii»liaii laiig iiiiiig-kesbk-ji vaiiglo. Ans'i H. K. asupb-aphaii
purpose ivater there to draic came. Tlien H. K. his ehild-for
liing hang-pl-dun-lo : " Liing ejoi-pct iie-pl-tba

loater begged f hem to give: " Water one draught oahj give me
iu"-sopo-apban, pG-rafirli." Ausi iimt-ta pi-pG

my son-fur, good mothers." Then one-even would not give
imit-ta pi-pe. Aiisi apbi-sl sarpi naiig-

one-even would not give. Then at last an old woman came up
<Iun-lo : ausi hang-dun-thu-lo H. K. — " Lang t"joi-p<,'t

to them : then called out again H. K. — " Water one draughl only
ne pi-tba, pe-aniam-pi, nt'-sopo apban." AiisI sfirpi

me give, good Madam, my-chihl-for !' Then the old woman
King })I-lo ; thibuk pberoidun pelem-peKim-si, H. K.

loater gave him ; the water-jar to touch making as though, H. K.
sor arnan jok-dun-thbt-lo. Ansi H. K. slpeso L\iig-panglu-
gold ring dropped into it. So H. K.'s wife they lathed with
lo: a-ii a-ki'ug chain-M, :q)hi-si sarpl-

water : her arms her legs washing-beautifully after the old
alang-thibuk apbii uaiig-dunglo : ser-

woman's water-jar her head {over) tliey poured there : the gold

aiiiaii nang-klo-bup. Ansi H. K. fipr'so pulo — "Ail nang
ring there fell out. Then R. K.'s vnfe said — "Oh! here

Man EechO-dtum ; notice that here turn has its original sense of
"company"; *'Mbn Btljas company, or following."

146 HAR-\TA KUXWAR

chele-duii-tanglo komatching alang-thibuk ma ? " pu
has arrived to us whose in the world water-jar ] " saj/ing

bisar-lo. Ansi inut-ta — " Xe thibuk kali " inut-ta
she enquired. Then out — " My jar it is not," another —
" Xe thibuk kali " pulo. Ansi " sarpi a-thibuk "

'' My jar it is not" said. Then '" (it is) the old woman s jar"
pu-hnr-lo. Ansi sarpi-aphan pulo — "Konatsi nang

they all said. So to the old woman she said — '' Where did ymi
bangso aman kelong-lbk ? Labangso arleng en-dam-nbn I

this ring get hold of ^ That man go and fetch !

La-le nang van thek-tbe-det, tangte nang

Him if you bring cannot, then {it is a matter of) your

pran!" pulo. Ansi sarpi chiru cbemap-si

life!" she said. Tfien the old woman weeping lamenting

H. K- along dam-lo, ansi hang-dam-lo — " Xe-dun

toicards S. K. went, and called out to him — " With me he
ik-nbn : kopi-apbtsi ' Lang ne pi-tha ' si pu-

pleasid to conne: for what reason ' Water me give' this having

te ne-pian ne-mui ne-kapedam-ji-le matha-thurbng-

said my life (doublet) me to cause to lose did you have it in your
ma ? " Ansi H. K. aso chibu-si dun-

mind / " So H. K. his child carrying on his baclc went with
lo. Kelepen «3sd 6-dam-kbk-lo. Ansi

her. On arriving the boy he set down on the ground. Ttien
oso kat-tang-tang-si ape cberbak dam-krap-lo,

the boy running straightway his mother s lap (into) climbed up,
ansa mbk cbn-lo.
and her breast sucked.

Ansi Bari-tbe Eecho pulo: "Ai! abidi thek-

Then the great palace King said: "Oh! a thing never

Pu-hur-lo : httr is one of the particles iBdicating plurality.

Ne dun-ih-ncm : ik, " elder brother," used as a respectful form
of address ; observe its place in the compound imperatire. iluthu-
thurhng, lit. "you had another (tku) meaning" (viz. to make me lose my
life). Notice how -si, the mark of the conjunctive participle, is aflSxed to
the reported utterance of H-K. CJierVik = che-iirUik : urhak, the lap or
VKKom ; also a verb : oso hlrbak. " she holds the child to her bosom."
Krbp is said to be used only of a child climbing up into its mothers lap.

HARATA KUXWAR 147

the-lo ! a-so-si chi-pethe-rap-tAng-d^t-!o-le-ma ? "

-seen be/arc ! a eh ild-eren ha re they got great het x already .' ' '

Ansi 3Ion-Eech6-atimi therak-lo iaininglo :

Thai Moii-Rajiis people were a.^anu:d, were di-sgu-ited :
mbn-duk mbn-sa hem chevoi-lo. Ana H, K, pen

grieved and sorry home they returned. Then (of) H. K. and

Bari-the-Eecho asopi pangri-lo pangdbn-lo.

great palace King's daughter they celebrated the xcedding.

Ansi ningkan-isi ningkan-hini do-dun-si tiki-

So year-ijne year-two living with them he laboured
lo inghoi-lo, ansi puru-krehini phandar-krehini

in the fieWs and icorked, and granaries-ticeire liams-txcehe
Ibng-lo. Ansi H. K. apeso aphan chipulo: "Ai

got. Then H. K. his vyife-to said prireUely : "0

nang pi ! ili-ta vo-phri asbn vo-thong asbn e-tar

my dear I ice tico also sparroics-lile dores-lile a lusst

an-ke do, e-thbn an-ke do ; apbtke chedam-

at least have, a roo-sting-plaee at least hare; therefore let us go
po-nang : bnghai pen anihaf arju-nbn."

away together: father-in-laic and mother-in-law ask.'
Ansi aningve H. K, apesb ape apo

So that night ff. K.'s wife a ' r her father

cherjulo : "Ai pe pen pb! niingli 0-'

asked privately : "0 mother and father ! your son- -
kepu-ke : ' ili-ta vo-phri asbn vo-thung-asbn e-tar

■says : ' we two also sparrows-like dores-lil-e a tust
anke do, e-thbn anke do: bnghai pen

at leaM hare, a roosting-place at least hare: father-in-law and
anihai arju-nbn : chedam po-nang ' — pusi pu :

mother-in-law ask: lei us go away together' — so he says:
Xangtnm kopi abida-si ne phar-dun-po-ma ? " Ansi Bari-
Y'S what order me will command J " Then palaee-

Iii'jriinu used as homonym of therui, " to be "-'■ ■ • " '= " •- " to
be ;vfr.ud, disturbed in mind."

CJierju-Io = cht-Jrju-lo. Prtiir, "to order" ; ... ■ .-.^
"as you order me": n^ j^ulr-iiuu p^jn^-sin-lo, ~I gave .- 1'

instructious." Bidu = Ass. hi-iai, " leave to depart."

148 HARATA KUNWAR

the-Eecho pulo — "Cliepe! lo-tliui slson

ffreat-King said — "0 daughter! k Imndle of urccns lilx,

hanthui fisbn t"boi-si iiiViic; chocliok-palar

a bundle of vegetables like, once for all go)' given atcag, or

chotheng-palar tang-det-lo-le-ma. Minap-le

in exchange {doublet) completely I have. On the moo^row

dam-tha chidun, mini-le dam-tha chidun." Ansi upo
go awag together, to-dag go avmg together." Then her father

pu-thil-lo : " Kopisi nangtum kari-ma ? ban-ma ?

said again: " Wliat do gou desire of me! mcde slaves'

sbt-ma ? armo-ma ? okso-msX ? ser-ma ? riip-ma ? "

female slaves 1- ryots ''. liusbandmen ! gold / silver '^ "

Ansi H. K. che-than-dam lo : " Ai nangpo ! ne-pe pen
So H. K. she went and told : " 0 my dear ! my mother and

ne-po kepu-ke — 'raini-lr dam-tha minap-le dam-tha
my father say — ' this very day go avjay to-morrow go aicay

chi-dun-ta-me ; aphuthak, ban-mii ? sot-msi ? armo-ma ?
together if you like ; moreover, slaves! handmaids! ryots!

okso-ma ? ser-ma ? rup-mfi ? Kopisi nimgtum kari-ma ?
cultivators ! gold ! silver ! What do you desire ! '

pusi pu." Ansi H. K. pulo : " Thangta nangne." Ansi
they say." Then U.K. said: "Anything I need not." So

sidjiplo. Ansi H. K. anipi pen

it became morning. Then H. K. his mother-in-lavj and

ahupO ardom-lo ardi-h*. Ansi

his father-in-lav.' saluted respcetf all g {doublet). And

ahupo pulo: "Kopisi niingli kari-ma? ban-ma,

his father -in-lav) said: "What do you desire t slaves,

sbt-mii, armo-ma, bkso-ma, ser-ma, rup-mii?" Ansi
handmaids, ryots, cidtivators, gold, silver ! " Then

Che p" ; notice that ]h^, " mother," is used as an aft'ectionate term
of address to a daughter, exactly as 2"'i " father," is used above to a
son or grandson. LO-thui-hun-thni, "a bundle of vegetables, with a
leaf wrapped round it." Chhk and thhtg mean literally "to beat," but
are here jocularly used for getting rid of a person. Frddr causal of
liir, " to be changed or exchanged," also apparently used jocularly of
giving in marriat'e.

IIAKATA KLNWAR

149

H. K. jmlo " TliHiigtu ni\ngu«'." Ansl H. K. fituiii

H. K. i<(ii(l " J n.rcd nolhiiKi." So 11. K. inul his irif,-

pengnaiiso taugtt' asopA luiii clicdain-lo jinsi liclii

the lucdded })mr and a/so f/in'r son started for hoiar mul arrirrd
chile-lo. Ii('cho chulo kethe cholo, jo-uiiii

there. A l-iiui lie heramr, a great one he became, nifjIU and

111^', Jo-anil tlir, alisi ilivclio

daijlietvashappij, ni(jhl and daif Inwas tjreat, and his kingdom

aketbe thirlo.
vjas great and stahle.

ILK.-fitum: notice the plural affix used to imlicute H.K. ami Ids wij't.
CIio-Jo, " he became "' ; this seems U< be a difierenb verb from chfi, ** to eat."
Notice a-rccliu "liis kiiigsliij) " ; richn stands for raj as well as rdjn. Tliir,
Ass. thir, "steady, stable."

Addition A I, Notes.

Divisions of time. On p. 1(5, note, the divisions of the day are t^iveii.
To these may be added those of the year, as recorded by Mr. Stack.
A year is niiii/-J,liii (c/'. Lushei Jciun, Sho kun, "year," and Lu.shei yii-kum,
Thado innf/ki/ni, Sho yan-kuii, "last year"). A month is Chiklo,
"moon"; but the Assamese niontlis, which are solar divisions of the
year, not lunations, appear to be followed. The days of the month are
n<jt j^enerally counted, and there is said to be no week. (This is borne
out by S. P. Kay's Knglish-Mikir vocabulary, which ^ives Impfa, the
Hindustani haffa,i\,s tlu; word for "week," with hl-f/irhlcai, "seven daj's, '
as an alternative. In the JMikir rHiutir published by the American
Baptist missionaries in 1903, however, rui is said (p. 21) to be the word
for "week.")

Kechiin(j-d2>hr (j'hittKj, to be cold) is the cold season. XiiKj-kernif
(kj'('ug, to be dry) is the dry portion of winter. O/iung-phanfj-hk (clnnnj,
cold ; pliang-hk, hot), is tlie spring, mei-ginj^ into sunnner. lidrla is the
rainy season, followed liy (■huiaj-jir-jir ("becoming cold by degrees ')
autumn. The following are the names of the months, with the
corresponding Assamese names, as set down by Mr. Stack : —

Literary form.

As promt n need in Assam.

Mikir names.

Chaitra

Soit

Thangth{in<i

Vaisakha

Boihag

There

•jyeshtha

.leth

•Tangml

Ashadha

Ahar

Aril

Sra-vana

Srabon

A'osik

Khadra

lihadur

•lakhong

As win i

Alan

Paipai

Kartika

Karti

Chiti

Margasirsa

Marg

I'hn-

Paushya

P.-.h

Phaikuni

Magha

Magh

Matij6ng

Phrdguni

IMiagun

Arkoi

150 HARATA KUNWAR

According to the Mihir Primer, however, the IMikir names' (wliich
agree with those given by Mr. Stack) correspond with periods earlier by
at least a month, Thangthang being the equivalent of February, instead
of Cliaitra (which begins at the vernal equinox), and tlie other mf>nths
in ordinary sequence (There, March, JangniT, April, etc.). Thangthang
is said by Mr. Stack to be called Cha/igldchhug-rhng-do, "the stay-at-
home month." There is the month in which the jungle is cut and strewn
to dry (this would agree well with the equivalent of the Frimer, rather
than with Boihag, April-May, when the tiring Avould take place). Vosik
("sprout") should indicate the month of vigorous growth, when the
rains have set in. Phaikuni seems to be borrowed from the Sanskrit
Flic'dquni, but does not correspond with it. The other names are not
explained.

Musical instruments. A flute, 2^^'n(is'i, cut from a bamboo, is mentioned
on p. 128 : pongsl is the Assamese J>ansi, the well-known instniment of
the youthful Krishna (Baiisl-d/iar'). Other instruments known to the
Mikirs are rnuri, a fife ; clit-ng, a drum ; clti'iig-hrup, the small hand-
drum used by the rlsOmdr to accompany their dancing at funeral feasts ;
and J:um, a one-stringed fiddle. The last is made by stretching a
string made from a creeper, mimgrl, across a gourd, h})ng, which provides
an air-chamber. It is played with a bow, kum-dllsO (ll, a bow, so,
diminutive particle) made of bamboo, the string of which is a tough fibre
of bamboo. (Compare the one-stringed fiddle, pen a, of the Meitheis :
Meithei Monograph, p. 56.)

VII.

AFFINITIES.
The place of the Mikirs in tlie Tibeto-Buniuiu family.

Some idea of the mental equipment of the Aiiengs will have
been gathered from the two preceding sections. It has l>een
seen that, within the limited circle of their experience, they
possess a medium of expression which may be described as
adequate to their needs, well knit together in its mechanism,
and copious in concrete terms, thougli, like all such languages,
wanting in tlie abstract and general. Their folk-talcs are lively
and effective as narratives, and the themes, though probably
borrowed from the great treasury of popular story elaborated in
Peninsular India, have been appropriated and assimilated to the
social conditions of the Mikirs themselves. Little has hitherto
been done to enlarge the resources of the language in the
direction of higher culture, or to use it for the expression of
ideas lying beyond the scope of the tribal life ; but there
appears to be no reason to doubt that the language of the
Mikirs will be found in the course of time to be as capable of
development for this purpose as tlie speech of their neighbours
the Khasis.*

The leading feature of the race, in contrast with other hill
tribes of Assam, is its essentially unwarlike and pacitic
character. Its neighbours — Khasis, Kachfiris, Kukis, Xagas —
have for centuries been engaged in continuous internecine strife,
and their tribal individualities have been preserved, and difitln--
ences accentuated, by the state of hostility in which each unit,
however small, lived with all adjacent peoples. The ^likirs

* Reference may here be made to a summary of tlie Gospel history
in Mikir entitled Birta Kem?, " Glad tidings," publislicd liy the American
Baptist Mission Press, Tika, Nowgong, in l!t04.

152

THE MIKIRS

have always, at least during the last two centuries, been, as
Major Stewart described them in 1855, "good subjects."
Numbering some ninety thousand souls, they are extremely
homogeneous, while other tribes in their neighbourhood differ
in an extraordinary manner from village to village, and con-
stantly tend to split up into smaller aggregates, looking on all
outsiders as enemies. No such disintegrating influence has
affected the Arlengs, AVhether in North Cachar, the Jaiutia
Hills, Nowgong, or the Mikir Hills, their tribal institutions,
their language, and their national character are identical, and
they pursue their peaceful husbandry in the same manner as
their forefathers, raising in ordinary lyears sufficient food for
their subsistence, and a considerable amount of cotton and lac
for export to the plains. In these circumstances, surrounded
by warring tribes, and still nomadic in their habits of cultiva-
tion, they have from time to time found it necessary to place
themselves under the protection of stronger peoples. It has
been mentioned in Section I. that the traditions of the race
show that they were formerly subject to the Khasi chiefs of
Jaintia and the eastern states of the Khasi Hills, and that they
migrated thence to the territory subject to the Ahom kings.*
During their sojourn in Khasi-land they assimilated much ;
dress (p. 5), ornaments (p. 6), personal names (p. 17), methods
of divination (pp. 34, 35), funeral ceremonies (pp. 38—42),
memorial stones (p. 42), all come from the Ivhasis, who have
also contributed many words to theu' common speech. Borrow-
ings from Hinduism are equally manifest in their language, their
folk-tales, and their religion. Assamese words are numerous
in Mikir ; Arnam Kethe (p. 30) seems to be a translation of
Maliddtca; Jom-drhwi {i). 28), and the ideas linked therewitli
of an after-life, are strongly impressed with a Hindu stamp.

Yet they retain, together with these borrowed features, a
sufficiently definite stock of original characteristics. Physically
they differ much from Khasi and Assamese alike. Their social
fabric is based upon clearly marked exogamous groups, with patri-
archal principles of marriage and inheritance ; they call these
by a Khasi name {l.ur), but have no trace of the matriarchal

* This seems to have taken place in or about 1765 a.d. See (iait.
History of Assam, p. 181 .

AFFINITIKS 153

family as kii(»\vii among the Khasis. They build llicir liouscs
on posts, while their neighbours, except the Kukis, build <>ii ibe
ground. Their deities are of the primitive kind wliich is common
to all Indo-Chinese races, well known, under the namt; of Nuts,
as the object of popular worship and pn»pitiation in Jiurma.

Ever since the race has l)een studied, it has been noticed
that it was dithcult to establish its exact place and aninities
in the heterogeneous congeries of peoples who inliabil tbc
mountainous region between India and numia. This was
remarked by Iiobinson in 1841 and 184'.), by Stewart in 185,"^,
by Damant in 1879. At the Census of ]881 an attempt was
made to bring the Mikirs into relation with the Boro «»r
Kachari stock ; but it was seen at the time that more must be
ascertained regarding their neighbours before any final judgment
could be arrived at. Dr. Grierson, on linguistic grounds, has
classed them in the Linguistic Survey as intermediate between
the Boro and the Western Nagas. It appears to the present
writer, in the light of the much fuller information now avail-
able, that they should be classed rather with those tribes which
form the connecting link between the Xagas and the Kuki-
Cliins, and that the preponderance of their affinities lies with
the latter of these two races, especially those dwelling iu tbe
south of the Arakan Boma range, where the ("bin tends to
merge into the Burman of the Irawadi A'alley.

When Eobinson and Stewart wrote, it was still remembereil
that the Mikirs had once been settled in strengtli in tlu-
country (now called North Cacliar) to the immediate north <ii'
the Barail Bange, and in contact with the Angfimi, the Ivachcbii,
and the Kabul Nagas ; and that, exposed as they were in tliis
locality to the inroads of the Angfunis and the oppression of the
Ivachari kings, they had migrated westwards to the territory of
the Jaintia Baja in search of protection. It was noticed in tbe
Assam Census Beport of 1881 that in this region north of tbe
Barfdl, where there are now no Mikirs, local names belonging
to their language indicated their former presence. ANlim they
lived there, they must have been in touch with tribes belong-
ing to the Kuki-Chin stock, who have for centimes occupiiMl
the hill ranges to the south of the valley of Cachar, and the
mountains between that valley and Manipur.

154 THE MIKIRS

The institutions of co-operative agriculture by the village
lads (p. 11), the bachelors' house or tcrang (id.), the former
custom of ante-nuptial promiscuity {p. 19), and the traces of
village taUi resembling the Naga genna, still characterizing the
annual festival of the Rhngker (p. 43), all point to a connection
witli the "Western Naga tribes, rather than to affinity with the
Kachfiri stock. From the Kuki and Chin tribes the Mikirs
are distinguished chiefly by their pacific habits, and by the
absence of the dependence upon liereditary tribal chiefs which
is so strong a feature among the former. The customs of both
races as regards the building of houses upon posts, with a liong
or open platform in front, are identical ; in Major G. E. Fryer's
paper " On the Khyeng people of the Sandoway District,
Arakan," published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal for 1875 (pp. 39, 99), a Khyeng house is figured which
bears a striking resemblance to the Mikir house. The insti-
tutions of domestic and individual life among the Khyengs
(Chins), as described by Major Fryer, especially as regards
marriage, funeral ceremonies, the disposal of the dead (after
copious feasting of friends and relatives) by cremation, the rules
of inheritance (females being wholly excluded from succession),
the treatment of disease, the propitiation of spirits, and the
annual festivals in honour of the gods who preside over man's
welfare, present the closest analogy to those of the Mikirs as
set forth in this monograph. Like the Mikirs, the Chins are
divided into exogamous groups and follow the rule of male
kinship ; Init, like the Mikirs also in this, the approved,
marriage is that between a man and his first cousin on the
mother's side. It has been noticed already (p. 21) that the
word for father-in-law (ong-hai, wife's father) in Mikir is
identical with that for maternal uncle, bng, and that son-in-law,
osa, also means nephew (sister's son). The story of "the
r)ry)han and his Maternal Uncles " illustrates the obligation
which lies on a lad to marry his mother's brother's daughter
(see above, p. 53). Similarly, Harata Kuhwar, though but
a mortal, calls his father-in-law the Bdrl-the Ilechd onghai
(p. 147), and is spoken of by him as osa (id.), while the fairy
princesses call him cousin, lorpb (p. 127). The same pheno-
menon appears in the Kuki-Chin languages. In Sho or Chin

AFFINITIES 155

(Khyeng) cqm ineaus both inateirial unclu and lathcr-iii-law ;
so also in Lushei, ^;m has both meanings. The f(jllowing list of
words indicating relationsliip in ]\Iikir and Lushei (representing
the Central Kuki-Chins) shows how closely the two languages
correspond in this important part of their vocabulary : —

Mikir. Luthti.

grandfather pJnt pu

grandmother jjki -pi

grandson su-po tu-jjo

granddaughter su-pl ta-nit

father pi pd

mother pei nti
aunt :

fatliers sister rrl ni

mother's sister pi-nn nu

father's brother's wife nl ' nu

Among all these tribes the most important index to racial
connexion is to be found in their languages. Xo one would
now assert that language, any more than religion, is everywhere
a conclusive mark of racial unity ; immense masses o( the
people of India to-day speak languages imposed upon them
from without, and Aryan speech lias extended itself over many
millions in whose blood notliiug is due to the original invaders
from the north-west. Again, the piactices of a predatory state
of society bring into the tribe slaves and wives from outside ;
or, as among the Mikirs (p. 33), aliens may be accepted on
equal terms as members, thus modifying the unity of blood.
On the other hand, it would be equally unreasonable and
opposed to the facts to deny that, among such communities as
the Tibeto-Burman peoples of Assam, race and language do,
constantly and in a general manner, coincide. I'eople who
speak a tongue which is unintelligible to their neighbours are
necessarily thrown together into a unity of their own. Their
ancestral ideas and institutions, secular and religious, their
tribal history, must tend to keep them united, and perpetuate
the influence of a common origin by the fact that all outside
the community are actual or potential enemies. Language,
therefore, when it coincides with tribal separateness, is our
chief guide in determining the relationship of the lull tribes of
Assam one to another.

Here another qualification is, however, necessary. The
word-stock of the Tibeto-Burman i-aces is to a large extent

156 THE MIKIRS

identical. The same methods of arranging the elements of
the sentence, in other words the same general principles of
grammar, prevail throughout the whole family of speech. We
must, therefore, in investigating the nearer kinship of one group
to another, not be misled by linguistic resemblances which
are common to the whole stock to which both groups belong.

In comparing Tibeto-Burman languages it has lieen usual
to choose for examination in the first place the numerals and
in the second the pronouns. The vocabulary of nouns,
adjectives, and verbs is liable to disturbing influences which
do not equally affect the simple ideas represented by number
and person. Let us begin, therefore, with the numerals.
These, so far as they are necessary for our purpose, are as
follows in Mikir : —

one, isi twelve, kri-hial

two, lilnl thirteen, kre-kethum

tliree, ktthhnt etc.

foul", phili a score, ing-Jcoi

five, phhiii/d twenty-one, iny-koi-rd-lsi

six, thtroh etc.

seven, (herhk-sl thirty, thom-Jcf-p

eight, nh-htp forty, pldli-kep

nine, sir-kf'p etc.

ten, kPp ;i hundred, pjharu

eleven, kn-lsl

Here the first thing to be noticed is that the three numerals
between six and ten are not independent vocables, but com-
pounds ; seven is six plus one : eight is ten minus two, and nine
is ten minus one. In most of the other languages of the family
this is not so ; the Boro, the Naga, and the majority of the
Kuki-Chin languages all have independent words for seven,
eight, and nine. It appears to be only in the Kuki-Chin group
that we can find an analogy to the Mikir words for these three
numerals. In Aiifd, a language of the Old Kuki family spoken
in Manipur, seven is f('/,--si\ which seems to be identical with
the ]\Iikir tlicrbl'-si ; and in Meithei (the language of the
Manipuris) eight is ni-pdii/^ two from ten," and nine is ma-pan,
" one from ten."

We next notice that leu is expressed by two separate words,
kep (in ten and its multiples) and Ire (in the compounds from
eleven to nineteen). So far as vocabularies have yet been

AFFIXITJ!:S

157

published, the ouly other tribes dl" llic Tilieto-Ihuiuan tamilv *
which liave a word resembling hep for ten are Maring Xaga,
one of the Naga-Knki languages, ^vhere it is cli'rp, and Sho or
southern Chin, where yip is used for ten in the sequence thirty,
forty, fifty, etc. {thuni-gip, thirty, mll-f/ip, forty, ngkd-gip, fifty,
exactly corresponding to the Mikir fhlnn-l-ej), pliUl-l'i ji, jiliomjo-
I'rp). The close resemblance of the otlier numerals in Marin"
to Mikir forms is noticeable; four is fill, five fmiga, and six
tkarak. The other word for ten, /,7v", strongly resembles the
Angfimi Icerr or kcrru and the Kachcha Naga gdrio ; in the
Central Naga group the prefix ke- has been replaced by ta- or
te-, and the words for ten are ler, tar a (Ao), taro, fara, tare
(Lhota), etc. In the Naga-Kuki group Sopvoma lias chird,
Maram Icero, Tangkhul thard, etc. In the Kuki-Chin group
Meithei tard is the same word : in the Central Chin auotlier
prefix, pu-, p6-, or pd-, is used, and we have liai p'ord, IJanjogi
para, Taungtha parhd. There are no Boro forms which cor-
respond to hre, nor any much reseml)ling Jiep.

The Mikir word for twenty, inghvi, is made up of the
prefix ing-, and koi, formerly (before the loss of the final I) lol.
Kachcha Naga has the same word, engkai, Kabul choi, koi, or
kof. The word also appears in Garo (koi), Tipura {kiwi), and
Deori-Chutiya ijcwa), of the Boro group ; Angfimi mc-kwu, me-
khi, mekko, Lhota me-kivl, mekv-il, in the West and Central
Naga groups ; Maram and Sopvoma {make, makci), Tangkhul
(magd), Phadeng {ma-lMi), in the Naga-Kuki group, and
Singpho khun. In the Kuki-Chin languages it is very common
(Meithei kul, Siyin kul, Lai po-kxil, Shonshe ma-kul, Banjogi
kill, Sho [Chin] kid, goi). There does not appear to be any
trace of this word for a score in the Tibetan and Himalayan
languages, where twenty is invariably rendered by " two-tens." f
The Northern Indian word kdri, which has the same meaning,
has been compared with it ; it is difficult, however, to imagine
borrowing on one part or the other.

In the series of tens, 30 to 90, Mikir prefixes the multiplier :
thom-kep, phill-hep, p>hongd-k'ep, etc. The Boro group prefixes

* Words resembling hPp are found for ten in st)ino of the prpnoniinal-
ized languages of the lower Himalayas of Nepal; but these do not enter
into our present field of comparison.

t Lepcha lilu'i, Khaling klidl, are probablj^ the same word.

158 THE MIKIRS

tlie tens (Garo sot-hrl, 40, sot-bonfjgii, 50, sot-doJc, 60, etc.).*
The Xaga group has both systems ; Angami prefixes the tens :
lhl]-dd, 40, Ihl-pangu, 50, Ihl sum, 60 ; Lhota and Ao suffix
them : Lhota tham-dro, 30, zii-ro, 40, roh-ro, 60 ; Ao scmur' 30,
lir' 40, roh-ur' 60. In the Kuki-Chiu group the majority of
dialects prefix the tens (Thado and Lushei sbm-thum 30, som-ll
40, etc.), and this is also the rule for Kachcha Naga, Kabui,
and Khoirao, as well as for all the languages classed by Dr.
Griersou as Naga-Kuki. But the Sho or southern Chins not
only have the same collocation as the JNIikirs {thum-gip, mll-gip,
nghd-gip) — an arrangement which also obtains in Burmese, —
hut v.se the same words. This coincidence is very striking.

The word for a hundred, 'jiltdro, bears no resemblance to any
word expressing this numeral in the Boro languages. It agrees
with the Angami Icrii, Kezhamfi Irl, Sopvoma Ire, and in a
remarkable way with the words used by the Southern Chins
(Taungtha ta-yd = tarCi, Chinbok phyCi = jjhrd, Yawdwin prd,
Sho (Chin) Imt). It will be seen that i^hd- in Mikir, /.- in the
Xaga languages, and ta-, ph-, p- and /.> in the Chin dialects,
are numeral prefixes, and that the essential element of the
numeral is rCi (Mikir ro) or rat. It appears in this form,
without any prefix, in several other Kuki-Chin languages.

Here should be mentioned a custom which obtains in
Mikir of counting hj fours; a group of four is chelce or chike,
wliich corresponds to the Boro zakhai (jakhai). This system is
used for counting such things as eggs, betel-nuts, fowls, etc.,
of the same class ; e.g. vo-tl chil-e phbngd-rd e-pum, 21 eggs
(4x5 + 1): chike phongo-rd pmrii-thbm, 23 eggs (4x5 + 3).
Possibly one language has borrowed from the other. (This
method of counting by fours is common throughout the Aryan
languages of Northern India, where a group of four is called
(jandd.)

Our conclusion from these comparisons is that while Mikir
has few coincidences, beyond those common to the whole
Tibeto-Burman family, with the Boro group, it has many with

* Other Boi'o languages borrow Aiyau Avords for higher numbers
than ten.

t Llil is the relic of liir, with the preHx h dropped and the r changed
toL

AFFINITIi:S

'59

As written.

A$ now ipoken in Central
Tibet.

gcliig

chik

gnyi8

nyi

gsiun

HUin

i./.hi

shi

Ingfi

ngfi

drug

dhuk

bdun

diin

l)igyad

dgu

})chu

chu

the Xaga and Kuki-( 'hin groups, and especially with tlie Slid
or southernmost Chins.

Before leaving the numerals, soniethin;^ must lie said ol' iht-
prefixes which they exhibit throughout the Tibeto-liurman
family. Taking first that member for which we have the <ildt,'st
materials, Tibetan, the first ten numerals are as follows : —

one .

two

three

fuur

live

six

seven

eiglit

nine

ten

Here we observe several different prefixes, once no doubt
supplied with vowels, but from the dawn of written record united
in Tibetan with the following consonant, and now no longer
heard in utterance ; in the first three units the prefix is ^- : in
four, seven, eight, and ten it is l- : in six and nine it is d- : and
in tive it is /-.

In the Tibeto-Burman languages of Assam and Burma wo
find the same phenomenon of numeral prefixes ; but while
some languages have the same prefix throughout the ten units,
others, like Tibetan, have several different prefixes. In some
cases, again, the prefixes have been incorporated in the numeral
and are no longer recognized as separable, while in others they
may be dropped when the numeral occurs in composition ; in
others, again, the prefixes have (as in spoken Tibetan) been
dropped altogether.

Of the first class the best examples are the Central Ivuki-
Chin languages : —

Lai.

one

pij-kat

two

po-ni

three

po-tlifini

four

pti-li

tive

po-nga

six

po-ruk

seven

po-sari

eight

po-rye^/(

nine

pcj-kwa

ten

po-ra

aionshe.

Lu$hei.

ma-kat

pa-khat

ma-nhi

pa-nliih

nia-ton

pa-thuui

ma-li

pa-ll

ma-nga

pa-nga

nia-riik

pa-ruk

ina-seri

pa-sarih

nia-rit

pa-riat

nia-ko

pa-kua

nia-ra

shoni

i6o THE MIKIRS

Of the second class Mikir, in common witli most of tlie
Assam family, is an example; in one and two the prefix ke-
( representing the Tibetan g-) has been abraded to I- and Ju- : in
M /w it persists ; in these numbers the prefix may be dropped
in composition, leaving si, til, and thorn remaining. In four
and five \xe have the prefix plii- (for -pi-) and pho- (fory?o- or 2^a-),
representing the h- of Tibetan, but now no longer separable.
In six the prefix the- represents the original d-, and has similarly
become inseparable. In ten, the form Iri- represents an original
LcrCi, answering to the Kuki-Chin jpo-rd and ma-rd and the
^leithei ta-n'i. "We notice that in Mikir, as in the Xaga and
Kuki-Chin languages, the hard consonants k, p, t {j)li, tJi) have
replaced the soft g, h, and d of the Tibetan. In the Boro
languages, on the other hand, the original soft consonants of
Tiltetan are retained, as will be seen from the forms below : —

Jioro.

DimasCi.

Garo.

one

se, sui

shi

two

ni, nui

gini

gill

three

thiiin

gataiu

jfitam

four

bre, brui

bri

live

bonga

bougga

six

ro, do

dok

In these changes ^likir follows the phonetic laws obtaining
in Xaga and Kuki-Chin, not those which obtain in Boro.

It has been pointed out already (p. 78) that generic deter-
minatives are iised in Mikir when numbers are joined to
nouns. This practice is common to the Boro languages and to
the Kuki-Chin group (as well as Burmese), but does not
appear to be prevalent in the Western Xaga group. A list of
the words used in Dan-ang Kachari is given at p. 13 of Mr.
Endle's gi'ammar; for Garo, a list will be found at p. G of
Mr. Phillips's grammar; it much resembles the Darrang list,
but neither contains any forms coinciding with those of Miku'
except the Garo ^?a/, used for leaves and other flat things, which
resembles the ^Vlikir ^^a/.-. On the other hand, in Kuki-Chin
we have in Lai ^Jifwi for globular things,* the same as in Mikir,
and in Sho (Chin) we have for persons pirn, the ]\Iikir hdyig
(bang in ]\Iikir and jiang in Lushei mean b(jdi/), and for animals
ziin, the Mikir fon (Mr. Houghton's grammar, p. 20). Here
again the affinity of the Arleng is with the Kuki-Chin group,

* Linguistic Survey, vol. III. part iii., \). 118.

AFFINITIES i6i

and especially with its southeinmo.st member, rather than with
the Boro.

Turuiug now to the pronouns, the Mikir hh for the fii-st
person singular finds it exact equivalent only in the two Old
Kuki dialects Anfd and HirOi, spoken in Manipur, where the
corresponding pronoun is ni (Anul) and iiai (Hiroi), In r.oro
the form is unr/, in Augfimi (7, in Sema ngi, in Ao nl, in Lhota
('(, in Kachcha Xaga dnui. In the majority of the Kuki-Chin
family another stem, Jcel or /<', is used. Here Mikir agrees
with the two Kuki dialects mentioned and with some of the
Naga forms, ratlier than witli Boro.

For the second person singular all the Tibeto-Burman
languages of Assam have nduff, or closely similar forms.

For the third person Mikir now uses the demonstrative lo,
but, as the possessive prefix shows, had formerly </. In this it
agrees with Lai, Lushei, Chiru, Kolren amonu- the Kuki family,
and Tangkhul and Maring among the Naga-Kuki group. "What
the original Boro pronoun of the third person was is not now
ascertainable ; the demonstrative hi (Darrang), hr (Lalung), ho
(Dimfisa) or nCi (Garo) is now used instead. This seems to
correspond with the Mikir pe-, pi-, pa- in the words mentioned
on p. 80. In Angami the pronoun is similarly po, in Sema y>7,
and in Ao pa. In Meithei and many other Kuki-Chin
languages another demonstrative, ma, is used ; this may be
connected with the Mikir mi, me, in mini, to-day, mcnixp,
to-morrow (see p. 80). But, although ma is used as a separate
pronoun for the third person in the majority of the Kuki-Chin
group, the prefixed a- <»f relation, usual in Mikir, which (as
explained on p. 76) is really the possessive pronoun of the
thii^d person, is widely employed throughout the family, as a
prefix both to nouns and adjectives, in exactly the same way as
in Mikir. This coincidence, again, is striking ; the Boro
languages seem to present nothing similar.

The plural pronouns in Mikir are formed by adding -tum to
the singular. Exactly the same thing takes place in Tangkhul,
a Xaga-Kuki language: /, I, i-thum, we; nd, thou, nCi-thinn,
ye; a, he, a-thum, they. The plural of nouns, however, in
Tangkhul is formed by other affixes, generally words meaning
■"many " (c/. the Mikir on/j).
M

i62 THE MIKIRS

]\Iikir lias two forms for the pronoun of the first person
plural, according as the speaker includes the person addressed
or excludes him, 1-tum or ?-tum in the former and ne-tvm in
the latter case. The first, it will be seen, agrees with the
general word for we in Tangkhul. In Angami also two forms
are used, lie-ho for we exclusive, and Ci-vo for we inclusive ; the
former seems to agree in form, though not in sense, with
the Mikir e-tum. The af&nity of Mikir with the Western
Naga and Naga-Kuki languages seems to be exemplified
here also. The Boro languages have not the double form for
this person.

The reflexive pronoun or particle in j\Iikir, die (see p. 80),
is represented in Thado Kuki by /./, which is perhaps the same
word. Angami has the, Meithei na. Boro does not appear to
possess any corresponding particle.

The interrogative particle -ma in Mikir (p. 80) is mo in
most of the Kuki-Chin languages (in some -em, -am), while in
Angami it is ma, and in Kachcha ISTaga me. The same particle
{ma) is used in Garo and Boro for questions.

Two particles are used in Mikir as suffixes to magnify or
diminish the root-word; the augmentative is -]pi (as thhuf,
wood, firewood, tJiengpl, a tree; lang, water, langpl, the great
water, the sea), the diminutive is -so (as hem, a house, hernso,
a hut ; lang-so, a brook). Boro has -md for the augmentative,
-sd for the diminutive {dui-md, great river, did-sd, brook) ; but
Meithei and Thado have the same particles as Mikir, -pi and
-chd (ch is equivalent to s).

The Mikir suffix -2W, feminine -jn, corresponding to the
Hindi -vjald (see several examples on p. 12 ante), seems to be
identical with the Meithei -hd {-pa) and -hi {-pi), though it has
nothing like the extensive use in Mikir which -hd {-p)d) has in
Meithei.

The noteworthy separable prefix dr- in Mikir, which is
probably connected with the Tibetan prefix r- (see ante, p. 129,
note), appears to occur in the Kuki-Chin languages, but does
not seem to have any representative in the Boro family. The
examples in the Kuki-Chin volume of the Linguistic Survey
are found in Eangkliol (p. 6, er-ming, "name"), Aimol (p. 215,
ra-mai, " tail," Mikir arm'e), Kom (p. 245, ra-mhing, " name " ;

AFFINITIl'S j(53

ra-ncd, " earth, ground " [nai perhaps = ]\Iikir /,- in /ij>H/./,-]),
Kyaw or Chaw (p. 254), and HirOi (p. 282). All these forms
of speech belong to tlie Old Kuki group, which has already
yielded several other analogies with ]\Iikir.

The prefix ke- {Jci-, ha-), which plays so important a pari in
Mikir (see pp. 77, 83, 84) in the formation ..f adjectives, par-
ticiples, and verbal nouns, and answers td the V>uxo ya- and the
Angami Ice-, has for the most part disappeared from the Kuki
dialects, perhaps because it conflicts with the prelLxed pru-
nominal stem of the first person, ha-. It survives, however, in
tlie three Old Kuki languages, KOm, Amll, and HirGi. In
Tangkhul, of the Naga-Kuki group, it is used exactly as in
Mikir, to form adjectives and verbal nouns, e.g. : —

Mikir.

Tavgkhul.

to come

ke-vang

ka-va (to go)

to eat

ke-chij

ka-shai

to remain

ke-bom

ka-pam (to sit)

to beat

ke-chok

ka-sho

to die

ke-thi

ka-thi

The particles used in Mikir as suffixes to indicate tenses of
the verb, with the exception of that for the completed past,
fang, which appears to be identical with the Thado and Lushei
/(7,do not seem to have any close analogues in the Kuki-Chin or
Naga-Kuki groups; they are also (juite different from those
used in the Boro group. Causative verbs, however, are in
many Kuki-Chin languages constructed with the \Qvh pe or jje/.-,
" to give," as in Mikir ; and the suffix of the conjunctive par-
ticiple in Mikir, -si, is perhaps the same as -chU in Khoirao.
In Boro the prefix Ji-, answering to the IMikir pi-, was formerly
used to form causatives, as appears from verbal roots in current
use; the construction now most common uses -nu, which has
the same meaning (" to give ") as a su^x.

The negative verb in Mikir is formed by sufFixin"' the
particle -e to the positive root, when the latter begins with a
vowel. Similarly, in Boro a negative verb is formed by addin<T
the particle -a. In the Kuki-Chin languages different suflixes
are employed Qo, lai, loi, mdk, ri), and in a few dialects prefixes.
Here Mikir resembles Boro rather than the Kuki group.
But the remarkable feature of Mikir in reduplicating initial

i64 THE MIKIRS

consonants before the suffixed negative (see ante, p. 85) has no
analogy in either family, unless the isolated example in Kolren
(an Old Kuki dialect) quoted in the Linguistic ^urvcij, vol.
III., part iii., p. 19, supplies one. It is to be observed, however,
that in the construction there cited {na-pe-pel--mao-yai, " did
not give "), the verb ^^e/t: has suffixed to it the negative particle
j/u(o, and that the reduplication alone appears to have no
negative force. Other examples seem necessary before the rule
of reduplication can be considered to be established. Possibly
tot and led in Kuki correspond to the separate Mikir negative
l-d-ll (see a7ite, p. 86).

It remains to give some examples of correspondence in
general vocaljulary between Mikir and other Tibeto-Burman
languages. It has been shown above from the analysis of the
numerals that prefixes play a large part in all these languages.
These prefixes, which to some extent are interchangeable, and
also differ in the different members of the family, have to be
eliminated in order to find the roots which are to be compared.
A^ain, certain changes in vowels and consonants between
different languages regularly occur. Our knowledge is not yet
sufficient to enable a law of interchange to be formulated ; but
the following conclusions seem to be justified. In vowels,
Mikir has a preference for long o where other languages have
-a, especially in auslaut ; * on the other hand long a in Mikir is
sometimes thinned down to e ; the word redid, answering to
the Aryan riija, is an example of both processes. Long i in
Mikir often corresponds to oi and ai, as well as to e and el, in
the cognates. As regards consonants, nasals at the end of
syllables are often rejected ; thus within Mikir itself we have
0 and bng, da and dam, ne and nmg, la and lang. Some
languages (as for instance Angamif Naga) tolerate no con-
sonantal endings, not even a nasal. In Mikir itself final / has
been vocalised into i or dropped ; and in many Naga and Kuki-
Chin dialects (as also in Burmese) final consonants have dis-
appeared or have suffered great changes. As already noticed,

* Southern Chin, as will be seen from the word-lists whicli follow,
agrees in this respect with Mikir against Lushei, Meithei, and other
Kuki-Chin languages.

t The only exception in Angami is r, in which a few words end.

AFFINITIES 165

the surd mutes /•, p, f (sometimes aspirated) have taken the
phice of the original sonants [/, I, d to a large extent in !^Iikir,
though h and d (not g) still survivt; in a fair pruportiun u\'
words. Boro generally retains the old sonants of Tibetan, and
Meithei uses both classes according to the adjacent sounds.
The palatals ch,jo^ Mikir tend to become sibilants, .s-, fs, z, in
the cognate languages ; j is also often softened to // in Kuki-( 'bin.
L and /■ in anlaut frequently interchange in Meithei, the
interchange depending on the adjacent vowels. These letters
also interchange freely in other languages of tlie family. In
Burmese r has everywhere been changed to //, except in
Arakan. L and n also often interchange. Initial d in Mikir
seems sometimes to correspond to / in other cognates ; and it is
possible that Mikir initial ,s may occasionally be representeil
by li in the latter, thougli this is not quite certain. Tit and .^•
often interchange in anlaut, some dialects of Ivuki-Chin showing
the intermediate stage of 0, which in Burmese now everywhere
replaces original s.

Lastly, it should be noticed that Tipura, an outlying member
(if the Boro group, often exhibits a sound system more closely
corresponding to that of the Kuki-Chin languages (whicli are
its neighbours) than Boro, Dimasa, or Garo.

The resemblances in vocabulary between ^likir and the
Western Naga dialects are extensive, as will be seen froni the
list (due to Mr. A. W. Davis) at p. 201, vol. III., part ii., of
the Liw/nlstie Survey. These need not be repeated here. The
following is a list of Boro (Darrang), Dimasa, Garo, and Tipura
words which seem to correspond with ]\Iikir. It will be seen,
however, by reference to the columns headed Kuki-Chin and
Naga (including Naga-Kuki), that in the case of nearly all
these words the other two families, as well as ^Mikir, have the
same roots. They therefore belong to the common stock of the
Tibeto-Burman languages of Assam, and do ncjt by themselves
prove any close connection of Mikir with Boro.

i66

THE MIKIRS

Xouxs.

English. JUikir.

nose nokan

eye

mek

mouth ini^-ho

tooth so

ear no

face me-

hang

belly pok

father po

son so-po

daughter so-pl

cat

Soro family. Kaki-Chin.

Garo, nukuni, Meithei niitol (n)

nakung Thado nakui

Tipura, bukung Lushei nhar

Boro megan
Dlmasd niu
Garo niik-ren

Boro khfi-ga
Dimdsd khau
Garo ho-tom,

ku-sik
Boro hcx-thau
Dimdsd id.

Garo nfi-chil,
nJi-kal

Boro niakhang
Garo niikkang
Tipura muk-

hang
Blmusd ho
Garo ok, pl-puk
Tijiura bahak

meng,
meng-

kah"i
ing-

chin

Boro \
Dimdsd)
Garo pa, bii
Tipura ba

Boro f'sa
Dl/iidsd pasa, sa
Garo sii, pT-sa
Tipura basa
Dliiidtid pu-su

Garo nieng-go
Tipura a-mlng

Boro shurr
Dimdsd sher
Garo sil, sar
Tipura sir

Meithei)
Thado > mit
Lushei j
Shij (Chin) niik
Lushei ka
Khdml kha
8h'6 kho

Andro sho
Senginai shoa
Thado I I _
Lushei)
Shu haw
Meithei\ .
Lai )
Sho a-nho
Meithei mae
Lushei hmai

Meithei puk
Andro puk
Sho puk
Lai paw
T/iado wai

Lushei > pa
T//a(/o J
Sengmai'l
Kltarui > po
>S7/o j
Meithei} i - -

Kliami chopo

>S7/o cho

Meitliei eha-(anu)-

Khami numpui-

cho
Thado meng-cha
Bauf/khol meng
Sho min
Andro sen, sel
Jjusliei thir

Naga.
Tangkhul natung
Angdmi a-niki
E. Naga nakong
natong
Aug. mhi, mhii
Tangk. mik
Mardm mek
E. Naga mik, mek
Ang. tha, me-tha
Bengma mang-
khong

Ang. ho, hu
Sema a-hu

^/^^. nil
Lhota en-no
Maring ka-na

Ang. va
Sema a-pfo
Lhota o-pok

Ang. po
Sema pa
^o ta-ba
IJiota o-po

Lhota o-tsbe
Maring cha
llatigoria chapfi

'I'll ado)

thi

^1h^. the-zhl
Yachuiui inchi
Thukuini IsC-

,SAo
Khami sing

AFFINITJICS

1C7

AdJKC'J'IVKS,

JUnglisli.

Mikir.

Koro family.

Knkl-CIUn.

Jf,ig<t.

big

ketliG

Boiy gadet

Any. keill

small

kibl,
bi-hek

Bora galiai

MeiHiii a-plsek

bitter

kt'ho

Jloro gaklifi

MnthH khu-ba
Thado n-klifi

cold

ke-
cluiug

Boro gazang

Lxshci shik

beautiful

mesen,
me

Boro niozany

; LuslnU moi

Vkkb.s.

eat

beat
die

say

do, work
think
be neces-
sary

diiui

cho

cliok
thi

kat

pu
klem
matha
nang

tlianti

fai

Boi't

Tlpura
Boro
]>lm('tsa]
Tiptira
Boro za
Dlnulsd jl
Garo cha, sa
'/'i/nira cliii
Diiuihd shu
Boro thoi
DliiMsd ti, thei
Oaro tl, si, tai
Tipura thai

Boro khat
Dimdm kliai
Garo kat

Boro bung
Boro khlani
Boro iiiithi
Jjoro nimg
Garu nimtc

Meithci chil-ba
Khami cha.

Any. ta
Sopi'oma til-o
Maring ta-so
^n^^. vor
KwoireiKi \ . ,

Jh^. chi
Kwoireuy tyu-lo

{Burmese cliil, tsa,) Tanykhul ka-shai

Meithei sl-ba
Thado till
jAisIiei tl
Khami dei

Meithei chatpa (?)

(to go)
Andro kat-e
'J'atiglihid ka-chat

Lushei ngai

Tangkhul ka-sho

(Se//«o ti
Sopvonid tliiyG
Mdrdiii tei-lo
Tangkhid ka-tliT

Ang. pu

The above list exhibits all the coincidences which could he
found on a searcli through the vocabulary appended to ^Mr.
Endle's Kachuri grammar, and it will be seen that the agreement
is not extensive.

The words in wliicli Tibeto-Burman languages agree most
widely with one another are perhaps those for water and rillafjc ;
for the former dl, tl, tui, dzii, zu, jl, chl, and other similar forms,

i68 THE MIKIRS

nil apparently identical with the Tibetan chliu and the Turki
su, run through the whole family : for the latter Ichul, l-Jm, Ini
(Turki l-ii, kid) are similarly widespread. It is somewhat sur-
prising to find in Mikir an exception to the general rule.
Water is lang, and village is rong. Searching through the
tribal vocabularies, Tangkhul Xaga (a Xaga-Kuki form of
speech) appears to have, in fei-ra, the corresponding word to
lang (/• = /, and ta a prefix). Nowhere else in the neighbour-
hood is there a trace of a similar word until we come to
Burmese, where ivater is re (now pronounced yt). Similarly, it
appears to be only in Burmese that we have a word for village,
nod, corresponding to the Mikir rong. These coincidences,
like others already mentioned, seem to point to the south for
the affinities of the Mikir race. At the same time it is to be
observed that Mikir appears once to have had, like the Kuki-
Chin languages generally, the word t'l for water. This survives
in the word for egg, vo-tl, which must mean " fowl's water," and
con-esponds in sense to the Boro dau-dui, Chutiya dn-ji, Garo
do-chi, Sho (Chin) a-ttd. In Angfimi and Lushei "fowl" is
omitted, and the word for "egg" is merely dzii, tat, = water.*

It would be tedious to enumerate the coincidences in vo-
cabulary which are found between Mikir and all the Kuki-
Chin dialects. We have had reason to expect that these
coincidences will be found to be most numerous with the Chin
languages spoken in the Southern Hill tracts to the west of
the Irawadi Valley ; and the following list of similar words
will show that this expectation is borne out by the facts. In
most cases the forms in Lushei, a leading language of the
Central Kuki-Chin group, are added ; where they are wanting
the Mikir word does not appear to have any corresponding
form in that language.!

* This seems to make it improbable that-, as suggested on p. 101>,
'■/(«< in vur-c/iitl and nlm-chul (to throw into water, to drown) is
connected with the Tibetan cJiliu.

t The Chin words are taken from Mr. B. Hougliton's Essay on the
Language of the Southern Chins and its AJfinifies (Rangoon, 1892). In
transcribing them h has been substituted for ' to indicate the asjjirate,
but the spelling has not been otherwise varied. The Lushei words are
from Messrs. L(jrrain and Savidge's (Jrnmniur and Dictionary of the
Lushai Language {I) alien dialed) (Shillong, 1898) ; here too the spelling
of the original has been retained.

AFFIXITII':S

169

English.
male (of man)
female (of mankind)
l)ody
corpse
face
nose
ear
eye
[tear
tongue

mind, breast, heart
[angry
back
arm

foot, leg
stomach
[stomach-ache
hair of body
bone
tail

old man, chief
son
tiger
cow

pig.

squirrel

rat

bird

kite

parrot

bat

crayfish, prawn

scale of fish

louse

land-leech

sun

moon

night

rain

tire

[a flint for striking
tire

smoke
steam
stone
rice

Norxs.

Mikir. rhiii (.s/i..).

pinso pa-tlio (Lus/ici {Hisal)

-\n suftixed -nii* suttixod (J., nu, and pui)

biUiL;- .T-piin (Jj. pau'^)

aru ayu (/>. ruang)

meliang hnioi-san (L. Inuai)

nd-kan Iniut-tri (Meil/ici na-ton, L. \\\\ii)

no a-hno

mek a-mi, mik (A. mit)

jimek-krl a-ml-khll]

de h-(/>. k'i)

ning a-mliing (L. lung)

ii-ning-kethl a-ndting-tho (L. tlii-n-luif^-sha )]

nung a-hling (/,. linuug)

phang bawn (Jj. bawn)

keng khiJn or klui (/.. ke, Jhinita<v kliyc)

pok piik

pok-kesd piik-thd]

jing-ml a-huia\v(A. hiiiul)

re-pi yo" (yy».s//t't ruli, Anfjumi t\\)

fir-me ho-mO (L. mei)

sar, sarpo hsan, lisan-bo

osd, so-po hsd (Buriiieio'. sil [ft'i])

te-ke a-kye (L. sa-kei, Jinrincst kya)

chainong hsaw-iui (Z,. sG-bawng)

phak wok, wo {JiiiriKcsc wak)

karle a-hle (L. the-hlei)

2)hiju pha-yii (/>. sa-zu)

vo wu (y>. va)

vo-mu a-hmfi (A. mu)

vo-kek a-kye (L. va-ki, Bxniu^'i- kyC-)

vo-arplak phalauA

chekung kyC'-kliiJn {L. kai-k>iang

lip lit {L. blip)

rek hek (7,. hrik)

ingphat a-wot (7.. vang-viit)

ar-ni kho-nl (/>. anni, nT)

chi-klG khlf) (L. thla)

a-jr. yan (7>. zan, jan)

ar-ve yo-d (7^. ruah, JJurmcsc rwa)

me me (L. mei)
nie-cheta-long mu-kliri-liin (/.. iiiei-lung),

i.e. fire-spark spark-stone

-stone

mihi me-khii (/,. mei-klui)

hi a-hu (7-. hu)

ar-long a-llin (/.. lung)

sang saung

fire-"]

* In Mikir this root is perhaps found in^'-nw, mother's sister, nimno,
a virgin, and chai-nhn;/, cow. Chainhn;/ is now used for both sexes, but
the cognate languages point to chai (for dial) Iteing the original word for
the bovine species.

I/O

THE MIKIRS

English.

Mikir.

Chin (S?to).

vegetables

han

awn (i. an)

house

hem

in (L. in, Burmese im)

wood, tx-ee

theng, thengpi

then" (L. thing)

leaf

law {Meithei lii, TJiado na, L.

hna)

fruit

a-the

the {L. thei)

seed

a,-the

cotton

phelo

phoi

broom

ar-phek

l^ha-phe

iron

ingchin

n'thi (J., thir)

arrow

thai

a-thaw {L. thai)

bow

thai-ll

fi-li {L. thal-ngul)

boat

te-long

hmlu or hnilii (i>. long)

earring

no-thengpi

nji-thong

basket

ton

tawng

dream

mang

niaung (i. mang)

name

men

a-niin (i. liming)

matter, affair

hormu

a-hmii {Burmese id.)

heap

bui

fi-piin {L. vung, bfim)

place

dim

awn-diin

edge, border

a-pie

il-pe

rope

a,-ri

a-yoh (Z. hrui)

handle

bl" (to take, seize), (L. beng

)

Verbs.

to pour out bu, bup

to put bl

to jump chong

to die thi
to kill by cutting thu

to pound tok

to open ing-23u
to sleep, lie down I

to hinder khang

to fall kl6, kli

to grind koi-I

to be bitter hd

to bend kekek

to tie, fasten kuk

to laugh ing-nek

to arrive, hit le

to be distant ht-l6

to get, obtain long

to lick ing-lek

to })e happy nie

to extinguish pe-mep

to smell ing-nim

to be yellow et

to speak jm

to give pT

to be full plfeiig

bank, bo (i. buaZ-,* bun)

bl (to clap, pat)

dong {L. zuang)

dii, di {L. thI)

thiik, tiik

dut"

hil

i" {Burmese ip)

kha

klauk {Burmese kra, L. tlil, tlaA;)

kluk

kho (L. kha)

kok-lok, kliii-I

khun

hlek ; also noi {Meithei nok, L. nui)

leng

hlo (L. hla)

lo-e

ni-le-e (/.. lia/r, hliao)

nioi

hmyit {L. ti-mit)

nan (L. imim)

..i (I. eng)

jtauli (a word, language)

pek (y>. pek, pe)

pie

* A final mute italicised in Lushei words indicates that it is formed
with the vocal organs, but not pronounced.

AFFIX IT lies ,;,

KngUsh. Milcir. chin {Sli.i).

to reach, toucli j)]iO j,l,r> (/.. paw A, plm/.-)

to pull out ],lui J.liuk (/.. pl.oi)

to work, labour sai saiA

to Avasli chkm sliau (/>. hIiu/.)

to beat chok sho

to pierce chang shiin, lisiin {L. chhun)

to begin cheng si

to explain than hsin

to be wet, chani .sH

to know, perceive thek tliiik, tin"

to be fat ing-tu than (/,. tliao)

to itcli ing-thiik thank (A. tliak)

to rise, get up thur th(i, thii (A. tlio, tha\v/<)

to send toi tlio

to weave thak tn-tiik (/,. tali)

to rot thu thii (7.. tcih)

to be sweet dok tii-I

to cover, veil up, up iin" (L. hup)

to throw var wo" (7v. vorh)

to hear fir-ju yauk

to sell jur yi" (J., zuar)

A few words from Lushei may be added, for which Suuthoiu
Chin does not appear to possess corresponding terms : —

Knglish.

bufialo

MihCr.

chelong

Lushei.
cliuloi

bear

thok-vani

sa-vom, voni

deer (sdinbliar)

thi-jok

sa-zuk

snake

plii-rui

iiia-nil, ml

monkey

frog ("the jumi)er '

niostjuito

nie-sang
') chnng-ho
timsik

/awng

cluuig-ii

th(j-s]iT

water-leech

ing-lit

hlit, sai-hlit

crab

chelio

chak-ai

devil

hl-I

linai

These close and numerous correspondences between Mikir
and tlie Kuki-Chin family appear to warrant tlie conclusion
that tlie former is intimately connected with the latter. The
institutions of the southern tribes, as already pointed out,
confirm this conclusion ; and it may be asserted with some
confidence that no sucli extensive affinity can be proved
between Mikir and the Boro family. As regards the "Western
Nagas, while the institutions largely correspond, the coin-
cidences in language, though more numerous than those with

* Sa in Lushei means animal, and we see that the prefix /<■- (in t'ki.
tiger), thi- (in thi-jok, deer), or t/ihk- (in Ihhk-vam, bcnv) has the same
meaning in Mikir.

172 THE MIKIRS

Boro, are much fewer thau those with Iviiki-Chin. The
Southern Nagas, and especially the Tangkhuls, who form the
group intermediate between Naga and Kuki, have a consider-
ably closer affinity with Mikir. Possibly if the inquiry were
pushed further into Burmese than is within the power of the
present writer, more correspondences \vith Mikir might be
discovered in that language.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. A descriptive account of Asavi, with a sketch of the local
geography, and a concise history of the Tea-plant of Asam, to
which is added a short account of the neighhovring trihcs,
exhibiting their history, manners and customs, \\\ William
Eobinson, Gowliatti Government Seminary: (JaleiUla, 1841.
Account of the Mikirs at pp. 308-312.

The facts stated agree generally with those recorded 1»\-
Mr. Stack. Tlie chief deity of the Mikirs is called Hempatin.
This may be a mistranscription for Hcmphv., hut is m(»re
probably a mistake due to a confusion between IMikirs and
Kukis ; Tat'in (or a closely similar form) is the word for (Jod
in a number of the Kuki dialects (Khoiigzai, Tliado, Luslici,
Eangkhol, Aimol, Kolren, etc.). Of course if the name Hcm-
patin was ever actually used by the Mikirs for their chief
tribal god, this would be an additional important cvideuct'
of a connexion between them and the Kukis.

2. Notes on the languages of the various tribes inhabiting
the Valley of Asam and its mountain confines, by Wm.
Eobinson, Inspector of Government Schools in Asam. Jaurnul
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xviii. (1849).

The Mikir language is treated at pp. 330-336. It is
probable from certain indications that the Mikir words wc^-c
written down for Mr. Eobiuson in Assamese characters, and
transliterated by him into Eoman. There are a great many
misprints. The declension of nouns, the distinctions of gender,
and the position of adjectives are in general correctly exjdained ;
but the important prefix a- is not noticed, nor its original force
understood. The omission of the plural affix -tuni is remark-
able. The numerals agree with those of the present day, save
that ch is used (as in Assamese) to indicate s. The use of
determinative class-words with numerals is mentioned. The
personal pronouns are in jiart coirectly, but often wrongly

174 BIBLIOGRAPHY

given; the demonstrative pronouns are wrongly stated, and
so are the interrogatives. The absence of a relative pronoun,
and the substitute for it, are noticed. In the verbal forms
there are many errors, unless the particles used to indicate
time have greatly changed since 1849, which is improbable.
Thus, -ye is given as the future suffix instead of -jl, and
-Id instead of po. The participle in ke-, Id-, Id- is omitted, and
the much-used conjunctive participle in -si is misrepresented
as the present participle. There is no mention of the past
in tang; dyoh (possibly a mistranscription of the Assamese)
is given instead of dpbt as the particle indicating purpose.
The form of the negative verb is altogether misunderstood.
There is no mention of the causative in fe-, 2n-, pa-.

One interesting point in Mr. Eobinson's grammatical sketch
is that words borrowed from Assamese, which now end in -i
as a substitute for Assamese /, as hai for hid, tCimoi for tdmol,
pltoi for pltol, are all written with /; and in the following
cases final I appears in ^likir words now written with final i : —

iiKjkoJ, a score, now ingkoi
ii/g/ioJ, to do, now inglioi
sal (field-) work, now sal
(IplieJ, afterwards, now dphi
phurul, snake, now pJdrui

It seems possible that this represents a real change in pro-
nunciation, since / was certainly the original ending in the
borrowed words, and most probably (from the similar forms
in the Kuki-Chin languages) was the original ending in the
Mikir words. This vocalization of final I is quite common in
the Kuki dialects, and is an additional argument for their
connexion with Mikir.

3. 2 ravels ami adventures in the Province of Assam, by
Major John Butler : London, Smith, Elder & Co., 1855. The
Mikirs are described at pp. 126-139. Major Butler was in
charge of the district of Xowgong, and visited the Mikir Hills
in 1848, His notes on the Mikir people are not very detailed,
but indicate that their condition sixty years ago was much
the same as it is now. On the question of polygamy (see
ante, p. 19), ho writes (p. 138): "Polygamy is not practised,
and they reproach their countrymen of the plains for having
adopted tlie Assamese custom."

BIBLIOGRAPHY 175

4, Notes on Norlluym Cacliar, by Lieut. JJ. Stcwmt.
J.A.S.B., vol. xxiv. (I8r.;j), pp. 582-701. This treatise is uu
excellent account of the various tril)e.s inhiibitin^,' the tract.
The Mikirs are dealt ^vitll at jip. ()04-t5()7. There i.s a full and
useful comparative vocabulary at ]tp. (;.'»S-G75 of more than 400
words, besides verbal and adverbial forms, in ]\Ianipuri, Hill
Kacliari (Dimasa), New Kuki (Thado), Aii<,'ami Xaga, Arung
Naga (or Empeo), Old Kuki (Bete), and iMikir. This is
mucb the most important evidence of the state of the language
half a century ago, and is superior in several respects io the
materials collected a little earlier by Robinson (to which
Stewart does not refer). The Mikir words are generally
recognisable as identical with those of the present day, and
it is noticeable, with reference to the change of final / tu /,
that Stewart gives the forms now in use {pitoi, brass, ^>/tero/,
snake, inglcoi, a score in{g)hoi, to do). The ^•erbs are chiefly
given in the imperative, witli non (often wrongly printed not),
sometimes as the bare root, and sometimes with -lo added.
There arc some good measurements and otlier })liysical characters
of Mikirs at pp. 6*J0-6*J3, from whi(;h it appears that in Lieut.
Stewart's time most of the Mikir men shaved their heads,
with the exception of a large tuft of hair on the scalp.

5. Descriptive Etlinologij of Bengal, by Col. E. T. Dalton :
Calcutta, 1872. There is a brief section on the Mikirs at
pp. 53-4, which however contains no information that is not
in Robinson or Stewart. The race is not among those figured
in the volume.

6. Specimens of the Languages of India, collected by Sir
George Campbell: Calcutta, 1874. The specimens of Mikir
are at pp. 205-217 ; they are full of misprints and misunder-
standings of what was desired, and are worthless for linguistic
purposes.

7. A Vocahularg in Uiiglish and Mikir, with sentences illus-
trating the zise of words, by the Rev. R. E. Neighbor, of Nowgong,
Assam: Calcutta, 1878.

A most useful publication.

8. Notes on the Locality and Population of the Tribes dwelling
hetu-een the Brahmaputra and Ningthi Hirers, by G. H. Damaut.
Journal of the Boyal Asiatic Society, vol. xii., 1880, pp. 228 /.

i;6 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A postlmiiious work (Mr. Damant was killed in the Xaga
Hills in 1879). The Mikirs are mentioned on p. 236, and
there is a short vocabulary on p. 254.

9. A Statistical Account of Assam, compiled by J. S. C(jtton
nnder the direction of W. W. Hunter : London, 1879. Contains
an article on the Mikirs at vol. ii., pp. 188-190.

10. A Gazetteer of India, ])y Sir W. W. Hunter, London.
First edition 1881, second edition 1886. Article on the
]Mikir Hills and their inhabitants.

1 1 to 13. The next occasions on which the tribe was dealt
witli were in the Eeports of the Censuses of 1881, 1891, and
1901 (Assam Province): —

11. The Report on the Census of 1881 (Calcutta, 1883) con-
tains a chapter (VI.) on Castes and Tribes, written by Mr.
Stack. The Mikirs are described at pp. 77-82. The inquiries
on which these paragraphs were based were followed by the
more detailed investigations which afforded the materials for
the present monograph.

12. The Report on the Census of 1891, by Mr. E. A. Gait,
reproduces part of the matter of the previous report relating
to the Mikirs, and adds the detailed list of lairs or exogamous
divisions already referred to {ante, pp. 23 ff.). It also contains
an interesting comparison of the ]\Iikir language with those
of the Xaga tribes, by Mr. A. W. Davis (reproduced in the
Linguistic Survey, vol. iii., part ii., pp. 198-202). At pp.
254-256 there is an account of the Mikirs in North Cachar
Ijy Mr. E. C. Baker, sub-divisional officer, which states that
their jnincipal deity is called " Pertart Rijie." This is correctly
Firthdt Riicho, the first word being the Khasi Pyrthat, " thunder,"
and indicates a borrowing by the small remaining Mikir popu-
lation in Xorth Cachar of the ideas of their Khasi neighbours.

13. TJic Report on the Census of 1901, by Mr. B. C. Allen:
Shillong, 1902. A few remarks on the religion of the Mikirs
wdll be found at pp. 46-47, which liowever require correction
by the more accurate data contained in this monograph.

14. The Tribes of the Bralnnapntra Valley, by Lt.-Col. L. A.
Waddell, I.M.S.: J.A.S.B., vol. Ixix., part iii., 1900. This
account is cliieliy based on anthropometrical data. Tlie facts
stated concerning the Arlengs at ])p. 29-35 appear to be taken

lUHLIOCiRArin' 177

rroiii Daltoii ami the Assam Census liepurls of I.SSI ami IS'JI.
The measurements taken by Col. Wmldell (see (cute, j), 4) are
at pp. 78-79. The tril>i> is not lii,nneil in tlio ]tlates npit<Mi(le«l
to the paper.

15. Li/i(/t(islic Siii'iri/ of Jiti/ia, vid. iii., pari ii., eonij)ile<l
and edited by Dr. (1. A. (Jriersnn, CaleiiUa, l!l()2. Thr Mikir
langua«i:e is dealt with at p]t. :5SO-41() and 43^-448.

10. 'Alt Eiuillxli-Mihlr Viirdliiilii.r//, ii'ith Assanu'Sv Eijuini-
lenfs, to ivhic/i Jiarr hern (tdiird n fen: J/////- y<///v^^r.s, by S|ard(jka J
r[errin] Kay: Sbillonu, (mjvI. Tress, 1004. An extremely
useful book by an educated Alikir (-cc Introductory Note,
p. viii.). Sarduka was Mr. .Stack's chief authority on the Mikir
language. The phrases (38.S in number) are very important
illustrations of the structure of the speech. The vocabulary is
an enlargement of ^Ir. Xeighbor's work (No. 7).

A Mikir-English dictionary or vocabulary is still a tle-
sideratum.

The following is a list of all the publications in the Mikir
language which have come under the notice of the writer.
They are all due to missionaries.

1. Dhoi'oin Aniam dpkrdng ikifJidit : First Catechism, in
Mikir (Assamese character), pp. 13. Auou. Silisagar, 187.'».

2. Arlhig Aldm, a Mikir Primer, by ^liss E. Pursell, 1891.

3. ArVeiui Aldm {rilpll-aUtdp)* A Mikir Prinu'r. Anon.
Published by the American Baptist Mission, Tika, Xowgong,
Assam, 1903.

4. Arlhi;/ Aldm, 7in(/bbii(j dkitdp. Mikir Peader, seeond liDok,
by the Ilev. -T. M. Carvell ami Tlieugkur Pandit. Published
by the Government of Assam, Shillong, 19(i4.

5. Rrleiiff haldklm dkitdp. Mikir Primary Arithmetic, by
the Rev. P. E. Moore and the Pev. d. M. Carvell. Published
by the Assam Secretariat Press, Shillong, 1904.

6. Birtd Kerne, "Glad Tidings," in :Mikir. l)y Mosendra
Pandit and Missionaries to the Mikirs. Publisheil by the
American Baptist Missionary Union, Tika, Assam, 1904. A
summary of the Gospel history and teaching.

(All except the first are in the Poman character.)

* So called from the tiyuio <.f :v biitterHy (pfi-pH) on the cover.

TNDKX

(7-, pronoun and ptirtii'lo of rolaiion,
75,70, 161, 178

adjectives, 77

adultery, 19

aftinities, conclusions as to, 171, 172 ;
speculations as to, 15:]

Ahoms, 5

Ajd-dsP, 32

dkejui, 18, 19

dh-cmt>)i, 18, 19

AUen, Mr. B. C, 176

Allen, Rev. Mr., xi., 14, 14,70-72

Amri, 15

amulets, 30

dn-bdr, 11, 31

dr-, prefix, 129, 102

drdk, 13

dvhdng, trap, 12

drjdii, shade, ghost, 28

A'rUiuj, i, 117, 126

Anidtn, God, 30, 33, 34

Artubn = do, 33

Ar)uim Kcthr, 30, 152

Anuivi phdm {pdi'u), 31-32, 43

dnubi, ring, 6

drphi'k-pd, 12

drponcj, 7

Assamese, borrowings from, 152 ; loan-
words mostly in locative, 107

Bachelors' house, 11
Baker, Mr. E. C, 176
hdnjdr, 39, 40
hdrl/yn, 11

baskets, 10, 100, 103
beer, rice-, 13
betel-nut, 14
betrothal, 17
hhimrdj, feathers worn, 6
birik, red pepper, 11
l>'>t}u,U
blacksmiths, 10
lioikuntho, 2S
Bongnai, 23
bur, amulet, 30
Boro, resemblances to, 166-7
borrowings from Assamese, 152 ; from
Khasis, 152

l)ow, 6
I brido-prieo, lalwur given for, 18, 19
I Brownlow, Mr. C, 11
' /i/7,39, 40

burial in special cases, .37

Burmese, 168

Butler, Major John, 174

Campbell, Sir Georg.-, 17j

Car veil. Rev. J. M., 177

case (grammar), 70-77

castor-oil plant, '"/', 11

causal verbs, 80

Census reports, 1, 23, 153, 170

charms, 30

cJuhi/j, drum, 38, 1.50

cluhig-brnj), 150

cluhi(jbrnp-pi, 11

cluhigbritp-fin, 11

Chins, compared willi Mikirs, 109-171

Chins, Southern, 153

chinJuik-p'), 12

Ch'uMiuj, 15

ch'ir, spear, 0

choi, jacket, 5

clioi-dprr, fringe, 5

cholera, sacrifice for, 32

Chouuhifj = Khilsi, 23

CJiovuliuj-dsr, 32

Chomdmj-kdn, 38

c}idiuj-kcch(Ut{]iuhi, 38

clubs, lads', 11

comparison of adjectives, 78

compound verbs, 80-87

conditional phrases, 83

co-operative agriculture, 11, 12, 154

cotton, 10

Cotton, Mr. .T. S., 170

councils, village, 22

cousin, marriage witli, on mother's

side, 17. 18, 53, 154
cowries, used in divination, 34
cows, not kept, 12
creation, legend of. 70-72
crops, 10-11

Dalton. Col. E. T., 7, 175
Damant, Mr. G. H., 153, 175

179

I So

INDEX

dam-bnk, 9 I

dam-thdk, 9

dancing only at funerals and harvest-
homes, 43 I

Davis, Mr. A. W., 165, 176

day, divisions of, 95 '

dead, beliefs about the, 28, 29

death from tigers, 37-38, 49, 71, 98-
99

dekas (Ass.), 11

demons, devils, 29

derrick (dur'tk), pheasant, 65

determinatives, generic, with nu-
merals, 78-79, 160

Dlmusd, 3, 5

diseases, 33

distances, how computed, 14

divination, 34

with cowries, 34

vnih eggs, 35

with nukjir, 35

with rice, 35

diviners, 34, 35

divisions of time, 95, 149, 150

divorce, 20

Divaung river, 5, 33

rfo,'95

dundun, ladder, 9

doublets, 103, 113, 115

dress, 5

dried fish, 13

flesh, 13, 04

drink, 13

duhiiidl, 39, 41

DumrCdl, 16

Dundas, Mr. W. C. M., xi., 19, 23,

24-26
dyes, 10

Eating, manner of, 13

egg, mankind sprung from an, 72

eggs, used in divination, 35

hi, 95, 108, 125

Endle, Rev.S., 160,167

equipment, mental, exemplified by

language and folk-tales, 151
('}•(, silk {pE-inkt), 6, 10
exogamous groups, 16, 23-27

Festivities, 43

fish, dried, 13

fishing, 12

fish-trap, 12, 48, 49

flesh, dried, 13, 64

folk-tales, 44-4011.

food, 12-13

Frog, story of a, 45, 40-48. 88-93

Fryer, Major G. E., 154

funeral ceremonies, 37-42

furniture of house, 9-10

r.ait, Mr. E. A., 46, 152, 176

(jCioiibura, 11, 21, 22

gender (in grammar), 75

genua, 43

girdle, vdnkuk, 6, 39

Gods, the, 30 ff . ; their worship, 30-34

gold, Tibetan word used for. 111

goldsmiths, 10

grammar, sketch of, 73 if.

Grierson, Dr. G. A., ix., 45, 73, 153,

177
groups, exogamous, 16, 23-27

Habitat, 2, 3 ; former, 153

Ju'inso, ginger, 11

lidnfJidr, 46

Harata- Kanivar, storv of, 45, 55-70,

113-149
harmony, vowel, 118, 129
harvest-home, 43
head-strap, 4
lirmai, blacksmith, 10
Hempatin, 173
mm2)hri,31, 36,70
himthdp, 50

hen, arums, colocasia, 11
lu'pl, aubergines, baihqan, 11
Hickson, Mr. S. J., 72
m-i, 29
hung, 9
hungkup, 9
liungpliurld, 9
hongpldiig, 9
}idng-t]in, 9
liongvdt-dbl, 41
Hooker, Sir Joseph, 33
lidr, hurpu, 13, 14
lior-dldng, 13

Houghton, Mr. B., 160, 168
houses, 7-9 ; built on posts, 153
house tax, 21
Hunter, Sir W. W., 176
hunting, 12

Imperative mood, 83

imprecations, 37

indigo, 10

infinitive mood, 84

ingjlr-drlo, 39, 41, 42

Inglung-pl, 31

ingtdt, 14

Tngt'i, 16

ingtok, 36

inheritance, 21

inkl, 10

institutions of Mikirs compared with

those of Kuki-Ghins, 154
institutions of Mikirs compared \\ith

those of W. Nagas, 154
interrogative pronouns, 80

Jamuna river, 3
jhuming, 11, 60

INDEX

i8i

jiiujtak, 50

jtso, woman's wrapper
JCmi-drdiig, 28, 29, 37
J6m Redifi, 28, 29

G, 39

Idtuj-chting, 42
ICmg-pah, 42
irtpi'mij-hril;, Hi
Lorraiu, Mr., J. II.

168

jungle-cock, 65

Luslici language
Mikir, 1G9-171

com pared

Kdchdrhc, 41 (28-29)
Kachilris, 23. See Boro and Dimfisa
Icddibig-chinru, G
kdld dzdr, 2
kdm, 7

kdm-dtJu^ngtlu'it , 9
kangtok dbdng, 3G
kdn-pl, 88
kdrakl'i, 30
kdrjCmg, spirit, 36
kdsole, 40

ke; ki; kd-, prefix, 77, 83, 84, 163
Kechc — Klidsl, 23
keroi-dun, betrothal, 14
Khasi loan-words in ]\Iikir, 14, 16,
17, 79, 103-4, lOS, 114, 137, 139,

152, 176
Khasls, 3, 4, 6, 17

kim, to build = to marry, 125

kUng-dun, 11

klrng-sdrpu, 11, 39

Kopili (Kupli) river, 3, 4, 5, 14, 23

kovi:', betel-nut, 14

Kuki-Chins, compared with Mikirs,

154
Kukis, 3
kuni, fiddle, 150
kum-dllsd, fiddle-bow, 150
Kupli : see Kopili
km; 16, 23-27
kut, 7
kiit-dthengthvt , 9

/ final, vocalised to i or dropped in

Mikir, 22, 164
lac (Idhd), 11
lads' clubs, 11
Lalungs, 3
ham-apUa, 33, 34
Idng, water, 168
Idng-bi'mg, gourd, 9, 10
Idngbujuj-po, 12
Ldng-kdngkmg, 33
Idnglut, 33
Idngsun, 33
Idng-te-mm, 9
idngtuk, 42
language, 73 ff. ; best evidence of

affinity, 155
li'k, necklace, 6
lAktM, 16

Ungpum, rice pounder, 132
Linguistic Survey, ix., xii., 45, 73,

153, 160, 165

ICdiH, lodetpr, 34, 35, 36
lung, mortar, 132

with

Mdduli (Ass.), ornament, 141

magic, 34

vidjd, witchcraft, 34

majd-kcldiig, 34, 3G

vumgalsud (Ass.), 34

mdnthung, 50

manufactures, 10

mdiu, 11

marriage, 17-18: age for, 17; cere-
mony, 18 ; with maternal uncle's
daughter, 17, 18, 53, 154 ; of
widows, 20

maternal uncle responsible for dis-
ease, 36; at funeral, 39, 41, 42

mauzas, 22

uu; (village council), 19, 21, 22

meals, 13

mPli'ip, fireplace, 9

mt-p'i, 22

Mikirs, the : charms used, 36 ; com-
pared witli Southern Chins, 109,
171; crops, 10, 11; divination, 34;
dress, 5 ; exogamoua groups, 16.
23-27; folk-talcs, 45; food and
drink, 12, 13; Gods and their
worship, 30 34 ; grammar, 73 ff. ;
habitat, 2-3; houses, 7-9; institu-
tions resembling those of Chins.
154 ; do. resembling those of
Nagas, 154 ; language, 73 ff. ;
manufactures, 10 ; marriage, 17-18;
mauzas, 22 ; measurements, 4 :
migration into Ahom territory, 5 :
musical instruments, 150; names,
personal, 17 ; neighbours, 3, 23 ;
numbers, 1 ; numerals compared
with those of other Tibeto-Burman
languages, ' 156-160 ; occupations.
7 ; original abode, 4 ; ornaments,
5 ; outsiders admitted to tribe, 23 :
parallels to folk-tales elsewhere,
45, 55, 72 ; physical appearance, 4 ;
pronouns compared with other
Tibeto-Burman forms, 161-162 ;
publications in Mikir, 177 ; re-
lationships, words for, 20, 21 ; do.
compared with Lushei, 155 :
sections, 15 ; time, how divided.
95, 149-150 ; unwarlike charac-
ter, 151-2; villages, 7; village
councils, 22 ; vocabulary compared
with Boro, 166-7 ; do. with
Southern Chin and Lushei,
169-171; weapons, 6; witchcraft.
34-36

l82

INDEX

Mikir Hills, the, 2, 15

milk not used, 12

mi-tlidngmng, spinning wheel, 10

mo, 12

monosvllabic roots, 74-75

months, 149-150

Moore, Rev. P, E., xi., 19, 26-27, 44

mo-tdii are, arvl, 12

mountains worshipped, 33

Mukrdng 31, 36, 70

miiri, fife, 150

musical instruments, 150

Nagas, institutions compared with

those of Mikirs, 154
Nagas, Western, resemblances of

language, 1G5
names, personal, 17
ndng, particle of vividness, 82, 96
ndng, verb of necessity, 83
Xats (Burma), 153
natural objects worshipped, 33
negative verb, 85

Neighbor, Rev. R. E., viii, xii, 175
night, divisions of the, 95
Nilidng, 4

nihil, maternal uncle, 39, 41, 42
NiUp, 4

nuk, sugar-cane, 13
nok, 7idkjlr, 6, 35
nuksi^k, 9, 54-5 (note), 112
no-r'ik, earring, 6
Nuruk, Hell, 28
nmnber (in grammar), 75
numerals, 78; compared with other

languages, 156-160

Oaths, 37

obokpi, 39, 41

iljhd = 7icht, 30

okbur, 31

OkldngtU), 32

opium, use of, 14

ornaments, 6

orphan in folk-tales, 45

Orphan and his Uncles, the, storv,

48-55, 95-112
outsiders admitted to tribe, 23

Pdju, rival wife, 118

pan, pang, 9

jxln-hungthu, 9

pdng-hungkup, 9

pdngri, marriage, 134

parallels to Mikir stories from Aimnl
Kukis, 45; from Angami Niigas,
45 ; from Celebes, 72 ; from North
Kumaon, 45, 55

Pciruk = Boro, Kacharl, 23

participles, 83

passive phrases, 84

putting, rival wife, 118

patriarchal institutions, 17, 152

pe, mother, used for daughter, 148

X)ii-urndm-pi, 34, 49, 99

Ping, 31

pe-therang, loom, 10

pliak-dphn-kdcholang, 40

phak-roi, 9

phandiri, 11

pliankrl, 11

plul.rld, spirit, 28

pherem, charm, 36

Phillips, Rev. E. G., 160

phut up, cap, 5

p'nii, petticoat, 6, 62

Pirthat Recho, 176

po, father, used for son or grandson,

99, 101, 121
po-drnain-po, 34, 49, 99
pohu, poho, turban, 5
polygamy, 19, 20, 174
X>ungsl, flute, 128, 150
pimgting, ornament, 141
possession (by spirits), 29
postpositions, 76-77
pottery, 10

prefixes, 75, 159, 164, 171
promiscuity, antenuptial, 19, 154
pronouns, 79-80 ; compared with

other Tibeto-Burman forms, 161,

162; reflexive, 80, 96, 162 ; relative,

how expressed, 80, 101

Rap, 64

re-incarnation, 29

reflexive particles and pronouns, 80,
96, 162

Bi^k-anglung, 31

relationship, words for, 20-21 ; com-
pared with words in Lushei, 155

relative pronouns, substitute for, 80,
101

Rengma Nagas, 3

rice-beer, 13

rice-crop, 10; names for rice, 122;
divination by rice, 34 ; rice-pound-
ing, 132

rikung, dhoti, 5

nsu-kuddn't., 40

nso-mur, 11, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42

Robinson, Mr. W., 153, 173, 174

nii, bracelet, 6

rung, village = Burmese rwa, 168

Ronghdng, 15

rongker, 22, 32, 43

rongkHr-pi, 43

Rungkhang, 5

n'l, trap, cage, 12, 48, 49

Sacrifices, 30, 34
sang, cleaned rice, 122
sanglio-kerai, 11
sang-kelang-dbang , 34

-oy

igcs.

with
/bin.

ASSAM SHOWING AREA OCCUPIED BY MIKIR TRIBES.

INDKX

sang-rangtik, 'J

Sfirdoka Porriu Kav, viii, ix. xii, 11,

177
Mirldr, siirthe, 22
Savidge, 'Slv. F. W., 108
seasons of the year, 149
sequences in folk-talcs, 45
seroso, 39, 41
aibfi, indigo, 10

silver, Aryan word used for, llii
ainmi. Lead strap, 4
sudiir ket)tr, 11
sodilr-su, 11
sdk, paddy, 122
Sd-mt))u', 32
Silt Rr-chd, 5, 15
sounds of Mikir language, 73, 74 ;

equivalents in other Tibcto-Burman

languages, 164
spirits (alcohol), 13
Stack, Edward, j)t/s.si/«
Stewart, Lt. R., 153, 175
substantive verb, no separate, 81
" Swan-maidens," folk-tale, 45

TaOii, 43

tattooing of women, 6

fi'ke-rH (" tiger-skilled "), 37

t(>l-e, 39, 41

tenses of verb, 81-82

tcrang, bachelors' house, 11

Tcrang, exogamous group, 10

Ten'm, exogamous group, 16

t]uii (arrow), thai-li, bow, (i

titap, ferment, 13

fJulnnit, turmeric, 11

thiHig-roi-rai, 9

theiigthe, maize, 11

TMngthdn, 32

fJier'i, cremation-ground, 39

Th'iri^ng-vhngti'ng. 29

Tholiu'i, 17

Tlu)nti.Ni)k(t<-, 5

ti, water, in vu-ti, egg, IGH

tibiiiuj, 7

tigers, death from,37-3«, 49, 71,98-99

tilcHp, 9

time, divisions of, 95, 149-150

Timitng, exogamous group, IG

traps for fish. 12, 48, 49 ; for ligor-i, Vi

■ linn, plural utlix, 75

UchT- [djh.'i), 30, 34
nch'.pi, 39, 41, 42
nr, 04

viinkok, girdle, G, 39

verbs, 81

verb substantive, no separate, Hi

verbal particles compared with form-
in other Tibeto-Hurman languages.
163

village, word for, in Tilxsto-Burman
languages, 107

village councils, 22

villages, 7, 21

vocabulary of Mikir compared with
Horo, 106-107 ; with Southern Chin.
168-171; with Lu-hci, 171

vo-hurlip, 9

fo-j'oi, 9

vowel harmony, 118, 129

vur-kdcfulhat, 30

Waddell, Col. L. A., xi, 4, 170
water, word for, in Tibeto-Hurman

languages, 107
weapons, 0
weaving, 10
widow-marriago, 20
witchcraft, 34, 30
worship, 30-34

Tin; KND

PRINTED BT

WILLIAM ri.OWES AND SONS, LIMITKD,

LONDON AND BECCLES.

University of California

SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388

Return this material to the library

from which it was borrowed.

3 1158 00993 4398

A 000 101 93:

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Mikirs; from the papers of the late Edward Stack .."

See other formats